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On December 19, 1843, Charles Dickens’ classic story “A Christmas Carol” is published.
Dickens was born in 1812 and attended school in Portsmouth. His father, a clerk in the navy pay office, was thrown into debtors’ prison in 1824, and 12-year-old Charles was sent to work in a factory. The miserable treatment of children and the institution of the debtors’ jail became topics of several of Dickens’ novels.
In his late teens, Dickens became a reporter and started publishing humorous short stories when he was 21. In 1836, a collection of his stories, Sketches by Boz, later known as The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, was published. The same year, he married Catherine Hogarth, with whom he would have nine children. The short sketches in his collection were originally commissioned as captions for humorous drawings by caricature artist Robert Seymour, but Dickens’ whimsical stories about the kindly Samuel Pickwick and his fellow club members soon became popular in their own right. Only 400 copies were printed of the first installment, but by the 15th episode 40,000 copies were printed. When the stories were published in book form in 1837, Dickens quickly became the most popular author of the day.
The success of the Pickwick Papers was soon reproduced with Oliver Twist (1838) and Nicholas Nickleby (1839). In 1841, Dickens published two more novels, then spent five months in the United States, where he was welcomed as a literary hero. Dickens never lost momentum as a writer, churning out major novels every year or two, often in serial form. Among his most important works are David Copperfield (1850), Great Expectations (1861), and A Tale of Two Cities (1859).
Beginning in 1850, he published his own weekly circular of fiction, poetry, and essays called Household Words. In 1858, Dickens separated from his wife and began a long affair with a young actress. He gave frequent readings, which became immensely popular. He died in 1870 at the age of 58, with his last novel, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, still unfinished. | <urn:uuid:b56017da-2436-4010-ba12-bdc1bc37b676> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/a-christmas-carol-is-published | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00384.warc.gz | en | 0.991635 | 450 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.299193263053... | 2 | On December 19, 1843, Charles Dickens’ classic story “A Christmas Carol” is published.
Dickens was born in 1812 and attended school in Portsmouth. His father, a clerk in the navy pay office, was thrown into debtors’ prison in 1824, and 12-year-old Charles was sent to work in a factory. The miserable treatment of children and the institution of the debtors’ jail became topics of several of Dickens’ novels.
In his late teens, Dickens became a reporter and started publishing humorous short stories when he was 21. In 1836, a collection of his stories, Sketches by Boz, later known as The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, was published. The same year, he married Catherine Hogarth, with whom he would have nine children. The short sketches in his collection were originally commissioned as captions for humorous drawings by caricature artist Robert Seymour, but Dickens’ whimsical stories about the kindly Samuel Pickwick and his fellow club members soon became popular in their own right. Only 400 copies were printed of the first installment, but by the 15th episode 40,000 copies were printed. When the stories were published in book form in 1837, Dickens quickly became the most popular author of the day.
The success of the Pickwick Papers was soon reproduced with Oliver Twist (1838) and Nicholas Nickleby (1839). In 1841, Dickens published two more novels, then spent five months in the United States, where he was welcomed as a literary hero. Dickens never lost momentum as a writer, churning out major novels every year or two, often in serial form. Among his most important works are David Copperfield (1850), Great Expectations (1861), and A Tale of Two Cities (1859).
Beginning in 1850, he published his own weekly circular of fiction, poetry, and essays called Household Words. In 1858, Dickens separated from his wife and began a long affair with a young actress. He gave frequent readings, which became immensely popular. He died in 1870 at the age of 58, with his last novel, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, still unfinished. | 492 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first English permanent settlement was Jamestown.
It was named after England’s King James I. Let’s look at some contributing factors that have led to establishing Jamestown.
The next lesson: 13 Colonies – Continue learning. The following transcript is provided for your convenience. The English were wanting a colony in North America as they were looking to find silver and gold there. In the year 1585, about one hundred English men came ashore at Roanoke Island, near what now is North Carolina. Then, in 1587, several more settlers came over to Roanoke and their leader (John White), went back to England to purchase supplies. When he got back to Roanoke, all colonists were gone and no one has ever found them.
The Jamestown Colony
English merchants had started the Virginia Company in 1606 and they were looking to set up a settlement in North America. The English had given the company a charter to set up the colony and the merchants were asking people to invest in their company. When the colonists would find treasure, people who had bought stock would be making money.
In the year 1607, over 100 men and boys sailed to what we know as Virginia and they named their colony after King James I, so Jamestown. The early settlers started to look for gold and they didn’t know anything about farming.
Jamestown was hot and damp and insects were carrying diseases. The water there wasn’t any good for drinking and the early settlers started to run out of food so many died from disease and hunger. Then John Smith, their new leader, ordered the settlers to stop looking for silver and gold and start planting crops.
Life in Jamestown was hard and in 1609, most of these early colonists died during the winter. This was referred to as the “starving time.”
In the year 1612, a settler by the name of John Rolfe discovered that tobacco was growing well in the Jamestown area and soon, tobacco had become a cash crop. The settlers were selling tobacco to England and they bought back supplies and food from England. In 1619, the first Africans and women arrived in Jamestown.
Probably, the first Africans came as indentured servants and Powhatan Indians were also living in the Jamestown area. The Powhatan Indians saw that the English settlers wanted their land so they fought.
The two fighting sides made peace at the time that John Rolfe married Pocahontas, the Powhatan leader’s daughter but the peace was short-lived. The English settlers were trying to take (steal) more land that was Powhatan territory so they started to fight again. In the year 1646, the English settlers killed most of the Powhatan Indians and seized most of their land.
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0.24566504... | 1 | The first English permanent settlement was Jamestown.
It was named after England’s King James I. Let’s look at some contributing factors that have led to establishing Jamestown.
The next lesson: 13 Colonies – Continue learning. The following transcript is provided for your convenience. The English were wanting a colony in North America as they were looking to find silver and gold there. In the year 1585, about one hundred English men came ashore at Roanoke Island, near what now is North Carolina. Then, in 1587, several more settlers came over to Roanoke and their leader (John White), went back to England to purchase supplies. When he got back to Roanoke, all colonists were gone and no one has ever found them.
The Jamestown Colony
English merchants had started the Virginia Company in 1606 and they were looking to set up a settlement in North America. The English had given the company a charter to set up the colony and the merchants were asking people to invest in their company. When the colonists would find treasure, people who had bought stock would be making money.
In the year 1607, over 100 men and boys sailed to what we know as Virginia and they named their colony after King James I, so Jamestown. The early settlers started to look for gold and they didn’t know anything about farming.
Jamestown was hot and damp and insects were carrying diseases. The water there wasn’t any good for drinking and the early settlers started to run out of food so many died from disease and hunger. Then John Smith, their new leader, ordered the settlers to stop looking for silver and gold and start planting crops.
Life in Jamestown was hard and in 1609, most of these early colonists died during the winter. This was referred to as the “starving time.”
In the year 1612, a settler by the name of John Rolfe discovered that tobacco was growing well in the Jamestown area and soon, tobacco had become a cash crop. The settlers were selling tobacco to England and they bought back supplies and food from England. In 1619, the first Africans and women arrived in Jamestown.
Probably, the first Africans came as indentured servants and Powhatan Indians were also living in the Jamestown area. The Powhatan Indians saw that the English settlers wanted their land so they fought.
The two fighting sides made peace at the time that John Rolfe married Pocahontas, the Powhatan leader’s daughter but the peace was short-lived. The English settlers were trying to take (steal) more land that was Powhatan territory so they started to fight again. In the year 1646, the English settlers killed most of the Powhatan Indians and seized most of their land.
Last Updated on | 594 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fruit and vegetable selections in school meals increased after students had extended exposure to school food made tastier with the help of a professional chef and after modifications were made to school cafeterias, including signage and more prominent placement of fruits and vegetables, but it was only chef-enhanced meals that also increased consumption, according to an article published online by JAMA Pediatrics.
More than 30 million students get school meals daily and many of them rely on school foods for up to half of their daily calories. Therefore, school-based interventions that encourage the selection and consumption of healthier foods, such as fruits and vegetables, can have important health implications, according to the study background.
Juliana Cohen, of the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, and coauthors conducted a randomized clinical trial to examine the effects of short-term and long-term exposure to meals made more palatable with the help of a professional chef who taught school staff culinary skills and extended daily exposure to "choice architecture" in a smart café intervention where fruits were placed in attractive containers, vegetables were offered at the front of the lunch line and white milk was placed in front of sugar-sweetened chocolate milk.
The study involved 14 elementary and middle schools in two urban, low-income school districts, including 2,638 students in grades three through eight. Intervention schools received a professional chef who collaborated with them and then students were repeatedly exposed to new recipes on a weekly basis during a seven-month period. The modifications made to school cafeterias as part of the smart café intervention were applied daily for four months.
Baseline food selection and consumption were measured at all 14 schools and afterward four schools were assigned to receive chef-enhanced meals, while the remaining 10 received standard school meals. After three months of exposure to chef-enhanced meals, food selection and consumption were measured, again, after which two chef-enhanced schools and four control schools were assigned to receive the smart café intervention. The remaining six schools continued as a control group. After four more months of exposure to chef-enhanced meals, the smart café intervention or both, food selection and consumption were measured again.
The authors found that after three months of chef-enhanced meals, entree and fruit selection were unchanged but the odds of vegetable selection increased compared with control schools. After seven months, entree selection remained unchanged in the intervention schools compared with control schools. However, the odds of students selecting fruit increased in the chef, smart café and chef plus smart café schools compared with controls. Among the students who selected fruit, the servings consumed were greater in chef schools compared with control schools but there was no effect of the smart café intervention.
The odds of students selecting vegetables also increased in the chef, smart café and chef plus smart café schools compared with control schools. The percentage of vegetables consumed increased by 30.8 percent in chef schools and by 24.5 percent in chef plus smart café schools compared with control schools, according to the study. Selecting a meal component and consuming a meal component were measured separately.
There were no changes in the selection or consumption of white or sugar-sweetened chocolate milk in the smart café schools where students had access to both, the results indicate.
"Efforts to improve the taste of school foods through chef-enhanced meals should remain a priority because this was the only method that increased consumption. This was observed only after students were repeatedly exposed to the new foods for seven months. Therefore, schools should not abandon healthier options if they are initially met with resistance," the study concludes. | <urn:uuid:e4f3a580-0773-482f-9264-1a4fe3778432> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.manufacturing.net/home/news/13180971/professional-help-increases-health-food-consumption-in-schools | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00215.warc.gz | en | 0.984144 | 726 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.067119... | 1 | Fruit and vegetable selections in school meals increased after students had extended exposure to school food made tastier with the help of a professional chef and after modifications were made to school cafeterias, including signage and more prominent placement of fruits and vegetables, but it was only chef-enhanced meals that also increased consumption, according to an article published online by JAMA Pediatrics.
More than 30 million students get school meals daily and many of them rely on school foods for up to half of their daily calories. Therefore, school-based interventions that encourage the selection and consumption of healthier foods, such as fruits and vegetables, can have important health implications, according to the study background.
Juliana Cohen, of the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, and coauthors conducted a randomized clinical trial to examine the effects of short-term and long-term exposure to meals made more palatable with the help of a professional chef who taught school staff culinary skills and extended daily exposure to "choice architecture" in a smart café intervention where fruits were placed in attractive containers, vegetables were offered at the front of the lunch line and white milk was placed in front of sugar-sweetened chocolate milk.
The study involved 14 elementary and middle schools in two urban, low-income school districts, including 2,638 students in grades three through eight. Intervention schools received a professional chef who collaborated with them and then students were repeatedly exposed to new recipes on a weekly basis during a seven-month period. The modifications made to school cafeterias as part of the smart café intervention were applied daily for four months.
Baseline food selection and consumption were measured at all 14 schools and afterward four schools were assigned to receive chef-enhanced meals, while the remaining 10 received standard school meals. After three months of exposure to chef-enhanced meals, food selection and consumption were measured, again, after which two chef-enhanced schools and four control schools were assigned to receive the smart café intervention. The remaining six schools continued as a control group. After four more months of exposure to chef-enhanced meals, the smart café intervention or both, food selection and consumption were measured again.
The authors found that after three months of chef-enhanced meals, entree and fruit selection were unchanged but the odds of vegetable selection increased compared with control schools. After seven months, entree selection remained unchanged in the intervention schools compared with control schools. However, the odds of students selecting fruit increased in the chef, smart café and chef plus smart café schools compared with controls. Among the students who selected fruit, the servings consumed were greater in chef schools compared with control schools but there was no effect of the smart café intervention.
The odds of students selecting vegetables also increased in the chef, smart café and chef plus smart café schools compared with control schools. The percentage of vegetables consumed increased by 30.8 percent in chef schools and by 24.5 percent in chef plus smart café schools compared with control schools, according to the study. Selecting a meal component and consuming a meal component were measured separately.
There were no changes in the selection or consumption of white or sugar-sweetened chocolate milk in the smart café schools where students had access to both, the results indicate.
"Efforts to improve the taste of school foods through chef-enhanced meals should remain a priority because this was the only method that increased consumption. This was observed only after students were repeatedly exposed to the new foods for seven months. Therefore, schools should not abandon healthier options if they are initially met with resistance," the study concludes. | 717 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If you follow the news, you know that some Democrats have called for the president’s impeachment and some Republicans argue they should be elected or reelected to protect against that. Two presidents have been impeached and gone on trial in the Senate, where they were acquitted. We have just passed the one-hundred-and-fiftieth anniversary of the first presidential impeachment. The president was Andrew Johnson. And Nevada played a role.
Nevada became a state in 1864 because Abraham Lincoln and his party wanted our votes for his election, among other reasons. Johnson was Lincoln’s running-mate for similar reasons. When his state seceded, Johnson refused to go with his fellow Tennesseans. He said the Union could not be dissolved and he attacked treason. Johnson had been a lifelong Democrat. He didn’t vote for Lincoln in 1860—as a Republican, and thus opposed to the spread of slavery, Lincoln wasn’t even on the ballot in Johnson’s Tennessee. But during the Civil War, Republicans called their organization the Union Party, to signify support for the war and attract Democratic voters and politicians. Johnson became part of the Union party.
When Lincoln died on April 15, 1865, Republicans thought Johnson would be tougher on the defeated South than Lincoln would have been. But Johnson’s bark turned out to be much worse than his bite. He had no problem with the Black Codes that southern states imposed to limit and control newly freed African Americans. He vetoed legislation that Congress overwhelmingly passed to guarantee black civil rights.
Republicans realized Johnson didn’t share their views. One of their responses was to pass the Tenure of Office Act in 1867. It barred the president from firing a Cabinet member without Senate approval—just as the Senate gets to vote on the original appointment. Republicans wanted to protect Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, a strong advocate of civil rights. Johnson thought the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional. He reasoned that the Constitution doesn’t say the Senate gets to advise and consent when a Cabinet member departs. In February 1868, Johnson fired Stanton. The House responded by impeaching Johnson on 11 counts, ranging from his public statements to his stand on the Tenure of Office Act. He went on trial in the Senate.
With most southern states not yet back in the Union, there were 54 senators. It would take a two-thirds majority or 36 to convict Johnson. At the time, there were only NINE Democrats. Yes, NINE. Three conservative Republicans usually voted with them. With 42 Republican votes, if pure party lines had been the issue, Johnson would have been convicted.
By the time of the vote, Johnson had nine months left in his term. He had no vice-president—this was before the 25th Amendment. His replacement would have been Ben Wade of Ohio, the Senate president pro tem and a radical Republican on civil rights. But Wade’s other views were controversial, and Republicans figured they were going to win the election that fall with Ulysses Grant as their nominee. To this day, no one has told exactly how it happened. But in the end, Johnson was acquitted. And next time, we’ll talk about a couple of the voters, and just what might have been going on.
You won’t find a paywall here. Come as often as you like — we’re not counting. You’ve found a like-minded tribe that cherishes what a free press stands for. If you can spend another couple of minutes making a pledge of as little as $5, you’ll feel like a superhero defending democracy for less than the cost of a month of Netflix. | <urn:uuid:977cd407-784a-414f-b23a-6e96987ac3c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://knpr.org/knpr/2018-06/andrew-johnson-part-i | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00542.warc.gz | en | 0.98521 | 760 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.4366816878... | 3 | If you follow the news, you know that some Democrats have called for the president’s impeachment and some Republicans argue they should be elected or reelected to protect against that. Two presidents have been impeached and gone on trial in the Senate, where they were acquitted. We have just passed the one-hundred-and-fiftieth anniversary of the first presidential impeachment. The president was Andrew Johnson. And Nevada played a role.
Nevada became a state in 1864 because Abraham Lincoln and his party wanted our votes for his election, among other reasons. Johnson was Lincoln’s running-mate for similar reasons. When his state seceded, Johnson refused to go with his fellow Tennesseans. He said the Union could not be dissolved and he attacked treason. Johnson had been a lifelong Democrat. He didn’t vote for Lincoln in 1860—as a Republican, and thus opposed to the spread of slavery, Lincoln wasn’t even on the ballot in Johnson’s Tennessee. But during the Civil War, Republicans called their organization the Union Party, to signify support for the war and attract Democratic voters and politicians. Johnson became part of the Union party.
When Lincoln died on April 15, 1865, Republicans thought Johnson would be tougher on the defeated South than Lincoln would have been. But Johnson’s bark turned out to be much worse than his bite. He had no problem with the Black Codes that southern states imposed to limit and control newly freed African Americans. He vetoed legislation that Congress overwhelmingly passed to guarantee black civil rights.
Republicans realized Johnson didn’t share their views. One of their responses was to pass the Tenure of Office Act in 1867. It barred the president from firing a Cabinet member without Senate approval—just as the Senate gets to vote on the original appointment. Republicans wanted to protect Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, a strong advocate of civil rights. Johnson thought the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional. He reasoned that the Constitution doesn’t say the Senate gets to advise and consent when a Cabinet member departs. In February 1868, Johnson fired Stanton. The House responded by impeaching Johnson on 11 counts, ranging from his public statements to his stand on the Tenure of Office Act. He went on trial in the Senate.
With most southern states not yet back in the Union, there were 54 senators. It would take a two-thirds majority or 36 to convict Johnson. At the time, there were only NINE Democrats. Yes, NINE. Three conservative Republicans usually voted with them. With 42 Republican votes, if pure party lines had been the issue, Johnson would have been convicted.
By the time of the vote, Johnson had nine months left in his term. He had no vice-president—this was before the 25th Amendment. His replacement would have been Ben Wade of Ohio, the Senate president pro tem and a radical Republican on civil rights. But Wade’s other views were controversial, and Republicans figured they were going to win the election that fall with Ulysses Grant as their nominee. To this day, no one has told exactly how it happened. But in the end, Johnson was acquitted. And next time, we’ll talk about a couple of the voters, and just what might have been going on.
You won’t find a paywall here. Come as often as you like — we’re not counting. You’ve found a like-minded tribe that cherishes what a free press stands for. If you can spend another couple of minutes making a pledge of as little as $5, you’ll feel like a superhero defending democracy for less than the cost of a month of Netflix. | 754 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ludwig van Beethoven was a deaf German composer and the predominant musical figure in the transitional period between the Classical and Romantic eras.
Composer Ludwig van Beethoven was baptized on December 17, 1770, in Bonn, Germany. He was an innovator, widening the scope of sonata, symphony, concerto and quartet, and combining vocals and instruments in a new way. His personal
life was marked by a struggle against deafness, and some of his most important works were composed during the last 10 years of his life, when he was quite unable to hear.
Composer and pianist Ludwig Van Beethoven, widely considered the greatest composer of all time, was born on or about December 16, 1770 in the city of Bonn in the Electorate of Cologne, a principality of the Holy Roman Empire. Although his exact date of birth is uncertain, Beethoven was baptized on December 17, 1770.
Since as a matter of law and custom, babies were baptized within 24 hours of birth, December 16 is his most likely birthdate. However, Beethoven himself mistakenly believed that he was born two years later, in 1772, and he stubbornly insisted on the incorrect date even when presented with official papers that proved beyond any reasonable doubt that 1770 was his true birth year.
Beethoven had two younger brothers who survived into adulthood, Caspar, born in 1774, and Johann, born in 1776. Beethoven’s mother, Maria Magdalena van Beethoven, was a slender, genteel, and deeply moralistic woman. His father, Johann van Beethoven, was a court singer better known for his alcoholism than any musical ability. However, Beethoven’s grandfather, godfather and namesake, Kapellmeister Ludwig van Beethoven, was Bonn’s most prosperous and eminent musician, a source of endless pride for young Ludwig.
Sometime between the births of his two younger brothers, Beethoven’s father began teaching him music with an extraordinary rigor and brutality that affected him for the rest of his life. Neighbors provided accounts of the small boy weeping while he played the clavier, standing atop a footstool to reach the keys, his father beating him for each hesitation or mistake.
On a near daily basis, Beethoven was flogged, locked in the cellar and deprived of sleep for extra hours of practice. He studied the violin and clavier with his father as well as taking additional lessons from organists around town. Whether in spite of or because of his father’s draconian methods, Beethoven was a prodigiously talented musician from his earliest days and displayed flashes of the creative imagination that would eventually reach farther than any composer’s before or since.
Beethoven, who struggled with sums and spelling his entire life, was at best an average student, and some biographers have hypothesized that he may have had mild dyslexia. As he put it himself, “Music comes to me more readily than words.” In 1781, at the age of 10, Beethoven withdrew from school to study music full time with Christian Gottlob Neefe, the newly appointed Court Organist. Neefe introduced Beethoven to Bach, and at the age of twelve Beethoven published his first composition, a set of piano variations on a theme by an obscure classical composer named Dressler.
By 1784, his alcoholism worsening and his voice decaying, Beethoven’s father was no longer able to support his family, and Ludwig van Beethoven formally requested an official appointment as Assistant Court Organist. Despite his youth, his request was accepted, and Beethoven was put on the court payroll with a modest annual salary of 150 florins.
In an effort to facilitate his musical development, in 1787 the court decided to send Beethoven to Vienna, Europe’s capital of culture and music, where he hoped to study with Mozart. There is only speculation and inconclusive evidence that Beethoven ever met with Mozart, let alone studied with him. Tradition as it that, upon hearing Beethoven, Mozart was to have said, “Keep your eyes on him; some day he will give the world something to talk about.” In any case, after only a few weeks in Vienna, Beethoven learned that his mother had fallen ill and he returned home to Bonn. Remaining in there, Beethoven continued to carve out his reputation as the city’s most promising young court musician.
When the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II died in 1790, a 19-year-old Beethoven received the immense honor of composing a musical memorial in his honor. For reasons that remain unclear, Beethoven’s composition was never performed, and most assumed the young musician had proven unequal to the task. However, more than a century later, Johannes Brahms discovered that Beethoven had in fact composed a “beautiful and noble” piece of music entitled Cantata on the Death of Emperor Joseph II. It is now considered his earliest masterpiece.
In 1792, with French revolutionary forces sweeping across the Rhineland into the Electorate of Cologne, Beethoven decided to leave his hometown for Vienna once again. Mozart had passed away a year earlier, leaving Joseph Haydn as the unquestioned greatest composer alive.
Haydn was living in Vienna at the time, and it was with Haydn that the young Beethoven now intended to study. As his friend and patron Count Waldstein wrote in a farewell letter, “Mozart’s genius mourns and weeps over the death of his disciple. It found refuge, but no release with the inexhaustible Haydn; through him, now, it seeks to unite with another. By means of assiduous labor you will receive the spirit of Mozart from the hands of Haydn.”
In Vienna, Beethoven dedicated himself wholeheartedly to musical study with the most eminent musicians of the age. He studied piano with Haydn, vocal composition with Antonio Salieri and counterpoint with Johann Albrechtsberger. Not yet known as a composer, Beethoven quickly established a reputation as a virtuoso pianist who was especially adept at improvisation.
Beethoven won many patrons among the leading citizens of the Viennese aristocracy, who provided him with lodging and funds, allowing Beethoven, in 1794, to sever ties with the Electorate of Cologne. Beethoven made his long-awaited public debut in Vienna on March 29, 1795. Although there is considerable debate over which of his early piano concerti he performed that night, most scholars believe he played what is known as his “first” piano concerto in C Major. Shortly thereafter, Beethoven decided to publish a series of three piano trios as his “Opus 1,” which were an enormous critical and financial success.
In the first spring of the new century, on April 2, 1800, Beethoven debuted his Symphony No. 1 in C major at the Royal Imperial Theater in Vienna. Although Beethoven would grow to detest the piece — “In those days I did not know how to compose,” he later remarked — the graceful and melodious symphony nevertheless established him as one of Europe’s most celebrated composers.
As the new century progressed, Beethoven composed piece after piece that marked him as a masterful composer reaching his musical maturity. His “Six String Quartets,” published in 1801, demonstrate complete mastery of that most difficult and cherished of Viennese forms developed by Mozart and Haydn. Beethoven also composed The Creatures of Prometheus in 1801, a wildly popular ballet that received 27 performances at the Imperial Court Theater.
Around this time Beethoven, like all of Europe, watched with a mixture of awe and terror as Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself First Consul, and later Emperor, of France. Beethoven admired, abhorred and, to an extent, identified with Napoleon a man of seemingly superhuman capabilities, only one year older than himself and also of obscure birth.
In 1804, only weeks after Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor, Beethoven debuted his Symphony No. 3 in Napoleon’s honor. Later renamed the “Eroica Symphony” because Beethoven grew disillusioned with Napoleon, it was his grandest and most original work to date — so unlike anything heard before that through weeks of rehearsal, the musicians could not figure out how to play it. A prominent reviewer proclaimed Eroica, “one of the most original, most sublime, and most profound products that the entire genre of music has ever exhibited.”
At the same time as he was composing these great and immortal works, Beethoven was struggling to come to terms with a shocking and terrible fact, one that he tried desperately to conceal. He was going deaf. By the turn of the century, Beethoven struggled to make out the words spoken to him in conversation.
Beethoven revealed in a heart-wrenching 1801 letter to his friend Franz Wegeler, “I must confess that I lead a miserable life. For almost two years I have ceased to attend any social functions, just because I find it impossible to say to people: I am deaf. If I had any other profession, I might be able to cope with my infirmity; but in my profession it is a terrible handicap.” At times driven to extremes of melancholy by his affliction, Beethoven described his despair in a long and poignant note that he concealed his entire life.
Dated October 6, 1802 and referred to as “The Heiligenstadt Testament,” it reads in part, “O you men who think or say that I am malevolent, stubborn or misanthropic, how greatly do you wrong me. You do not know the secret cause which makes me seem that way to you and I would have ended my life — it was only my art that held me back. Ah, it seemed impossible to leave the world until I had brought forth all that I felt was within me.”
Almost miraculously, despite his rapidly progressing deafness, Beethoven continued to compose at a furious pace. From 1803-1812, what is known as his “middle” or “heroic” period, he composed an opera, six symphonies, four solo concerti, five string quartets, six string sonatas, seven piano sonatas, five sets of piano variations, four overtures, four trios, two sextets and 72 songs. The most famous among these were symphonies No. 3-8, the “Moonlight Sonata,” the “Kreutzer” violin sonata and Fidelio, his only opera. In terms of the astonishing output of superlatively complex, original and beautiful music, this period in Beethoven’s life is unrivaled by any of any other composer in history.
Despite his extraordinary output of beautiful music, Beethoven was lonely and frequently miserable throughout his adult life. Short-tempered, absent-minded, greedy and suspicious to the point of paranoia, Beethoven feuded with his brothers, his publishers, his housekeepers, his pupils and his patrons. In one illustrative incident, Beethoven attempted to break a chair over the head of Prince Lichnowsky, one of his closest friends and most loyal patrons. Another time he stood in the doorway of Prince Lobkowitz’s palace shouting for all to hear, “Lobkowitz is a donkey!”
For a variety of reasons that included his crippling shyness and unfortunate physical appearance, Beethoven never married or had children. He was, however, desperately in love with a married woman named Antonie Brentano. Over the course of two days in July of 1812, Beethoven wrote her a long and beautiful love letter that he never sent. Addressed “to you, my Immortal Beloved,” the letter said in part, “My heart is full of so many things to say to you — ah — there are moments when I feel that speech amounts to nothing at all — Cheer up — remain my true, my only love, my all as I am yours.”
The death of Beethoven’s brother Caspar in 1815 sparked one of the great trials of his life, a painful legal battle with his sister-in-law, Johanna, over the custody of Karl van Beethoven, his nephew and her son. The struggle stretched on for seven years during which both sides spewed ugly defamations at the other. In the end, Beethoven won the boy’s custody.
Somehow, despite his tumultuous personal life, physical infirmity and complete deafness, Beethoven composed his greatest music — perhaps the greatest music ever composed — near the end of his life. His greatest late works include Missa Solemnis, a mass that debuted in 1824 and is considered among his finest achievements, and String Quartet No. 14, which contains seven linked movements played without a break.
Beethoven’s Ninth and final symphony, completed in 1824, remains the illustrious composer’s most towering achievement. The symphony’s famous choral finale, with four vocal soloists and a chorus singing the words of Friedrich Schiller’s poem “Ode to Joy,” is perhaps the most famous piece of music in history.
While connoisseurs delighted in the symphony’s contrapuntal and formal complexity, the masses found inspiration in the anthem-like vigor of the choral finale and the concluding invocation of “all humanity.”
Beethoven died on March 26, 1827, at the age of 56. An autopsy revealed that the immediate cause of death was post-hepatitic cirrhosis of the liver Recently, scientists analyzing a remaining fragment of Beethoven’s skull noticed high levels of lead and hypothesized lead poisoning as a potential cause of death, but that theory has been largely discredited.
Ludwig van Beethoven is widely considered the greatest composer of all time. He is the crucial transitional figure connecting the Classical and Romantic ages of Western music. Beethoven’s body of musical compositions stands with Shakespeare’s plays at the outer limits of human accomplishment.
And the fact Beethoven composed his most beautiful and extraordinary music while deaf is an almost superhuman feat of creative genius, perhaps only paralleled in the history of artistic achievement by John Milton writing Paradise Lost while blind. Summing up his life and imminent death during his last days, Beethoven, who was never as eloquent with words as he was with music, borrowed a tag line that concluded many Latin plays at the time. “Plaudite, amici, comoedia finita est,” he said. “Applaud friends, the comedy is over.”
Ludwig Van Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony
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-0.237824663519... | 2 | Ludwig van Beethoven was a deaf German composer and the predominant musical figure in the transitional period between the Classical and Romantic eras.
Composer Ludwig van Beethoven was baptized on December 17, 1770, in Bonn, Germany. He was an innovator, widening the scope of sonata, symphony, concerto and quartet, and combining vocals and instruments in a new way. His personal
life was marked by a struggle against deafness, and some of his most important works were composed during the last 10 years of his life, when he was quite unable to hear.
Composer and pianist Ludwig Van Beethoven, widely considered the greatest composer of all time, was born on or about December 16, 1770 in the city of Bonn in the Electorate of Cologne, a principality of the Holy Roman Empire. Although his exact date of birth is uncertain, Beethoven was baptized on December 17, 1770.
Since as a matter of law and custom, babies were baptized within 24 hours of birth, December 16 is his most likely birthdate. However, Beethoven himself mistakenly believed that he was born two years later, in 1772, and he stubbornly insisted on the incorrect date even when presented with official papers that proved beyond any reasonable doubt that 1770 was his true birth year.
Beethoven had two younger brothers who survived into adulthood, Caspar, born in 1774, and Johann, born in 1776. Beethoven’s mother, Maria Magdalena van Beethoven, was a slender, genteel, and deeply moralistic woman. His father, Johann van Beethoven, was a court singer better known for his alcoholism than any musical ability. However, Beethoven’s grandfather, godfather and namesake, Kapellmeister Ludwig van Beethoven, was Bonn’s most prosperous and eminent musician, a source of endless pride for young Ludwig.
Sometime between the births of his two younger brothers, Beethoven’s father began teaching him music with an extraordinary rigor and brutality that affected him for the rest of his life. Neighbors provided accounts of the small boy weeping while he played the clavier, standing atop a footstool to reach the keys, his father beating him for each hesitation or mistake.
On a near daily basis, Beethoven was flogged, locked in the cellar and deprived of sleep for extra hours of practice. He studied the violin and clavier with his father as well as taking additional lessons from organists around town. Whether in spite of or because of his father’s draconian methods, Beethoven was a prodigiously talented musician from his earliest days and displayed flashes of the creative imagination that would eventually reach farther than any composer’s before or since.
Beethoven, who struggled with sums and spelling his entire life, was at best an average student, and some biographers have hypothesized that he may have had mild dyslexia. As he put it himself, “Music comes to me more readily than words.” In 1781, at the age of 10, Beethoven withdrew from school to study music full time with Christian Gottlob Neefe, the newly appointed Court Organist. Neefe introduced Beethoven to Bach, and at the age of twelve Beethoven published his first composition, a set of piano variations on a theme by an obscure classical composer named Dressler.
By 1784, his alcoholism worsening and his voice decaying, Beethoven’s father was no longer able to support his family, and Ludwig van Beethoven formally requested an official appointment as Assistant Court Organist. Despite his youth, his request was accepted, and Beethoven was put on the court payroll with a modest annual salary of 150 florins.
In an effort to facilitate his musical development, in 1787 the court decided to send Beethoven to Vienna, Europe’s capital of culture and music, where he hoped to study with Mozart. There is only speculation and inconclusive evidence that Beethoven ever met with Mozart, let alone studied with him. Tradition as it that, upon hearing Beethoven, Mozart was to have said, “Keep your eyes on him; some day he will give the world something to talk about.” In any case, after only a few weeks in Vienna, Beethoven learned that his mother had fallen ill and he returned home to Bonn. Remaining in there, Beethoven continued to carve out his reputation as the city’s most promising young court musician.
When the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II died in 1790, a 19-year-old Beethoven received the immense honor of composing a musical memorial in his honor. For reasons that remain unclear, Beethoven’s composition was never performed, and most assumed the young musician had proven unequal to the task. However, more than a century later, Johannes Brahms discovered that Beethoven had in fact composed a “beautiful and noble” piece of music entitled Cantata on the Death of Emperor Joseph II. It is now considered his earliest masterpiece.
In 1792, with French revolutionary forces sweeping across the Rhineland into the Electorate of Cologne, Beethoven decided to leave his hometown for Vienna once again. Mozart had passed away a year earlier, leaving Joseph Haydn as the unquestioned greatest composer alive.
Haydn was living in Vienna at the time, and it was with Haydn that the young Beethoven now intended to study. As his friend and patron Count Waldstein wrote in a farewell letter, “Mozart’s genius mourns and weeps over the death of his disciple. It found refuge, but no release with the inexhaustible Haydn; through him, now, it seeks to unite with another. By means of assiduous labor you will receive the spirit of Mozart from the hands of Haydn.”
In Vienna, Beethoven dedicated himself wholeheartedly to musical study with the most eminent musicians of the age. He studied piano with Haydn, vocal composition with Antonio Salieri and counterpoint with Johann Albrechtsberger. Not yet known as a composer, Beethoven quickly established a reputation as a virtuoso pianist who was especially adept at improvisation.
Beethoven won many patrons among the leading citizens of the Viennese aristocracy, who provided him with lodging and funds, allowing Beethoven, in 1794, to sever ties with the Electorate of Cologne. Beethoven made his long-awaited public debut in Vienna on March 29, 1795. Although there is considerable debate over which of his early piano concerti he performed that night, most scholars believe he played what is known as his “first” piano concerto in C Major. Shortly thereafter, Beethoven decided to publish a series of three piano trios as his “Opus 1,” which were an enormous critical and financial success.
In the first spring of the new century, on April 2, 1800, Beethoven debuted his Symphony No. 1 in C major at the Royal Imperial Theater in Vienna. Although Beethoven would grow to detest the piece — “In those days I did not know how to compose,” he later remarked — the graceful and melodious symphony nevertheless established him as one of Europe’s most celebrated composers.
As the new century progressed, Beethoven composed piece after piece that marked him as a masterful composer reaching his musical maturity. His “Six String Quartets,” published in 1801, demonstrate complete mastery of that most difficult and cherished of Viennese forms developed by Mozart and Haydn. Beethoven also composed The Creatures of Prometheus in 1801, a wildly popular ballet that received 27 performances at the Imperial Court Theater.
Around this time Beethoven, like all of Europe, watched with a mixture of awe and terror as Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself First Consul, and later Emperor, of France. Beethoven admired, abhorred and, to an extent, identified with Napoleon a man of seemingly superhuman capabilities, only one year older than himself and also of obscure birth.
In 1804, only weeks after Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor, Beethoven debuted his Symphony No. 3 in Napoleon’s honor. Later renamed the “Eroica Symphony” because Beethoven grew disillusioned with Napoleon, it was his grandest and most original work to date — so unlike anything heard before that through weeks of rehearsal, the musicians could not figure out how to play it. A prominent reviewer proclaimed Eroica, “one of the most original, most sublime, and most profound products that the entire genre of music has ever exhibited.”
At the same time as he was composing these great and immortal works, Beethoven was struggling to come to terms with a shocking and terrible fact, one that he tried desperately to conceal. He was going deaf. By the turn of the century, Beethoven struggled to make out the words spoken to him in conversation.
Beethoven revealed in a heart-wrenching 1801 letter to his friend Franz Wegeler, “I must confess that I lead a miserable life. For almost two years I have ceased to attend any social functions, just because I find it impossible to say to people: I am deaf. If I had any other profession, I might be able to cope with my infirmity; but in my profession it is a terrible handicap.” At times driven to extremes of melancholy by his affliction, Beethoven described his despair in a long and poignant note that he concealed his entire life.
Dated October 6, 1802 and referred to as “The Heiligenstadt Testament,” it reads in part, “O you men who think or say that I am malevolent, stubborn or misanthropic, how greatly do you wrong me. You do not know the secret cause which makes me seem that way to you and I would have ended my life — it was only my art that held me back. Ah, it seemed impossible to leave the world until I had brought forth all that I felt was within me.”
Almost miraculously, despite his rapidly progressing deafness, Beethoven continued to compose at a furious pace. From 1803-1812, what is known as his “middle” or “heroic” period, he composed an opera, six symphonies, four solo concerti, five string quartets, six string sonatas, seven piano sonatas, five sets of piano variations, four overtures, four trios, two sextets and 72 songs. The most famous among these were symphonies No. 3-8, the “Moonlight Sonata,” the “Kreutzer” violin sonata and Fidelio, his only opera. In terms of the astonishing output of superlatively complex, original and beautiful music, this period in Beethoven’s life is unrivaled by any of any other composer in history.
Despite his extraordinary output of beautiful music, Beethoven was lonely and frequently miserable throughout his adult life. Short-tempered, absent-minded, greedy and suspicious to the point of paranoia, Beethoven feuded with his brothers, his publishers, his housekeepers, his pupils and his patrons. In one illustrative incident, Beethoven attempted to break a chair over the head of Prince Lichnowsky, one of his closest friends and most loyal patrons. Another time he stood in the doorway of Prince Lobkowitz’s palace shouting for all to hear, “Lobkowitz is a donkey!”
For a variety of reasons that included his crippling shyness and unfortunate physical appearance, Beethoven never married or had children. He was, however, desperately in love with a married woman named Antonie Brentano. Over the course of two days in July of 1812, Beethoven wrote her a long and beautiful love letter that he never sent. Addressed “to you, my Immortal Beloved,” the letter said in part, “My heart is full of so many things to say to you — ah — there are moments when I feel that speech amounts to nothing at all — Cheer up — remain my true, my only love, my all as I am yours.”
The death of Beethoven’s brother Caspar in 1815 sparked one of the great trials of his life, a painful legal battle with his sister-in-law, Johanna, over the custody of Karl van Beethoven, his nephew and her son. The struggle stretched on for seven years during which both sides spewed ugly defamations at the other. In the end, Beethoven won the boy’s custody.
Somehow, despite his tumultuous personal life, physical infirmity and complete deafness, Beethoven composed his greatest music — perhaps the greatest music ever composed — near the end of his life. His greatest late works include Missa Solemnis, a mass that debuted in 1824 and is considered among his finest achievements, and String Quartet No. 14, which contains seven linked movements played without a break.
Beethoven’s Ninth and final symphony, completed in 1824, remains the illustrious composer’s most towering achievement. The symphony’s famous choral finale, with four vocal soloists and a chorus singing the words of Friedrich Schiller’s poem “Ode to Joy,” is perhaps the most famous piece of music in history.
While connoisseurs delighted in the symphony’s contrapuntal and formal complexity, the masses found inspiration in the anthem-like vigor of the choral finale and the concluding invocation of “all humanity.”
Beethoven died on March 26, 1827, at the age of 56. An autopsy revealed that the immediate cause of death was post-hepatitic cirrhosis of the liver Recently, scientists analyzing a remaining fragment of Beethoven’s skull noticed high levels of lead and hypothesized lead poisoning as a potential cause of death, but that theory has been largely discredited.
Ludwig van Beethoven is widely considered the greatest composer of all time. He is the crucial transitional figure connecting the Classical and Romantic ages of Western music. Beethoven’s body of musical compositions stands with Shakespeare’s plays at the outer limits of human accomplishment.
And the fact Beethoven composed his most beautiful and extraordinary music while deaf is an almost superhuman feat of creative genius, perhaps only paralleled in the history of artistic achievement by John Milton writing Paradise Lost while blind. Summing up his life and imminent death during his last days, Beethoven, who was never as eloquent with words as he was with music, borrowed a tag line that concluded many Latin plays at the time. “Plaudite, amici, comoedia finita est,” he said. “Applaud friends, the comedy is over.”
Ludwig Van Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony
Go back in time to the victorian era | 3,072 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On June 12, 1929, at 7:30 A.M. a baby girl was born in Frankfurt, Germany. No one realized that this infant, who was Jewish, was destined to become one of the world’s most famous victims of World War II. Her name was Anne Frank, and her parents were Edith Frank Hollandar and Otto Frank. She had one sister, Margot, who was three years older than she was.
Anne led a happy and normal childhood, and on her 13th birthday she received a diary from her parents. It became special to her as years went by. It is through this diary that much about World War II and Anne’s life has been learned.
In 1933, her and her family left Frankfurt, a large Jewish community, and settled in Amsterdam. Her father foresaw that Hitler’s power boded disaster for the Jews. In May 1940, the Nazi invasion of the Netherlands took place, which cast a shadow on Anne’s happy childhood. The situation became worse with the restrictions placed on the Jews. One restriction was that Jewish children were only allowed at Jewish schools. Anne went to the Jewish school called The Jewish Lyceum.
In July 1942, Anne’s family went into hiding in the Prinsengracht building. Anne’s family called it the “Secret Annex”. During these times people they knew like, Miep and Jan Gies and many others, brought the family’s food. You would have to be very brave to take on a job like that because, if you got caught you could be killed.
Life in the Annex was not easy at all. Anne had to wake up at 6:45 A.M. every morning. Nobody could go outside. No one could turn on lights at night. Anne mostly read books or wrote stories. Much of Anne’s diary was written while in hiding. Most of the families got separated, but Anne’s family never was. For this, they were lucky.
In 1944, their hiding place was revealed, and they were taken into custody. The day after their arrest they were transferred to the Huis Van Bewaring, a prison on Weteringschans. On Aug. 8, they were transported from the main railroad station in Amsterdam to the Westerbork detention camp. For a month, the Franks were kept in the “disciplinary barracks”, not as ordinary prisoners, but inmates convicted of a crime. The crime was hiding.
On September 3, 1944, aboard the last transport to leave the Netherlands, Anne’s family and those who were with them, were brought to the Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp. By then more than 100,000 Dutch Jews had been …
Auschwitz, near Krakow, was the largest concentration camp, with inmates from all over Europe. Many Jewish and non-Jewish inmates performed industrial labor. The Nazis subjected some prisoners to medical experiments and gassed Jews and Roma (Gypsies). They also shot thousands of inmates, while others died from starvation or disease. Large crematories were constructed to incinerate the bodies. By the end of the war in 1945, millions of Jews-as wee as Slavs, Roma, homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Communists, and others targeted by the Nazis-had been killed or had died in the Holocaust.
In my opinion Anne Frank, The Diary of a Young Girl is a very sad, distressing book. It revels the life of a young innocent girl who is forced into hiding from the Nazis because of her religion, Judaism. It is also a very informing and very enlightening book. It introduces a time period of discrimination, unfair judgment, and power crazed individuals. With this it shows you the effect it has on the defenseless. Anne and her family are just one of the hundreds of thousands of families that were tortured. The thing that makes her story so intriguing is that it shows war in the eyes of a little girl. | <urn:uuid:4983ad75-f445-4d0e-8af8-fd8172eabb9a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nsucurrent.com/anne-frank-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00019.warc.gz | en | 0.987222 | 828 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.35078477859... | 3 | On June 12, 1929, at 7:30 A.M. a baby girl was born in Frankfurt, Germany. No one realized that this infant, who was Jewish, was destined to become one of the world’s most famous victims of World War II. Her name was Anne Frank, and her parents were Edith Frank Hollandar and Otto Frank. She had one sister, Margot, who was three years older than she was.
Anne led a happy and normal childhood, and on her 13th birthday she received a diary from her parents. It became special to her as years went by. It is through this diary that much about World War II and Anne’s life has been learned.
In 1933, her and her family left Frankfurt, a large Jewish community, and settled in Amsterdam. Her father foresaw that Hitler’s power boded disaster for the Jews. In May 1940, the Nazi invasion of the Netherlands took place, which cast a shadow on Anne’s happy childhood. The situation became worse with the restrictions placed on the Jews. One restriction was that Jewish children were only allowed at Jewish schools. Anne went to the Jewish school called The Jewish Lyceum.
In July 1942, Anne’s family went into hiding in the Prinsengracht building. Anne’s family called it the “Secret Annex”. During these times people they knew like, Miep and Jan Gies and many others, brought the family’s food. You would have to be very brave to take on a job like that because, if you got caught you could be killed.
Life in the Annex was not easy at all. Anne had to wake up at 6:45 A.M. every morning. Nobody could go outside. No one could turn on lights at night. Anne mostly read books or wrote stories. Much of Anne’s diary was written while in hiding. Most of the families got separated, but Anne’s family never was. For this, they were lucky.
In 1944, their hiding place was revealed, and they were taken into custody. The day after their arrest they were transferred to the Huis Van Bewaring, a prison on Weteringschans. On Aug. 8, they were transported from the main railroad station in Amsterdam to the Westerbork detention camp. For a month, the Franks were kept in the “disciplinary barracks”, not as ordinary prisoners, but inmates convicted of a crime. The crime was hiding.
On September 3, 1944, aboard the last transport to leave the Netherlands, Anne’s family and those who were with them, were brought to the Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp. By then more than 100,000 Dutch Jews had been …
Auschwitz, near Krakow, was the largest concentration camp, with inmates from all over Europe. Many Jewish and non-Jewish inmates performed industrial labor. The Nazis subjected some prisoners to medical experiments and gassed Jews and Roma (Gypsies). They also shot thousands of inmates, while others died from starvation or disease. Large crematories were constructed to incinerate the bodies. By the end of the war in 1945, millions of Jews-as wee as Slavs, Roma, homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Communists, and others targeted by the Nazis-had been killed or had died in the Holocaust.
In my opinion Anne Frank, The Diary of a Young Girl is a very sad, distressing book. It revels the life of a young innocent girl who is forced into hiding from the Nazis because of her religion, Judaism. It is also a very informing and very enlightening book. It introduces a time period of discrimination, unfair judgment, and power crazed individuals. With this it shows you the effect it has on the defenseless. Anne and her family are just one of the hundreds of thousands of families that were tortured. The thing that makes her story so intriguing is that it shows war in the eyes of a little girl. | 835 | ENGLISH | 1 |
read out(redirected from reads you out)
1. To recite something that is written down. A noun or pronoun can be used between "read" and "out." The teacher read out the names of those who were selected to participate in the event. Read the letter out so I can hear what they wrote about your application.
2. To scold, upbraid, or chastise someone. Usually followed by "for (doing something)." A noun or pronoun is used between "read" and "out." Students either complain that I don't go into enough detail or else read me out for being too technical for them to follow along! The boss started reading me out for mixing up the information during the presentation.
3. To read the entirety of what one has to say. A play on the more common term "hear (one) out." A noun or pronoun is used between "read" and "out." I know that was a lengthy tangent, but thanks for reading me out. I know you don't agree with that user most of the time, but I think you should read her out. She actually makes some really informative posts on this forum.
read someone out (for something)
to chastise someone verbally for doing something wrong. The coach read the player out for making a silly error. She really read out the lazy players.
read something out
to read something aloud. Please read it out so everyone can hear you. Read out the names loudly. | <urn:uuid:a87cc338-cee6-4bf5-936b-b7b408c9bc3b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/reads+you+out | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.9825 | 307 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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1. To recite something that is written down. A noun or pronoun can be used between "read" and "out." The teacher read out the names of those who were selected to participate in the event. Read the letter out so I can hear what they wrote about your application.
2. To scold, upbraid, or chastise someone. Usually followed by "for (doing something)." A noun or pronoun is used between "read" and "out." Students either complain that I don't go into enough detail or else read me out for being too technical for them to follow along! The boss started reading me out for mixing up the information during the presentation.
3. To read the entirety of what one has to say. A play on the more common term "hear (one) out." A noun or pronoun is used between "read" and "out." I know that was a lengthy tangent, but thanks for reading me out. I know you don't agree with that user most of the time, but I think you should read her out. She actually makes some really informative posts on this forum.
read someone out (for something)
to chastise someone verbally for doing something wrong. The coach read the player out for making a silly error. She really read out the lazy players.
read something out
to read something aloud. Please read it out so everyone can hear you. Read out the names loudly. | 302 | ENGLISH | 1 |
War between the early English colonists of New England and the Native Americans already here was perhaps unavoidable, though it wasn’t the goal of the Pilgrims when they crossed the Atlantic. But then Mad Jack Oldham changed everything.
John Oldham was an early arrival to the new colony in 1623. He, his wife and his sister arrived aboard the Anne, and religious intentions did not drive him to America. Rather, at age 21, it was ambition that fueled him. He had come to make a fortune in the new world.
Men unaffiliated with the Pilgrim religious cause had come to America ‘on their particular,’ Plymouth’s governor William Bradford would write. Without an affiliation with the Pilgrims, Oldham and others like him agreed to abide by the Pilgrims’ laws. They would pay taxes and participate in defending the burgeoning colony. They would also refrain from trading with the American Indians.
In the Pilgrims’ plan, peaceful trade with the Indians would support their economy. It would provide the profit England wanted, and they had to handle it delicately. Men like Jack Oldham and the other ‘particulars’ were to keep to selling and reselling goods to the settlers in Plymouth and along coastal New England.
Jack Oldham, Troublemaker
Oldham and 10 other ‘particulars’ almost immediately started trouble. Oldham refused to stand watch, provoked Miles Standish and raged at him as a ‘beggarly rascal.’ With little in common with the Pilgrims, Oldham’s pugnacious nature came to define him.
Shortly after arriving, Oldham and other malcontents wrote to England of their complaints against the Pilgrims. He criticized the new, godly world they were trying to construct.And he complained of their religious practices, the bad water, thievery in the community and too many mosquitoes.
Bradford intercepted Oldham’s letters. When they were shipped to England a reply to the complaints from Bradford accompanied them. He wrote a point-by-point rebuttal and the sarcastic observation that men like Oldham were ‘too delicate and unfit to begin new plantations and colonies . . . till at least they be mosquito-proof.’
Jack Oldham was furious when he learned Bradford had intercepted his letters, and his angry and quarrelsome nature sealed his fate.
While the Pilgrims needed manpower and knew there was strength in numbers, they weren’t desperate enough to need a man like Oldham. They banished him from Plymouth in 1624. At first, Oldham flourished under his new freedom. Liberated from the Pilgrims’ taxes and rules, he settled at Nantasket and would go on to be one of the founders of Wethersfield, Conn.
He traded profitably with the Indians, as well as other settlers, and even gained positions in Massachusetts’ early government. But his demeanor got the best of him. Fellow outcast Thomas Morton described him as ‘a mad jack in his mood.’
In July 1636, American Indians, probably Narragansetts, waylaid his ship on a trading trip to Block Island. They killed Jack Oldham and several members of his crew. His two nephews returned to land.
The death of Mad Jack Oldham was a flashpoint in the ongoing friction between some of the Indians and the colonists over trade and other matters.
The Narragansetts convinced the colonists that the Pequot tribe harbored the Indians who killed Jack Oldham. Though it was perfectly plausible that Jack Oldham provoked the fight that killed him, ministers throughout Massachusetts spoke out against the murders. Massachusetts Governor John Endecott was ordered to retaliate.
Ninety men invaded Block Island, and killed one Indian there. Thus started the Pequot War, which wouldn’t end until 1638.
This story was updated in 2019. | <urn:uuid:6276fc09-95cb-412b-b10d-8a4bac8582ac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/mad-jack-oldham-starts-pequot-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.983949 | 822 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.399171650409... | 5 | War between the early English colonists of New England and the Native Americans already here was perhaps unavoidable, though it wasn’t the goal of the Pilgrims when they crossed the Atlantic. But then Mad Jack Oldham changed everything.
John Oldham was an early arrival to the new colony in 1623. He, his wife and his sister arrived aboard the Anne, and religious intentions did not drive him to America. Rather, at age 21, it was ambition that fueled him. He had come to make a fortune in the new world.
Men unaffiliated with the Pilgrim religious cause had come to America ‘on their particular,’ Plymouth’s governor William Bradford would write. Without an affiliation with the Pilgrims, Oldham and others like him agreed to abide by the Pilgrims’ laws. They would pay taxes and participate in defending the burgeoning colony. They would also refrain from trading with the American Indians.
In the Pilgrims’ plan, peaceful trade with the Indians would support their economy. It would provide the profit England wanted, and they had to handle it delicately. Men like Jack Oldham and the other ‘particulars’ were to keep to selling and reselling goods to the settlers in Plymouth and along coastal New England.
Jack Oldham, Troublemaker
Oldham and 10 other ‘particulars’ almost immediately started trouble. Oldham refused to stand watch, provoked Miles Standish and raged at him as a ‘beggarly rascal.’ With little in common with the Pilgrims, Oldham’s pugnacious nature came to define him.
Shortly after arriving, Oldham and other malcontents wrote to England of their complaints against the Pilgrims. He criticized the new, godly world they were trying to construct.And he complained of their religious practices, the bad water, thievery in the community and too many mosquitoes.
Bradford intercepted Oldham’s letters. When they were shipped to England a reply to the complaints from Bradford accompanied them. He wrote a point-by-point rebuttal and the sarcastic observation that men like Oldham were ‘too delicate and unfit to begin new plantations and colonies . . . till at least they be mosquito-proof.’
Jack Oldham was furious when he learned Bradford had intercepted his letters, and his angry and quarrelsome nature sealed his fate.
While the Pilgrims needed manpower and knew there was strength in numbers, they weren’t desperate enough to need a man like Oldham. They banished him from Plymouth in 1624. At first, Oldham flourished under his new freedom. Liberated from the Pilgrims’ taxes and rules, he settled at Nantasket and would go on to be one of the founders of Wethersfield, Conn.
He traded profitably with the Indians, as well as other settlers, and even gained positions in Massachusetts’ early government. But his demeanor got the best of him. Fellow outcast Thomas Morton described him as ‘a mad jack in his mood.’
In July 1636, American Indians, probably Narragansetts, waylaid his ship on a trading trip to Block Island. They killed Jack Oldham and several members of his crew. His two nephews returned to land.
The death of Mad Jack Oldham was a flashpoint in the ongoing friction between some of the Indians and the colonists over trade and other matters.
The Narragansetts convinced the colonists that the Pequot tribe harbored the Indians who killed Jack Oldham. Though it was perfectly plausible that Jack Oldham provoked the fight that killed him, ministers throughout Massachusetts spoke out against the murders. Massachusetts Governor John Endecott was ordered to retaliate.
Ninety men invaded Block Island, and killed one Indian there. Thus started the Pequot War, which wouldn’t end until 1638.
This story was updated in 2019. | 806 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On the night that he was assassinated in Fords Theater, Abraham Lincoln had a confederate five dollar bill in his leather wallet. This is a real oddity for a man who was leading his nation during one if its most difficult periods. Why carry a piece of currency from a belligerent foe?
When United States President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated on April 15, 1865 the country was still in the midst of a savage civil war. Only 5 days earlier Confederate General Robert E. Lee had surrendered his army to the Union forces under Ulysses S Grant, but the war was still raging, even though it was in its dying moments.
Although the cause for the South was lost, a group of men hatched a conspiracy to try and revive the confederate cause. Their plan was to assassinate the President, Vice President, and Secretary of State. With such an attack at the very center of the Norths government, there was a slim possibility that the North would lose confidence, and the South would be reinvigorated to take the fight back to the prevailing Union forces. It was a plan, but one that was never really going to work. Only one would be killed, that was President Lincoln at the hands of John Wilkes Booth.
The truly surprising thing about the assassination was that when the President died, despite the state of civil war, Abraham Lincoln had a Confederate five dollar bill in his wallet, even though Confederate money wasn’t even real money. But how did he come by such a thing, and why did he have it?
No one knows for sure where Abraham Lincoln got his hands on a Confederate five dollar bill, but some have suggested tha he may have got one when he visited Petersburg and Richmond earlier that month. It was believed that he was keeping it as a souvenir. This is the most likely scenario.
Pages: 1 | 2 | <urn:uuid:94c15dd1-0178-455b-a9a7-80f039d02141> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://unrealfacts.com/abraham-lincoln-confederate-five-dollar-bill/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.989723 | 380 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.394405931234359... | 1 | On the night that he was assassinated in Fords Theater, Abraham Lincoln had a confederate five dollar bill in his leather wallet. This is a real oddity for a man who was leading his nation during one if its most difficult periods. Why carry a piece of currency from a belligerent foe?
When United States President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated on April 15, 1865 the country was still in the midst of a savage civil war. Only 5 days earlier Confederate General Robert E. Lee had surrendered his army to the Union forces under Ulysses S Grant, but the war was still raging, even though it was in its dying moments.
Although the cause for the South was lost, a group of men hatched a conspiracy to try and revive the confederate cause. Their plan was to assassinate the President, Vice President, and Secretary of State. With such an attack at the very center of the Norths government, there was a slim possibility that the North would lose confidence, and the South would be reinvigorated to take the fight back to the prevailing Union forces. It was a plan, but one that was never really going to work. Only one would be killed, that was President Lincoln at the hands of John Wilkes Booth.
The truly surprising thing about the assassination was that when the President died, despite the state of civil war, Abraham Lincoln had a Confederate five dollar bill in his wallet, even though Confederate money wasn’t even real money. But how did he come by such a thing, and why did he have it?
No one knows for sure where Abraham Lincoln got his hands on a Confederate five dollar bill, but some have suggested tha he may have got one when he visited Petersburg and Richmond earlier that month. It was believed that he was keeping it as a souvenir. This is the most likely scenario.
Pages: 1 | 2 | 388 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Day the Wall Came Down is a monument that represents what happened towards the end of the Cold War. There are five horses that are running through the remains of the Berlin Wall after it disintegrated. The horses stand for freedom people yearn for from all nations, while the wall in this sculpture represents road blocks that may be in the way while striving for freedom. The artist that created this monument goes by the name of Veryl Goodnight, who is from Colorado. This memorial can be found on Texas A&M's campus near the George Bush Presidential Library and Museum.
After World War II, Germany was divided up into two sections. The United States took West Germany and Russia took East Germany. West and East Berlin were divided by the Berlin Wall. The intention of the Berlin Wall was to prevent citizens from crossing over into the opposing country, which was controlled by a separate government. If they dared to cross, escapees were executed. A total of 171 people were gunned downed as they tried to cross the Berlin Wall.
On June 12, 1987, Ronald Reagan demanded Soviet Union leader, Mikhail Gorbachev to tear the wall down. Shortly thereafter, Reagan got what he bargained for. On November 9th, 1989, East Berlin's Communist Party announced that they were free to cross the wall from there on out. The people went crazy and rightfully so. They crossed the border, while some took hammers to the wall to knock it down.
Veryl Goodnight's idea of her sculpture developed as all of this was taking place. She was watching TV the day the wall fell. Then, Goodnight had a dream of horses running through the rubble of the Berlin Wall. From there, she put her dreams to work and made the statue. Since this is a monument, there are no set hours that a guest can visit, nor is there a phone number for contact information. It is open for everyone, for free. | <urn:uuid:ba5ffd38-1e7b-4154-ba6e-33829d7cc27e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/19518 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00436.warc.gz | en | 0.983544 | 390 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.288807332515... | 2 | The Day the Wall Came Down is a monument that represents what happened towards the end of the Cold War. There are five horses that are running through the remains of the Berlin Wall after it disintegrated. The horses stand for freedom people yearn for from all nations, while the wall in this sculpture represents road blocks that may be in the way while striving for freedom. The artist that created this monument goes by the name of Veryl Goodnight, who is from Colorado. This memorial can be found on Texas A&M's campus near the George Bush Presidential Library and Museum.
After World War II, Germany was divided up into two sections. The United States took West Germany and Russia took East Germany. West and East Berlin were divided by the Berlin Wall. The intention of the Berlin Wall was to prevent citizens from crossing over into the opposing country, which was controlled by a separate government. If they dared to cross, escapees were executed. A total of 171 people were gunned downed as they tried to cross the Berlin Wall.
On June 12, 1987, Ronald Reagan demanded Soviet Union leader, Mikhail Gorbachev to tear the wall down. Shortly thereafter, Reagan got what he bargained for. On November 9th, 1989, East Berlin's Communist Party announced that they were free to cross the wall from there on out. The people went crazy and rightfully so. They crossed the border, while some took hammers to the wall to knock it down.
Veryl Goodnight's idea of her sculpture developed as all of this was taking place. She was watching TV the day the wall fell. Then, Goodnight had a dream of horses running through the rubble of the Berlin Wall. From there, she put her dreams to work and made the statue. Since this is a monument, there are no set hours that a guest can visit, nor is there a phone number for contact information. It is open for everyone, for free. | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Simón Bolívar, Venezuelan soldier, politician and one of the most prominent figures in the independence of many South American countries, married María Teresa del Toro y Aleyza in San José church in Madrid on 26 May 1802. Bolívar, who had come to Spain from South America to continue his studies, was just 19 when in 1800 he met his future wife, who was two years his senior.
With the permission of both families, each from the Spanish aristocracy and political classes, the two were married.
Bolívar described his bride as “A perfect jewel, priceless.”
However, the marriage was to last just eight months, as on 22 January 1803 María Teresa tragically died from yellow fever in Caracas where Bolívar had returned with his young bride shortly after their marriage. They had left Spain on 15 June 1802 and arrived in Caracas on 12 July.
Simón Bolívar promised that he would never marry again and despite allegedly having numerous lovers, he remained true to his word until his own death on 17 December 1830 in Santa Marta, Colombia.
The church, San José, on the corner of Calle Libertad and Calle de Gravina in Madrid is no longer standing and the parish of San José was moved to another part of the city in 1838. Yet a plaque in the new church, situated on Calle Alcalá, says that it is where the couple wed, which is, according to historians, technically incorrect.
Bolívar went on to become arguably the most significant figure in the history of many South American countries and in particular Bolivia (named after him), Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela and Peru, establishing them as sovereign states independent of Spanish rule.
His legacy as ‘El Libertador’ (The Liberator) lives on and is still often cited by Latin American leaders, most notably the late Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez until his death in 2013.
The Venezuelan film Libertador (The Liberator) was released in 2013, starring Edgar Ramírez as Simón Bolívar and Spanish actress, María Valverde as María Teresa del Toro y Aleyza. The biographical film follows the life of Bolívar and includes his short-lived relationship and marriage with María Teresa as well as his political and military career. | <urn:uuid:be9073b1-9159-4c4b-9c04-c7cba635a6b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.surinenglish.com/lifestyle/201705/26/south-american-liberator-marries-20170526093123-v.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00039.warc.gz | en | 0.984301 | 486 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.49908265471458... | 2 | Simón Bolívar, Venezuelan soldier, politician and one of the most prominent figures in the independence of many South American countries, married María Teresa del Toro y Aleyza in San José church in Madrid on 26 May 1802. Bolívar, who had come to Spain from South America to continue his studies, was just 19 when in 1800 he met his future wife, who was two years his senior.
With the permission of both families, each from the Spanish aristocracy and political classes, the two were married.
Bolívar described his bride as “A perfect jewel, priceless.”
However, the marriage was to last just eight months, as on 22 January 1803 María Teresa tragically died from yellow fever in Caracas where Bolívar had returned with his young bride shortly after their marriage. They had left Spain on 15 June 1802 and arrived in Caracas on 12 July.
Simón Bolívar promised that he would never marry again and despite allegedly having numerous lovers, he remained true to his word until his own death on 17 December 1830 in Santa Marta, Colombia.
The church, San José, on the corner of Calle Libertad and Calle de Gravina in Madrid is no longer standing and the parish of San José was moved to another part of the city in 1838. Yet a plaque in the new church, situated on Calle Alcalá, says that it is where the couple wed, which is, according to historians, technically incorrect.
Bolívar went on to become arguably the most significant figure in the history of many South American countries and in particular Bolivia (named after him), Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela and Peru, establishing them as sovereign states independent of Spanish rule.
His legacy as ‘El Libertador’ (The Liberator) lives on and is still often cited by Latin American leaders, most notably the late Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez until his death in 2013.
The Venezuelan film Libertador (The Liberator) was released in 2013, starring Edgar Ramírez as Simón Bolívar and Spanish actress, María Valverde as María Teresa del Toro y Aleyza. The biographical film follows the life of Bolívar and includes his short-lived relationship and marriage with María Teresa as well as his political and military career. | 507 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Herbert, the eighth Earl of Carnarvon, hailed the "determined and stoic behaviour" shown by his namesake ancestor, the fifth earl, and Howard Carter, working in primitive conditions with their team in the desert.
The current Lord Carnarvon spoke ahead of the 90th anniversary on February 16 of the men discovering the boy king's sarcophagus in the Valley of the Kings in 1923, becoming the first people to set eyes on it in 3,000 years.
He described their find as a key point in our understanding of ancient history but said it was forgotten by many tourists visiting the site today.
"We still think that the two men made an extraordinary contribution to humanity's understanding of the ancient world," Lord Carnarvon said.
"If they hadn't discovered it there is every chance it would not have been discovered by today.
"These two men did us an extraordinary service."
Having died in mysterious circumstances in 1323 BC at the age of 19, Tutankhamun was buried in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor, Egypt.
Raided twice by robbers in the months following his death, the entrance of the tomb was resealed to protect it from further plunder.
Soon afterwards it is believed that the tomb was buried by debris from subsequent tombs that was either dumped there deliberately or washed there by floods.
In subsequent years huts for workers were built over the tomb in an indication that what lay beneath had by then been forgotten.
It was under the hut that Carter and his team discovered steps leading to the tomb on November 4 1922.
Carter had previously convinced the earl, an Egypt fanatic for many years, to finance one last season after years of disappointment in the hunt for Tutankhamun.
After careful preparations they opened the burial chamber containing the sarcophagus of the boy king four months later in February 1923.
The current earl said the "scholarly" Carter had done a good job in recording the inside of the tomb in an organised manner.
And he said the men, especially his ancestor, deserved credit for working in difficult conditions.
As well as his interest in ancient Egypt the fifth earl was an early car pioneer and his health had been permanently affected by a series of crashes.
"Obviously Tutankhamun is an iconic pharaoh and the mask of Tutankhamun is one of the most iconic images in the world," Lord Carnarvon said.
"But it is forgotten that Carter and my great grandfather had a lot to do with the discovery."
"(Today) you can (still) go across the Nile in a boat but on the other side it is in an air-conditioned car."
"When they went out it was a long journey.
"He (the earl) had to make sure there was enough water, things like that.
"He worked by himself for three or four seasons before working with Carter and made some significant discoveries before Carter joined with his team."
The frail earl died in April 1923, a high-profile victim of the supposed curse of Tutankhamun.
In reality, Lord Carnarvon said, his great-grandfather's death, from blood poisoning and pneumonia caused by an infected mosquito bite on his face, was "coincidental".
But he said it did not stop his "superstitious" grandfather, the sixth earl, from trying to bury links with Egypt.
Many of the artefacts brought back from the tomb were sold to cover death duties and others were hidden around the family seat, Highclere Castle in Berkshire, better known to millions as the setting for popular ITV period drama Downton Abbey.
"My grandfather was a bit superstitious about it and wouldn't speak to me about it a great deal," Lord Carnarvon said.
"But after his death we found artefacts here in 1987 and 1988 that had been hidden for 60 years."
Those artefacts form the basis of the family's collection in the cellar of the house, which opened to the public in 1988 and was expanded four years ago, including scores of replica artefacts from the tomb.
On Monday, Lord Carnarvon will welcome dignitaries including the Egyptian ambassador to Highclere Castle to celebrate the anniversary and show off the family's collection.
Lord Carnarvon said he last went to Egypt last November, after the revolution that saw the overthrow of Hosni Mubarak and election of Mohammed Morsi as president.
The violence in the capital Cairo in January 2011 saw the famed antiquities museum, which is home to thousands of priceless artefacts, including the gold mask of King Tutankhamun, have to be protected by soldiers to deter looters.
Later young men formed a human chain outside the main entrance in an attempt to protect the collection inside, before four armoured vehicles took up posts outside the massive coral-coloured building.
Lord Carnarvon said the people always treated them well when he was there, but that tourism in the area was suffering.
"It is very different now. The tourism along the Nile and in Cairo is such a very important source of income," Lord Carnarvon said.
"It is a very difficult time for them, there are powerful forces pulling things in different directions." | <urn:uuid:c188f7c0-845b-4f80-86f8-64d0321d85a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/377880/Earl-hails-Tutankhamun-discovery | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.985992 | 1,083 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.36840265989303... | 1 | George Herbert, the eighth Earl of Carnarvon, hailed the "determined and stoic behaviour" shown by his namesake ancestor, the fifth earl, and Howard Carter, working in primitive conditions with their team in the desert.
The current Lord Carnarvon spoke ahead of the 90th anniversary on February 16 of the men discovering the boy king's sarcophagus in the Valley of the Kings in 1923, becoming the first people to set eyes on it in 3,000 years.
He described their find as a key point in our understanding of ancient history but said it was forgotten by many tourists visiting the site today.
"We still think that the two men made an extraordinary contribution to humanity's understanding of the ancient world," Lord Carnarvon said.
"If they hadn't discovered it there is every chance it would not have been discovered by today.
"These two men did us an extraordinary service."
Having died in mysterious circumstances in 1323 BC at the age of 19, Tutankhamun was buried in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor, Egypt.
Raided twice by robbers in the months following his death, the entrance of the tomb was resealed to protect it from further plunder.
Soon afterwards it is believed that the tomb was buried by debris from subsequent tombs that was either dumped there deliberately or washed there by floods.
In subsequent years huts for workers were built over the tomb in an indication that what lay beneath had by then been forgotten.
It was under the hut that Carter and his team discovered steps leading to the tomb on November 4 1922.
Carter had previously convinced the earl, an Egypt fanatic for many years, to finance one last season after years of disappointment in the hunt for Tutankhamun.
After careful preparations they opened the burial chamber containing the sarcophagus of the boy king four months later in February 1923.
The current earl said the "scholarly" Carter had done a good job in recording the inside of the tomb in an organised manner.
And he said the men, especially his ancestor, deserved credit for working in difficult conditions.
As well as his interest in ancient Egypt the fifth earl was an early car pioneer and his health had been permanently affected by a series of crashes.
"Obviously Tutankhamun is an iconic pharaoh and the mask of Tutankhamun is one of the most iconic images in the world," Lord Carnarvon said.
"But it is forgotten that Carter and my great grandfather had a lot to do with the discovery."
"(Today) you can (still) go across the Nile in a boat but on the other side it is in an air-conditioned car."
"When they went out it was a long journey.
"He (the earl) had to make sure there was enough water, things like that.
"He worked by himself for three or four seasons before working with Carter and made some significant discoveries before Carter joined with his team."
The frail earl died in April 1923, a high-profile victim of the supposed curse of Tutankhamun.
In reality, Lord Carnarvon said, his great-grandfather's death, from blood poisoning and pneumonia caused by an infected mosquito bite on his face, was "coincidental".
But he said it did not stop his "superstitious" grandfather, the sixth earl, from trying to bury links with Egypt.
Many of the artefacts brought back from the tomb were sold to cover death duties and others were hidden around the family seat, Highclere Castle in Berkshire, better known to millions as the setting for popular ITV period drama Downton Abbey.
"My grandfather was a bit superstitious about it and wouldn't speak to me about it a great deal," Lord Carnarvon said.
"But after his death we found artefacts here in 1987 and 1988 that had been hidden for 60 years."
Those artefacts form the basis of the family's collection in the cellar of the house, which opened to the public in 1988 and was expanded four years ago, including scores of replica artefacts from the tomb.
On Monday, Lord Carnarvon will welcome dignitaries including the Egyptian ambassador to Highclere Castle to celebrate the anniversary and show off the family's collection.
Lord Carnarvon said he last went to Egypt last November, after the revolution that saw the overthrow of Hosni Mubarak and election of Mohammed Morsi as president.
The violence in the capital Cairo in January 2011 saw the famed antiquities museum, which is home to thousands of priceless artefacts, including the gold mask of King Tutankhamun, have to be protected by soldiers to deter looters.
Later young men formed a human chain outside the main entrance in an attempt to protect the collection inside, before four armoured vehicles took up posts outside the massive coral-coloured building.
Lord Carnarvon said the people always treated them well when he was there, but that tourism in the area was suffering.
"It is very different now. The tourism along the Nile and in Cairo is such a very important source of income," Lord Carnarvon said.
"It is a very difficult time for them, there are powerful forces pulling things in different directions." | 1,089 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"'¦ long after the elk and the buffalo have passed away, and when the big-horn and prong-horn have become rare indeed, the white-tail deer will still be common in certain parts of the country." — Theodore Roosevelt Hunting Trips of a Ranchman, 1885
There's no question Theodore Roosevelt was a smart man and an astute observer, at least in regard to conservation. But as Roosevelt was hunting his way across the Western United States, white-tailed deer populations were facing a bleak future back East. They were on the brink of extirpation in his home state of New York. They were already gone in Vermont, Indiana and Illinois. In other states, their numbers were limited to isolated pockets in rugged mountains and deep, dark swamps.
How could such a consummate conservationist, one who socialized, hunted and traveled with America's most respected naturalists, have not understood what was happening to America's deer population? And on the flip side, how could anyone have ever imagined the remarkable comeback that would follow?
It's true that whitetails seemed like an inexhaustible resource at one time. Accounts vary, but the first explorers to land on the shores of North America all came to a singular conclusion: Deer, along other with big and small game, were uniformly abundant.
"I can not express what quantities of deer and turkeys are to be found in these woods'¦" wrote French explorer Louis Armand in 1687 as he traversed New York. Prior to that, Father Andrew White, one of the founders of the Maryland colony, said in 1634 that whitetails were so plentiful that "they are rather an annoyance than an advantage." Other explorers recalled "deere [sic]'¦in great abundance" from Florida to New England.
BOOM TO BUST
Initially, the arrival of more settlers and their westward expansion only helped deer populations. Fearful of attacks and concerned about the competition for fresh meat, colonists snared, trapped and shot wolves, "beares [sic]," "wildcats" and "lions" at every opportunity, thus eliminating the whitetail's natural predators. At the same time, settlers felled acre upon acre of forest for their own use and for a thriving European lumber market. Those clearings created even better deer habitat. Whitetails were thriving throughout the 1700s and into the early 1800s.
But as thousands more European immigrants arrived, they began to treat deer and other game as a limitless food and hide supply (many deer were shot solely for their skins.). They cleared even larger tracts for crops and cattle. The wild landscape was beginning to change rapidly, and this time it spelled bad news for deer. By the mid-1800s white-tailed deer were in trouble.
One account from Westchester County, New York, suggested the last deer in the county was shot in 1861. New Yorker and author Hermon C. Goodwin wrote in 1855 that "an occasional buck'¦may be seen bounding through the southern limits of this county."
Things were equally bleak in much of the United States. The last known deer in Georgia's mountains was killed in front of a pack of dogs in 1895. Just 500 remained in Oklahoma in the early 1900s, and whitetails were virtually eliminated from Ohio by 1904.
THE NICK OF TIME
Not everyone was content to watch the last deer disappear. Just as Roosevelt was preaching a broader, nationwide conservation ethic in an attempt to preserve some high-profile species like bison, individuals were taking it upon themselves to protect and preserve whitetails. Plantation owners in the South patrolled their land in an effort to deter poachers. Such efforts, however, likely arose from greed as much as conservation. Many of those plantation owners were hunters, and they wanted the deer for themselves.
Landowners who owned large tracts in the Northeast also undertook efforts to protect deer by limiting hunting and keeping trespassers at bay. In some cases, they also adopted winter feeding programs, though those were later deemed ineffective.
As more residents expressed concern, more legislators acted. New York, for example, shortened its season in 1886 and reduced the bag limit from three deer to two in 1892. Twenty years later, the New York Conservation Commission adopted a buck-only harvest rule. Some parts of the state were closed to deer hunting entirely. Most other states adopted strict limits, including buck-only regulations. For the first time, many regions or entire states were completely closed to deer hunting.
FROM HERE TO THERE
But restrictive bag limits and even closures weren't enough. In order to restore whitetails, American hunters, game managers and even politicians agreed that deer would need to be restocked.
One man, a forest ranger from north Georgia, transported five fawns from North Carolina's Pisgah National Game Preserve to a pen near his home in 1927. Known as the "barefoot ranger" for his tendency to avoid shoes, Arthur "Kingfish" Woody vowed to bring deer back to Georgia after witnessing the eradication of his beloved whitetails.
Ironically, it was his father, a farmer from Suches, Georgia, who killed the last known north Georgia whitetail in 1895. Woody used his own money to buy deer at every opportunity, including three from a passing carnival. He even drove his own car, a 1926 Dodge, to pick up five fawns in North Carolina. The deer, named Nimble, Billy, Nancy, Bessie and Bunny Girl, would be the impetus for the return of Georgia's once-burgeoning deer herd.
Woody wasn't alone. What started out as a gradual, disorganized and often random effort slowly evolved intoefficient and thorough operations that lasted well into the 1970s in some states.
Private citizens, state game agencies and organized groups set out to catch, buy and otherwise acquire deer at every opportunity. America became engaged in the wholesale restocking of its premier big-game animal.
The effort took many forms. An hour north of New York City, members of the elite Tuxedo Park Club, whose mission included "the protection, increase, and capture of all kinds of game and fish," brought in 15 deer from an unknown location in 1896. The animals were kept in a pen until 1905, when members opened the gates and freed the herd, which had grown to 50, to roam the club's sprawling wooded grounds.
Despite the growing calls to stock deer, many states were slow to undertake such labor-intensive efforts. Tennessee's deer herd was nearly extirpated by 1900, but it wasn't until the early 1930s that state officials started importing whitetails from North Carolina. Alabama stocked 105 deer from Michigan in 1928, but efforts didn't really ramp up until 1945. Florida also lagged, bringing in just 28 deer, all from South Carolina, prior to 1949.
Stocking picked up dramatically in the mid-1940s, as World War II was winding down and more resources, including money and manpower, became available. But a second and arguably more important factor also played into the increased efforts — an excise tax on hunting equipment was signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937. The Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Act, or Pittman-Robertson Act, provided a huge funding boost to state game agencies, which were required to use the money for game-specific programs.
When American soldiers returned from the European and Pacific theaters, they bought guns and other outdoors equipment as they renewed their interest in hunting, providing a burst of funding.
The deer populations began to inch upwards as well, thanks to careful management, some tighter regulations and better enforcement. Meanwhile, biologists perfected capture methods, and they learned how to safely transfer deer, mostly via truck and livestock trailer.
In some instances, trapped deer were kept in pens in an effort to build their numbers for later stocking efforts. That didn't always pan out. Disease outbreaks, and in isolated instances, feral dogs, decimated some captive herds. A better and more viable alternative was simply to release deer and provide them with protection from poachers through regular patrols by game wardens. Release areas were chosen on the basis of habitat, as well as the cooperation of local residents. In most cases, those locals were glad to help the recovery effort while also increasing the possibility of hunting whitetails once again in the future.
Some local residents couldn't wait. Restocking efforts in the Cohutta Wildlife Management area in northwest Georgia were abandoned after locals refused to stop hunting the deer and allowing their hounds to run year-round, despite pleas from those assigned to protect the newly released whitetails. That behavior continued, to some degree, for decades. Finally, in 1960, the Georgia Game and Fish Commission gave up due to the "lack of cooperation from the local people, courts, judges, juries and the indiscriminate use of dogs.'¦"
TO CATCH A DEER
Before they could be stocked, though, the deer had to be caught, which proved to be a formidable task. For one, they were scarce in the earliest days of restocking efforts. Those areas with enough deer to trap were often remote and rugged. It was also expensive, at least in states with low deer populations. That's why many states simply bought deer from other states. According to one report from Georgia, the average price of a live deer was $35.
At first, wildlife professionals had little experience catching deer, so they experimented with a number of methods. The earliest efforts relied on box traps baited with either corn or salt. Those traps, however, weren't foolproof. Deer were sometimes reluctant to walk into the large wooden boxes with raised trap-doors, especially when natural food was abundant. Deer trappers also had to contend with everything from wayward cows to scavenging raccoons and hogs.
Frustrated with the results of the box traps, some crews set up a long net and then used dogs to run deer into it. It almost worked, but in one instance the dogs caught and killed the first deer before it made it into the net. Another deer ran through the net. As a result, the net method was soon abandoned.
Others began to find success, however. Tennessee officials had better luck with box traps, and found a way to utilize dogs. Hounds were turned loose on two islands in east Tennessee's Cherokee Reservoir. Tired of being chased, deer took to the water in an attempt to swim to the mainland. Once the deer entered the water, capture crews simply tossed a rope around their necks and dragged them into the boat. While that turned out be an effective technique, biologists were still attempting to find the perfect method of sedation. Nothing was more dangerous during the entire restocking effort than actually handling a flailing, kicking whitetail. Although there are no readily available accounts of anyone being killed by a captured deer, there's no question it was dangerous work.
Dr. Frank Hayes, a veterinarian with the University of Georgia, and Dr. Seldon Feurt, a pharmacist at UGA, worked to create a drug that would temporarily sedate deer. Their first mixture blended powdered strychnine and honey. It worked, but too many deer perished from the mix. Researchers ultimately tested 165 drugs and combinations before finally settling on nicotine.
As techniques improved, the capture and stocking efforts became more efficient, and most residents were willing to give restoration plans the time needed to succeed. However, when Georgia officials opened the deer season in the early 1940s where Arthur "Kingfish" Woody released his first deer, the retired ranger was dismayed. He wasn't opposed to hunting, but argued the population was not yet sufficient to withstand the pressure. Thankfully, it was.
Other states were gradually allowing more hunting throughout the 1940s and 1950s as well, but managers were cautious, keeping some regions closed and allowing limited buck-only harvest in others. Tennessee hunters killed 113 deer in the Cherokee National Forest in 1949. Just nine bucks were taken in western New York in 1927, but the harvest jumped to 10,000 by 1947.
Today, estimates of the whitetail population across North America range upwards of 27 million animals — a far cry from 500,000 in 1900, and unimaginable to hunters 100 years ago.
Unfortunately, New York resident Theodore Roosevelt died in 1919, before he saw the rebirth of the whitetail population in his state. He may have not foreseen the tumultuous ride that would become the saga of America's most beloved and popular game animal, but he most assuredly would have been proud of the final result. | <urn:uuid:7e09fc18-9acf-41ce-8d45-ec8561227f3d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gameandfishmag.com/editorial/how-we-saved-whitetails/190583 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.980954 | 2,599 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.13844820857048... | 1 | "'¦ long after the elk and the buffalo have passed away, and when the big-horn and prong-horn have become rare indeed, the white-tail deer will still be common in certain parts of the country." — Theodore Roosevelt Hunting Trips of a Ranchman, 1885
There's no question Theodore Roosevelt was a smart man and an astute observer, at least in regard to conservation. But as Roosevelt was hunting his way across the Western United States, white-tailed deer populations were facing a bleak future back East. They were on the brink of extirpation in his home state of New York. They were already gone in Vermont, Indiana and Illinois. In other states, their numbers were limited to isolated pockets in rugged mountains and deep, dark swamps.
How could such a consummate conservationist, one who socialized, hunted and traveled with America's most respected naturalists, have not understood what was happening to America's deer population? And on the flip side, how could anyone have ever imagined the remarkable comeback that would follow?
It's true that whitetails seemed like an inexhaustible resource at one time. Accounts vary, but the first explorers to land on the shores of North America all came to a singular conclusion: Deer, along other with big and small game, were uniformly abundant.
"I can not express what quantities of deer and turkeys are to be found in these woods'¦" wrote French explorer Louis Armand in 1687 as he traversed New York. Prior to that, Father Andrew White, one of the founders of the Maryland colony, said in 1634 that whitetails were so plentiful that "they are rather an annoyance than an advantage." Other explorers recalled "deere [sic]'¦in great abundance" from Florida to New England.
BOOM TO BUST
Initially, the arrival of more settlers and their westward expansion only helped deer populations. Fearful of attacks and concerned about the competition for fresh meat, colonists snared, trapped and shot wolves, "beares [sic]," "wildcats" and "lions" at every opportunity, thus eliminating the whitetail's natural predators. At the same time, settlers felled acre upon acre of forest for their own use and for a thriving European lumber market. Those clearings created even better deer habitat. Whitetails were thriving throughout the 1700s and into the early 1800s.
But as thousands more European immigrants arrived, they began to treat deer and other game as a limitless food and hide supply (many deer were shot solely for their skins.). They cleared even larger tracts for crops and cattle. The wild landscape was beginning to change rapidly, and this time it spelled bad news for deer. By the mid-1800s white-tailed deer were in trouble.
One account from Westchester County, New York, suggested the last deer in the county was shot in 1861. New Yorker and author Hermon C. Goodwin wrote in 1855 that "an occasional buck'¦may be seen bounding through the southern limits of this county."
Things were equally bleak in much of the United States. The last known deer in Georgia's mountains was killed in front of a pack of dogs in 1895. Just 500 remained in Oklahoma in the early 1900s, and whitetails were virtually eliminated from Ohio by 1904.
THE NICK OF TIME
Not everyone was content to watch the last deer disappear. Just as Roosevelt was preaching a broader, nationwide conservation ethic in an attempt to preserve some high-profile species like bison, individuals were taking it upon themselves to protect and preserve whitetails. Plantation owners in the South patrolled their land in an effort to deter poachers. Such efforts, however, likely arose from greed as much as conservation. Many of those plantation owners were hunters, and they wanted the deer for themselves.
Landowners who owned large tracts in the Northeast also undertook efforts to protect deer by limiting hunting and keeping trespassers at bay. In some cases, they also adopted winter feeding programs, though those were later deemed ineffective.
As more residents expressed concern, more legislators acted. New York, for example, shortened its season in 1886 and reduced the bag limit from three deer to two in 1892. Twenty years later, the New York Conservation Commission adopted a buck-only harvest rule. Some parts of the state were closed to deer hunting entirely. Most other states adopted strict limits, including buck-only regulations. For the first time, many regions or entire states were completely closed to deer hunting.
FROM HERE TO THERE
But restrictive bag limits and even closures weren't enough. In order to restore whitetails, American hunters, game managers and even politicians agreed that deer would need to be restocked.
One man, a forest ranger from north Georgia, transported five fawns from North Carolina's Pisgah National Game Preserve to a pen near his home in 1927. Known as the "barefoot ranger" for his tendency to avoid shoes, Arthur "Kingfish" Woody vowed to bring deer back to Georgia after witnessing the eradication of his beloved whitetails.
Ironically, it was his father, a farmer from Suches, Georgia, who killed the last known north Georgia whitetail in 1895. Woody used his own money to buy deer at every opportunity, including three from a passing carnival. He even drove his own car, a 1926 Dodge, to pick up five fawns in North Carolina. The deer, named Nimble, Billy, Nancy, Bessie and Bunny Girl, would be the impetus for the return of Georgia's once-burgeoning deer herd.
Woody wasn't alone. What started out as a gradual, disorganized and often random effort slowly evolved intoefficient and thorough operations that lasted well into the 1970s in some states.
Private citizens, state game agencies and organized groups set out to catch, buy and otherwise acquire deer at every opportunity. America became engaged in the wholesale restocking of its premier big-game animal.
The effort took many forms. An hour north of New York City, members of the elite Tuxedo Park Club, whose mission included "the protection, increase, and capture of all kinds of game and fish," brought in 15 deer from an unknown location in 1896. The animals were kept in a pen until 1905, when members opened the gates and freed the herd, which had grown to 50, to roam the club's sprawling wooded grounds.
Despite the growing calls to stock deer, many states were slow to undertake such labor-intensive efforts. Tennessee's deer herd was nearly extirpated by 1900, but it wasn't until the early 1930s that state officials started importing whitetails from North Carolina. Alabama stocked 105 deer from Michigan in 1928, but efforts didn't really ramp up until 1945. Florida also lagged, bringing in just 28 deer, all from South Carolina, prior to 1949.
Stocking picked up dramatically in the mid-1940s, as World War II was winding down and more resources, including money and manpower, became available. But a second and arguably more important factor also played into the increased efforts — an excise tax on hunting equipment was signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937. The Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Act, or Pittman-Robertson Act, provided a huge funding boost to state game agencies, which were required to use the money for game-specific programs.
When American soldiers returned from the European and Pacific theaters, they bought guns and other outdoors equipment as they renewed their interest in hunting, providing a burst of funding.
The deer populations began to inch upwards as well, thanks to careful management, some tighter regulations and better enforcement. Meanwhile, biologists perfected capture methods, and they learned how to safely transfer deer, mostly via truck and livestock trailer.
In some instances, trapped deer were kept in pens in an effort to build their numbers for later stocking efforts. That didn't always pan out. Disease outbreaks, and in isolated instances, feral dogs, decimated some captive herds. A better and more viable alternative was simply to release deer and provide them with protection from poachers through regular patrols by game wardens. Release areas were chosen on the basis of habitat, as well as the cooperation of local residents. In most cases, those locals were glad to help the recovery effort while also increasing the possibility of hunting whitetails once again in the future.
Some local residents couldn't wait. Restocking efforts in the Cohutta Wildlife Management area in northwest Georgia were abandoned after locals refused to stop hunting the deer and allowing their hounds to run year-round, despite pleas from those assigned to protect the newly released whitetails. That behavior continued, to some degree, for decades. Finally, in 1960, the Georgia Game and Fish Commission gave up due to the "lack of cooperation from the local people, courts, judges, juries and the indiscriminate use of dogs.'¦"
TO CATCH A DEER
Before they could be stocked, though, the deer had to be caught, which proved to be a formidable task. For one, they were scarce in the earliest days of restocking efforts. Those areas with enough deer to trap were often remote and rugged. It was also expensive, at least in states with low deer populations. That's why many states simply bought deer from other states. According to one report from Georgia, the average price of a live deer was $35.
At first, wildlife professionals had little experience catching deer, so they experimented with a number of methods. The earliest efforts relied on box traps baited with either corn or salt. Those traps, however, weren't foolproof. Deer were sometimes reluctant to walk into the large wooden boxes with raised trap-doors, especially when natural food was abundant. Deer trappers also had to contend with everything from wayward cows to scavenging raccoons and hogs.
Frustrated with the results of the box traps, some crews set up a long net and then used dogs to run deer into it. It almost worked, but in one instance the dogs caught and killed the first deer before it made it into the net. Another deer ran through the net. As a result, the net method was soon abandoned.
Others began to find success, however. Tennessee officials had better luck with box traps, and found a way to utilize dogs. Hounds were turned loose on two islands in east Tennessee's Cherokee Reservoir. Tired of being chased, deer took to the water in an attempt to swim to the mainland. Once the deer entered the water, capture crews simply tossed a rope around their necks and dragged them into the boat. While that turned out be an effective technique, biologists were still attempting to find the perfect method of sedation. Nothing was more dangerous during the entire restocking effort than actually handling a flailing, kicking whitetail. Although there are no readily available accounts of anyone being killed by a captured deer, there's no question it was dangerous work.
Dr. Frank Hayes, a veterinarian with the University of Georgia, and Dr. Seldon Feurt, a pharmacist at UGA, worked to create a drug that would temporarily sedate deer. Their first mixture blended powdered strychnine and honey. It worked, but too many deer perished from the mix. Researchers ultimately tested 165 drugs and combinations before finally settling on nicotine.
As techniques improved, the capture and stocking efforts became more efficient, and most residents were willing to give restoration plans the time needed to succeed. However, when Georgia officials opened the deer season in the early 1940s where Arthur "Kingfish" Woody released his first deer, the retired ranger was dismayed. He wasn't opposed to hunting, but argued the population was not yet sufficient to withstand the pressure. Thankfully, it was.
Other states were gradually allowing more hunting throughout the 1940s and 1950s as well, but managers were cautious, keeping some regions closed and allowing limited buck-only harvest in others. Tennessee hunters killed 113 deer in the Cherokee National Forest in 1949. Just nine bucks were taken in western New York in 1927, but the harvest jumped to 10,000 by 1947.
Today, estimates of the whitetail population across North America range upwards of 27 million animals — a far cry from 500,000 in 1900, and unimaginable to hunters 100 years ago.
Unfortunately, New York resident Theodore Roosevelt died in 1919, before he saw the rebirth of the whitetail population in his state. He may have not foreseen the tumultuous ride that would become the saga of America's most beloved and popular game animal, but he most assuredly would have been proud of the final result. | 2,716 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are only a handful of people throughout history who I admire and wish I could have shaken their hand. Thomas Jefferson was one of them. The Fourth of July is all about the signing of the Declaration of Independence which Jefferson authored.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.–That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, –That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.
The actual Independence Day was expected to be July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution declaring the United States independent from Great Britain’s rule. After voting for independence, Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration which took two days to complete on July 4th. Jefferson had been writing it, draft after draft. He was one of the Committee of Five the Continental Congress set up to draft a declaration, with the other four being Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman. John Adams had written to his wife, Abigail, stating that July 2nd would be the day of Independence.
It wasn’t until July 8 when the city of Philadelphia actually held a parade firing off guns to mark the moment. Then it wasn’t until July 9th when the Continental Army, under General George Washington, received the news. Washington then ordered soldiers who were in New York City to defend it from the British. Washington read a letter dated July 6th that he received from John Hancock, who was the president of the Continental Congress. As far as the British were concerned, they did not learn of the Declaration of Independence until August.
In truth, nobody signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4th. John Trumbull’s painting of the signing hanging in the grand Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol was simply a work of imagination. The actual signing took place on August 2nd. That’s when the assistant to the secretary of Congress, Timothy Matlack, produced a clean copy. John Hancock signed first, right in the middle of the signature area. The last delegate to sign, according to the National Archives, is believed to be Thomas McKean of Delaware, who signed sometime in 1777.
According to the National Archives, there are 26 copies of what is known as “the Dunlap broadside” (21 owned by American institutions, two by British institutions, and three by individuals). These were printed on paper on the night of July 4th by printer John Dunlap from a document sent by the Continental Congress. The original was written on parchment. There is one line of text along the bottom edge on the back of the copies of the Declaration of Independence. It reads, “Original Declaration of Independence dated 4th July 1776,” This docket (identifying label) was visible when the document was rolled up for storage. | <urn:uuid:da01cf1c-e6b9-4645-aaf2-160fd1f3740d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://finagg.com/2019/07/04/happy-4th-of-july-which-was-supposed-to-be-july-2nd/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00280.warc.gz | en | 0.980603 | 674 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.1221859902143478... | 4 | There are only a handful of people throughout history who I admire and wish I could have shaken their hand. Thomas Jefferson was one of them. The Fourth of July is all about the signing of the Declaration of Independence which Jefferson authored.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.–That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, –That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.
The actual Independence Day was expected to be July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution declaring the United States independent from Great Britain’s rule. After voting for independence, Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration which took two days to complete on July 4th. Jefferson had been writing it, draft after draft. He was one of the Committee of Five the Continental Congress set up to draft a declaration, with the other four being Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman. John Adams had written to his wife, Abigail, stating that July 2nd would be the day of Independence.
It wasn’t until July 8 when the city of Philadelphia actually held a parade firing off guns to mark the moment. Then it wasn’t until July 9th when the Continental Army, under General George Washington, received the news. Washington then ordered soldiers who were in New York City to defend it from the British. Washington read a letter dated July 6th that he received from John Hancock, who was the president of the Continental Congress. As far as the British were concerned, they did not learn of the Declaration of Independence until August.
In truth, nobody signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4th. John Trumbull’s painting of the signing hanging in the grand Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol was simply a work of imagination. The actual signing took place on August 2nd. That’s when the assistant to the secretary of Congress, Timothy Matlack, produced a clean copy. John Hancock signed first, right in the middle of the signature area. The last delegate to sign, according to the National Archives, is believed to be Thomas McKean of Delaware, who signed sometime in 1777.
According to the National Archives, there are 26 copies of what is known as “the Dunlap broadside” (21 owned by American institutions, two by British institutions, and three by individuals). These were printed on paper on the night of July 4th by printer John Dunlap from a document sent by the Continental Congress. The original was written on parchment. There is one line of text along the bottom edge on the back of the copies of the Declaration of Independence. It reads, “Original Declaration of Independence dated 4th July 1776,” This docket (identifying label) was visible when the document was rolled up for storage. | 669 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Mongols conquering in the parts of China and the Middle East had important similarities and differences in their political and economic facets. In China the Mongols regulation was called Yuan Dynasty and in the Middle East it was called the Ilkhanate of Persia. There are many similarities and differences between China and the Middle East under the opinion of the Mongols. Politically and economically. Politically some differences are how the Mongols inhabited each of the countries every bit good as how they went about with spiritual rights. Economically some similarities are that they encouraged long distance trade. they improved roads. every bit good as they spread the disease throughout all these parts.
Politically the differences are how they inhabited each country. One of the chief differences is that the Mongols would usually occupy those in countries in which were left under native regulation except for China. In the thirteenth century around 1211-1214 the Mongols invaded China. They put limitations on their regulations but tried to maintain the civilization as traditional traveling every bit much as possible. But they did do a clear way from Europe to China known as the Silk Road. In The Middle E at that place swayer of the kingdom of Persia went to war with the Caliphs 1255. by 1258 the gaining control Baghdad and Iraq and killed everyone at that place alternatively of constructing up at that place imperium among the people like in China the wholly took out a most of the population.
Along with the ordinances they put on China came the difference of faith in China they convert to Islam. Oman Catholicism. but many other faiths were tolerated in China and besides Buddhism was one faith that survived all through the Mongol regulation. But in the Middle East unlike China they were ruled under Ilkhanate of Persia and ran under the faith of Hulegu. Economically. there were many similarities between the Middle East and China. Both country encouraged long distance trade. This boosted the economic system. since the Mongols were Nomadic they can non increase money really good so they imperialized to increase their wealth.
In China natural goods. engineering. thoughts. and of class gun pulverization were all cardinal trade points for the Mongols. Gunpowder is what put the Mongols more on top. Another Similarity is that they repairing irrigation and plumbing every bit good as bettering roads the irrigation and plumbing were for cleanliness but bettering roads every bit good as for major communications throughout the universe. Another Major thing is that the Mongols spread the pestilence and other diseases throughout both parts because the trade paths were foul the disease spread through rat bites they came in with the flees as good but pass overing out the Mongols was the lead poising which wiped them all out.
There are many similarities and differences between China and the Middle East under Mongol opinions. politically and economically. Politically some differences are how the Mongols inhabited these countries every bit good as how they dealt with spiritual rights. Economically. some similarities are that they encouraged. long distance trade. they improved roads. every bit good as distributing disease throughout both these countries. This shows that different people populating under the same swayer are ever ruled a small otherwise but disease wiped everyone out in the terminal. | <urn:uuid:40f39378-f919-4063-b11e-97180335d239> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://clikngo.com/mongols-conquest-essay-3141-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.981528 | 652 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.0680492967367... | 3 | The Mongols conquering in the parts of China and the Middle East had important similarities and differences in their political and economic facets. In China the Mongols regulation was called Yuan Dynasty and in the Middle East it was called the Ilkhanate of Persia. There are many similarities and differences between China and the Middle East under the opinion of the Mongols. Politically and economically. Politically some differences are how the Mongols inhabited each of the countries every bit good as how they went about with spiritual rights. Economically some similarities are that they encouraged long distance trade. they improved roads. every bit good as they spread the disease throughout all these parts.
Politically the differences are how they inhabited each country. One of the chief differences is that the Mongols would usually occupy those in countries in which were left under native regulation except for China. In the thirteenth century around 1211-1214 the Mongols invaded China. They put limitations on their regulations but tried to maintain the civilization as traditional traveling every bit much as possible. But they did do a clear way from Europe to China known as the Silk Road. In The Middle E at that place swayer of the kingdom of Persia went to war with the Caliphs 1255. by 1258 the gaining control Baghdad and Iraq and killed everyone at that place alternatively of constructing up at that place imperium among the people like in China the wholly took out a most of the population.
Along with the ordinances they put on China came the difference of faith in China they convert to Islam. Oman Catholicism. but many other faiths were tolerated in China and besides Buddhism was one faith that survived all through the Mongol regulation. But in the Middle East unlike China they were ruled under Ilkhanate of Persia and ran under the faith of Hulegu. Economically. there were many similarities between the Middle East and China. Both country encouraged long distance trade. This boosted the economic system. since the Mongols were Nomadic they can non increase money really good so they imperialized to increase their wealth.
In China natural goods. engineering. thoughts. and of class gun pulverization were all cardinal trade points for the Mongols. Gunpowder is what put the Mongols more on top. Another Similarity is that they repairing irrigation and plumbing every bit good as bettering roads the irrigation and plumbing were for cleanliness but bettering roads every bit good as for major communications throughout the universe. Another Major thing is that the Mongols spread the pestilence and other diseases throughout both parts because the trade paths were foul the disease spread through rat bites they came in with the flees as good but pass overing out the Mongols was the lead poising which wiped them all out.
There are many similarities and differences between China and the Middle East under Mongol opinions. politically and economically. Politically some differences are how the Mongols inhabited these countries every bit good as how they dealt with spiritual rights. Economically. some similarities are that they encouraged. long distance trade. they improved roads. every bit good as distributing disease throughout both these countries. This shows that different people populating under the same swayer are ever ruled a small otherwise but disease wiped everyone out in the terminal. | 666 | ENGLISH | 1 |
African-American Civil War Heroes hold a significant value in history and they are still remembered throughout the world because of their time-less efforts for equality. Most of the people are unaware of Black Civil War Heroes because we are not very much used to remembering our heroes.
African-American or Black Civil War heroes are the ones who have fought for social as well as political equality in America for African-Americans. They are the people who established the concept of providing equality cultural and social rights to Africans residing in America.
These heroes not only worked for the well-being of a few individuals only. However, they established the history which helped the world in understanding the importance of providing equal rights and opportunities to all the people regardless of their color, caste or religion.
If you are interested in learning about some great Black Civil war heroes who have sacrificed their lives then, dig into this article right away!
1. Martin Robison Delany
Martin Robison Delany was not the direct more solid of the field. However, he was the writer, journalist and also activist who wrote several campaigns on the rights of African-Americans and why it was important to give them the right place in the economy.
2. John Lawson
John Lawson can easily be labeled as the perfect example of Black Civil war heroes because of his immense efforts which are still valued by all the African-American. During the war zone, all of the teammates of Lawson got injured and thrown away.
Lawson was also one of the people but he managed to regain his powers despite having his one leg severely injured. After getting on his point, Lawson was able to equip gunners with the needed inventory which helped them in achieving their goals.
3. Andre Cailloux
Born as a slave in 1825, Andre Cailloux acted as the leader for the Afro-French community in 1862, after getting freed from slavery. Cailloux not only worked for creating an example for the people. He also sacrificed his life just for the sake of the wellbeing of his people. Although Cailloux fought for equality he was also successful in communicating the survival strategy to its people and also taught them about living with dignity throughout their lives.
4. James Daniel Gardner
James Daniel Gardner can easily be labeled as the war or battlefield hero because, during the Battle of Chaffin’s farm, Gardner fought with great efficiency and properly utilized his analytical skills in order to identify the enemy.
During the war, he got the chance of hitting on to his enemy and with the passion, he was able to achieve his goals.
5. Robert Smalls
Robert Smalls was also born as the slave and also served as the pilot in the harbor. Robert Smalls is called one of the great Black Civil War heroes because he is known for his incredible strategies and knowledge as a pilot which helped the African-Americans winning the due position in the congress and also at the Union Army.
6. Miles James
During the quest of the African-American war, Miles James showcased the world that nothing is impossible if it is done with true determination and passion. During the Battle of Chaffin’s Farm, Miles James got his one arm mutilated because of the direct shot. However, he decided to continue the battle with one arm just for the sake of safety of his people.
Although James was successful in executing his mission he was late on dismissed from his position in Army because of the disability which we had to face on the battlefield.
7. Alexander Thomas Augusta
Alexander Thomas Augusta was born in 1825 to free parents. Alexander is not famous because of the blood scarifies but because of his determination which helped the youth in understanding the importance of staying firm to their cause for the longest time.
Augusta is also one of the Black Civil War heroes who actively participated in saving lives and fighting for the rights of African-Americans. The main cause he focused on which associated with the streetcar riding right for the African-Americans.
8. Caroline Le Count
Caroline Le Count was one of the American teachers and she decided to keep his comfort-zone at one side just for the sake of her people. Since during that time, it wasn’t common for the females to jump in the field of activists, Caroline decided to do so in order to create the legacy of providing equal rights to people despite their color and caste.
9. Henry Johnson
Henry Johnson is known around the world for his great efforts in which he shifted from one place to another so that he could fight for the rights of his fellow members. Henry Johnson was not only working in the field, during his teenage, he also worked as the redcap porter.
10. Charles David Jr.
Charles David Jr. was the African-American he made a lot of efforts so that he could enter into the army and defend the due rights of his fellow who were suffering just because of their color. Charles started from the very low level where first he worked on his skills then, he got the due knowledge about the war and fought for the well being.
It is surely impossible to deny all the efforts made by the Black Civil War Heroes because they are the ones who saved the life of a million people by sacrificing their blood, families, and lives.
It is important to understand that before Black civil war heroes, it was impossible for the people to Black people to spend their life peacefully in America because of white supremacy.
What do you think about these African-American civil war heroes? Make us aware of your opinion by leaving your comments below. | <urn:uuid:166f12eb-ec56-4539-8c87-11fbd26dec81> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://inspirich.com/african-american-civil-war-heroes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.98635 | 1,134 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.337894856929... | 15 | African-American Civil War Heroes hold a significant value in history and they are still remembered throughout the world because of their time-less efforts for equality. Most of the people are unaware of Black Civil War Heroes because we are not very much used to remembering our heroes.
African-American or Black Civil War heroes are the ones who have fought for social as well as political equality in America for African-Americans. They are the people who established the concept of providing equality cultural and social rights to Africans residing in America.
These heroes not only worked for the well-being of a few individuals only. However, they established the history which helped the world in understanding the importance of providing equal rights and opportunities to all the people regardless of their color, caste or religion.
If you are interested in learning about some great Black Civil war heroes who have sacrificed their lives then, dig into this article right away!
1. Martin Robison Delany
Martin Robison Delany was not the direct more solid of the field. However, he was the writer, journalist and also activist who wrote several campaigns on the rights of African-Americans and why it was important to give them the right place in the economy.
2. John Lawson
John Lawson can easily be labeled as the perfect example of Black Civil war heroes because of his immense efforts which are still valued by all the African-American. During the war zone, all of the teammates of Lawson got injured and thrown away.
Lawson was also one of the people but he managed to regain his powers despite having his one leg severely injured. After getting on his point, Lawson was able to equip gunners with the needed inventory which helped them in achieving their goals.
3. Andre Cailloux
Born as a slave in 1825, Andre Cailloux acted as the leader for the Afro-French community in 1862, after getting freed from slavery. Cailloux not only worked for creating an example for the people. He also sacrificed his life just for the sake of the wellbeing of his people. Although Cailloux fought for equality he was also successful in communicating the survival strategy to its people and also taught them about living with dignity throughout their lives.
4. James Daniel Gardner
James Daniel Gardner can easily be labeled as the war or battlefield hero because, during the Battle of Chaffin’s farm, Gardner fought with great efficiency and properly utilized his analytical skills in order to identify the enemy.
During the war, he got the chance of hitting on to his enemy and with the passion, he was able to achieve his goals.
5. Robert Smalls
Robert Smalls was also born as the slave and also served as the pilot in the harbor. Robert Smalls is called one of the great Black Civil War heroes because he is known for his incredible strategies and knowledge as a pilot which helped the African-Americans winning the due position in the congress and also at the Union Army.
6. Miles James
During the quest of the African-American war, Miles James showcased the world that nothing is impossible if it is done with true determination and passion. During the Battle of Chaffin’s Farm, Miles James got his one arm mutilated because of the direct shot. However, he decided to continue the battle with one arm just for the sake of safety of his people.
Although James was successful in executing his mission he was late on dismissed from his position in Army because of the disability which we had to face on the battlefield.
7. Alexander Thomas Augusta
Alexander Thomas Augusta was born in 1825 to free parents. Alexander is not famous because of the blood scarifies but because of his determination which helped the youth in understanding the importance of staying firm to their cause for the longest time.
Augusta is also one of the Black Civil War heroes who actively participated in saving lives and fighting for the rights of African-Americans. The main cause he focused on which associated with the streetcar riding right for the African-Americans.
8. Caroline Le Count
Caroline Le Count was one of the American teachers and she decided to keep his comfort-zone at one side just for the sake of her people. Since during that time, it wasn’t common for the females to jump in the field of activists, Caroline decided to do so in order to create the legacy of providing equal rights to people despite their color and caste.
9. Henry Johnson
Henry Johnson is known around the world for his great efforts in which he shifted from one place to another so that he could fight for the rights of his fellow members. Henry Johnson was not only working in the field, during his teenage, he also worked as the redcap porter.
10. Charles David Jr.
Charles David Jr. was the African-American he made a lot of efforts so that he could enter into the army and defend the due rights of his fellow who were suffering just because of their color. Charles started from the very low level where first he worked on his skills then, he got the due knowledge about the war and fought for the well being.
It is surely impossible to deny all the efforts made by the Black Civil War Heroes because they are the ones who saved the life of a million people by sacrificing their blood, families, and lives.
It is important to understand that before Black civil war heroes, it was impossible for the people to Black people to spend their life peacefully in America because of white supremacy.
What do you think about these African-American civil war heroes? Make us aware of your opinion by leaving your comments below. | 1,107 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Listen to part of a lecture in an architecture class. The professor has been discussing housing designs.
Alright, in our last class we began our discussion of housing designs in the United States from the 1940s.
You'll remember, for example, that we looked at some photos and discussed an apartment complex in Chicago from that decade.
Now today let's talk about housing design in the suburbs.
The demand for low-cost housing outside the cities increased in the late 1940s after World War II as a whole generation of young families needed affordable housing.
And a firm, called Levitt & Sons, strove to meet this demand in some pretty innovative ways.
They designed buildings based on the demands of the public, not so much their own artistic vision, and created a residential community in the state of New York that became known as Levittown.
Levittown was the first suburb of its kind, and it started out with 2,000 homes.
They were called Cape Cod houses-the Cape Cod model- and they were designed to look like the historical cottages in the New England states, in the northeastern United States.
The original floor plan was very simple.
The living room was in the front of the house, with windows looking out towards the street.
You also had two bedrooms, um, a bathroom, and a kitchen.
Everything was on one floor.
The bathroom was right next to the kitchen, which was a way of keeping building costs down, since the two rooms could rely on just one plumbing system.
Another feature of this Cape Cod house is that it could be expanded, as families grew and needed more space.
You had the downstairs, but up the stairs, the house actually had unfinished attic space as well.
Levitt & Sons promoted their houses saying this attic space could easily be converted into another bedroom, or even two.
And then there was always the possibility of building additional rooms onto the house later.
Each house was built the same way and with the same materials-all parts were standardized-so houses could be built economically.
This was important because it meant that they were affordable for young families who wanted to live outside of the city.
As a result, what you had was a whole community of houses that, except for the color of their roof and walls, were [hesitates] identical.
So, eventually there's going to be a demand for some variety, right?
After a couple of years, Levitt & Sons came out with a second design- [doubtful] well, they called it a second design, because it had a slightly different roof.
Plus the exterior had a more modern look.
This model was called a ranch house.
Now, I'm guessing it wasn't too expensive or time consuming for Levitt to come up with this idea- but it was certainly efficient and hugely popular with families.
The ranch is like the Cape Cod, except that the living room is in the back of the house instead of the front.
And on this ranch model, there's one more important feature that's not present in the Cape Cod.
It has a large window in the living room, called a picture window, which gives you kind of a framed view of the outside.
The way the ranch is set up, when you look out this picture window, from the living room, you're looking out from the back of the house instead of from the front; parents could watch their children playing in the back yard- the grassy area behind the house-rather than a view of the street.
So here was a way for families to disconnect the home-their house, their private lives-from the outside world, which was represented by the street that led to work, ah, and school.
Which, really, seems like the thing they'd been looking for all along.
But the floor plan was just like the Cape Cod, only, you know, turned 90 degrees.
Levitt & Sons offered their ranch houses for sale at a low price.
They could do that because they were using these simple, and therefore cost-saving building methods.
Um, another way they kept construction prices down was to train workers who went from house to house doing a specific task.
Sort of like an assembly line.
For example, um, you might have a painter whose job was to paint the doors of each house, and then it'd be someone else's job to, ah, install the doors.
This way, houses went up quickly, saving time and money.
And the Levitts' ideas caught on: in the early 1950s their designs became a model for suburb construction throughout the country. | <urn:uuid:25da0ef6-6e8a-4994-890f-d11e18cd5dcc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://toefl.kmf.com/listening/newdrilling/81elvj | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00502.warc.gz | en | 0.985341 | 965 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.34432616829... | 5 | Listen to part of a lecture in an architecture class. The professor has been discussing housing designs.
Alright, in our last class we began our discussion of housing designs in the United States from the 1940s.
You'll remember, for example, that we looked at some photos and discussed an apartment complex in Chicago from that decade.
Now today let's talk about housing design in the suburbs.
The demand for low-cost housing outside the cities increased in the late 1940s after World War II as a whole generation of young families needed affordable housing.
And a firm, called Levitt & Sons, strove to meet this demand in some pretty innovative ways.
They designed buildings based on the demands of the public, not so much their own artistic vision, and created a residential community in the state of New York that became known as Levittown.
Levittown was the first suburb of its kind, and it started out with 2,000 homes.
They were called Cape Cod houses-the Cape Cod model- and they were designed to look like the historical cottages in the New England states, in the northeastern United States.
The original floor plan was very simple.
The living room was in the front of the house, with windows looking out towards the street.
You also had two bedrooms, um, a bathroom, and a kitchen.
Everything was on one floor.
The bathroom was right next to the kitchen, which was a way of keeping building costs down, since the two rooms could rely on just one plumbing system.
Another feature of this Cape Cod house is that it could be expanded, as families grew and needed more space.
You had the downstairs, but up the stairs, the house actually had unfinished attic space as well.
Levitt & Sons promoted their houses saying this attic space could easily be converted into another bedroom, or even two.
And then there was always the possibility of building additional rooms onto the house later.
Each house was built the same way and with the same materials-all parts were standardized-so houses could be built economically.
This was important because it meant that they were affordable for young families who wanted to live outside of the city.
As a result, what you had was a whole community of houses that, except for the color of their roof and walls, were [hesitates] identical.
So, eventually there's going to be a demand for some variety, right?
After a couple of years, Levitt & Sons came out with a second design- [doubtful] well, they called it a second design, because it had a slightly different roof.
Plus the exterior had a more modern look.
This model was called a ranch house.
Now, I'm guessing it wasn't too expensive or time consuming for Levitt to come up with this idea- but it was certainly efficient and hugely popular with families.
The ranch is like the Cape Cod, except that the living room is in the back of the house instead of the front.
And on this ranch model, there's one more important feature that's not present in the Cape Cod.
It has a large window in the living room, called a picture window, which gives you kind of a framed view of the outside.
The way the ranch is set up, when you look out this picture window, from the living room, you're looking out from the back of the house instead of from the front; parents could watch their children playing in the back yard- the grassy area behind the house-rather than a view of the street.
So here was a way for families to disconnect the home-their house, their private lives-from the outside world, which was represented by the street that led to work, ah, and school.
Which, really, seems like the thing they'd been looking for all along.
But the floor plan was just like the Cape Cod, only, you know, turned 90 degrees.
Levitt & Sons offered their ranch houses for sale at a low price.
They could do that because they were using these simple, and therefore cost-saving building methods.
Um, another way they kept construction prices down was to train workers who went from house to house doing a specific task.
Sort of like an assembly line.
For example, um, you might have a painter whose job was to paint the doors of each house, and then it'd be someone else's job to, ah, install the doors.
This way, houses went up quickly, saving time and money.
And the Levitts' ideas caught on: in the early 1950s their designs became a model for suburb construction throughout the country. | 940 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shehu Usman dan Fodio (1754–1817)
Shehu Usman dan Fodio was a Fulani religious teacher, writer and Islamic promoter and the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate in the Hausa States in what is today northern Nigeria. He wrote more than 100 books concerning religion, government, culture and society. He also encouraged literacy and scholarship, for women as well as men, and several of his daughters emerged as scholars and writers.
Ibrahim Abd al-Rahman (1762 – 1829)
Ibrahim Abd al-Rahman was born a prince in present-day Guinea, West Africa, and trained in the Islamic sciences, studying in the famous scholarly center of Timbuktu, Ibrahim was enslaved in his 20s by the British and ended up in New Orleans in the Americas. After working to obtain his freedom from slavery for 40 years, he was released by the order of U.S. President John Quincy Adams after the Sultan of Morocco –Mulay Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham – had requested his release. He returned to Africa and died there.
Nana Asma’u (1793–1864)
In addition to being the daughter of the great Usmān dan Fodīo, she was an important poet, writer, historian, educator and religious scholar in her own right. As an ardent advocate of the participation of women in society and as a result of her broad-based campaign to empower and educate women, she was one of the most influential women in West Africa in the 19th century.
Muhammad Ahmad bin Abd Allah (Aug. 12, 1844 – June 22, 1885)
Muhammad Ahmad was a Sudanese reformist, mystic, revolutionary and anti-colonial leader who led a major rebellion against the Turco-Egyptian and British forces in Sudan and managed to establish a large state in most of the country. The success of his rebellion made him one of the most renowned anti-colonial leaders of the 19th century. | <urn:uuid:b281cf42-adb2-47b6-9e12-ce1598f89fa8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://atlantablackstar.com/2014/09/29/24-of-the-most-influential-black-muslims-in-history/5/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.985652 | 423 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.1047784164... | 2 | Shehu Usman dan Fodio (1754–1817)
Shehu Usman dan Fodio was a Fulani religious teacher, writer and Islamic promoter and the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate in the Hausa States in what is today northern Nigeria. He wrote more than 100 books concerning religion, government, culture and society. He also encouraged literacy and scholarship, for women as well as men, and several of his daughters emerged as scholars and writers.
Ibrahim Abd al-Rahman (1762 – 1829)
Ibrahim Abd al-Rahman was born a prince in present-day Guinea, West Africa, and trained in the Islamic sciences, studying in the famous scholarly center of Timbuktu, Ibrahim was enslaved in his 20s by the British and ended up in New Orleans in the Americas. After working to obtain his freedom from slavery for 40 years, he was released by the order of U.S. President John Quincy Adams after the Sultan of Morocco –Mulay Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham – had requested his release. He returned to Africa and died there.
Nana Asma’u (1793–1864)
In addition to being the daughter of the great Usmān dan Fodīo, she was an important poet, writer, historian, educator and religious scholar in her own right. As an ardent advocate of the participation of women in society and as a result of her broad-based campaign to empower and educate women, she was one of the most influential women in West Africa in the 19th century.
Muhammad Ahmad bin Abd Allah (Aug. 12, 1844 – June 22, 1885)
Muhammad Ahmad was a Sudanese reformist, mystic, revolutionary and anti-colonial leader who led a major rebellion against the Turco-Egyptian and British forces in Sudan and managed to establish a large state in most of the country. The success of his rebellion made him one of the most renowned anti-colonial leaders of the 19th century. | 448 | ENGLISH | 1 |
More needs to be done to make students feel comfortable reporting bullying and make people aware of what counts as bullying, according to an Illawarra education officer.
A study by the Australian Institute of Family Studies found there was significant under-reporting of bullying by teachers and parents.
While a third of 10 to 11-year-olds said they had been bullied at school, almost four in five teachers did not report the child had been a victim of bullying and less than half of parents were aware the bullying was taking place or did not consider the unfriendly actions to be bullying.
Research fellow Dr Jodie Lodge said the findings suggested more training was needed for teachers and parents to recognise bullying and how children responded to it.
Gail Tarrant, an education officer with the Wollongong Catholic Education Office, who regularly works with schools on their anti-bullying policies, said under-reporting of bullying was concerning.
In order to deal with the problem, she said strategies needed to be in place to make children feel comfortable reporting it.
“We need specific tools and reporting mechanisms, and need to make sure everybody feels safe and supported when they do report,” she said.
“Something I’ve read is a lot of young children aren’t reporting because they feel the situation will get worse if they do. We need our response to encompass that awareness, that that’s a real perception of young children.”
Mrs Tarrant said teachers and parents also needed to be clear on what constituted bullying to ensure it was recognised.
“We have to be clear about what it is and what it isn’t. Bullying is typically repeated, there is an imbalance of power, and that can be through age, gender, disability, anything like that, and it has to be deliberate.”
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0.55165266990... | 1 | More needs to be done to make students feel comfortable reporting bullying and make people aware of what counts as bullying, according to an Illawarra education officer.
A study by the Australian Institute of Family Studies found there was significant under-reporting of bullying by teachers and parents.
While a third of 10 to 11-year-olds said they had been bullied at school, almost four in five teachers did not report the child had been a victim of bullying and less than half of parents were aware the bullying was taking place or did not consider the unfriendly actions to be bullying.
Research fellow Dr Jodie Lodge said the findings suggested more training was needed for teachers and parents to recognise bullying and how children responded to it.
Gail Tarrant, an education officer with the Wollongong Catholic Education Office, who regularly works with schools on their anti-bullying policies, said under-reporting of bullying was concerning.
In order to deal with the problem, she said strategies needed to be in place to make children feel comfortable reporting it.
“We need specific tools and reporting mechanisms, and need to make sure everybody feels safe and supported when they do report,” she said.
“Something I’ve read is a lot of young children aren’t reporting because they feel the situation will get worse if they do. We need our response to encompass that awareness, that that’s a real perception of young children.”
Mrs Tarrant said teachers and parents also needed to be clear on what constituted bullying to ensure it was recognised.
“We have to be clear about what it is and what it isn’t. Bullying is typically repeated, there is an imbalance of power, and that can be through age, gender, disability, anything like that, and it has to be deliberate.”
This story Administrator ready to work first appeared on 苏州美甲美睫培训学校. | 370 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We're completing 15.1, and we're looking at Boolean algebra postulates. Boolean algebra can be used to solve complex expressions in order to simplify a logic circuit. Most modern designs and nearly all complex logic circuits are internal to ICs. Boolean algebra has a number of basic rules called postulates or identities and should be studied closely to understand their functions and applications. Thirty-six of these are listed at the end of section 15-1. They are listed for reference purposes. Your text doesn't go into detail about them, but we will be referring to them as we go through this chapter.
Boolean algebra postulates to reduce a Boolean expression and we're going to be doing this. We will be reducing a Boolean expression and this procedure is helpful. Count the number of vincula above each variable and above each operator. These are the knot symbols. Variables with an odd number of vincula have a single vinculum in the final expression, operators with an even number remain as they are, whereas, operators with an odd number will change. We're going to do some examples of these and we'll try to make a little more sense of this statement. Use parenthesis where necessary to ensure that all variables that were grouped in the initial expression remain grouped after the simplification process. Your textbook has six examples at the end of this chapter. I'm going to go through each of these six and give a little more detail, in fact, I'll give a lot more detail than your book gives on these expressions.
The first one looks like this: A or B or C or D, and then we have two knot signs. If we were going to build a circuit based on that expression it would look like the expression right here. We would have a nor gate, notice the nor because the entire equation is or but that it is completely knotted so that would indicate a nor expression, and then the D here, input D, is also[inaudible 0:02:36], so I'd have an additional inverter right here. The purpose of Boolean reduction is to simplify this expression. What we would do we would come in and we would break all of the knots symbols in order to separate each variable and each operator. What we're going to do is we're going to split it and we'll split it here, and we'll split it here, and we'll split it here, maybe a better word is to break it. We'll break the vinculi in these three places. In doing this, some things will happen to the equation. When I break a single line it's going to change the operator. It was or now it will become and. When it's a single, you change it; if it's double if it's even, it remains the same. We also were breaking this so that our knots now instead of having a knot over the entire equation we would just have a knot like this right here. This is equivalent to that.
Then, we'll come to the next one and we will do the same with it. We'll break it and we'll change the operator, and this will become C know, and then this one also, and this one, notice, there are two knot symbols. Each of these is an inverter, so if you invert something twice it's back to the original sign. What we could do is just cancel this, and then this has no inversion symbol over it. This is the Boolean simplification of this expression. We could do something like this if we had our four inputs, A, B, C, and D, and if we had an inverter here, an inverter here, an inverter here, and then we had our final output here, this would be the simplified version of this particular expression.
We'll go to the next one. Here we have a little bit more complexity here. This is the circuit, we'll note. Let's just look at the basis here. Let's see, here we have A or B and it is knotted, so this expression right here A or B, and then we have the knot symbol over it. Then, here we have C or D, and it is knotted, so that would be this expression right here. Then, they are combined with the and expression right here and then the entire expression is knotted so that would be this right here. This would be the circuit expression for this. Let's go in and simplify this. Again, we will break it here, here, and here. Let's see, here we've got double lines so the final expression we'll have an A and a B, but there will be no inversion because they cancel. We will keep the parenthesis because if they are grouped in the original expression you need to group them in the expression that follows. This will remain an or because there are an even number of vinculi so they would remain the same. Here, we have an and now this would become an or. In this expression, we would have C plus D and let's see, we'd have the operator remains the same and we cancel that. We have something that looks kind of like this. If we looked at those rules, we would see they have this expression actually was simplified to A plus B plus C plus D. We would, one, two, three, four, A, B, C, D, this expression would simplify to this. This one we actually do see. It is quite a bit simpler. Some of these you look at them and you think they didn't simplify very much, but this one, in fact, does simplify significantly.
Third one, here we have A plus BC plus D or A or BC or D. We would break it here, and here, and here. Let's see this one would be A, and this one would be, let's see, we'd have B or C, and we need to keep the bracket. This would be and D. Given this expression, A and D are both inputs here. We could, we could since these are both and we need to do something here before we continue, we need to make sure that we retain the knots here. This would be a B knot and this would be a C knot, and this would be a D knot, and then the A would be the only one that's not knotted. Now we'll continue. We could combine these two A, D knot times B knot plus C knot. Some would just leave it like this. We could go a little further. We could multiply this times these two so that would give us A, D knot, B knot, plus A, D knot, C knot. That would simplify to, let's see, we would have two and gates and they would feed into an or gate kind of like this. There'd be three inputs here, three inputs here, and that'd be basically our simplification. I hadn't included all the knots, but you get the idea. Here's an and, here's an and, and this would be an or.
This is number four here, and this is our circuit. We're going to split it here and here. Let's see, this would be A knot plus B knot, and then that would ended with C. Now let's take a look at this, let's make sure we've got this right, A and B, so this would be A knot plus B knot, and then this would be added and that would be AC. Let's see, what can we do with this? Actually, we would have a grouping here because these are together. If we wanted to simplify this further, we could say we take this ended with this, so we can end up with A knot, C plus B knot, C. That would simplify to two and gates or together. Let's see, if we had an A, let's go ahead and then let's put B here and let's put C here. C is going to be actually to be common to both and the B would be here. The B would be knotted. The A would be knotted. I believe that's it. A, A knot, C, B knot, C, and it's going into an or. This would be our simplified expression o f this expression Boolean expression or this would be our simplified circuit of this Boolean expression.
We're in number five. Let's just go ahead and being breaking this up. We would break it here, and here, and here, and here. Here were have AB, and so we're going to say we will keep the A, B, and let's see, we'll keep the expression and this will retain the knot, and that will be anded with, let's see, we will have C knot plus D knot plus E. The E will not be knotted because we have the double inversion here. What can we do with this? We've got AB knot and we do need to keep the parentheses since this was a grouping. We need to keep that grouping together. We have AB anded with these, and so effectively that's multiplying so we could simplify this to A knot, BC knot for the first one, and then A knot, B, D knot plus A knot, BE. We would have three and gates with three inputs and they would fee into an or gate such as this. That is problem number five. I don't have the detail here, but the simplified circuit would look like this.
Then, the final circuit, number six, we're just going to go in and begin breaking this. We'll break it here, here, here, and here. The first part would be A knot and we would keep the grouping, and we're breaking here so that would become the operator would change, and here, let's see, we would retain the B knot but the C would not be knotted. Since there's a double here, we would retain the same operative so that would be BC, and then this would be or'ed with, and again, we're going to have D, in this case. We're going to retain the operator because of the double, and then the E, and then this would be knotted. This has this knotted and we retain the B knot. All the other knotting are simplified out of the equation. In looking at this we have A ended with B and C, so this could be simplified to A and, or A or, or A knot, B, knot C, and that would be or'ed, in fact, maybe just say like this, remove those parentheses, A knot, B knot, C, plus D or E knot. That would be our simplified equation, and we would have and gate here with three inputs plus D and E. This would go into an or gate and then we would have a separate D and an E that would feed, and then we would have our or's. If we label all this, A, B, C, the A would be knotted, the B would be knotted, and this would be D, and this would be E, and the E would be knotted. That would be our simplified expression.
These take some getting used to. You're going to have to do some of them just to get the feel of them. After you do a few, they will become a lot easier. Throughout the remainder of this chapter, we will be playing with these Boolean expressions. Just jump in and start playing with them and they will eventually make sense to you.
Video Lectures created by Tim Fiegenbaum at North Seattle Community College.
by Gary Elinoff
by Gary Elinoff
by Gary Elinoff
by Gary Elinoff
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-0.034493766725063... | 1 | We're completing 15.1, and we're looking at Boolean algebra postulates. Boolean algebra can be used to solve complex expressions in order to simplify a logic circuit. Most modern designs and nearly all complex logic circuits are internal to ICs. Boolean algebra has a number of basic rules called postulates or identities and should be studied closely to understand their functions and applications. Thirty-six of these are listed at the end of section 15-1. They are listed for reference purposes. Your text doesn't go into detail about them, but we will be referring to them as we go through this chapter.
Boolean algebra postulates to reduce a Boolean expression and we're going to be doing this. We will be reducing a Boolean expression and this procedure is helpful. Count the number of vincula above each variable and above each operator. These are the knot symbols. Variables with an odd number of vincula have a single vinculum in the final expression, operators with an even number remain as they are, whereas, operators with an odd number will change. We're going to do some examples of these and we'll try to make a little more sense of this statement. Use parenthesis where necessary to ensure that all variables that were grouped in the initial expression remain grouped after the simplification process. Your textbook has six examples at the end of this chapter. I'm going to go through each of these six and give a little more detail, in fact, I'll give a lot more detail than your book gives on these expressions.
The first one looks like this: A or B or C or D, and then we have two knot signs. If we were going to build a circuit based on that expression it would look like the expression right here. We would have a nor gate, notice the nor because the entire equation is or but that it is completely knotted so that would indicate a nor expression, and then the D here, input D, is also[inaudible 0:02:36], so I'd have an additional inverter right here. The purpose of Boolean reduction is to simplify this expression. What we would do we would come in and we would break all of the knots symbols in order to separate each variable and each operator. What we're going to do is we're going to split it and we'll split it here, and we'll split it here, and we'll split it here, maybe a better word is to break it. We'll break the vinculi in these three places. In doing this, some things will happen to the equation. When I break a single line it's going to change the operator. It was or now it will become and. When it's a single, you change it; if it's double if it's even, it remains the same. We also were breaking this so that our knots now instead of having a knot over the entire equation we would just have a knot like this right here. This is equivalent to that.
Then, we'll come to the next one and we will do the same with it. We'll break it and we'll change the operator, and this will become C know, and then this one also, and this one, notice, there are two knot symbols. Each of these is an inverter, so if you invert something twice it's back to the original sign. What we could do is just cancel this, and then this has no inversion symbol over it. This is the Boolean simplification of this expression. We could do something like this if we had our four inputs, A, B, C, and D, and if we had an inverter here, an inverter here, an inverter here, and then we had our final output here, this would be the simplified version of this particular expression.
We'll go to the next one. Here we have a little bit more complexity here. This is the circuit, we'll note. Let's just look at the basis here. Let's see, here we have A or B and it is knotted, so this expression right here A or B, and then we have the knot symbol over it. Then, here we have C or D, and it is knotted, so that would be this expression right here. Then, they are combined with the and expression right here and then the entire expression is knotted so that would be this right here. This would be the circuit expression for this. Let's go in and simplify this. Again, we will break it here, here, and here. Let's see, here we've got double lines so the final expression we'll have an A and a B, but there will be no inversion because they cancel. We will keep the parenthesis because if they are grouped in the original expression you need to group them in the expression that follows. This will remain an or because there are an even number of vinculi so they would remain the same. Here, we have an and now this would become an or. In this expression, we would have C plus D and let's see, we'd have the operator remains the same and we cancel that. We have something that looks kind of like this. If we looked at those rules, we would see they have this expression actually was simplified to A plus B plus C plus D. We would, one, two, three, four, A, B, C, D, this expression would simplify to this. This one we actually do see. It is quite a bit simpler. Some of these you look at them and you think they didn't simplify very much, but this one, in fact, does simplify significantly.
Third one, here we have A plus BC plus D or A or BC or D. We would break it here, and here, and here. Let's see this one would be A, and this one would be, let's see, we'd have B or C, and we need to keep the bracket. This would be and D. Given this expression, A and D are both inputs here. We could, we could since these are both and we need to do something here before we continue, we need to make sure that we retain the knots here. This would be a B knot and this would be a C knot, and this would be a D knot, and then the A would be the only one that's not knotted. Now we'll continue. We could combine these two A, D knot times B knot plus C knot. Some would just leave it like this. We could go a little further. We could multiply this times these two so that would give us A, D knot, B knot, plus A, D knot, C knot. That would simplify to, let's see, we would have two and gates and they would feed into an or gate kind of like this. There'd be three inputs here, three inputs here, and that'd be basically our simplification. I hadn't included all the knots, but you get the idea. Here's an and, here's an and, and this would be an or.
This is number four here, and this is our circuit. We're going to split it here and here. Let's see, this would be A knot plus B knot, and then that would ended with C. Now let's take a look at this, let's make sure we've got this right, A and B, so this would be A knot plus B knot, and then this would be added and that would be AC. Let's see, what can we do with this? Actually, we would have a grouping here because these are together. If we wanted to simplify this further, we could say we take this ended with this, so we can end up with A knot, C plus B knot, C. That would simplify to two and gates or together. Let's see, if we had an A, let's go ahead and then let's put B here and let's put C here. C is going to be actually to be common to both and the B would be here. The B would be knotted. The A would be knotted. I believe that's it. A, A knot, C, B knot, C, and it's going into an or. This would be our simplified expression o f this expression Boolean expression or this would be our simplified circuit of this Boolean expression.
We're in number five. Let's just go ahead and being breaking this up. We would break it here, and here, and here, and here. Here were have AB, and so we're going to say we will keep the A, B, and let's see, we'll keep the expression and this will retain the knot, and that will be anded with, let's see, we will have C knot plus D knot plus E. The E will not be knotted because we have the double inversion here. What can we do with this? We've got AB knot and we do need to keep the parentheses since this was a grouping. We need to keep that grouping together. We have AB anded with these, and so effectively that's multiplying so we could simplify this to A knot, BC knot for the first one, and then A knot, B, D knot plus A knot, BE. We would have three and gates with three inputs and they would fee into an or gate such as this. That is problem number five. I don't have the detail here, but the simplified circuit would look like this.
Then, the final circuit, number six, we're just going to go in and begin breaking this. We'll break it here, here, here, and here. The first part would be A knot and we would keep the grouping, and we're breaking here so that would become the operator would change, and here, let's see, we would retain the B knot but the C would not be knotted. Since there's a double here, we would retain the same operative so that would be BC, and then this would be or'ed with, and again, we're going to have D, in this case. We're going to retain the operator because of the double, and then the E, and then this would be knotted. This has this knotted and we retain the B knot. All the other knotting are simplified out of the equation. In looking at this we have A ended with B and C, so this could be simplified to A and, or A or, or A knot, B, knot C, and that would be or'ed, in fact, maybe just say like this, remove those parentheses, A knot, B knot, C, plus D or E knot. That would be our simplified equation, and we would have and gate here with three inputs plus D and E. This would go into an or gate and then we would have a separate D and an E that would feed, and then we would have our or's. If we label all this, A, B, C, the A would be knotted, the B would be knotted, and this would be D, and this would be E, and the E would be knotted. That would be our simplified expression.
These take some getting used to. You're going to have to do some of them just to get the feel of them. After you do a few, they will become a lot easier. Throughout the remainder of this chapter, we will be playing with these Boolean expressions. Just jump in and start playing with them and they will eventually make sense to you.
Video Lectures created by Tim Fiegenbaum at North Seattle Community College.
by Gary Elinoff
by Gary Elinoff
by Gary Elinoff
by Gary Elinoff
by Cabe Atwell | 2,405 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Glimpse at the Life and Times of Saul, David, and Absalom
Judy A Bauman
Israel Demands That Samuel Appoint A King to Rule Them
To better understand how the “kingdoms” of Israel were first established, we need to look briefly at the man who gave Saul the right and the power to be the first king of Israel. This task fell to Samuel, who was the last of the Judges of Israel and the first one referred to in Scripture as a prophet of God. We pick up this story in 1 Samuel 8 when the Israelites demanded Samuel give them a king “to judge us like all the nations.” Even with a dire warning of what life would be like under the king and all he would demand of them, they cried out for a king to judge them and to fight their battles!
The Lord made it clear to Samuel that they were not rejecting him, but they were rejecting God as their King and had turned to idols. The Lord said to Samuel, “Heed their voice, and make them a king.” Doesn’t this speak of the mercy of God? His people, the ones He brought out of Egypt, the ones the Lord repeatedly delivered, rejected Him for what is promised to be a rough ride. Sadly, the need to be like others and to be admired is a common thread that is laced throughout this historical account.
Saul – The First King of Israel
Saul had no idea what was in store for him when his father sent him and a servant to look for some missing donkeys. (Let that sink in a minute. Sometimes we think we are meandering around, when in reality, God is setting us up for a life-changing event!) The Lord had told Samuel that He was sending a man from the tribe of Benjamin and that he was to anoint him as Israel’s commander. When Samuel saw him, the Lord told him that this was the man to be king. While Saul was handsome and taller than any of the Israelites, he didn’t see himself as one worthy of being king. Saul was from the least of the families of the smallest tribe of Benjamin. His confidence was so weak that when Samuel planned to introduce him, he was hiding! When he stood before the people, they saw his height and good looks and shouted, “Long live the king!”
Saul went home and tried to live life as usual but then heard a wicked report and was moved to act. King Saul took his rightful place as commander, and he had his first successful campaign against the Ammonites who were threatening the Israelites. Even so, Samuel reminded the people that by demanding a king, they had greatly sinned against God.
King Saul seemed to be doing well, but when faced with war against the Philistines, Saul took the role of the prophet and foolishly usurped Samuel’s authority and made a sacrifice to God. Because of this Samuel told Saul, “The Lord would have established your kingdom over Israel forever. But now your kingdom shall not continue. The Lord has sought for Himself a man after His own heart.” Sadly, this was not the only impetuous act that led God to reject Saul as king, and though Samuel continued to pray for him, the Lord commanded him to anoint another.
David – The Second King of Israel
Samuel was sent to Bethlehem to the house of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, to anoint Israel’s next ruler. However, none of his sons, as promising as they looked to the eye, were to be king. Jesse had not even bothered to call his youngest son, David, who was out tending sheep, to meet Samuel for consideration. David was a skilled musician, and commonly lifted a psalm of worship to the Lord God of Israel. He was courageous and fast to swing his sling to protect his father’s sheep and lambs from lions and bears. The moment Samuel saw him, God told him that David was His choice! Samuel anointed David as king with his father and brothers as witnesses, but interestingly, Jesse’s youngest son did not immediately take the throne. Though Saul had sinned against God two years after being anointed king, he reigned for forty-two.
David’s life first intertwined with Saul’s because the king’s disobedience had opened a door for a wicked spirit to torment him. Remarkably, David was chosen to play and sing for the king not only because he was skilled, but because his anointed music drove away the evil spirit from the king’s mind. At the time, it seems Saul was unaware that God had chosen David as his replacement. After David saved Israel from Goliath, Saul appointed him the commander over his army. This pleased all the people. David greatly loved Saul. One day minstrels joyfully greeted the king singing, “Saul has slain his thousands and David his ten thousands.” Saul became consumed with jealousy! Much to his dismay, everything David did he did wisely. Saul was terrified of David because he knew the Spirit of God was with him. In his deranged thinking, he plotted to have David killed by the Philistines. The king didn’t ask David for a dowry for his daughter’s hand in marriage, instead, he asked for 100 Philistine foreskins! Would you believe he brought back 200? Saul could not win! None of his plots worked. The deep-seated jealousy toward David took over, and in his crazed state, Saul threw his spear at him at least twice. Fortunately, David was fast enough to avoid being hit.
Those who loved David helped him escape and he fled from Saul. The king became so incensed against his son Jonathan for siding with David, he threw a spear at him too! When Saul learned that the priest Ahimeleck had provided shelter and given David provisions, along with the sword of Goliath, Saul ordered not only Ahimeleck and his family’s death, but 85 priests in the village, along with men, women, children, babies, cattle, donkeys, and sheep were all slaughtered! Fortunately, one son of Ahimeleck survived and got word to David. There, David and his family, Ahimeleck’s son, and about 400 men stayed in caves and hid from Saul. The king’s men were commanded to hunt him like a dog, but David would not lay a finger on Saul to harm him.
There was a very fierce battle with the Philistine’s, and Jonathan and his two brothers were killed. In the same battle, King Saul is badly injured, knowing what the Philistines might do to him, he fell on his sword and died. David, being the man after God’s own heart that he was, grieved for his king and for his friend who perished. Normally the new king would kill all those who were hunting them, but not David. He sought to reunite Israel. There are many things David did well, and there were sinful mistakes he made; however, throughout all eternity, David will not only be known as the man after God’s own heart but is the king in the lineage of Jesus!
Absalom – A Self-Appointed Ruler
Earlier, when King David sinned with Bathsheba and ordered her husband to be killed, the judgment from the Lord was, “…the sword will never depart from your house… Out of your own household I am going to bring calamity on you. Before your very eyes I will take your wives and give them to one who is close to you, and he will sleep with your wives in broad daylight. You did it in secret, but I will do this thing in broad daylight before all Israel.”
This came about when Absalom, who was one of the king’s children by Maakah, was deeply offended with his father for not defending his sister’s honor when another of David’s sons forced himself upon her. David was very angry about the incident, but no real punishment came. Two years later, Absalom had his half-brother killed for this act and then fled. David grieved for his murdered son, but he loved Absalom and after three years he had him brought back into the kingdom. David was not repaid in kind, as his son had set his mind to usurp his father’s authority as king. Absalom went out early, standing at the gate of the city, and would greet the people with a kiss and listen to their grievances. He won their favor by promising if he were the ruler over the land, they would receive justice. This won the hearts of the people. It was said that there was no one more handsome than Absalom and he loved hearing the people’s praise. After four years, his support grew in power. He sent out secret messages to have his father overthrown, and again, Israel was divided.
King David had the choice to go to war with his son or leave. He trusted God to either return the kingdom to him or give it to Absalom, so he left Jerusalem with all his loyal people, but 10 of his concubines were to stay and take care of the palace. Once outside the city, he commanded Zadok the priest and his sons to take the ark to return to Jerusalem. When Absalom came into the city, he set up a tent in plain sight of all Israel and went into all the concubines. In this, he fulfilled the prophecy and defiled his father. At one point, Absalom went out to search for David to kill him but was caught by his hair in a mighty oak-like tree. David had given orders to bring Absalom back to him, but Joab and his men killed Absalom. He was deeply grieved, so grieved that David almost lost his army and faithful followers. They all knew Absalom would have gladly killed them! This shook the rightful king out of his grief.
David, a man after God’s own heart, refused to kill the anointed of God or any of Saul’s family or clan – even when taunted! He chose to live in caves for an undetermined amount of time not knowing if he would ever be free. He grieved when that king died and when the one who sought to kill and usurp his kingdom was killed. He didn’t treat Absalom as Saul had treated him. David trusted God and cared more about what the Lord thought of him than what people thought of him. Will we follow his example and be one that is known as a person “after God’s own heart”? | <urn:uuid:63d6ef49-f2b8-40d4-9b87-e80707a496cf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jewelsfromjudy.com/jewels_from_judy_blog/view/2369 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.992088 | 2,246 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1423381268... | 16 | A Glimpse at the Life and Times of Saul, David, and Absalom
Judy A Bauman
Israel Demands That Samuel Appoint A King to Rule Them
To better understand how the “kingdoms” of Israel were first established, we need to look briefly at the man who gave Saul the right and the power to be the first king of Israel. This task fell to Samuel, who was the last of the Judges of Israel and the first one referred to in Scripture as a prophet of God. We pick up this story in 1 Samuel 8 when the Israelites demanded Samuel give them a king “to judge us like all the nations.” Even with a dire warning of what life would be like under the king and all he would demand of them, they cried out for a king to judge them and to fight their battles!
The Lord made it clear to Samuel that they were not rejecting him, but they were rejecting God as their King and had turned to idols. The Lord said to Samuel, “Heed their voice, and make them a king.” Doesn’t this speak of the mercy of God? His people, the ones He brought out of Egypt, the ones the Lord repeatedly delivered, rejected Him for what is promised to be a rough ride. Sadly, the need to be like others and to be admired is a common thread that is laced throughout this historical account.
Saul – The First King of Israel
Saul had no idea what was in store for him when his father sent him and a servant to look for some missing donkeys. (Let that sink in a minute. Sometimes we think we are meandering around, when in reality, God is setting us up for a life-changing event!) The Lord had told Samuel that He was sending a man from the tribe of Benjamin and that he was to anoint him as Israel’s commander. When Samuel saw him, the Lord told him that this was the man to be king. While Saul was handsome and taller than any of the Israelites, he didn’t see himself as one worthy of being king. Saul was from the least of the families of the smallest tribe of Benjamin. His confidence was so weak that when Samuel planned to introduce him, he was hiding! When he stood before the people, they saw his height and good looks and shouted, “Long live the king!”
Saul went home and tried to live life as usual but then heard a wicked report and was moved to act. King Saul took his rightful place as commander, and he had his first successful campaign against the Ammonites who were threatening the Israelites. Even so, Samuel reminded the people that by demanding a king, they had greatly sinned against God.
King Saul seemed to be doing well, but when faced with war against the Philistines, Saul took the role of the prophet and foolishly usurped Samuel’s authority and made a sacrifice to God. Because of this Samuel told Saul, “The Lord would have established your kingdom over Israel forever. But now your kingdom shall not continue. The Lord has sought for Himself a man after His own heart.” Sadly, this was not the only impetuous act that led God to reject Saul as king, and though Samuel continued to pray for him, the Lord commanded him to anoint another.
David – The Second King of Israel
Samuel was sent to Bethlehem to the house of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, to anoint Israel’s next ruler. However, none of his sons, as promising as they looked to the eye, were to be king. Jesse had not even bothered to call his youngest son, David, who was out tending sheep, to meet Samuel for consideration. David was a skilled musician, and commonly lifted a psalm of worship to the Lord God of Israel. He was courageous and fast to swing his sling to protect his father’s sheep and lambs from lions and bears. The moment Samuel saw him, God told him that David was His choice! Samuel anointed David as king with his father and brothers as witnesses, but interestingly, Jesse’s youngest son did not immediately take the throne. Though Saul had sinned against God two years after being anointed king, he reigned for forty-two.
David’s life first intertwined with Saul’s because the king’s disobedience had opened a door for a wicked spirit to torment him. Remarkably, David was chosen to play and sing for the king not only because he was skilled, but because his anointed music drove away the evil spirit from the king’s mind. At the time, it seems Saul was unaware that God had chosen David as his replacement. After David saved Israel from Goliath, Saul appointed him the commander over his army. This pleased all the people. David greatly loved Saul. One day minstrels joyfully greeted the king singing, “Saul has slain his thousands and David his ten thousands.” Saul became consumed with jealousy! Much to his dismay, everything David did he did wisely. Saul was terrified of David because he knew the Spirit of God was with him. In his deranged thinking, he plotted to have David killed by the Philistines. The king didn’t ask David for a dowry for his daughter’s hand in marriage, instead, he asked for 100 Philistine foreskins! Would you believe he brought back 200? Saul could not win! None of his plots worked. The deep-seated jealousy toward David took over, and in his crazed state, Saul threw his spear at him at least twice. Fortunately, David was fast enough to avoid being hit.
Those who loved David helped him escape and he fled from Saul. The king became so incensed against his son Jonathan for siding with David, he threw a spear at him too! When Saul learned that the priest Ahimeleck had provided shelter and given David provisions, along with the sword of Goliath, Saul ordered not only Ahimeleck and his family’s death, but 85 priests in the village, along with men, women, children, babies, cattle, donkeys, and sheep were all slaughtered! Fortunately, one son of Ahimeleck survived and got word to David. There, David and his family, Ahimeleck’s son, and about 400 men stayed in caves and hid from Saul. The king’s men were commanded to hunt him like a dog, but David would not lay a finger on Saul to harm him.
There was a very fierce battle with the Philistine’s, and Jonathan and his two brothers were killed. In the same battle, King Saul is badly injured, knowing what the Philistines might do to him, he fell on his sword and died. David, being the man after God’s own heart that he was, grieved for his king and for his friend who perished. Normally the new king would kill all those who were hunting them, but not David. He sought to reunite Israel. There are many things David did well, and there were sinful mistakes he made; however, throughout all eternity, David will not only be known as the man after God’s own heart but is the king in the lineage of Jesus!
Absalom – A Self-Appointed Ruler
Earlier, when King David sinned with Bathsheba and ordered her husband to be killed, the judgment from the Lord was, “…the sword will never depart from your house… Out of your own household I am going to bring calamity on you. Before your very eyes I will take your wives and give them to one who is close to you, and he will sleep with your wives in broad daylight. You did it in secret, but I will do this thing in broad daylight before all Israel.”
This came about when Absalom, who was one of the king’s children by Maakah, was deeply offended with his father for not defending his sister’s honor when another of David’s sons forced himself upon her. David was very angry about the incident, but no real punishment came. Two years later, Absalom had his half-brother killed for this act and then fled. David grieved for his murdered son, but he loved Absalom and after three years he had him brought back into the kingdom. David was not repaid in kind, as his son had set his mind to usurp his father’s authority as king. Absalom went out early, standing at the gate of the city, and would greet the people with a kiss and listen to their grievances. He won their favor by promising if he were the ruler over the land, they would receive justice. This won the hearts of the people. It was said that there was no one more handsome than Absalom and he loved hearing the people’s praise. After four years, his support grew in power. He sent out secret messages to have his father overthrown, and again, Israel was divided.
King David had the choice to go to war with his son or leave. He trusted God to either return the kingdom to him or give it to Absalom, so he left Jerusalem with all his loyal people, but 10 of his concubines were to stay and take care of the palace. Once outside the city, he commanded Zadok the priest and his sons to take the ark to return to Jerusalem. When Absalom came into the city, he set up a tent in plain sight of all Israel and went into all the concubines. In this, he fulfilled the prophecy and defiled his father. At one point, Absalom went out to search for David to kill him but was caught by his hair in a mighty oak-like tree. David had given orders to bring Absalom back to him, but Joab and his men killed Absalom. He was deeply grieved, so grieved that David almost lost his army and faithful followers. They all knew Absalom would have gladly killed them! This shook the rightful king out of his grief.
David, a man after God’s own heart, refused to kill the anointed of God or any of Saul’s family or clan – even when taunted! He chose to live in caves for an undetermined amount of time not knowing if he would ever be free. He grieved when that king died and when the one who sought to kill and usurp his kingdom was killed. He didn’t treat Absalom as Saul had treated him. David trusted God and cared more about what the Lord thought of him than what people thought of him. Will we follow his example and be one that is known as a person “after God’s own heart”? | 2,158 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wallace born 1272
Edward 1 invaded and subjected Scotland in 1296, massacring the townspeople of Berwick, stripping King John Balliol of his arms of Scotland and her symbols of nationhood, including the stone of destiny, Black Rood of St Margaret, and many other precious relics, jewels, documents and charters.
Against impossible odds, William Wallace and Andrew Moray raised an army, fought a guerrilla war against the English occupation, and, on 11 September 1297 inflicted a decisive defeat at Stirling Bridge.
Hidden among the trees on the high ground Wallace and Murray watched as the English army grew on the northern bank of the river.
The Scots waited until the English army crossed the wooden bridge in significant numbers, before attacking. The heavily armoured English cavalry was trapped and unable to fight properly in the soft land around the River Forth, and partial demolition of the bridge at the north end - organised by Wallace at a critical moment - threw many into the water, and the army was split and defeated.
Half the English army stood helpless on one side of the river, while the others were trapped and massacred on the other side by the Scots. The bridge collapsed under the sheer weight of numbers, and the English who were not slain drowned as they tried to swim back across the Forth.
The rest of the English army fled Stirling.
The English dead totalled more than 10,000 that day and many more would die or be captured before the demoralised army escaped back over the border. Scottish casualties were low - but Andrew Murray had been seriously wounded. He never recovered and died a few weeks later.
William Wallace emerged as the victor of Stirling Bridge.
After the death of Wallace in 1305, King Robert the Bruce continued the war. Bruce agreed to concede defeat if the English could lift the siege of Stirling Castle by the eve of St John the Baptist, midsummer's day, 1314. As ever, to take Stirling was to hold Scotland.
Stirling was the backdrop to one of the most dramatic chapters of Wallace’s story - his famous victory against the English and impossible odds at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297. Stirling has also been home to the National Wallace Monument, situated high on Abbey Craig overlooking the city and the site of his greatest triumph.
As well as the well known Robert the Bruce - Thomas Dickson (1247–1307) himself has quite a history. He was associated with William Wallace and was killed by the English in 1307 in battle. Tradition states he was slashed across the abdomen but continued to fight to hold the abdominal wound closed with one hand until he finally dropped dead. He is buried in the churchyard of St Brides, Douglas, and his marker shows him with a sword in one hand holding his belly with the other.
Robert the Bruce made him Castellan of Castle Douglas the year before he was killed.
Stephen of Ireland who was also to become one of Wallace's closest allies.
In 1305 Wallace was betrayed, captured and taken to London to face a mock trial in Westminster Hall. Edward had hired a team of Scottish knights to track down the rebel who continued to defy his authority. Sir John Menteith was first to the quarry. No-one knows how he learned of the hiding place, but Wallace was captured in his sleep, put in chains, and taken to London. Found guilty of treason, he was dragged to Smithfield and executed.
Sir Andrew Moray of Bothwell remained loyal to Wallace and his cause. | <urn:uuid:f6c178fd-0d95-4a13-9a71-590a6ecd9ca0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.stirling.gov.uk/tourism-visitors/stirlings-history/wallace-bruce-rob-roy-macgreagor/william-wallace/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00141.warc.gz | en | 0.980479 | 727 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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Edward 1 invaded and subjected Scotland in 1296, massacring the townspeople of Berwick, stripping King John Balliol of his arms of Scotland and her symbols of nationhood, including the stone of destiny, Black Rood of St Margaret, and many other precious relics, jewels, documents and charters.
Against impossible odds, William Wallace and Andrew Moray raised an army, fought a guerrilla war against the English occupation, and, on 11 September 1297 inflicted a decisive defeat at Stirling Bridge.
Hidden among the trees on the high ground Wallace and Murray watched as the English army grew on the northern bank of the river.
The Scots waited until the English army crossed the wooden bridge in significant numbers, before attacking. The heavily armoured English cavalry was trapped and unable to fight properly in the soft land around the River Forth, and partial demolition of the bridge at the north end - organised by Wallace at a critical moment - threw many into the water, and the army was split and defeated.
Half the English army stood helpless on one side of the river, while the others were trapped and massacred on the other side by the Scots. The bridge collapsed under the sheer weight of numbers, and the English who were not slain drowned as they tried to swim back across the Forth.
The rest of the English army fled Stirling.
The English dead totalled more than 10,000 that day and many more would die or be captured before the demoralised army escaped back over the border. Scottish casualties were low - but Andrew Murray had been seriously wounded. He never recovered and died a few weeks later.
William Wallace emerged as the victor of Stirling Bridge.
After the death of Wallace in 1305, King Robert the Bruce continued the war. Bruce agreed to concede defeat if the English could lift the siege of Stirling Castle by the eve of St John the Baptist, midsummer's day, 1314. As ever, to take Stirling was to hold Scotland.
Stirling was the backdrop to one of the most dramatic chapters of Wallace’s story - his famous victory against the English and impossible odds at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297. Stirling has also been home to the National Wallace Monument, situated high on Abbey Craig overlooking the city and the site of his greatest triumph.
As well as the well known Robert the Bruce - Thomas Dickson (1247–1307) himself has quite a history. He was associated with William Wallace and was killed by the English in 1307 in battle. Tradition states he was slashed across the abdomen but continued to fight to hold the abdominal wound closed with one hand until he finally dropped dead. He is buried in the churchyard of St Brides, Douglas, and his marker shows him with a sword in one hand holding his belly with the other.
Robert the Bruce made him Castellan of Castle Douglas the year before he was killed.
Stephen of Ireland who was also to become one of Wallace's closest allies.
In 1305 Wallace was betrayed, captured and taken to London to face a mock trial in Westminster Hall. Edward had hired a team of Scottish knights to track down the rebel who continued to defy his authority. Sir John Menteith was first to the quarry. No-one knows how he learned of the hiding place, but Wallace was captured in his sleep, put in chains, and taken to London. Found guilty of treason, he was dragged to Smithfield and executed.
Sir Andrew Moray of Bothwell remained loyal to Wallace and his cause. | 748 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cathay Williams (1844 – 1892), a.k.a. William Cathay, was the first known African American woman to enlist in the United States Army, and the only black woman documented to serve in the US army in the 19th century. Born a slave in Independence, Missouri in 1844, Cathay worked as a house servant on a nearby plantation on the outskirts of Jefferson City.
After the Civil War, employment opportunities were scarce for many African-Americans, especially in the south. Many of them looked to military service, where they could earn not only steady pay but also education, health care, and a pension. Cathay had a cousin and a friend who enlisted, and she decided that in order to earn a living, she would enlist too.
Women were prohibited from serving in the military at that time, so Cathay disguised herself as a man and switched her first and last names, using the pseudonym William Cathay. Cathay was tall at 5’9” (175 cm) and had no problem enlisting since a medical exam wasn’t required.
Cathay was declared fit for duty on November 15, 1866. She was assigned to Company A of the 38th Infantry, one of four all-black units newly formed that year. Only her cousin and her friend who were enlisted in the same regiment knew her secret.
Cathay’s military career was short-lived. She contracted smallpox soon after enlisting, and was frequently hospitalized in the following years. During all these hospitalizations, her gender was never discovered. Finally, in October of 1868 — almost two years after she enlisted — the post surgeon discovered she was a woman and informed her commanding officer.
Cathay was immediately given a disability discharge.At the time she had been stationed in New Mexico territory, so she went to work as a cook in Fort Union, New Mexico under her original name. She briefly married, but the union ended when he stole her money and horses and she had him arrested. Later she moved to Trinidad, Colorado where she became known as Kate Williams. She subsisted on odd jobs as a cook, laundress, and seamstress. While living in Colorado, Cathay was approached by a reporter from St. Louis. He had heard rumors about the first black woman to serve in the US army, and had traveled to Colorado to interview her. He wrote an article about her life and military service which was published on January 2nd, 1876 in the St. Louis Daily Times.
Cathay’s poor health continued even after she left the army: she suffered from neuralgia (at the time a catch-all term for various illnesses) and diabetes. She had several toes amputated due to diabetes, forcing her to use a crutch to get around. She also spoke of suffering from rheumatism and deafness. In 1891, at the age of 47, she applied for a disability pension for her military service.
A handful of women had applied for military pensions before Cathay, most notably Deborah Sampson in 1816. Deborah had influential friends, including Paul Revere, who had helped her fight for her pension. Cathay, however, was on her own. After examining her, the doctor decided she didn’t qualify for disability payments, and her application was rejected.
It’s unknown exactly when Cathay died. She’s not listed in the 1900 census for Trinidad, Colorado. Given her poor health and the fact that she was probably having a hard time financially since she applied for a pension, it’s probable that she died sometime between 1892 and 1900. | <urn:uuid:3df54b6f-2dbb-41d0-9a3e-3a9172c88898> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.savinghallowedground.org/single-post/2017/12/06/Womens-History-Wednesday-Spotlight---Cathay-Williams | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.990653 | 750 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.309582650661... | 3 | Cathay Williams (1844 – 1892), a.k.a. William Cathay, was the first known African American woman to enlist in the United States Army, and the only black woman documented to serve in the US army in the 19th century. Born a slave in Independence, Missouri in 1844, Cathay worked as a house servant on a nearby plantation on the outskirts of Jefferson City.
After the Civil War, employment opportunities were scarce for many African-Americans, especially in the south. Many of them looked to military service, where they could earn not only steady pay but also education, health care, and a pension. Cathay had a cousin and a friend who enlisted, and she decided that in order to earn a living, she would enlist too.
Women were prohibited from serving in the military at that time, so Cathay disguised herself as a man and switched her first and last names, using the pseudonym William Cathay. Cathay was tall at 5’9” (175 cm) and had no problem enlisting since a medical exam wasn’t required.
Cathay was declared fit for duty on November 15, 1866. She was assigned to Company A of the 38th Infantry, one of four all-black units newly formed that year. Only her cousin and her friend who were enlisted in the same regiment knew her secret.
Cathay’s military career was short-lived. She contracted smallpox soon after enlisting, and was frequently hospitalized in the following years. During all these hospitalizations, her gender was never discovered. Finally, in October of 1868 — almost two years after she enlisted — the post surgeon discovered she was a woman and informed her commanding officer.
Cathay was immediately given a disability discharge.At the time she had been stationed in New Mexico territory, so she went to work as a cook in Fort Union, New Mexico under her original name. She briefly married, but the union ended when he stole her money and horses and she had him arrested. Later she moved to Trinidad, Colorado where she became known as Kate Williams. She subsisted on odd jobs as a cook, laundress, and seamstress. While living in Colorado, Cathay was approached by a reporter from St. Louis. He had heard rumors about the first black woman to serve in the US army, and had traveled to Colorado to interview her. He wrote an article about her life and military service which was published on January 2nd, 1876 in the St. Louis Daily Times.
Cathay’s poor health continued even after she left the army: she suffered from neuralgia (at the time a catch-all term for various illnesses) and diabetes. She had several toes amputated due to diabetes, forcing her to use a crutch to get around. She also spoke of suffering from rheumatism and deafness. In 1891, at the age of 47, she applied for a disability pension for her military service.
A handful of women had applied for military pensions before Cathay, most notably Deborah Sampson in 1816. Deborah had influential friends, including Paul Revere, who had helped her fight for her pension. Cathay, however, was on her own. After examining her, the doctor decided she didn’t qualify for disability payments, and her application was rejected.
It’s unknown exactly when Cathay died. She’s not listed in the 1900 census for Trinidad, Colorado. Given her poor health and the fact that she was probably having a hard time financially since she applied for a pension, it’s probable that she died sometime between 1892 and 1900. | 772 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Lord of the Flies, Piggy is clearly clever boy, but he is a victim too. How is he important in the novel?
Although he is considered an outcast by the boys, Piggy represents the knowledge in this book. He is the common sense behind all of Ralph 's decisions. Piggy is the character who has the most important item on the island--his glasses. They represent the fire/signal. Without them, they would not have been rescued. In fact, Piggy represents "vision" in this book because only he can truly see what's happening to the boys. He is the representation of what the adult world thinks. Because he is so different (mature), he is disliked. No one wants to hang around someone who always talks of...
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 319 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial
Piggy is a victim because he is clearly someone who is often picked on, early on in the book we realise that he was bullied at school. He is also a victim of jack who is constantly mean to piggy, he always calls piggy fatty and tries to take piggys voice away from him (this is by trying to get rid of the conch). Finally piggy is murdered and dies with the conch due to jack and his tribe. | <urn:uuid:4b07df7c-fa90-47f1-8540-337782be96ce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/piggy-clearly-clever-boy-but-he-victim-too-how-he-65069?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.984885 | 275 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.6692873835563... | 1 | In Lord of the Flies, Piggy is clearly clever boy, but he is a victim too. How is he important in the novel?
Although he is considered an outcast by the boys, Piggy represents the knowledge in this book. He is the common sense behind all of Ralph 's decisions. Piggy is the character who has the most important item on the island--his glasses. They represent the fire/signal. Without them, they would not have been rescued. In fact, Piggy represents "vision" in this book because only he can truly see what's happening to the boys. He is the representation of what the adult world thinks. Because he is so different (mature), he is disliked. No one wants to hang around someone who always talks of...
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 319 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial
Piggy is a victim because he is clearly someone who is often picked on, early on in the book we realise that he was bullied at school. He is also a victim of jack who is constantly mean to piggy, he always calls piggy fatty and tries to take piggys voice away from him (this is by trying to get rid of the conch). Finally piggy is murdered and dies with the conch due to jack and his tribe. | 273 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ohio Presidential history is filled with stories about the seven Presidents that hail from Ohio. The stories of James A. Garfield and William McKinley, who were assassinated only twenty years apart, begs the question, “what if they had survived?” Garfield was said to be the ‘best-prepared person for the presidency.” McKinley had served in the Civil War and worked to heal the wounds of the war and was a popular president. While we will never know how their administrations would have succeeded or failed, their legacies endure.
The James A. Garfield National Historic site in Mentor, Ohio, serves as the continuing legacy of our 20th president. Garfield was born in Moreland Hills, Ohio, in 1831 and was the last president to be born in a log cabin. He was from a religious family and lost his father at the age of two. His mother knew the importance of education and saw that he received a proper education. She would be the first mother to see her son inaugurated president and would outlive him.
Education became of paramount importance to Garfield. He attended Hiram College, where he would later become the president of the institution. He met his wife, Lucretia, at school. He graduated from Williams College as a salutatorian in 1856. In 1861, he passed the bar exam.
An excellent public speaker, but Garfield was turned off by the politics and politicians of the day. “Politics are now raging with great violence. I am profoundly ignorant of its multifarious phases and am not inclined to study it. I am exceedingly disgusted with wire pulling of politicians and the total disregard for truth in all their operations.” It was after a seven-day debate with atheist where he defended the creation of life in Book of Genesis that he caught the eye of the Republican Party. The party wanted him to run for the state senate.
He and Lucretia married in 1858. She once stated that their marriage in jeopardy because, in the first four years of marriage of the marriage, they had spent only twenty weeks together. She called those the ‘the dark years.’ It was during the war in 1862 when Garfield was home with “camp fever” that he and Lucretia found each other and were finally able to be a happy couple. They would have seven children, four boys and one daughter would survive.
With the beginning of the Civil War, he was made a Colonel and given command of the 42nd Ohio Volunteer Infantry. His success at the battle do Middle Creek earned him the rank of Brigadier General.
Garfield was elected to Congress in 1862 while he served in the Union Army. In Washington, he worked with Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase and became an excellent economist. President Lincoln asked him to resign his commission to work on the national budget and deficit that had grown exponentially because of the Civil War.
By 1876, he had built a house in Washington DC and bought the 160-acre farm in Mentor Ohio as a retreat. He was elected to the U.S. Senate by the Ohio General Assembly in 1880, and his term was not to commence until March 1881. Garfield won the Republican presidential nomination in 1880.
He conducted his front porch campaign for the presidency in 1880 from Lawnfield, his home in Mentor. While the Presidential nomination came unexpectedly, he worked hard to get elected. He was one of the first candidates to use press releases. He was the best-prepared man to become President. He believed there was no department in government he could not master.
Garfield was never a seated member of the U.S. Senate and was sworn in as President on March 4, 1881. He appointed one Supreme Court nominee and advocated for civil service reform. He was also a lifelong believer in education.
One of the many duties of the President was to see numerous people seeking positions in the government. He met Charles Guiteau, the day after the inauguration, who was seeking a government job. Since Guiteau did not receive a government job, he decided to kill Garfield.
Garfield was accompanied by his two sons on the way to Jersey shore to join his family on July 2, 1881. As Garfield and his chief of staff entered Baltimore and Potomac Railroad station, Garfield was shot in the back by Guiteau. The assassin was quickly captured.
Reportedly, the President told the attending doctor that he was a dead man. Garfield lingered for eighty days and died on September 18, 1881at just 49 years old. The public idolized Garfield, and the outpouring of grief was said to be more than there had been for Lincoln, sixteen years earlier.
Garfield purchased the nine-room home in 1876. The family of nine lived there along with Garfield’s mother. A substantial addition was added after Garfield’s death.
Lucretia’s father came to live with the family in 1879, and later, her brother, Joe Randolph, lived there as a caretaker for their father. Joe was the last family relation to inhabit in the house with his wife and two sons. Lucretia died there in 1918, and Joe in 1934.
Garfield’s mother moved with them to the White House. In her room, she kept many pictures of Garfield. She said she wanted to see him everywhere she looked. A stained glass memorial was given to her by the wives of the Congressmen of Ohio.
Lucretia was always in need of a project. In 1886 she installed gaslighting and added the addition to the home that Garfield never saw.
The family gave the house to the Western Historical Society to preserve Garfield’s legacy. The house opened to visitors in 1936. All the items in the home are original. The National Park Service took it over in 1980, and restoration in the 1990s took three years.
Lucretia should be credited for the idea of the first Presidential Library. She was concerned that the people would not remember Garfield since he was only president for 200 days. She wanted a memorial to her husband. She collected all of Garfield’s books and all of his papers. She created the memory room, which has a vault of cement and steel for documents. Metal doors serve to protect the room.
The library was not open to the public when the family was living there. Eventually, Garfield’s papers were given to the Library of Congress. The memorial wreath sent by Queen Victoria adorns the wall in the memory room. Preserved in wax and is 138 years old. It was said that Queen Victoria only sent white flowers to heads of state.
Garfield’s children were all well accomplished, three were attorneys, and one was an architect. There were thirteen grandchildren and
Garfield’s campaign office is just outside the main house, where he ran his presidential campaign.
The National Park Service maintains a small museum dedicated to President Garfield. Here you can see many artifacts from Garfield’s short term in office as well as the bed in which he died.
Garfield’s tomb at Lakeview Cemetary is currently under renovation.
William McKinley, Jr., our 25th President, was born in Niles, Ohio, on July 29, 1823. He has the distinction to be the last President to have served in the Civil War and the only one to have volunteered for service in the Union Army. He enlisted in the 23rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry, where he served as a cook and was in charge of supplies for the troops. By the end of his service, he was promoted to the rank of Major.
After the war, he began to study law and attended Albany law school. He moved to Canton, where he thought he would find lots of work due to a large number of taverns in the town. He had a successful practice and purchased several buildings that provided him with a steady rental income.
He met Ida Sexton, a beautiful woman from a prominent Canton family, and they married 1871. Ida was not the healthiest of women. They had two daughters, and sadly both died. Ida never recovered from the death of the children and was later diagnosed with epilepsy. McKinley was said to be very attentive to his wife.
Rutherford B. Hayes was an Army friend, and McKinley supported his bid for the Governorship. That was McKinley’s first foray into politics. Eventually, McKinley served as the prosecutor in Canton, was a five-term Congressman and two-term Governor. He was an honest and well thought of politician.
Businessman Mark Hanna served as McKinley’s was campaign manager beginning in 1888, but it would not be until 1896, that McKinley would win the Republican nomination. As fellow Ohioan and President James Garfield had done in 1880, McKinley mounted a Front porch campaign for the presidency in 1896. Some seven hundred and fifty thousand people came to Ohio to see candidate McKinley.
Scholars have seen McKinley as a near-great president. As the last President who was a Civil War officer, he worked on healing the wounds of the Civil War between the North and South. He encouraged the annexation of Hawaii and Alaska and laid the groundwork for the Panama Canal.
McKinley was a formal yet friendly man with a good memory, an important skill for a politician. His trademark was wearing a red carnation. The flower would be made the Ohio state flower in 1904.
McKinley attended the 1901 Pan American exposition in Buffalo, New York, on September 6. McKinley shook hands with a young girl and gave her his carnation from his lapel. Moments later, he was shot twice in the abdomen by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist who had been stalking the President.
The President did not receive good medical treatment after being shot. While he did rally, McKinley died eight days later on Sept 14, 1901. A two-hour autopsy was performed. The doctors were never able to find the bullet, so it remained in the President’s body.
The President’s funeral procession began in Buffalo, continued to Washington, DC, then to Canton, where McKinley was interred. Nearly one million people attended the funeral. In a show of respect, the electricity across the US was turned off for four minutes when his coffin was placed in the receiving vault. The stock market shut down on the day of the funeral.
Ida would die in May 1907 just months before the completion of the large marble monument to her husband. Upon completion of the memorial, both the coffins of McKinley and Ida were placed inside. Their two daughters were reinterred just behind their parents.
The McKinley Tomb, built on Monument Hill, is a place that McKinley had selected for a monument to the Civil War soldiers. The William McKinley National Memorial Association was formed by June of 1903. After a public appeal, school children contributed large sums of pennies to build the memorial. Once contributions reached half a million dollars, there was a call for design submittals.
Harold Van Buren Mogonigle’s design was selected. The memorial is crafted from the granite of twelve states but mostly from Vermont and Tennessee. The one hundred eight steps to the top of the memorial are fifty feet wide and arranged in four flights of twenty-four with a final twelve to the top of the memorial. Construction on the memorial began on June 6, 1905, and dedicated on September 30, 1907. The dedication was a grand affair with the attendance of President Theodore Roosevelt, Supreme Court Justice William Day, and members of McKinley’s cabinet and close friends. Today, the Memorial stands as a testament to the legacy of Canton’s favorite son. It is the largest of the Presidential Memorial in the U.S. and sits on twenty-six acres.
U.S. Secret Service
There were three presidential assassinations in thirty-six year period. However, even after the assassinations of Lincoln and Garfield, Congress did not pass legislation for the Secret Service to be tasked with the protection of the President. President Grover Cleveland, McKinley’s predecessor, did have protection on a part-time basis. It was only after McKinley’s assassination that the protection of the President became the 24-7 responsibility of the U.S. Secret Service. | <urn:uuid:5bb039f4-0bb4-4a55-bccf-26595823583f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://roadrunnerjourneys.com/two-assassinated-ohio-presidents-and-their-continuing-legacy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.988321 | 2,558 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.71920990... | 13 | Ohio Presidential history is filled with stories about the seven Presidents that hail from Ohio. The stories of James A. Garfield and William McKinley, who were assassinated only twenty years apart, begs the question, “what if they had survived?” Garfield was said to be the ‘best-prepared person for the presidency.” McKinley had served in the Civil War and worked to heal the wounds of the war and was a popular president. While we will never know how their administrations would have succeeded or failed, their legacies endure.
The James A. Garfield National Historic site in Mentor, Ohio, serves as the continuing legacy of our 20th president. Garfield was born in Moreland Hills, Ohio, in 1831 and was the last president to be born in a log cabin. He was from a religious family and lost his father at the age of two. His mother knew the importance of education and saw that he received a proper education. She would be the first mother to see her son inaugurated president and would outlive him.
Education became of paramount importance to Garfield. He attended Hiram College, where he would later become the president of the institution. He met his wife, Lucretia, at school. He graduated from Williams College as a salutatorian in 1856. In 1861, he passed the bar exam.
An excellent public speaker, but Garfield was turned off by the politics and politicians of the day. “Politics are now raging with great violence. I am profoundly ignorant of its multifarious phases and am not inclined to study it. I am exceedingly disgusted with wire pulling of politicians and the total disregard for truth in all their operations.” It was after a seven-day debate with atheist where he defended the creation of life in Book of Genesis that he caught the eye of the Republican Party. The party wanted him to run for the state senate.
He and Lucretia married in 1858. She once stated that their marriage in jeopardy because, in the first four years of marriage of the marriage, they had spent only twenty weeks together. She called those the ‘the dark years.’ It was during the war in 1862 when Garfield was home with “camp fever” that he and Lucretia found each other and were finally able to be a happy couple. They would have seven children, four boys and one daughter would survive.
With the beginning of the Civil War, he was made a Colonel and given command of the 42nd Ohio Volunteer Infantry. His success at the battle do Middle Creek earned him the rank of Brigadier General.
Garfield was elected to Congress in 1862 while he served in the Union Army. In Washington, he worked with Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase and became an excellent economist. President Lincoln asked him to resign his commission to work on the national budget and deficit that had grown exponentially because of the Civil War.
By 1876, he had built a house in Washington DC and bought the 160-acre farm in Mentor Ohio as a retreat. He was elected to the U.S. Senate by the Ohio General Assembly in 1880, and his term was not to commence until March 1881. Garfield won the Republican presidential nomination in 1880.
He conducted his front porch campaign for the presidency in 1880 from Lawnfield, his home in Mentor. While the Presidential nomination came unexpectedly, he worked hard to get elected. He was one of the first candidates to use press releases. He was the best-prepared man to become President. He believed there was no department in government he could not master.
Garfield was never a seated member of the U.S. Senate and was sworn in as President on March 4, 1881. He appointed one Supreme Court nominee and advocated for civil service reform. He was also a lifelong believer in education.
One of the many duties of the President was to see numerous people seeking positions in the government. He met Charles Guiteau, the day after the inauguration, who was seeking a government job. Since Guiteau did not receive a government job, he decided to kill Garfield.
Garfield was accompanied by his two sons on the way to Jersey shore to join his family on July 2, 1881. As Garfield and his chief of staff entered Baltimore and Potomac Railroad station, Garfield was shot in the back by Guiteau. The assassin was quickly captured.
Reportedly, the President told the attending doctor that he was a dead man. Garfield lingered for eighty days and died on September 18, 1881at just 49 years old. The public idolized Garfield, and the outpouring of grief was said to be more than there had been for Lincoln, sixteen years earlier.
Garfield purchased the nine-room home in 1876. The family of nine lived there along with Garfield’s mother. A substantial addition was added after Garfield’s death.
Lucretia’s father came to live with the family in 1879, and later, her brother, Joe Randolph, lived there as a caretaker for their father. Joe was the last family relation to inhabit in the house with his wife and two sons. Lucretia died there in 1918, and Joe in 1934.
Garfield’s mother moved with them to the White House. In her room, she kept many pictures of Garfield. She said she wanted to see him everywhere she looked. A stained glass memorial was given to her by the wives of the Congressmen of Ohio.
Lucretia was always in need of a project. In 1886 she installed gaslighting and added the addition to the home that Garfield never saw.
The family gave the house to the Western Historical Society to preserve Garfield’s legacy. The house opened to visitors in 1936. All the items in the home are original. The National Park Service took it over in 1980, and restoration in the 1990s took three years.
Lucretia should be credited for the idea of the first Presidential Library. She was concerned that the people would not remember Garfield since he was only president for 200 days. She wanted a memorial to her husband. She collected all of Garfield’s books and all of his papers. She created the memory room, which has a vault of cement and steel for documents. Metal doors serve to protect the room.
The library was not open to the public when the family was living there. Eventually, Garfield’s papers were given to the Library of Congress. The memorial wreath sent by Queen Victoria adorns the wall in the memory room. Preserved in wax and is 138 years old. It was said that Queen Victoria only sent white flowers to heads of state.
Garfield’s children were all well accomplished, three were attorneys, and one was an architect. There were thirteen grandchildren and
Garfield’s campaign office is just outside the main house, where he ran his presidential campaign.
The National Park Service maintains a small museum dedicated to President Garfield. Here you can see many artifacts from Garfield’s short term in office as well as the bed in which he died.
Garfield’s tomb at Lakeview Cemetary is currently under renovation.
William McKinley, Jr., our 25th President, was born in Niles, Ohio, on July 29, 1823. He has the distinction to be the last President to have served in the Civil War and the only one to have volunteered for service in the Union Army. He enlisted in the 23rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry, where he served as a cook and was in charge of supplies for the troops. By the end of his service, he was promoted to the rank of Major.
After the war, he began to study law and attended Albany law school. He moved to Canton, where he thought he would find lots of work due to a large number of taverns in the town. He had a successful practice and purchased several buildings that provided him with a steady rental income.
He met Ida Sexton, a beautiful woman from a prominent Canton family, and they married 1871. Ida was not the healthiest of women. They had two daughters, and sadly both died. Ida never recovered from the death of the children and was later diagnosed with epilepsy. McKinley was said to be very attentive to his wife.
Rutherford B. Hayes was an Army friend, and McKinley supported his bid for the Governorship. That was McKinley’s first foray into politics. Eventually, McKinley served as the prosecutor in Canton, was a five-term Congressman and two-term Governor. He was an honest and well thought of politician.
Businessman Mark Hanna served as McKinley’s was campaign manager beginning in 1888, but it would not be until 1896, that McKinley would win the Republican nomination. As fellow Ohioan and President James Garfield had done in 1880, McKinley mounted a Front porch campaign for the presidency in 1896. Some seven hundred and fifty thousand people came to Ohio to see candidate McKinley.
Scholars have seen McKinley as a near-great president. As the last President who was a Civil War officer, he worked on healing the wounds of the Civil War between the North and South. He encouraged the annexation of Hawaii and Alaska and laid the groundwork for the Panama Canal.
McKinley was a formal yet friendly man with a good memory, an important skill for a politician. His trademark was wearing a red carnation. The flower would be made the Ohio state flower in 1904.
McKinley attended the 1901 Pan American exposition in Buffalo, New York, on September 6. McKinley shook hands with a young girl and gave her his carnation from his lapel. Moments later, he was shot twice in the abdomen by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist who had been stalking the President.
The President did not receive good medical treatment after being shot. While he did rally, McKinley died eight days later on Sept 14, 1901. A two-hour autopsy was performed. The doctors were never able to find the bullet, so it remained in the President’s body.
The President’s funeral procession began in Buffalo, continued to Washington, DC, then to Canton, where McKinley was interred. Nearly one million people attended the funeral. In a show of respect, the electricity across the US was turned off for four minutes when his coffin was placed in the receiving vault. The stock market shut down on the day of the funeral.
Ida would die in May 1907 just months before the completion of the large marble monument to her husband. Upon completion of the memorial, both the coffins of McKinley and Ida were placed inside. Their two daughters were reinterred just behind their parents.
The McKinley Tomb, built on Monument Hill, is a place that McKinley had selected for a monument to the Civil War soldiers. The William McKinley National Memorial Association was formed by June of 1903. After a public appeal, school children contributed large sums of pennies to build the memorial. Once contributions reached half a million dollars, there was a call for design submittals.
Harold Van Buren Mogonigle’s design was selected. The memorial is crafted from the granite of twelve states but mostly from Vermont and Tennessee. The one hundred eight steps to the top of the memorial are fifty feet wide and arranged in four flights of twenty-four with a final twelve to the top of the memorial. Construction on the memorial began on June 6, 1905, and dedicated on September 30, 1907. The dedication was a grand affair with the attendance of President Theodore Roosevelt, Supreme Court Justice William Day, and members of McKinley’s cabinet and close friends. Today, the Memorial stands as a testament to the legacy of Canton’s favorite son. It is the largest of the Presidential Memorial in the U.S. and sits on twenty-six acres.
U.S. Secret Service
There were three presidential assassinations in thirty-six year period. However, even after the assassinations of Lincoln and Garfield, Congress did not pass legislation for the Secret Service to be tasked with the protection of the President. President Grover Cleveland, McKinley’s predecessor, did have protection on a part-time basis. It was only after McKinley’s assassination that the protection of the President became the 24-7 responsibility of the U.S. Secret Service. | 2,632 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Camp Nelson National Monument in Nicholasville, Kentucky, is an important archaeological site, and new artifacts are still being discovered at the former Civil War camp.
“Camp Nelson was a U.S. Army supply depot, recruitment camp, and hospital during the Civil War,” says Dr. Stephen McBride, historical archaeologist at Camp Nelson. “We were one of the largest recruitment and training centers for African American soldiers, and then we were also a large refugee home for their wives and children.”
The site held approximately 300 buildings during its peak from 1863 to 1866.
“It had a higher population than Louisville and Lexington combined for that same period,” says Peggy McClintock-Pauli, tour administrator at Camp Nelson. “In the end, you had over 3,000 family members living here that were emancipated. You have between 8,000 and 10,000 soldiers going through here at various times. So that’s why it had a high population.”
The history of Camp Nelson in the Civil War era can be pieced together through artifacts and documents from the time. But one of the most interesting discoveries for archaeologists at the camp was a cache of photographs from the 1860s.
Mark Osterman is a process historian at the George Eastman Museum. He explains that photographers of the time played an important role for soldiers.
“They would set up a special tent that had a little section in the back where they could process their plates,” he says. “The soldiers would spend their money on these things. They would buy an image. They would send it through the mail. They were even called lettergraphs sometimes because they didn’t break…they would survive the trip.”
Soldiers could get a small, calling-card-sized tintype of their portrait to send home. More expensive ambrotypes could be produced and presented with a mat in a fancier case.
“Having your photograph taken was a pretty important thing,” says Osterman. “It was an event to have your picture taken, and for many in the Civil War, probably the only picture that had ever been taken of them was a tintype that they sent home.”
“With soldiers, I think [photography] was particularly in demand,” says Dr. McBride. “They wanted to get a picture of themselves to send back to their loved ones to show them this new status that they had. But also in case they didn’t come back.”
By looking at personalized stencils found with the photographic equipment, archaeologists determined that the photographer at Camp Nelson was a man named Cassius Jones Young. Young lived and worked as a photographer in Lexington after the war and later near Cincinnati.
“That whole [archaeological] area and a lot of that information was found by mistake,” says McClintock-Pauli. “They didn’t know it was there. There are so many things like that that are so important; you really have to do your scratching here and there. To go back and find those tintypes and to find those pieces of a person’s life, that’s recorded now. That person’s place is saved.”
This segment is part of Kentucky Life episode #2506, which originally aired on November 9, 2019. Watch the full episode. | <urn:uuid:8308a5fe-5bc7-4ecd-8949-aed7172ed49a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ket.org/history/civil-war-photography-at-camp-nelson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00160.warc.gz | en | 0.98845 | 716 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.565388798... | 7 | Camp Nelson National Monument in Nicholasville, Kentucky, is an important archaeological site, and new artifacts are still being discovered at the former Civil War camp.
“Camp Nelson was a U.S. Army supply depot, recruitment camp, and hospital during the Civil War,” says Dr. Stephen McBride, historical archaeologist at Camp Nelson. “We were one of the largest recruitment and training centers for African American soldiers, and then we were also a large refugee home for their wives and children.”
The site held approximately 300 buildings during its peak from 1863 to 1866.
“It had a higher population than Louisville and Lexington combined for that same period,” says Peggy McClintock-Pauli, tour administrator at Camp Nelson. “In the end, you had over 3,000 family members living here that were emancipated. You have between 8,000 and 10,000 soldiers going through here at various times. So that’s why it had a high population.”
The history of Camp Nelson in the Civil War era can be pieced together through artifacts and documents from the time. But one of the most interesting discoveries for archaeologists at the camp was a cache of photographs from the 1860s.
Mark Osterman is a process historian at the George Eastman Museum. He explains that photographers of the time played an important role for soldiers.
“They would set up a special tent that had a little section in the back where they could process their plates,” he says. “The soldiers would spend their money on these things. They would buy an image. They would send it through the mail. They were even called lettergraphs sometimes because they didn’t break…they would survive the trip.”
Soldiers could get a small, calling-card-sized tintype of their portrait to send home. More expensive ambrotypes could be produced and presented with a mat in a fancier case.
“Having your photograph taken was a pretty important thing,” says Osterman. “It was an event to have your picture taken, and for many in the Civil War, probably the only picture that had ever been taken of them was a tintype that they sent home.”
“With soldiers, I think [photography] was particularly in demand,” says Dr. McBride. “They wanted to get a picture of themselves to send back to their loved ones to show them this new status that they had. But also in case they didn’t come back.”
By looking at personalized stencils found with the photographic equipment, archaeologists determined that the photographer at Camp Nelson was a man named Cassius Jones Young. Young lived and worked as a photographer in Lexington after the war and later near Cincinnati.
“That whole [archaeological] area and a lot of that information was found by mistake,” says McClintock-Pauli. “They didn’t know it was there. There are so many things like that that are so important; you really have to do your scratching here and there. To go back and find those tintypes and to find those pieces of a person’s life, that’s recorded now. That person’s place is saved.”
This segment is part of Kentucky Life episode #2506, which originally aired on November 9, 2019. Watch the full episode. | 679 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Featured Passage: 1 Samuel 7 – 8
Samuel had been judging Israel for many years. He traveled between the cities of Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah to judge the people, though he lived in Ramah with his family. Samuel’s sons became judges, but they did not follow his example. They were evil in how they judged Israel, and the people were upset with how things were going. They decided they wanted to have a king to rule over them instead of a judge. Samuel tried to warn them of what would happen if they had a king, but the people would not listen, and God was preparing to let them have their way.
- Before Israel had a king, God gave Israel His laws and His judges made sure they were kept. What would change with a king?
- Israel was to be an example to the other nations (Deuteronomy 4:6–8). What does it mean to be an example? What is the difference between a good example and a bad example?
- What did God say would happen if Israel had a human king?
- Israel rejected God as their king because they wanted a human king. They did not appreciate what God had done for them. How can we appreciate what God does for us?
1 Samuel 8:7
And the Lord said to Samuel, “Heed the voice of the people in all that they say to you; for they have not rejected you, but they have rejected Me, that I should not rule over them.” | <urn:uuid:c52bd7b2-fb15-4c53-9a46-eb7336d44c36> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lcgeducation.org/2019/12/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00207.warc.gz | en | 0.995938 | 314 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.109007351100... | 16 | Featured Passage: 1 Samuel 7 – 8
Samuel had been judging Israel for many years. He traveled between the cities of Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah to judge the people, though he lived in Ramah with his family. Samuel’s sons became judges, but they did not follow his example. They were evil in how they judged Israel, and the people were upset with how things were going. They decided they wanted to have a king to rule over them instead of a judge. Samuel tried to warn them of what would happen if they had a king, but the people would not listen, and God was preparing to let them have their way.
- Before Israel had a king, God gave Israel His laws and His judges made sure they were kept. What would change with a king?
- Israel was to be an example to the other nations (Deuteronomy 4:6–8). What does it mean to be an example? What is the difference between a good example and a bad example?
- What did God say would happen if Israel had a human king?
- Israel rejected God as their king because they wanted a human king. They did not appreciate what God had done for them. How can we appreciate what God does for us?
1 Samuel 8:7
And the Lord said to Samuel, “Heed the voice of the people in all that they say to you; for they have not rejected you, but they have rejected Me, that I should not rule over them.” | 309 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mark 13 has often been used to teach about the second coming of Jesus. It may surprise you to know that ¾’s of this chapter is Jesus teaching about the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem.
The temple in Jerusalem in Jesus’ day was a wonder. Theologically it represented the very presence of God and throne-room throne of God. Architecturally it was awesome. Josephus, a Jewish historian at the time, wrote that some of the individually fashioned stones used to build the temple were 13m in length, 4m in height and 6m wide! These stones were probably fashioned out of white marble and overlaid in gold. One commentator writes: “This complex of stone was one of the most impressive sights in the ancient world, and was regarded as an architectural wonder”. Aesthetically it was unrivalled. Religiously is symbolised Israel’s special relationship with God. It was at the temple that you met with God, prayed, offered sacrifices and atoned for your sins. In contrast, the disciples were mostly poor, blue-collared fishermen who lived in insignificant houses in small villages and they were hugely impressed with this great building. That’s why they said in v1, “Look, Teacher! What massive stones! What magnificent buildings!” I speculate, but perhaps part of their sentiment was to comfort Jesus: “Never mind how bad things get, we still have the Temple!” | <urn:uuid:4d60a8dd-9062-4b7a-9aeb-29f4faea756a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pastorfish.co.za/tag/mark-13/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00050.warc.gz | en | 0.985239 | 300 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.53511071205139... | 6 | Mark 13 has often been used to teach about the second coming of Jesus. It may surprise you to know that ¾’s of this chapter is Jesus teaching about the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem.
The temple in Jerusalem in Jesus’ day was a wonder. Theologically it represented the very presence of God and throne-room throne of God. Architecturally it was awesome. Josephus, a Jewish historian at the time, wrote that some of the individually fashioned stones used to build the temple were 13m in length, 4m in height and 6m wide! These stones were probably fashioned out of white marble and overlaid in gold. One commentator writes: “This complex of stone was one of the most impressive sights in the ancient world, and was regarded as an architectural wonder”. Aesthetically it was unrivalled. Religiously is symbolised Israel’s special relationship with God. It was at the temple that you met with God, prayed, offered sacrifices and atoned for your sins. In contrast, the disciples were mostly poor, blue-collared fishermen who lived in insignificant houses in small villages and they were hugely impressed with this great building. That’s why they said in v1, “Look, Teacher! What massive stones! What magnificent buildings!” I speculate, but perhaps part of their sentiment was to comfort Jesus: “Never mind how bad things get, we still have the Temple!” | 289 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I was taught in school that Abraham Lincoln freed the slaves, but in fact tens of thousands of African-Americans in the South were enslaved in everything but name from the 1870s through the 1930s.
They were bought and sold for money, whipped and abused by their masters, supervised by overseers with guns and hunted down with hounds when they tried to flee.
Douglas A. Blackmon wrote in SLAVERY BY ANOTHER NAME: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War Two that we should not speak of the “Jim Crow” era, but the era of neo-slavery.
The way it worked was this. A black person would be arrested. Sometimes he would be guilty of a real crime. But any black male not under the control of a white employer was subject to being arrested, charged with something like “vagrancy” or “offensive behavior” or a trumped-up charge. Some records list only the sentence and not the nature of the offense.
The black person would of course be convicted automatically and sentenced to a prison term or a fine, which would include not only the lawful penalty for the offense, but also the cost of his arrest and imprisonment.
A white employer would pay the fine in return for a contract entitling him to the black person’s labor The sheriff or police chief, jail keeper, magistrate and court clerk would divide up the payment. The buyer might sell the contract to someone else.
The convict would typically work under armed guards and be whipped regularly for trivial offenses or for not working hard enough. Overseers would commonly soak a leather strap in water or molasses and then coat it with sand, so that a whipping would flay the skin off.
It is true that, unlike slaves before the Civil War, the convict did not serve a lifetime sentence, his children were not automatically enslaved and the majority of blacks were not enslaved.
But the threat of enslavement hung over everyone, and conditions under the new slavery were often worse than under the old.
In the earlier era, slaves were valuable property and slave owners had an incentive to keep them strong and healthy.
But in the neo-slavery era, there was no reason not to work them to death because, just as in Hitler’s labor camps or Stalin’s Gulag, there was an unlimited supply of fresh laborers. Employers suffered no penalty when convicts died, even when they were beaten to death.
I’ve heard people say that slavery would have ended of its own accord if there had been no Civil War because slave labor was not suitable for modern industry.
But Blackmon showed that neo-slavery was practiced not just by individuals, but by corporations that exist to this day.
One of the many individual stories told by Blackmon was Green Cottenham, a 22-year-old black man who was arrested at the train station in Shelby County, Alabama, one day in 1908, and charged with riding on a freight train without a ticket. He pleaded “not guilty” and pointed out there was no evidence against him.
The judge simply changed the charge to “vagrancy” and sentenced him to three months hard labor. He also ordered him to pay $38 to cover the cost of his arrest and jail upkeep—which would have been equivalent to thousands of dollars in today’s money.
The sheriff sold his labor to the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Co. for $12 a month. A few days later, he and other prisoners were chained other in leg irons and steel collars and taken to the Pratt Mine, a coal mine owned by the TCI&R.
Blackmon wrote that Cottenham was lucky that his jail time was so short, because he was young and strong and would have been weakened by malnutrition if he’s stayed long.
At the Pratt Mine, he and other convicts were crowded into a wooden barracks with bunk beds, and chained together. There was literally not room enough for them all to lie down. Some slept standing up, leading on hammocks stretched between the bunks.
Except on Sundays, they spent all their waking hours, from before sunrise to after sundown, working in a coal mine. Each one was given a biscuit and a chunk of bacon for breakfast when they got up, and some sort of food out of a bucket during the working day.
Each miner was given a pick, a short shovel, a sledge hammer and two wooden or iron wedges. With those tools Cottenham was expected to hack out eight tons of coal a day. This was done in tunnels that usually were too low to stand up in, and sometimes amounted to mere crawl spaces. Those who failed to meet their quotas were publicly whipped.
Whipping was not the only punishment. Some convicts were hung in handcuffs from steel bars. Others were tied up in painful positions in which their wrists were tied behind their backs to their ankles. The Pratt Mine also used the “water cure”—what we’d now call waterboarding.
While infractions of discipline were punished, the mine authorities made no attempt to stop fighting and sexual abuse among the prisoners. Blackmon gave an example of a killing that went unpunished.
The mines and barracks were pestholes of infectious disease. The only drinking water during the day was seepage in the mine. It was contaminated with toxic metals and human waste. Dysentery, tuberculosis and other infectious diseases were common. Workers died almost every month and were buried in a company graveyard. Cottenham died of an untreated illness.
Blackmon came across that graveyard years later, and his curiosity as to why there would be a graveyard in the middle of a major industrial site led to his research for this book.
This is just one of many individual stories he told. His information came from old court records and family histories (mainly of white people), but also from investigations by humane white people.
The most noteworthy attempt came during the administration of Theodore Roosevelt, who appointed a brave U.S. attorney, Warren Reese, and a brave judge, Thomas Goode Jones, both white Southerners who, without trying to overthrow white supremacy, defied public opinion and sought to end the abuses of the system.
Higher courts pointed out that while the Constitution and Congressional law abolished slavery, there was no law on the books that made it a crime to enslave people. Reese sought indictments under an obscure 1867 law aimed at abolishing debt peonage in New Mexico, a hangover from Mexican law. He won some convictions and minor fines.
Southern public opinion was outraged. Lynch mobs rampaged across the South and as far north as Springfield, Illinois. Black people were not only hung, but sometimes burned alive. President Roosevelt hadn’t realized what a hornet’s nest he was stirring up, and gave way.
The final abolition of neo-slavery did not come until World War Two. The Franklin Roosevelt administration saw how it would feed German and Japanese propaganda. In 1941, a directive was issued to start to enforce the Constitutional amendments abolishing slavery, the Reconstruction era laws passed to enforce them and other largely forgotten laws, such as the Slave Kidnaping Act, which made it illegal to capture or return forced laborers in U.S. jurisdictions where slavery was prohibited.
The U.S. federal code was rewritten in 1948 to clarify the laws against involuntary servitude. Finally, in 1951, Congress passed an even more explicit law making any form of enslavement a crime in the United States.
I found this book painful reading. Suppose you or I had been kidnaped, forced to work to the limits of our strength and brutally whipped for the slightest reason or no reason at all. Suppose a loved one had been. How would this affect us? What would be teach our children about how to survive in America? The effects don’t end with one generation.
Remember, too, that neo-slavery did not exist in a vacuum. Most black people in the South worked on contracts that forbid them to quit their jobs while the contract was in effect, and could be hunted down and imprisoned if they quit their jobs.
Remember that black and white tenant farmers were subject to a kind of serfdom. They would depend on a rich landowner to lend them the money to plant and grow their crops, buy their supplies in the landowner’s store and sell their crops to the landowner.
Remember that white people in the South could kill a black person or take their property without any repercussions.
Remember that the resurgence of neo-slavery coincided with the Sundown Towns movement, in which small towns in the North and West drove out their black residents.
Blackmon doesn’t think any form of money compensation for neo-slavery is practical. Neither do I. But what we can do, as Americans, is to remember that this is part of our past and that the past lives on in the present.
It is our duty, just as it is the duty of Germans to remember the Holocaust and Russians to remember the crimes of Stalin.
Not that the history of the United States or any other country consists of crimes and nothing else. We need to remember both the good and the bad in the past in order understand the present.
Douglas Backmon is the descendent of an old white Mississippi family. He was the Atlanta bureau chief of the Wall Street Journal and now is host and executive producer of American Forum, a public TV program supported by the University of Virginia.
Slavery by Another Name won a Pulitzer Prize for 2009 and was the basis for a Public Broadcasting System documentary in 2012. Somehow I missed both the book and documentary.
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0.323332756757736... | 1 | I was taught in school that Abraham Lincoln freed the slaves, but in fact tens of thousands of African-Americans in the South were enslaved in everything but name from the 1870s through the 1930s.
They were bought and sold for money, whipped and abused by their masters, supervised by overseers with guns and hunted down with hounds when they tried to flee.
Douglas A. Blackmon wrote in SLAVERY BY ANOTHER NAME: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War Two that we should not speak of the “Jim Crow” era, but the era of neo-slavery.
The way it worked was this. A black person would be arrested. Sometimes he would be guilty of a real crime. But any black male not under the control of a white employer was subject to being arrested, charged with something like “vagrancy” or “offensive behavior” or a trumped-up charge. Some records list only the sentence and not the nature of the offense.
The black person would of course be convicted automatically and sentenced to a prison term or a fine, which would include not only the lawful penalty for the offense, but also the cost of his arrest and imprisonment.
A white employer would pay the fine in return for a contract entitling him to the black person’s labor The sheriff or police chief, jail keeper, magistrate and court clerk would divide up the payment. The buyer might sell the contract to someone else.
The convict would typically work under armed guards and be whipped regularly for trivial offenses or for not working hard enough. Overseers would commonly soak a leather strap in water or molasses and then coat it with sand, so that a whipping would flay the skin off.
It is true that, unlike slaves before the Civil War, the convict did not serve a lifetime sentence, his children were not automatically enslaved and the majority of blacks were not enslaved.
But the threat of enslavement hung over everyone, and conditions under the new slavery were often worse than under the old.
In the earlier era, slaves were valuable property and slave owners had an incentive to keep them strong and healthy.
But in the neo-slavery era, there was no reason not to work them to death because, just as in Hitler’s labor camps or Stalin’s Gulag, there was an unlimited supply of fresh laborers. Employers suffered no penalty when convicts died, even when they were beaten to death.
I’ve heard people say that slavery would have ended of its own accord if there had been no Civil War because slave labor was not suitable for modern industry.
But Blackmon showed that neo-slavery was practiced not just by individuals, but by corporations that exist to this day.
One of the many individual stories told by Blackmon was Green Cottenham, a 22-year-old black man who was arrested at the train station in Shelby County, Alabama, one day in 1908, and charged with riding on a freight train without a ticket. He pleaded “not guilty” and pointed out there was no evidence against him.
The judge simply changed the charge to “vagrancy” and sentenced him to three months hard labor. He also ordered him to pay $38 to cover the cost of his arrest and jail upkeep—which would have been equivalent to thousands of dollars in today’s money.
The sheriff sold his labor to the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Co. for $12 a month. A few days later, he and other prisoners were chained other in leg irons and steel collars and taken to the Pratt Mine, a coal mine owned by the TCI&R.
Blackmon wrote that Cottenham was lucky that his jail time was so short, because he was young and strong and would have been weakened by malnutrition if he’s stayed long.
At the Pratt Mine, he and other convicts were crowded into a wooden barracks with bunk beds, and chained together. There was literally not room enough for them all to lie down. Some slept standing up, leading on hammocks stretched between the bunks.
Except on Sundays, they spent all their waking hours, from before sunrise to after sundown, working in a coal mine. Each one was given a biscuit and a chunk of bacon for breakfast when they got up, and some sort of food out of a bucket during the working day.
Each miner was given a pick, a short shovel, a sledge hammer and two wooden or iron wedges. With those tools Cottenham was expected to hack out eight tons of coal a day. This was done in tunnels that usually were too low to stand up in, and sometimes amounted to mere crawl spaces. Those who failed to meet their quotas were publicly whipped.
Whipping was not the only punishment. Some convicts were hung in handcuffs from steel bars. Others were tied up in painful positions in which their wrists were tied behind their backs to their ankles. The Pratt Mine also used the “water cure”—what we’d now call waterboarding.
While infractions of discipline were punished, the mine authorities made no attempt to stop fighting and sexual abuse among the prisoners. Blackmon gave an example of a killing that went unpunished.
The mines and barracks were pestholes of infectious disease. The only drinking water during the day was seepage in the mine. It was contaminated with toxic metals and human waste. Dysentery, tuberculosis and other infectious diseases were common. Workers died almost every month and were buried in a company graveyard. Cottenham died of an untreated illness.
Blackmon came across that graveyard years later, and his curiosity as to why there would be a graveyard in the middle of a major industrial site led to his research for this book.
This is just one of many individual stories he told. His information came from old court records and family histories (mainly of white people), but also from investigations by humane white people.
The most noteworthy attempt came during the administration of Theodore Roosevelt, who appointed a brave U.S. attorney, Warren Reese, and a brave judge, Thomas Goode Jones, both white Southerners who, without trying to overthrow white supremacy, defied public opinion and sought to end the abuses of the system.
Higher courts pointed out that while the Constitution and Congressional law abolished slavery, there was no law on the books that made it a crime to enslave people. Reese sought indictments under an obscure 1867 law aimed at abolishing debt peonage in New Mexico, a hangover from Mexican law. He won some convictions and minor fines.
Southern public opinion was outraged. Lynch mobs rampaged across the South and as far north as Springfield, Illinois. Black people were not only hung, but sometimes burned alive. President Roosevelt hadn’t realized what a hornet’s nest he was stirring up, and gave way.
The final abolition of neo-slavery did not come until World War Two. The Franklin Roosevelt administration saw how it would feed German and Japanese propaganda. In 1941, a directive was issued to start to enforce the Constitutional amendments abolishing slavery, the Reconstruction era laws passed to enforce them and other largely forgotten laws, such as the Slave Kidnaping Act, which made it illegal to capture or return forced laborers in U.S. jurisdictions where slavery was prohibited.
The U.S. federal code was rewritten in 1948 to clarify the laws against involuntary servitude. Finally, in 1951, Congress passed an even more explicit law making any form of enslavement a crime in the United States.
I found this book painful reading. Suppose you or I had been kidnaped, forced to work to the limits of our strength and brutally whipped for the slightest reason or no reason at all. Suppose a loved one had been. How would this affect us? What would be teach our children about how to survive in America? The effects don’t end with one generation.
Remember, too, that neo-slavery did not exist in a vacuum. Most black people in the South worked on contracts that forbid them to quit their jobs while the contract was in effect, and could be hunted down and imprisoned if they quit their jobs.
Remember that black and white tenant farmers were subject to a kind of serfdom. They would depend on a rich landowner to lend them the money to plant and grow their crops, buy their supplies in the landowner’s store and sell their crops to the landowner.
Remember that white people in the South could kill a black person or take their property without any repercussions.
Remember that the resurgence of neo-slavery coincided with the Sundown Towns movement, in which small towns in the North and West drove out their black residents.
Blackmon doesn’t think any form of money compensation for neo-slavery is practical. Neither do I. But what we can do, as Americans, is to remember that this is part of our past and that the past lives on in the present.
It is our duty, just as it is the duty of Germans to remember the Holocaust and Russians to remember the crimes of Stalin.
Not that the history of the United States or any other country consists of crimes and nothing else. We need to remember both the good and the bad in the past in order understand the present.
Douglas Backmon is the descendent of an old white Mississippi family. He was the Atlanta bureau chief of the Wall Street Journal and now is host and executive producer of American Forum, a public TV program supported by the University of Virginia.
Slavery by Another Name won a Pulitzer Prize for 2009 and was the basis for a Public Broadcasting System documentary in 2012. Somehow I missed both the book and documentary.
Slavery by Another Name TV documentary. | 1,980 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Marcus Aurelius Claudius was in his fifties when he became Augustus. According to Aurelius Victor, the dying Gallienus had named Claudius – who was at Ticinum (Pavia) at the time of the murder – his successor. This is not impossible, although it is a lot more likely that he was simply chosen by the conspirators (of whom he may have been part) and then accepted by the army. There was a rumour that he was an illegitimate son of the late emperor Gordianus II, but surely that story was fabricated to give some legitimacy to his rule. Gordianus was from Africa, while Claudius was born in the Balkan region, so the story makes no sense at all. Among later generations, some chose to believe that Claudius’ brother Crispus had a daughter named Claudia, who married a Dardanian nobleman named Eutropius. Claudia then bore her husband a son named Constantius Chlorus, who, in 272, became the father of Constantine the Great. This whole story was no doubt fabricated as well, possibly by Constantine himself.
An emperor on campaign
The new emperor now needed to prove he was worth the honour bestowed on him. Claudius first had to deal with Aureolus, the man who had rebelled against Gallienus and had drawn the late emperor to Mediolanum. Aureolus had fled the city, but was tracked down by Claudius. There may have been a battle, and the usurper was killed or murdered by his own soldiers. Claudius then proceeded to Rome, where the Senate and people accepted him as their emperor.
Claudius did not stay in Rome for long. Before the year 268 was out, he was at the head of the troops again and had to stop an incursion of the Alemanni, who had once again invaded Northern-Italy. The Roman army and the invaders met at Lake Benacus, the ancient name of Lake Garda. Although no details of the battle have survived, the result was a decisive victory for Rome. An inscription set up at Toscolano-Maderno on the western shore of the lake probably refers to the battle and the gratitude of the Benacenses, the people living along the shores, vis-à-vis their emperor:
IMP(ERATORI) CAES(ARI) / M(ARCO) AUR(ELIO) CLAUDIO / P(IO) F(ELICI) INVICTO / AUG(USTO) / BENACENSES
After the defeat of the Alemanni, the emperor had his hands free to fight the Goths, Heruli and other Germanic tribes that were overrunning the Balkan provinces. It is possible that the people stirring up trouble there were still those who had invaded in 267 and had not yet been defeated. Yet sources such as Zosimus surely suggest there had been new invasion of 320.000 ‘barbarians’ who made use of 6.000 ships. These numbers are massively inflated, but there is little reason to doubt the seriousness of the invasion. The Goths and their allies first attacked Tomis and Marcianopolis in Moesia, but without much success. Their fleet then sailed through the Bosporus and into the Sea of Marmara, then called the Propontis. The ships got dispersed because of the strong current and some were dashed to pieces.
A squadron of ships that managed to get out unscathed sailed further south and attacked the larger islands in the Aegean Sea, such as Rhodes, Crete and Cyprus, although they failed to do much damage. Others attacked Cyzicus and then Cassandreia and Thessalonica in Macedonia. Again the Roman cities seem to have held out and the whole Gothic campaign had so far hardly been a raging success. Then news reached the invaders that the emperor had arrived in the region. It was now 269. The Goths and their allies marched north, perhaps to meet him, but more likely to escape back to their home country. The first confrontation with the Romans took place between Doberus and Pelagonia. Claudius’ Dalmatian cavalry killed some 3.000 Goths, but the main force managed to escape and advanced further north. At Naissus, it was checked by the main Roman army led by the emperor himself. The Battle of Naissus was a bloody affair and both sides suffered heavy casualties. In the end the Romans seem to have feigned retreat and lured the Goths into an ambush. The Gothic army was then destroyed. According to Zosimus, more than 50.000 ‘barbarians’ were killed. The number is no doubt exaggerated, but the Romans had won a major victory.
After his victory, Claudius was awarded the agnomen of ‘Gothicus maximus’, and hence he became known to posterity as Claudius Gothicus. His campaign was by no means over though, as some of the Gothic survivors rallied and perhaps united their forces with marauding warbands that had not participated in the battle. Protected by their wagons, they marched east into Thrace. Claudius sent his cavalry after them, who drove the fleeing enemies towards Mount Haemus in the Balkan Mountains. There, probably in early 270, the Goths were surrounded. The Romans attacked, but the Goths managed to repel their infantry, which had to be saved by the cavalry. Just a little later, negotiations were opened. Claudius realised that the Goths were more useful to him as allies than as enemies. To avoid further bloodshed, he allowed the survivors to settle in Roman territory. In return, the Gothic warriors were absorbed into the Roman army.
Unfortunately, sometime during their campaign in Macedonia, the Goths had contracted a deadly disease. This was probably the same Plague of Cyprian that had now been raging through the Roman Empire for more than twenty years. Many inhabitants of the Empire must have by now become immune to the disease, but these Gothic invaders from outside the Empire were not. Worse, the disease spread to the Roman army, where many soldiers fell ill and died. The most crucial victim was the emperor himself. Claudius Gothicus passed away at the height of his power and may have been one of the last casualties of the aforementioned plague. The late emperor was deified and many coins were minted with the text DIVO CLAVDIO.
Meanwhile in the West and East
In the so-called ‘Gallic Empire’, the emperor Postumus had learned the hard way that usurpers are not necessarily safe from other usurpers. In early 269, a man named Laelianus had rebelled against his leader in Mogontiacum (present-day Mainz). We do not know what position he held, but it seems likely he got support from Legio XXII Primigenia, which was stationed at Mogontiacum. This was a threat Postumus could not ignore. He quickly marched on the city and defeated the usurper. Laelianus was killed, but then Postumus took a decision he would severely regret: he prohibited his soldiers from looting the city they had captured. The infuriated men then murdered their emperor. Postumus was succeeded by one Marius, whom Aurelius Victor claims had been a blacksmith. Marius’ reign was short, but long enough for him to start minting coins. After a few months on the throne he was murdered and succeeded by Marcus Piavonius Victorinus.
In the turmoil following the death of Postumus, the Spanish provinces may have seceded from the Gallic Empire and recognised Claudius (who was still alive at the time) as the legitimate emperor. One of Claudius’ generals, a man named Julius Placidianus, operated in Southern Gaul, where he captured the town of Cularo in Narbonesis (now Grenoble). This likely inspired the city of Augustodunum (modern Autun) to revolt and defect to Claudius, but Victorinus was able to quell the rebellion in 269 or 270. Augustodunum was besieged, captured and sacked. The Gallic Empire was reeling, but it was still in the game.
In the Roman East, central authority was weak to non-existent. Zenobia of Palmyra began tightening her grip on the provinces. She ruled on behalf of her young son Vaballathus, ras (lord) of Palmyra, who had inherited his father’s titles of King of Kings and corrector totius orientis. Zenobia was said to have been a beautiful and very intelligent woman. She spoke Aramaic, Greek and Egyptian fluently, but had limited knowledge of Latin. Ancient sources stress that she was chaste, just, both strict and mild in her rule, and excelled at riding and hunting. In the early years of her reign, she was still loyal to Rome, but that changed in 270. Perhaps the death of Claudius had created a power vacuum that Zenobia chose to exploit.
Zenobia ordered her general Septimius Zabdas to invade Egypt. She claimed descent from the Ptolemies of old, the descendants of Alexander the Great’s general Ptolemaios, and perhaps this was her pretext for launching the invasion: Egypt was rightfully hers and she was the new Cleopatra. Zabdas’ army was likely composed of native Palmyrene troops as well as regular Roman troops from Syria that were now under Zenobia’s command. The Palmyrene army met that of the Roman prefect of Egypt, whose name is unknown, but who must have made use of the two legions in region: Legio II Traiana and Legio XXII Deiotariana, as well as local troops. The Romans were defeated and Zenobia added Egypt to the territories under her control. After leaving a small garrison behind, Zabdas left again.
Since the province was still vital to Rome’s grain supply, there was an attempt to win it back. A certain Probus or Probatus, who had been appointed to combat piracy in the region, attacked and routed the garrison. He seems to have acted entirely on his own accord. Unfortunately for the Romans, Probus or Probatus was then decisively defeated by Timagenes, an Egyptian who served under Zenobia. And so Egypt remained in Palmyrene hands. Zenobia’s attack had been a serious provocation. It was only a matter of time before she would formally break with Rome.
- Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 33-34 (translated and annotated by H.W. Bird);
- Epitome de Caesaribus 34;
- Historia Augusta, The Life of Claudius;
- Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders (Zenobia);
- Zosimus, Historia Nova, Book 1.42-46.
- Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West, p. 118 and p. 125-127;
- David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, p. 261-262.
Many of the years given in this post are conjectural. The chronology of events during the Crisis of the Third Century is often hazy.
CIL 05, 04869.
This is attested by an incription (CIL 12, 02228), part of which reads IN NARB(ONENSI) / PROV(INCIA) SUB CURA IUL(I) / PLACIDIANI V(IRI) P(ERFECTISSIMI) PRAE/FECT(I) VIGIL(UM). | <urn:uuid:0c734131-3a01-4c42-a538-8e977cb014ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://corvinus.nl/2020/01/11/claudius-gothicus-the-years-268-270/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00282.warc.gz | en | 0.984743 | 2,442 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.34675085544586... | 1 | Marcus Aurelius Claudius was in his fifties when he became Augustus. According to Aurelius Victor, the dying Gallienus had named Claudius – who was at Ticinum (Pavia) at the time of the murder – his successor. This is not impossible, although it is a lot more likely that he was simply chosen by the conspirators (of whom he may have been part) and then accepted by the army. There was a rumour that he was an illegitimate son of the late emperor Gordianus II, but surely that story was fabricated to give some legitimacy to his rule. Gordianus was from Africa, while Claudius was born in the Balkan region, so the story makes no sense at all. Among later generations, some chose to believe that Claudius’ brother Crispus had a daughter named Claudia, who married a Dardanian nobleman named Eutropius. Claudia then bore her husband a son named Constantius Chlorus, who, in 272, became the father of Constantine the Great. This whole story was no doubt fabricated as well, possibly by Constantine himself.
An emperor on campaign
The new emperor now needed to prove he was worth the honour bestowed on him. Claudius first had to deal with Aureolus, the man who had rebelled against Gallienus and had drawn the late emperor to Mediolanum. Aureolus had fled the city, but was tracked down by Claudius. There may have been a battle, and the usurper was killed or murdered by his own soldiers. Claudius then proceeded to Rome, where the Senate and people accepted him as their emperor.
Claudius did not stay in Rome for long. Before the year 268 was out, he was at the head of the troops again and had to stop an incursion of the Alemanni, who had once again invaded Northern-Italy. The Roman army and the invaders met at Lake Benacus, the ancient name of Lake Garda. Although no details of the battle have survived, the result was a decisive victory for Rome. An inscription set up at Toscolano-Maderno on the western shore of the lake probably refers to the battle and the gratitude of the Benacenses, the people living along the shores, vis-à-vis their emperor:
IMP(ERATORI) CAES(ARI) / M(ARCO) AUR(ELIO) CLAUDIO / P(IO) F(ELICI) INVICTO / AUG(USTO) / BENACENSES
After the defeat of the Alemanni, the emperor had his hands free to fight the Goths, Heruli and other Germanic tribes that were overrunning the Balkan provinces. It is possible that the people stirring up trouble there were still those who had invaded in 267 and had not yet been defeated. Yet sources such as Zosimus surely suggest there had been new invasion of 320.000 ‘barbarians’ who made use of 6.000 ships. These numbers are massively inflated, but there is little reason to doubt the seriousness of the invasion. The Goths and their allies first attacked Tomis and Marcianopolis in Moesia, but without much success. Their fleet then sailed through the Bosporus and into the Sea of Marmara, then called the Propontis. The ships got dispersed because of the strong current and some were dashed to pieces.
A squadron of ships that managed to get out unscathed sailed further south and attacked the larger islands in the Aegean Sea, such as Rhodes, Crete and Cyprus, although they failed to do much damage. Others attacked Cyzicus and then Cassandreia and Thessalonica in Macedonia. Again the Roman cities seem to have held out and the whole Gothic campaign had so far hardly been a raging success. Then news reached the invaders that the emperor had arrived in the region. It was now 269. The Goths and their allies marched north, perhaps to meet him, but more likely to escape back to their home country. The first confrontation with the Romans took place between Doberus and Pelagonia. Claudius’ Dalmatian cavalry killed some 3.000 Goths, but the main force managed to escape and advanced further north. At Naissus, it was checked by the main Roman army led by the emperor himself. The Battle of Naissus was a bloody affair and both sides suffered heavy casualties. In the end the Romans seem to have feigned retreat and lured the Goths into an ambush. The Gothic army was then destroyed. According to Zosimus, more than 50.000 ‘barbarians’ were killed. The number is no doubt exaggerated, but the Romans had won a major victory.
After his victory, Claudius was awarded the agnomen of ‘Gothicus maximus’, and hence he became known to posterity as Claudius Gothicus. His campaign was by no means over though, as some of the Gothic survivors rallied and perhaps united their forces with marauding warbands that had not participated in the battle. Protected by their wagons, they marched east into Thrace. Claudius sent his cavalry after them, who drove the fleeing enemies towards Mount Haemus in the Balkan Mountains. There, probably in early 270, the Goths were surrounded. The Romans attacked, but the Goths managed to repel their infantry, which had to be saved by the cavalry. Just a little later, negotiations were opened. Claudius realised that the Goths were more useful to him as allies than as enemies. To avoid further bloodshed, he allowed the survivors to settle in Roman territory. In return, the Gothic warriors were absorbed into the Roman army.
Unfortunately, sometime during their campaign in Macedonia, the Goths had contracted a deadly disease. This was probably the same Plague of Cyprian that had now been raging through the Roman Empire for more than twenty years. Many inhabitants of the Empire must have by now become immune to the disease, but these Gothic invaders from outside the Empire were not. Worse, the disease spread to the Roman army, where many soldiers fell ill and died. The most crucial victim was the emperor himself. Claudius Gothicus passed away at the height of his power and may have been one of the last casualties of the aforementioned plague. The late emperor was deified and many coins were minted with the text DIVO CLAVDIO.
Meanwhile in the West and East
In the so-called ‘Gallic Empire’, the emperor Postumus had learned the hard way that usurpers are not necessarily safe from other usurpers. In early 269, a man named Laelianus had rebelled against his leader in Mogontiacum (present-day Mainz). We do not know what position he held, but it seems likely he got support from Legio XXII Primigenia, which was stationed at Mogontiacum. This was a threat Postumus could not ignore. He quickly marched on the city and defeated the usurper. Laelianus was killed, but then Postumus took a decision he would severely regret: he prohibited his soldiers from looting the city they had captured. The infuriated men then murdered their emperor. Postumus was succeeded by one Marius, whom Aurelius Victor claims had been a blacksmith. Marius’ reign was short, but long enough for him to start minting coins. After a few months on the throne he was murdered and succeeded by Marcus Piavonius Victorinus.
In the turmoil following the death of Postumus, the Spanish provinces may have seceded from the Gallic Empire and recognised Claudius (who was still alive at the time) as the legitimate emperor. One of Claudius’ generals, a man named Julius Placidianus, operated in Southern Gaul, where he captured the town of Cularo in Narbonesis (now Grenoble). This likely inspired the city of Augustodunum (modern Autun) to revolt and defect to Claudius, but Victorinus was able to quell the rebellion in 269 or 270. Augustodunum was besieged, captured and sacked. The Gallic Empire was reeling, but it was still in the game.
In the Roman East, central authority was weak to non-existent. Zenobia of Palmyra began tightening her grip on the provinces. She ruled on behalf of her young son Vaballathus, ras (lord) of Palmyra, who had inherited his father’s titles of King of Kings and corrector totius orientis. Zenobia was said to have been a beautiful and very intelligent woman. She spoke Aramaic, Greek and Egyptian fluently, but had limited knowledge of Latin. Ancient sources stress that she was chaste, just, both strict and mild in her rule, and excelled at riding and hunting. In the early years of her reign, she was still loyal to Rome, but that changed in 270. Perhaps the death of Claudius had created a power vacuum that Zenobia chose to exploit.
Zenobia ordered her general Septimius Zabdas to invade Egypt. She claimed descent from the Ptolemies of old, the descendants of Alexander the Great’s general Ptolemaios, and perhaps this was her pretext for launching the invasion: Egypt was rightfully hers and she was the new Cleopatra. Zabdas’ army was likely composed of native Palmyrene troops as well as regular Roman troops from Syria that were now under Zenobia’s command. The Palmyrene army met that of the Roman prefect of Egypt, whose name is unknown, but who must have made use of the two legions in region: Legio II Traiana and Legio XXII Deiotariana, as well as local troops. The Romans were defeated and Zenobia added Egypt to the territories under her control. After leaving a small garrison behind, Zabdas left again.
Since the province was still vital to Rome’s grain supply, there was an attempt to win it back. A certain Probus or Probatus, who had been appointed to combat piracy in the region, attacked and routed the garrison. He seems to have acted entirely on his own accord. Unfortunately for the Romans, Probus or Probatus was then decisively defeated by Timagenes, an Egyptian who served under Zenobia. And so Egypt remained in Palmyrene hands. Zenobia’s attack had been a serious provocation. It was only a matter of time before she would formally break with Rome.
- Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 33-34 (translated and annotated by H.W. Bird);
- Epitome de Caesaribus 34;
- Historia Augusta, The Life of Claudius;
- Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders (Zenobia);
- Zosimus, Historia Nova, Book 1.42-46.
- Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West, p. 118 and p. 125-127;
- David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, p. 261-262.
Many of the years given in this post are conjectural. The chronology of events during the Crisis of the Third Century is often hazy.
CIL 05, 04869.
This is attested by an incription (CIL 12, 02228), part of which reads IN NARB(ONENSI) / PROV(INCIA) SUB CURA IUL(I) / PLACIDIANI V(IRI) P(ERFECTISSIMI) PRAE/FECT(I) VIGIL(UM). | 2,465 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Industrial Revolution had several roots, one of which was a commercial revolution that, beginning as far back as the sixteenth century, accompanied Europe's expansion overseas. Both exports and imports showed spectacular growth, particularly in England and France. An increasingly larger portion of the stepped-up commercial activity was the result of trade with overseas colonies. Imports included a variety of new beverages, spices, and ship's goods around the world and brought money flowing back. Europe's economic institutions, particularly those in England, were strong, had wealth available for new investment, and seemed almost to be waiting for some technological breakthrough that would expand their profit-making potential even more. The breakthrough came in Great Britain, where several economic advantages created a climate especially favorable to the encouraged of new technology. One was its geographic location at the crossroads of international trade. Internally, Britain was endowed with easily navigable natural waterway, which helped its trade and communication with the world. Beginning in the 1770s, it enjoyed a boom in canal building, which helped make its domestic market more accessible. Because water transportation was the cheapest means of carrying goods to market, canals reduced prices and thus increased consumer demand. Great Britain also had rich deposits of coal that fed the factories springing up in industrial and consumer goods. Another advantage was Britain's large population of rural, agricultural wage earners. As well as cottage workers, who had the potential of being more mobile than peasants of some other countries. Eventually they found their way to the cities or mining communities and provided the human power upon which the Industrial Revolution was built. The British people were also consumers; the absence of internal tariffs, such as those that existed in France or Italy or between the German states, made Britain the largest free-trade area in Europe. Britain's relatively stable government also helped create an atmosphere conducive to industrial progress. Great Britain's better-developed banking and credit system also helped speed the industrial progress, as did the fact that it was the home of an impressive array of entrepreneurs and inventors. Among them were a large number of nonconformists whose religious principles encouraged thrift and industry rather than luxurious living and who tended to pour their profits back into their business, thus providing the basis for continued expansion. A precursor to the Industrial Revolution was a revolution in agricultural techniques. Ideas about agricultural reform developed first in Holland, where as early as the mid-seventeenth century, such modern methods as crop rotation, heavy fertilization, and diversification were all in use. Dutch peasant farmers were known throughout Europe for their agricultural innovations, but as British markets and opportunities grew, the English quickly learned from them. As early as the seventeenth century the Dutch were helping them drain marshes and fens where, with the help of advanced techniques, they grew new crops. By the mid-eighteenth century new agricultural methods as well as selective breeding of livestock had caught on throughout the country. Much of the increased production was consumed by Great Britain's burgeoning population. At the same time, people were moving to the city, partly because of the enclosure movement; that is, the fencing of common fields and pastures in order to provide more compact, efficient privately held agricultural parcels that would produce more goods and greater profits. In the sixteenth century enclosures were usually used for creating sheep pastures, but by the eighteenth century new farming techniques made it advantageous for large landowners to seek enclosures in order to improve agricultural production. Between 1714 and 1820 over 6 million acres of English land were enclosed. As a result, many small, independent farmers were forced to sell out simply because they could not compete. Nonlandholding peasants and cottage workers, who worked for wages and grazed cows or pigs on the village common, were also hurt when the common was no longer available. It was such people who began to flock to the cities seeking employment and who found work in the factories that would transform the nation and, the world. | <urn:uuid:cc1ac446-4579-474c-b160-200509a6c31e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.peakgmt.com/web/508DQTQHHH64RF52O$.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.983858 | 794 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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-0.1057... | 1 | The Industrial Revolution had several roots, one of which was a commercial revolution that, beginning as far back as the sixteenth century, accompanied Europe's expansion overseas. Both exports and imports showed spectacular growth, particularly in England and France. An increasingly larger portion of the stepped-up commercial activity was the result of trade with overseas colonies. Imports included a variety of new beverages, spices, and ship's goods around the world and brought money flowing back. Europe's economic institutions, particularly those in England, were strong, had wealth available for new investment, and seemed almost to be waiting for some technological breakthrough that would expand their profit-making potential even more. The breakthrough came in Great Britain, where several economic advantages created a climate especially favorable to the encouraged of new technology. One was its geographic location at the crossroads of international trade. Internally, Britain was endowed with easily navigable natural waterway, which helped its trade and communication with the world. Beginning in the 1770s, it enjoyed a boom in canal building, which helped make its domestic market more accessible. Because water transportation was the cheapest means of carrying goods to market, canals reduced prices and thus increased consumer demand. Great Britain also had rich deposits of coal that fed the factories springing up in industrial and consumer goods. Another advantage was Britain's large population of rural, agricultural wage earners. As well as cottage workers, who had the potential of being more mobile than peasants of some other countries. Eventually they found their way to the cities or mining communities and provided the human power upon which the Industrial Revolution was built. The British people were also consumers; the absence of internal tariffs, such as those that existed in France or Italy or between the German states, made Britain the largest free-trade area in Europe. Britain's relatively stable government also helped create an atmosphere conducive to industrial progress. Great Britain's better-developed banking and credit system also helped speed the industrial progress, as did the fact that it was the home of an impressive array of entrepreneurs and inventors. Among them were a large number of nonconformists whose religious principles encouraged thrift and industry rather than luxurious living and who tended to pour their profits back into their business, thus providing the basis for continued expansion. A precursor to the Industrial Revolution was a revolution in agricultural techniques. Ideas about agricultural reform developed first in Holland, where as early as the mid-seventeenth century, such modern methods as crop rotation, heavy fertilization, and diversification were all in use. Dutch peasant farmers were known throughout Europe for their agricultural innovations, but as British markets and opportunities grew, the English quickly learned from them. As early as the seventeenth century the Dutch were helping them drain marshes and fens where, with the help of advanced techniques, they grew new crops. By the mid-eighteenth century new agricultural methods as well as selective breeding of livestock had caught on throughout the country. Much of the increased production was consumed by Great Britain's burgeoning population. At the same time, people were moving to the city, partly because of the enclosure movement; that is, the fencing of common fields and pastures in order to provide more compact, efficient privately held agricultural parcels that would produce more goods and greater profits. In the sixteenth century enclosures were usually used for creating sheep pastures, but by the eighteenth century new farming techniques made it advantageous for large landowners to seek enclosures in order to improve agricultural production. Between 1714 and 1820 over 6 million acres of English land were enclosed. As a result, many small, independent farmers were forced to sell out simply because they could not compete. Nonlandholding peasants and cottage workers, who worked for wages and grazed cows or pigs on the village common, were also hurt when the common was no longer available. It was such people who began to flock to the cities seeking employment and who found work in the factories that would transform the nation and, the world. | 799 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are many differences between that exist between countries, with language being the obvious one. One of the greatest obstacles to overcome when traveling from abroad to the USA is the language barrier. Even after years of learning another language, it can be challenging completely if we don't relate to it. Moreover, one's identity and connection to their ethnicity can be thought of as being deeply rooted to their native language. Hence, according to Robert D. King in his essay "Should English Be the Law?", "in much of the world, ethnic unity and cultural identity are routinely defined by language". In other words, entire countries see themselves as whole not through their history, but rather through a common language. Thus, to belong to one language group is to belong to the culture. For instance, "to be an Arab" an individual must know the language. Many experts agree that language and ethnicity are what strongly define a culture. Nevertheless, some controversy persists regarding this topic.
In his essay, King gives us a general overview on the history of buildinga language-government relationship. He argues how unimportant seemed the united language establishment years ago, at the times of Great Kings. Centuries ago, to become a great nation meant to have a strong ruler and position in the world. The trouble with language started with French revolution, when it decided to diminish any competitive languages in the country. Therefore, the language chauvinism became into the play. As he goes on, King explains, that the issue is overestimated in the world, and in America. "Language is a convenient surrogate for nonlinguistic claims", he writes. Basically, it's trying to conceal other problems countries have. In the tormented by wars and racial disputes twentieth century, countries tried to get away from their former invaders. However, the language is not the problem, but a solution in search of independence.
In his essay, "Achievement of Desire", Richard Rodriguez writes about his struggle in finding his true identity. He made the choice to break away from his Spanish heritage at an early age and lived with this difficult decision his whole life. According to Rodriguez, national identity and language posession are intertwined. Thus, choosing one language over the other, he chose not to be Spanish. Eventually, he was lost between two realities: his home and school which are "cultural extremes".No matter how clear and sophisticated is Rodriguez' English may be, however, his last name will always belong to another ethnic group. Language can only help to improve one's academic success, but ethnicity is married to the mother tongue.
Another writer, Barbara Mellix, allied at some point with the statement. In "From Outside In", she admits she tried to get away from her origins to become a better person. It is even more interesting to read her story, since she was born in the US and always spoke English. The Southern English, or Black English, was spoken at home and the Standard spoken with relatives from the North. In her essay, we read that children from minorities were not taught common proper English. Minorities always had something to prove, especially when it came to language The most important thing they had to prove they were just as good as whites. Thus, proper English was like church dress for Mellix: she put it on on special occasions. Therefore she made an effort to speak more eloquently in her professional life. Society has its own rules, even if the law doesn't define one. To be accepted into the mainstream society and achieve something, she knew she had to step away from her background.
On the other hand, we can argue that language isn't necessary the factor that forces us to stand only on one side of the road. In her essay, "Mother Tongue", Amy Tan describes the difficulties she had to overcome to understand that knowing more languages makes her more powerful. She writes about her mother, who was greatly underestimated by people around her because she had some heavy accent. Moreover, Tan points out that society has biased opinions about people from different ethos groups. Thus, she went against the flow and became a writer even after she was told it would never happen. Amy Tan is a perfect example of a multi-national persona. She knew she had to change to reach her goal, but she didn't cut out her Asian legacy. She embraced her dual nature and became a whole individual. | <urn:uuid:9b1f7fdc-ee4a-415d-aec7-ba5352972157> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayforum.com/writing/ethnic-unity-cultural-identity-routinely-38155/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00174.warc.gz | en | 0.986325 | 883 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.228927880525589,... | 2 | There are many differences between that exist between countries, with language being the obvious one. One of the greatest obstacles to overcome when traveling from abroad to the USA is the language barrier. Even after years of learning another language, it can be challenging completely if we don't relate to it. Moreover, one's identity and connection to their ethnicity can be thought of as being deeply rooted to their native language. Hence, according to Robert D. King in his essay "Should English Be the Law?", "in much of the world, ethnic unity and cultural identity are routinely defined by language". In other words, entire countries see themselves as whole not through their history, but rather through a common language. Thus, to belong to one language group is to belong to the culture. For instance, "to be an Arab" an individual must know the language. Many experts agree that language and ethnicity are what strongly define a culture. Nevertheless, some controversy persists regarding this topic.
In his essay, King gives us a general overview on the history of buildinga language-government relationship. He argues how unimportant seemed the united language establishment years ago, at the times of Great Kings. Centuries ago, to become a great nation meant to have a strong ruler and position in the world. The trouble with language started with French revolution, when it decided to diminish any competitive languages in the country. Therefore, the language chauvinism became into the play. As he goes on, King explains, that the issue is overestimated in the world, and in America. "Language is a convenient surrogate for nonlinguistic claims", he writes. Basically, it's trying to conceal other problems countries have. In the tormented by wars and racial disputes twentieth century, countries tried to get away from their former invaders. However, the language is not the problem, but a solution in search of independence.
In his essay, "Achievement of Desire", Richard Rodriguez writes about his struggle in finding his true identity. He made the choice to break away from his Spanish heritage at an early age and lived with this difficult decision his whole life. According to Rodriguez, national identity and language posession are intertwined. Thus, choosing one language over the other, he chose not to be Spanish. Eventually, he was lost between two realities: his home and school which are "cultural extremes".No matter how clear and sophisticated is Rodriguez' English may be, however, his last name will always belong to another ethnic group. Language can only help to improve one's academic success, but ethnicity is married to the mother tongue.
Another writer, Barbara Mellix, allied at some point with the statement. In "From Outside In", she admits she tried to get away from her origins to become a better person. It is even more interesting to read her story, since she was born in the US and always spoke English. The Southern English, or Black English, was spoken at home and the Standard spoken with relatives from the North. In her essay, we read that children from minorities were not taught common proper English. Minorities always had something to prove, especially when it came to language The most important thing they had to prove they were just as good as whites. Thus, proper English was like church dress for Mellix: she put it on on special occasions. Therefore she made an effort to speak more eloquently in her professional life. Society has its own rules, even if the law doesn't define one. To be accepted into the mainstream society and achieve something, she knew she had to step away from her background.
On the other hand, we can argue that language isn't necessary the factor that forces us to stand only on one side of the road. In her essay, "Mother Tongue", Amy Tan describes the difficulties she had to overcome to understand that knowing more languages makes her more powerful. She writes about her mother, who was greatly underestimated by people around her because she had some heavy accent. Moreover, Tan points out that society has biased opinions about people from different ethos groups. Thus, she went against the flow and became a writer even after she was told it would never happen. Amy Tan is a perfect example of a multi-national persona. She knew she had to change to reach her goal, but she didn't cut out her Asian legacy. She embraced her dual nature and became a whole individual. | 879 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Very Shakespeare Christmas
by J. M. Pressley, SRC Editor
Shakespeare Fun Fact
When greeted with "Wassail," the proper response is "Drink hail!" Wassailing was a ritual meant to ensure a good cider harvest in the upcoming year.
It's another holiday season of eating, gift-giving, and festivity. But someone recently sent the SRC an email asking about how Shakespeare would have celebrated the holiday. In short: we don't know about Shakespeare specifically. He doesn't write much about Christmas in his plays and poetry. But certainly, he and everyone else in England would have celebrated Christmas back in the day; England pretty much shut down for business from late December through early January. We can reasonably guess that he participated in the festivities along with the rest of the population.
Shakespeare even mentions Christmas directly three times. In which plays? You'll have to read to the end to find out. Yes, it's a cheap trick to get you to read, but there you have it.
When Did Shakespeare Celebrate Christmas?
During Shakespeare's time, Christmas wasn't just a lone holiday; it was a season unto itself. The festivities technically would start on the night of Christmas Eve (December 24) with the burning of a Yule log. The holidays would officially begin December 25 and continue for 12 more days (just like the song) until January 6, the Feast of the Epiphany. Not coincidentally, it's posited that Shakespeare's play Twelfth Night was named for the revelry that took place during this time.
In Shakespeare's day, the English would have celebrated five feast days at Christmastime:
- December 26, Feast of St. Stephen
- December 27, Feast of St. John
- December 28, Feast of the Holy Innocents
- January 1, Feast of the Circumcision
- January 5, Twelfth Night/Epiphany Eve
How Did Shakespeare Celebrate Christmas?
Many of the Elizabethan traditions would be familiar to us today. To start with, nearly everyone stopped working during the 12 days of festivities, and they wouldn't go back to work until Plough Monday (the first Monday after Twelfth Night). Homes were decorated with holly, ivy, and other greenery. Christmas Day itself was a time of religious devotion; hospitality and charity were expected throughout the 12 days. Gifts would be given, but on January 1 rather than Christmas.
Much of the holidays was spent in revelry and song.1 On Christmas Eve and morning, people traveled around their parish singing carols. On Twelfth Night, groups would go wassailing, visiting house to house with an empty cup meant for homeowners to fill with spiced cider or ale, so the group could drink to the owner's health (and it was considered bad luck to decline). The Elizabethans, always loving their entertainment, attended plays and bear-baiting in droves. There would be dancing and games as well—adults as well as children might play at Barley-Break, Dun in the Mire, or Hoodman's Blind.2
The nobility and gentry held lavish pageants, balls, and feasts during the 12 days and nights. A Lord of Misrule would have been appointed to preside over all the festivity from each evening until morning. For the more common folk, on Twelfth Day a bean might be baked into a cake divided and parceled out to children and servants. The lucky recipient would be pronounced King of the Bean3, to rule until the end of Twelfth Night.
Shakespeare likely celebrated Christmas in London often during his career; his company is documented as performing for the royal court during the holidays on numerous occasions between 1594 and 1608.
What Did Shakespeare Eat at Christmas?
It's likely that Shakespeare ate fairly well at Christmas, since this was a general time of feasting. Among the popular dishes were roast pork or beef, mutton, goose, plum porridge, and several variants of minced pies. Turkey was popular too, having first made it from North America to English dinner tables around 1527.
In aristocratic households, banquets would become extravagant affairs that included all manner of meats as well as imported fruits and vegetables. And much like today, there was an excess of sweetmeats (called the banquet course), including gingerbread, tarts, candied fruits, and a cultural favorite, marchpane (a form of marzipan). Meanwhile, the servants could look forward to humble pie4, so named because it was made from the "humbles" of the deer—kidneys, liver, intestines, etc. These would be seasoned and stewed with suet, apples, and currants, ostensibly to make the humble pie palatable.
So...Which of Shakespeare's Plays Mentioned Christmas?
1 One of our best contemporary sources for Christmas festivities back in Shakespeare's time was the 1604 work Father Hubburd's Tales by Thomas Middleton, which is available online as part of The Works of Thomas Middleton (1886).
2 Barley-Break was a group game in which one couple or player stationed in a defined area called "hell" or the "barley field" tries to catch the others as they venture into it. Dun in the Mire refers literally to getting a horse out of the mud; players competed to lift a heavy log and carry it off. Hoodman's Blind is generally accepted to be an ancestor of Blind Man's Bluff, in which the person chosen as "it" had a hood pulled over his head and sought to capture the other players as they shoved and whipped him. This was all considered fun by Elizabethans, who also viewed executions and bear-baiting as entertaining.
3 In some traditions, if either a man or woman found the bean, they would be King/Queen of the Bean and choose a king or a queen to rule with them. In others, a pea was included, which if found by a woman made her Queen of the Bean alongside whichever man had found the bean. We're not sure what happened if a man found the pea first.
4 Although we're familiar with the figurative usage today, "humble pie" as a metaphor for self-abasement didn't come about until well into the nineteenth century. You can learn more about this usage shift via Voice: The English Learners Dictionary Blog.
5 Biron (1.1): "At Christmas I no more desire a rose" and Biron (5.2) "To dash it like a Christmas comedy."
6 Christopher Sly (Prologue, 2): "Is not a comonty a Christmas gambold or a tumbling-trick?" | <urn:uuid:6171bb53-396d-4759-b1f5-ec622ff613bd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://bardweb.net/content/ac/christmas.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00272.warc.gz | en | 0.980808 | 1,390 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.27083554863929... | 2 | A Very Shakespeare Christmas
by J. M. Pressley, SRC Editor
Shakespeare Fun Fact
When greeted with "Wassail," the proper response is "Drink hail!" Wassailing was a ritual meant to ensure a good cider harvest in the upcoming year.
It's another holiday season of eating, gift-giving, and festivity. But someone recently sent the SRC an email asking about how Shakespeare would have celebrated the holiday. In short: we don't know about Shakespeare specifically. He doesn't write much about Christmas in his plays and poetry. But certainly, he and everyone else in England would have celebrated Christmas back in the day; England pretty much shut down for business from late December through early January. We can reasonably guess that he participated in the festivities along with the rest of the population.
Shakespeare even mentions Christmas directly three times. In which plays? You'll have to read to the end to find out. Yes, it's a cheap trick to get you to read, but there you have it.
When Did Shakespeare Celebrate Christmas?
During Shakespeare's time, Christmas wasn't just a lone holiday; it was a season unto itself. The festivities technically would start on the night of Christmas Eve (December 24) with the burning of a Yule log. The holidays would officially begin December 25 and continue for 12 more days (just like the song) until January 6, the Feast of the Epiphany. Not coincidentally, it's posited that Shakespeare's play Twelfth Night was named for the revelry that took place during this time.
In Shakespeare's day, the English would have celebrated five feast days at Christmastime:
- December 26, Feast of St. Stephen
- December 27, Feast of St. John
- December 28, Feast of the Holy Innocents
- January 1, Feast of the Circumcision
- January 5, Twelfth Night/Epiphany Eve
How Did Shakespeare Celebrate Christmas?
Many of the Elizabethan traditions would be familiar to us today. To start with, nearly everyone stopped working during the 12 days of festivities, and they wouldn't go back to work until Plough Monday (the first Monday after Twelfth Night). Homes were decorated with holly, ivy, and other greenery. Christmas Day itself was a time of religious devotion; hospitality and charity were expected throughout the 12 days. Gifts would be given, but on January 1 rather than Christmas.
Much of the holidays was spent in revelry and song.1 On Christmas Eve and morning, people traveled around their parish singing carols. On Twelfth Night, groups would go wassailing, visiting house to house with an empty cup meant for homeowners to fill with spiced cider or ale, so the group could drink to the owner's health (and it was considered bad luck to decline). The Elizabethans, always loving their entertainment, attended plays and bear-baiting in droves. There would be dancing and games as well—adults as well as children might play at Barley-Break, Dun in the Mire, or Hoodman's Blind.2
The nobility and gentry held lavish pageants, balls, and feasts during the 12 days and nights. A Lord of Misrule would have been appointed to preside over all the festivity from each evening until morning. For the more common folk, on Twelfth Day a bean might be baked into a cake divided and parceled out to children and servants. The lucky recipient would be pronounced King of the Bean3, to rule until the end of Twelfth Night.
Shakespeare likely celebrated Christmas in London often during his career; his company is documented as performing for the royal court during the holidays on numerous occasions between 1594 and 1608.
What Did Shakespeare Eat at Christmas?
It's likely that Shakespeare ate fairly well at Christmas, since this was a general time of feasting. Among the popular dishes were roast pork or beef, mutton, goose, plum porridge, and several variants of minced pies. Turkey was popular too, having first made it from North America to English dinner tables around 1527.
In aristocratic households, banquets would become extravagant affairs that included all manner of meats as well as imported fruits and vegetables. And much like today, there was an excess of sweetmeats (called the banquet course), including gingerbread, tarts, candied fruits, and a cultural favorite, marchpane (a form of marzipan). Meanwhile, the servants could look forward to humble pie4, so named because it was made from the "humbles" of the deer—kidneys, liver, intestines, etc. These would be seasoned and stewed with suet, apples, and currants, ostensibly to make the humble pie palatable.
So...Which of Shakespeare's Plays Mentioned Christmas?
1 One of our best contemporary sources for Christmas festivities back in Shakespeare's time was the 1604 work Father Hubburd's Tales by Thomas Middleton, which is available online as part of The Works of Thomas Middleton (1886).
2 Barley-Break was a group game in which one couple or player stationed in a defined area called "hell" or the "barley field" tries to catch the others as they venture into it. Dun in the Mire refers literally to getting a horse out of the mud; players competed to lift a heavy log and carry it off. Hoodman's Blind is generally accepted to be an ancestor of Blind Man's Bluff, in which the person chosen as "it" had a hood pulled over his head and sought to capture the other players as they shoved and whipped him. This was all considered fun by Elizabethans, who also viewed executions and bear-baiting as entertaining.
3 In some traditions, if either a man or woman found the bean, they would be King/Queen of the Bean and choose a king or a queen to rule with them. In others, a pea was included, which if found by a woman made her Queen of the Bean alongside whichever man had found the bean. We're not sure what happened if a man found the pea first.
4 Although we're familiar with the figurative usage today, "humble pie" as a metaphor for self-abasement didn't come about until well into the nineteenth century. You can learn more about this usage shift via Voice: The English Learners Dictionary Blog.
5 Biron (1.1): "At Christmas I no more desire a rose" and Biron (5.2) "To dash it like a Christmas comedy."
6 Christopher Sly (Prologue, 2): "Is not a comonty a Christmas gambold or a tumbling-trick?" | 1,396 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of the French Foreign Legion
The French Foreign Legion was created by a royal ordinance issued by King Louis Philippe, at the suggestion of Minister of War Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, on March 9, 1831. Nine days later on March 18, 1831, an additional directive was issued restricting membership in the newly formed Legion to foreigners. The latter directive reflected the initial purpose of the Foreign Legion as a mechanism to lessen the potential disruption to the provisional French government and the newly enthroned House of Orléans posed by the large influx of foreigners following the collapse of the Bourbon Restoration in the previous year's July Revolution. Some of these foreigners in France were the remnants of regiments formed during the campaigns of Napoleon of Germans, Swedes, Poles, Hungarians, and others. These foreign veterans had been left with little means and professional military training which proved to be of concern the French government. Many had flocked to France following the July Revolution or came to France following failures of the revolutionary or independence movements throughout Europe; in addition to an influx of idealistic revolutionaries and nationalist, France also became home to large numbers of immigrants who had removed from their countries of origin for economic or personal reasons. This influx of foreigners had become a significant burden for the newly established French government's administrative capabilities; for example during March 1831 a depot established in Langres, France to accommodate these recent immigrants had been inundated to point of overstretch. Furthermore French military operations in Algeria, which had commenced under Charles X, had proven unpopular with portions of the French populace as the campaign, despite its initial success, had become bogged down in the occupation of that country. The formation of the Foreign Legion would help address the domestic threat of dissidents fomenting political instability while contributing to government's colonial endeavors in Algeria.
As part of the Provisional Government's policy of removing potential dissidents from France, upon enlistment recruits guaranteed anonymity as a condition of their service and information provided to the legion was accepted on face value. This was the beginning of what would become the tradition of enlisting volunteers under the anonymat . Officially enlistment of French nationals in the Legion was forbidden, many French criminals enlisted during this time claiming that they were French-speaking Swiss or Walloons. Such enlistments were not within the proposed scope of the Foreign Legion, however the Provisional Government proved not terribly distressed by the voluntary removal of members of a troublesome social element a time when its control of the nation was less than concrete. | <urn:uuid:6cacc56b-0e3e-4f79-a178-8308489282fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.aaale.info/history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00222.warc.gz | en | 0.980594 | 506 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.40437546372413635,... | 14 | History of the French Foreign Legion
The French Foreign Legion was created by a royal ordinance issued by King Louis Philippe, at the suggestion of Minister of War Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, on March 9, 1831. Nine days later on March 18, 1831, an additional directive was issued restricting membership in the newly formed Legion to foreigners. The latter directive reflected the initial purpose of the Foreign Legion as a mechanism to lessen the potential disruption to the provisional French government and the newly enthroned House of Orléans posed by the large influx of foreigners following the collapse of the Bourbon Restoration in the previous year's July Revolution. Some of these foreigners in France were the remnants of regiments formed during the campaigns of Napoleon of Germans, Swedes, Poles, Hungarians, and others. These foreign veterans had been left with little means and professional military training which proved to be of concern the French government. Many had flocked to France following the July Revolution or came to France following failures of the revolutionary or independence movements throughout Europe; in addition to an influx of idealistic revolutionaries and nationalist, France also became home to large numbers of immigrants who had removed from their countries of origin for economic or personal reasons. This influx of foreigners had become a significant burden for the newly established French government's administrative capabilities; for example during March 1831 a depot established in Langres, France to accommodate these recent immigrants had been inundated to point of overstretch. Furthermore French military operations in Algeria, which had commenced under Charles X, had proven unpopular with portions of the French populace as the campaign, despite its initial success, had become bogged down in the occupation of that country. The formation of the Foreign Legion would help address the domestic threat of dissidents fomenting political instability while contributing to government's colonial endeavors in Algeria.
As part of the Provisional Government's policy of removing potential dissidents from France, upon enlistment recruits guaranteed anonymity as a condition of their service and information provided to the legion was accepted on face value. This was the beginning of what would become the tradition of enlisting volunteers under the anonymat . Officially enlistment of French nationals in the Legion was forbidden, many French criminals enlisted during this time claiming that they were French-speaking Swiss or Walloons. Such enlistments were not within the proposed scope of the Foreign Legion, however the Provisional Government proved not terribly distressed by the voluntary removal of members of a troublesome social element a time when its control of the nation was less than concrete. | 518 | ENGLISH | 1 |
English UK » Greek
53 [πενήντα τρία]
53 [penínta tría]
Changing language = Changing personalityOur language belongs to us. It's an important part of our personality. But many people speak multiple languages. Does that mean they have multiple personalities? Researchers believe: yes! When we change languages, we also change our personality. That is to say, we behave differently. American scientists have come to this conclusion. They studied the behavior of bi-lingual women. These women grew up with English and Spanish. They were equally familiar with both languages and cultures. Despite this, their behavior was dependent on the language. When they spoke Spanish the women were more confident.
They were also comfortable when people around them were speaking Spanish. Then, when they spoke English, their behavior changed. They were less confident and often unsure of themselves. The researchers noticed that the women also appeared more solitary. So the language we speak influences our behavior. Researchers don't yet know why this is. Perhaps we are guided by cultural norms. When speaking, we think about the culture from which the language comes. This is done automatically. Therefore, we try to adapt to the culture. We behave in a way that is customary for that culture. Chinese speakers were very reserved in experiments. Then when they spoke English, they were more open. Perhaps we change our behavior in order to integrate better. We want to be like those, with whom we're speaking…
_______ is counted among the East Slavic languages. It is the native language of about 8 million people. These people all live in ******. There are also people in Poland that speak _______ though. It is closely related to Russian and Ukrainian. That means that these languages are very similar to each other. They all arose from the common ancestral language Rus.
Nevertheless there are a few important differences. For example, _______ orthography is strictly phonetic. That means the pronunciation of the words determines how they are written. This feature differentiates _______ from both its relatives. There are also many words in _______ that come from Polish. That is not the case in Russian. _______ grammar is very similar to the grammar of other Slavic languages. Whoever likes this language family should definitely learn _______! | <urn:uuid:7a737237-5da5-4995-ad6a-be71efce060b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.50languages.com/phrasebook/lesson/en/el/53/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00146.warc.gz | en | 0.981068 | 471 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.1871306598186493,
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-0.284810572862625... | 1 | English UK » Greek
53 [πενήντα τρία]
53 [penínta tría]
Changing language = Changing personalityOur language belongs to us. It's an important part of our personality. But many people speak multiple languages. Does that mean they have multiple personalities? Researchers believe: yes! When we change languages, we also change our personality. That is to say, we behave differently. American scientists have come to this conclusion. They studied the behavior of bi-lingual women. These women grew up with English and Spanish. They were equally familiar with both languages and cultures. Despite this, their behavior was dependent on the language. When they spoke Spanish the women were more confident.
They were also comfortable when people around them were speaking Spanish. Then, when they spoke English, their behavior changed. They were less confident and often unsure of themselves. The researchers noticed that the women also appeared more solitary. So the language we speak influences our behavior. Researchers don't yet know why this is. Perhaps we are guided by cultural norms. When speaking, we think about the culture from which the language comes. This is done automatically. Therefore, we try to adapt to the culture. We behave in a way that is customary for that culture. Chinese speakers were very reserved in experiments. Then when they spoke English, they were more open. Perhaps we change our behavior in order to integrate better. We want to be like those, with whom we're speaking…
_______ is counted among the East Slavic languages. It is the native language of about 8 million people. These people all live in ******. There are also people in Poland that speak _______ though. It is closely related to Russian and Ukrainian. That means that these languages are very similar to each other. They all arose from the common ancestral language Rus.
Nevertheless there are a few important differences. For example, _______ orthography is strictly phonetic. That means the pronunciation of the words determines how they are written. This feature differentiates _______ from both its relatives. There are also many words in _______ that come from Polish. That is not the case in Russian. _______ grammar is very similar to the grammar of other Slavic languages. Whoever likes this language family should definitely learn _______! | 468 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1660, the monarchy was restored when Parliament invited King Charles II to take the throne. Although the military played a crucial role in his return, the King soon established a new force - the British Army.
Fought between 1642 and 1651, these wars were primarily disputes between Crown and Parliament about how the British Isles should be governed. But they also had religious and social dimensions, and witnessed the creation of the first national standing army.
The Army played an important role in the downfall of King James II and his replacement by William of Orange in 1688. This ‘Glorious Revolution’ restricted royal power and had a profound impact on the long-term future of the British Army.
Nato has been the cornerstone of British defence planning for 70 years. Originally formed in the 1940s as a bulwark against communism, more recently it has been involved in peacekeeping roles and the ‘war on terror’.
Abram Games was 'Official War Poster Artist' during the Second World War. Always direct, and occasionally controversial, his posters have left a legacy that continues to influence the art of persuasion used by visual designers today.
During the Second World War, Abram Games produced a series of posters for the Army Bureau of Current Affairs. These aimed to remind soldiers what they were fighting for, while also offering a glimpse of the post-war society they could aspire to.
The Crimean War was fought by Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia against Russia. For the British, the campaign was symbolised by military and logistical incompetence alongside the bravery and endurance of its soldiers. | <urn:uuid:d35103b3-2a2a-4ad5-94ec-29da80a62612> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nam.ac.uk/subjects/politics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00071.warc.gz | en | 0.980661 | 325 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.3003801107406... | 15 | In 1660, the monarchy was restored when Parliament invited King Charles II to take the throne. Although the military played a crucial role in his return, the King soon established a new force - the British Army.
Fought between 1642 and 1651, these wars were primarily disputes between Crown and Parliament about how the British Isles should be governed. But they also had religious and social dimensions, and witnessed the creation of the first national standing army.
The Army played an important role in the downfall of King James II and his replacement by William of Orange in 1688. This ‘Glorious Revolution’ restricted royal power and had a profound impact on the long-term future of the British Army.
Nato has been the cornerstone of British defence planning for 70 years. Originally formed in the 1940s as a bulwark against communism, more recently it has been involved in peacekeeping roles and the ‘war on terror’.
Abram Games was 'Official War Poster Artist' during the Second World War. Always direct, and occasionally controversial, his posters have left a legacy that continues to influence the art of persuasion used by visual designers today.
During the Second World War, Abram Games produced a series of posters for the Army Bureau of Current Affairs. These aimed to remind soldiers what they were fighting for, while also offering a glimpse of the post-war society they could aspire to.
The Crimean War was fought by Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia against Russia. For the British, the campaign was symbolised by military and logistical incompetence alongside the bravery and endurance of its soldiers. | 334 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women gaining rights throughout history
I feel the reason women began earning rights during this time period is because of religion and the effects of war. For the longest time throughout the world, women were just seen as secondary to men, being married off for economic benefits. In Europe there was a strict patriarchal power, education was only limited to men, but women could inherit land. In Islam, women would receive half the inheritance of a male, women’s testimonies had less influence then a male testimony, but women were exposed to education.
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India was a very strict society when it came to the female gender because it was also a patriarchal society, they practiced sati (widow burning), early marriage of children, both male and female, and omen had “wedding dowries” which meant they were a financial burden to their family. China, during the Mining dynasty, was also a very strict time period for women due to being confined to their homes, having their feet bound, and having infanticide of female babies be a common occurrence since your status was based on the amount of males in the family.
Due to Backbit and Schism, not only did it bring Islam and Hinduism together in new forms of religious expression, but they both were also in favor of women. A famous Backbit poet was Miramar (1498-1547), she offended the caste extractions when she refused to perform sati and also when she took an old untouchable shoe maker as her guru. You could say she was one of the first feminists in India. Schism was a new religious tradition in Northern India, founded by Guru Nanas (1469-1539).
His idea’s “generally ignored caste distinctions and intractability and ended the seclusion of women, while proclaiming ‘the brotherhood of all mankind’ as well as essential equality of men and women” (739). Though these two movements improved the status of women and spread equality, Schism evolved from a peaceful religious pavement to a militant community, leading to them being highly valued by the British in a later take over by them. Religion was not only a key factor in the changes for women in India, but also for Spanish America where missionaries began going to this region and introducing the bible.
As a result of this, women learned how to read, a very big step seeing as education in most regions was not wasted on females but kept strictly for the men. This wave of religion closed the door to women who had served as shamans, priests, and ritual specialists, due to the church being an all- male clergy, and penned a new door for women to ” convent life, which was reset-Veda largely for Spanish women in the America’s” (728). Though the church opened an alternative door to the closing of women’s old practices, it was expensive to convert and especially for women, showing that there is still oppression, just slightly less suppose.
One famous Spanish female that was brought up on Christianity was Ursula De Jesus, born in 1606. Ursula was born the daughter of a slave and at the age of eight was sent by her mother’s wealthy, female owner, to live with another elite woman who was known for her elisions visions. Five years later, Ursula went to live in the Convent of Santa Clara, always looking “beautifully adorned from head to toe” (730), and later selling all her clothing after a near death experience.
She began devoting every spare moment to prayer and whipping herself twice a day, wearing a crown of thorns to enhance her identification to the pain Jesus Christ endured. Even after her freedom was bought, she stayed at the convent creating “a modest elevation in her social status, an opportunity to pursue spiritual life with fewer restrictions, and a measure of social and economic security’ (731 leading to everyone confining their sins in her and seeing her in an elevated status.
Ursula was the first powerful example of how religion could provide a break in the social norm for female, providing them with meaning, a sense in purpose besides just marriage. The Scientific and Enlightenment movement in Western Europe was a result of Europe having a lot of money due to slavery, imperialism, and because new markets in Europe were searching for a way to have more productivity. Not only did the Scientific and Enlightenment movement change technology and shape production but t also brought about “the question of women’s nature, their role in society, and the education most appropriate for them” (746).
Many women such as Madame Blamer and Mary Woolgathering aggressively defended the necessity of women being equally educated to men. Mar’s statement, that was arguing Rousseau about women being inferior, expresses that without women being educated progress will be limited, ” Till women are more rationally educated, the progress of human virtue and improvement in knowledge must receive continual This statement set the stage for many more debates to come throughout the centuries that followed, specially since the campaign for women’s rights in France had just been launched the following year.
The French Revolution( 1789-1799) was tied very closely with this stir in women demanding equal rights, the problem with this is that whenever a woman stood up to the patriarchal society, such as Olympia De Gouges who published ” Declaration of The Rights of Woman”, they met the fate of the guillotine. Instead of being completely radical, women took the lead in matters such as providing food for their families, food price increases led to riots in 1 792 and 1793. Women were the ones emending the lower prices and later in 1 793, women activists set up their own political clubs in hopes to gain political education.
Though these clubs did not endorse full political rights for women, it did propose ways for women to participate in the war. In October 1 793, the revolutionary government outlawed all women’s clubs. With this ban on women’s clubs came the death of Marie-Jeanne and Olympia De Gouges, two leading women in this movement killed by the guillotine. The queen was also sentenced to death, leaving ordinary women to try and make their way through this difficult political and economic climate. Many ordinary women went to prison due to complaining about food shortages, and for criticizing authorities and local officials.
Though women’s activism was rising and falling constantly, another role opened up for women which was being the symbol of revolutionary values. The values behind revolutions- liberty, equality, reason, fraternity, etc. – were represented by women dressed in Roman attire. This created a paradox within the history Of the French Revolution, ‘Though the male revolutionaries refused to grant women equal political rights, they put pictures of women on everything, from coins and bills and letterheads to even swords and playing cards.
Women might appear in real-life stories of heroism, but they were much more likely to appear as symbols of something else” (Women and the Revolution). Women did not achieve the right to vote during the French Revolution but as Constance Pellet said, it did force women to become more aware of their role in society. Not only did it force women in France to be more aware, but forced women all over to become aware. In Europe and America, “Growing middle classes of industrialization societies, more women found both educational opportunities and some redeem from household drudgery.
Such women increasingly took part in temperance movements, charities, abolitionism, and missionary work, as well as socialist and pacifist organizations” (806), Demonstrating how far the echoes of the French Revolution reached. Feminism became a growing movement on both sides of the Atlantic, the first women’s rights conference was held in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. Among the females of America was Elizabeth Caddy Stanton, a women who was a feminist leader and wrote a Women’s Bible, expressing parts she found offensive towards women in the Bible.
By the 1 ass’s, feminists targeted the issue of suffrage specifically and were gaining momentum in their movement. Most of these women organizations were peaceful , “but the British Women’s Social and Political Union organized a campaign of violence that included blowing up railroad stations, slashing works of art, and smashing department store Women became radical in Europe and America, refusing to take their husbands last names or wearing pants under their skirts. The movement went from a growing movement to a mass movement, spreading rapidly and creating many organizations supporting equality, education, and ports unity for women.
The movement made some progress, by 1 893 New Zealand was the first to grant all adult women the right to vote. In the early sass’s, some upper and middle class women were allowed to go to universities, woman were taught more frequently how to read, and in America many states granted woman the power to control and manage their own property and wages, and also in some places file for a divorce. More jobs opened up for women as well such as Florence Nightingale in Britain, which attracted thousands of women to the nursing career. Another field that became dominated by women was social working, created by Jane Adams.
Though women were making progress, the real progress would not come until after World War one when women power was needed. During World War One, “it marked the first time in the history of the country that regular Army and Navy military nurses served overseas?although without rank?and the first time, women who were not nurses were allowed to enlist in the Navy and Marine Corps. A handful of women also served in the Coast Guard. The US Army, however, refused to enlist women officially, relying on them as contract employees and civilian volunteers” (World War 1 : Women and the War).
Besides working as nurses to help out the war effort, women that were bilingual also worked as telephone operators for the army, and some women joined humanitarian organizations such as the Red Cross, YMCA, and Salvation Army, to also help during wartime. The significance during this time period was not only that women now could obtain a job, but it also marked a new era of women entering the public sphere. After the war was over, women still remained in the public realm, striving for new roles in the workplace and a higher education.
In 1 920, women in America received the right to vote and tot to long after in 1928, England’s women received the right to vote as well. This demand for equality and education not only changed women’s role socially but also children’s roles and the realm of literature. Without women expressing this need for education, children would have remained in the factories, working in horrible conditions and most often being badly injured. With the switch of children from factories to school came a generation of children who would not have to make their children work in the same conditions they had to.
As a reaction to this oppression women faced, many kooks were produced that are important to Literature even today such as Pride and Prejudice, Jane Rye, and The Feminine Mystique. Women, just as with the French Revolution, became the symbol of World War Two (1939-1945). Instead of being seen as majestic women in a toga’s, women were displayed in working outfits such as “Rosier The Riveter” with catch phrases like” we can do it” or ” You give us the fire, we’ll give me’ hell”. This is very significant because women were not just the symbol of the war but were also a strong help to the war.
The government at first politely discouraged omen who wanted to help with the war, but after realizing they would need much more help than expected, women took on the technical jobs normally performed by men. Women war forces also were not supposed to go outside of Australia, but as the war heightened, women were overseas in New Guiana working as anti-aircraft gunners, drivers, mechanics, and radio operators. Not only did women play a strong role in the World War one and two, but also in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1 ass’s and ass’s. Martin Luther King Jar. As the face of the Civil Rights Movement, but without the help of women he loud not have been able to make such a big impact. Though women gained their suffrage in the sass’s, black females were still oppressed due to Jim Crow laws. Women were the ones using their organizational skills and grassroots activism to bring this movement to a success, though Malcolm X and Martin Luther became the symbol of this movement. Daisy Bates (1914-1999) was the one in 1957 who guided the nine black students who triggered a civil rights showdown when they attempted to enter the all-white Central High school in Little Rock.
Another important African American Woman Was Dorothy Height (1912-2010), who Was the longtime president Of the National Council of Negro Women and also a key organizer of the 1963 March on Washington. Besides just African American and white women gaining more rights and entering the public sphere, so did Japanese women during this time period due to World War Two. For a long time, Japanese women would work in silk, textile, and weaving factories, maintaining a poor status until they married, which is when they were to quit their jobs and become house wives.
By 1 943, due to the shortage of men caused by the war, women entered factory jobs. Women that were unmarried and old enough to leave school were required to work in fields such as aircraft manufacturing electrical factories, pharmaceuticals, and textiles. Though the percentage of Japanese helping on the home front was much smaller than the American women percentage, it is still very significant because this was a dramatic change for the lives of these Japanese women. Just like in America, Japanese women were being paid less than men and conditions by the end of the war were awful.
By the time the war was over, food was very little and much Japan lay in ruins, being occupied by America. This is where the Japanese women differed from the American women of this time period, they were living in awful conditions and hungry for food for them and their children, much like the women of the French Revolution. By the end of the war, women were granted rights equivalent to women in western societies. Without World War two pushing women into the work force, it may have been decades before they were able to step up to the plate and compete with the men. Today, the world looks very different for women then it did in the sass’s.
In Time Magazine on March 26th, they displayed statistics showing a haft in earning power, “Almost 40% of wives make more money than their husbands…. Women today make up almost 60% of IIS college students and earn the majority of doctorates and master degrees” (Gender inequality in the U. S. Today). This is obviously a giant change in the status of women, showing that women are close to, if not already, beating men when it comes to education and employment. Though things have become better though, does not mean inequality has disappeared completely from the surface.
A huge piece of evidence to inequality still existing is that ‘Women working full time ND men working full time: women earn a median weekly wage that’s only 81% of a man’s weekly median wage. And even more importantly the percentage of managers who are women has risen from 35% to only 38% of the last twenty years”( Gender Inequality in The U. S. Today). This is outrageous seeing as in 2010, women made up 50. 8% of the population in America and also made up half the workforce. Even though women are working, does not mean there is equality. Besides the wages being unequal, men also hold most of the higher positions in the workforce.
In 220 years, only four women justices have served on the Supreme Court and besides that actor, We have never had a women president. Today in congress, only 1 7 seats are held out of 1 00 by women and only 92 out of 435 House seats. Though these facts are plain to see, many people believe that inequality is a thing of the past. In other parts of the world, inequality is still a very blunt reality for many women. India ranks 132 out of 187 countries on the gender inequality index, with Indian families favoring boys and female fetid being a common occurrence.
Women above the age of 15 only made up 29% of the countries labor force in 2011 where in America women made up 50. 7% of the work force. India has always witnessed gender inequality as a result of its “socio-economic and religious practices that resulted in a wide gap between the position of men and women in society” (Gender inequality In Modern India-scenario and Solution). An example Of this is how in the Ramadan, Ram is a model for how men should act and Sits is the model for women, displaying sexism and violence against women.
Women have it so awful in India that “Every 42 minutes a sexual harassment occurring, every 43 minutes a woman kidnapped and every 93 minutes a woman is burnt for dowry… Rapes involve girls under the age of 16 years. Every 26 minutes a woman is molested and every 34 minutes a rape take place” (Gender Inequality in Modern India-Scenario and Solution). Another region gender inequality is plainly seen is Islam. Although the Quasar’s teachings display that equality is needed between men and women, Islamic laws display another view of oppression placed upon women.
Some of the laws against women are that they have no equal rights to men when it comes to making an independent decision about who to marry, divorce, or custody of children. Another oppressive factor against women besides the law is religion, though he Quern can be read as equality amongst man and woman, when it is reinterpreted it seems to place men over women. An example of this is “Curran verse 4. 34, which refers to men as ‘guardians’ (gunman) (over women), used to justify gender roles and male privilege over Sexuality, Gender, and Islam).
Many have argued thought that this verse may say guardian, but has a different meaning then what they are using it for. Some have said that it is supposed to mean that when your wife is ill or conceiving children, just anything really, you are supposed to protect her and help her get through whatever is occurring. This seems like a better reading then claiming that men have power over women, but still, they do in Islam. This very verse is why, embedded in Muslim laws and societies, men have complete control over women.
So instead of religion benefiting women as it has once in history, it is actually one of the most oppressive factors due to the meaning people take out of it. China, like America, has made much progress with equality among men and women, but there are still problems that cannot be overlooked. It seems over time there has been a decline in women in the workforce, going from over 90% of working-age women being employed in 1 970 to 60. 8% in 2010. This decline came about because China fired tens of millions Of workers at state owned enterprises, Women were fired disproportionately over men.
Also around this period, a “Women Return to Home” movement emerged so that women would quit their jobs, return to domestic duties, and make way for men in the work force during a time of rising unemployment. Society views that women need to be married before they are too old and unwanted by a groom create pressure on young females, resulting in them abandoning their careers or talents to worry about being the perfect housewife for a husband. So there you have it, the progress of women over a time period of almost six hundred years. Many regions such as China, Islam, and India are still struggling when it comes to equality, but why?
My guess would have to be that it’s caused by being developing countries still. China may have agriculture, Physical infrastructure, and gross economic development, but almost half of its country is still rural. This is why I feel Chinese women gained few rights and are now slowly being pushed back out, they are not developed as the rest of the world, but are half way there in their effort to. So what about the future you may ask, it is art to say how long it will take seeing as all this progress took close to six hundred years, but I have faith that one day the whole world will have equality between woman and man. | <urn:uuid:2ca78870-1534-40da-a9f6-be0313ebefa1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://benjaminbarber.org/women-gaining-rights-throughout-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00255.warc.gz | en | 0.984049 | 4,262 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.135964363813... | 1 | Women gaining rights throughout history
I feel the reason women began earning rights during this time period is because of religion and the effects of war. For the longest time throughout the world, women were just seen as secondary to men, being married off for economic benefits. In Europe there was a strict patriarchal power, education was only limited to men, but women could inherit land. In Islam, women would receive half the inheritance of a male, women’s testimonies had less influence then a male testimony, but women were exposed to education.
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India was a very strict society when it came to the female gender because it was also a patriarchal society, they practiced sati (widow burning), early marriage of children, both male and female, and omen had “wedding dowries” which meant they were a financial burden to their family. China, during the Mining dynasty, was also a very strict time period for women due to being confined to their homes, having their feet bound, and having infanticide of female babies be a common occurrence since your status was based on the amount of males in the family.
Due to Backbit and Schism, not only did it bring Islam and Hinduism together in new forms of religious expression, but they both were also in favor of women. A famous Backbit poet was Miramar (1498-1547), she offended the caste extractions when she refused to perform sati and also when she took an old untouchable shoe maker as her guru. You could say she was one of the first feminists in India. Schism was a new religious tradition in Northern India, founded by Guru Nanas (1469-1539).
His idea’s “generally ignored caste distinctions and intractability and ended the seclusion of women, while proclaiming ‘the brotherhood of all mankind’ as well as essential equality of men and women” (739). Though these two movements improved the status of women and spread equality, Schism evolved from a peaceful religious pavement to a militant community, leading to them being highly valued by the British in a later take over by them. Religion was not only a key factor in the changes for women in India, but also for Spanish America where missionaries began going to this region and introducing the bible.
As a result of this, women learned how to read, a very big step seeing as education in most regions was not wasted on females but kept strictly for the men. This wave of religion closed the door to women who had served as shamans, priests, and ritual specialists, due to the church being an all- male clergy, and penned a new door for women to ” convent life, which was reset-Veda largely for Spanish women in the America’s” (728). Though the church opened an alternative door to the closing of women’s old practices, it was expensive to convert and especially for women, showing that there is still oppression, just slightly less suppose.
One famous Spanish female that was brought up on Christianity was Ursula De Jesus, born in 1606. Ursula was born the daughter of a slave and at the age of eight was sent by her mother’s wealthy, female owner, to live with another elite woman who was known for her elisions visions. Five years later, Ursula went to live in the Convent of Santa Clara, always looking “beautifully adorned from head to toe” (730), and later selling all her clothing after a near death experience.
She began devoting every spare moment to prayer and whipping herself twice a day, wearing a crown of thorns to enhance her identification to the pain Jesus Christ endured. Even after her freedom was bought, she stayed at the convent creating “a modest elevation in her social status, an opportunity to pursue spiritual life with fewer restrictions, and a measure of social and economic security’ (731 leading to everyone confining their sins in her and seeing her in an elevated status.
Ursula was the first powerful example of how religion could provide a break in the social norm for female, providing them with meaning, a sense in purpose besides just marriage. The Scientific and Enlightenment movement in Western Europe was a result of Europe having a lot of money due to slavery, imperialism, and because new markets in Europe were searching for a way to have more productivity. Not only did the Scientific and Enlightenment movement change technology and shape production but t also brought about “the question of women’s nature, their role in society, and the education most appropriate for them” (746).
Many women such as Madame Blamer and Mary Woolgathering aggressively defended the necessity of women being equally educated to men. Mar’s statement, that was arguing Rousseau about women being inferior, expresses that without women being educated progress will be limited, ” Till women are more rationally educated, the progress of human virtue and improvement in knowledge must receive continual This statement set the stage for many more debates to come throughout the centuries that followed, specially since the campaign for women’s rights in France had just been launched the following year.
The French Revolution( 1789-1799) was tied very closely with this stir in women demanding equal rights, the problem with this is that whenever a woman stood up to the patriarchal society, such as Olympia De Gouges who published ” Declaration of The Rights of Woman”, they met the fate of the guillotine. Instead of being completely radical, women took the lead in matters such as providing food for their families, food price increases led to riots in 1 792 and 1793. Women were the ones emending the lower prices and later in 1 793, women activists set up their own political clubs in hopes to gain political education.
Though these clubs did not endorse full political rights for women, it did propose ways for women to participate in the war. In October 1 793, the revolutionary government outlawed all women’s clubs. With this ban on women’s clubs came the death of Marie-Jeanne and Olympia De Gouges, two leading women in this movement killed by the guillotine. The queen was also sentenced to death, leaving ordinary women to try and make their way through this difficult political and economic climate. Many ordinary women went to prison due to complaining about food shortages, and for criticizing authorities and local officials.
Though women’s activism was rising and falling constantly, another role opened up for women which was being the symbol of revolutionary values. The values behind revolutions- liberty, equality, reason, fraternity, etc. – were represented by women dressed in Roman attire. This created a paradox within the history Of the French Revolution, ‘Though the male revolutionaries refused to grant women equal political rights, they put pictures of women on everything, from coins and bills and letterheads to even swords and playing cards.
Women might appear in real-life stories of heroism, but they were much more likely to appear as symbols of something else” (Women and the Revolution). Women did not achieve the right to vote during the French Revolution but as Constance Pellet said, it did force women to become more aware of their role in society. Not only did it force women in France to be more aware, but forced women all over to become aware. In Europe and America, “Growing middle classes of industrialization societies, more women found both educational opportunities and some redeem from household drudgery.
Such women increasingly took part in temperance movements, charities, abolitionism, and missionary work, as well as socialist and pacifist organizations” (806), Demonstrating how far the echoes of the French Revolution reached. Feminism became a growing movement on both sides of the Atlantic, the first women’s rights conference was held in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. Among the females of America was Elizabeth Caddy Stanton, a women who was a feminist leader and wrote a Women’s Bible, expressing parts she found offensive towards women in the Bible.
By the 1 ass’s, feminists targeted the issue of suffrage specifically and were gaining momentum in their movement. Most of these women organizations were peaceful , “but the British Women’s Social and Political Union organized a campaign of violence that included blowing up railroad stations, slashing works of art, and smashing department store Women became radical in Europe and America, refusing to take their husbands last names or wearing pants under their skirts. The movement went from a growing movement to a mass movement, spreading rapidly and creating many organizations supporting equality, education, and ports unity for women.
The movement made some progress, by 1 893 New Zealand was the first to grant all adult women the right to vote. In the early sass’s, some upper and middle class women were allowed to go to universities, woman were taught more frequently how to read, and in America many states granted woman the power to control and manage their own property and wages, and also in some places file for a divorce. More jobs opened up for women as well such as Florence Nightingale in Britain, which attracted thousands of women to the nursing career. Another field that became dominated by women was social working, created by Jane Adams.
Though women were making progress, the real progress would not come until after World War one when women power was needed. During World War One, “it marked the first time in the history of the country that regular Army and Navy military nurses served overseas?although without rank?and the first time, women who were not nurses were allowed to enlist in the Navy and Marine Corps. A handful of women also served in the Coast Guard. The US Army, however, refused to enlist women officially, relying on them as contract employees and civilian volunteers” (World War 1 : Women and the War).
Besides working as nurses to help out the war effort, women that were bilingual also worked as telephone operators for the army, and some women joined humanitarian organizations such as the Red Cross, YMCA, and Salvation Army, to also help during wartime. The significance during this time period was not only that women now could obtain a job, but it also marked a new era of women entering the public sphere. After the war was over, women still remained in the public realm, striving for new roles in the workplace and a higher education.
In 1 920, women in America received the right to vote and tot to long after in 1928, England’s women received the right to vote as well. This demand for equality and education not only changed women’s role socially but also children’s roles and the realm of literature. Without women expressing this need for education, children would have remained in the factories, working in horrible conditions and most often being badly injured. With the switch of children from factories to school came a generation of children who would not have to make their children work in the same conditions they had to.
As a reaction to this oppression women faced, many kooks were produced that are important to Literature even today such as Pride and Prejudice, Jane Rye, and The Feminine Mystique. Women, just as with the French Revolution, became the symbol of World War Two (1939-1945). Instead of being seen as majestic women in a toga’s, women were displayed in working outfits such as “Rosier The Riveter” with catch phrases like” we can do it” or ” You give us the fire, we’ll give me’ hell”. This is very significant because women were not just the symbol of the war but were also a strong help to the war.
The government at first politely discouraged omen who wanted to help with the war, but after realizing they would need much more help than expected, women took on the technical jobs normally performed by men. Women war forces also were not supposed to go outside of Australia, but as the war heightened, women were overseas in New Guiana working as anti-aircraft gunners, drivers, mechanics, and radio operators. Not only did women play a strong role in the World War one and two, but also in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1 ass’s and ass’s. Martin Luther King Jar. As the face of the Civil Rights Movement, but without the help of women he loud not have been able to make such a big impact. Though women gained their suffrage in the sass’s, black females were still oppressed due to Jim Crow laws. Women were the ones using their organizational skills and grassroots activism to bring this movement to a success, though Malcolm X and Martin Luther became the symbol of this movement. Daisy Bates (1914-1999) was the one in 1957 who guided the nine black students who triggered a civil rights showdown when they attempted to enter the all-white Central High school in Little Rock.
Another important African American Woman Was Dorothy Height (1912-2010), who Was the longtime president Of the National Council of Negro Women and also a key organizer of the 1963 March on Washington. Besides just African American and white women gaining more rights and entering the public sphere, so did Japanese women during this time period due to World War Two. For a long time, Japanese women would work in silk, textile, and weaving factories, maintaining a poor status until they married, which is when they were to quit their jobs and become house wives.
By 1 943, due to the shortage of men caused by the war, women entered factory jobs. Women that were unmarried and old enough to leave school were required to work in fields such as aircraft manufacturing electrical factories, pharmaceuticals, and textiles. Though the percentage of Japanese helping on the home front was much smaller than the American women percentage, it is still very significant because this was a dramatic change for the lives of these Japanese women. Just like in America, Japanese women were being paid less than men and conditions by the end of the war were awful.
By the time the war was over, food was very little and much Japan lay in ruins, being occupied by America. This is where the Japanese women differed from the American women of this time period, they were living in awful conditions and hungry for food for them and their children, much like the women of the French Revolution. By the end of the war, women were granted rights equivalent to women in western societies. Without World War two pushing women into the work force, it may have been decades before they were able to step up to the plate and compete with the men. Today, the world looks very different for women then it did in the sass’s.
In Time Magazine on March 26th, they displayed statistics showing a haft in earning power, “Almost 40% of wives make more money than their husbands…. Women today make up almost 60% of IIS college students and earn the majority of doctorates and master degrees” (Gender inequality in the U. S. Today). This is obviously a giant change in the status of women, showing that women are close to, if not already, beating men when it comes to education and employment. Though things have become better though, does not mean inequality has disappeared completely from the surface.
A huge piece of evidence to inequality still existing is that ‘Women working full time ND men working full time: women earn a median weekly wage that’s only 81% of a man’s weekly median wage. And even more importantly the percentage of managers who are women has risen from 35% to only 38% of the last twenty years”( Gender Inequality in The U. S. Today). This is outrageous seeing as in 2010, women made up 50. 8% of the population in America and also made up half the workforce. Even though women are working, does not mean there is equality. Besides the wages being unequal, men also hold most of the higher positions in the workforce.
In 220 years, only four women justices have served on the Supreme Court and besides that actor, We have never had a women president. Today in congress, only 1 7 seats are held out of 1 00 by women and only 92 out of 435 House seats. Though these facts are plain to see, many people believe that inequality is a thing of the past. In other parts of the world, inequality is still a very blunt reality for many women. India ranks 132 out of 187 countries on the gender inequality index, with Indian families favoring boys and female fetid being a common occurrence.
Women above the age of 15 only made up 29% of the countries labor force in 2011 where in America women made up 50. 7% of the work force. India has always witnessed gender inequality as a result of its “socio-economic and religious practices that resulted in a wide gap between the position of men and women in society” (Gender inequality In Modern India-scenario and Solution). An example Of this is how in the Ramadan, Ram is a model for how men should act and Sits is the model for women, displaying sexism and violence against women.
Women have it so awful in India that “Every 42 minutes a sexual harassment occurring, every 43 minutes a woman kidnapped and every 93 minutes a woman is burnt for dowry… Rapes involve girls under the age of 16 years. Every 26 minutes a woman is molested and every 34 minutes a rape take place” (Gender Inequality in Modern India-Scenario and Solution). Another region gender inequality is plainly seen is Islam. Although the Quasar’s teachings display that equality is needed between men and women, Islamic laws display another view of oppression placed upon women.
Some of the laws against women are that they have no equal rights to men when it comes to making an independent decision about who to marry, divorce, or custody of children. Another oppressive factor against women besides the law is religion, though he Quern can be read as equality amongst man and woman, when it is reinterpreted it seems to place men over women. An example of this is “Curran verse 4. 34, which refers to men as ‘guardians’ (gunman) (over women), used to justify gender roles and male privilege over Sexuality, Gender, and Islam).
Many have argued thought that this verse may say guardian, but has a different meaning then what they are using it for. Some have said that it is supposed to mean that when your wife is ill or conceiving children, just anything really, you are supposed to protect her and help her get through whatever is occurring. This seems like a better reading then claiming that men have power over women, but still, they do in Islam. This very verse is why, embedded in Muslim laws and societies, men have complete control over women.
So instead of religion benefiting women as it has once in history, it is actually one of the most oppressive factors due to the meaning people take out of it. China, like America, has made much progress with equality among men and women, but there are still problems that cannot be overlooked. It seems over time there has been a decline in women in the workforce, going from over 90% of working-age women being employed in 1 970 to 60. 8% in 2010. This decline came about because China fired tens of millions Of workers at state owned enterprises, Women were fired disproportionately over men.
Also around this period, a “Women Return to Home” movement emerged so that women would quit their jobs, return to domestic duties, and make way for men in the work force during a time of rising unemployment. Society views that women need to be married before they are too old and unwanted by a groom create pressure on young females, resulting in them abandoning their careers or talents to worry about being the perfect housewife for a husband. So there you have it, the progress of women over a time period of almost six hundred years. Many regions such as China, Islam, and India are still struggling when it comes to equality, but why?
My guess would have to be that it’s caused by being developing countries still. China may have agriculture, Physical infrastructure, and gross economic development, but almost half of its country is still rural. This is why I feel Chinese women gained few rights and are now slowly being pushed back out, they are not developed as the rest of the world, but are half way there in their effort to. So what about the future you may ask, it is art to say how long it will take seeing as all this progress took close to six hundred years, but I have faith that one day the whole world will have equality between woman and man. | 4,277 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the poem, the speaker Yeats urges an older woman Maud to read from a book and reminisce on her youthful appearance. Personification : Personification is to give human characteristics to inanimate objects.
What enchants the reader is the way he has drawn a metaphorical comparison to show his genuine love for his mistress. Yeats' early poetry focuses on ancient Irish epics as well as the contemporary nationalist movement that was gaining force in Ireland.
Alliteration : Alliteration is a repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of the letters in the same line. When You Are Old is largely written in words of one syllable, which you may think emphasises the simplicity and sadness of the message that the voice is sending to the intended recipient.
But the voice in the poem loves the soul which we might describe as a combination of personality and character of his beloved, a type of love likely to be more enduring. Both were nationalists, and it was this passion, coupled with her undeniable beauty, that made Yeats fall in love with her.
I must admit, I was the same before I began studying his work.
However, he mentions that there was only one person who loved her sincerely despite knowing the transient qualities of her beauty. | <urn:uuid:00f716ac-6f1d-4c49-acf0-e7111c176e70> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vytovytypacady.whatshanesaid.com/what-poetic-devices-are-used-in-the-poem-when-you-are-old-by-yeats128306778nc.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00343.warc.gz | en | 0.981501 | 257 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.08489294350... | 1 | In the poem, the speaker Yeats urges an older woman Maud to read from a book and reminisce on her youthful appearance. Personification : Personification is to give human characteristics to inanimate objects.
What enchants the reader is the way he has drawn a metaphorical comparison to show his genuine love for his mistress. Yeats' early poetry focuses on ancient Irish epics as well as the contemporary nationalist movement that was gaining force in Ireland.
Alliteration : Alliteration is a repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of the letters in the same line. When You Are Old is largely written in words of one syllable, which you may think emphasises the simplicity and sadness of the message that the voice is sending to the intended recipient.
But the voice in the poem loves the soul which we might describe as a combination of personality and character of his beloved, a type of love likely to be more enduring. Both were nationalists, and it was this passion, coupled with her undeniable beauty, that made Yeats fall in love with her.
I must admit, I was the same before I began studying his work.
However, he mentions that there was only one person who loved her sincerely despite knowing the transient qualities of her beauty. | 249 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What does this mean? I remember reciting this question and the responses when I was a seventh grader in confirmation class studying Luther’s Small Catechism. I could not have guessed when I was 13 that I would still be asking myself that question- What does this mean? Except now, when I ask the question- What does this mean?- I’m reflecting on my vocation of being a mama and a teacher. What does this mean to be a mama and a teacher?
During my recent research for my dissertation study I found myself studying the very nature of these questions. As a researcher I believe in order to better understand the world of today, one must understand the world of yesterday. This meant that I spent quite a bit of time reading a variety of history books to more fully understand the history of women in the Western world- specifically how women became to represent the teaching profession. In 2011–12, 76 percent of public school teachers were female (National Center for Education Statistics). What I found was the foundation for this reality was laid during the Reformation.
During Luther’s Reformation, women became valued for their role in the family’s religious instruction (McClelland, 1992). Luther was an early supporter of educating both boys and girls, because he believed when girls become mothers they would then be able to manage the home and children, including the religious instruction within the home (Virtual Museum of Protestantism). Prior to this time the majority of women were not even literate. (Virtual Museum of Protestantism; Vandenbery-Daves, 2014).
These beliefs and values from the Reformation followed the settlers to the New Land and became the foundation of the political movement of the republican mother in the new republic (McClelland, 1992). A republican mother was a mother that was educated. And she was educated, so she could raise her sons to be able to effectively participate in the nation’s government and her daughters to be future wives and mothers that would one day be the ones raising the next generation to participate in the government. The success of the new country was in the hands of mothers and their work in their homes.
The republican mother political movement also determined mothers to be morally superior to men (Hays, 1996; Vandenberg-Daves, 2014). So, when the idea for a free and public education for all came to the newly founded country, it only made sense to seek women- the ones morally superior- to become teachers. (Of course, there was also an economic reason, but that’s a post for another day.) Fast forward to today and one can see that Luther’s beliefs from the Reformation continue to persist, especially in our schools and homes.
It means that as a mama in today’s world, I still feel like I am the one that is ultimately responsible for not only the successes of my children, but also their failures. If my children fail, somehow I have failed them, as their mama. And it means that my home (its cleanliness and my cooking) are also attributed to me, as the mama. It doesn’t matter that I have a husband that can help with our children and home, because the pressure is not on him- it’s on me, as the mama.
I mentioned at the beginning that I’m also a teacher, specifically a professor in the College of Education. The teaching vocation is also a vocation that carries a lot of responsibility. So, how do I negotiate my vocations- mama and teacher? Unlike the clear answers given in the Catechism, I am still looking for the answers to my questions- the “what does this mean?” But, I believe that during my recent research for my dissertation study I came to more fully understand and appreciate both of my vocations.
I have included two images that helped me understand and appreciate my vocations- mama and teacher. The first image is a picture my oldest son snapped one Saturday morning while I was helping one of our twins learn to scramble eggs on the stove. At the time our youngest child, our daughter was stubborn in learning to walk (she was 15 months in this image), since she enjoyed being carried around by not only me, but also her big brothers.)
And the other image was captured during my work at Concordia Texas, as a teacher. It was actually a marketing photo shoot image, but I also remember from this image that I had just returned from my maternity leave, after having our daughter. She was only three months when this image was taken, so while I see the immense joy that my teaching vocation brings to me in my eyes, I also see my tired eyes from having a newborn in our home and caring for our other three children, too.
Of course, some would be quick to say that perhaps I shouldn’t be working outside of the home-my greatest vocation is in the home. But, what if I feel called to both? And what would Martin Luther say today about my feeling called to both? While it’s always hard to know for sure what one from the past would say about our today, Martin Luther did write about the possibilities of a professional career for women. He wrote that girls should also study the liberal arts like their brothers (Green, 1979). And he even pointed out the need for female teachers. Before women entered the teaching profession it was considered a profession for men. So, maybe if Luther was writing today he would be encouraging women to be professionals, in addition to their vocation of being mothers.
For me, I have decided that I don’t want to choose between the two- that I can be both a mama and a teacher. And looking at the images just reminds of this even more, because the joy I feel from even from looking at these two images of my vocations fills my heart with gratitude to the Lord.
We value our adult learner population at Concordia University Texas. Here are 9 tips to help you go back to school.
Join us for Concordia Crossing to celebrate this wonderful University and the people who make it so great.
View the fascinating history of Concordia through the eyes of the University's mascots. | <urn:uuid:3e59cb0d-3ac6-4666-84ca-4b19ca0d7f6e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.concordia.edu/blog/authors/luther-and-women-sarah-baker-reformation-series.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00067.warc.gz | en | 0.981317 | 1,292 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.0626298859715461... | 1 | What does this mean? I remember reciting this question and the responses when I was a seventh grader in confirmation class studying Luther’s Small Catechism. I could not have guessed when I was 13 that I would still be asking myself that question- What does this mean? Except now, when I ask the question- What does this mean?- I’m reflecting on my vocation of being a mama and a teacher. What does this mean to be a mama and a teacher?
During my recent research for my dissertation study I found myself studying the very nature of these questions. As a researcher I believe in order to better understand the world of today, one must understand the world of yesterday. This meant that I spent quite a bit of time reading a variety of history books to more fully understand the history of women in the Western world- specifically how women became to represent the teaching profession. In 2011–12, 76 percent of public school teachers were female (National Center for Education Statistics). What I found was the foundation for this reality was laid during the Reformation.
During Luther’s Reformation, women became valued for their role in the family’s religious instruction (McClelland, 1992). Luther was an early supporter of educating both boys and girls, because he believed when girls become mothers they would then be able to manage the home and children, including the religious instruction within the home (Virtual Museum of Protestantism). Prior to this time the majority of women were not even literate. (Virtual Museum of Protestantism; Vandenbery-Daves, 2014).
These beliefs and values from the Reformation followed the settlers to the New Land and became the foundation of the political movement of the republican mother in the new republic (McClelland, 1992). A republican mother was a mother that was educated. And she was educated, so she could raise her sons to be able to effectively participate in the nation’s government and her daughters to be future wives and mothers that would one day be the ones raising the next generation to participate in the government. The success of the new country was in the hands of mothers and their work in their homes.
The republican mother political movement also determined mothers to be morally superior to men (Hays, 1996; Vandenberg-Daves, 2014). So, when the idea for a free and public education for all came to the newly founded country, it only made sense to seek women- the ones morally superior- to become teachers. (Of course, there was also an economic reason, but that’s a post for another day.) Fast forward to today and one can see that Luther’s beliefs from the Reformation continue to persist, especially in our schools and homes.
It means that as a mama in today’s world, I still feel like I am the one that is ultimately responsible for not only the successes of my children, but also their failures. If my children fail, somehow I have failed them, as their mama. And it means that my home (its cleanliness and my cooking) are also attributed to me, as the mama. It doesn’t matter that I have a husband that can help with our children and home, because the pressure is not on him- it’s on me, as the mama.
I mentioned at the beginning that I’m also a teacher, specifically a professor in the College of Education. The teaching vocation is also a vocation that carries a lot of responsibility. So, how do I negotiate my vocations- mama and teacher? Unlike the clear answers given in the Catechism, I am still looking for the answers to my questions- the “what does this mean?” But, I believe that during my recent research for my dissertation study I came to more fully understand and appreciate both of my vocations.
I have included two images that helped me understand and appreciate my vocations- mama and teacher. The first image is a picture my oldest son snapped one Saturday morning while I was helping one of our twins learn to scramble eggs on the stove. At the time our youngest child, our daughter was stubborn in learning to walk (she was 15 months in this image), since she enjoyed being carried around by not only me, but also her big brothers.)
And the other image was captured during my work at Concordia Texas, as a teacher. It was actually a marketing photo shoot image, but I also remember from this image that I had just returned from my maternity leave, after having our daughter. She was only three months when this image was taken, so while I see the immense joy that my teaching vocation brings to me in my eyes, I also see my tired eyes from having a newborn in our home and caring for our other three children, too.
Of course, some would be quick to say that perhaps I shouldn’t be working outside of the home-my greatest vocation is in the home. But, what if I feel called to both? And what would Martin Luther say today about my feeling called to both? While it’s always hard to know for sure what one from the past would say about our today, Martin Luther did write about the possibilities of a professional career for women. He wrote that girls should also study the liberal arts like their brothers (Green, 1979). And he even pointed out the need for female teachers. Before women entered the teaching profession it was considered a profession for men. So, maybe if Luther was writing today he would be encouraging women to be professionals, in addition to their vocation of being mothers.
For me, I have decided that I don’t want to choose between the two- that I can be both a mama and a teacher. And looking at the images just reminds of this even more, because the joy I feel from even from looking at these two images of my vocations fills my heart with gratitude to the Lord.
We value our adult learner population at Concordia University Texas. Here are 9 tips to help you go back to school.
Join us for Concordia Crossing to celebrate this wonderful University and the people who make it so great.
View the fascinating history of Concordia through the eyes of the University's mascots. | 1,269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Middle school can be hard for kids. Most kids don’t want to stand out from the crowd. They may hesitate to speak up for themselves, not only with other kids, but with teachers, too. Kids who learn and think differently may be used to watching you advocate for them to help them get the support they need.
When they hit middle school, though, you’re not always going to be there when things get tough. So, it’s more important than ever for kids to learn self-advocacy skills. Kids might not be ready to be their only advocate, but there are ways to start teaching them to speak up for themselves.
1. Talk about the challenges of middle school.
The transition to middle school can be tough. Kids usually have more teachers in middle school than they did in grade school. And the teachers may all have different teaching styles. Speaking up to some of the teachers can be scary, especially when kids are used to having only one or two main teachers.
Remind your child that the teachers are there to help, but that they need to know their students in order to know how to help them. Kids can make a 3×3 card to share with their teachers. This is an easy way to let teachers know more about what kids are good at, what they like, and what is challenging for them.
2. Let kids know you’re on their team.
Kids in middle school are still learning to speak up for themselves. Make sure they know you’re still going to speak up for them and that you’ll jump in when you’re needed. It’s good for kids to know not only that you’re on their team, but that you’re also still learning how to be an effective advocate. It’s something you can work on together.
3. Help kids learn their strengths.
4. Talk openly about learning and thinking differences.
Kids who learn and think differently know that some things are more challenging for them. They know it has an effect on how they learn and at home. But they may need to know it’s OK to talk about it. Talk about learning and thinking differences at home. You don’t have to use too many clinical terms. But knowing you’re willing to talk can help reduce stigma and empower kids. | <urn:uuid:f398b9e9-7004-4535-9e0f-9bfffc2dc3fc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.understood.org/en/friends-feelings/empowering-your-child/self-advocacy/4-tips-for-helping-your-middle-schooler-learn-to-self-advocate | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.980828 | 491 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Middle school can be hard for kids. Most kids don’t want to stand out from the crowd. They may hesitate to speak up for themselves, not only with other kids, but with teachers, too. Kids who learn and think differently may be used to watching you advocate for them to help them get the support they need.
When they hit middle school, though, you’re not always going to be there when things get tough. So, it’s more important than ever for kids to learn self-advocacy skills. Kids might not be ready to be their only advocate, but there are ways to start teaching them to speak up for themselves.
1. Talk about the challenges of middle school.
The transition to middle school can be tough. Kids usually have more teachers in middle school than they did in grade school. And the teachers may all have different teaching styles. Speaking up to some of the teachers can be scary, especially when kids are used to having only one or two main teachers.
Remind your child that the teachers are there to help, but that they need to know their students in order to know how to help them. Kids can make a 3×3 card to share with their teachers. This is an easy way to let teachers know more about what kids are good at, what they like, and what is challenging for them.
2. Let kids know you’re on their team.
Kids in middle school are still learning to speak up for themselves. Make sure they know you’re still going to speak up for them and that you’ll jump in when you’re needed. It’s good for kids to know not only that you’re on their team, but that you’re also still learning how to be an effective advocate. It’s something you can work on together.
3. Help kids learn their strengths.
4. Talk openly about learning and thinking differences.
Kids who learn and think differently know that some things are more challenging for them. They know it has an effect on how they learn and at home. But they may need to know it’s OK to talk about it. Talk about learning and thinking differences at home. You don’t have to use too many clinical terms. But knowing you’re willing to talk can help reduce stigma and empower kids. | 455 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This page tells about the history of the Pennsylvania Colony.
The land that is now Pennsylvania was actually first claimed by the Swedes under Peter Minuit in 1638. Minuit had agreed to help them establish a colony after having a falling out with Dutch officials. Although the Swedes did colonize the region on the west banks of the Delaware River, known at the time as Nya Sverige, or New Sweden, they were attacked and displaced by the Dutch in 1655. In turn, the British would dispatch the Dutch from the region in 1664.
Pennsylvania was founded in 1681 by William Penn. Penn was issued a land grant by King Charles II largely because of a significant debt owed to his father, Admiral Penn. At the time, the grant was one of the largest in terms of area ever known. It was named Pennsylvania, which means Penn’s Woods, after Admiral Penn.
Penn quickly established a government based on religious freedom for the Quakers. Quakers did not believe in the strict rules imposed by the Puritan church. They believed that people could have a direct relation with God, rather than one mediated by a minister.The colony’s religious tolerance soon attracted German and Scottish immigrants, and promoted more peaceful relations with local Indians. Furthermore, it helped Philadelphia grow into the most important city in the thirteen colonies, and it helped established Pennsylvania Dutch Country, where German “Deutsh” political and religious refugees formed farming communities. | <urn:uuid:d48fad11-2ce5-45fa-b677-5fbd9510bf02> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/pennsylvania-colony | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00532.warc.gz | en | 0.984937 | 300 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.16756433248... | 1 | This page tells about the history of the Pennsylvania Colony.
The land that is now Pennsylvania was actually first claimed by the Swedes under Peter Minuit in 1638. Minuit had agreed to help them establish a colony after having a falling out with Dutch officials. Although the Swedes did colonize the region on the west banks of the Delaware River, known at the time as Nya Sverige, or New Sweden, they were attacked and displaced by the Dutch in 1655. In turn, the British would dispatch the Dutch from the region in 1664.
Pennsylvania was founded in 1681 by William Penn. Penn was issued a land grant by King Charles II largely because of a significant debt owed to his father, Admiral Penn. At the time, the grant was one of the largest in terms of area ever known. It was named Pennsylvania, which means Penn’s Woods, after Admiral Penn.
Penn quickly established a government based on religious freedom for the Quakers. Quakers did not believe in the strict rules imposed by the Puritan church. They believed that people could have a direct relation with God, rather than one mediated by a minister.The colony’s religious tolerance soon attracted German and Scottish immigrants, and promoted more peaceful relations with local Indians. Furthermore, it helped Philadelphia grow into the most important city in the thirteen colonies, and it helped established Pennsylvania Dutch Country, where German “Deutsh” political and religious refugees formed farming communities. | 301 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bushman Relics Protection Act, The
Agitations by the South African National Society for protection in legislation of historical artefacts and relics lead to the promulgation of the Act of 1911, the earliest of Union (1910), a Bushman Relic was described as any drawing or painting on stone or engraving of the kind commonly known or believed to have been made by Bushmen or other aboriginals. It included the contents of the caves, rock shelters, graves, middens and shell-mounds which had accumulated on prehistoric living sites. It also laid down that no one could remove or export any Bushman relic without first having obtained a permit to do so. Defacement or destruction of relics became a punishable offence. This effectively put an end to the unlicensed removal and export of prehistoric treasures for which South Africa had become famous. Unfortunately, however, destruction was not entirely stopped. Apart from the normal vandalism of persons who inscribed their initials and the dates of their visits over the engraved or painted frescoes, many caves were used as sheep and cattle pens or other refuges in which fires were often made and the paintings obliterated by soot or otherwise defaced. It was therefore felt that further legislation was necessary which was the passing of the Natural and Historical Monuments Act of 1923. | <urn:uuid:aaa786bb-7e8c-4ab2-a370-b46d41085612> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.artefacts.co.za/main/Buildings/style_det.php?styleid=385 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.982296 | 264 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.549732387065... | 4 | Bushman Relics Protection Act, The
Agitations by the South African National Society for protection in legislation of historical artefacts and relics lead to the promulgation of the Act of 1911, the earliest of Union (1910), a Bushman Relic was described as any drawing or painting on stone or engraving of the kind commonly known or believed to have been made by Bushmen or other aboriginals. It included the contents of the caves, rock shelters, graves, middens and shell-mounds which had accumulated on prehistoric living sites. It also laid down that no one could remove or export any Bushman relic without first having obtained a permit to do so. Defacement or destruction of relics became a punishable offence. This effectively put an end to the unlicensed removal and export of prehistoric treasures for which South Africa had become famous. Unfortunately, however, destruction was not entirely stopped. Apart from the normal vandalism of persons who inscribed their initials and the dates of their visits over the engraved or painted frescoes, many caves were used as sheep and cattle pens or other refuges in which fires were often made and the paintings obliterated by soot or otherwise defaced. It was therefore felt that further legislation was necessary which was the passing of the Natural and Historical Monuments Act of 1923. | 274 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Was Muhammad Ali?
Muhammad Ali was a boxer, philanthropist and social activist who is universally regarded as one of the greatest athletes of the 20th century. Ali became an Olympic gold medalist in 1960 and the world heavyweight boxing champion in 1964.
Following his suspension for refusing military service, Ali reclaimed the heavyweight title two more times during the 1970s, winning famed bouts against Joe Frazier and George Foreman along the way. Diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 1984, Ali devoted much of his time to philanthropy, earning the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2005.
Ali was born on January 17, 1942, in Louisville, Kentucky. His birth name was Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr.
At an early age, young Clay showed that he wasn't afraid of any bout — inside or outside of the ring. Growing up in the segregated South, he experienced racial prejudice and discrimination firsthand.
At the age of 12, Clay discovered his talent for boxing through an odd twist of fate. After his bike was stolen, Clay told a police officer, Joe Martin, that he wanted to beat up the thief.
"Well, you better learn how to fight before you start challenging people," Martin reportedly told him at the time. In addition to being a police officer, Martin also trained young boxers at a local gym.
Clay started working with Martin to learn how to spar and soon began his boxing career. In his first amateur bout in 1954, he won the fight by split decision.
Clay went on to win the 1956 Golden Gloves tournament for novices in the light heavyweight class. Three years later, he won the National Golden Gloves Tournament of Champions, as well as the Amateur Athletic Union's national title for the light heavyweight division.
Muhammad Ali's Life in Photos
In 1960, Clay won a spot on the U.S. Olympic boxing team, and traveled to Rome, Italy, to compete. At six feet, three inches tall, Clay was an imposing figure in the ring, but he also became known for his lightning speed and fancy footwork. After winning his first three bouts, Clay defeated Zbigniew Pietrzkowski of Poland to win the light heavyweight Olympic gold medal.
After his Olympic victory, Clay was heralded as an American hero. He soon turned professional with the backing of the Louisville Sponsoring Group and continued overwhelming all opponents in the ring.
Conversion to Islam
Clay joined the black Muslim group Nation of Islam in 1964. At first, he called himself Cassius X before settling on the name Muhammad Ali. The boxer eventually converted to orthodox Islam during the 1970s.
Vietnam and Supreme Court Case
Ali started a different kind of fight with his outspoken views against the Vietnam War.
Drafted into the military in April 1967, he refused to serve on the grounds that he was a practicing Muslim minister with religious beliefs that prevented him from fighting. He was arrested for committing a felony and almost immediately stripped of his world title and boxing license.
The U.S. Department of Justice pursued a legal case against Ali, denying his claim for conscientious objector status. He was found guilty of violating Selective Service laws and sentenced to five years in prison in June 1967 but remained free while appealing his conviction.
Unable to compete professionally in the meantime, Ali missed more than three prime years of his athletic career. Ali returned to the ring in 1970 with a win over Jerry Quarry, and the U.S. Supreme Court eventually overturned the conviction in June 1971.
Muhammad Ali: Record
Ali had a career record of 56 wins, five losses and 37 knockouts before his retirement from boxing in 1981 at the age of 39.
PHOTOS: Muhammad Ali's Best Fight Moments
Often referring to himself as "The Greatest," Ali was not afraid to sing his own praises. He was known for boasting about his skills before a fight and for his colorful descriptions and phrases.
In one of his more famously quoted descriptions, Ali told reporters that he could "float like a butterfly, sting like a bee" in the boxing ring. A few of his more well-known matches include the following:
After winning gold at the 1960 Olympics, Ali took out British heavyweight champion Henry Cooper in 1963. He then knocked out Sonny Liston in 1964 to become the heavyweight champion of the world.
In 1971, Ali took on Joe Frazier in what has been called the "Fight of the Century." Frazier and Ali went toe-to-toe for 14 rounds before Frazier dropped Ali with a vicious left hook in the 15th. Ali recovered quickly, but the judges awarded the decision to Frazier, handing Ali his first professional loss after 31 wins.
After suffering a loss to Ken Norton, Ali beat Frazier in a 1974 rematch.
In 1975, Ali and Frazier locked horns again for their grudge match in Quezon City, Philippines. Dubbed the "Thrilla in Manila," the bout nearly went the distance, with both men delivering and absorbing tremendous punishment. However, Frazier's trainer threw in the towel after the 14th round, giving the hard-fought victory to Ali.
Another legendary Ali fight took place in 1974 against undefeated heavyweight champion George Foreman. Billed as the "Rumble in the Jungle," the bout was organized by promoter Don King and held in Kinshasa, Zaire.
For once, Ali was seen as the underdog to the younger, massive Foreman, but he silenced his critics with a masterful performance. He baited Foreman into throwing wild punches with his "rope-a-dope" technique, before stunning his opponent with an eighth-round knockout to reclaim the heavyweight title.
After losing his title to Leon Spinks in February 1978, Ali defeated him in a September 1978 rematch, becoming the first boxer to win the heavyweight championship three times.
Following a brief retirement, Ali returned to the ring to face Larry Holmes in 1980 but was overmatched against the younger champion.
Following one final loss in 1981, to Trevor Berbick, the boxing great retired from the sport at age 39.
Spouse and Children
Ali was married four times and had nine children, including two children he fathered outside of marriage.
Ali married his first wife, Sonji Roi, in 1964; they divorced after one year when she refused to adopt the Nation of Islam dress and customs.
Ali married his second wife, 17-year-old Belinda Boyd, in 1967. Boyd and Ali had four children together: Maryum, born in 1969; Jamillah and Liban, both born in 1970; and Muhammad Ali Jr.; born in 1972. Boyd and Ali divorced in 1976.
At the same time Ali was married to Boyd, he traveled openly with Veronica Porche, who became his third wife in 1977. The pair had two daughters together, including Laila Ali, who followed in Ali’s footsteps by becoming a champion boxer. Porche and Ali divorced in 1986.
Ali married his fourth and final wife Yolanda ("Lonnie") in 1986. The pair had known each other since Lonnie was just six and Ali was 21; their mothers were best friends and raised their families on the same street. Ali and Lonnie couple remained married until his death and had one son together, Asaad.
In 1984, Ali announced that he had Parkinson's disease, a degenerative neurological condition.
Despite the progression of Parkinson's and the onset of spinal stenosis, he remained active in public life. Ali raised funds for the Muhammad Ali Parkinson Center in Phoenix, Arizona. And he was on hand to celebrate the inauguration of the first African American president in January 2009, when Barack Obama was sworn into office.
A few years before his death, Ali underwent surgery for spinal stenosis, a condition causing the narrowing of the spine, which limited his mobility and ability to communicate.
In his retirement, Ali devoted much of his time to philanthropy. Over the years, Ali supported the Special Olympics and the Make-A-Wish Foundation, among other organizations. In 1996, he lit the Olympic cauldron at the Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta, an emotional moment in sports history.
Ali traveled to numerous countries, including Mexico and Morocco, to help out those in need. In 1998, he was chosen to be a United Nations Messenger of Peace because of his work in developing nations.
In 2005, Ali received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President George W. Bush.
Soon after Obama’s 2009 inauguration, Ali received the President's Award from the NAACP for his public service efforts.
Muhammad Ali Center
Ali opened the Muhammad Ali Center in his hometown of Louisville, Kentucky, in 2005.
"I am an ordinary man who worked hard to develop the talent I was given," he said. "Many fans wanted to build a museum to acknowledge my achievements. I wanted more than a building to house my memorabilia. I wanted a place that would inspire people to be the best that they could be at whatever they chose to do, and to encourage them to be respectful of one another."
Actor Will Smith played Ali in the biopic film Ali, released in 2001.
Ali died on June 3, 2016, in Phoenix, Arizona, after being hospitalized for what was reportedly a respiratory issue. He was 74 years old.
The boxing legend had been suffering from Parkinson’s disease and spinal stenosis. In early 2015, the athlete battled pneumonia and was hospitalized for a severe urinary tract infection.
Funeral and Memorial Service
Years before his passing, Ali had planned his own memorial services, saying he wanted to be “inclusive of everyone, where we give as many people an opportunity that want to pay their respects to me,” according to a family spokesman.
The three-day event, which took place in Ali’s hometown of Louisville, Kentucky, included an “I Am Ali” festival of public arts, entertainment and educational offerings sponsored by the city, an Islamic prayer program and a memorial service.
Prior to the memorial service, a funeral procession traveled 20 miles through Louisville, past Ali’s childhood home, his high school, the first boxing gym where he trained and along Ali Boulevard as tens of thousands of fans tossed flowers on his hearse and cheered his name.
The champ’s memorial service was held at the KFC Yum Center arena with close to 20,000 people in attendance. Speakers included religious leaders from various faiths, Attallah Shabazz, Malcolm X’s eldest daughter, broadcaster Bryant Gumbel, former President Bill Clinton, comedian Billy Crystal, Ali’s daughters Maryum and Rasheda and his widow Lonnie.
"Muhammad indicated that when the end came for him, he wanted us to use his life and his death as a teaching moment for young people, for his country and for the world," Lonnie said. "In effect, he wanted us to remind people who are suffering that he had seen the face of injustice. That he grew up during segregation, and that during his early life he was not free to be who he wanted to be. But he never became embittered enough to quit or to engage in violence."
Former President Clinton spoke about how Ali found self-empowerment: "I think he decided, before he could possibly have worked it all out, and before fate and time could work their will on him, he decided he would not ever be disempowered. He decided that not his race nor his place, the expectations of others, positive, negative or otherwise would strip from him the power to write his own story. "
Crystal, who was a struggling comedian when he became friends with Ali, said of the boxing legend: “Ultimately, he became a silent messenger for peace, who taught us that life is best when you build bridges between people, not walls.”
"You have inspired us and the world to be the best version of ourselves,' Rasheda Ali spoke to her father. 'May you live in paradise free from suffering. You shook up the world in life now you're shaking up the world in death. Now you are free to be with your creator. We love you so much Daddy. Until we meet again, fly butterfly, fly."
Pallbearers included Will Smith and former heavyweight champions Mike Tyson and Lennox Lewis. Ali was buried at the Cave Hill National Cemetery in Louisville.
Ali's stature as a legend continues to grow even after his death. He is celebrated not only for his remarkable athletic skills but for his willingness to speak his mind and his courage to challenge the status quo.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | <urn:uuid:9fe00382-47be-4669-90fe-91c71079737f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biography.com/athlete/muhammad-ali | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00485.warc.gz | en | 0.986103 | 2,614 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1592986583709716... | 2 | Who Was Muhammad Ali?
Muhammad Ali was a boxer, philanthropist and social activist who is universally regarded as one of the greatest athletes of the 20th century. Ali became an Olympic gold medalist in 1960 and the world heavyweight boxing champion in 1964.
Following his suspension for refusing military service, Ali reclaimed the heavyweight title two more times during the 1970s, winning famed bouts against Joe Frazier and George Foreman along the way. Diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 1984, Ali devoted much of his time to philanthropy, earning the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2005.
Ali was born on January 17, 1942, in Louisville, Kentucky. His birth name was Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr.
At an early age, young Clay showed that he wasn't afraid of any bout — inside or outside of the ring. Growing up in the segregated South, he experienced racial prejudice and discrimination firsthand.
At the age of 12, Clay discovered his talent for boxing through an odd twist of fate. After his bike was stolen, Clay told a police officer, Joe Martin, that he wanted to beat up the thief.
"Well, you better learn how to fight before you start challenging people," Martin reportedly told him at the time. In addition to being a police officer, Martin also trained young boxers at a local gym.
Clay started working with Martin to learn how to spar and soon began his boxing career. In his first amateur bout in 1954, he won the fight by split decision.
Clay went on to win the 1956 Golden Gloves tournament for novices in the light heavyweight class. Three years later, he won the National Golden Gloves Tournament of Champions, as well as the Amateur Athletic Union's national title for the light heavyweight division.
Muhammad Ali's Life in Photos
In 1960, Clay won a spot on the U.S. Olympic boxing team, and traveled to Rome, Italy, to compete. At six feet, three inches tall, Clay was an imposing figure in the ring, but he also became known for his lightning speed and fancy footwork. After winning his first three bouts, Clay defeated Zbigniew Pietrzkowski of Poland to win the light heavyweight Olympic gold medal.
After his Olympic victory, Clay was heralded as an American hero. He soon turned professional with the backing of the Louisville Sponsoring Group and continued overwhelming all opponents in the ring.
Conversion to Islam
Clay joined the black Muslim group Nation of Islam in 1964. At first, he called himself Cassius X before settling on the name Muhammad Ali. The boxer eventually converted to orthodox Islam during the 1970s.
Vietnam and Supreme Court Case
Ali started a different kind of fight with his outspoken views against the Vietnam War.
Drafted into the military in April 1967, he refused to serve on the grounds that he was a practicing Muslim minister with religious beliefs that prevented him from fighting. He was arrested for committing a felony and almost immediately stripped of his world title and boxing license.
The U.S. Department of Justice pursued a legal case against Ali, denying his claim for conscientious objector status. He was found guilty of violating Selective Service laws and sentenced to five years in prison in June 1967 but remained free while appealing his conviction.
Unable to compete professionally in the meantime, Ali missed more than three prime years of his athletic career. Ali returned to the ring in 1970 with a win over Jerry Quarry, and the U.S. Supreme Court eventually overturned the conviction in June 1971.
Muhammad Ali: Record
Ali had a career record of 56 wins, five losses and 37 knockouts before his retirement from boxing in 1981 at the age of 39.
PHOTOS: Muhammad Ali's Best Fight Moments
Often referring to himself as "The Greatest," Ali was not afraid to sing his own praises. He was known for boasting about his skills before a fight and for his colorful descriptions and phrases.
In one of his more famously quoted descriptions, Ali told reporters that he could "float like a butterfly, sting like a bee" in the boxing ring. A few of his more well-known matches include the following:
After winning gold at the 1960 Olympics, Ali took out British heavyweight champion Henry Cooper in 1963. He then knocked out Sonny Liston in 1964 to become the heavyweight champion of the world.
In 1971, Ali took on Joe Frazier in what has been called the "Fight of the Century." Frazier and Ali went toe-to-toe for 14 rounds before Frazier dropped Ali with a vicious left hook in the 15th. Ali recovered quickly, but the judges awarded the decision to Frazier, handing Ali his first professional loss after 31 wins.
After suffering a loss to Ken Norton, Ali beat Frazier in a 1974 rematch.
In 1975, Ali and Frazier locked horns again for their grudge match in Quezon City, Philippines. Dubbed the "Thrilla in Manila," the bout nearly went the distance, with both men delivering and absorbing tremendous punishment. However, Frazier's trainer threw in the towel after the 14th round, giving the hard-fought victory to Ali.
Another legendary Ali fight took place in 1974 against undefeated heavyweight champion George Foreman. Billed as the "Rumble in the Jungle," the bout was organized by promoter Don King and held in Kinshasa, Zaire.
For once, Ali was seen as the underdog to the younger, massive Foreman, but he silenced his critics with a masterful performance. He baited Foreman into throwing wild punches with his "rope-a-dope" technique, before stunning his opponent with an eighth-round knockout to reclaim the heavyweight title.
After losing his title to Leon Spinks in February 1978, Ali defeated him in a September 1978 rematch, becoming the first boxer to win the heavyweight championship three times.
Following a brief retirement, Ali returned to the ring to face Larry Holmes in 1980 but was overmatched against the younger champion.
Following one final loss in 1981, to Trevor Berbick, the boxing great retired from the sport at age 39.
Spouse and Children
Ali was married four times and had nine children, including two children he fathered outside of marriage.
Ali married his first wife, Sonji Roi, in 1964; they divorced after one year when she refused to adopt the Nation of Islam dress and customs.
Ali married his second wife, 17-year-old Belinda Boyd, in 1967. Boyd and Ali had four children together: Maryum, born in 1969; Jamillah and Liban, both born in 1970; and Muhammad Ali Jr.; born in 1972. Boyd and Ali divorced in 1976.
At the same time Ali was married to Boyd, he traveled openly with Veronica Porche, who became his third wife in 1977. The pair had two daughters together, including Laila Ali, who followed in Ali’s footsteps by becoming a champion boxer. Porche and Ali divorced in 1986.
Ali married his fourth and final wife Yolanda ("Lonnie") in 1986. The pair had known each other since Lonnie was just six and Ali was 21; their mothers were best friends and raised their families on the same street. Ali and Lonnie couple remained married until his death and had one son together, Asaad.
In 1984, Ali announced that he had Parkinson's disease, a degenerative neurological condition.
Despite the progression of Parkinson's and the onset of spinal stenosis, he remained active in public life. Ali raised funds for the Muhammad Ali Parkinson Center in Phoenix, Arizona. And he was on hand to celebrate the inauguration of the first African American president in January 2009, when Barack Obama was sworn into office.
A few years before his death, Ali underwent surgery for spinal stenosis, a condition causing the narrowing of the spine, which limited his mobility and ability to communicate.
In his retirement, Ali devoted much of his time to philanthropy. Over the years, Ali supported the Special Olympics and the Make-A-Wish Foundation, among other organizations. In 1996, he lit the Olympic cauldron at the Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta, an emotional moment in sports history.
Ali traveled to numerous countries, including Mexico and Morocco, to help out those in need. In 1998, he was chosen to be a United Nations Messenger of Peace because of his work in developing nations.
In 2005, Ali received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President George W. Bush.
Soon after Obama’s 2009 inauguration, Ali received the President's Award from the NAACP for his public service efforts.
Muhammad Ali Center
Ali opened the Muhammad Ali Center in his hometown of Louisville, Kentucky, in 2005.
"I am an ordinary man who worked hard to develop the talent I was given," he said. "Many fans wanted to build a museum to acknowledge my achievements. I wanted more than a building to house my memorabilia. I wanted a place that would inspire people to be the best that they could be at whatever they chose to do, and to encourage them to be respectful of one another."
Actor Will Smith played Ali in the biopic film Ali, released in 2001.
Ali died on June 3, 2016, in Phoenix, Arizona, after being hospitalized for what was reportedly a respiratory issue. He was 74 years old.
The boxing legend had been suffering from Parkinson’s disease and spinal stenosis. In early 2015, the athlete battled pneumonia and was hospitalized for a severe urinary tract infection.
Funeral and Memorial Service
Years before his passing, Ali had planned his own memorial services, saying he wanted to be “inclusive of everyone, where we give as many people an opportunity that want to pay their respects to me,” according to a family spokesman.
The three-day event, which took place in Ali’s hometown of Louisville, Kentucky, included an “I Am Ali” festival of public arts, entertainment and educational offerings sponsored by the city, an Islamic prayer program and a memorial service.
Prior to the memorial service, a funeral procession traveled 20 miles through Louisville, past Ali’s childhood home, his high school, the first boxing gym where he trained and along Ali Boulevard as tens of thousands of fans tossed flowers on his hearse and cheered his name.
The champ’s memorial service was held at the KFC Yum Center arena with close to 20,000 people in attendance. Speakers included religious leaders from various faiths, Attallah Shabazz, Malcolm X’s eldest daughter, broadcaster Bryant Gumbel, former President Bill Clinton, comedian Billy Crystal, Ali’s daughters Maryum and Rasheda and his widow Lonnie.
"Muhammad indicated that when the end came for him, he wanted us to use his life and his death as a teaching moment for young people, for his country and for the world," Lonnie said. "In effect, he wanted us to remind people who are suffering that he had seen the face of injustice. That he grew up during segregation, and that during his early life he was not free to be who he wanted to be. But he never became embittered enough to quit or to engage in violence."
Former President Clinton spoke about how Ali found self-empowerment: "I think he decided, before he could possibly have worked it all out, and before fate and time could work their will on him, he decided he would not ever be disempowered. He decided that not his race nor his place, the expectations of others, positive, negative or otherwise would strip from him the power to write his own story. "
Crystal, who was a struggling comedian when he became friends with Ali, said of the boxing legend: “Ultimately, he became a silent messenger for peace, who taught us that life is best when you build bridges between people, not walls.”
"You have inspired us and the world to be the best version of ourselves,' Rasheda Ali spoke to her father. 'May you live in paradise free from suffering. You shook up the world in life now you're shaking up the world in death. Now you are free to be with your creator. We love you so much Daddy. Until we meet again, fly butterfly, fly."
Pallbearers included Will Smith and former heavyweight champions Mike Tyson and Lennox Lewis. Ali was buried at the Cave Hill National Cemetery in Louisville.
Ali's stature as a legend continues to grow even after his death. He is celebrated not only for his remarkable athletic skills but for his willingness to speak his mind and his courage to challenge the status quo.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 2,748 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The region of the Aztecs
Most people believe that civilization of the Aztec occurs in the region of modern Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada and Colorado. Historical trace of this ancient nation, however, began in the late 12th century, when Aztec migrated to what is now central Mexico. Today's Mexicans are of mixed Spanish and indigenous, descendants of the so called Mexicans (Aztec), or other indigenous tribes of the empire Aztec and Mesoamerica. Today, Mexico City is located in an area which situated the richest and the main town of Aztec.
Historical evidence suggests that Aztecs were advanced and were a prosperous civilization which built beautiful and elegant cities. There was a time in which they numbered to about 15 million people living in nearly 500 municipalities. Aztecs have been developed culturally, musically, artistically, in crafts and sciences. Music plays an important role in their religious rituals for the plaudit of their innumerable gods. The capital, Tenochtitlan populated about 300, 000 people. In this famous city, government control was present and was liable for penalties, agriculture, and all aspects of the economy.
Strongest empire included a society that consists of four classes:
* Nobles (the largest force)
* Ordinary citizens (the majority of the population, mostly farmers)
* Serfs (farming lands of noblemen)
* Slaves (debtors who can not pay their debt)
Government positions were usually hereditary, but one could be awarded for such exemplary service to the emperor.
Society of Aztec is heavily dependent on agriculture, especially maize, although they some what rely on hunting.
Aztecs - culture and religion
Religion of Aztec is characterized by human sacrifices that were rich in ceremonies to honor the gods. Clothing was of the utmost importance in all aspects of life for the Aztecs. They worshiped hundreds of gods and goddesses, each of them represented a different aspect of life. Design and manufacture of clothing, especially in high society, was an art form in the culture of Aztecs. Woman's clothes were usually crafted, richly decorated with beads, flowers, and precious metals. Gold is often used and was abundant in the empire of Aztecs. In fact, the pursuit of gold is the main reason to travel to Cortez Mexico during 1519.
Ceremonies were crucial during the farming season to ensure a good harvest, and in the coronation of kings. During these ceremonies are the norm sacrifice in the name of Gods. Huge temples were built to commemorate the donation of these victims. The Sunny famous stone calendar which was twelve feet in diameter, represents the universe of Aztecs. It is believed that the hearts of human victims were placed on this stone and given to the gods.See more | <urn:uuid:ca5a48b7-a1c2-45ba-a41e-88cbd356a13a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mysteries24.com/n3-7349-Aztecs_-_Civilization_and_Culture | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.980649 | 578 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.11136859655380... | 3 | The region of the Aztecs
Most people believe that civilization of the Aztec occurs in the region of modern Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada and Colorado. Historical trace of this ancient nation, however, began in the late 12th century, when Aztec migrated to what is now central Mexico. Today's Mexicans are of mixed Spanish and indigenous, descendants of the so called Mexicans (Aztec), or other indigenous tribes of the empire Aztec and Mesoamerica. Today, Mexico City is located in an area which situated the richest and the main town of Aztec.
Historical evidence suggests that Aztecs were advanced and were a prosperous civilization which built beautiful and elegant cities. There was a time in which they numbered to about 15 million people living in nearly 500 municipalities. Aztecs have been developed culturally, musically, artistically, in crafts and sciences. Music plays an important role in their religious rituals for the plaudit of their innumerable gods. The capital, Tenochtitlan populated about 300, 000 people. In this famous city, government control was present and was liable for penalties, agriculture, and all aspects of the economy.
Strongest empire included a society that consists of four classes:
* Nobles (the largest force)
* Ordinary citizens (the majority of the population, mostly farmers)
* Serfs (farming lands of noblemen)
* Slaves (debtors who can not pay their debt)
Government positions were usually hereditary, but one could be awarded for such exemplary service to the emperor.
Society of Aztec is heavily dependent on agriculture, especially maize, although they some what rely on hunting.
Aztecs - culture and religion
Religion of Aztec is characterized by human sacrifices that were rich in ceremonies to honor the gods. Clothing was of the utmost importance in all aspects of life for the Aztecs. They worshiped hundreds of gods and goddesses, each of them represented a different aspect of life. Design and manufacture of clothing, especially in high society, was an art form in the culture of Aztecs. Woman's clothes were usually crafted, richly decorated with beads, flowers, and precious metals. Gold is often used and was abundant in the empire of Aztecs. In fact, the pursuit of gold is the main reason to travel to Cortez Mexico during 1519.
Ceremonies were crucial during the farming season to ensure a good harvest, and in the coronation of kings. During these ceremonies are the norm sacrifice in the name of Gods. Huge temples were built to commemorate the donation of these victims. The Sunny famous stone calendar which was twelve feet in diameter, represents the universe of Aztecs. It is believed that the hearts of human victims were placed on this stone and given to the gods.See more | 584 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the second millennium BC, Mycenae was a fortified city based between two hills on the Argolid plain of the Peloponnese, Greece. It was one of the most important centers of Greek civilization, a military center which controlled much of southern Greece and parts of southwest Anatolia. The stone architecture of Mycenae is unique in its kind, influenced by various cultures like the Minoans in Crete. The archaeological excavations revealed important architectural remains from the Mycenaean civilization including palaces, citadels, settlements and funerary monuments. The palace structures of mainland Greece share a number of common features. The large palace structure – Megaron, built around a central hall is typical of Mycenaean palaces. The Megaron was used as a center of economy and trade, a throne room for the king, and was also designed for religious ceremonies. While the Megaron was the most important room in the palace, there were also a variety of other rooms, such as living chambers for royals. There were also storerooms and workshops for storage and production of goods for agricultural products and imports.The impressive feature of the Palace of Mycenae is the fortified walls build around it for the defense purposes. The characteristic of the Mycenaean walls is that they are made of huge limestone boulders, which have been fitted together rather roughly. The wall was constructed without mortar. The boulders typically seem unworked, but some may have been worked roughly with a hammer and the gaps between boulders filled in with smaller chunks of limestone. As these boulders are very big in size, the ancient people believed that it was the Cyclops who built these gates, as the thought it impossible for men to move such big rocks. That is why these walls were named Cyclopean Walls.Between walls, there was a Lion Gate, the main entrance that led to the Acropolis. An Acropolis is a citadel or complex built on a high hill. Ancient cities often grew up around a high point, in order that they could easily be defended. Acropolis at Mycenae, like in most cities in ancient Greece, was built in the center a rocky mound or hill, where the people could retreat to if under attack. Although Mycenaean architecture was heavily influenced by Minoans of Crete, ultimately the style of architecture used by the Mycenaeans had multiple differences. Minoan palaces had open designs and were built around a large open courtyard. In contrast, Mycenaean palaces preferred an indoor hall known as a megaron and were constructed with high stone walls and other clearly defensive attributes, signifying the persistent presence of danger. A beehive tomb, also known as a tholos tomb was characteristic of the Mycenaean funerary architecture. It was a corbeled stone chamber rising forty-four feet in diameter, with a small chamber to the right of the entrance. Most of the stone walls were covered by an earthen hill, which added stability to the construction by adding weight. The entrance doorway used to be decorated, and the interior was embellished with bronze plates. The architectural competence of this civilization extended beyond constructions, as they included multiple advancements on the roadways and waterworks system. The famous architectural works of Mycenae are unique in the world and have an enormous impact on the history of Greece. | <urn:uuid:bf7fc323-7f4d-4857-bc70-5f48bd199a9a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayprepper.com/in-boulders-typically-seem-unworked-but-some-may-have/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.981997 | 701 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.30844792723655... | 2 | In the second millennium BC, Mycenae was a fortified city based between two hills on the Argolid plain of the Peloponnese, Greece. It was one of the most important centers of Greek civilization, a military center which controlled much of southern Greece and parts of southwest Anatolia. The stone architecture of Mycenae is unique in its kind, influenced by various cultures like the Minoans in Crete. The archaeological excavations revealed important architectural remains from the Mycenaean civilization including palaces, citadels, settlements and funerary monuments. The palace structures of mainland Greece share a number of common features. The large palace structure – Megaron, built around a central hall is typical of Mycenaean palaces. The Megaron was used as a center of economy and trade, a throne room for the king, and was also designed for religious ceremonies. While the Megaron was the most important room in the palace, there were also a variety of other rooms, such as living chambers for royals. There were also storerooms and workshops for storage and production of goods for agricultural products and imports.The impressive feature of the Palace of Mycenae is the fortified walls build around it for the defense purposes. The characteristic of the Mycenaean walls is that they are made of huge limestone boulders, which have been fitted together rather roughly. The wall was constructed without mortar. The boulders typically seem unworked, but some may have been worked roughly with a hammer and the gaps between boulders filled in with smaller chunks of limestone. As these boulders are very big in size, the ancient people believed that it was the Cyclops who built these gates, as the thought it impossible for men to move such big rocks. That is why these walls were named Cyclopean Walls.Between walls, there was a Lion Gate, the main entrance that led to the Acropolis. An Acropolis is a citadel or complex built on a high hill. Ancient cities often grew up around a high point, in order that they could easily be defended. Acropolis at Mycenae, like in most cities in ancient Greece, was built in the center a rocky mound or hill, where the people could retreat to if under attack. Although Mycenaean architecture was heavily influenced by Minoans of Crete, ultimately the style of architecture used by the Mycenaeans had multiple differences. Minoan palaces had open designs and were built around a large open courtyard. In contrast, Mycenaean palaces preferred an indoor hall known as a megaron and were constructed with high stone walls and other clearly defensive attributes, signifying the persistent presence of danger. A beehive tomb, also known as a tholos tomb was characteristic of the Mycenaean funerary architecture. It was a corbeled stone chamber rising forty-four feet in diameter, with a small chamber to the right of the entrance. Most of the stone walls were covered by an earthen hill, which added stability to the construction by adding weight. The entrance doorway used to be decorated, and the interior was embellished with bronze plates. The architectural competence of this civilization extended beyond constructions, as they included multiple advancements on the roadways and waterworks system. The famous architectural works of Mycenae are unique in the world and have an enormous impact on the history of Greece. | 692 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paul was a 12-year-old boy. His father promised him that he could go to a rock concert if he saved up from his paper-round and lunch money to buy a ticket. He managed to save up the $15 the ticket cost plus another $5. But then his father changed his mind and told Paul that he had to spend the money on new clothes for school. Paul was disappointed and decided to go to the concert anyway. He bought a ticket and told his father that he had only been able to save $5. That Saturday he went to the performance and told his father that he was spending the day with a friend. Paul told his older brother, Clint, that he had gone to the performance and had lied to his father about it. Clint wonders whether to tell their father what Paul did.
Give different actions and explain in depth in which by Clint that indicate the different stages of moral development:
3.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 9, 2019, 5:57 pm ad1c9bdddf
Based on the scenario and Kohlberg's (1984) theory of moral development, this solution explores the different stages of moral development for Clint. | <urn:uuid:5a9668ff-c9f6-4c38-b3a0-c33bafa86324> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brainmass.com/psychology/abnormal-psychology/kohlberg-1984-stages-of-moral-development-73443 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00100.warc.gz | en | 0.990078 | 244 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.27934598922... | 1 | Paul was a 12-year-old boy. His father promised him that he could go to a rock concert if he saved up from his paper-round and lunch money to buy a ticket. He managed to save up the $15 the ticket cost plus another $5. But then his father changed his mind and told Paul that he had to spend the money on new clothes for school. Paul was disappointed and decided to go to the concert anyway. He bought a ticket and told his father that he had only been able to save $5. That Saturday he went to the performance and told his father that he was spending the day with a friend. Paul told his older brother, Clint, that he had gone to the performance and had lied to his father about it. Clint wonders whether to tell their father what Paul did.
Give different actions and explain in depth in which by Clint that indicate the different stages of moral development:
3.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 9, 2019, 5:57 pm ad1c9bdddf
Based on the scenario and Kohlberg's (1984) theory of moral development, this solution explores the different stages of moral development for Clint. | 250 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Lucy Hutchings T.G 305
In 1914 the First World War had officially started. Everyday thousands of men from both sides where sent abroad to fight for their country. Many soldiers found themselves in unknown fields digging elaborate narrow ditches known as trenches. These were made to try to protect the soldiers from the enemy. In-between the two enemy trenches was “No man's land” which was an area of land that was unoccupied, neither side owned it yet both wanted it. The conditions in the trenches where awful for both sides, however the Germans were more prepared as they had arrived early. They were able to equip their trenches with electricity and other extra things to assist them. However even though they seemed to have better conditions they too suffered in many different ways as they fought in
The Daily Routine
A day in the trenches would normally begin with a “stand to” which is when the soldiers where ordered to be awake and prepared for battle. Most of the soldiers hated this time of day and it was known as the “daily hate”. Occasionally the troops would be able to “stand down” this was the period of time when they could eat their breakfast and clean their rifles, others also chose to spend their time guarding the front line.
After breakfast, the men were inspected and assigned different duties. Some of the duties included: repairing duckboards, refilling the sandbags, fetching supplies and draining the trenches with plumping equipment.
At dusk the soldiers were ordered to stand to again because they felt that it was a good time for the enemy to attack them.
At night the soldiers took turns keeping watch, encase there was any surprise attacks.
‘Going Over the Top’
Going over the top was a very dangerous and risky thing to do; this was because the soldiers would be out in the open and an easy target for snipers. They were also liable to be shot down by machine guns or blown up by shells. They had to cut through barbed wire and many died entangled in it. The soldiers who were injured had to crawl into shell holes and wait for help; however it took a while for them to get any help and many died slowly and painfully.
Some men after suffering weeks or months of torment whilst living in the trenches refused to go over the top because of the horrendous conditions and sights they had seen, due to their physical and mental state. Sadly these men were seen as cowards and were shot for not obeying orders.
The Conditions in the trenches
The conditions in the trenches were terrible, young men found that they were living in conditions that were hellish.
Trench fever and lice
Another big problem in the trenches was trench fever; this was a severe illness that came across by the spreading of lice, it caused terrible infections to the soldiers. This condition was thought to affect over 1 million soldiers from both sides during this time. Its therefore not a surprise that soon many men suffered from this illness as the average amount of lice found on each person was 2o the most being 10248.
Mud was a major issue in the trenches and on the front line. Soldiers died whilst trying to hide in the shell holes as they would become stuck in the mud and drown. The mud also slowed down the movement of the supplies and the process of the soldiers.
There were many different parasites that lived in the trenches; the worst of them all were the rats. They would eat the dead bodies and grow big and fat, there are reports of soldiers seeing rats grow to the size of cats. The rats were covered in lice and would spread disease to throughout the trench. They would also try to eat the soldiers whilst they were sleeping.
The Conditions in the trenches
Shell shock was a horrible problem that affected thousands of… | <urn:uuid:572a342f-c660-4b94-9705-fdee47b75aca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Trenches-Trench-Warfare-And-Enemy-Trenches-568206.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00532.warc.gz | en | 0.993586 | 780 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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In 1914 the First World War had officially started. Everyday thousands of men from both sides where sent abroad to fight for their country. Many soldiers found themselves in unknown fields digging elaborate narrow ditches known as trenches. These were made to try to protect the soldiers from the enemy. In-between the two enemy trenches was “No man's land” which was an area of land that was unoccupied, neither side owned it yet both wanted it. The conditions in the trenches where awful for both sides, however the Germans were more prepared as they had arrived early. They were able to equip their trenches with electricity and other extra things to assist them. However even though they seemed to have better conditions they too suffered in many different ways as they fought in
The Daily Routine
A day in the trenches would normally begin with a “stand to” which is when the soldiers where ordered to be awake and prepared for battle. Most of the soldiers hated this time of day and it was known as the “daily hate”. Occasionally the troops would be able to “stand down” this was the period of time when they could eat their breakfast and clean their rifles, others also chose to spend their time guarding the front line.
After breakfast, the men were inspected and assigned different duties. Some of the duties included: repairing duckboards, refilling the sandbags, fetching supplies and draining the trenches with plumping equipment.
At dusk the soldiers were ordered to stand to again because they felt that it was a good time for the enemy to attack them.
At night the soldiers took turns keeping watch, encase there was any surprise attacks.
‘Going Over the Top’
Going over the top was a very dangerous and risky thing to do; this was because the soldiers would be out in the open and an easy target for snipers. They were also liable to be shot down by machine guns or blown up by shells. They had to cut through barbed wire and many died entangled in it. The soldiers who were injured had to crawl into shell holes and wait for help; however it took a while for them to get any help and many died slowly and painfully.
Some men after suffering weeks or months of torment whilst living in the trenches refused to go over the top because of the horrendous conditions and sights they had seen, due to their physical and mental state. Sadly these men were seen as cowards and were shot for not obeying orders.
The Conditions in the trenches
The conditions in the trenches were terrible, young men found that they were living in conditions that were hellish.
Trench fever and lice
Another big problem in the trenches was trench fever; this was a severe illness that came across by the spreading of lice, it caused terrible infections to the soldiers. This condition was thought to affect over 1 million soldiers from both sides during this time. Its therefore not a surprise that soon many men suffered from this illness as the average amount of lice found on each person was 2o the most being 10248.
Mud was a major issue in the trenches and on the front line. Soldiers died whilst trying to hide in the shell holes as they would become stuck in the mud and drown. The mud also slowed down the movement of the supplies and the process of the soldiers.
There were many different parasites that lived in the trenches; the worst of them all were the rats. They would eat the dead bodies and grow big and fat, there are reports of soldiers seeing rats grow to the size of cats. The rats were covered in lice and would spread disease to throughout the trench. They would also try to eat the soldiers whilst they were sleeping.
The Conditions in the trenches
Shell shock was a horrible problem that affected thousands of… | 771 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- What is would?
- How and when to use would?
- Would for the past
- Would for the future in the past
- Would for conditionals
A few weeks, I got an email from someone who reads my blog articles and he asked me if I could explain how to use ‘would’. Instead of replying by email, I thought it would be great for everyone to learn about this as it’s something which a lot of students find confusing.
What is ‘would”?
Would is an auxiliary verb or a modal auxiliary verb. Would is always used with a verb but depending on how we use ‘would’ the main verb changes form. (I will explain this below).
Structure in positive = subject + would* + main verb (I would like)
*would is invariable which means that it never changes form.
Would in the negative = would not (contractions is wouldn’t) ( I wouldn’t like)
Making questions = would + subject + main verb (Would you like?)
How and when to use ’would’?
We use ‘would’ mainly in the following 3 situations:
- would for the past
- would for the future in past
- would for conditionals
There are also other situations where we use would which I will talk about after I have explained the 3 main situations it’s used for.
Would for the past
We often use would as a kind of past tense of will or going to:
- When he was younger, he knew that his sister would become a doctor.
- I thought it would be sunny so I brought some sun cream with me on holiday.
Using would as the past tense of will or going in reported speech:
- She said that she would buy some eggs. ("I will buy some eggs.")
- The candidate said that he wouldn't increase taxes. ("I won't increase taxes.")
- Why didn't you bring your umbrella? I told you it would rain! ("It's going to rain.")
We often use would to talk about past habits, similar to used to. However there is a difference between used to and would to talk about past habits. Would expresses a past habit with usually a feeling of nostalgia whereas used to only express a past habit.
- My mother would make cookies for me every day after school. (by using would we understand that this is a nice memory of something which happened regularly in the past)
- As a child, I would go camping with my friends every friday during the summer.
Would for the future in past
When talking about the past we can use would to express something that has not happened at the time we are talking about. This means that at the time of the main action which is in the past simple below, the action with would had not happened.
- When I arrived in Dubai in 2005, I met the women I would one day marry. (in this example, would marry is in the future of arrived in Dubai)
Would for conditionals
We often use would in the second and third conditionals:
- If he moved to another country, he would not earn as much money as he does here. (Conditional 2)
- If I had seen you in the supermarket, I would have said hello. (third conditional)
Using the same structure as the conditional, we often use would to give advice:
- I wouldn't eat that if I were you.
- If I were in your place I'd refuse.
- If you asked me I would say you should go.
So above are the 3 main reasons we use would. However, there are also other situations where we use would.
To express a desire: I would like to buy a house.
To ask questions politely: What would you like to eat tonight? (more polite than what do you want to eat tonight?)
To express an opinion: I would imagine that the situation will improve soon.
To express a wish: I wish you would speak Spanish.
To express uncertainty: he seems he would be getting fired soon.
As you can see from the examples above, there are many ways in which we use would and I have to agree with people learning English, it is not easy to sometimes understand the small nuances between the different situations.
So if you have any questions about how to use would, feel free to ask at the bottom of this page. Leave a comment I will be happy to help you improve your English. | <urn:uuid:13c93448-0b1a-4315-8e99-7553fe585782> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.speak.ae/blog/how-to-use-would | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.989617 | 946 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.4933550357818... | 14 | - What is would?
- How and when to use would?
- Would for the past
- Would for the future in the past
- Would for conditionals
A few weeks, I got an email from someone who reads my blog articles and he asked me if I could explain how to use ‘would’. Instead of replying by email, I thought it would be great for everyone to learn about this as it’s something which a lot of students find confusing.
What is ‘would”?
Would is an auxiliary verb or a modal auxiliary verb. Would is always used with a verb but depending on how we use ‘would’ the main verb changes form. (I will explain this below).
Structure in positive = subject + would* + main verb (I would like)
*would is invariable which means that it never changes form.
Would in the negative = would not (contractions is wouldn’t) ( I wouldn’t like)
Making questions = would + subject + main verb (Would you like?)
How and when to use ’would’?
We use ‘would’ mainly in the following 3 situations:
- would for the past
- would for the future in past
- would for conditionals
There are also other situations where we use would which I will talk about after I have explained the 3 main situations it’s used for.
Would for the past
We often use would as a kind of past tense of will or going to:
- When he was younger, he knew that his sister would become a doctor.
- I thought it would be sunny so I brought some sun cream with me on holiday.
Using would as the past tense of will or going in reported speech:
- She said that she would buy some eggs. ("I will buy some eggs.")
- The candidate said that he wouldn't increase taxes. ("I won't increase taxes.")
- Why didn't you bring your umbrella? I told you it would rain! ("It's going to rain.")
We often use would to talk about past habits, similar to used to. However there is a difference between used to and would to talk about past habits. Would expresses a past habit with usually a feeling of nostalgia whereas used to only express a past habit.
- My mother would make cookies for me every day after school. (by using would we understand that this is a nice memory of something which happened regularly in the past)
- As a child, I would go camping with my friends every friday during the summer.
Would for the future in past
When talking about the past we can use would to express something that has not happened at the time we are talking about. This means that at the time of the main action which is in the past simple below, the action with would had not happened.
- When I arrived in Dubai in 2005, I met the women I would one day marry. (in this example, would marry is in the future of arrived in Dubai)
Would for conditionals
We often use would in the second and third conditionals:
- If he moved to another country, he would not earn as much money as he does here. (Conditional 2)
- If I had seen you in the supermarket, I would have said hello. (third conditional)
Using the same structure as the conditional, we often use would to give advice:
- I wouldn't eat that if I were you.
- If I were in your place I'd refuse.
- If you asked me I would say you should go.
So above are the 3 main reasons we use would. However, there are also other situations where we use would.
To express a desire: I would like to buy a house.
To ask questions politely: What would you like to eat tonight? (more polite than what do you want to eat tonight?)
To express an opinion: I would imagine that the situation will improve soon.
To express a wish: I wish you would speak Spanish.
To express uncertainty: he seems he would be getting fired soon.
As you can see from the examples above, there are many ways in which we use would and I have to agree with people learning English, it is not easy to sometimes understand the small nuances between the different situations.
So if you have any questions about how to use would, feel free to ask at the bottom of this page. Leave a comment I will be happy to help you improve your English. | 893 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Old Jewish Books become valuable antiques.
- The Torah was given as a gift to the Jewish people and not to be made from it a business.
- Libraries preserve books for interested readers in the future.
The Supreme Court of New York decided in 1986 that the holy books in the Library of Agudas Chassidei Chabad on Eastern Parkway were their own treasures left to them by their Grand Rabbis and personal collections. The Grand Rabbi is part of his congregation and the Rebbe and his followers are one body with one divine interest the welfare of the Jewish people and the holiness of Judaism. The day of this decision was declared by their leader Rabbi Schneerson to be a Jewish holiday.
The Jewish people are often called the “People of the Book” which refers to the Old Testament the five books of Moses also called the Torah. The Torah, the five books of Moses is the foundation of faith in One God where is recorded the history of the world from the first day of creation until the Jewish people were standing at the border of the Jordan River with Moses their teacher and Joshua his successor. The Torah also called the Bible is more important to the Jewish people than other nations in the world because they were specifically chosen to represent it and watch over it forever.
Derived from the Torah through the generations have been written many commentaries explaining its application in everyday life for Jew and gentile. The Torah the first book included in the Jewish Bible was added the books of the prophets, writings of Solomon, Psalms of David, other writings until was reached 24 books in one volume called the Tanach translated as Torah, Neviim- prophets, writings.
A Jewish library has more than just these 24 books because in its generations the scholars saw the importance of further explanations of the Law of Moses and also applications of these laws in everyday life. Included with the Written text called the Torah Scroll was given by Moses the Oral Law handed down by him to Joshua his student, the elders and to the prophets. Each generation learns and teaches the Law of Moses that was given to them by their teachers and their fathers. The Oral law was later compiled into written texts so that it would not be forgotten. Finally in the last five hundred years it became simplified for daily application in texts called the Shulcan Aruch the Code of Jewish law. Many written texts on Jewish law are included in a Jewish Rabbinical Library like the Library of Agudas Chasidei Chabad.
The Lubavitch Chabad Chassidic movement which is probably the largest in the world with representatives in thousands of locations throughout the world, is celebrating this week the victory of the Lubavitcher Rebbe and Agudas Chabad in a court trial which they won in 1986. A dispute occurred over the ownership of the books which were in the Library on Eastern Parkway in Brooklyn left there by the previous Lubavitcher leader Rabbi Joseph Yitzchok Scheeron. These books were transferred to America from Russia when the previous Lubaviticher Rebbe came to America in 1940. When the previous Rebbe passed away his collection of books became included in this Library with manuscripts from all Jewish sources from many generations. These manuscripts are very valuable and book collectors are willing to pay tremendous sums of money for them. The books were from the personal collection of the previous Rebbe as well as books that were given to him for Agudas Chabad.
The previous Rebbe had two daughters. His successor Rabbi Menachem Schneerson married one of his daughters Chaya Moshka. The other daughter married Rabbi Shalom Gurary who was also a close student of his father-in-law. Rabbi Gurary passed away before his brother-in-law Rabbi Menachem Mendel. The son of Rabbi Gurary his name Barry a businessman without permission removed many valuable manuscripts from the Library and began to sell them. His claim was that these books were part of his inheritance being the grandson of the previous Rebbe. The claim of Agudas Chabad was that all the possessions of the previous Rebbe which were connected to his position of Chief Rabbi and not his personal possessions. Also these books were never intended to be sold to become part of a business transaction but to be preserved and learned with respect for their holiness.
The Bible is the most precious priceless book that has ever been written. The Jewish people have preserved the text of the Torah and have watched over it that not one letter should ever be changed. Moses gave the Jewish people the first manuscript before they entered Israel. This manuscript was copied by scribes and the Torahs were protected in their Holy Arc. In each synagogue there is an arc which contains Torahs which are used in their services. A Torah scroll today written according to Jewish law is worth at least $25,000. The Torah Scroll is read in the congregation and the people of the congregation hold a Holy Bible printed for their use. An Old Torah Scroll can become a valuable antique. A Torah book preserved and kept after many years becomes an antique.
The Rebbe won the court case that these books were given to the leaders of Chabad throughout many generations to become part of a library and not to be sold. The Leader of Chabad in each generation was their representative and the books belonged to the congregation and were not part of his inheritance to his children. They were not personal possessions like gold and silver but much more precious to the Jewish people who are called the People of the Book.
Books are not only considered to be treasures by Jews but the whole world values manuscripts which have been written throughout the history of time on all subjects, history, human interest, science, etc. Here is a list of the largest libraries in the world. The top three on this list are: the British Library, Library of Congress, and the New York Public Library. | <urn:uuid:83f0685c-af8f-4ac4-a69f-bead4d93fe3c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://communalnews.com/treasures-for-the-world-jewish-holy-books/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00432.warc.gz | en | 0.98818 | 1,192 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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- The Torah was given as a gift to the Jewish people and not to be made from it a business.
- Libraries preserve books for interested readers in the future.
The Supreme Court of New York decided in 1986 that the holy books in the Library of Agudas Chassidei Chabad on Eastern Parkway were their own treasures left to them by their Grand Rabbis and personal collections. The Grand Rabbi is part of his congregation and the Rebbe and his followers are one body with one divine interest the welfare of the Jewish people and the holiness of Judaism. The day of this decision was declared by their leader Rabbi Schneerson to be a Jewish holiday.
The Jewish people are often called the “People of the Book” which refers to the Old Testament the five books of Moses also called the Torah. The Torah, the five books of Moses is the foundation of faith in One God where is recorded the history of the world from the first day of creation until the Jewish people were standing at the border of the Jordan River with Moses their teacher and Joshua his successor. The Torah also called the Bible is more important to the Jewish people than other nations in the world because they were specifically chosen to represent it and watch over it forever.
Derived from the Torah through the generations have been written many commentaries explaining its application in everyday life for Jew and gentile. The Torah the first book included in the Jewish Bible was added the books of the prophets, writings of Solomon, Psalms of David, other writings until was reached 24 books in one volume called the Tanach translated as Torah, Neviim- prophets, writings.
A Jewish library has more than just these 24 books because in its generations the scholars saw the importance of further explanations of the Law of Moses and also applications of these laws in everyday life. Included with the Written text called the Torah Scroll was given by Moses the Oral Law handed down by him to Joshua his student, the elders and to the prophets. Each generation learns and teaches the Law of Moses that was given to them by their teachers and their fathers. The Oral law was later compiled into written texts so that it would not be forgotten. Finally in the last five hundred years it became simplified for daily application in texts called the Shulcan Aruch the Code of Jewish law. Many written texts on Jewish law are included in a Jewish Rabbinical Library like the Library of Agudas Chasidei Chabad.
The Lubavitch Chabad Chassidic movement which is probably the largest in the world with representatives in thousands of locations throughout the world, is celebrating this week the victory of the Lubavitcher Rebbe and Agudas Chabad in a court trial which they won in 1986. A dispute occurred over the ownership of the books which were in the Library on Eastern Parkway in Brooklyn left there by the previous Lubavitcher leader Rabbi Joseph Yitzchok Scheeron. These books were transferred to America from Russia when the previous Lubaviticher Rebbe came to America in 1940. When the previous Rebbe passed away his collection of books became included in this Library with manuscripts from all Jewish sources from many generations. These manuscripts are very valuable and book collectors are willing to pay tremendous sums of money for them. The books were from the personal collection of the previous Rebbe as well as books that were given to him for Agudas Chabad.
The previous Rebbe had two daughters. His successor Rabbi Menachem Schneerson married one of his daughters Chaya Moshka. The other daughter married Rabbi Shalom Gurary who was also a close student of his father-in-law. Rabbi Gurary passed away before his brother-in-law Rabbi Menachem Mendel. The son of Rabbi Gurary his name Barry a businessman without permission removed many valuable manuscripts from the Library and began to sell them. His claim was that these books were part of his inheritance being the grandson of the previous Rebbe. The claim of Agudas Chabad was that all the possessions of the previous Rebbe which were connected to his position of Chief Rabbi and not his personal possessions. Also these books were never intended to be sold to become part of a business transaction but to be preserved and learned with respect for their holiness.
The Bible is the most precious priceless book that has ever been written. The Jewish people have preserved the text of the Torah and have watched over it that not one letter should ever be changed. Moses gave the Jewish people the first manuscript before they entered Israel. This manuscript was copied by scribes and the Torahs were protected in their Holy Arc. In each synagogue there is an arc which contains Torahs which are used in their services. A Torah scroll today written according to Jewish law is worth at least $25,000. The Torah Scroll is read in the congregation and the people of the congregation hold a Holy Bible printed for their use. An Old Torah Scroll can become a valuable antique. A Torah book preserved and kept after many years becomes an antique.
The Rebbe won the court case that these books were given to the leaders of Chabad throughout many generations to become part of a library and not to be sold. The Leader of Chabad in each generation was their representative and the books belonged to the congregation and were not part of his inheritance to his children. They were not personal possessions like gold and silver but much more precious to the Jewish people who are called the People of the Book.
Books are not only considered to be treasures by Jews but the whole world values manuscripts which have been written throughout the history of time on all subjects, history, human interest, science, etc. Here is a list of the largest libraries in the world. The top three on this list are: the British Library, Library of Congress, and the New York Public Library. | 1,191 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Where did the ancient Egyptians live?
The ancient Egyptians lived along the banks of the River Nile in Egypt. The Nile was very important to the people of Egypt. They used it for water, food and transport.
Egyptian people lived in small mud houses with few windows or furniture. The houses had flat roofs that people would sleep on when it was too hot inside.
What did the ancient Egyptians eat?
The staple food for Egyptians was bread. They also ate fruits, vegetables, and lamb. Food was cooked in a clay oven and dishes were made out of clay.
Most ancient Egyptians worked as farmers. They also worked as craftsmen and scribes. Farmers grew barley, and vegetables such as onions and cucumbers. Craftsmen jobs included carpenters, jewellers, and weavers. Scribes were people who could read and write. They used reed brushes dipped in ink to write letters and draw pictures.
What did ancient Egyptians wear?
Most people wore white clothes made out of linen. Women wore white dresses and men wore kilts to keep cool. Both men and women wore makeup and jewellery. Makeup wasn’t only for fashion, it also helped protect their skin from the hot sun. The Egyptians were usually barefoot, but sandals made from leather were worn on special occasions. | <urn:uuid:0f6d51c8-dc44-4515-aa27-86375732cdda> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/introduction-to-ancient-egypt-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.991042 | 271 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.01151317... | 3 | Where did the ancient Egyptians live?
The ancient Egyptians lived along the banks of the River Nile in Egypt. The Nile was very important to the people of Egypt. They used it for water, food and transport.
Egyptian people lived in small mud houses with few windows or furniture. The houses had flat roofs that people would sleep on when it was too hot inside.
What did the ancient Egyptians eat?
The staple food for Egyptians was bread. They also ate fruits, vegetables, and lamb. Food was cooked in a clay oven and dishes were made out of clay.
Most ancient Egyptians worked as farmers. They also worked as craftsmen and scribes. Farmers grew barley, and vegetables such as onions and cucumbers. Craftsmen jobs included carpenters, jewellers, and weavers. Scribes were people who could read and write. They used reed brushes dipped in ink to write letters and draw pictures.
What did ancient Egyptians wear?
Most people wore white clothes made out of linen. Women wore white dresses and men wore kilts to keep cool. Both men and women wore makeup and jewellery. Makeup wasn’t only for fashion, it also helped protect their skin from the hot sun. The Egyptians were usually barefoot, but sandals made from leather were worn on special occasions. | 259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ninth plague – darkness – comes shrouded in a darkness of its own. What is this plague doing here? It seems out of sequence. Thus far there have been eight plagues, and they have become steadily, inexorably, more serious.
The first two, the Nile turning blood-red and the infestation of frogs, seemed more like omens than anything else. The third and fourth, gnats and wild beasts, caused worry, not crisis. The fifth, the plague that killed livestock, affected animals, not human beings.
The sixth, boils, was again a discomfort, but a serious one, no longer an external issue but a bodily affliction. (Remember that Job lost everything he had, but did not start cursing his fate until his body was covered with sores: Job 2.) The seventh and eighth, hail and locusts, destroyed the Egyptian grain. Now – with the loss of grain added to the loss of livestock in the fifth plague – there was no food. Still to come was the tenth plague, the death of the firstborn, in retribution for Pharaoh’s murder of Israelite children. It would be this that eventually broke Pharaoh’s resolve.
So we would expect the ninth plague to be very serious indeed, something that threatened, even if it did not immediately take, human life. Instead we read what seems like an anti-climax:
Then the Lord said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand towards the sky so that darkness will spread over Egypt – darkness that can be felt.” So Moses stretched out his hand towards the sky, and total darkness covered all Egypt for three days. No one could see anyone else or leave his place for three days. Yet all the Israelites had light in the places where they lived. (Exodus 10:21–23)
Darkness is a nuisance, but no more. The phrase “darkness that can be felt” suggests what happened: a khamsin, a sandstorm of a kind not unfamiliar in Egypt, which can last for several days, producing sand- and dust-filled air that obliterates the light of the sun. A khamsin is usually produced by a southern wind that blows into Egypt from the Sahara Desert. The worst sandstorm is usually the first of the season, in March. This fits the dating of the plague which happened shortly before the death of the firstborn, on Pesach.
The ninth plague was doubtless unusual in its intensity, but it was not an event of a kind wholly unknown to the Egyptians, then or now. Why then does it figure in the plague narrative, immediately prior to its climax? Why did it not happen nearer the beginning, as one of the less severe plagues?
The answer lies in a line from “Dayeinu,” the song we sing as part of the Haggadah on Pesach (Passover): “If God had executed judgment against them [the Egyptians] but had not done so against their gods, it would have been sufficient.” Twice the Torah itself refers to this dimension of the plagues: “I will pass through Egypt on that night, and I will kill every first-born in Egypt, man and animal. I will perform acts of judgment against all the gods of Egypt: I (alone) am God.” (Exodus 12:12)
The Egyptians were burying all their firstborn, struck down by the Lord; and against their gods, the Lord had executed judgment. (Numbers 33:4)
Not all the plagues were directed, in the first instance, against the Egyptians. Some were directed against things they worshipped as gods. That is the case in the first two plagues. The Nile was personified in ancient Egypt as the god Hapi and was worshipped as the source of fertility in an otherwise desert region. Offerings were made to it at times of inundation. The inundations themselves were attributed to one of the major Egyptian deities, Osiris. The plague of frogs would have been associated by the Egyptians with Heket, the goddess who was believed to attend births as a midwife, and who was depicted as a woman with the head of a frog.
The plagues were not only intended to punish Pharaoh and his people for their mistreatment of the Israelites, but also to show them the powerlessness of the gods in which they believed. What is at stake in this confrontation is the difference between myth – in which the gods are mere powers, to be tamed, propitiated or manipulated – and biblical monotheism, in which ethics (justice, compassion, human dignity) constitute the meeting point of God and mankind.
The symbolism of these plagues, often lost on us, would have been immediately apparent to the Egyptians. Two things now become clear.
1. The first is why the Egyptian magicians declared, “This is the finger of God” (Ex. 8:15) only after the third plague, lice. The first two plagues would not have surprised them at all. They would have understood them as the work of Egyptian deities who, they believed, were sometimes angry with the people and took their revenge.
2. The second is the quite different symbolism the first two plagues were meant to have for the Israelites, and for us. As with the tenth plague, these were no mere miracles intended to demonstrate the power of the God of Israel, as if religion were a gladiatorial arena in which the strongest god wins. Their meaning was moral.
They represented the most fundamental of all ethical principles, stated in the Noahide covenant in the words “He who sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed” (Gen. 9:6). This is the rule of retributive justice, measure for measure: As you do, so shall you be done to.
By first ordering the midwives to kill all male Israelite babies, and then, when that failed, by commanding, “Every boy who is born must be cast into the Nile” (Ex. 1:22), Pharaoh had turned what should have been symbols of life (the Nile, which fed Egyptian agriculture, and midwives) into agents of death. The river that turned to blood, and the Heket-like frogs that infested the land, were not afflictions as such, but rather coded communications, as if to say to the Egyptians: reality has an ethical structure. See what it feels like when the gods you turned against the Israelites turn on you. If used for evil ends, the powers of nature will turn against man, so that what he does will be done to him in retribution. There is justice in history.
Hence the tenth plague, to which all the others were a mere prelude. Unlike all the other plagues, its significance was disclosed to Moses even before he set out on his mission, while he was still living with Jethro in Midian:
You shall say to Pharaoh: This is what the Lord says. “Israel is My son, My firstborn. I have told you to let My son go, that he may worship Me. If you refuse to let him go, I will kill your own firstborn son.” (Ex. 4:22–23)
Whereas the first two plagues were symbolic representations of the Egyptian murder of Israelite children, the tenth plague was the enactment of retributive justice, as if heaven was saying to the Egyptians: You committed, or supported, or passively accepted the murder of innocent children. There is only one way you will ever realise the wrong you did, namely, if you yourself suffer what you did to others.
This too helps explain the difference between the two words the Torah regularly uses to describe what God did in Egypt: otot u’moftim, “signs and wonders.” These two words are not two ways of describing the same thing – miracles. They describe quite different things. A mofet, a wonder, is indeed a miracle. An ot, a sign, is something else: a symbol (like tefillin or circumcision, both of which are called ot), that is to say, a coded communication, a message.
The significance of the ninth plague is now obvious. The greatest god in the Egyptian pantheon was Ra or Re, the sun god. The name of the Pharaoh often associated with the exodus, Ramses ii, means meses, “son of ” (as in the name Moses) Ra, the god of the sun. Egypt – so its people believed – was ruled by the sun. Its human ruler, or Pharaoh, was semi-divine, the child of the sun god.
In the beginning of time, according to Egyptian myth, the sun god ruled together with Nun, the primeval waters. Eventually there were many deities. Ra then created human beings from his tears. Seeing, however, that they were deceitful, he sent the goddess Hathor to destroy them; only a few survived.
The plague of darkness was not a mofet but an ot, a sign. The obliteration of the sun signalled that there is a power greater than Ra. Yet what the plague represented was less the power of God over the sun, but the rejection by God of a civilisation that turned one man, Pharaoh, into an absolute ruler (son of the sun god) with the ability to enslave other human beings – and of a culture that could tolerate the murder of children because that is what Ra himself did.
When God told Moses to say to Pharaoh, “My son, My firstborn, Israel,” He was saying: I am the God who cares for His children, not one who kills His children. The ninth plague was a divine act of communication that said: there is not only physical darkness but also moral darkness. The best test of a civilisation is to see how it treats children, its own and others’. In an age of broken families, neglected and impoverished children, and worse – the use of children as instruments of war – that is a lesson we still need to learn. | <urn:uuid:fb923844-9d7e-4b2e-96a8-8e71a0fd1f8b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.beitariel.org/single-post/2019/01/11/Parashat-Bo---the-plague-of-darkness | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00240.warc.gz | en | 0.980708 | 2,098 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.070102639... | 1 | The ninth plague – darkness – comes shrouded in a darkness of its own. What is this plague doing here? It seems out of sequence. Thus far there have been eight plagues, and they have become steadily, inexorably, more serious.
The first two, the Nile turning blood-red and the infestation of frogs, seemed more like omens than anything else. The third and fourth, gnats and wild beasts, caused worry, not crisis. The fifth, the plague that killed livestock, affected animals, not human beings.
The sixth, boils, was again a discomfort, but a serious one, no longer an external issue but a bodily affliction. (Remember that Job lost everything he had, but did not start cursing his fate until his body was covered with sores: Job 2.) The seventh and eighth, hail and locusts, destroyed the Egyptian grain. Now – with the loss of grain added to the loss of livestock in the fifth plague – there was no food. Still to come was the tenth plague, the death of the firstborn, in retribution for Pharaoh’s murder of Israelite children. It would be this that eventually broke Pharaoh’s resolve.
So we would expect the ninth plague to be very serious indeed, something that threatened, even if it did not immediately take, human life. Instead we read what seems like an anti-climax:
Then the Lord said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand towards the sky so that darkness will spread over Egypt – darkness that can be felt.” So Moses stretched out his hand towards the sky, and total darkness covered all Egypt for three days. No one could see anyone else or leave his place for three days. Yet all the Israelites had light in the places where they lived. (Exodus 10:21–23)
Darkness is a nuisance, but no more. The phrase “darkness that can be felt” suggests what happened: a khamsin, a sandstorm of a kind not unfamiliar in Egypt, which can last for several days, producing sand- and dust-filled air that obliterates the light of the sun. A khamsin is usually produced by a southern wind that blows into Egypt from the Sahara Desert. The worst sandstorm is usually the first of the season, in March. This fits the dating of the plague which happened shortly before the death of the firstborn, on Pesach.
The ninth plague was doubtless unusual in its intensity, but it was not an event of a kind wholly unknown to the Egyptians, then or now. Why then does it figure in the plague narrative, immediately prior to its climax? Why did it not happen nearer the beginning, as one of the less severe plagues?
The answer lies in a line from “Dayeinu,” the song we sing as part of the Haggadah on Pesach (Passover): “If God had executed judgment against them [the Egyptians] but had not done so against their gods, it would have been sufficient.” Twice the Torah itself refers to this dimension of the plagues: “I will pass through Egypt on that night, and I will kill every first-born in Egypt, man and animal. I will perform acts of judgment against all the gods of Egypt: I (alone) am God.” (Exodus 12:12)
The Egyptians were burying all their firstborn, struck down by the Lord; and against their gods, the Lord had executed judgment. (Numbers 33:4)
Not all the plagues were directed, in the first instance, against the Egyptians. Some were directed against things they worshipped as gods. That is the case in the first two plagues. The Nile was personified in ancient Egypt as the god Hapi and was worshipped as the source of fertility in an otherwise desert region. Offerings were made to it at times of inundation. The inundations themselves were attributed to one of the major Egyptian deities, Osiris. The plague of frogs would have been associated by the Egyptians with Heket, the goddess who was believed to attend births as a midwife, and who was depicted as a woman with the head of a frog.
The plagues were not only intended to punish Pharaoh and his people for their mistreatment of the Israelites, but also to show them the powerlessness of the gods in which they believed. What is at stake in this confrontation is the difference between myth – in which the gods are mere powers, to be tamed, propitiated or manipulated – and biblical monotheism, in which ethics (justice, compassion, human dignity) constitute the meeting point of God and mankind.
The symbolism of these plagues, often lost on us, would have been immediately apparent to the Egyptians. Two things now become clear.
1. The first is why the Egyptian magicians declared, “This is the finger of God” (Ex. 8:15) only after the third plague, lice. The first two plagues would not have surprised them at all. They would have understood them as the work of Egyptian deities who, they believed, were sometimes angry with the people and took their revenge.
2. The second is the quite different symbolism the first two plagues were meant to have for the Israelites, and for us. As with the tenth plague, these were no mere miracles intended to demonstrate the power of the God of Israel, as if religion were a gladiatorial arena in which the strongest god wins. Their meaning was moral.
They represented the most fundamental of all ethical principles, stated in the Noahide covenant in the words “He who sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed” (Gen. 9:6). This is the rule of retributive justice, measure for measure: As you do, so shall you be done to.
By first ordering the midwives to kill all male Israelite babies, and then, when that failed, by commanding, “Every boy who is born must be cast into the Nile” (Ex. 1:22), Pharaoh had turned what should have been symbols of life (the Nile, which fed Egyptian agriculture, and midwives) into agents of death. The river that turned to blood, and the Heket-like frogs that infested the land, were not afflictions as such, but rather coded communications, as if to say to the Egyptians: reality has an ethical structure. See what it feels like when the gods you turned against the Israelites turn on you. If used for evil ends, the powers of nature will turn against man, so that what he does will be done to him in retribution. There is justice in history.
Hence the tenth plague, to which all the others were a mere prelude. Unlike all the other plagues, its significance was disclosed to Moses even before he set out on his mission, while he was still living with Jethro in Midian:
You shall say to Pharaoh: This is what the Lord says. “Israel is My son, My firstborn. I have told you to let My son go, that he may worship Me. If you refuse to let him go, I will kill your own firstborn son.” (Ex. 4:22–23)
Whereas the first two plagues were symbolic representations of the Egyptian murder of Israelite children, the tenth plague was the enactment of retributive justice, as if heaven was saying to the Egyptians: You committed, or supported, or passively accepted the murder of innocent children. There is only one way you will ever realise the wrong you did, namely, if you yourself suffer what you did to others.
This too helps explain the difference between the two words the Torah regularly uses to describe what God did in Egypt: otot u’moftim, “signs and wonders.” These two words are not two ways of describing the same thing – miracles. They describe quite different things. A mofet, a wonder, is indeed a miracle. An ot, a sign, is something else: a symbol (like tefillin or circumcision, both of which are called ot), that is to say, a coded communication, a message.
The significance of the ninth plague is now obvious. The greatest god in the Egyptian pantheon was Ra or Re, the sun god. The name of the Pharaoh often associated with the exodus, Ramses ii, means meses, “son of ” (as in the name Moses) Ra, the god of the sun. Egypt – so its people believed – was ruled by the sun. Its human ruler, or Pharaoh, was semi-divine, the child of the sun god.
In the beginning of time, according to Egyptian myth, the sun god ruled together with Nun, the primeval waters. Eventually there were many deities. Ra then created human beings from his tears. Seeing, however, that they were deceitful, he sent the goddess Hathor to destroy them; only a few survived.
The plague of darkness was not a mofet but an ot, a sign. The obliteration of the sun signalled that there is a power greater than Ra. Yet what the plague represented was less the power of God over the sun, but the rejection by God of a civilisation that turned one man, Pharaoh, into an absolute ruler (son of the sun god) with the ability to enslave other human beings – and of a culture that could tolerate the murder of children because that is what Ra himself did.
When God told Moses to say to Pharaoh, “My son, My firstborn, Israel,” He was saying: I am the God who cares for His children, not one who kills His children. The ninth plague was a divine act of communication that said: there is not only physical darkness but also moral darkness. The best test of a civilisation is to see how it treats children, its own and others’. In an age of broken families, neglected and impoverished children, and worse – the use of children as instruments of war – that is a lesson we still need to learn. | 2,074 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Over centuries, the Jewish community in Spain had flourished and grown in numbers and influence, though anti-Semitism had surfaced from time to time. During the reign of Henry III (1390-1406), Jews faced increased persecution and were pressured to convert to Christianity. Many Jews were killed, and those who adopted Christian beliefs – the conversos (Spanish: “converted”) – faced continued suspicion and prejudice. In addition, there remained a significant population of Jews who had professed conversion but continued to practice their faith in secret. Known as Marranos, those nominal converts from Judaism were perceived to be an even greater threat to the social order than those who had rejected forced conversion. After Aragon and Castile were united by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1469), the Marranos were denounced as a danger to the existence of Christian Spain and a formal Inquisition was established to deal with them.
A grand inquisitor was appointed by the name of Tomás de Torquemada, a name synonymous with brutality and fanaticism associated with the Inquisition. Torquemada used torture and confiscation to terrorize his victims, and his methods were cruel by design. The sentencing of the accused took place at the auto-da-fé (“act of faith”), an elaborate public expression of the Inquisition’s power. The condemned were presented before a large crowd that often included royalty, and burned at the stake. The number of burnings during Torquemada’s tenure was said to have been about 2,000. At Torquemada’s urging, Ferdinand and Isabella issued an edict on March 31, 1492, giving Spanish Jews the choice of exile or baptism; as a result, according to Rabbeinu Don Yitzchok Abarbanel zt”l, more than 300,000 Jews were expelled from Spain. The deadline to leave was on August 2, 1492, which was also Tishah B’Av, the saddest day of the Jewish calendar year.
Not all of Spain’s Jews had fled when the fateful edict was pronounced. It was possible to remain in Spain, but the conditions for doing so were dire: Any Jew who hoped to remain in his home had to publicly embrace Christianity and renounce all Jewish observance. Many did so. But even those who had ostensibly embraced Christianity, the secret Jews of Spain, were never trusted; neighbors and priests realized they continued to practice Judaism, and many “real” Christians eagerly looked for any sign of Jewish practice so they could turn them over to the Inquisition.
Don Fernando Aguilar was a prominent Barcelona Jew. Conductor of the prestigious royal orchestra in that city, he was a man of distinction and enjoyed great wealth and prestige. When the edict banishing him and his coreligionists from Spain came, Don Aguilar decided to remain. He publicly embraced Christianity, but at the same time made a daring decision: In private, Don Aguilar, like so many Spanish Jews, would never give up his faith. Even though it meant he could be arrested at any moment, Don Aguilar continued to live as a Jew. He kissed a mezuzah that he kept hidden in his floorboards and was careful to eat only kosher food and observe the Jewish holidays. There was no synagogue in his city anymore, but groups of Jews would meet in private, under pain of death, to whisper prayers. There were no Jewish schools in Spain any longer, but families did their best to give their children a Jewish education. Year after grinding year, the secret Jewish community continued, holding on to as many of the mitzvos as possible.
Some rituals, however, were nearly impossible to observe. It took five long years after the expulsion of Spanish Jewry, five years of practicing Judaism in secret, of living a double life, before Don Aguilar saw an opportunity to do something for his fellow Jewish brethren. In 1497 he made a public announcement: On Sunday, the 5th of September, he would personally lead the Royal Orchestra of Barcelona in a brand-new concert of his own composition. The pieces he’d written were unlike anything ever heard in Spain before. It was, he declared, to be a celebration of native peoples and their cultures. Every instrument ever invented around the world, no matter how far away, would be represented.
Excitement filled the air and anticipation for this great event was at an all-time high. On concert day, the orchestra hall was filled. The “who’s who” of Barcelona was in attendance. Many of those were Marranos, like Don Aguilar, but the fact that so many of these people came to the concert apparently didn’t arouse anyone’s suspicions.
Don Aguilar’s music was inspiring. True to his word, the audience heard from a wide range of instruments. There were bells and horns, stringed instruments, and an array of different drums. Then, in the middle of the concert, a musician with the orchestra stepped forward and took the stage. He was holding an unusual instrument: a ram’s horn.
The musician, a secret Jew handpicked for this task by none other than Don Aguilar himself, put the ram’s horn to his lips, and began to blow. He blew long blasts, followed by intermediate notes and then short staccato bursts. In fact, they were tekiah, shevarim, teruah. Each note of the shofar service rang out throughout the hall, one hundred notes in all. Most of the audience applauded it as a virtuoso performance of an unfamiliar instrument. But to the secret Jews in the audience, Don Aguilar’s “music” gave them their first chance in years to fulfill the mitzvah of hearing the shofar.
Because September 5, 1497, was the first of Tishrei, 5258 – the first day of Rosh Hashanah.
Little is known of Don Aguilar. Some say he was arrested soon after the concert and executed in secret so that news of his exploits would not become public. Others maintain he lived to an old age, continuing to live a Jewish life.
All that is known is his amazing actions on Rosh Hashanah, over 500 years ago, when for one evening he allowed an entire secret Jewish community fulfill the mitzvah of hearing the shofar.
(R’ Eliyahu Ki-Tov, Book of our Heritage) | <urn:uuid:61ea29b8-ca53-4b18-ba85-777e65c13cf0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.queensjewishlink.com/index.php/torah/71-stories-of-greatness/1235-a-concert-like-no-other | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.982166 | 1,360 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.11510092765... | 11 | Over centuries, the Jewish community in Spain had flourished and grown in numbers and influence, though anti-Semitism had surfaced from time to time. During the reign of Henry III (1390-1406), Jews faced increased persecution and were pressured to convert to Christianity. Many Jews were killed, and those who adopted Christian beliefs – the conversos (Spanish: “converted”) – faced continued suspicion and prejudice. In addition, there remained a significant population of Jews who had professed conversion but continued to practice their faith in secret. Known as Marranos, those nominal converts from Judaism were perceived to be an even greater threat to the social order than those who had rejected forced conversion. After Aragon and Castile were united by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1469), the Marranos were denounced as a danger to the existence of Christian Spain and a formal Inquisition was established to deal with them.
A grand inquisitor was appointed by the name of Tomás de Torquemada, a name synonymous with brutality and fanaticism associated with the Inquisition. Torquemada used torture and confiscation to terrorize his victims, and his methods were cruel by design. The sentencing of the accused took place at the auto-da-fé (“act of faith”), an elaborate public expression of the Inquisition’s power. The condemned were presented before a large crowd that often included royalty, and burned at the stake. The number of burnings during Torquemada’s tenure was said to have been about 2,000. At Torquemada’s urging, Ferdinand and Isabella issued an edict on March 31, 1492, giving Spanish Jews the choice of exile or baptism; as a result, according to Rabbeinu Don Yitzchok Abarbanel zt”l, more than 300,000 Jews were expelled from Spain. The deadline to leave was on August 2, 1492, which was also Tishah B’Av, the saddest day of the Jewish calendar year.
Not all of Spain’s Jews had fled when the fateful edict was pronounced. It was possible to remain in Spain, but the conditions for doing so were dire: Any Jew who hoped to remain in his home had to publicly embrace Christianity and renounce all Jewish observance. Many did so. But even those who had ostensibly embraced Christianity, the secret Jews of Spain, were never trusted; neighbors and priests realized they continued to practice Judaism, and many “real” Christians eagerly looked for any sign of Jewish practice so they could turn them over to the Inquisition.
Don Fernando Aguilar was a prominent Barcelona Jew. Conductor of the prestigious royal orchestra in that city, he was a man of distinction and enjoyed great wealth and prestige. When the edict banishing him and his coreligionists from Spain came, Don Aguilar decided to remain. He publicly embraced Christianity, but at the same time made a daring decision: In private, Don Aguilar, like so many Spanish Jews, would never give up his faith. Even though it meant he could be arrested at any moment, Don Aguilar continued to live as a Jew. He kissed a mezuzah that he kept hidden in his floorboards and was careful to eat only kosher food and observe the Jewish holidays. There was no synagogue in his city anymore, but groups of Jews would meet in private, under pain of death, to whisper prayers. There were no Jewish schools in Spain any longer, but families did their best to give their children a Jewish education. Year after grinding year, the secret Jewish community continued, holding on to as many of the mitzvos as possible.
Some rituals, however, were nearly impossible to observe. It took five long years after the expulsion of Spanish Jewry, five years of practicing Judaism in secret, of living a double life, before Don Aguilar saw an opportunity to do something for his fellow Jewish brethren. In 1497 he made a public announcement: On Sunday, the 5th of September, he would personally lead the Royal Orchestra of Barcelona in a brand-new concert of his own composition. The pieces he’d written were unlike anything ever heard in Spain before. It was, he declared, to be a celebration of native peoples and their cultures. Every instrument ever invented around the world, no matter how far away, would be represented.
Excitement filled the air and anticipation for this great event was at an all-time high. On concert day, the orchestra hall was filled. The “who’s who” of Barcelona was in attendance. Many of those were Marranos, like Don Aguilar, but the fact that so many of these people came to the concert apparently didn’t arouse anyone’s suspicions.
Don Aguilar’s music was inspiring. True to his word, the audience heard from a wide range of instruments. There were bells and horns, stringed instruments, and an array of different drums. Then, in the middle of the concert, a musician with the orchestra stepped forward and took the stage. He was holding an unusual instrument: a ram’s horn.
The musician, a secret Jew handpicked for this task by none other than Don Aguilar himself, put the ram’s horn to his lips, and began to blow. He blew long blasts, followed by intermediate notes and then short staccato bursts. In fact, they were tekiah, shevarim, teruah. Each note of the shofar service rang out throughout the hall, one hundred notes in all. Most of the audience applauded it as a virtuoso performance of an unfamiliar instrument. But to the secret Jews in the audience, Don Aguilar’s “music” gave them their first chance in years to fulfill the mitzvah of hearing the shofar.
Because September 5, 1497, was the first of Tishrei, 5258 – the first day of Rosh Hashanah.
Little is known of Don Aguilar. Some say he was arrested soon after the concert and executed in secret so that news of his exploits would not become public. Others maintain he lived to an old age, continuing to live a Jewish life.
All that is known is his amazing actions on Rosh Hashanah, over 500 years ago, when for one evening he allowed an entire secret Jewish community fulfill the mitzvah of hearing the shofar.
(R’ Eliyahu Ki-Tov, Book of our Heritage) | 1,338 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History and traditions of the Maoris of the West Coast, North Island of New Zealand, prior to 1840
Chapter VI. — The Canoes of "The Fleet."—Continued
The Canoes of "The Fleet."—Continued.
Whilst we must over give precedence to the crews of the "Aotea" canoe as contributing most largely to the Hawaiki element in the population of the West Coast, there are two other vessels that are also claimed as having brought over many ancestors of the present Maori people. Of the two, perhaps "Tokomaru" has usually been considered the most important—why, it is somewhat difficult to say; for so far as can be ascertained, the number of people who trace descent from her crow are but few. The prominence given to this vessel is probably due to the fact of an account of her voyage having been published by Sir. George Grey in "Polynesian Mythology;" which account (together with many notes gathered by others), will now be given in abbreviated form, in which the original in Maori, published in "Nga Mahinga," will be translated.
The "Tokomaru" Canoe.
There are many difficulties surrounding the account of the reasons why the crew of this canoe migrated to New Zealand, which leads one to infer that Manaia's war in Hawaiki did not really take place just prior to the migration as Sir George Grey's narrative leads the reader to infer, but rather at a date long anterior to that period. The narrative (loc. cit.) says—"The reason why Manaia (said to be captain of 'Tokomaru') came hither, was his massacre of the party of spearmakers, who had debauched his wife Rongo-tiki." Manaia was desirous of securing a party of men to make spears, and for that purpose sent to Tupenu, who was head-chief of the tribe who were expert spear-makers, to order that this should bo done. The men came to Manaia's village and set to work, whilst Manaia occupied himself in procuring food of all sorts for the workmen, often going out to sea to catch fish for the same purpose. On one occasion he found that whilst all his party caught fish in plenty none came to his line, until just when the party were about to return home Manaia hooked a fish, but to his surprise, by the tail, and not by the mouth. With the common belief in omens, so characteristic a feature of the Maori, Manaia at once came to the conclusion that some evil had befallen his wife. On page 95reaching home, his suspicions were confirmed by Rongo-tiki (his wife) who disclosed to her husband the insult she had been subjected to by the spear-makers.
Manaia now considered how this insult to his wife was to be effaced. There was only one way according to Polynesian law: the evil-doers must be killed. But he had to proceed cautiously and by stratagem. Pretending that he was unaware of what had occurred, he urged the spear-makers to make the spears large and heavy, so that—in the words of the Maori story—"they should not be able to carry them"—i.e., use them in fighting. This remark opens up a question as to who these spear-makers were? It is clear Manaia had no doubt as to the ability of his own people to use them, and this may perhaps indicate that they were a more powerful race of men than the spear-makers. It is suggested that the latter were probably some of those skilled artisans known as the Manahune (or Menehune), a diminutive people, probably Melanesians, who lived in a state of vassalage, if not slavery, with the Polynesians of Tahiti and Hawaii, and who are referred to in the traditions of both those islands as also those of Rarotonga. They were probably some of the Solomon or other Melanesian islanders, captured by the Polynesians, and employed by them as sailors, workmen, etc.
Manaia now arranged with his own people that they should fall on the spear-makers and exterminate them. When the proper moment came, Manaia urged his son, Tu-uro-nui to distinguish himself by slaying the first man—a deed much thought of by the Maoris—but the young fellow held back, and allowed another young-man named Kahu-kaka to take his place. It was he that secured the mata-ika, or first slain, crying out as he did so, the usual Maori boast—'I, Kahu-kakaa-Manaia, have got the first slain! ' It is said, that until Manaia heard his own name pronounced by this young warrior, he was not aware that he had any other son but Tu-ure-nui. After this he acknowledged Kahu-kaka, and made much of him. Tupenu, the chief of the spear-makers, would have escaped, but that Rongo-tiki, Manaia's wife, uttered a powerful tupe, which had the effect of hindering his steps, and thus allowed Manaia to overtake and kill him on the beach at Pikopiko-i-whiti. All the others were killed.
The name just quoted, again leads me to infer that this story is older than the date of the migration, for it can, I think, be shown that that place was either in Samoa or Fiji, whereas Manaia emigrated from Tahiti.
A war now ensued between Tupenu's people and those of Manaia, in which the superior numbers of the former led to their obtaining the page 96victory, and gave cause to Manaia to reflect—"A! my people are disappearing; presently, perhaps, I shall share the same fate. It would be better for me to leave this place, and seek a home in some other land." So he obtained a canoe named "Tokomaru" from his brother-in-law, and prepared for his voyage; and then, after vainly endeavouring to induce his brother-in-law to join him, enticed him on board the canoe, and there killed him as a sacrifice to secure a propitious voyage.
No particulars of the voyage are given in the tradition from which the above account is taken, but we know that "Tokomaru" came with the fleet from the west coast of Tahiti, first calling in at Rai'atea, in all probability, then at Rarotonga, where the name of the canoe is known as forming part of the fleet. I have no doubt that she also made Sunday Island (or Rangi-tahua) with the other canoes, and after leaving there, separated from her companion vessels in the gale, of which the "logs" of some of the vessels make mention, finally making the land on the south shore of Tokomaru Bay, some forty-five miles north of Gisborne. Here the crew landed on a rock, still pointed out and called after the canoe, and staid for a time, leaving some of their number who settled down there, amongst whom were Te Rangi-tataiwhetu and Rakiora who have (or had) descendants amongst the East Coast tribes. The spot where she landed was pointed out to the Hon. J. Carroll and myself by Henare Potae, chief of those parts, in 1899. From there the vessel coasted northwards round the East Cape, no doubt calling at places that looked desirable as settlements, but finding them occupied by the tangata-whenua (though this is not mentioned either in Grey's account or in the many stories told to myself). The vessel came round the North Cape, and then coasted down to the Tonga-porutu river, forty miles north of New Plymouth, where her long voyage ended.
From here, according to Grey's account, Manaia and his people—or some of them—went south to the Waitara river, where they encountered a lot of the tangata-whenua people, and exterminated them, as has been related in Chapter II. hereof. But it seems probable that Manaia himself settled down at Tonga-porutu, for here, soon after the arrival of the canoe, was built the house named Marae-roto-hia, which we may, in a broad sense, call a temple, or house of learning; for, as in the case of the other migrations, it was here that the knowledge of the tribal history, mysteries, etc., was taught by the tribal priests.
The Maori account of "Tokomaru" in "Nga Mahinga" ends up by saying—"Now this man (Manaia) was my (our) ancestor, the line descending to the Ngati-Awa tribe, as also from Rongotiki his wife. page 97The above is the account of the migration of Manaia from Hawaiki, where he had fought two battles, Kirikiri-wawa and Ra-to-rua,* where the weapons of Manaia named Kihia and Rakea became famous, etc." Unfortunately Sir George Grey never gives his authority for the matter he has collected, and, therefore, it is unknown who it was, as mentioned above, who claimed Manaia as his direct ancestor, and also that of Ngati-Awa. All I have to say on this subject is that I have hitherto failed to find any one amongst Ngati- (or Ati-) Awa, who acknowledges this man as an ancestor any more than in a general kind of way; but it is possible the Ngati-Tama tribe of Tonga-porutu can recite their genealogies back to him. At the same time Ati-Awa do allow that some of them descended from the crew of "Tokomaru," but so far as my enquiries go, they cannot recite any genealogies from them. This is very suspicious; and shows that probably but a very few people can claim "Tokomaru" as their ancestral vessel, and even then, probably through marriage connections with Ngati-Tama. The general statements I have gathered are to the effect that some of the following hapus:—Puketapu, of Waitara, Manu-korihi, of Waitara, and Ngati-Rahiri, of Waitara and Waihi, claim descent from one of "Tokomaru's" crew—the latter people from Rahiri-pakarara, who migrated long ago from Mohaka-tino (near Tonga-porutu) to their present homes; whilst the two first-named claim from one Rakeiora, who is believed to have been the priest of "Tokomaru," afterwards (it is said) deified into a kumara god, and in later times was taken from Urenui by Rangihawe of Ngati-Ruanui to Patea to be used as such. Rangi-hawe was the father of the somewhat celebrated Turau-kawa, the poet who will be referred to later on. Hatu-moana, shown in Table No, 28, is believed to have come in the "Aotea" canoe, but it is uncertain.
* Ra-to-rua, one of the battles fought by Uenuku at Rarotonga, see ante (Chapter V.)
Te Ati-Awa Tribe.
Table No. XXXI.
Te Retimona and Te Teira were the principal men in the sale of Waitara to the Crown in 1860, which sale led to the War. Rangi-kuru-patua's "saying" was "Ko te patete a te wheru." W. K. Te Rangi-take was our principal opponent in the wars of the "sixties." His ancestor, Tu-parua, is said to have been a landless man, but belonging to the same tribe, and is referred to by the others as "he ika tere mai, kahore ona waka," "a drift fish, he had no canoe." Obviously some names on this line must have been omitted—it is six or eight generations short.
I am indebted to the Rev. T. G. Hammond for the following line of descent from Rakeiora, being part of a longer line; it is somewhat longer than usual from the date of the heke, the mean number of generations should be twentytwo, and it runs into the Ngati-Ruanui in its latter end, Raumati being a well-known man of that tribe.
In Journal Polynesian Society, Vol. I., p. 227, Col. Gudgeon gives the descent from Rahiri-pakarara, said to be the eponymous ancestor of- Ngati-Rahiri of Waitara and Waihi; but this particular line is that of Ngati-Rakei of Mokau, which tribe is the connecting link between Ngati-Maniapoto of "The King Country," and Te Ati-Awa of Taranaki. If this line is right it shows that Ngati-Rahiri have occupied their present homes, north of Waitara, from about seventyfive years after the arrival of the fleet in 1350. On the same page quoted above, the author mentions Te Rangitata as an emigrant by Tokomaru, and he, with Manaia, his son Tu-ure-nui, and Rakeiora are the only recorded names of the Crew of "Tokomaru," on the West Coast.
Like so many of these questions, there is more than one story as to the origin of Rahiri. Some say that he was a descendant of those who came in "Tainui," and claim that he (or his ancestor) built the great house Marae-rotohia, and not Manaia. But I prefer taking old Watene Taungatara as an authority before any other of the tribe I have questioned, and he says Manaia, of "Tokomaru," built the house, and that Ngati-Rahiri's ancestors came in that canoe.
Table No. 31 was printed in the "Karere Maori," 30th April, 1860—a publication that is rare indeed in the land—and as it was collected at so early a date, when many of the old men were alive and able to give reliable information, it ought to be correct. I quote it, not only page 99as giving the lines of descent of many well known chiefs of Ati-Awa, but because I have been informed by Te Whetu, a fairly learned man, that the two first names on the table came over in the "Tokomaru"—a statement I find it very difficult to believe, and on the contrary think they are those of tangata-whenua ancestors of the great Ati-Awa tribe. The first name on the list—Kahui-tu—is not that of a man, but of a tribe, in which the term Kahui, is that I have shown in Chapter V. to be peculiar to the tangata-whenua. Te Kahui-tu is one of the original tribes, shown on the genealogical table No. 1, in Chapter II., page 22, but there is no information to hand to connect the two.
The anchor of the "Tokomaru" canoe is still in existence.* Mr. John Skinner describes it as follows:—"The anchor is a large stone made of a whitish (Dolorite?) stone, and stands about three feet high and weighs from three to four cwt.; it is pierced for a cable; the first hole made had broken out, and they then bored another across the grain of the stone."
A few pages back, reference was made to the probability of the incidents assigned as the cause of Manaia leaving Hawaiki having occurred long prior to that period. This we gather from the fact of the Morioris of the Chatham Islands being acquainted with the incident of the massacre of the spear-makers. There can be no question that the Morioris left New Zealand long prior to the date of arrival of the "Tokomaru" canoe in about 1350. From all we know they probably left in the times of Rauru and Whatonga, who flourished twenty-eight or twenty-nine generations ago, or about the years 1200 to 1225. The Moriori story will be found in Journal Polynesian Society, Vol. III., p. 187, and though the incidents are somewhat different, the tradition is evidently based on the same story as that preserved by the Maoris. The names Manaia and Kahu-kaka are identical in both stories. The only conclusion we can adopt is, that the battle of Kirikiri-wawa took place long before the sailing of the "Tokomaru" for New Zealand, and was learnt by the Morioris during their residence in New Zealand, through some of the unrecorded visitors prior to the heke of 1350, and that the Maoris have, through lapse of time, confused this tradition with some incident that actually did occur, and which latter was the prime cause of the "Tokomaru" canoe leaving for New Zealand.
* The stone is hidden on the south bank of the Mohakatino river, and only Messrs. John Strauchon, G. Robinson and myself know the spot. It was hidden for fear the Maoris should sell it, and with the intention of finally getting it placed in a Museum.
The "Kura-Haupo" Canoe.
The third of the vessels, the crews of which have left numerous descendants amongst the Taranaki tribes, was "Kura-haupo," and luckily in this case, thanks to my friends of the Taranaki tribe, we have much more precise information about this vessel and her crew. She left the west coast of Tahiti with the rest of the fleet, about the year 1350, but history does not, in her case, as in many others, tell us of the immediate cause of her crew migrating. No doubt they were involved in the many quarrels existing at that time, and partook also of the desire to see the new land which had been reported as lying far to the South-west. The Taranaki tribe hold that Te Mounga-roa was the captain of the canoe, whilst Ngati-Apa, of Rangitikei, say that one named Ruatea was the principal man on board. We cannot decide this question, nor is it of much consequence. They have both left plenty of descendants now living in New Zealand. Before leaving, Te Mounga-roa had secured some treasure, called by the Maoris a kura: but what this was, my endeavours have failed to elicit, any more than that it was connected with a high branch of their system of karakia (or incantations, invocations—religion in fact), and it does not appear to have been a material object. Some old Maoris seem to think it was "the tree of life," or "Philosopher's stone," (so described by my informant), but that does not help us much. It was something that Te Mounga-roa sought and obtained in the realms of the Po, or the nebulous obscurity of the past, and was much coveted by the learned men of the other canoes. Possibly we may best define it as the esoteric knowledge of ancient beliefs and history.
The "Kura-hau-po" called in at Rarotonga with the other vessels, for her name is preserved there amongst the vessels of the fleet; and then came on to Rangi-tahua Island, where the "Aotea" had already arrived, and with her, or shortly after came the "Mata-tua," and probably the "Tainui," "Te Arawa" and "Tokomaru," but of these latter three, we have only inference, to support the belief that they were there. Probably these canoes landed on the north coast of the island (which no doubt is Sunday Island) where there is a sandy beach, fairly sheltered during southerly and westerly winds, and from which the shore rises some fifty feet to a level or undulating terrace, composed of rich soil, about a mile long and a fourth of that in width. Here the canoes were repaired, and their top-sides lashed afresh, for after their long run from Rarotonga, these had become loosened by the leverage of sail and paddle. Heartily glad would the voyagers be to stretch their limbs after the cramped positions and confined space they would be limited to on board, even if, as is probable, the vessels were built on the model of the page 101pahi, with a deck between the two hulls, and probably a cabin on that deck. On the terrace alluded to above, are to be found a few specimens of the candle-nut tree of Polynesia; they are about sixty feet high, and three feet in diameter. It is an interesting question as to whether the fleet of canoes did not bring the seed with them, and plant or drop them there. The nuts being full of oil are used by the Polynesians as lights, by stringing them on a fine stick, or midrib of the coconut palm, and then setting light to them. And it was probably the crew of the canoes that left the stone axes discovered there a few years since.
After repairing the vessels, and making the usual sacrifices to their gods to ensure the continuation of a prosperous voyage, the fleet prepared to depart. All appear to have got off safely except "Kura-haupo" which, in paddling off through the surf, got seriously damaged, in fact the accounts say, broken up.
The name given to this place in consequence was Te Rere-a-Kurahaupo, or the flight or descent of "Kura-haupo." On ascertaining that the vessel was unfit to proceed on her voyage she was—according to Taranaki accounts—abandoned, and her cargo and crew transhipped to the "Mata-tua," though it would also appear that a few of them came on in the "Aotea." It is highly probable, though not so stated in the tradition, that some of the crew remained at the island with the intention of repairing the broken canoe and continuing their voyage in her. But the remainder came to New Zealand in the "Mata-tua," and landed somewhere on the East Coast—where exactly is not known. Judge Wilson says four of the canoes, including "Mata-tua," all met at Great Mercury Island in the Bay of Plenty, and here probably occurred the scene between Te Mounga-roa and some of the chiefs of the other canoes, in which he accused them of having used their powers of witchcraft to wreck the "Kura-haupo"; and when he boasts that, notwithstanding their evil intentions, he had succeeded in bringing with him the precious kura, much to their chagrin. The "Mata-tua" crew were all relatives of the people of "Kura-haupo," and hence were they brought on by the former, says my informant, and the name "Broken-canoe" is born by some of the people of Taranaki to this day, in remembrance of the catastrophy to "Kura-haupo." Te Moungaroa set up a tuahu (or altar) near where they landed in New Zealand to offer the usual thanksgiving, and whereat to recite the necessary karakias to remove all evil effects that might afflict them in the new land, and after that, finding that all the lands in those parts were already appropriated, he with Turu-rangi-marie, Tu-kapua and Akurama-tapu, with their people, travelled along by the East Coast, and up the shores of Cook's Straits, finally settling down in the Taranaki page 102country at Wairau stream, near Capt. Mace's present homestead, in the neighbourhood of Oakura. But Akurama-tapu and Tu-kapua after a time returned to the East Coast, and there settled down.
So far the Taranaki account; but others state that "Kura-haupo" actually came to New Zealand, and this seems probably true; for we cannot neglect certain traditions about the vessel, gathered from various parts of the North Island. It is probably the case that some of the crew remained behind at Rangi-tahua Island, and succeeded in repairing the damages caused at the time the other vessels of the fleet left. Under Ruatea the canoe now succeeded in making the coast of New Zealand, near the North Cape—where, as we shall see, she left part of her crew—and coasting down the East Coast from there, called in at various places no doubt, but the only ones recorded are near Table Cape, when she left an anchor, said to be there now, then to Mohaka in Hawke's Bay; then to a place a little to the south of Matau-a-Maui, (Cape Kidnappers) where, it is said some of the crew remained, and who were afterwards driven out by Ngati-Kahu-ngunu, and migrated to the South Island, and are known as Ngati-Mamoe. Next, some of her crew, with Ruatea, were landed and settled somewhere in Cook's Straits, and furnished some of the ancestors of the Ngati-Apa tribe of Rangi-tikei; probably Kupakupa was one of these—an ancestor of the Wairarapa people, though he died in the South Island, and Awaawa-wetewete-tapiki, a common ancestor of Ngati-Kuia and Rangi-tane. We next find this canoe settling the country of the sounds, north end of the South Island, under Koanga-umu and his wife Wainui-a-ono, who were the ancestors of the Ngati-Kuia tribe of Pelorus. One account says she came down the East Coast in company with the "Takitumu" canoe, which latter went on by the East Coast of the South Island to Moeraki, whilst "Kura-haupo" went to the West Coast, and finally remained at the Mawhera or Grey River, or as another and more probable account says, at Te Taitapu, Golden Bay, South Island.
To go back to the first arrival of this vessel at or near the North Cape. The Au-pouri and Rarawa tribes claim that some of them descend from the crew of "Kura-hau-po," and they specially name Po who came in her and who is one of the ancestors of Te Patu, and Ngati-Kuri, hapus of Te Rarawa tribe. The account states that the "Mamari" canoe arrived first at Hokianga, followed by "Kura-haupo," and that the crews of these vessels intermarried with the original inhabitants, thereby leading to wars and troubles. It is interesting to note that the same account gives twenty-one generations of the original people down to the time of arrival of the fleet, which agrees with the statements in Chapter I.page 103
It will be seen from what has now been said as to "Kura-haupo," that this vessel has contributed largely to the present inhabitants of New Zealand, and that her crew became more dispersed than that of any other canoe. Wherever they landed they mixed with the original people, and their descendants soon became the leaders and rulers over them.
|Te Mounga-roa||Arai-pawa||Te Rangi-awhia|
|Tamatea-ki-te-aro-a-uki||Kere-papaka (Te Mounga-roa's son)|
Seventeen names in all as remembered, but there were thirty-five people known to have settled on the Taranaki coast. Toko-poto was the ancestor of Ngati-Haupoto hapu of Rahotu; Toka-tara was the ancestor of Potiki-roa, of whom see infra. And the Oa-kura river, eight miles south of New Plymouth, received its name from the fact of the redness (kura) of the soles of Akurama-tapu's feet when running there, and the Tapuae-haruru river, seven miles south of New Plymouth, was named from the "resounding footsteps" of the same man.
Making forty-one in all. But of course there were many more, for we do not know the names of those who settled at Cape Kidnappers, Te Taitapu, etc.
Ruatea, of Ngati-Apa, Po (or Pou), of the Rarawa, Koanga-umu, Wainui-a-ono, Awaawa and Kupakupa of Ngati-Kuia, etc.
Table No. 32, of the descent from Te Mounga-roa, reputed captain of "Kura-haupo," is recited by the Taranaki people.
Notes to Table No 32.
|A.—||See the story of Ngarue, infra. He owned the tuahu called Rohutu, at Waitara.|
|B.—||Rakei-ora (Ka tangi te pu = The trumpet sounded). He was the first son, his seniors being daughters; hence the trumpet.|
|C.—||The ancestor of Te Whetu and Te Rangi-kapu-oho, who was the father of Ropata Ngarongo-mate, or, as he was better known to Europeans, Bob Erangi, page 104 a well known and influencial chief in the sixties, and brother to Mrs. Wellington Carrington.*|
|D.—||Moeahu: from him Ngati-Moeahu hapu of Taranaki take their name.|
|E.—||Moeahu and Tai-hawea were twins (mahanga); hence Ngati-Mahanga hapu.|
Photo by R. W. S. Ballantyne
Plate No. 5.
Stones marking the length of the "Tainui" canoe at Kawhia.
It will be noted that the genealogical line quoted in Table No. 32, ante, is about five generations short of the mean number, which is 22.
The following line (Table No. 33) is also from one of the crew of "Kura-haupo," and like that in Table No. 32 is shorter than usual—twenty generations instead of twenty-two, and possibly there is one generation omitted at the eighth back from the present day.
Tahu-rangi, a descendant of Te Hatauira, was the first man to ascend Mount Egmont, and when he got there he lit a fire on top (presumably he took up the firewood with him) to show to all the world that he had taken possession of the mountain. Whenever the whisps of smoke-like cloud are seen clinging to the summit of the mountain, as they often do, this is said to be the "fire of Tahu-rangi" Te Ahi a Tahu-rangi. Probably there is foundation for this story, and that the ascent occurred soon after the arrival of "Kura-haupo," in order to claim the mountain as against Te Ati-Awa tribe. But in modern times the Maoris have always shown a strong disinclination to make the ascent—as it was a breaking of the tapu to do so.
* An interesting and amusing anecdote used to be told by the Maoris in the fifties of last century, relating to the marriage feast of Mr. and Mrs. Wellington Carrington, which the Maoris used to enjoy and tell with great gusto. First, I may say, that Te Rangi-kapu-oho, the father of the lady, was a fierce old warrior, very fully tattooed, who, from 1850 to 1858, lived most of his time as a squatter on the east side of Okoare pa, near what is now called Westown, where he was a constant source of annoyance to the owner of the property. The probability is that the old man—who was generally known as Erangi—had not been paid sufficiently by the Government for his share in the land, according to the old fellow's idea of his claim; and eventually Mr. (afterwards Sir Donald) McLean had to buy him out, after which he gave no further trouble, and retired to Tapuae, where the marriage feast took place. In those days, all Maoris were very partial to a dish called "Lillipee," which was a compound of flour, sugar and hot water. At the marriage feast, a large quantity of this delectable compound was made for the Maori guests, but there was no utensil large enough to hold it. The Maoris, however, were equal to the occasion. They cleaned out a good sized fishing canoe and poured the lillipee into it. Then all stood round, each armed with a large mussel shell, and proceeded to enjoy the good cheer. Whilst this was going on, a small child, in its eagerness to help itself, overreached and fell into the pasty mass. He was hauled out, covered from head to foot in a sticky coating of lillipee. This could not be allowed to go to waste; so the people around scraped the child with their mussel shells, and swallowed the contents. Thinking that the food was not sufficiently scraped off, old Rangi (it is said) held the child up by the heels, and licked him all over; thus securing a tasty morsel, and saving soap! | <urn:uuid:68563988-52a2-4adb-a3b0-1f4a56a5277e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-SmiHist-t1-body1-d6.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.980147 | 7,230 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.5128580331802... | 1 | History and traditions of the Maoris of the West Coast, North Island of New Zealand, prior to 1840
Chapter VI. — The Canoes of "The Fleet."—Continued
The Canoes of "The Fleet."—Continued.
Whilst we must over give precedence to the crews of the "Aotea" canoe as contributing most largely to the Hawaiki element in the population of the West Coast, there are two other vessels that are also claimed as having brought over many ancestors of the present Maori people. Of the two, perhaps "Tokomaru" has usually been considered the most important—why, it is somewhat difficult to say; for so far as can be ascertained, the number of people who trace descent from her crow are but few. The prominence given to this vessel is probably due to the fact of an account of her voyage having been published by Sir. George Grey in "Polynesian Mythology;" which account (together with many notes gathered by others), will now be given in abbreviated form, in which the original in Maori, published in "Nga Mahinga," will be translated.
The "Tokomaru" Canoe.
There are many difficulties surrounding the account of the reasons why the crew of this canoe migrated to New Zealand, which leads one to infer that Manaia's war in Hawaiki did not really take place just prior to the migration as Sir George Grey's narrative leads the reader to infer, but rather at a date long anterior to that period. The narrative (loc. cit.) says—"The reason why Manaia (said to be captain of 'Tokomaru') came hither, was his massacre of the party of spearmakers, who had debauched his wife Rongo-tiki." Manaia was desirous of securing a party of men to make spears, and for that purpose sent to Tupenu, who was head-chief of the tribe who were expert spear-makers, to order that this should bo done. The men came to Manaia's village and set to work, whilst Manaia occupied himself in procuring food of all sorts for the workmen, often going out to sea to catch fish for the same purpose. On one occasion he found that whilst all his party caught fish in plenty none came to his line, until just when the party were about to return home Manaia hooked a fish, but to his surprise, by the tail, and not by the mouth. With the common belief in omens, so characteristic a feature of the Maori, Manaia at once came to the conclusion that some evil had befallen his wife. On page 95reaching home, his suspicions were confirmed by Rongo-tiki (his wife) who disclosed to her husband the insult she had been subjected to by the spear-makers.
Manaia now considered how this insult to his wife was to be effaced. There was only one way according to Polynesian law: the evil-doers must be killed. But he had to proceed cautiously and by stratagem. Pretending that he was unaware of what had occurred, he urged the spear-makers to make the spears large and heavy, so that—in the words of the Maori story—"they should not be able to carry them"—i.e., use them in fighting. This remark opens up a question as to who these spear-makers were? It is clear Manaia had no doubt as to the ability of his own people to use them, and this may perhaps indicate that they were a more powerful race of men than the spear-makers. It is suggested that the latter were probably some of those skilled artisans known as the Manahune (or Menehune), a diminutive people, probably Melanesians, who lived in a state of vassalage, if not slavery, with the Polynesians of Tahiti and Hawaii, and who are referred to in the traditions of both those islands as also those of Rarotonga. They were probably some of the Solomon or other Melanesian islanders, captured by the Polynesians, and employed by them as sailors, workmen, etc.
Manaia now arranged with his own people that they should fall on the spear-makers and exterminate them. When the proper moment came, Manaia urged his son, Tu-uro-nui to distinguish himself by slaying the first man—a deed much thought of by the Maoris—but the young fellow held back, and allowed another young-man named Kahu-kaka to take his place. It was he that secured the mata-ika, or first slain, crying out as he did so, the usual Maori boast—'I, Kahu-kakaa-Manaia, have got the first slain! ' It is said, that until Manaia heard his own name pronounced by this young warrior, he was not aware that he had any other son but Tu-ure-nui. After this he acknowledged Kahu-kaka, and made much of him. Tupenu, the chief of the spear-makers, would have escaped, but that Rongo-tiki, Manaia's wife, uttered a powerful tupe, which had the effect of hindering his steps, and thus allowed Manaia to overtake and kill him on the beach at Pikopiko-i-whiti. All the others were killed.
The name just quoted, again leads me to infer that this story is older than the date of the migration, for it can, I think, be shown that that place was either in Samoa or Fiji, whereas Manaia emigrated from Tahiti.
A war now ensued between Tupenu's people and those of Manaia, in which the superior numbers of the former led to their obtaining the page 96victory, and gave cause to Manaia to reflect—"A! my people are disappearing; presently, perhaps, I shall share the same fate. It would be better for me to leave this place, and seek a home in some other land." So he obtained a canoe named "Tokomaru" from his brother-in-law, and prepared for his voyage; and then, after vainly endeavouring to induce his brother-in-law to join him, enticed him on board the canoe, and there killed him as a sacrifice to secure a propitious voyage.
No particulars of the voyage are given in the tradition from which the above account is taken, but we know that "Tokomaru" came with the fleet from the west coast of Tahiti, first calling in at Rai'atea, in all probability, then at Rarotonga, where the name of the canoe is known as forming part of the fleet. I have no doubt that she also made Sunday Island (or Rangi-tahua) with the other canoes, and after leaving there, separated from her companion vessels in the gale, of which the "logs" of some of the vessels make mention, finally making the land on the south shore of Tokomaru Bay, some forty-five miles north of Gisborne. Here the crew landed on a rock, still pointed out and called after the canoe, and staid for a time, leaving some of their number who settled down there, amongst whom were Te Rangi-tataiwhetu and Rakiora who have (or had) descendants amongst the East Coast tribes. The spot where she landed was pointed out to the Hon. J. Carroll and myself by Henare Potae, chief of those parts, in 1899. From there the vessel coasted northwards round the East Cape, no doubt calling at places that looked desirable as settlements, but finding them occupied by the tangata-whenua (though this is not mentioned either in Grey's account or in the many stories told to myself). The vessel came round the North Cape, and then coasted down to the Tonga-porutu river, forty miles north of New Plymouth, where her long voyage ended.
From here, according to Grey's account, Manaia and his people—or some of them—went south to the Waitara river, where they encountered a lot of the tangata-whenua people, and exterminated them, as has been related in Chapter II. hereof. But it seems probable that Manaia himself settled down at Tonga-porutu, for here, soon after the arrival of the canoe, was built the house named Marae-roto-hia, which we may, in a broad sense, call a temple, or house of learning; for, as in the case of the other migrations, it was here that the knowledge of the tribal history, mysteries, etc., was taught by the tribal priests.
The Maori account of "Tokomaru" in "Nga Mahinga" ends up by saying—"Now this man (Manaia) was my (our) ancestor, the line descending to the Ngati-Awa tribe, as also from Rongotiki his wife. page 97The above is the account of the migration of Manaia from Hawaiki, where he had fought two battles, Kirikiri-wawa and Ra-to-rua,* where the weapons of Manaia named Kihia and Rakea became famous, etc." Unfortunately Sir George Grey never gives his authority for the matter he has collected, and, therefore, it is unknown who it was, as mentioned above, who claimed Manaia as his direct ancestor, and also that of Ngati-Awa. All I have to say on this subject is that I have hitherto failed to find any one amongst Ngati- (or Ati-) Awa, who acknowledges this man as an ancestor any more than in a general kind of way; but it is possible the Ngati-Tama tribe of Tonga-porutu can recite their genealogies back to him. At the same time Ati-Awa do allow that some of them descended from the crew of "Tokomaru," but so far as my enquiries go, they cannot recite any genealogies from them. This is very suspicious; and shows that probably but a very few people can claim "Tokomaru" as their ancestral vessel, and even then, probably through marriage connections with Ngati-Tama. The general statements I have gathered are to the effect that some of the following hapus:—Puketapu, of Waitara, Manu-korihi, of Waitara, and Ngati-Rahiri, of Waitara and Waihi, claim descent from one of "Tokomaru's" crew—the latter people from Rahiri-pakarara, who migrated long ago from Mohaka-tino (near Tonga-porutu) to their present homes; whilst the two first-named claim from one Rakeiora, who is believed to have been the priest of "Tokomaru," afterwards (it is said) deified into a kumara god, and in later times was taken from Urenui by Rangihawe of Ngati-Ruanui to Patea to be used as such. Rangi-hawe was the father of the somewhat celebrated Turau-kawa, the poet who will be referred to later on. Hatu-moana, shown in Table No, 28, is believed to have come in the "Aotea" canoe, but it is uncertain.
* Ra-to-rua, one of the battles fought by Uenuku at Rarotonga, see ante (Chapter V.)
Te Ati-Awa Tribe.
Table No. XXXI.
Te Retimona and Te Teira were the principal men in the sale of Waitara to the Crown in 1860, which sale led to the War. Rangi-kuru-patua's "saying" was "Ko te patete a te wheru." W. K. Te Rangi-take was our principal opponent in the wars of the "sixties." His ancestor, Tu-parua, is said to have been a landless man, but belonging to the same tribe, and is referred to by the others as "he ika tere mai, kahore ona waka," "a drift fish, he had no canoe." Obviously some names on this line must have been omitted—it is six or eight generations short.
I am indebted to the Rev. T. G. Hammond for the following line of descent from Rakeiora, being part of a longer line; it is somewhat longer than usual from the date of the heke, the mean number of generations should be twentytwo, and it runs into the Ngati-Ruanui in its latter end, Raumati being a well-known man of that tribe.
In Journal Polynesian Society, Vol. I., p. 227, Col. Gudgeon gives the descent from Rahiri-pakarara, said to be the eponymous ancestor of- Ngati-Rahiri of Waitara and Waihi; but this particular line is that of Ngati-Rakei of Mokau, which tribe is the connecting link between Ngati-Maniapoto of "The King Country," and Te Ati-Awa of Taranaki. If this line is right it shows that Ngati-Rahiri have occupied their present homes, north of Waitara, from about seventyfive years after the arrival of the fleet in 1350. On the same page quoted above, the author mentions Te Rangitata as an emigrant by Tokomaru, and he, with Manaia, his son Tu-ure-nui, and Rakeiora are the only recorded names of the Crew of "Tokomaru," on the West Coast.
Like so many of these questions, there is more than one story as to the origin of Rahiri. Some say that he was a descendant of those who came in "Tainui," and claim that he (or his ancestor) built the great house Marae-rotohia, and not Manaia. But I prefer taking old Watene Taungatara as an authority before any other of the tribe I have questioned, and he says Manaia, of "Tokomaru," built the house, and that Ngati-Rahiri's ancestors came in that canoe.
Table No. 31 was printed in the "Karere Maori," 30th April, 1860—a publication that is rare indeed in the land—and as it was collected at so early a date, when many of the old men were alive and able to give reliable information, it ought to be correct. I quote it, not only page 99as giving the lines of descent of many well known chiefs of Ati-Awa, but because I have been informed by Te Whetu, a fairly learned man, that the two first names on the table came over in the "Tokomaru"—a statement I find it very difficult to believe, and on the contrary think they are those of tangata-whenua ancestors of the great Ati-Awa tribe. The first name on the list—Kahui-tu—is not that of a man, but of a tribe, in which the term Kahui, is that I have shown in Chapter V. to be peculiar to the tangata-whenua. Te Kahui-tu is one of the original tribes, shown on the genealogical table No. 1, in Chapter II., page 22, but there is no information to hand to connect the two.
The anchor of the "Tokomaru" canoe is still in existence.* Mr. John Skinner describes it as follows:—"The anchor is a large stone made of a whitish (Dolorite?) stone, and stands about three feet high and weighs from three to four cwt.; it is pierced for a cable; the first hole made had broken out, and they then bored another across the grain of the stone."
A few pages back, reference was made to the probability of the incidents assigned as the cause of Manaia leaving Hawaiki having occurred long prior to that period. This we gather from the fact of the Morioris of the Chatham Islands being acquainted with the incident of the massacre of the spear-makers. There can be no question that the Morioris left New Zealand long prior to the date of arrival of the "Tokomaru" canoe in about 1350. From all we know they probably left in the times of Rauru and Whatonga, who flourished twenty-eight or twenty-nine generations ago, or about the years 1200 to 1225. The Moriori story will be found in Journal Polynesian Society, Vol. III., p. 187, and though the incidents are somewhat different, the tradition is evidently based on the same story as that preserved by the Maoris. The names Manaia and Kahu-kaka are identical in both stories. The only conclusion we can adopt is, that the battle of Kirikiri-wawa took place long before the sailing of the "Tokomaru" for New Zealand, and was learnt by the Morioris during their residence in New Zealand, through some of the unrecorded visitors prior to the heke of 1350, and that the Maoris have, through lapse of time, confused this tradition with some incident that actually did occur, and which latter was the prime cause of the "Tokomaru" canoe leaving for New Zealand.
* The stone is hidden on the south bank of the Mohakatino river, and only Messrs. John Strauchon, G. Robinson and myself know the spot. It was hidden for fear the Maoris should sell it, and with the intention of finally getting it placed in a Museum.
The "Kura-Haupo" Canoe.
The third of the vessels, the crews of which have left numerous descendants amongst the Taranaki tribes, was "Kura-haupo," and luckily in this case, thanks to my friends of the Taranaki tribe, we have much more precise information about this vessel and her crew. She left the west coast of Tahiti with the rest of the fleet, about the year 1350, but history does not, in her case, as in many others, tell us of the immediate cause of her crew migrating. No doubt they were involved in the many quarrels existing at that time, and partook also of the desire to see the new land which had been reported as lying far to the South-west. The Taranaki tribe hold that Te Mounga-roa was the captain of the canoe, whilst Ngati-Apa, of Rangitikei, say that one named Ruatea was the principal man on board. We cannot decide this question, nor is it of much consequence. They have both left plenty of descendants now living in New Zealand. Before leaving, Te Mounga-roa had secured some treasure, called by the Maoris a kura: but what this was, my endeavours have failed to elicit, any more than that it was connected with a high branch of their system of karakia (or incantations, invocations—religion in fact), and it does not appear to have been a material object. Some old Maoris seem to think it was "the tree of life," or "Philosopher's stone," (so described by my informant), but that does not help us much. It was something that Te Mounga-roa sought and obtained in the realms of the Po, or the nebulous obscurity of the past, and was much coveted by the learned men of the other canoes. Possibly we may best define it as the esoteric knowledge of ancient beliefs and history.
The "Kura-hau-po" called in at Rarotonga with the other vessels, for her name is preserved there amongst the vessels of the fleet; and then came on to Rangi-tahua Island, where the "Aotea" had already arrived, and with her, or shortly after came the "Mata-tua," and probably the "Tainui," "Te Arawa" and "Tokomaru," but of these latter three, we have only inference, to support the belief that they were there. Probably these canoes landed on the north coast of the island (which no doubt is Sunday Island) where there is a sandy beach, fairly sheltered during southerly and westerly winds, and from which the shore rises some fifty feet to a level or undulating terrace, composed of rich soil, about a mile long and a fourth of that in width. Here the canoes were repaired, and their top-sides lashed afresh, for after their long run from Rarotonga, these had become loosened by the leverage of sail and paddle. Heartily glad would the voyagers be to stretch their limbs after the cramped positions and confined space they would be limited to on board, even if, as is probable, the vessels were built on the model of the page 101pahi, with a deck between the two hulls, and probably a cabin on that deck. On the terrace alluded to above, are to be found a few specimens of the candle-nut tree of Polynesia; they are about sixty feet high, and three feet in diameter. It is an interesting question as to whether the fleet of canoes did not bring the seed with them, and plant or drop them there. The nuts being full of oil are used by the Polynesians as lights, by stringing them on a fine stick, or midrib of the coconut palm, and then setting light to them. And it was probably the crew of the canoes that left the stone axes discovered there a few years since.
After repairing the vessels, and making the usual sacrifices to their gods to ensure the continuation of a prosperous voyage, the fleet prepared to depart. All appear to have got off safely except "Kura-haupo" which, in paddling off through the surf, got seriously damaged, in fact the accounts say, broken up.
The name given to this place in consequence was Te Rere-a-Kurahaupo, or the flight or descent of "Kura-haupo." On ascertaining that the vessel was unfit to proceed on her voyage she was—according to Taranaki accounts—abandoned, and her cargo and crew transhipped to the "Mata-tua," though it would also appear that a few of them came on in the "Aotea." It is highly probable, though not so stated in the tradition, that some of the crew remained at the island with the intention of repairing the broken canoe and continuing their voyage in her. But the remainder came to New Zealand in the "Mata-tua," and landed somewhere on the East Coast—where exactly is not known. Judge Wilson says four of the canoes, including "Mata-tua," all met at Great Mercury Island in the Bay of Plenty, and here probably occurred the scene between Te Mounga-roa and some of the chiefs of the other canoes, in which he accused them of having used their powers of witchcraft to wreck the "Kura-haupo"; and when he boasts that, notwithstanding their evil intentions, he had succeeded in bringing with him the precious kura, much to their chagrin. The "Mata-tua" crew were all relatives of the people of "Kura-haupo," and hence were they brought on by the former, says my informant, and the name "Broken-canoe" is born by some of the people of Taranaki to this day, in remembrance of the catastrophy to "Kura-haupo." Te Moungaroa set up a tuahu (or altar) near where they landed in New Zealand to offer the usual thanksgiving, and whereat to recite the necessary karakias to remove all evil effects that might afflict them in the new land, and after that, finding that all the lands in those parts were already appropriated, he with Turu-rangi-marie, Tu-kapua and Akurama-tapu, with their people, travelled along by the East Coast, and up the shores of Cook's Straits, finally settling down in the Taranaki page 102country at Wairau stream, near Capt. Mace's present homestead, in the neighbourhood of Oakura. But Akurama-tapu and Tu-kapua after a time returned to the East Coast, and there settled down.
So far the Taranaki account; but others state that "Kura-haupo" actually came to New Zealand, and this seems probably true; for we cannot neglect certain traditions about the vessel, gathered from various parts of the North Island. It is probably the case that some of the crew remained behind at Rangi-tahua Island, and succeeded in repairing the damages caused at the time the other vessels of the fleet left. Under Ruatea the canoe now succeeded in making the coast of New Zealand, near the North Cape—where, as we shall see, she left part of her crew—and coasting down the East Coast from there, called in at various places no doubt, but the only ones recorded are near Table Cape, when she left an anchor, said to be there now, then to Mohaka in Hawke's Bay; then to a place a little to the south of Matau-a-Maui, (Cape Kidnappers) where, it is said some of the crew remained, and who were afterwards driven out by Ngati-Kahu-ngunu, and migrated to the South Island, and are known as Ngati-Mamoe. Next, some of her crew, with Ruatea, were landed and settled somewhere in Cook's Straits, and furnished some of the ancestors of the Ngati-Apa tribe of Rangi-tikei; probably Kupakupa was one of these—an ancestor of the Wairarapa people, though he died in the South Island, and Awaawa-wetewete-tapiki, a common ancestor of Ngati-Kuia and Rangi-tane. We next find this canoe settling the country of the sounds, north end of the South Island, under Koanga-umu and his wife Wainui-a-ono, who were the ancestors of the Ngati-Kuia tribe of Pelorus. One account says she came down the East Coast in company with the "Takitumu" canoe, which latter went on by the East Coast of the South Island to Moeraki, whilst "Kura-haupo" went to the West Coast, and finally remained at the Mawhera or Grey River, or as another and more probable account says, at Te Taitapu, Golden Bay, South Island.
To go back to the first arrival of this vessel at or near the North Cape. The Au-pouri and Rarawa tribes claim that some of them descend from the crew of "Kura-hau-po," and they specially name Po who came in her and who is one of the ancestors of Te Patu, and Ngati-Kuri, hapus of Te Rarawa tribe. The account states that the "Mamari" canoe arrived first at Hokianga, followed by "Kura-haupo," and that the crews of these vessels intermarried with the original inhabitants, thereby leading to wars and troubles. It is interesting to note that the same account gives twenty-one generations of the original people down to the time of arrival of the fleet, which agrees with the statements in Chapter I.page 103
It will be seen from what has now been said as to "Kura-haupo," that this vessel has contributed largely to the present inhabitants of New Zealand, and that her crew became more dispersed than that of any other canoe. Wherever they landed they mixed with the original people, and their descendants soon became the leaders and rulers over them.
|Te Mounga-roa||Arai-pawa||Te Rangi-awhia|
|Tamatea-ki-te-aro-a-uki||Kere-papaka (Te Mounga-roa's son)|
Seventeen names in all as remembered, but there were thirty-five people known to have settled on the Taranaki coast. Toko-poto was the ancestor of Ngati-Haupoto hapu of Rahotu; Toka-tara was the ancestor of Potiki-roa, of whom see infra. And the Oa-kura river, eight miles south of New Plymouth, received its name from the fact of the redness (kura) of the soles of Akurama-tapu's feet when running there, and the Tapuae-haruru river, seven miles south of New Plymouth, was named from the "resounding footsteps" of the same man.
Making forty-one in all. But of course there were many more, for we do not know the names of those who settled at Cape Kidnappers, Te Taitapu, etc.
Ruatea, of Ngati-Apa, Po (or Pou), of the Rarawa, Koanga-umu, Wainui-a-ono, Awaawa and Kupakupa of Ngati-Kuia, etc.
Table No. 32, of the descent from Te Mounga-roa, reputed captain of "Kura-haupo," is recited by the Taranaki people.
Notes to Table No 32.
|A.—||See the story of Ngarue, infra. He owned the tuahu called Rohutu, at Waitara.|
|B.—||Rakei-ora (Ka tangi te pu = The trumpet sounded). He was the first son, his seniors being daughters; hence the trumpet.|
|C.—||The ancestor of Te Whetu and Te Rangi-kapu-oho, who was the father of Ropata Ngarongo-mate, or, as he was better known to Europeans, Bob Erangi, page 104 a well known and influencial chief in the sixties, and brother to Mrs. Wellington Carrington.*|
|D.—||Moeahu: from him Ngati-Moeahu hapu of Taranaki take their name.|
|E.—||Moeahu and Tai-hawea were twins (mahanga); hence Ngati-Mahanga hapu.|
Photo by R. W. S. Ballantyne
Plate No. 5.
Stones marking the length of the "Tainui" canoe at Kawhia.
It will be noted that the genealogical line quoted in Table No. 32, ante, is about five generations short of the mean number, which is 22.
The following line (Table No. 33) is also from one of the crew of "Kura-haupo," and like that in Table No. 32 is shorter than usual—twenty generations instead of twenty-two, and possibly there is one generation omitted at the eighth back from the present day.
Tahu-rangi, a descendant of Te Hatauira, was the first man to ascend Mount Egmont, and when he got there he lit a fire on top (presumably he took up the firewood with him) to show to all the world that he had taken possession of the mountain. Whenever the whisps of smoke-like cloud are seen clinging to the summit of the mountain, as they often do, this is said to be the "fire of Tahu-rangi" Te Ahi a Tahu-rangi. Probably there is foundation for this story, and that the ascent occurred soon after the arrival of "Kura-haupo," in order to claim the mountain as against Te Ati-Awa tribe. But in modern times the Maoris have always shown a strong disinclination to make the ascent—as it was a breaking of the tapu to do so.
* An interesting and amusing anecdote used to be told by the Maoris in the fifties of last century, relating to the marriage feast of Mr. and Mrs. Wellington Carrington, which the Maoris used to enjoy and tell with great gusto. First, I may say, that Te Rangi-kapu-oho, the father of the lady, was a fierce old warrior, very fully tattooed, who, from 1850 to 1858, lived most of his time as a squatter on the east side of Okoare pa, near what is now called Westown, where he was a constant source of annoyance to the owner of the property. The probability is that the old man—who was generally known as Erangi—had not been paid sufficiently by the Government for his share in the land, according to the old fellow's idea of his claim; and eventually Mr. (afterwards Sir Donald) McLean had to buy him out, after which he gave no further trouble, and retired to Tapuae, where the marriage feast took place. In those days, all Maoris were very partial to a dish called "Lillipee," which was a compound of flour, sugar and hot water. At the marriage feast, a large quantity of this delectable compound was made for the Maori guests, but there was no utensil large enough to hold it. The Maoris, however, were equal to the occasion. They cleaned out a good sized fishing canoe and poured the lillipee into it. Then all stood round, each armed with a large mussel shell, and proceeded to enjoy the good cheer. Whilst this was going on, a small child, in its eagerness to help itself, overreached and fell into the pasty mass. He was hauled out, covered from head to foot in a sticky coating of lillipee. This could not be allowed to go to waste; so the people around scraped the child with their mussel shells, and swallowed the contents. Thinking that the food was not sufficiently scraped off, old Rangi (it is said) held the child up by the heels, and licked him all over; thus securing a tasty morsel, and saving soap! | 7,081 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This page concerns the Christian martyr.
Saint Lawrence (Laurentius in Latin) was one of the seven deacons of Rome, where he was martyred in 258. Legend reports that he was a native Spaniard, but received religious instruction from Archdeacon Sixtus in Rome. When Sixtus became Pope in 257, Lawrence was ordained a deacon and was placed in charge of the administration of Church goods and care for the poor.
In the persecutions under Emperor Valerian I in 258, numerous priests and bishops were put to death, while Christians belonging to the nobility or the senate were deprived of their goods and exiled. Pope Sixtus II was one of the first victims of this persecution, being crucified on August 6. A legend cited by (Saint) Ambrose of Milan says that Lawrence met the Pope on his way to his execution, where he is reported to have said, "Where are you going, my dear father, without your son? Where are you hurrying off to, holy priest, without your deacon? Before you never mounted the altar of sacrifice without your servant, and now you wish to do it without me?" The Pope is reported to have prophesied that "after three days you will follow me". Modern scholars tend to dismiss this scene as having been impossible in the situation.
After the Pope's death, the prefect of Rome demanded that Lawrence turn over the riches of the Church. Lawrence asked for three days to gather the wealth. After this, Lawrence worked to distribute as much Church property to the poor as possible, so as to prevent its being seized by the prefect. On the third day, he presented himself to the prefect, and when ordered to give up the treasures of the Church, he presented the poor, the crippled, the blind and the suffering, and said that these were the true treasures of the Church.
According to legend, he was roasted to death on a grill, or gridiron, near the field of Verano in Rome, punctuated the saint's quip shortly before his death: "The meat is almost ready. Turn and eat." Many modern scholars hold death by decapitation to be more likely. His death occurred on August 10, 258, which since then is celebrated as his feast day.
Despite the various legends that have sprung up about Lawrence, his existence as a historical figure is beyond question, as well as the site and year of his death.
Lawrence is one of the most widely venerated saints of the Roman Catholic Church. As his martyrdom occurred very early in Church history, many other Christians honor him as well.
Lawrence is especially honored in the city of Rome, where he is one of the city's patrons. There are several churches in Rome dedicated to him, including San Lorenzo in Panisperma, traditionally identified as the place of his execution. He is invoked by librarians and tanners as their patron. His celebration on August 10 has the rank of feast throughout the Catholic world.
See also: Saint Lawrence River, St. Lawrence Market, List of saints, Lorcan Ua Tuathail | <urn:uuid:da92d4a4-11a7-45ac-be34-e842c8f752aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/St.-Lawrence | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.986881 | 640 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.0511... | 1 | This page concerns the Christian martyr.
Saint Lawrence (Laurentius in Latin) was one of the seven deacons of Rome, where he was martyred in 258. Legend reports that he was a native Spaniard, but received religious instruction from Archdeacon Sixtus in Rome. When Sixtus became Pope in 257, Lawrence was ordained a deacon and was placed in charge of the administration of Church goods and care for the poor.
In the persecutions under Emperor Valerian I in 258, numerous priests and bishops were put to death, while Christians belonging to the nobility or the senate were deprived of their goods and exiled. Pope Sixtus II was one of the first victims of this persecution, being crucified on August 6. A legend cited by (Saint) Ambrose of Milan says that Lawrence met the Pope on his way to his execution, where he is reported to have said, "Where are you going, my dear father, without your son? Where are you hurrying off to, holy priest, without your deacon? Before you never mounted the altar of sacrifice without your servant, and now you wish to do it without me?" The Pope is reported to have prophesied that "after three days you will follow me". Modern scholars tend to dismiss this scene as having been impossible in the situation.
After the Pope's death, the prefect of Rome demanded that Lawrence turn over the riches of the Church. Lawrence asked for three days to gather the wealth. After this, Lawrence worked to distribute as much Church property to the poor as possible, so as to prevent its being seized by the prefect. On the third day, he presented himself to the prefect, and when ordered to give up the treasures of the Church, he presented the poor, the crippled, the blind and the suffering, and said that these were the true treasures of the Church.
According to legend, he was roasted to death on a grill, or gridiron, near the field of Verano in Rome, punctuated the saint's quip shortly before his death: "The meat is almost ready. Turn and eat." Many modern scholars hold death by decapitation to be more likely. His death occurred on August 10, 258, which since then is celebrated as his feast day.
Despite the various legends that have sprung up about Lawrence, his existence as a historical figure is beyond question, as well as the site and year of his death.
Lawrence is one of the most widely venerated saints of the Roman Catholic Church. As his martyrdom occurred very early in Church history, many other Christians honor him as well.
Lawrence is especially honored in the city of Rome, where he is one of the city's patrons. There are several churches in Rome dedicated to him, including San Lorenzo in Panisperma, traditionally identified as the place of his execution. He is invoked by librarians and tanners as their patron. His celebration on August 10 has the rank of feast throughout the Catholic world.
See also: Saint Lawrence River, St. Lawrence Market, List of saints, Lorcan Ua Tuathail | 646 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It’s very easy to romanticize or idealize the life of a pirate; films such as “the Pirates of the Caribbean” make it almost unavoidable, in fact. But the reality of life for pirates was a little different in many ways; some good, some bad.
Pirates were quite modern in many ways, including the ways in which they governed their crews. Captains were elected and supported by a host of superior crew members, such as the quarter master, and all officers had a say in important decisions. In fact a captain only ever had absolute power while in battle!
Tolerant and Forward Thinking
Pirates also practised religious tolerance, accepted homosexuality and gay relationships ( as well as having a form of gay marriage called matelotage) and were less restrictive towards the women that managed to gain places among a crew! They even had a form of health care – injured pirates were guaranteed some compensatory money to help them set up a new life for themselves!
The life of a pirate was hard and, frankly, unhygienic
Washing was pretty much a no starter as fresh water was a highly precious commodity, especially on long voyages, and salt water would leave a residue on the skin which would irritate and cause chafing! This, combined with sea-sickness during rough weather and a huge shortage of fresh fruit and vegetables meant that illness, malnutrition and avoidable diseases like dysentery were rife on board a ship.
Low Life Expectancy
The life expectancy of a pirate was also very low; death due to illness, injury or execution was very common. This is without even considering the fact that many pirates lost limbs, teeth and even their senses, such as hearing or sight, in the line of duty. As it turns out, life on the seas was tough! | <urn:uuid:2c693dda-102d-49a6-95a7-9649485ba955> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pirateshipvallarta.com/blog/pirate-facts/the-lowdown-on-pirates | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.987916 | 376 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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-0.098089717... | 3 | It’s very easy to romanticize or idealize the life of a pirate; films such as “the Pirates of the Caribbean” make it almost unavoidable, in fact. But the reality of life for pirates was a little different in many ways; some good, some bad.
Pirates were quite modern in many ways, including the ways in which they governed their crews. Captains were elected and supported by a host of superior crew members, such as the quarter master, and all officers had a say in important decisions. In fact a captain only ever had absolute power while in battle!
Tolerant and Forward Thinking
Pirates also practised religious tolerance, accepted homosexuality and gay relationships ( as well as having a form of gay marriage called matelotage) and were less restrictive towards the women that managed to gain places among a crew! They even had a form of health care – injured pirates were guaranteed some compensatory money to help them set up a new life for themselves!
The life of a pirate was hard and, frankly, unhygienic
Washing was pretty much a no starter as fresh water was a highly precious commodity, especially on long voyages, and salt water would leave a residue on the skin which would irritate and cause chafing! This, combined with sea-sickness during rough weather and a huge shortage of fresh fruit and vegetables meant that illness, malnutrition and avoidable diseases like dysentery were rife on board a ship.
Low Life Expectancy
The life expectancy of a pirate was also very low; death due to illness, injury or execution was very common. This is without even considering the fact that many pirates lost limbs, teeth and even their senses, such as hearing or sight, in the line of duty. As it turns out, life on the seas was tough! | 368 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The rituals started by Jack and which are ultimately followed by his in-group members of hunting, applying mud on their faces and chanting songs like savages brings them closer together hence establishing group bonding. The lifestyle they chose is different from what Ralph’ s group is doing and hence group boundaries are created by the differences. (Golding, 77). Important symbols like Piggy’ s glasses which represent life and power as they are the only ones that can light a fire lead to further cementing group boundaries and bonding. The fire which is created by the glasses brings the group together as one as they gather around it to warm and cook and keeps the other group further away.
The concho which is also a symbol of intelligence and authority through advising the leader further acts to bond the group together. This is probably the reason why Jack’ s group breaks the concho and steals the glasses to bring their group closer together and create boundaries with the out-group (Ralph’ s group). The fear of the imaginary “ beast” which a few of the boys have further acts to drift the group apart since some of the group members believed in the beast while the others did not.
Jack believed in the beast and even set out to find and kill it and this brave action enticed the scared boys to join his group once he broke up from the main group. This group with its agenda of defeating the beast (which in the real sense was just a cadaver) found that they bonded more and continued to separate and drift away from the other group that did not believe in the beast.
This fear, however, made them kill Simon whom they thought was the beast when he crawled into their camp to tell them that the beast was nothing but a cadaver. Jack’ s group drifted further apart from Ralph’ s group and they started seeing them as out-group as they were non-believers of the beast (Golding, 132). Even though both Ralph and Jack were chosen as the leaders of the group and they eventually became rival leaders each heading his own group, they had different leadership styles.
Please type your essay title, choose your document type, enter your email and we send you essay samples | <urn:uuid:2529167b-ac2a-4afa-83bd-41842a3a3748> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freeessayhelp.com/essay-analysis-of-plot-of-lord-of-the-flies-written-by-golding-1891848 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00209.warc.gz | en | 0.984369 | 453 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.117371931672... | 2 | The rituals started by Jack and which are ultimately followed by his in-group members of hunting, applying mud on their faces and chanting songs like savages brings them closer together hence establishing group bonding. The lifestyle they chose is different from what Ralph’ s group is doing and hence group boundaries are created by the differences. (Golding, 77). Important symbols like Piggy’ s glasses which represent life and power as they are the only ones that can light a fire lead to further cementing group boundaries and bonding. The fire which is created by the glasses brings the group together as one as they gather around it to warm and cook and keeps the other group further away.
The concho which is also a symbol of intelligence and authority through advising the leader further acts to bond the group together. This is probably the reason why Jack’ s group breaks the concho and steals the glasses to bring their group closer together and create boundaries with the out-group (Ralph’ s group). The fear of the imaginary “ beast” which a few of the boys have further acts to drift the group apart since some of the group members believed in the beast while the others did not.
Jack believed in the beast and even set out to find and kill it and this brave action enticed the scared boys to join his group once he broke up from the main group. This group with its agenda of defeating the beast (which in the real sense was just a cadaver) found that they bonded more and continued to separate and drift away from the other group that did not believe in the beast.
This fear, however, made them kill Simon whom they thought was the beast when he crawled into their camp to tell them that the beast was nothing but a cadaver. Jack’ s group drifted further apart from Ralph’ s group and they started seeing them as out-group as they were non-believers of the beast (Golding, 132). Even though both Ralph and Jack were chosen as the leaders of the group and they eventually became rival leaders each heading his own group, they had different leadership styles.
Please type your essay title, choose your document type, enter your email and we send you essay samples | 441 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Crannogs are usually artificial “islands” that were constructed mainly in lakes, but on occasion in rivers. The name may derive from the Irish word for tree “crann” and may have referred to the timber palisades that protected such sites, or the timber foundations on which they were built. In Ireland most of the crannogs have been found in the north midlands and south Ulster, but the term is also used in Scotland where similar sites have been found. Crannogs have even been found on some of the islands of in the Inner Hebrides. They probably developed from the practice of living on small natural islands where it was convenient for fishing and hunting water fowl, as well as providing protection in times of danger.
The first efforts to identify and study crannogs began in the 19th century as drainage operations in wetlands exposed some of the early finds. They seem to cover a wide time frame. Although most seem to be from the Medieval era, some artifacts have been found associated with Crannogs as far back as Mesolithic times, suggesting some had beendwelling places for quite some time. Some Scottish crannogs seem to have been used as late as the 17th century.
The earliest, prehistoric crannogs seem to have been associated more as temporary, or seasonal lodgings for fishing or hunting as opposed to long-term dwellings. These were platforms erected in shallow water and the edges of lakes or marshes. Most true crannogs, consisting of artificial islands, were mostly constructed during the Medieval period and could include a building surrounded by one or more palisades -Possibly the wetlands equivalent to contemporary ring-forts. Tree-ring dating of the surviving timbers (dendrochronology) dates the major phase of building of Irish crannogs as being from the 6th to 7th centuries A.D.
There are two basic types of crannogs. One had a solid base and was literally an island, (some could have been man-made expansions on existing tiny islands or rocks near the shore). The other is a type of raised structure, in the form of a stilt house or large dock. This later type stood above the water and was substantially taller.
Once a proper location was found construction of a prehistoric crannog began with a circle of oak pilings with sharpened bases that were driven into the bottom, creating a circle about 200 ft. in diameter. The piles were lashed or woven together with branches and wattle. Then, the interior surface was built to rise above the water, using first wooden logs, then with branches and rocks, clay, peat, and other earthen materials. At the center, a large stone hearth would be built with large flat stones, and wooden home was constructed around it. The largest crannogs could contain several homes or structures. Access to the shore was by boat or sometimes a stone, or timber causeway.
Excavation of crannogs has been an important resource for archaeologists since the cold and water-logged conditions can help preserve wood, seeds and plant fibers that would not survive in drier locations. | <urn:uuid:eb5afbda-e503-4f2c-bc6b-761b4559dc09> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kilts-n-stuff.com/Blog/crannogs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00391.warc.gz | en | 0.985551 | 648 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.406609... | 3 | Crannogs are usually artificial “islands” that were constructed mainly in lakes, but on occasion in rivers. The name may derive from the Irish word for tree “crann” and may have referred to the timber palisades that protected such sites, or the timber foundations on which they were built. In Ireland most of the crannogs have been found in the north midlands and south Ulster, but the term is also used in Scotland where similar sites have been found. Crannogs have even been found on some of the islands of in the Inner Hebrides. They probably developed from the practice of living on small natural islands where it was convenient for fishing and hunting water fowl, as well as providing protection in times of danger.
The first efforts to identify and study crannogs began in the 19th century as drainage operations in wetlands exposed some of the early finds. They seem to cover a wide time frame. Although most seem to be from the Medieval era, some artifacts have been found associated with Crannogs as far back as Mesolithic times, suggesting some had beendwelling places for quite some time. Some Scottish crannogs seem to have been used as late as the 17th century.
The earliest, prehistoric crannogs seem to have been associated more as temporary, or seasonal lodgings for fishing or hunting as opposed to long-term dwellings. These were platforms erected in shallow water and the edges of lakes or marshes. Most true crannogs, consisting of artificial islands, were mostly constructed during the Medieval period and could include a building surrounded by one or more palisades -Possibly the wetlands equivalent to contemporary ring-forts. Tree-ring dating of the surviving timbers (dendrochronology) dates the major phase of building of Irish crannogs as being from the 6th to 7th centuries A.D.
There are two basic types of crannogs. One had a solid base and was literally an island, (some could have been man-made expansions on existing tiny islands or rocks near the shore). The other is a type of raised structure, in the form of a stilt house or large dock. This later type stood above the water and was substantially taller.
Once a proper location was found construction of a prehistoric crannog began with a circle of oak pilings with sharpened bases that were driven into the bottom, creating a circle about 200 ft. in diameter. The piles were lashed or woven together with branches and wattle. Then, the interior surface was built to rise above the water, using first wooden logs, then with branches and rocks, clay, peat, and other earthen materials. At the center, a large stone hearth would be built with large flat stones, and wooden home was constructed around it. The largest crannogs could contain several homes or structures. Access to the shore was by boat or sometimes a stone, or timber causeway.
Excavation of crannogs has been an important resource for archaeologists since the cold and water-logged conditions can help preserve wood, seeds and plant fibers that would not survive in drier locations. | 649 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“When there is a lack of honor in the government, the morals of the whole people are poisoned.”
“Blessed are the young for they shall inherit the national debt.”
Although Herbert Hoover was a successful geologist, businessman, and civil servant, he had never held a political office before being elected our nation’s 31st President. Soon after he took office, the Great Depression began. Many businesses had borrowed too much money and couldn’t repay their debts. The businesses failed and people lost their jobs. Soon, more businesses failed and more people were unemployed. People couldn’t pay their mortgages and lost their homes.
The Great Depression was the most severe and longest lasting economic downturn the country had ever experienced. People were hungry, angry, and afraid. Hoover was leading a country that was very different than the one he had expected to lead. People blamed him for their problems, even though it wasn’t really his fault. People lived in makeshift communities called Hoovervilles, in houses thrown together from cardboard and tin.
- Herbert Hoover was born on August 10, 1874 in West Branch, Iowa.
- His father died when he was six. His mother died when Herbert was nine.
- Herbert went to live with an uncle in Oregon.
- Despite his difficult childhood, Herbert went on to graduate from Stanford University with a degree in Geology.
- He traveled all over the world opening mines and was wealthy by the time he was 30.
- Herbert married his college sweetheart, Lou Henry in 1899. They had two children.
- He was in London when World War 1 began. He helped evacuate 120,000 Americans from Europe, often paying their travel expenses out of his own pocket.
- Hoover delivered food to starving Belgiums during the war, saving millions of people.
- Because of Hoover’s efforts in Belgium, President Wilson asked him to be the food administrator. He encouraged Americans to use food wisely so more of it could be sent to the troops and Allies.
- Americans considered him a hero after World War I and he easily won the Presidential election.
- After his Presidency, he went back to private life briefly. When World War II began, he once again helped send food to Europe.
Frequently Asked Questions
Question: Did Herbert Hoover cause the Great Depression?
Answer: No, the Great Depression was caused by many complicated factors. The economy grew too fast and both businesses and individuals were spending too much and not saving enough. Hoover actually worked hard to end the Depression, but his efforts failed. Hoover had a soft heart and was very generous. He wanted to help people. He refused to be paid for any of his work delivering food during the wars.
Cite This Page
You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples:
MLA Style Citation
Declan, Tobin. " Herbert Hoover Facts for Kids ." Easy Science for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 29 Jan 2020. < https://easyscienceforkids.com/herbert-hoover/ >.
APA Style Citation
Tobin, Declan. (2020). Herbert Hoover Facts for Kids. Easy Science for Kids. Retrieved from https://easyscienceforkids.com/herbert-hoover/
Sponsored Links : | <urn:uuid:c97577a2-f27d-4963-9686-cc7e55579984> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://easyscienceforkids.com/herbert-hoover/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.983906 | 692 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.21394620835781... | 1 | “When there is a lack of honor in the government, the morals of the whole people are poisoned.”
“Blessed are the young for they shall inherit the national debt.”
Although Herbert Hoover was a successful geologist, businessman, and civil servant, he had never held a political office before being elected our nation’s 31st President. Soon after he took office, the Great Depression began. Many businesses had borrowed too much money and couldn’t repay their debts. The businesses failed and people lost their jobs. Soon, more businesses failed and more people were unemployed. People couldn’t pay their mortgages and lost their homes.
The Great Depression was the most severe and longest lasting economic downturn the country had ever experienced. People were hungry, angry, and afraid. Hoover was leading a country that was very different than the one he had expected to lead. People blamed him for their problems, even though it wasn’t really his fault. People lived in makeshift communities called Hoovervilles, in houses thrown together from cardboard and tin.
- Herbert Hoover was born on August 10, 1874 in West Branch, Iowa.
- His father died when he was six. His mother died when Herbert was nine.
- Herbert went to live with an uncle in Oregon.
- Despite his difficult childhood, Herbert went on to graduate from Stanford University with a degree in Geology.
- He traveled all over the world opening mines and was wealthy by the time he was 30.
- Herbert married his college sweetheart, Lou Henry in 1899. They had two children.
- He was in London when World War 1 began. He helped evacuate 120,000 Americans from Europe, often paying their travel expenses out of his own pocket.
- Hoover delivered food to starving Belgiums during the war, saving millions of people.
- Because of Hoover’s efforts in Belgium, President Wilson asked him to be the food administrator. He encouraged Americans to use food wisely so more of it could be sent to the troops and Allies.
- Americans considered him a hero after World War I and he easily won the Presidential election.
- After his Presidency, he went back to private life briefly. When World War II began, he once again helped send food to Europe.
Frequently Asked Questions
Question: Did Herbert Hoover cause the Great Depression?
Answer: No, the Great Depression was caused by many complicated factors. The economy grew too fast and both businesses and individuals were spending too much and not saving enough. Hoover actually worked hard to end the Depression, but his efforts failed. Hoover had a soft heart and was very generous. He wanted to help people. He refused to be paid for any of his work delivering food during the wars.
Cite This Page
You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples:
MLA Style Citation
Declan, Tobin. " Herbert Hoover Facts for Kids ." Easy Science for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 29 Jan 2020. < https://easyscienceforkids.com/herbert-hoover/ >.
APA Style Citation
Tobin, Declan. (2020). Herbert Hoover Facts for Kids. Easy Science for Kids. Retrieved from https://easyscienceforkids.com/herbert-hoover/
Sponsored Links : | 682 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thirty kilometers (18 miles) from Berlin Germany, you can find an abandoned building which was once a sanatorium that accommodated patients with tuberculosis.
The complex is located within a dense pine and birch forest near Oranienburg. The sanatorium got its name in honor of the nearby Lake Grabowsee.
The lung disease known as tuberculosis was very common in the late 18th century and was found in many countries.
Whenever a country entered into an industrial era, the associated working and living conditions, as well as poor nutrition, would likely result in an epidemic of tuberculosis.
Consequently, by the end of the 19th century in the German Empire, records indicate that every seventh person was succumbing to this disease.
German microbiologist Heinrich Robert Koch worked on the development of a vaccine against bacillus, the bacterium that causes tuberculosis. Prior to this, many believed that such a disease could be transmitted genetically.
Following in the footsteps of Louis Pasteur, Koch went in search of a vaccine. By 1890, he had created one called tuberculin and injected himself with it.
However, it was not suitable as a vaccine and just resulted in fever, weakness, and vomiting. The vaccine for tuberculosis (BCG) was created in 1921, but Koch’s failed vaccine was actually used in the diagnosis of tuberculosis.
One female patient of Koch’s was so grateful to him that, at the end of the 19th century, she presented him with a huge estate on the shore of Lake Grabowsee, Germany.
Koch decided to give this site to the imperial department in order to create an experimental infectious diseases clinic.
In 1895, the German doctor Gotthold Panwitz wanted to establish somewhere to treat lung diseases such as tuberculosis in conjunction with the German Red Cross.
He was given this estate and he created a medical institution for the working class of Berlin and the surrounding district, who could not afford to travel to Italy or the Swiss Alps for treatment, as middle- and upper-class citizens did.
At the time, it was thought that only sea or mountain air could work against tuberculosis, and this clinic was seen as an experiment to prove whether or not good old German lowland air could work just as well.
At the beginning of 1896, 27 wooden barracks were built by imperial engineers. These would house the first sick patients who had been admitted to the sanatorium as well as a medical department.
In March that year, the official opening of this part of the complex took place, and by April the first patients were settled.
After the treatment of those first patients proved a success, more buildings were added, including a laundry, a kitchen, and a dining room.
The grounds of the sanitorium eventually covered 35 hectares (86 acres) and had 34 buildings which were designed by famous architects and built before 1929.
By 1900, the complex had 200 beds for patients, all at various stages of the disease.
Until 1918, the sanatorium also housed prisoners of war. After World War I, the sanitorium faced economic difficulties due to hyperinflation.
The Red Cross sold all the buildings in the complex to the National Brandenburg Pension Insurance Fund (Landesversicherungsanstalt) in June 1920.
In 1926, a substantial number of extensions were added, doubling the number of places available for patients by 1930.
In 1920, a small picturesque church was built in the sanatorium, located quite close to the lake. However, there are no details about why the church was constructed or how it was used.
Today, all that is left are ruins because in 2007 the building suffered an arson attack and partially collapsed.
By 1930, in northern Germany, the Grabowsee clinic became one of the most modern health institutions. The rooms for staff and personnel at the sanitorium offered central heating, hot water, and toilets.
Engineers also constructed an electric mini-subway that connected the different sections of the complex, and the lake was equipped for catamaran rides.
The complex was so self-sufficient that a wastewater treatment plant was built near the lake, with the water supply being provided by electric pumps. Greenhouses were installed to grow fresh vegetables, and pets were housed in the clinic.
Initially, the clinic was a civilian hospital. However, during the Second World War, the Grabowsee health clinic treated both civilian and military patients. From the end of World War II until the 1990s, the Soviet Armed Forces used the sanatorium as a Soviet military hospital.
After the withdrawal of Russian troops from Germany, the sanatorium again passed to the Pension Insurance Fund.
However, by now, the buildings were in need of maintenance and repair, all of which would incur huge costs. The territory fell into disrepair as the owners left it to nature
In 2005, the former complex acquired new owners: the non-profit organization Kids Globe, which planned to create an International Children’s Academy, a paradise for children.
These plans included researching and implementing new methods of education for children. However, in the time since the organization acquired the territory, nothing has changed, except for the erection of a large banner with the words “International Academy.”
Nevertheless, one good thing has come out of the new ownership: 24-hour security has been installed and it is now possible for anyone to visit this place legally in return for a fee of 15 euros per person. The ruins of the former sanatorium still attract photographers and other lovers of abandoned places.
The central buildings, constructed between 1926-1929, are well preserved. The water tower is also still evident. The tower was built in the 1930s and combined with the chimney from a boiler room.
This place is ideal as a filming and photo location. In 2011, the abandoned area hosted the Artbase Festival of Music and Art.
In 2013, part of the movie The Monuments Men starring George Clooney was shot here, and Grabowsee was also the location for a 2018 German horror movie called Heilstätten.
While much of the majestic architecture has collapsed over time, the site is still picturesque, incorporating both street art and the natural beauty of its surroundings.
Big thank you to Alexandr and his LiveJournal account for sharing such amazing photographs about this site filled with rich history! Alex lives in Germany and has got an account where he writes about different locations. You should definitely check his LiveJournal account and Facebook page.
Another Article From Us Abandoned Willard Asylum in New York | <urn:uuid:35e6b207-6925-4a68-9cfb-33854f92f582> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.abandonedspaces.com/uncategorized/berlin-germany.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.980994 | 1,348 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.15587091445922852,... | 12 | Thirty kilometers (18 miles) from Berlin Germany, you can find an abandoned building which was once a sanatorium that accommodated patients with tuberculosis.
The complex is located within a dense pine and birch forest near Oranienburg. The sanatorium got its name in honor of the nearby Lake Grabowsee.
The lung disease known as tuberculosis was very common in the late 18th century and was found in many countries.
Whenever a country entered into an industrial era, the associated working and living conditions, as well as poor nutrition, would likely result in an epidemic of tuberculosis.
Consequently, by the end of the 19th century in the German Empire, records indicate that every seventh person was succumbing to this disease.
German microbiologist Heinrich Robert Koch worked on the development of a vaccine against bacillus, the bacterium that causes tuberculosis. Prior to this, many believed that such a disease could be transmitted genetically.
Following in the footsteps of Louis Pasteur, Koch went in search of a vaccine. By 1890, he had created one called tuberculin and injected himself with it.
However, it was not suitable as a vaccine and just resulted in fever, weakness, and vomiting. The vaccine for tuberculosis (BCG) was created in 1921, but Koch’s failed vaccine was actually used in the diagnosis of tuberculosis.
One female patient of Koch’s was so grateful to him that, at the end of the 19th century, she presented him with a huge estate on the shore of Lake Grabowsee, Germany.
Koch decided to give this site to the imperial department in order to create an experimental infectious diseases clinic.
In 1895, the German doctor Gotthold Panwitz wanted to establish somewhere to treat lung diseases such as tuberculosis in conjunction with the German Red Cross.
He was given this estate and he created a medical institution for the working class of Berlin and the surrounding district, who could not afford to travel to Italy or the Swiss Alps for treatment, as middle- and upper-class citizens did.
At the time, it was thought that only sea or mountain air could work against tuberculosis, and this clinic was seen as an experiment to prove whether or not good old German lowland air could work just as well.
At the beginning of 1896, 27 wooden barracks were built by imperial engineers. These would house the first sick patients who had been admitted to the sanatorium as well as a medical department.
In March that year, the official opening of this part of the complex took place, and by April the first patients were settled.
After the treatment of those first patients proved a success, more buildings were added, including a laundry, a kitchen, and a dining room.
The grounds of the sanitorium eventually covered 35 hectares (86 acres) and had 34 buildings which were designed by famous architects and built before 1929.
By 1900, the complex had 200 beds for patients, all at various stages of the disease.
Until 1918, the sanatorium also housed prisoners of war. After World War I, the sanitorium faced economic difficulties due to hyperinflation.
The Red Cross sold all the buildings in the complex to the National Brandenburg Pension Insurance Fund (Landesversicherungsanstalt) in June 1920.
In 1926, a substantial number of extensions were added, doubling the number of places available for patients by 1930.
In 1920, a small picturesque church was built in the sanatorium, located quite close to the lake. However, there are no details about why the church was constructed or how it was used.
Today, all that is left are ruins because in 2007 the building suffered an arson attack and partially collapsed.
By 1930, in northern Germany, the Grabowsee clinic became one of the most modern health institutions. The rooms for staff and personnel at the sanitorium offered central heating, hot water, and toilets.
Engineers also constructed an electric mini-subway that connected the different sections of the complex, and the lake was equipped for catamaran rides.
The complex was so self-sufficient that a wastewater treatment plant was built near the lake, with the water supply being provided by electric pumps. Greenhouses were installed to grow fresh vegetables, and pets were housed in the clinic.
Initially, the clinic was a civilian hospital. However, during the Second World War, the Grabowsee health clinic treated both civilian and military patients. From the end of World War II until the 1990s, the Soviet Armed Forces used the sanatorium as a Soviet military hospital.
After the withdrawal of Russian troops from Germany, the sanatorium again passed to the Pension Insurance Fund.
However, by now, the buildings were in need of maintenance and repair, all of which would incur huge costs. The territory fell into disrepair as the owners left it to nature
In 2005, the former complex acquired new owners: the non-profit organization Kids Globe, which planned to create an International Children’s Academy, a paradise for children.
These plans included researching and implementing new methods of education for children. However, in the time since the organization acquired the territory, nothing has changed, except for the erection of a large banner with the words “International Academy.”
Nevertheless, one good thing has come out of the new ownership: 24-hour security has been installed and it is now possible for anyone to visit this place legally in return for a fee of 15 euros per person. The ruins of the former sanatorium still attract photographers and other lovers of abandoned places.
The central buildings, constructed between 1926-1929, are well preserved. The water tower is also still evident. The tower was built in the 1930s and combined with the chimney from a boiler room.
This place is ideal as a filming and photo location. In 2011, the abandoned area hosted the Artbase Festival of Music and Art.
In 2013, part of the movie The Monuments Men starring George Clooney was shot here, and Grabowsee was also the location for a 2018 German horror movie called Heilstätten.
While much of the majestic architecture has collapsed over time, the site is still picturesque, incorporating both street art and the natural beauty of its surroundings.
Big thank you to Alexandr and his LiveJournal account for sharing such amazing photographs about this site filled with rich history! Alex lives in Germany and has got an account where he writes about different locations. You should definitely check his LiveJournal account and Facebook page.
Another Article From Us Abandoned Willard Asylum in New York | 1,398 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While Harriet Tubman is well-known for her work freeing enslaved people via the Underground Railroad, far less is known of her admirable work as an armed scout, nurse, and spy for the Union during the Civil War. She received a military pension for this work and was buried with semi-military honors when she died in 1913. This is her incredible story.
Born approximately 1820 in Maryland (because no records were kept, she was unsure of her birth date, and it is listed in different places as anywhere between 1815 and 1825, Harriet was enslaved at birth, as both of her parents were slaves owned by white families who had been joined by marriage. At birth, her parents called her Araminta, and her nickname was Minty; she changed her first name to Harriet, after her mother, shortly after her marriage to John Tubman.
Harriet’s maternal grandmother, Modesty, was brought to America on a slave ship from Africa. Little is known about her other grandparents. Her parents were Ben Ross and Harriet Greene Ross, and she had four brothers and four sisters. As a child, she was hired out to other masters, beginning when she was five or six years old. These hired masters and mistresses often beat her for trivial offenses, such as letting a baby wake up and cry when she was supposed to be watching it sleep. Once, she recalled, she was beaten five times before breakfast and bore scars from the beatings for her whole life.
As a child, she also suffered a head injury when a plantation overseer threw a two-pound weight at a slave who was off the plantation without permission, and it hit her in the head instead. She believed her hair, which had never been brushed and stuck out stiff like a helmet, saved her life. She was unconscious for two days before being sent back into the field to work, but because she was still bleeding and unsteady from the injury, the master she was hired out to at that time sent her back to her home plantation. Her master tried unsuccessfully to sell her for years afterward.
After the head injury, Harriet suffered periodic seizures, narcoleptic-like episodes of sleep, and visions she said were brought to her by God.
Her three older sisters were sold away from the family, and she never found them again. When a sale was being arranged for her youngest brother, her mother hid him for a month, then threatened both the master of the house and the man who wanted to buy the boy with bodily harm if they came near him. The potential buyer backed off the sale, and Harriet saw for the first time the good things resistance could bring.
Around 1840, Harriet’s father was granted his freedom as part of his previous owner’s will but continued to work for the family who had enslaved him, probably to be with his wife and children. Her mother was technically free by this same will, but the family did not recognize her freedom and continued to treat her as a slave.
Harriet married John Tubman, a free man of color, in 1844. By 1849, she made her first escape attempt with two of her brothers. Her brothers had second thoughts and returned, forcing her to go with them. She escaped again the same year on her own and reached freedom in Pennsylvania. Afterward, she took jobs to earn money that allowed her to make trips back into slave territory to rescue family members and other enslaved people who wanted their freedom. She eventually rescued her parents, her four brothers and their wives and children, and numerous other relatives, purchasing land in Auburn, New York as the family home. She tried to rescue her sister Rachel, who had been sold away from the family, but found Rachel had died and her two sons could only be rescued with a bribe of $30 each, which she did not have, so she was not able to bring them to freedom with her.
As a conductor on the Underground Railroad, she was considered the best, and once said she never lost a passenger. Anyone who went with her reached freedom.
Harriet also tried to rescue her husband, but he remarried in her absence and did not want to leave his new wife. She rescued other slaves on that trip, and John Tubman and his new wife raised a family together.
When the Civil War broke out, she went down to South Carolina and became a fixture in the Union camps, helping rescue slaves from plantations, and acting as a nurse to men with dysentery and smallpox (never contracting it herself, leading credence to the rumors that she was blessed by God). Initially, she received government rations for this work, but newly freed slaves resented it, so she gave up the rations and made her own money by selling pies and root beer she made in the evenings.
After the Emancipation Proclamation, Harriet became a scout, helping military leaders map unfamiliar areas in the south and get lists and locations of slaves who needed freeing. She worked under the orders of the Secretary of War for the Union and provided key intelligence that helped the Union capture Jacksonville, Florida.
That same year, she became the first woman to lead an armed assault during the Civil War. This assault on several plantations in South Carolina led to the liberation of more than seven hundred fifty slaves.
Harriet worked with the Union for more than two years and even volunteered a few months more of time with the Union Army after the Confederacy surrendered. Afterward, she returned to her family in Auburn, NY.
She spent the rest of her life helping newly freed slaves integrate into life as freed people, and assisting in the suffrage movement for women. She remarried, to Nelson Charles Davis, in 1869, and they adopted a baby girl named Gertie together in 1874. Nelson died in 1888 of tuberculosis.
In 1913, Harriet died at the assisted living home for former slaves she herself helped establish. She was buried with semi-military honors at Fort Hill Cemetery in Auburn, NY. | <urn:uuid:fb2a9b05-9be9-452e-b4c0-5bfd5af6bd32> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ancestralfindings.com/harriet-tubman-unsung-heroes-of-the-civil-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00134.warc.gz | en | 0.992342 | 1,229 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.013890589587... | 4 | While Harriet Tubman is well-known for her work freeing enslaved people via the Underground Railroad, far less is known of her admirable work as an armed scout, nurse, and spy for the Union during the Civil War. She received a military pension for this work and was buried with semi-military honors when she died in 1913. This is her incredible story.
Born approximately 1820 in Maryland (because no records were kept, she was unsure of her birth date, and it is listed in different places as anywhere between 1815 and 1825, Harriet was enslaved at birth, as both of her parents were slaves owned by white families who had been joined by marriage. At birth, her parents called her Araminta, and her nickname was Minty; she changed her first name to Harriet, after her mother, shortly after her marriage to John Tubman.
Harriet’s maternal grandmother, Modesty, was brought to America on a slave ship from Africa. Little is known about her other grandparents. Her parents were Ben Ross and Harriet Greene Ross, and she had four brothers and four sisters. As a child, she was hired out to other masters, beginning when she was five or six years old. These hired masters and mistresses often beat her for trivial offenses, such as letting a baby wake up and cry when she was supposed to be watching it sleep. Once, she recalled, she was beaten five times before breakfast and bore scars from the beatings for her whole life.
As a child, she also suffered a head injury when a plantation overseer threw a two-pound weight at a slave who was off the plantation without permission, and it hit her in the head instead. She believed her hair, which had never been brushed and stuck out stiff like a helmet, saved her life. She was unconscious for two days before being sent back into the field to work, but because she was still bleeding and unsteady from the injury, the master she was hired out to at that time sent her back to her home plantation. Her master tried unsuccessfully to sell her for years afterward.
After the head injury, Harriet suffered periodic seizures, narcoleptic-like episodes of sleep, and visions she said were brought to her by God.
Her three older sisters were sold away from the family, and she never found them again. When a sale was being arranged for her youngest brother, her mother hid him for a month, then threatened both the master of the house and the man who wanted to buy the boy with bodily harm if they came near him. The potential buyer backed off the sale, and Harriet saw for the first time the good things resistance could bring.
Around 1840, Harriet’s father was granted his freedom as part of his previous owner’s will but continued to work for the family who had enslaved him, probably to be with his wife and children. Her mother was technically free by this same will, but the family did not recognize her freedom and continued to treat her as a slave.
Harriet married John Tubman, a free man of color, in 1844. By 1849, she made her first escape attempt with two of her brothers. Her brothers had second thoughts and returned, forcing her to go with them. She escaped again the same year on her own and reached freedom in Pennsylvania. Afterward, she took jobs to earn money that allowed her to make trips back into slave territory to rescue family members and other enslaved people who wanted their freedom. She eventually rescued her parents, her four brothers and their wives and children, and numerous other relatives, purchasing land in Auburn, New York as the family home. She tried to rescue her sister Rachel, who had been sold away from the family, but found Rachel had died and her two sons could only be rescued with a bribe of $30 each, which she did not have, so she was not able to bring them to freedom with her.
As a conductor on the Underground Railroad, she was considered the best, and once said she never lost a passenger. Anyone who went with her reached freedom.
Harriet also tried to rescue her husband, but he remarried in her absence and did not want to leave his new wife. She rescued other slaves on that trip, and John Tubman and his new wife raised a family together.
When the Civil War broke out, she went down to South Carolina and became a fixture in the Union camps, helping rescue slaves from plantations, and acting as a nurse to men with dysentery and smallpox (never contracting it herself, leading credence to the rumors that she was blessed by God). Initially, she received government rations for this work, but newly freed slaves resented it, so she gave up the rations and made her own money by selling pies and root beer she made in the evenings.
After the Emancipation Proclamation, Harriet became a scout, helping military leaders map unfamiliar areas in the south and get lists and locations of slaves who needed freeing. She worked under the orders of the Secretary of War for the Union and provided key intelligence that helped the Union capture Jacksonville, Florida.
That same year, she became the first woman to lead an armed assault during the Civil War. This assault on several plantations in South Carolina led to the liberation of more than seven hundred fifty slaves.
Harriet worked with the Union for more than two years and even volunteered a few months more of time with the Union Army after the Confederacy surrendered. Afterward, she returned to her family in Auburn, NY.
She spent the rest of her life helping newly freed slaves integrate into life as freed people, and assisting in the suffrage movement for women. She remarried, to Nelson Charles Davis, in 1869, and they adopted a baby girl named Gertie together in 1874. Nelson died in 1888 of tuberculosis.
In 1913, Harriet died at the assisted living home for former slaves she herself helped establish. She was buried with semi-military honors at Fort Hill Cemetery in Auburn, NY. | 1,252 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mayan Civilization Religion
C & CM
The Mayans loved their Gods; to show their love for the Gods, they would sacrifice humans. Maya religion was polytheistic- which means they worshipped or believed in more than one god. The Mayan gods were seen as forces of nature. Since so many Mayans were farmers, most of their gods were related to agriculture. Religion was the most important thing in life to the Mayan people. Just about everything in their lives revolved around religion, “to the Maya, religion was ultimately their creator and destroyer” (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). Even their architecture reflected their beliefs and ways of life. Mayan religion is not so different from other religions either, in fact, Mayan religion is very similar to Catholicism. Religion was the inspiring force for Mayan Civilization that led to its great achievements. The Mayan Civilization is an ancient Mesoamerican culture. It was one of the most advanced civilizations in the western hemisphere (Mayas). The Mayan Civilization was established around 2600 BCE in Yucatan. Eastern and Southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Northern Belize and the western region of Honduras belonged to the Mayan empire during the 3rd century AD (Ancient Mayan Religion). Every part of the Mayan culture- architecture, sculpture, and even the calendars and numbers- reflects Mayan beliefs, even the way the buildings were laid out (The Ancient Maya). “The Royal Palaces were at the center of the city, representing the earth in the center of the three-level universe. In the north, which was associated with the heavens and dead rulers, were the shrines and tombs. Between the center and north was the ball court, the doorway between worlds” (The Ancient Maya). The Mayans built temples and gigantic pyramids made of stone. Mayan pyramids were constructed for religious ceremonies and burial purposes. The Mayans also built temples for the moon and the sun. Every fifty-two years, the temples and pyramids were remodeled and rebuilt (Ancient Mayan Religion). A few of the more popular temples are Chichen Itza, Temples of Tikal, and the Temple of Inscription. Mayan religion and Catholicism had many similarities. Both religions had written and oral traditions. Many of their traditions were similar. The Maya had the Popol Vuh, Catholics had the Holy Bible (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). “Both held elaborate ceremonies which included fasting, penance by bloodletting, and burning incense; both contained sacrifice as a ceremonial component; both believed in an afterlife; and both maintained rules and convictions to guide one’s life by” (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). The Popol Vuh is the Mayan version of the Bible. The original Popol Vuh was most likely written in hieroglyphic form. It would have had “illustrations and charts that contained systematic accounts of cycles in astronomical and earthly events that served as a complex navigation system for those who wished to see and move beyond the present” (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). An unknown person created a Popol Vuh that was alphabetic, it was most likely re-written to prevent this knowledge from being lost (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). The location of the original hieroglyphic Popol Vuh is unknown. Some believe it could have returned to the ancient Maya gods in a cloud of dust, it was destroyed, or it may still be waiting to be discovered (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). Many people believed that it was burned; the majority of Mayan writings were burned by church officials in order to “win favor of their God and their king” (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). The hieroglyphs were not only in books, they were all over the land. Inside the monstrous temples, hieroglyphics are carved into the walls. These hieroglyphics are a type of writing to record astronomical observations and calendrical calculations. They also recorded historical and genealogical information (Mayas). Mayan hieroglyphs were a mixture of glyphs that represent complete words and glyphs that represent sounds, which were combined to form complete words. They were a pictorial form of writing (Mayas). Mayan hieroglyphs were similar to the Roman alphabet, except, for the Mayans, each symbol was a syllable and there were 800 of them. “Scribes carved hieroglyphs on stone stelae, altars, wooden lintels, and roof beams, or painted them on ceramic vessels and in books made of bark paper” (Mayas). The hieroglyphics have helped us understand and learn about the Mayans a great deal. All the Mayan Gods had their own individual traits but they were also connected, coming from a powerful spiritual force. The gods could be kind to humans, but they could also be vicious or destructive. The Maya believed the only way to save themselves and their world was to soothe the gods by performing rituals and giving them offerings. Mayans would communicate with the Gods through prayers, sacrifices and visions. Many Mayan Gods were seen as forces of nature. The Maya people were farmers which means many of the Gods were agricultural. The Gods were portrayed as men, women, animals or creatures that looked like a mixture between a person and an animal. At one time, the Mayans believed that all of the gods were part of just one spiritual force (The Ancient Maya). It was as though each God was many gods at the same time. Itzamna was the reptile god: he was the high god of the Mayans. Itzamna is also known as Hunab Ku, the chief god. Hunab Ku was the creator of the world; he was considered too far above men to figure in worship (Mayas). He was worshiped especially by the priests, and he appears to have been the patron deity of the royal lineages (Mayas). Hunab Ku was more important as Itzamna. Itzamna was the lord of the heavens and the lord of day and night. The Mayans thought of him as many things. Itzamna was usually thought of as their first priest, the inventor of writing, and the god of medicine (Mayan Religion). Itzamna was sometimes identified as a crocodile, a bird, a tree, or a elder with no teeth and a round disk on her forehead- the disk was believed to be a mirror that was used for telling the future (The Ancient Maya). Chac was the rain God. He was a friendly god associated with creation and life (The Ancient Maya). Since rain was essential for growing corn, Chac was one of the most important gods- especially to the ordinary Maya farmers (The Ancient Maya). The Mayan farmers counted on Chac to bring them rain and a good crop, so Maya farmers were especially kind to him. Chac was often represented in art with a reptile face and fangs. Sometimes Chac would be carrying a lightning ax (Mayan Religion). Yum Kaax was the god of corn. Yum Kaax was thought of as friendly god. He was another very important God to the Mayan farmers. Yum Kaax was believed to be the father of the Hero Twins (Mayan Religion). Yum Kaax has always been shown as a young man with an ear of corn sprouting from his head- it looks similar to a head dress (The Ancient Maya). The female ideal body for the Mayans is based on the form of this young deity. This is demonstrated in their artwork (The Maya Civilization). Ix Chel was a rainbow deity. She was one of the few Gods that was seen as a woman. She was known as the rainbow goddess and was associated with healing, childbirth, weaving, and foretelling the future (Mayan Religion). Ix Chel is also known as the Moon Goddess, Water Goddess, Fertility Goddess, and the Earth Goddess (Mayas). Ix Chel was mostly worshipped by women (Mayas). Ix Chel also had a negative side: she was associated with snakes and destruction, the island of Cozumel off the eastern coast of Yucatán was a center of devotion to Ix Chel (The Ancient Maya). The Maya developed the belief that gods controlled events in each day, month, and year. Since the Gods controlled everything, the Mayans felt they had to give offerings to win the god's favor (Mayas). The most essential part of Maya life was to make the gods happy. The Mayans sometimes gave the gods simple offerings, like corn, fruit, or blood. When the Mayans gave gods blood as a simple offering, he obtained the blood by piercing his own lips, tongue, or genitals (Mayas). The Maya offered the gods human sacrifice when they were in need in of help, and to keep the Gods happy and in their favor. The Maya tended not to sacrifice people from their own city. The victims of sacrifice were usually prisoners of war. The Maya also sacrificed criminals and children, usually orphans, whom they brought from cities nearby. They believed in human sacrifice because it was the only way to contact the Gods (The Ancient Maya). Sacrificing lives was the Mayan's way of feeding the gods and receiving their wishes and desires. They feared that if they did not sacrifice humans, they would be severely punished (Mayan Religion - Ancient Mayan Civilization). A victim of sacrifice was usually painted blue and then killed on top of a pyramid, either by being shot full of arrows or by having their arms and legs held while a priest cut open his chest with a sacrificial flint knife, tore out his heart and then proceeded to burn it as an offering to the Gods (Mayas). Often, captured rulers were sacrificed by decapitating them with an axe (Mayas). A group of people called "Mayan Priests" performed the rituals of the Mayan temples. The chief priest held down the victim while another priest cut out his heart. The chief priest was known as "Ah Kin Mai" (Ancient Mayan Religion). The Maya believed that blood opened a pathway between earth, heaven, and hell (A Day With A Maya). According to Classic Mayan belief, the spirits of the dead Maya lived in Xibalbá. the lowest underworld. The Mayan people were major believers of the afterlife. Hun Camé ruled the underworld with the help of the lords of death. Hun Camé was the god of death. It is believed that he ruled over all of the other gods (A Day With A Maya). The lords of death, Hun Camé, and some of the ordinary Mayan dead all lived in Xibalbá. The Mayan people believed that the soul never died, but instead continued on a very dangerous journey through the after world. The Mayans believed in heaven, but thought that it was reserved only for the people that died during childbirth, and also the men and women who were used as sacrifices to the Gods (Mayan Religion - Ancient Mayan Civilization). The Maya people buried their dead with food, drink, and other beautiful objects to give to the gods in the afterlife. The dead then used these objects to bribe Hun Camé to let them pass through Xibalbá to the Heaven of Dawn, a place where the dead guard their living relatives and to send them rain and prosperity (A Day With A Maya). The Heaven of Dawn is where the people who died during childbirth and sacrifice are. It is said that Hun Camé is very hard to bribe and most Mayans are stuck in Xibalbá because Hun Camé will not let them through (Mayan Religion – Ancient Mayan Civilization). The Mayans believed that every person had a companion animal spirit. When someone is born, the same soul that is found in the human would also be placed in an animal's body. The Maya thought that the same exact soul placed in them- as a human being- was also placed in an animal when they were born (Mayan Religion). The two souls would share the same fate- if the person was killed, the animal would die, and the opposite was true as well. This animal that shared a humans soul could be any kind of animal, any size, any species. Ordinary Mayans could not choose their animal, but they believed that kings could choose. Usually, the kings would choose to share their soul and spirit with a jaguar. A Jaguar was an animal that was highly respected and loved animal by the Mayan people (Mayan Religion - Ancient Mayan Civilization). By entering into a trance, a skilled shaman could transform into his or her animal spirit--good shamans probably had several animal companion spirits--in order to enter the supernatural world. Sometimes shamans achieved transformations through the use of hallucinogenic drugs or fasting. Often, though, the transformations were done along with Maya blood ceremonies. Bloodletting- a Mayan form of sacrifice where you cut yourself and offer the blood as food to the Gods- was also believed to help people connect with their animal spirits (Mayan Religion). The Mayan people would perform the bloodletting it was believed that their blood nourished the Gods (Mayan Religion). As you can tell, the Mayans had a simple religion, with complex rituals. Their religion is seen in many other religions today, especially Catholicism. It is amazing that we know so much about Mayan religion considering the Spanish attempted to eliminate the Maya culture and religion, and they almost did. Some people think that the sacrifices and the bloodletting rituals are horrifying, but to the Mayan people, this was a normal part of their everyday worship. Mayan Religion was the key element in the development of the highly advanced Mayan Civilization. | <urn:uuid:6f1d7106-64ac-4c65-9374-7c66cbbab85e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Mayan-Civilization-1498705.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.98357 | 2,837 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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C & CM
The Mayans loved their Gods; to show their love for the Gods, they would sacrifice humans. Maya religion was polytheistic- which means they worshipped or believed in more than one god. The Mayan gods were seen as forces of nature. Since so many Mayans were farmers, most of their gods were related to agriculture. Religion was the most important thing in life to the Mayan people. Just about everything in their lives revolved around religion, “to the Maya, religion was ultimately their creator and destroyer” (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). Even their architecture reflected their beliefs and ways of life. Mayan religion is not so different from other religions either, in fact, Mayan religion is very similar to Catholicism. Religion was the inspiring force for Mayan Civilization that led to its great achievements. The Mayan Civilization is an ancient Mesoamerican culture. It was one of the most advanced civilizations in the western hemisphere (Mayas). The Mayan Civilization was established around 2600 BCE in Yucatan. Eastern and Southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Northern Belize and the western region of Honduras belonged to the Mayan empire during the 3rd century AD (Ancient Mayan Religion). Every part of the Mayan culture- architecture, sculpture, and even the calendars and numbers- reflects Mayan beliefs, even the way the buildings were laid out (The Ancient Maya). “The Royal Palaces were at the center of the city, representing the earth in the center of the three-level universe. In the north, which was associated with the heavens and dead rulers, were the shrines and tombs. Between the center and north was the ball court, the doorway between worlds” (The Ancient Maya). The Mayans built temples and gigantic pyramids made of stone. Mayan pyramids were constructed for religious ceremonies and burial purposes. The Mayans also built temples for the moon and the sun. Every fifty-two years, the temples and pyramids were remodeled and rebuilt (Ancient Mayan Religion). A few of the more popular temples are Chichen Itza, Temples of Tikal, and the Temple of Inscription. Mayan religion and Catholicism had many similarities. Both religions had written and oral traditions. Many of their traditions were similar. The Maya had the Popol Vuh, Catholics had the Holy Bible (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). “Both held elaborate ceremonies which included fasting, penance by bloodletting, and burning incense; both contained sacrifice as a ceremonial component; both believed in an afterlife; and both maintained rules and convictions to guide one’s life by” (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). The Popol Vuh is the Mayan version of the Bible. The original Popol Vuh was most likely written in hieroglyphic form. It would have had “illustrations and charts that contained systematic accounts of cycles in astronomical and earthly events that served as a complex navigation system for those who wished to see and move beyond the present” (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). An unknown person created a Popol Vuh that was alphabetic, it was most likely re-written to prevent this knowledge from being lost (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). The location of the original hieroglyphic Popol Vuh is unknown. Some believe it could have returned to the ancient Maya gods in a cloud of dust, it was destroyed, or it may still be waiting to be discovered (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). Many people believed that it was burned; the majority of Mayan writings were burned by church officials in order to “win favor of their God and their king” (RELIGION AND THE MAYA). The hieroglyphs were not only in books, they were all over the land. Inside the monstrous temples, hieroglyphics are carved into the walls. These hieroglyphics are a type of writing to record astronomical observations and calendrical calculations. They also recorded historical and genealogical information (Mayas). Mayan hieroglyphs were a mixture of glyphs that represent complete words and glyphs that represent sounds, which were combined to form complete words. They were a pictorial form of writing (Mayas). Mayan hieroglyphs were similar to the Roman alphabet, except, for the Mayans, each symbol was a syllable and there were 800 of them. “Scribes carved hieroglyphs on stone stelae, altars, wooden lintels, and roof beams, or painted them on ceramic vessels and in books made of bark paper” (Mayas). The hieroglyphics have helped us understand and learn about the Mayans a great deal. All the Mayan Gods had their own individual traits but they were also connected, coming from a powerful spiritual force. The gods could be kind to humans, but they could also be vicious or destructive. The Maya believed the only way to save themselves and their world was to soothe the gods by performing rituals and giving them offerings. Mayans would communicate with the Gods through prayers, sacrifices and visions. Many Mayan Gods were seen as forces of nature. The Maya people were farmers which means many of the Gods were agricultural. The Gods were portrayed as men, women, animals or creatures that looked like a mixture between a person and an animal. At one time, the Mayans believed that all of the gods were part of just one spiritual force (The Ancient Maya). It was as though each God was many gods at the same time. Itzamna was the reptile god: he was the high god of the Mayans. Itzamna is also known as Hunab Ku, the chief god. Hunab Ku was the creator of the world; he was considered too far above men to figure in worship (Mayas). He was worshiped especially by the priests, and he appears to have been the patron deity of the royal lineages (Mayas). Hunab Ku was more important as Itzamna. Itzamna was the lord of the heavens and the lord of day and night. The Mayans thought of him as many things. Itzamna was usually thought of as their first priest, the inventor of writing, and the god of medicine (Mayan Religion). Itzamna was sometimes identified as a crocodile, a bird, a tree, or a elder with no teeth and a round disk on her forehead- the disk was believed to be a mirror that was used for telling the future (The Ancient Maya). Chac was the rain God. He was a friendly god associated with creation and life (The Ancient Maya). Since rain was essential for growing corn, Chac was one of the most important gods- especially to the ordinary Maya farmers (The Ancient Maya). The Mayan farmers counted on Chac to bring them rain and a good crop, so Maya farmers were especially kind to him. Chac was often represented in art with a reptile face and fangs. Sometimes Chac would be carrying a lightning ax (Mayan Religion). Yum Kaax was the god of corn. Yum Kaax was thought of as friendly god. He was another very important God to the Mayan farmers. Yum Kaax was believed to be the father of the Hero Twins (Mayan Religion). Yum Kaax has always been shown as a young man with an ear of corn sprouting from his head- it looks similar to a head dress (The Ancient Maya). The female ideal body for the Mayans is based on the form of this young deity. This is demonstrated in their artwork (The Maya Civilization). Ix Chel was a rainbow deity. She was one of the few Gods that was seen as a woman. She was known as the rainbow goddess and was associated with healing, childbirth, weaving, and foretelling the future (Mayan Religion). Ix Chel is also known as the Moon Goddess, Water Goddess, Fertility Goddess, and the Earth Goddess (Mayas). Ix Chel was mostly worshipped by women (Mayas). Ix Chel also had a negative side: she was associated with snakes and destruction, the island of Cozumel off the eastern coast of Yucatán was a center of devotion to Ix Chel (The Ancient Maya). The Maya developed the belief that gods controlled events in each day, month, and year. Since the Gods controlled everything, the Mayans felt they had to give offerings to win the god's favor (Mayas). The most essential part of Maya life was to make the gods happy. The Mayans sometimes gave the gods simple offerings, like corn, fruit, or blood. When the Mayans gave gods blood as a simple offering, he obtained the blood by piercing his own lips, tongue, or genitals (Mayas). The Maya offered the gods human sacrifice when they were in need in of help, and to keep the Gods happy and in their favor. The Maya tended not to sacrifice people from their own city. The victims of sacrifice were usually prisoners of war. The Maya also sacrificed criminals and children, usually orphans, whom they brought from cities nearby. They believed in human sacrifice because it was the only way to contact the Gods (The Ancient Maya). Sacrificing lives was the Mayan's way of feeding the gods and receiving their wishes and desires. They feared that if they did not sacrifice humans, they would be severely punished (Mayan Religion - Ancient Mayan Civilization). A victim of sacrifice was usually painted blue and then killed on top of a pyramid, either by being shot full of arrows or by having their arms and legs held while a priest cut open his chest with a sacrificial flint knife, tore out his heart and then proceeded to burn it as an offering to the Gods (Mayas). Often, captured rulers were sacrificed by decapitating them with an axe (Mayas). A group of people called "Mayan Priests" performed the rituals of the Mayan temples. The chief priest held down the victim while another priest cut out his heart. The chief priest was known as "Ah Kin Mai" (Ancient Mayan Religion). The Maya believed that blood opened a pathway between earth, heaven, and hell (A Day With A Maya). According to Classic Mayan belief, the spirits of the dead Maya lived in Xibalbá. the lowest underworld. The Mayan people were major believers of the afterlife. Hun Camé ruled the underworld with the help of the lords of death. Hun Camé was the god of death. It is believed that he ruled over all of the other gods (A Day With A Maya). The lords of death, Hun Camé, and some of the ordinary Mayan dead all lived in Xibalbá. The Mayan people believed that the soul never died, but instead continued on a very dangerous journey through the after world. The Mayans believed in heaven, but thought that it was reserved only for the people that died during childbirth, and also the men and women who were used as sacrifices to the Gods (Mayan Religion - Ancient Mayan Civilization). The Maya people buried their dead with food, drink, and other beautiful objects to give to the gods in the afterlife. The dead then used these objects to bribe Hun Camé to let them pass through Xibalbá to the Heaven of Dawn, a place where the dead guard their living relatives and to send them rain and prosperity (A Day With A Maya). The Heaven of Dawn is where the people who died during childbirth and sacrifice are. It is said that Hun Camé is very hard to bribe and most Mayans are stuck in Xibalbá because Hun Camé will not let them through (Mayan Religion – Ancient Mayan Civilization). The Mayans believed that every person had a companion animal spirit. When someone is born, the same soul that is found in the human would also be placed in an animal's body. The Maya thought that the same exact soul placed in them- as a human being- was also placed in an animal when they were born (Mayan Religion). The two souls would share the same fate- if the person was killed, the animal would die, and the opposite was true as well. This animal that shared a humans soul could be any kind of animal, any size, any species. Ordinary Mayans could not choose their animal, but they believed that kings could choose. Usually, the kings would choose to share their soul and spirit with a jaguar. A Jaguar was an animal that was highly respected and loved animal by the Mayan people (Mayan Religion - Ancient Mayan Civilization). By entering into a trance, a skilled shaman could transform into his or her animal spirit--good shamans probably had several animal companion spirits--in order to enter the supernatural world. Sometimes shamans achieved transformations through the use of hallucinogenic drugs or fasting. Often, though, the transformations were done along with Maya blood ceremonies. Bloodletting- a Mayan form of sacrifice where you cut yourself and offer the blood as food to the Gods- was also believed to help people connect with their animal spirits (Mayan Religion). The Mayan people would perform the bloodletting it was believed that their blood nourished the Gods (Mayan Religion). As you can tell, the Mayans had a simple religion, with complex rituals. Their religion is seen in many other religions today, especially Catholicism. It is amazing that we know so much about Mayan religion considering the Spanish attempted to eliminate the Maya culture and religion, and they almost did. Some people think that the sacrifices and the bloodletting rituals are horrifying, but to the Mayan people, this was a normal part of their everyday worship. Mayan Religion was the key element in the development of the highly advanced Mayan Civilization. | 2,839 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of the Cathedral
Foundation of the Diocese of Toronto and Bishop Power
Established in 1826, the Diocese of Kingston was split to form a new western diocese of the Roman Catholic Church in Upper Canada in 1841. Father Michael Power, who was chosen as the first bishop, selected Toronto as the Episcopal seat. Bishop Power took possession of his See on June 26, 1842 at St. Paul’s Church. Built in 1822 as the first Roman Catholic parish church in Toronto, St. Paul’s was located at the corner of Power Street and Queens Street East.
Born in Halifax, Nova Scotia on October 17, 1804, Michael Power undertook his classical and theological studies in Quebec and was ordained in 1827. Father Power served as a missionary priest in Quebec before being appointed Vicar General of Montreal in 1839. Upon his consecration in 1842 he became the first English-speaking Bishop to be born in Canada.
In 1842, the Diocese of Toronto included approximately 25,000 Catholics served by 19 priests. At that time, the 3,000 parishioners in the City of Toronto were administered at St. Paul’s, the only Catholic church in the municipality. Bishop Power quickly determined Toronto needed a new church building to serve as the Cathedral for the rapidly growing Catholic population. By 1845, he had bought land from Captain John McGill for the Cathedral. Bishop Power paid £1,800 for the property of which £500 came from his own funds and balance from collections in the diocese. The land, which was located on the northern edge of the city and known as McGill Square, was part of Park Lot 7 in Concession 1 from Lake Ontario. There was some criticism initially that the property was too far removed from the settlement centre; however, the quickly expanding city soon encompassed the area.
Noted Toronto architect William Thomas was retained to prepare plans for the new church building. John Harper was named the contractor for the project, although in the style of medieval construction projects, components of the work were undertaken by the community labour. Excavation began on April 7, 1845, and a cornerstone laying ceremony was held on May 8. Bishop Power laid the cornerstone with a silver trowel, dedicated the cathedral to St. Michael and placed the diocese under the patronage of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Most Pure Heart of Mary. Sealed in the cornerstone were fragments of a stone pillar and pieces of the oak roof from the old Norman York Minster Cathedral in England donated by John Elmsley.
Bishop Power did not live to see the completion of the building he had spearheaded. In January 1847, Power had departed on a six month-month trip to Europe to recruit priests for the growing Diocese of Toronto and to raise money for the Cathedral. The trip took him to Ireland where he witnessed the Great Famine (1845-1851) that would result in the emigration of so many Irish to Canada. Prior to his return, Bishop Power sent a pastoral letter read in all Catholic churches in and around Toronto, urging congregations to be prepared for the influx of Irish Famine victims. Between May and October 1847 over 38,000 emigrants arrived in Toronto. With a population of only 20,000, the influx strained local resources. Upon his return to Toronto, Bishop Power administered to the sick and dying, many of who were suffering from typhus. He contracted the fever and died on October 1, 1847. During Bishop Power’s Episcopate, the number of Catholics in the Diocese of Toronto approximately doubled from 25,000 in 1842 to 50,000 to 1847. During his short term, Bishop Power provided energetic leadership to the Catholic community.
He is remembered for his contributions to the new Diocese of Toronto including the establishment of its operational framework. The construction of St. Michael’s Cathedral and his compassion to the victims of Irish famine. Although the funeral of Bishop Power was held at St. Paul’s, he was buried in the crypt of the unfinished St. Michael’s Cathedral.
The Bishop’s Palace was built at the same time as the Cathedral to serve as the Episcopal Residence, Chancery Office and Cathedral Rectory. Also designed by William Thomas, the Bishop’s Palace was completed and blessed in 1846. The chapel in the rectory was dedicated to St. Ambrose on his feast day in 1846. St. Michael’s College was housed in the building from 1852 to 1856 before relocating to a site beside the University of Toronto.
Bishop de Charbonnel
Although the Bishop of Montreal consecrated St. Michael’s Cathedral on September 29, 1848 as the See of Toronto, the building remained vacant. On September 22, 1859, Bishop Armand-François-Marie de Chabron de Charbonnel was installed as the second Bishop of the Diocese of Toronto. Armand de Charbonnel was born in France in 1802 to a noble French family. He was ordained a priest in Paris in 1825 and became a professor before moving to Montreal where he worked until 1847. Upon taking up his post in Toronto, Bishop Charbonnel found the new St. Michael’s Cathedral not only under a burden of debt but also undecorated. Bishop de Charbonnel quickly launched an appeal for funds. He sold lands he owned in France and gave the proceeds as well as all of his personal estate to the Cathedral. William Thomas produced sketches in 1856 for the stain glass windows over the altar. The well-known artist Etienne Thévenot manufactured the windows in France. As well, Bishop de Charbonnel imported the Stations of the Cross from France and has Frenchman Canon Henri S. Philbert undertake the decoration of the vaulted roof. Philbert’s decorative scheme with rosaries, flower, shields, and saints remained until 1937. Bishop de Charbonnel also added chapels in the north and south aisle as well as to the left and right of the sanctuary.
During de Charbonnel’s Episcopate, the Diocese of Toronto was reduced in size through the formation of the Diocese of Hamilton and the Diocese of London in 1856. His last pontifical function in Toronto was the consecration of a new high altar in 1860. At de Charbonnel’s request, Pope Pius IX released him from his duties in 1860. He returned to Europe and later entered a friary in France where he dies in 1891.
Father Lynch was appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Toronto in 1859 with right of succession. Upon de Charbonnel’s resignation in 1860, Lynch became the third Bishop of Toronto. In 1870, he became the first Archbishop. John Joseph Lynch was born in Ireland in 1816. He studies in Paris and was ordained on June 10, 1843 in Maynooth, Ireland. He served as a missionary priest in Ireland until 1847 when he immigrated to the United States. He established the Seminary of Our Lady of Angels in Niagara Falls, New York and remained there until 1859 when he moved to Toronto to take up his post with the Diocese of Toronto. Under his leadership significant work was undertaken at the Cathedral. Notable activities included the construction of the tower and steeple in 1866, the addition of sacristy and the installation of a fence. Mrs. Charolotte Elmsley donated the first be; for the tower in memory of her late husband. John Elmsley and Archbishop Lynch added a second one 1873. An organ, manufactured by Warren and Son of Toronto, was installed in the gallery in 1880. It replaced the original organ, which has been a gift of John Elmsley. Archbishop Lynch died in 1888 and was buried in the garden of the north of the Cathedral.
John Walsh was born in Ireland in 1830 and received his theological training in Ireland and at the Sulpician Seminary in Montreal. Ordained in 1854, he served as a pastor in several parishes before becoming Victor General of the Archdiocese in 1862. Father Walsh was appointed Bishop of Sandwich (London) in 1867 and Archbishop of Toronto 1889. Under the leadership of Archbishop Walsh, further improvements were undertaken at St. Michael’s Cathedral. The addition of several more stained glass windows by the latter part of 19th century had darkened the interior of the Cathedral, therefore clerestory windows were added along the north and south sides of the roof in 1890 in an attempt to provide additional natural light. St. John’s chapel was constructed during this period and dedicated on June 7, 1891. The chapel was used for daily Mass during the winter when it was difficult to heat the large Cathedral. Archbishop Walsh dies on July 20, 1898, and was buried in St. Michael’s Cathedral.
20th Century Development
By the end of 19th century, the basic configuration of the St. Michael’s Cathedral complex was established with the Cathedral, Bishop’s Palace and St. John’s Chapel. Neighbouring institutions, including Loretta Convent (c1880), St. Michael’s Hospital (1892) and St. Michael’s Parish School (1990), contributed to the formation of distinct Roman Catholic precinct. With the replacement of the original 1822 St. Paul’s Church with a new building in 1887-1889, St. Michael’s Cathedral became the oldest Catholic church in the City of Toronto.
Within the 20th century, the second Vatican Council (1962-1965) or Vatican II had profound effects on the interior of Roman Catholic churches. Almost every church in the Diocese of Toronto renovated its interior as a result of the directives of the Vatican. St. Michael’s was no exception and the sanctuary underwent significant reorganization at that time. Pope John Paul II visited the Cathedral, Rectory, and St. John’s Chapel in September 1984. St. John’s Chapel in particular, was renovated extensively in advance of the Pope’s visit.
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0.07311597466468811... | 1 | History of the Cathedral
Foundation of the Diocese of Toronto and Bishop Power
Established in 1826, the Diocese of Kingston was split to form a new western diocese of the Roman Catholic Church in Upper Canada in 1841. Father Michael Power, who was chosen as the first bishop, selected Toronto as the Episcopal seat. Bishop Power took possession of his See on June 26, 1842 at St. Paul’s Church. Built in 1822 as the first Roman Catholic parish church in Toronto, St. Paul’s was located at the corner of Power Street and Queens Street East.
Born in Halifax, Nova Scotia on October 17, 1804, Michael Power undertook his classical and theological studies in Quebec and was ordained in 1827. Father Power served as a missionary priest in Quebec before being appointed Vicar General of Montreal in 1839. Upon his consecration in 1842 he became the first English-speaking Bishop to be born in Canada.
In 1842, the Diocese of Toronto included approximately 25,000 Catholics served by 19 priests. At that time, the 3,000 parishioners in the City of Toronto were administered at St. Paul’s, the only Catholic church in the municipality. Bishop Power quickly determined Toronto needed a new church building to serve as the Cathedral for the rapidly growing Catholic population. By 1845, he had bought land from Captain John McGill for the Cathedral. Bishop Power paid £1,800 for the property of which £500 came from his own funds and balance from collections in the diocese. The land, which was located on the northern edge of the city and known as McGill Square, was part of Park Lot 7 in Concession 1 from Lake Ontario. There was some criticism initially that the property was too far removed from the settlement centre; however, the quickly expanding city soon encompassed the area.
Noted Toronto architect William Thomas was retained to prepare plans for the new church building. John Harper was named the contractor for the project, although in the style of medieval construction projects, components of the work were undertaken by the community labour. Excavation began on April 7, 1845, and a cornerstone laying ceremony was held on May 8. Bishop Power laid the cornerstone with a silver trowel, dedicated the cathedral to St. Michael and placed the diocese under the patronage of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Most Pure Heart of Mary. Sealed in the cornerstone were fragments of a stone pillar and pieces of the oak roof from the old Norman York Minster Cathedral in England donated by John Elmsley.
Bishop Power did not live to see the completion of the building he had spearheaded. In January 1847, Power had departed on a six month-month trip to Europe to recruit priests for the growing Diocese of Toronto and to raise money for the Cathedral. The trip took him to Ireland where he witnessed the Great Famine (1845-1851) that would result in the emigration of so many Irish to Canada. Prior to his return, Bishop Power sent a pastoral letter read in all Catholic churches in and around Toronto, urging congregations to be prepared for the influx of Irish Famine victims. Between May and October 1847 over 38,000 emigrants arrived in Toronto. With a population of only 20,000, the influx strained local resources. Upon his return to Toronto, Bishop Power administered to the sick and dying, many of who were suffering from typhus. He contracted the fever and died on October 1, 1847. During Bishop Power’s Episcopate, the number of Catholics in the Diocese of Toronto approximately doubled from 25,000 in 1842 to 50,000 to 1847. During his short term, Bishop Power provided energetic leadership to the Catholic community.
He is remembered for his contributions to the new Diocese of Toronto including the establishment of its operational framework. The construction of St. Michael’s Cathedral and his compassion to the victims of Irish famine. Although the funeral of Bishop Power was held at St. Paul’s, he was buried in the crypt of the unfinished St. Michael’s Cathedral.
The Bishop’s Palace was built at the same time as the Cathedral to serve as the Episcopal Residence, Chancery Office and Cathedral Rectory. Also designed by William Thomas, the Bishop’s Palace was completed and blessed in 1846. The chapel in the rectory was dedicated to St. Ambrose on his feast day in 1846. St. Michael’s College was housed in the building from 1852 to 1856 before relocating to a site beside the University of Toronto.
Bishop de Charbonnel
Although the Bishop of Montreal consecrated St. Michael’s Cathedral on September 29, 1848 as the See of Toronto, the building remained vacant. On September 22, 1859, Bishop Armand-François-Marie de Chabron de Charbonnel was installed as the second Bishop of the Diocese of Toronto. Armand de Charbonnel was born in France in 1802 to a noble French family. He was ordained a priest in Paris in 1825 and became a professor before moving to Montreal where he worked until 1847. Upon taking up his post in Toronto, Bishop Charbonnel found the new St. Michael’s Cathedral not only under a burden of debt but also undecorated. Bishop de Charbonnel quickly launched an appeal for funds. He sold lands he owned in France and gave the proceeds as well as all of his personal estate to the Cathedral. William Thomas produced sketches in 1856 for the stain glass windows over the altar. The well-known artist Etienne Thévenot manufactured the windows in France. As well, Bishop de Charbonnel imported the Stations of the Cross from France and has Frenchman Canon Henri S. Philbert undertake the decoration of the vaulted roof. Philbert’s decorative scheme with rosaries, flower, shields, and saints remained until 1937. Bishop de Charbonnel also added chapels in the north and south aisle as well as to the left and right of the sanctuary.
During de Charbonnel’s Episcopate, the Diocese of Toronto was reduced in size through the formation of the Diocese of Hamilton and the Diocese of London in 1856. His last pontifical function in Toronto was the consecration of a new high altar in 1860. At de Charbonnel’s request, Pope Pius IX released him from his duties in 1860. He returned to Europe and later entered a friary in France where he dies in 1891.
Father Lynch was appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Toronto in 1859 with right of succession. Upon de Charbonnel’s resignation in 1860, Lynch became the third Bishop of Toronto. In 1870, he became the first Archbishop. John Joseph Lynch was born in Ireland in 1816. He studies in Paris and was ordained on June 10, 1843 in Maynooth, Ireland. He served as a missionary priest in Ireland until 1847 when he immigrated to the United States. He established the Seminary of Our Lady of Angels in Niagara Falls, New York and remained there until 1859 when he moved to Toronto to take up his post with the Diocese of Toronto. Under his leadership significant work was undertaken at the Cathedral. Notable activities included the construction of the tower and steeple in 1866, the addition of sacristy and the installation of a fence. Mrs. Charolotte Elmsley donated the first be; for the tower in memory of her late husband. John Elmsley and Archbishop Lynch added a second one 1873. An organ, manufactured by Warren and Son of Toronto, was installed in the gallery in 1880. It replaced the original organ, which has been a gift of John Elmsley. Archbishop Lynch died in 1888 and was buried in the garden of the north of the Cathedral.
John Walsh was born in Ireland in 1830 and received his theological training in Ireland and at the Sulpician Seminary in Montreal. Ordained in 1854, he served as a pastor in several parishes before becoming Victor General of the Archdiocese in 1862. Father Walsh was appointed Bishop of Sandwich (London) in 1867 and Archbishop of Toronto 1889. Under the leadership of Archbishop Walsh, further improvements were undertaken at St. Michael’s Cathedral. The addition of several more stained glass windows by the latter part of 19th century had darkened the interior of the Cathedral, therefore clerestory windows were added along the north and south sides of the roof in 1890 in an attempt to provide additional natural light. St. John’s chapel was constructed during this period and dedicated on June 7, 1891. The chapel was used for daily Mass during the winter when it was difficult to heat the large Cathedral. Archbishop Walsh dies on July 20, 1898, and was buried in St. Michael’s Cathedral.
20th Century Development
By the end of 19th century, the basic configuration of the St. Michael’s Cathedral complex was established with the Cathedral, Bishop’s Palace and St. John’s Chapel. Neighbouring institutions, including Loretta Convent (c1880), St. Michael’s Hospital (1892) and St. Michael’s Parish School (1990), contributed to the formation of distinct Roman Catholic precinct. With the replacement of the original 1822 St. Paul’s Church with a new building in 1887-1889, St. Michael’s Cathedral became the oldest Catholic church in the City of Toronto.
Within the 20th century, the second Vatican Council (1962-1965) or Vatican II had profound effects on the interior of Roman Catholic churches. Almost every church in the Diocese of Toronto renovated its interior as a result of the directives of the Vatican. St. Michael’s was no exception and the sanctuary underwent significant reorganization at that time. Pope John Paul II visited the Cathedral, Rectory, and St. John’s Chapel in September 1984. St. John’s Chapel in particular, was renovated extensively in advance of the Pope’s visit.
St. Michael’s Cathedral endures as the prin | 2,274 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paul Brown describes how the Royal Navy’s Dreadnoughts revolutionised battleship design in the early years of the 20th century, and outlines the role they played in the build-up to World War I.
In 1904 Britain’s naval supremacy was unquestionable — the fleet was at least as big as the next two largest fleets put together (due to a policy known as the two-power standard). The possible foes were believed to be France, Russia and, increasingly, Germany. Warning against complacency, the Second Sea Lord, Admiral Sir John ‘Jackie’ Fisher, championed the building of a revolutionary new type of battleship, which would be superior in both firepower and speed to any existing battleship.
By March 1905 the design of the first ship — to be named Dreadnought — was complete. In May 1905 the Russian fleet was annihilated by the Japanese at the Battle of Tsushima. This action highlighted the importance of speed if an enemy was to be overtaken and brought into action, and demonstrated the hitting power of 12-inch guns, thus supporting Fisher’s arguments.
On 2 October the keel of the first of the new battleships was laid on Portsmouth Dockyard’s No.5 slip. By then Fisher had been elevated to First Sea Lord and was able to ensure that construction of the new ship proceeded with extraordinary speed, so that Dreadnought was launched by King Edward VII just four months later, on 10 February 1906.
The guns and engines had been ordered well before the keel was laid, and the frames of the ship were pre-fabricated in Portsmouth Dockyard, allowing them to be erected immediately — with bulkhead erection starting just three days after the keel laying. And instead of the usual 48 hours, dockyard workers worked a six-day week of 69 hours using searchlights to illuminate the work, rather than finishing at 1500 or 1600 each day, and even worked on Christmas and New Year’s Days.
Dreadnought was ‘completed’ for preliminary trials on 3 October 1906, a year and a day after being laid down, although this date was really for publicity purposes — her final completion was in December 1906. But this huge effort was intended to show Germany how formidable the British shipbuilding industry was, and to give Britain an unassailable lead in battleship construction.
Start of the Arms Race
Dreadnought was the largest, fastest and most heavily armed battleship in the world and, for the first time in a battleship, used steam turbines for propulsion. The use of turbines gave a valuable weight saving, but using them was quite a risk since the Navy only had experience of turbines in destroyers, and they were only just being introduced on ocean liners. Dreadnought gave her name to the new breed of battleship and introduced the idea of an all-big-gun battleship, rather than mounting guns with a combination of different calibres, an idea promulgated by the Italian naval architect Vittorio Cuniberti.
However, the new ship meant that, at a stroke, all the pre-Dreadnought battleships were obsolete, and the great naval arms race between Britain and Germany accelerated. There were, however, critics: Britain had the largest fleet of pre-Dreadnoughts, but now had to rebuild the fleet from scratch, to the consternation of the incoming Liberal government. Sir William White, the former Director of Naval Construction, suggested that Britain was ‘putting all her naval eggs in one or two vast, costly, majestic, but vulnerable baskets’, and favoured larger numbers of smaller battleships.
Nevertheless, Fisher was undaunted: between February 1906 and February 1907 six more Dreadnoughts were laid down in Britain. Three were of the Bellerophon class, virtually repeats of Dreadnought, and three of the more lightly armoured Invincible class. The Invincibles were an even more controversial innovation from Fisher: faster and more lightly armoured than the battleships, they were known as battlecruisers, although the term ‘capital ship’ was coined to cover both battleships and battlecruisers.
In the next 12 months three St Vincent class battleships were laid down, and the British press and public were behind the Dreadnought building programme. Meanwhile, Germany laid down her first four Dreadnoughts, of the Nassau class, in summer 1907.
In 1908 the clamour for more ships reached fever pitch in Britain, as a result of the increase in German Dreadnought-building capacity, and rumours that Germany was laying down Dreadnoughts in secret, which would allow it to reach parity with Britain by 1912. A Tory MP coined the phrase ‘We want eight and we won’t wait’ in demanding that the four Dreadnoughts to be ordered in that year should be increased to eight. Given the new German threat, the two-power standard was replaced by a requirement for a 40 per cent superiority over Germany in Dreadnought numbers.
The pace of construction did indeed increase — six Dreadnoughts were laid down in Britain in 1909 and six more in 1910, comprising Neptune, Colossus, Indefatigable, Orion and Lion classes. Dry docks had to be lengthened and new ones built, as the royal dockyards struggled to keep up with the demands of the massive Dreadnought building and refitting programme. Three Dreadnoughts being built in Britain for Turkey, Argentina and Chile were taken over by the Royal Navy, and by 1920 35 battleships and 13 battlecruisers had been built at a cost of £151 million by two royal dockyards and ten private yards.
Improving on Dreadnought
In service Dreadnought proved successful, though there were bound to be ways to improve such a radical design. In the succeeding Bellerophon and St Vincent classes, the tripod foremast was moved forward of the fore funnel to keep the spotting tower free of smoke, and the secondary armament was increased from three-inch to four-inch to give a better defence against destroyers.
However, the problem posed by positioning two of the five twin 12-inch gun turrets in wings amidships (which greatly reduced their arc of fire) was not resolved until the Orion class of the 1909 programme, though the intermediate Neptune and Colossus classes of the 1908 programme did have a somewhat better arrangement of turrets than earlier classes. The Orions were larger ships and were armed with superior guns, of 13.5-inch calibre. Next came the four King George V class ships, which were all laid down in 1911, and were a modified version of the Orions.
The four ships of the Iron Duke class laid down in 1912 were bigger again, and introduced six-inch guns as secondary armament. They were followed by the five ships of the larger Queen Elizabeth class, which were given a 15-inch calibre main armament and burnt oil rather than coal. Finally, British battleship design development in this era culminated with the five Royal Sovereign class: smaller than the Queen Elizabeths but with a similar armament.
Developing the battlecruiser
Battlecruiser design started with the 25-knot Invincible class, which had a longer hull than contemporary battleships, to accommodate the 31 boilers (compared with 18 in Dreadnought). Initially they were known as armoured cruisers, but were reclassified as battlecruisers in 1912, no doubt reflecting the fact that they had 12-inch guns. Their armour was, however, light and would prove to be their Achilles heel. The Indefatigable class were similar but had a better gun layout.
The much larger Lion class followed, and had 13.5-inch guns like the contemporary Orion class battleships. The design was improved in Queen Mary and Tiger, which were bigger and faster still, being capable of 28 knots. The next battlecruisers, the Renown class, mounted 15-inch guns, mirroring the Royal Sovereign class battleships from which the hulls were diverted.
Then followed the three ‘light battlecruisers’, Courageous, Glorious and Furious, with a shallow draft for operations in the Baltic. Mounting 18-inch guns and capable of 32 knots, they were the most extreme manifestation of the battlecruiser concept. Furious, as completed in 1917, could launch aircraft from her foredeck, where a flight deck replaced the forward turret. All three ships were later fully converted to aircraft carriers. The only Dreadnought from the World War I era to be completed after the war had ended, and the largest of all, was the final battlecruiser, Hood.
Preparing for War
In July 1914, just before the outbreak of World War I, Britain had 20 Dreadnought battleships and nine battlecruisers in service, including one battlecruiser of the Royal Australian Navy. A large floating dock had been moved to the Cromarty Firth to allow repairs to battleships which would be stationed in the north of Scotland, because the planned new dockyard at Rosyth had not yet been completed. There was a review of the fleet at Spithead, where the newly-completed Iron Duke joined 54 other battleships (including pre-Dreadnoughts, some of which had been mobilised from reserve), and four battlecruisers, plus a host of cruisers, destroyers, submarines and torpedo boats, in a forbidding spectacle of sea power that eclipsed all previous reviews at Spithead.
The fleet was due to demobilise on 27 July, but instead the Admiralty issued the order ‘Standfast the Fleet’, and preparations for war continued. By August over 53,000 reservists had been mobilised. When the ships dispersed from Spithead, the First Fleet (consisting of three Dreadnought squadrons) sailed north to its wartime anchorage at Scapa Flow, and on 4 August the signal was flashed to all ships: ‘Commence hostilities against Germany.’ | <urn:uuid:ccc3f930-5c72-4a73-8691-cfa5652e9cc9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://survincity.com/2016/12/we-want-eight-and/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00507.warc.gz | en | 0.981433 | 2,070 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.29221621155... | 1 | Paul Brown describes how the Royal Navy’s Dreadnoughts revolutionised battleship design in the early years of the 20th century, and outlines the role they played in the build-up to World War I.
In 1904 Britain’s naval supremacy was unquestionable — the fleet was at least as big as the next two largest fleets put together (due to a policy known as the two-power standard). The possible foes were believed to be France, Russia and, increasingly, Germany. Warning against complacency, the Second Sea Lord, Admiral Sir John ‘Jackie’ Fisher, championed the building of a revolutionary new type of battleship, which would be superior in both firepower and speed to any existing battleship.
By March 1905 the design of the first ship — to be named Dreadnought — was complete. In May 1905 the Russian fleet was annihilated by the Japanese at the Battle of Tsushima. This action highlighted the importance of speed if an enemy was to be overtaken and brought into action, and demonstrated the hitting power of 12-inch guns, thus supporting Fisher’s arguments.
On 2 October the keel of the first of the new battleships was laid on Portsmouth Dockyard’s No.5 slip. By then Fisher had been elevated to First Sea Lord and was able to ensure that construction of the new ship proceeded with extraordinary speed, so that Dreadnought was launched by King Edward VII just four months later, on 10 February 1906.
The guns and engines had been ordered well before the keel was laid, and the frames of the ship were pre-fabricated in Portsmouth Dockyard, allowing them to be erected immediately — with bulkhead erection starting just three days after the keel laying. And instead of the usual 48 hours, dockyard workers worked a six-day week of 69 hours using searchlights to illuminate the work, rather than finishing at 1500 or 1600 each day, and even worked on Christmas and New Year’s Days.
Dreadnought was ‘completed’ for preliminary trials on 3 October 1906, a year and a day after being laid down, although this date was really for publicity purposes — her final completion was in December 1906. But this huge effort was intended to show Germany how formidable the British shipbuilding industry was, and to give Britain an unassailable lead in battleship construction.
Start of the Arms Race
Dreadnought was the largest, fastest and most heavily armed battleship in the world and, for the first time in a battleship, used steam turbines for propulsion. The use of turbines gave a valuable weight saving, but using them was quite a risk since the Navy only had experience of turbines in destroyers, and they were only just being introduced on ocean liners. Dreadnought gave her name to the new breed of battleship and introduced the idea of an all-big-gun battleship, rather than mounting guns with a combination of different calibres, an idea promulgated by the Italian naval architect Vittorio Cuniberti.
However, the new ship meant that, at a stroke, all the pre-Dreadnought battleships were obsolete, and the great naval arms race between Britain and Germany accelerated. There were, however, critics: Britain had the largest fleet of pre-Dreadnoughts, but now had to rebuild the fleet from scratch, to the consternation of the incoming Liberal government. Sir William White, the former Director of Naval Construction, suggested that Britain was ‘putting all her naval eggs in one or two vast, costly, majestic, but vulnerable baskets’, and favoured larger numbers of smaller battleships.
Nevertheless, Fisher was undaunted: between February 1906 and February 1907 six more Dreadnoughts were laid down in Britain. Three were of the Bellerophon class, virtually repeats of Dreadnought, and three of the more lightly armoured Invincible class. The Invincibles were an even more controversial innovation from Fisher: faster and more lightly armoured than the battleships, they were known as battlecruisers, although the term ‘capital ship’ was coined to cover both battleships and battlecruisers.
In the next 12 months three St Vincent class battleships were laid down, and the British press and public were behind the Dreadnought building programme. Meanwhile, Germany laid down her first four Dreadnoughts, of the Nassau class, in summer 1907.
In 1908 the clamour for more ships reached fever pitch in Britain, as a result of the increase in German Dreadnought-building capacity, and rumours that Germany was laying down Dreadnoughts in secret, which would allow it to reach parity with Britain by 1912. A Tory MP coined the phrase ‘We want eight and we won’t wait’ in demanding that the four Dreadnoughts to be ordered in that year should be increased to eight. Given the new German threat, the two-power standard was replaced by a requirement for a 40 per cent superiority over Germany in Dreadnought numbers.
The pace of construction did indeed increase — six Dreadnoughts were laid down in Britain in 1909 and six more in 1910, comprising Neptune, Colossus, Indefatigable, Orion and Lion classes. Dry docks had to be lengthened and new ones built, as the royal dockyards struggled to keep up with the demands of the massive Dreadnought building and refitting programme. Three Dreadnoughts being built in Britain for Turkey, Argentina and Chile were taken over by the Royal Navy, and by 1920 35 battleships and 13 battlecruisers had been built at a cost of £151 million by two royal dockyards and ten private yards.
Improving on Dreadnought
In service Dreadnought proved successful, though there were bound to be ways to improve such a radical design. In the succeeding Bellerophon and St Vincent classes, the tripod foremast was moved forward of the fore funnel to keep the spotting tower free of smoke, and the secondary armament was increased from three-inch to four-inch to give a better defence against destroyers.
However, the problem posed by positioning two of the five twin 12-inch gun turrets in wings amidships (which greatly reduced their arc of fire) was not resolved until the Orion class of the 1909 programme, though the intermediate Neptune and Colossus classes of the 1908 programme did have a somewhat better arrangement of turrets than earlier classes. The Orions were larger ships and were armed with superior guns, of 13.5-inch calibre. Next came the four King George V class ships, which were all laid down in 1911, and were a modified version of the Orions.
The four ships of the Iron Duke class laid down in 1912 were bigger again, and introduced six-inch guns as secondary armament. They were followed by the five ships of the larger Queen Elizabeth class, which were given a 15-inch calibre main armament and burnt oil rather than coal. Finally, British battleship design development in this era culminated with the five Royal Sovereign class: smaller than the Queen Elizabeths but with a similar armament.
Developing the battlecruiser
Battlecruiser design started with the 25-knot Invincible class, which had a longer hull than contemporary battleships, to accommodate the 31 boilers (compared with 18 in Dreadnought). Initially they were known as armoured cruisers, but were reclassified as battlecruisers in 1912, no doubt reflecting the fact that they had 12-inch guns. Their armour was, however, light and would prove to be their Achilles heel. The Indefatigable class were similar but had a better gun layout.
The much larger Lion class followed, and had 13.5-inch guns like the contemporary Orion class battleships. The design was improved in Queen Mary and Tiger, which were bigger and faster still, being capable of 28 knots. The next battlecruisers, the Renown class, mounted 15-inch guns, mirroring the Royal Sovereign class battleships from which the hulls were diverted.
Then followed the three ‘light battlecruisers’, Courageous, Glorious and Furious, with a shallow draft for operations in the Baltic. Mounting 18-inch guns and capable of 32 knots, they were the most extreme manifestation of the battlecruiser concept. Furious, as completed in 1917, could launch aircraft from her foredeck, where a flight deck replaced the forward turret. All three ships were later fully converted to aircraft carriers. The only Dreadnought from the World War I era to be completed after the war had ended, and the largest of all, was the final battlecruiser, Hood.
Preparing for War
In July 1914, just before the outbreak of World War I, Britain had 20 Dreadnought battleships and nine battlecruisers in service, including one battlecruiser of the Royal Australian Navy. A large floating dock had been moved to the Cromarty Firth to allow repairs to battleships which would be stationed in the north of Scotland, because the planned new dockyard at Rosyth had not yet been completed. There was a review of the fleet at Spithead, where the newly-completed Iron Duke joined 54 other battleships (including pre-Dreadnoughts, some of which had been mobilised from reserve), and four battlecruisers, plus a host of cruisers, destroyers, submarines and torpedo boats, in a forbidding spectacle of sea power that eclipsed all previous reviews at Spithead.
The fleet was due to demobilise on 27 July, but instead the Admiralty issued the order ‘Standfast the Fleet’, and preparations for war continued. By August over 53,000 reservists had been mobilised. When the ships dispersed from Spithead, the First Fleet (consisting of three Dreadnought squadrons) sailed north to its wartime anchorage at Scapa Flow, and on 4 August the signal was flashed to all ships: ‘Commence hostilities against Germany.’ | 2,167 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women's historical contribution recognised on Anzac Day
Throughout Army’s 112 year history women have made valuable contributions to enhance the Army’s capability from the Boer War in 1901, to today in Afghanistan. The Army has made significant progress to enhance the opportunities available to women. Over the last 30 years the Army has moved from a recommendation to permit women to serve on active service but not in combat roles, in the early 1970’s, to the removal of gender restrictions in 2013. The Army acknowledges the efforts of all women in the Army today and in the past, who showed enormous dedication, sacrifice and professionalism.
Among the many challenges faced by the Australian Government in 1941 was the shortage of men to support the economy and to fight in the Armed Services. Australia had a population of approximately 7.1 million with an available workforce of about 2 million. It was estimated that by mid 1943 Australia would require a combined Armed Services of 500,000, supported by 250,000 working in the munitions, shipbuilding and aircraft industry and another 50,000 directly supporting other war supplies. Relying on Australian men to fill these roles was unsustainable and the greater employment of women started to be seriously considered.
During 1941, proposals were developed to create a women’s element in the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Army and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). The RAAF and the RAN commenced enlistment of women in February and March 1941. Their early success created pressure for a women’s service in the Army.
Army planners were eager for women to assume responsibility for a variety of tasks. This would mean that men could be released to undertake combat related roles. On 13 August 1941, the War Cabinet led by then Prime Minister Mr (later Sir) Robert Menzies, approved the formation of the Australian Army Women’s Service. This name was changed by December 1941 to the Australian Women’s Army Service (AWAS).
It was decided that no women were to be sent overseas without the approval of the War Cabinet. Although as a contingency, it was also decided that in the event this did occur, only single women without dependents would be eligible for overseas service. Women’s pay and allowances were also set at approximately 68 per cent of those paid to men in the Army.
On 29 September 1941, Miss Sybill Irving MBE was appointed as Controller of the new service at the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. Lieutenant Colonel Irving commenced duties in early October with an aim to establish the service and initially recruit women to undertake a three week course for commissioning as officers. Twenty nine women were selected from an outstanding group of volunteers, each of whom had already proved themselves as leaders in their own professions and in the community. These Officers would form the core of the AWAS for the period 1941 to 1947 and build the service into an organisation that contributed significantly to Australia’s war effort.
The women of the AWAS served throughout the war in many roles including clerks, typists, drivers, cooks, signallers, stewards, intelligence analysts, butchers, mechanics, provost, searchlights operators, canteen staff, and a variety of other roles supporting the Army throughout Australia. In addition, 3,618 women served with the Royal Australian Regiment of Artillery manning the fixed guns emplacements from Hobart to Cairns and in Perth.
In early 1945 the War Cabinet gave approval for up to 500 members of the AWAS to serve overseas in Papua New Guinea in positions within the headquarters. Unofficially, some members of the AWAS served overseas prior to this. This approval was seen to give official sanction to the earlier deployments as well. In May 1945, 350 members of the AWAS sailed on the MV Duntroon for New Guinea and were posted to Headquarters 1st Australian Army.
The end of hostilities in August 1945 brought a rapid reduction in the size of the Army and this included the AWAS. Post war planning determined that there was no need for a women’s service in the Army and the AWAS was disbanded in June 1947.
In recognition of the valuable service provided by women in the Army during the war, five members of the AWAS were selected for inclusion in the Victory March contingent that marched through London in June 1946.
A total of 24,082 women served in the AWAS and at their peak, represented approximately five per cent of the total Army strength. During the war, 41 members of the AWAS died on active service, although no deaths were due to enemy action.
The strong reputation and high esteem held by some senior members of the military and government of the dedication and service provided by the AWAS led to the reintroduction of women to the Army in 1951. The Australian Women’s Army Corps was created, although this was retitled the Women’s Australian Army Corps in April 1951. Two months later, King George VI granted the addition of ‘Royal’ in recognition of the wartime contribution of the women’s services, and it became the Women’s Royal Australian Army Corps (WRAAC). The early leaders of the WRAAC were veterans of the AWAS and this influence lasted for many years.
Major Geoff Lever
Australian Army History Unit
4 January 2020Operation Bushfire Assist 10 December 2019135th Graduation of the Australian Army's Future Leaders 20 November 2019Australian Army and Queensland Police Service recognised for efforts during Townsville floods 30 September 2019Retired Army Banner laid up at Kapooka 25 September 2019Delivering the next generation of network assurance for the Australian Army | <urn:uuid:ebb8bd9f-3ddf-48b9-a47a-2d83c2477caf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.army.gov.au/our-history/history-in-focus/womens-historical-contribution-recognised-on-anzac-day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00469.warc.gz | en | 0.980165 | 1,144 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.25097548961639... | 2 | Women's historical contribution recognised on Anzac Day
Throughout Army’s 112 year history women have made valuable contributions to enhance the Army’s capability from the Boer War in 1901, to today in Afghanistan. The Army has made significant progress to enhance the opportunities available to women. Over the last 30 years the Army has moved from a recommendation to permit women to serve on active service but not in combat roles, in the early 1970’s, to the removal of gender restrictions in 2013. The Army acknowledges the efforts of all women in the Army today and in the past, who showed enormous dedication, sacrifice and professionalism.
Among the many challenges faced by the Australian Government in 1941 was the shortage of men to support the economy and to fight in the Armed Services. Australia had a population of approximately 7.1 million with an available workforce of about 2 million. It was estimated that by mid 1943 Australia would require a combined Armed Services of 500,000, supported by 250,000 working in the munitions, shipbuilding and aircraft industry and another 50,000 directly supporting other war supplies. Relying on Australian men to fill these roles was unsustainable and the greater employment of women started to be seriously considered.
During 1941, proposals were developed to create a women’s element in the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Army and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). The RAAF and the RAN commenced enlistment of women in February and March 1941. Their early success created pressure for a women’s service in the Army.
Army planners were eager for women to assume responsibility for a variety of tasks. This would mean that men could be released to undertake combat related roles. On 13 August 1941, the War Cabinet led by then Prime Minister Mr (later Sir) Robert Menzies, approved the formation of the Australian Army Women’s Service. This name was changed by December 1941 to the Australian Women’s Army Service (AWAS).
It was decided that no women were to be sent overseas without the approval of the War Cabinet. Although as a contingency, it was also decided that in the event this did occur, only single women without dependents would be eligible for overseas service. Women’s pay and allowances were also set at approximately 68 per cent of those paid to men in the Army.
On 29 September 1941, Miss Sybill Irving MBE was appointed as Controller of the new service at the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. Lieutenant Colonel Irving commenced duties in early October with an aim to establish the service and initially recruit women to undertake a three week course for commissioning as officers. Twenty nine women were selected from an outstanding group of volunteers, each of whom had already proved themselves as leaders in their own professions and in the community. These Officers would form the core of the AWAS for the period 1941 to 1947 and build the service into an organisation that contributed significantly to Australia’s war effort.
The women of the AWAS served throughout the war in many roles including clerks, typists, drivers, cooks, signallers, stewards, intelligence analysts, butchers, mechanics, provost, searchlights operators, canteen staff, and a variety of other roles supporting the Army throughout Australia. In addition, 3,618 women served with the Royal Australian Regiment of Artillery manning the fixed guns emplacements from Hobart to Cairns and in Perth.
In early 1945 the War Cabinet gave approval for up to 500 members of the AWAS to serve overseas in Papua New Guinea in positions within the headquarters. Unofficially, some members of the AWAS served overseas prior to this. This approval was seen to give official sanction to the earlier deployments as well. In May 1945, 350 members of the AWAS sailed on the MV Duntroon for New Guinea and were posted to Headquarters 1st Australian Army.
The end of hostilities in August 1945 brought a rapid reduction in the size of the Army and this included the AWAS. Post war planning determined that there was no need for a women’s service in the Army and the AWAS was disbanded in June 1947.
In recognition of the valuable service provided by women in the Army during the war, five members of the AWAS were selected for inclusion in the Victory March contingent that marched through London in June 1946.
A total of 24,082 women served in the AWAS and at their peak, represented approximately five per cent of the total Army strength. During the war, 41 members of the AWAS died on active service, although no deaths were due to enemy action.
The strong reputation and high esteem held by some senior members of the military and government of the dedication and service provided by the AWAS led to the reintroduction of women to the Army in 1951. The Australian Women’s Army Corps was created, although this was retitled the Women’s Australian Army Corps in April 1951. Two months later, King George VI granted the addition of ‘Royal’ in recognition of the wartime contribution of the women’s services, and it became the Women’s Royal Australian Army Corps (WRAAC). The early leaders of the WRAAC were veterans of the AWAS and this influence lasted for many years.
Major Geoff Lever
Australian Army History Unit
4 January 2020Operation Bushfire Assist 10 December 2019135th Graduation of the Australian Army's Future Leaders 20 November 2019Australian Army and Queensland Police Service recognised for efforts during Townsville floods 30 September 2019Retired Army Banner laid up at Kapooka 25 September 2019Delivering the next generation of network assurance for the Australian Army | 1,255 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Non-Anglish Words||This article has small instances of italicized words in standard English for informative purposes; if you see these words, do not translate them into Anglish.|
The Middle English tung (Middle English: Englysshe, Early Scots and northern Middle English: Inglis) is an offspring of Old English and the forerunner to Early New English. It was spoken in England in the Middle Eld, from the 12th-yearhundred, after the Hild at Hastings, to the 15th-yearhundred, when Mean English started to come to the fold. Like Old English, Middle English is a West Theedish tung; however, it has much hoard from Angle-Northish, and hoard from Evelandish French in the later years.
The overgang from Old English to Middle English began when Earl William of Northmenland infelt England in 1066 and overcame the House of Wessex. After the Norman ingang, the English erd-folk were unshrithed from elderdom, and the stock tung, the Wessex Byleid, which had been deemed as the mean tung throughout England yearhundreds beforehand, was no longer being spoken by the ethels, and was edstowen by Engle-Northman. This begat much frothering in English Byleids thereafter, as those who had overseen the of English could no longer do so once the Normans overcame and edstew the fore-running Ethels. The yeomen and wonted folk still spoke English after the Norman Ingang of England (the Normans deemed English as a "low-brow" tung unfit for themselves), but much inflood from Angle-Norman came into English, as the English had begun to the Normans, causing many Norman words to flow into English.
Steadholdings, Word Shiftings, and EdstowingsEdit
Once the Northmen had fullyEngland, frotherings had started to happen as not only were words being borrowed from Engelnorthish, but words that were English were being put in a nether class. For byspel, when a cow was cooked, it was then called bœuf (beef), which is French for ox; some farmstead would keep their English sunderings when living, but would be bewritten with Northmen words after being slaughtered and cooked. Theedish words stayed in English, but their meanings were swayed for-that the Northmen wanted to craft a betwixt the erd-Folkish English and themselves, such as in the umstand of doom and judgement, with the former being othered in meaning beway of the latter, as well as apple and fruit, with the meaning of the former also shifting to make room for the Northman loanword. Often times, crafts which needed less work kept their Engelsaxish sunderings, such as a shoemaker, but crafts needing more work were edstowen with Northmen sunderings such as fletcher instead of flonmaker. Other times, words and edstowen altogether (even if not needed), such as in the falling of wuldrig becoming and glorious becoming more to English speakers; other words stayed and did not have their meanings shifted, and French came forth and stood beside them; many words which were in being before the Northmen Ingang were needlessly—as saith those who do not hold with this—fordone for Northman or Latish sunderings, had their meanings shifted to be less , or were kept and had their meanings shifted. | <urn:uuid:49079128-b36b-4be6-bf44-0e56221bc65a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://anglish.fandom.com/wiki/Middle_English_tung | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00191.warc.gz | en | 0.984876 | 743 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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-0.004806408... | 5 | |Non-Anglish Words||This article has small instances of italicized words in standard English for informative purposes; if you see these words, do not translate them into Anglish.|
The Middle English tung (Middle English: Englysshe, Early Scots and northern Middle English: Inglis) is an offspring of Old English and the forerunner to Early New English. It was spoken in England in the Middle Eld, from the 12th-yearhundred, after the Hild at Hastings, to the 15th-yearhundred, when Mean English started to come to the fold. Like Old English, Middle English is a West Theedish tung; however, it has much hoard from Angle-Northish, and hoard from Evelandish French in the later years.
The overgang from Old English to Middle English began when Earl William of Northmenland infelt England in 1066 and overcame the House of Wessex. After the Norman ingang, the English erd-folk were unshrithed from elderdom, and the stock tung, the Wessex Byleid, which had been deemed as the mean tung throughout England yearhundreds beforehand, was no longer being spoken by the ethels, and was edstowen by Engle-Northman. This begat much frothering in English Byleids thereafter, as those who had overseen the of English could no longer do so once the Normans overcame and edstew the fore-running Ethels. The yeomen and wonted folk still spoke English after the Norman Ingang of England (the Normans deemed English as a "low-brow" tung unfit for themselves), but much inflood from Angle-Norman came into English, as the English had begun to the Normans, causing many Norman words to flow into English.
Steadholdings, Word Shiftings, and EdstowingsEdit
Once the Northmen had fullyEngland, frotherings had started to happen as not only were words being borrowed from Engelnorthish, but words that were English were being put in a nether class. For byspel, when a cow was cooked, it was then called bœuf (beef), which is French for ox; some farmstead would keep their English sunderings when living, but would be bewritten with Northmen words after being slaughtered and cooked. Theedish words stayed in English, but their meanings were swayed for-that the Northmen wanted to craft a betwixt the erd-Folkish English and themselves, such as in the umstand of doom and judgement, with the former being othered in meaning beway of the latter, as well as apple and fruit, with the meaning of the former also shifting to make room for the Northman loanword. Often times, crafts which needed less work kept their Engelsaxish sunderings, such as a shoemaker, but crafts needing more work were edstowen with Northmen sunderings such as fletcher instead of flonmaker. Other times, words and edstowen altogether (even if not needed), such as in the falling of wuldrig becoming and glorious becoming more to English speakers; other words stayed and did not have their meanings shifted, and French came forth and stood beside them; many words which were in being before the Northmen Ingang were needlessly—as saith those who do not hold with this—fordone for Northman or Latish sunderings, had their meanings shifted to be less , or were kept and had their meanings shifted. | 743 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Whittle had begun thinking about jet engines in 1928, when he wrote a college thesis on future developments in aviation. He was prescient, considering that this was the heyday of the biplane and Lindbergh had only recently crossed the Atlantic. "It seems," he wrote, "that, as the turbine is the most efficient prime mover known, it is possible that it will be developed for aircraft, especially if some means of driving a turbine by petrol could be devised." At first he was thinking of a turboprop, but by 1930 he had realized that an airplane could be propelled by the fast-moving gases of the turbine exhaust alone, and that thrust obtained in that way had advantages, for high speed flight, over thrust obtained by means of a propeller. In that year Whittle took out a patent on an engine design consisting of an air compressor driven by a gas turbine, with a gas-generating burner between them. This was, in general outline, a complete jet engine. Mechanically, it had much in common with the turbosupercharger, which had been developed for aircraft use during World War I, a principal difference being that the heat source for the turbosupercharger - what we now call a turbocharger - is external. | <urn:uuid:d34b6637-713b-4fc1-a431-ef52a7b2cdd5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.flyingmag.com/brotherhood-yellow-pads/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00486.warc.gz | en | 0.98955 | 259 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.334279328584... | 1 | Whittle had begun thinking about jet engines in 1928, when he wrote a college thesis on future developments in aviation. He was prescient, considering that this was the heyday of the biplane and Lindbergh had only recently crossed the Atlantic. "It seems," he wrote, "that, as the turbine is the most efficient prime mover known, it is possible that it will be developed for aircraft, especially if some means of driving a turbine by petrol could be devised." At first he was thinking of a turboprop, but by 1930 he had realized that an airplane could be propelled by the fast-moving gases of the turbine exhaust alone, and that thrust obtained in that way had advantages, for high speed flight, over thrust obtained by means of a propeller. In that year Whittle took out a patent on an engine design consisting of an air compressor driven by a gas turbine, with a gas-generating burner between them. This was, in general outline, a complete jet engine. Mechanically, it had much in common with the turbosupercharger, which had been developed for aircraft use during World War I, a principal difference being that the heat source for the turbosupercharger - what we now call a turbocharger - is external. | 261 | ENGLISH | 1 |
AN OUTSIDER is someone others don’t accept as part of their group. He or she may be of a different skin color or nationality or have a different way of speaking or doing things. Do you ever feel like an outsider?—*
Let’s talk about a man who felt like one. His name was Mephibosheth. Let’s learn who he was and why he felt the way he did. If you ever feel like an outsider, you can learn a lot from Mephibosheth.
Mephibosheth was the son of Jonathan, David’s dear friend. Before Jonathan died in war, he said to David: ‘Be good to my children.’ David became king. Years later he remembered Jonathan’s words, and Mephibosheth was still alive. When he was little, he had a bad accident. He could hardly walk for the rest of his life. Can you see why he might have felt like an outsider?—
David wanted to be good to Jonathan’s son. So David arranged for Mephibosheth to have a home near his in Jerusalem, and a place was kept for him at David’s dining table. The man Ziba, along with his sons and servants, was given to Mephibosheth to be his servant. David truly honored Jonathan’s son! Do you know what happened then?—
David came to have troubles in his home. Absalom, one of David’s sons, turned against him and tried to be king. David had to run for his life. Mephibosheth wanted to go with David when many others went. These friends of David knew that he was the rightful king. But Mephibosheth could not go because he could hardly walk.
Then Ziba told David that Mephibosheth had stayed behind because he really wanted to be king. David believed that lie! So he gave Ziba all of Mephibosheth’s property. Soon David won the war against Absalom and came back to Jerusalem. Now David heard Mephibosheth’s side of the story. David decided that Mephibosheth and Ziba should share the property. What do you think Mephibosheth did?—
He did not complain that David’s decision was unfair. Mephibosheth knew that the king needed peace so that he could do his job well. So he said that Ziba could keep all the property. What really mattered to Mephibosheth was that Jehovah’s servant David was back in Jerusalem as king.
Mephibosheth suffered a lot. He often felt like an outsider. But Jehovah loved him and took care of him. What can we learn from this?— Even when we do what is right, some may tell lies about us. Jesus said: “If the world hates you, you know that it has hated me before it hated you.” People even killed Jesus! We can be sure that if we do what is right, the true God, Jehovah, will love us—and his Son, Jesus, will too.
If you are reading with a child, the dash provides a reminder to pause and encourage the child to express himself. | <urn:uuid:7fec07fd-66ca-4178-a7f0-3242c7771442> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2011412 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.990158 | 704 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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Let’s talk about a man who felt like one. His name was Mephibosheth. Let’s learn who he was and why he felt the way he did. If you ever feel like an outsider, you can learn a lot from Mephibosheth.
Mephibosheth was the son of Jonathan, David’s dear friend. Before Jonathan died in war, he said to David: ‘Be good to my children.’ David became king. Years later he remembered Jonathan’s words, and Mephibosheth was still alive. When he was little, he had a bad accident. He could hardly walk for the rest of his life. Can you see why he might have felt like an outsider?—
David wanted to be good to Jonathan’s son. So David arranged for Mephibosheth to have a home near his in Jerusalem, and a place was kept for him at David’s dining table. The man Ziba, along with his sons and servants, was given to Mephibosheth to be his servant. David truly honored Jonathan’s son! Do you know what happened then?—
David came to have troubles in his home. Absalom, one of David’s sons, turned against him and tried to be king. David had to run for his life. Mephibosheth wanted to go with David when many others went. These friends of David knew that he was the rightful king. But Mephibosheth could not go because he could hardly walk.
Then Ziba told David that Mephibosheth had stayed behind because he really wanted to be king. David believed that lie! So he gave Ziba all of Mephibosheth’s property. Soon David won the war against Absalom and came back to Jerusalem. Now David heard Mephibosheth’s side of the story. David decided that Mephibosheth and Ziba should share the property. What do you think Mephibosheth did?—
He did not complain that David’s decision was unfair. Mephibosheth knew that the king needed peace so that he could do his job well. So he said that Ziba could keep all the property. What really mattered to Mephibosheth was that Jehovah’s servant David was back in Jerusalem as king.
Mephibosheth suffered a lot. He often felt like an outsider. But Jehovah loved him and took care of him. What can we learn from this?— Even when we do what is right, some may tell lies about us. Jesus said: “If the world hates you, you know that it has hated me before it hated you.” People even killed Jesus! We can be sure that if we do what is right, the true God, Jehovah, will love us—and his Son, Jesus, will too.
If you are reading with a child, the dash provides a reminder to pause and encourage the child to express himself. | 648 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Argentine seaman and governor, was born in Mendoza on 4 November1854 and entered the Argentine Navy in 1873. As a consequence, he made several voyages to Patagonia accompanying Luis PIEDRA BUENA. With Francisco P Moreno he went on an important expedition which discovered the source of the river Santa Cruz among other topographical features in the zone. When, in 1884, the region south of Buenos Aires Province was declared by the Argentine Government to be 'National Territories' and duly subdivided into the various provinces, he was appointed the first governor of Santa Cruz.
Moyano's connection with the Falkland Islands came with a visit he made there in 1885. The Argentine Government had requested him to approach the Islanders, offering them the possibility of renting large tracts of land on the mainland to extend their farming activities. The aim was to increase the population of Patagonia with more Europeans at a time when people living further north in Argentina were reluctant to settle in the south. Argentine relations with Chile were unfriendly at this time, so the solution was to approach the people of the Islands to see if they were interested in the project.
Moyano travelled to the Islands in January 1885 on the mail steamer from Punta Arenas and left on 11 March. Apart from buying 600 sheep, he managed to convince 15 shepherds formerly from Scotland, some 80 people with their families, to undertake the move to the Patagonian mainland. They included : William Dickie, William Douglas, Herbert Felton, William Halliday, John Hamilton, William McCall, George McGeorge, John Edward Rudd, and John Scott and their families, who all settled successfully. Governor KERR reported Moyano's visit to London and, referring to a report from the British Minister in Buenos Aires that the Argentine government proposed to revive its claim to the Islands, added: 'I am of the opinion that his visit was undertaken on his own responsibility and solely for the purpose which he intimated,' ie, that there was no ulterior motive.
Moyano's visit also had a romantic outcome. As Sundays in Stanley were without things to do, he spent his time sauntering around the town. On passing the cathedral, he saw, among those leaving after a service, the young Edith Turner with her uncle James J. FELTON. It was love at first sight and her family accepted his proposal that they should marry, the only condition being that Edith should wait until 1886 when she reached 18 years old. Then, Moyano sent the Villarino for her and they were married in Santa Cruz on 12 September with all pomp and ceremony. They received wedding gifts from the Patagonian Indians of ponchos and other typical items and left for their honeymoon in Buenos Aires. Afterwards they returned to Patagonia where Moyano continued to serve as provincial governor until he retired in 1905 and went to live in Buenos Aires, where he died on 7 October 1910. Ethel died in Buenos Aires in 1918. They had a son and a daughter, María Clarisa.
There is now a splendid monument to Moyano's memory in Santa Cruz.
December 2019 One additional photograph added | <urn:uuid:fa3bf761-6972-4d00-9547-6b1f3887b27f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://falklandsbiographies.org/biographies/340 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.983299 | 657 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.827220380306... | 17 | Argentine seaman and governor, was born in Mendoza on 4 November1854 and entered the Argentine Navy in 1873. As a consequence, he made several voyages to Patagonia accompanying Luis PIEDRA BUENA. With Francisco P Moreno he went on an important expedition which discovered the source of the river Santa Cruz among other topographical features in the zone. When, in 1884, the region south of Buenos Aires Province was declared by the Argentine Government to be 'National Territories' and duly subdivided into the various provinces, he was appointed the first governor of Santa Cruz.
Moyano's connection with the Falkland Islands came with a visit he made there in 1885. The Argentine Government had requested him to approach the Islanders, offering them the possibility of renting large tracts of land on the mainland to extend their farming activities. The aim was to increase the population of Patagonia with more Europeans at a time when people living further north in Argentina were reluctant to settle in the south. Argentine relations with Chile were unfriendly at this time, so the solution was to approach the people of the Islands to see if they were interested in the project.
Moyano travelled to the Islands in January 1885 on the mail steamer from Punta Arenas and left on 11 March. Apart from buying 600 sheep, he managed to convince 15 shepherds formerly from Scotland, some 80 people with their families, to undertake the move to the Patagonian mainland. They included : William Dickie, William Douglas, Herbert Felton, William Halliday, John Hamilton, William McCall, George McGeorge, John Edward Rudd, and John Scott and their families, who all settled successfully. Governor KERR reported Moyano's visit to London and, referring to a report from the British Minister in Buenos Aires that the Argentine government proposed to revive its claim to the Islands, added: 'I am of the opinion that his visit was undertaken on his own responsibility and solely for the purpose which he intimated,' ie, that there was no ulterior motive.
Moyano's visit also had a romantic outcome. As Sundays in Stanley were without things to do, he spent his time sauntering around the town. On passing the cathedral, he saw, among those leaving after a service, the young Edith Turner with her uncle James J. FELTON. It was love at first sight and her family accepted his proposal that they should marry, the only condition being that Edith should wait until 1886 when she reached 18 years old. Then, Moyano sent the Villarino for her and they were married in Santa Cruz on 12 September with all pomp and ceremony. They received wedding gifts from the Patagonian Indians of ponchos and other typical items and left for their honeymoon in Buenos Aires. Afterwards they returned to Patagonia where Moyano continued to serve as provincial governor until he retired in 1905 and went to live in Buenos Aires, where he died on 7 October 1910. Ethel died in Buenos Aires in 1918. They had a son and a daughter, María Clarisa.
There is now a splendid monument to Moyano's memory in Santa Cruz.
December 2019 One additional photograph added | 694 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George II (Greek: Γεώργιος Βʹ, Βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἑλλήνων, Geórgios Βʹ, Vasiléfs ton Ellínon) reigned as King of Greece from 1922 to 1924 and from 1935 to 1947.
After a coup deposed King Constantine during the First World War, Crown Prince George, by then a Major, followed his father into exile in 1917. George's younger brother, Alexander, was installed as king by prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos, an avowed Republican.
When Alexander I died following an infection from a monkey bite in 1920, Venizelos was voted out of office, and a plebiscite restored Constantine to the throne. Crown Prince George served as a colonel, and later a major general in the war against Turkey. During this time he married his second cousin, on 27 February 1921 in Bucharest, Princess Elisabeth of Romania, daughter of King Ferdinand and Queen Marie of Romania. When the Turks defeated Greece at the Battle of Dumlupınar, the military forced the abdication of Constantine, and George succeeded to the Greek throne on 27 September 1922.
Following a failed royalist coup in October 1923, the Revolutionary Committee asked him to depart Greece while the National Assembly considered the question of the future form of government. He complied and, although he refused to abdicate, he left on 19 December 1923 for exile in his wife's home nation of Romania. When a republic was proclaimed on 25 March 1924, he was officially deposed and stripped of his Greek nationality, and his property was confiscated.
In Greece between 1924 and 1935 there were 23 changes of government, a dictatorship, and 13 coups. General Georgios Kondylis, a former Venizelist who had suddenly decided to throw in his lot with the monarchist forces, overthrew the government in October 1935 and appointed himself Prime Minister. He then arranged a plebiscite both to approve his government and to bring an end to the republic. On 3 November 1935, almost 98% of the reported votes supported restoration of the monarchy. George returned to Greek soil on November 25.
He died of arteriosclerosis on 1 April 1947, after he was discovered unconscious in his room at the Royal Palace in Athens.
King George II was styled "Βασιλεύς τῶν Ἑλλήνων" (King of the Hellenes). | <urn:uuid:ce7af568-91f6-4c92-a9da-14cf473c3489> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://onlinecoin.club/Info/Reigns/Greece/King_George_II_second_reign/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00193.warc.gz | en | 0.981507 | 535 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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After a coup deposed King Constantine during the First World War, Crown Prince George, by then a Major, followed his father into exile in 1917. George's younger brother, Alexander, was installed as king by prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos, an avowed Republican.
When Alexander I died following an infection from a monkey bite in 1920, Venizelos was voted out of office, and a plebiscite restored Constantine to the throne. Crown Prince George served as a colonel, and later a major general in the war against Turkey. During this time he married his second cousin, on 27 February 1921 in Bucharest, Princess Elisabeth of Romania, daughter of King Ferdinand and Queen Marie of Romania. When the Turks defeated Greece at the Battle of Dumlupınar, the military forced the abdication of Constantine, and George succeeded to the Greek throne on 27 September 1922.
Following a failed royalist coup in October 1923, the Revolutionary Committee asked him to depart Greece while the National Assembly considered the question of the future form of government. He complied and, although he refused to abdicate, he left on 19 December 1923 for exile in his wife's home nation of Romania. When a republic was proclaimed on 25 March 1924, he was officially deposed and stripped of his Greek nationality, and his property was confiscated.
In Greece between 1924 and 1935 there were 23 changes of government, a dictatorship, and 13 coups. General Georgios Kondylis, a former Venizelist who had suddenly decided to throw in his lot with the monarchist forces, overthrew the government in October 1935 and appointed himself Prime Minister. He then arranged a plebiscite both to approve his government and to bring an end to the republic. On 3 November 1935, almost 98% of the reported votes supported restoration of the monarchy. George returned to Greek soil on November 25.
He died of arteriosclerosis on 1 April 1947, after he was discovered unconscious in his room at the Royal Palace in Athens.
King George II was styled "Βασιλεύς τῶν Ἑλλήνων" (King of the Hellenes). | 603 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As we work through our measurement chapter, students are learning to be more precise by watching out for gaps and not overlapping. These are skills that will sharpen with time and exposure. Allowing students to work together to tackle how they will measure and what they will measure with, also provides invaluable skills.
When students are given the opportunity to work together on tasks, they are forced to use mathematical language and reasoning skills to explain their thinking with their partner/group.
In the pictures below students were placed in groups to measure different paths. They had to agree as a group which tool they would use (paper clips, tiles, straws, string or paint stirrers). As they traveled from path to path, their measurements became more precise because they collaborated and discussed their strategies for measuring. The lesson to be learned here is that with time, collaboration and the teacher stepping to the side, students can figure out everything we want them to. Know what the key ideas allow the learning to happen! | <urn:uuid:284e0080-dd8c-45e9-b794-493419f9eaec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mathodology.com/category/teacher-forum/subject-teacher-blog/measurement-subject-teacher-blog/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.981682 | 199 | 4.3125 | 4 | [
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0.51418787240982... | 4 | As we work through our measurement chapter, students are learning to be more precise by watching out for gaps and not overlapping. These are skills that will sharpen with time and exposure. Allowing students to work together to tackle how they will measure and what they will measure with, also provides invaluable skills.
When students are given the opportunity to work together on tasks, they are forced to use mathematical language and reasoning skills to explain their thinking with their partner/group.
In the pictures below students were placed in groups to measure different paths. They had to agree as a group which tool they would use (paper clips, tiles, straws, string or paint stirrers). As they traveled from path to path, their measurements became more precise because they collaborated and discussed their strategies for measuring. The lesson to be learned here is that with time, collaboration and the teacher stepping to the side, students can figure out everything we want them to. Know what the key ideas allow the learning to happen! | 196 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Early Hamilton County History
When New York State established a great reservation larger than Connecticut, known as Adirondack Park, Hamilton became the center and only county wholly enclosed by its boundaries. The purchase by the State of land within the county did not encourage any increase in the permanent population, for with more than half owned by New York, and eighty per cent of the remaining territory in private parks or controlled by lumber companies there was but a small fraction left open to private ownership. Hamilton, with an area of 1,700 square miles, had only a population of 3,970 in 1920; this, however, is greatly added to by the thousands who summer in this wonder camp ground of a nation.
Hamilton seems always to have been, until recent years, a terra incognita, a place where few ever had lived. Even the Indians, the “famed Iroquois,” had no permanent settlements here. As late as 1771 a map of Governor Tryon shows the region as belonging to the Mohawks, but so little had it been explored, not one lake showed in this territory so filled with them. It then was a part of Albany County. But the next year saw the division of a part of this great area into Charlotte and Tryon counties. After the Revolution, the name Tryon was so hated that in 1784 this section was called Montgomery in honor of the hero who died before the walls of Quebec. From this county, Hamilton was set off provisionally, April I2, 1816, and given a permanent organization in 1836
The most important historical incident of the colonial period was the “Totten and Crossfield Purchase” since this covered the greater part of the county. This was really the Jessup purchase, as the two whose names are connected with it, and are placed on most of the deeds since issued, were dummies for Edward and Ebenezer Jessup. Before the ending of the Revolution came an interest in the “unknown north.” The Jessup brothers had great influence with Sir William Johnson, Governor Dunmore and General Tryon. They wanted to buy all the land they could get above Albany. Having already made application for 40,000 acres, it was thought best to buy indirectly in the matter of purchasing some 1,150,000 more acres of the mountain section.
On June 7, 1771, to their agents, Tolton and Crossfield, was sold this great tract, and in the next year the Indians met in solemn conclave and also conveyed the land. For this the tribes received about three pence an acre, or a total of 1,135. Theoretically, the land was sold, but before being sealed and the bargain concluded, some $40,000 had to be turned over to King George III. Most of the modern conveyances of land are traced back to this original grant.
After two hundred years of surmise Hamilton began to be known and appreciated. Possibly Champlain passed through this section in 1615, shortly after Hudson anchored the “Half Moon” in the river that bears his name, and before there was a colony at Plymouth Rock. But it was not, however, until after the Civil War that any large number came to settle in this land of mountains and lakes. Timber was cut and the famed Raquette River, the second longest in the State, used to convey it to market. Great areas of land sold for small sums. Dr. Brandreth, whose English pill made him a fortune, bought 26,000 acres for $3,000 the timber from which, in 1900, was doing its best to make another fortune for his son, Dr. William Brandreth. The Whitney Preserve is of even vastly greater acreage.
It is as a summer resort and camping ground that Hamilton is now known best. Its mountains are not of the highest of the Adirondack peaks, but its lakes are not surpassed. In 1899 the first railroad was run through the extreme northwest corner of the county, and there is a branch of this same system reaching to Raquette Lake. Since 1900 good highways have been built to the more popular places. But it is the seclusion of most of the region which adds to its attractiveness. It is still “The Woods”; it remains “The Wilderness” of the early days. | <urn:uuid:21da518e-3e19-4723-81c7-e27038b0657f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://purehistory.org/early-hamilton-county-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00517.warc.gz | en | 0.983651 | 892 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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When New York State established a great reservation larger than Connecticut, known as Adirondack Park, Hamilton became the center and only county wholly enclosed by its boundaries. The purchase by the State of land within the county did not encourage any increase in the permanent population, for with more than half owned by New York, and eighty per cent of the remaining territory in private parks or controlled by lumber companies there was but a small fraction left open to private ownership. Hamilton, with an area of 1,700 square miles, had only a population of 3,970 in 1920; this, however, is greatly added to by the thousands who summer in this wonder camp ground of a nation.
Hamilton seems always to have been, until recent years, a terra incognita, a place where few ever had lived. Even the Indians, the “famed Iroquois,” had no permanent settlements here. As late as 1771 a map of Governor Tryon shows the region as belonging to the Mohawks, but so little had it been explored, not one lake showed in this territory so filled with them. It then was a part of Albany County. But the next year saw the division of a part of this great area into Charlotte and Tryon counties. After the Revolution, the name Tryon was so hated that in 1784 this section was called Montgomery in honor of the hero who died before the walls of Quebec. From this county, Hamilton was set off provisionally, April I2, 1816, and given a permanent organization in 1836
The most important historical incident of the colonial period was the “Totten and Crossfield Purchase” since this covered the greater part of the county. This was really the Jessup purchase, as the two whose names are connected with it, and are placed on most of the deeds since issued, were dummies for Edward and Ebenezer Jessup. Before the ending of the Revolution came an interest in the “unknown north.” The Jessup brothers had great influence with Sir William Johnson, Governor Dunmore and General Tryon. They wanted to buy all the land they could get above Albany. Having already made application for 40,000 acres, it was thought best to buy indirectly in the matter of purchasing some 1,150,000 more acres of the mountain section.
On June 7, 1771, to their agents, Tolton and Crossfield, was sold this great tract, and in the next year the Indians met in solemn conclave and also conveyed the land. For this the tribes received about three pence an acre, or a total of 1,135. Theoretically, the land was sold, but before being sealed and the bargain concluded, some $40,000 had to be turned over to King George III. Most of the modern conveyances of land are traced back to this original grant.
After two hundred years of surmise Hamilton began to be known and appreciated. Possibly Champlain passed through this section in 1615, shortly after Hudson anchored the “Half Moon” in the river that bears his name, and before there was a colony at Plymouth Rock. But it was not, however, until after the Civil War that any large number came to settle in this land of mountains and lakes. Timber was cut and the famed Raquette River, the second longest in the State, used to convey it to market. Great areas of land sold for small sums. Dr. Brandreth, whose English pill made him a fortune, bought 26,000 acres for $3,000 the timber from which, in 1900, was doing its best to make another fortune for his son, Dr. William Brandreth. The Whitney Preserve is of even vastly greater acreage.
It is as a summer resort and camping ground that Hamilton is now known best. Its mountains are not of the highest of the Adirondack peaks, but its lakes are not surpassed. In 1899 the first railroad was run through the extreme northwest corner of the county, and there is a branch of this same system reaching to Raquette Lake. Since 1900 good highways have been built to the more popular places. But it is the seclusion of most of the region which adds to its attractiveness. It is still “The Woods”; it remains “The Wilderness” of the early days. | 933 | ENGLISH | 1 |
THESE OAKplanks, once part of the portico of a property just outside Imperial Rome, travelled a long way before the builders got their hands on them. The science of dating trees by looking at their growth rings is now so good that Mauro Bernabei of Italy’s National Research Council and his colleagues were able to say, in a paper just published in PLOS One, where the trees that provided the planks had grown, and when they were cut. Rings’ thicknesses are affected by the local climate. Comparison with samples of known origin showed that the trees grew in what is now eastern France, and were felled between 40 and 60AD. That speaks of a sophisticated timber trade, which floated the logs down the Saône and Rhône to the Mediterranean, and thence to the Eternal City.
This article appeared in the Science and technology section of the print edition under the headline "Some planks from ancient Rome started life in eastern France" | <urn:uuid:c2dacad5-3bf3-46b5-9569-80db69dfd379> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2019/12/05/some-planks-from-ancient-rome-started-life-in-eastern-france | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00383.warc.gz | en | 0.980418 | 200 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.45316928... | 1 | THESE OAKplanks, once part of the portico of a property just outside Imperial Rome, travelled a long way before the builders got their hands on them. The science of dating trees by looking at their growth rings is now so good that Mauro Bernabei of Italy’s National Research Council and his colleagues were able to say, in a paper just published in PLOS One, where the trees that provided the planks had grown, and when they were cut. Rings’ thicknesses are affected by the local climate. Comparison with samples of known origin showed that the trees grew in what is now eastern France, and were felled between 40 and 60AD. That speaks of a sophisticated timber trade, which floated the logs down the Saône and Rhône to the Mediterranean, and thence to the Eternal City.
This article appeared in the Science and technology section of the print edition under the headline "Some planks from ancient Rome started life in eastern France" | 200 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Bible Story
While the Bible tells the story of mankind from the beginning, it is not written as a history book per se. It is the history of man as it relates to man’s greatest problem—sin—and God’s solution to that problem. Often we are acquainted with a few Bible stories but have no idea how they fit into the “big picture.” An overview of Bible history may be helpful.
The Bible story begins with man, God’s crowning act of creation, in fellowship with Him. That harmony, however, was broken by sin. God then began to unfold His plan for salvation. He chose Abraham, and from his descendants made a nation, Israel, through which the solution to sin would come.
Early on, the Israelites were enslaved in Egypt. God delivered them through Moses and gave them His law at Mt. Sinai. Following a forty-year delay due to unfaithfulness, Joshua led them in conquest of the land of Canaan, their promised land.
For a time, Israel was ruled by judges. When they grew dissatisfied with that arrangement, God gave them kings: first Saul, then David. God promised David that He would continue David’s dynasty as long as his sons were faithful. That began with Solomon, but after his reign many rebelled, so the nation was divided into Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Israel immediately went into idolatry, and two centuries later God delivered them into Assyrian captivity. Judah also had problems with idolatry, though they did have several kings who were faithful to God. Ultimately, they, too, abandoned God and were taken captive to Babylon.
About seventy years later, the Medo-Persians defeated the Babylonians, opening the door for God’s people to return to Canaan. Some did, but others dispersed to various parts of the world.
For nearly 400 years, the Bible story falls silent. Then John the Baptizer came on the scene, announcing the coming of the Christ [Messiah], the long-awaited Savior. Jesus is the Christ. For three years, He taught the way of God, but He was rejected by Israel’s leaders. In the end, they delivered Him to the Romans to be crucified. Little did they realize that His death was God’s plan. On the third day, Jesus rose from the dead, and forty days later He ascended back to heaven to reign as king.
Ten days later, Jesus’ apostles began to preach the gospel, the good news of salvation in Jesus. Some violently opposed it. Others excitedly received it and became Jesus’ disciples. Twenty centuries later, that same gospel, recorded in the New Testament, produces the same saving outcome for those who believe and obey it. | <urn:uuid:f6d14408-d717-438f-92bd-12418513ac50> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://vikingdrivechurchofchrist.com/articles/2020/01/12/the-bible-story | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00317.warc.gz | en | 0.984032 | 575 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.09088348597288... | 2 | The Bible Story
While the Bible tells the story of mankind from the beginning, it is not written as a history book per se. It is the history of man as it relates to man’s greatest problem—sin—and God’s solution to that problem. Often we are acquainted with a few Bible stories but have no idea how they fit into the “big picture.” An overview of Bible history may be helpful.
The Bible story begins with man, God’s crowning act of creation, in fellowship with Him. That harmony, however, was broken by sin. God then began to unfold His plan for salvation. He chose Abraham, and from his descendants made a nation, Israel, through which the solution to sin would come.
Early on, the Israelites were enslaved in Egypt. God delivered them through Moses and gave them His law at Mt. Sinai. Following a forty-year delay due to unfaithfulness, Joshua led them in conquest of the land of Canaan, their promised land.
For a time, Israel was ruled by judges. When they grew dissatisfied with that arrangement, God gave them kings: first Saul, then David. God promised David that He would continue David’s dynasty as long as his sons were faithful. That began with Solomon, but after his reign many rebelled, so the nation was divided into Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Israel immediately went into idolatry, and two centuries later God delivered them into Assyrian captivity. Judah also had problems with idolatry, though they did have several kings who were faithful to God. Ultimately, they, too, abandoned God and were taken captive to Babylon.
About seventy years later, the Medo-Persians defeated the Babylonians, opening the door for God’s people to return to Canaan. Some did, but others dispersed to various parts of the world.
For nearly 400 years, the Bible story falls silent. Then John the Baptizer came on the scene, announcing the coming of the Christ [Messiah], the long-awaited Savior. Jesus is the Christ. For three years, He taught the way of God, but He was rejected by Israel’s leaders. In the end, they delivered Him to the Romans to be crucified. Little did they realize that His death was God’s plan. On the third day, Jesus rose from the dead, and forty days later He ascended back to heaven to reign as king.
Ten days later, Jesus’ apostles began to preach the gospel, the good news of salvation in Jesus. Some violently opposed it. Others excitedly received it and became Jesus’ disciples. Twenty centuries later, that same gospel, recorded in the New Testament, produces the same saving outcome for those who believe and obey it. | 557 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The year old city of Chiang Mai was built in to be the capital city of the Lanna Kingdom the kingdom of a million rice fields by its ruler King Mengrai. The last capital before Chiang Mai was Wiang Kum Kam which was established in and situated some 5klms south-east of present day Chiang Mai. Wiang Kum Kam was destroyed by flooding from the Ping River around It then lay hidden for nearly years and was only rediscovered in
Shwedagon Pagoda in Rangoon, the oldest and holiest Buddhist shrine in Burma. The line of kings that followed him constructed thousands of pagodas, and also monasteries, libraries and colleges.
Their harnessing of water resources led to a Short history of myanmar in rice production. Advert However, the Buddhist kingdom was isolated from its geographical neighbours who followed other religions.
The growing influence of the monkhood over resources prompted a decline, inviting Mongol and Tartar invasions. The succeeding centuries would be marked by divisions, as various ruling dynasties rose and fell, and territories under their control underwent constant permutation.
Bayinnaung was an expansionist ruler who waged relentless war in order to gain increasingly larger areas of territory. Upon his death in at 66 years of age his rule stretched over almost all Short history of myanmar Burma, Thailand and Laos.
But such dominion, won at great cost, was difficult to hold on to, and soon after his death sections of his empire began to fall away. Whereas the first Anglo-Burmese War was fought to regain territory that Burma had wrested away from British India, by the time of the third war inwhich resulted in the total annexation of Burma, other factors were at play.
The British viewed Burma not so much as land that they definitely needed to control, but as a market they needed to capture and as a backdoor to lucrative trade with China. Indians were brought in to fill civil-service jobs and the business interests of Indians and Chinese in Burma were encouraged, which bred resentment in many Burmese people.
Here, as elsewhere, divide-and-rule was characteristic of British governance, with certain ethnic groups being favoured over others, creating clashes of loyalties. The new masters Protests by university students in were the first signs of renewed resistance against British rule.
Strikes and anti-tax protests followed, with Buddhist monks playing a prominent role and even leading armed rebellion. Rangoon University was a hotbed of radicalism and a young law student, Aung San, gained increasing prominence in the movement for national autonomy.
He and fellow student Nu a later Prime Minister of Burma joined the thakin movement. Now it signified that Burmese citizens wanted to be masters of their own destiny.
For some nationalists the War presented an opportunity to gain concessions towards autonomy in return for Burmese support in the hostilities, but the thakins rejected any participation in the war.
Aung San co-founded the Communist Party of Burma.
He sought contact with Chinese communists, but the Japanese authorities got to him first, promising military training and support for a national uprising. Aung San and 29 other young men, known as the Thirty Comrades, left for Hainan Island in China which was under Japanese occupation for the promised training.
The deal was that the Japanese would help Burma rid itself of the British colonialists and grant independence.
But with the Japanese invasion of Burma in came the growing realization that one set of colonialists had been exchanged for another. Aung San then quickly changed sides and negotiated with the British to drive out the Japanese.
The Japanese were successfully expelled from Burma in May However, many parts of the country lay in ruins, devastated by warfare. Freedom — and a leader lost A military administration resumed in Burma under the British and there were calls to prosecute Aung San for his involvement in a murder during military operations in There were already dissatisfied splinter groups of the AFPL which had either gone underground or into opposition.
On 19 Julyat the instigation of an opposition politician, Aung San and several members of his cabinet were gunned down. Anti-British sentiment was so strong that Burma decided not to join the British Commonwealth, unlike other colonies that had also gained independence.
In the international arena Nu sought co-operation while steering his country on a non-aligned course. Despite the civil war raging in parts of the country, the s was a progressive decade for Burma, with the economy beginning to recover.
Elections in brought U Nu back as Prime Minister but the days of democracy were numbered.
Human rights abuses intensified and all dissent was crushed. Early in his career Ne Win had failed in business due to competition from Indian traders; now he purged the country of people of Indian extraction who had formed a significant part of its commercial and administrative backbone.
All major industry was nationalized. Insurgency continued and was answered by state force.history. Focus Asia was established in June of , with operations in Vietnam. In , operations were extended to Cambodia and Laos and in to Myanmar. Myanmar is mostly likely the last untouched destinations in Asia.
You are going to be lost in the history where people connects with each others in the tradditional way - meeting in person more than Internet.
A Short History of Myanmar (Burma) You are here: Countries / Myanmar (Burma) Myanmar history is one of the most complex histories in Asia.
Best recollection as claimed in all Myanmar history books is that the first civilization was in BC. These are the Mon, which are not original locals of the country but migrants from nearby places that.
Myanmar (English pronunciation below; Burmese:), officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a country in Southeast attheheels.comr is bordered by India and Bangladesh to its west, Thailand and Laos to its east and China to its north and northeast.
To its south, about one third of Myanmar's total perimeter of 5, km (3, mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline of. This booklet is intended to offer a short history of Buddhism in Myanmar from its origins through the country's loss of independence to Great Britain in the late nineteenth century.
I have not dealt with more recent history as this has already been well documented. Rohingya refugees fled violence in Myanmar at a staggering rate in – and the numbers keep growing.
At the peak of the crisis, thousands were crossing into Bangladesh daily. | <urn:uuid:e2adea41-c5de-4ce6-a97a-b85f1cd38432> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dyseqoligunojug.attheheels.com/short-history-of-myanmar-49188om.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.981427 | 1,326 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.56342780590057... | 1 | The year old city of Chiang Mai was built in to be the capital city of the Lanna Kingdom the kingdom of a million rice fields by its ruler King Mengrai. The last capital before Chiang Mai was Wiang Kum Kam which was established in and situated some 5klms south-east of present day Chiang Mai. Wiang Kum Kam was destroyed by flooding from the Ping River around It then lay hidden for nearly years and was only rediscovered in
Shwedagon Pagoda in Rangoon, the oldest and holiest Buddhist shrine in Burma. The line of kings that followed him constructed thousands of pagodas, and also monasteries, libraries and colleges.
Their harnessing of water resources led to a Short history of myanmar in rice production. Advert However, the Buddhist kingdom was isolated from its geographical neighbours who followed other religions.
The growing influence of the monkhood over resources prompted a decline, inviting Mongol and Tartar invasions. The succeeding centuries would be marked by divisions, as various ruling dynasties rose and fell, and territories under their control underwent constant permutation.
Bayinnaung was an expansionist ruler who waged relentless war in order to gain increasingly larger areas of territory. Upon his death in at 66 years of age his rule stretched over almost all Short history of myanmar Burma, Thailand and Laos.
But such dominion, won at great cost, was difficult to hold on to, and soon after his death sections of his empire began to fall away. Whereas the first Anglo-Burmese War was fought to regain territory that Burma had wrested away from British India, by the time of the third war inwhich resulted in the total annexation of Burma, other factors were at play.
The British viewed Burma not so much as land that they definitely needed to control, but as a market they needed to capture and as a backdoor to lucrative trade with China. Indians were brought in to fill civil-service jobs and the business interests of Indians and Chinese in Burma were encouraged, which bred resentment in many Burmese people.
Here, as elsewhere, divide-and-rule was characteristic of British governance, with certain ethnic groups being favoured over others, creating clashes of loyalties. The new masters Protests by university students in were the first signs of renewed resistance against British rule.
Strikes and anti-tax protests followed, with Buddhist monks playing a prominent role and even leading armed rebellion. Rangoon University was a hotbed of radicalism and a young law student, Aung San, gained increasing prominence in the movement for national autonomy.
He and fellow student Nu a later Prime Minister of Burma joined the thakin movement. Now it signified that Burmese citizens wanted to be masters of their own destiny.
For some nationalists the War presented an opportunity to gain concessions towards autonomy in return for Burmese support in the hostilities, but the thakins rejected any participation in the war.
Aung San co-founded the Communist Party of Burma.
He sought contact with Chinese communists, but the Japanese authorities got to him first, promising military training and support for a national uprising. Aung San and 29 other young men, known as the Thirty Comrades, left for Hainan Island in China which was under Japanese occupation for the promised training.
The deal was that the Japanese would help Burma rid itself of the British colonialists and grant independence.
But with the Japanese invasion of Burma in came the growing realization that one set of colonialists had been exchanged for another. Aung San then quickly changed sides and negotiated with the British to drive out the Japanese.
The Japanese were successfully expelled from Burma in May However, many parts of the country lay in ruins, devastated by warfare. Freedom — and a leader lost A military administration resumed in Burma under the British and there were calls to prosecute Aung San for his involvement in a murder during military operations in There were already dissatisfied splinter groups of the AFPL which had either gone underground or into opposition.
On 19 Julyat the instigation of an opposition politician, Aung San and several members of his cabinet were gunned down. Anti-British sentiment was so strong that Burma decided not to join the British Commonwealth, unlike other colonies that had also gained independence.
In the international arena Nu sought co-operation while steering his country on a non-aligned course. Despite the civil war raging in parts of the country, the s was a progressive decade for Burma, with the economy beginning to recover.
Elections in brought U Nu back as Prime Minister but the days of democracy were numbered.
Human rights abuses intensified and all dissent was crushed. Early in his career Ne Win had failed in business due to competition from Indian traders; now he purged the country of people of Indian extraction who had formed a significant part of its commercial and administrative backbone.
All major industry was nationalized. Insurgency continued and was answered by state force.history. Focus Asia was established in June of , with operations in Vietnam. In , operations were extended to Cambodia and Laos and in to Myanmar. Myanmar is mostly likely the last untouched destinations in Asia.
You are going to be lost in the history where people connects with each others in the tradditional way - meeting in person more than Internet.
A Short History of Myanmar (Burma) You are here: Countries / Myanmar (Burma) Myanmar history is one of the most complex histories in Asia.
Best recollection as claimed in all Myanmar history books is that the first civilization was in BC. These are the Mon, which are not original locals of the country but migrants from nearby places that.
Myanmar (English pronunciation below; Burmese:), officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a country in Southeast attheheels.comr is bordered by India and Bangladesh to its west, Thailand and Laos to its east and China to its north and northeast.
To its south, about one third of Myanmar's total perimeter of 5, km (3, mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline of. This booklet is intended to offer a short history of Buddhism in Myanmar from its origins through the country's loss of independence to Great Britain in the late nineteenth century.
I have not dealt with more recent history as this has already been well documented. Rohingya refugees fled violence in Myanmar at a staggering rate in – and the numbers keep growing.
At the peak of the crisis, thousands were crossing into Bangladesh daily. | 1,302 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During our Geography Unit we have been learning all about the U.K and the different countries that make up the United Kingdom. We have worked really hard on learning the capital cities on each country in the U.K and Mrs Woods keeps testing us to make sure we remember. In our Geography lessons we have recorded facts about each country leading up to us writing our own U.K fact file.
For our artwork we looked at the work of Picasso and his famous series of self portraits. We looked the different styles he has used in the portraits ranging from when he was aged 21-80. We produced our own self portrait in the style of Picasso. Mrs Woods was so impressed with our drawing skills she made a display of our work which looks wonderful in the corridor.
For our Design and Technology work we learnt about joining and using templates so we decided to make puppets. We studied different puppets and picked out or favourite type of puppet. Next we designed our own character and we used our art skills to produce a bright, colourful, eye catching design.
Once we had decided what type of puppet we were making we had to decide how to join the front and back of the puppet. We used stapling, gluing, sellotaping and sewing to join materials and most of us decided that we were going to sew our puppets together. Mrs Woods and Mrs Fulton showed us how to do running stitch- it was really hard but we didn't give up and we were all delighted to have a working puppet. Once we had joined our puppets we decorated them and turned them into characters following our designs. They look AMAZING!!!!! | <urn:uuid:d13c03a5-bcdc-448d-b63c-55284739be43> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.eastcroftpark.co.uk/curriculum-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00207.warc.gz | en | 0.984876 | 336 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.2387467771768... | 4 | During our Geography Unit we have been learning all about the U.K and the different countries that make up the United Kingdom. We have worked really hard on learning the capital cities on each country in the U.K and Mrs Woods keeps testing us to make sure we remember. In our Geography lessons we have recorded facts about each country leading up to us writing our own U.K fact file.
For our artwork we looked at the work of Picasso and his famous series of self portraits. We looked the different styles he has used in the portraits ranging from when he was aged 21-80. We produced our own self portrait in the style of Picasso. Mrs Woods was so impressed with our drawing skills she made a display of our work which looks wonderful in the corridor.
For our Design and Technology work we learnt about joining and using templates so we decided to make puppets. We studied different puppets and picked out or favourite type of puppet. Next we designed our own character and we used our art skills to produce a bright, colourful, eye catching design.
Once we had decided what type of puppet we were making we had to decide how to join the front and back of the puppet. We used stapling, gluing, sellotaping and sewing to join materials and most of us decided that we were going to sew our puppets together. Mrs Woods and Mrs Fulton showed us how to do running stitch- it was really hard but we didn't give up and we were all delighted to have a working puppet. Once we had joined our puppets we decorated them and turned them into characters following our designs. They look AMAZING!!!!! | 327 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the lecture, Professor Plesch emphasized how important the study of perspective was to the progression of art. This almost required a scientific approach to art with some of the cutting edge ideas of the day, including the study of geometry. The philosophies surrounding art were much different than those today. Modern attitudes towards the arts see them as an expressive medium, were imitation is considered one of the least creative things. This differs greatly from how people thought about art for hundreds of years, from antiquity to the Renaissance. Here imitation and expressing the external world to the best of the artists ability were seen as the main goals to make enjoyable art, as nature was seen as one of the most perfect things. This imitation led to in depth studies of nature and the workings of the world, much like what the natural philosophers of the day were studying. I always find it interesting to see as philosophers moved towards the natural sciences, the art of the time period became more and more precise. Today, for most people, art and science are seen as opposite ends of a spectrum, but in the days of mimesis, they were almost on the same level and were sometimes using the same tools to study the same things. | <urn:uuid:8558e20d-5136-4f35-9b05-20f59f47cc4a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://web.colby.edu/humanslashnature/2015/09/25/the-art-of-imitation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00467.warc.gz | en | 0.987958 | 239 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.2261063903... | 3 | During the lecture, Professor Plesch emphasized how important the study of perspective was to the progression of art. This almost required a scientific approach to art with some of the cutting edge ideas of the day, including the study of geometry. The philosophies surrounding art were much different than those today. Modern attitudes towards the arts see them as an expressive medium, were imitation is considered one of the least creative things. This differs greatly from how people thought about art for hundreds of years, from antiquity to the Renaissance. Here imitation and expressing the external world to the best of the artists ability were seen as the main goals to make enjoyable art, as nature was seen as one of the most perfect things. This imitation led to in depth studies of nature and the workings of the world, much like what the natural philosophers of the day were studying. I always find it interesting to see as philosophers moved towards the natural sciences, the art of the time period became more and more precise. Today, for most people, art and science are seen as opposite ends of a spectrum, but in the days of mimesis, they were almost on the same level and were sometimes using the same tools to study the same things. | 242 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1809, a treaty was signed between the British North East India Company and the Sikh Kingdom, a treaty that would change the history of India forever. The Treaty of Amritsar was advantageous to the Sikh Empire, but only to an extent. From this treaty, Maharaja Ranjit Singh gained a complete freedom to take over territory on the north of the Satluj river and build a strong army.He did not only gain territory from this treaty, he also gained a lot of wealth. This treaty was not too beneficial for the sikhs, it halted the Sikh Kingdom from expanding and possibly taking over all of India. One major benefit from this agreement was that Ranjit Singh received the opportunity to gain territory. With security from the south of his kingdom, he could strengthen his power within Punjab freely.”The Rajah will never maintain in the territory occupied by him and his dependants, on the left side of the river”, is a article from the treaty. He could take over many of the territories north of the Satluj river but none from the south of the Satluj river.. He was not only given a chance to take over land but he also gained more wealth. Ranjit Singh gained a lot of wealth because of the Treaty of Amritsar. He took full advantage of the treaty and annexed many wealthy kingdoms north of the Satluj river. One such kingdom that he annexed was the prosperous Kingdom of Multan. This Kingdom was said to be the commercial center and brought him a lot of revenue. Another kingdom that was taken over by him because of the treaty was Kashmir. Kashmir was a very good source of revenue for the treasury of Ranjit Singh. All this wealth that Ranjit Singh had, he used it for the benefit of the Sikh Empire. The agreement was not all that good either, if this treaty had not been signed, maybe India may be called the Sikh Empire. The Treaty of Amritsar halted the Sikh Empire at the Satluj River. If this treaty was not signed by Ranjit Singh, today the history of India would be very different. This agreement forced Ranjit Singh to only concentrate towards Afghanistan and northern India. Ranjit Singh was fooled by the British who had a much more advantage in this agreement. The British were protected from Napoleon if he ever invaded India from the north. Although the treaty was a big mistake, it was beneficial for the Sikhs at that time. The arrangement at Amritsar was beneficial to the Sikh Empire, but only to a degree. It provided the kingdom much support, to raise a powerful army and take over land that is valuable and powerful. But if Ranjit Singh did not sign the treaty, India would have been different today. The British blindfolded Ranjit Singh and sought only the benefit for themselves. At the time, the Treaty of Amritsar was beneficial but afterward the agreement was not advantageous. We should think about decisions before we make them, and hopefully, we learn from these mistakes and next time make right decisions. | <urn:uuid:858ba8e2-a35a-4d3e-82c9-cd8d1a4cafe9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://santosforcongress.com/in-of-revenue-for-the-treasury-of-ranjit/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00475.warc.gz | en | 0.986317 | 619 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.031187150627374... | 3 | In 1809, a treaty was signed between the British North East India Company and the Sikh Kingdom, a treaty that would change the history of India forever. The Treaty of Amritsar was advantageous to the Sikh Empire, but only to an extent. From this treaty, Maharaja Ranjit Singh gained a complete freedom to take over territory on the north of the Satluj river and build a strong army.He did not only gain territory from this treaty, he also gained a lot of wealth. This treaty was not too beneficial for the sikhs, it halted the Sikh Kingdom from expanding and possibly taking over all of India. One major benefit from this agreement was that Ranjit Singh received the opportunity to gain territory. With security from the south of his kingdom, he could strengthen his power within Punjab freely.”The Rajah will never maintain in the territory occupied by him and his dependants, on the left side of the river”, is a article from the treaty. He could take over many of the territories north of the Satluj river but none from the south of the Satluj river.. He was not only given a chance to take over land but he also gained more wealth. Ranjit Singh gained a lot of wealth because of the Treaty of Amritsar. He took full advantage of the treaty and annexed many wealthy kingdoms north of the Satluj river. One such kingdom that he annexed was the prosperous Kingdom of Multan. This Kingdom was said to be the commercial center and brought him a lot of revenue. Another kingdom that was taken over by him because of the treaty was Kashmir. Kashmir was a very good source of revenue for the treasury of Ranjit Singh. All this wealth that Ranjit Singh had, he used it for the benefit of the Sikh Empire. The agreement was not all that good either, if this treaty had not been signed, maybe India may be called the Sikh Empire. The Treaty of Amritsar halted the Sikh Empire at the Satluj River. If this treaty was not signed by Ranjit Singh, today the history of India would be very different. This agreement forced Ranjit Singh to only concentrate towards Afghanistan and northern India. Ranjit Singh was fooled by the British who had a much more advantage in this agreement. The British were protected from Napoleon if he ever invaded India from the north. Although the treaty was a big mistake, it was beneficial for the Sikhs at that time. The arrangement at Amritsar was beneficial to the Sikh Empire, but only to a degree. It provided the kingdom much support, to raise a powerful army and take over land that is valuable and powerful. But if Ranjit Singh did not sign the treaty, India would have been different today. The British blindfolded Ranjit Singh and sought only the benefit for themselves. At the time, the Treaty of Amritsar was beneficial but afterward the agreement was not advantageous. We should think about decisions before we make them, and hopefully, we learn from these mistakes and next time make right decisions. | 613 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Squanto was important because he was friends with the Pilgrims. He helped the Pilgrims by leading them through forests so they could hunt. Sir Ferdinando Gorges was a slave taker. Squanto was taken by Sir Gorges for slavery in Spain, but they became friends because Sir Gorges taught Squanto English. Eventually, Squanto escaped and went to England. When he returned to New England in 1619 as pilot for an English sea captain, he escaped and discovered that his people had been destroyed by a disease.
Squanto was born in 1585 and died in 1622, because he had Indian fever and his nose started to bleed, so he bled to death. Squanto was 37 years old. He was born in Massachusetts and grew up there, too. His real name was Tisquantum. Squanto was an American Indian of the Wampanoag tribe. He was popular because he was friends with Chief Massasoit of the same tribe.
back to index page | <urn:uuid:6b135c37-04e4-4a14-88ef-20e5b5d3587d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.germantownacademy.org/academics/LS/4/sstudies/Colonial/4R/4r98/David.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.997026 | 209 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.45239049196243... | 1 | Squanto was important because he was friends with the Pilgrims. He helped the Pilgrims by leading them through forests so they could hunt. Sir Ferdinando Gorges was a slave taker. Squanto was taken by Sir Gorges for slavery in Spain, but they became friends because Sir Gorges taught Squanto English. Eventually, Squanto escaped and went to England. When he returned to New England in 1619 as pilot for an English sea captain, he escaped and discovered that his people had been destroyed by a disease.
Squanto was born in 1585 and died in 1622, because he had Indian fever and his nose started to bleed, so he bled to death. Squanto was 37 years old. He was born in Massachusetts and grew up there, too. His real name was Tisquantum. Squanto was an American Indian of the Wampanoag tribe. He was popular because he was friends with Chief Massasoit of the same tribe.
back to index page | 218 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Describe Jack as a leader in William Golding's Lord of the Flies.
Jack is the classic example of a dictator. He's determined to rule the island single-handed, and woe betide anyone brave or foolish enough to get in his way. Like all dictators he uses a mixture of fear and violence to cement his power. Jack knows that so long as the other boys fear him, they won't get any ideas about trying to knock him off his perch.
And it's not enough that the boys fear Jack; fear in general works to his advantage, as he discovers early on. The boys have got it into their heads that there's a savage beast prowling the island. It's all complete nonsense, of course, as Jack himself knows full well. But Jack also knows that so long as the boys believe that there really is such a beast lurking around every corner, then they will look to him as their leader, as he's the only one...
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 820 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:4b477dfe-7b53-4c65-b9c9-7dc74a93c02f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/1-describe-jacks-appearence-leader-tribe-2-what-338792 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00155.warc.gz | en | 0.984527 | 219 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.4320881366729736... | 1 | Describe Jack as a leader in William Golding's Lord of the Flies.
Jack is the classic example of a dictator. He's determined to rule the island single-handed, and woe betide anyone brave or foolish enough to get in his way. Like all dictators he uses a mixture of fear and violence to cement his power. Jack knows that so long as the other boys fear him, they won't get any ideas about trying to knock him off his perch.
And it's not enough that the boys fear Jack; fear in general works to his advantage, as he discovers early on. The boys have got it into their heads that there's a savage beast prowling the island. It's all complete nonsense, of course, as Jack himself knows full well. But Jack also knows that so long as the boys believe that there really is such a beast lurking around every corner, then they will look to him as their leader, as he's the only one...
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 820 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 215 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Believe it or not, sports nutrition and exercise have been part of man’s life and his culture since the earliest time. Of course, sports during this time was known as athletics. Earliest forms of athletics, however, were part of man’s basic need for survival, either to gather food or protect his family from physical harm.
To a simple cave man who knows nothing about martial arts, a sturdy bone from his last dinner may serve as a weapon against wild animals. This bone remnant, coupled with some sharpened stone chips from his cave, is used for hunting. Eventually, his regular hunting activities had developed into some form of physical acts, without so much need to hunt.
Athletics was thus born. Athletics eventually developed into a contest of strength, speed, and other skills. Sports would later developed out of this, with the simple contest developing into a more complicated form of physical activity, and with it the need for sustenance, completing the equation of sports nutrition and exercise.
But even during the earliest time, athletics or sports was never a monopoly of the male sex. In the Heraen Games for instance, women raced in honor of the goddess Hera. The Egyptians had their acrobatic gymnastics for their temple related activities. And, of course, the sports dance had evolved from religious related dance performed in every major temple in antiquity.
To the early Greeks however, belongs the honor of elevating the sports into an art form. The Olympic Games is the strongest argument for this. Also, the Greeks, apparently knows that sports nutrition and exercise are two important factors in any physical exercise. Even during this time, the Greeks had special set of foods for their athletes.
Nutrition patterns of the early Greeks
In the Mediterranean world, Greeks particularly, goats is the most common source of meat, and occasionally, beef from sacrificed cattle. Just like in the modern day, milk was also considered as a must for a good meal, especially for the athletes. Sports nutrition and exercise among the early Greeks meant also the inclusion of other source of protein, fish for instance, which the seas of Mediterranean is known for in the ancient times. Poultry was also part of the early Greeks’ diet.
Vegetables and carbohydrates were also considered as important element of sports nutrition and exercise among the ancient people. Even among the soldiers of the Roman Empire, a balance diet is important to maintain their strength, both in the battlefield and during exercise.
Alexander the Great was known to have discovered the nutritional value of onions that from Egypt, he brought some specimens and had these planted and later cultivated in other parts of his empire. The Romans, just like the Greeks, used cabbage not only as food, but also as antidote for their drunken soldiers. Beets, turnips, artichokes, and radishes also form the long list of edible vegetables cultivated and used during this period.
The ancient athlete’s diet
Just like today’s coaches, trainers during the ancient times occupied an exalted place among their people, and also among the athletes themselves. They not only provide exercise regimen for their athletes but also directly involve in the preparation of foods for their charges. Sports nutrition and exercise apparently, is a concept not lost to the early coaches and athletes.
From the foods that consisted the regular diet of the ancient athletes, such as cheese, figs, and meal cakes, the attempt of the ancient trainers to developed special meal for their athletes were apparent.
Though meat was not consumed in large quantities by the athletes during originally, it was observed later that athletes who are given regular dosage of meat for protein source, had more long lasting strength. It was in the fifth century BC, when meat became a craze among the ancient athletes.
During this time, Slymphalos, an Olympic champion in the in the long-distance race, introduced the meat diet to help athletes in their exercises. It was the earliest attempt of a professional athlete to come up with a systematized sports nutrition and exercise. Milo of Croton, won five Olympic awards from 536 to 520 B.C., was reputed to have consumed 9 kilogram of meat during his training period. | <urn:uuid:141b8c4d-c60a-454e-b750-165622239c59> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://knotmove.com/sports-nutrition-and-exercise-in-the-ancient-times/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00243.warc.gz | en | 0.986305 | 853 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.22348567843... | 1 | Believe it or not, sports nutrition and exercise have been part of man’s life and his culture since the earliest time. Of course, sports during this time was known as athletics. Earliest forms of athletics, however, were part of man’s basic need for survival, either to gather food or protect his family from physical harm.
To a simple cave man who knows nothing about martial arts, a sturdy bone from his last dinner may serve as a weapon against wild animals. This bone remnant, coupled with some sharpened stone chips from his cave, is used for hunting. Eventually, his regular hunting activities had developed into some form of physical acts, without so much need to hunt.
Athletics was thus born. Athletics eventually developed into a contest of strength, speed, and other skills. Sports would later developed out of this, with the simple contest developing into a more complicated form of physical activity, and with it the need for sustenance, completing the equation of sports nutrition and exercise.
But even during the earliest time, athletics or sports was never a monopoly of the male sex. In the Heraen Games for instance, women raced in honor of the goddess Hera. The Egyptians had their acrobatic gymnastics for their temple related activities. And, of course, the sports dance had evolved from religious related dance performed in every major temple in antiquity.
To the early Greeks however, belongs the honor of elevating the sports into an art form. The Olympic Games is the strongest argument for this. Also, the Greeks, apparently knows that sports nutrition and exercise are two important factors in any physical exercise. Even during this time, the Greeks had special set of foods for their athletes.
Nutrition patterns of the early Greeks
In the Mediterranean world, Greeks particularly, goats is the most common source of meat, and occasionally, beef from sacrificed cattle. Just like in the modern day, milk was also considered as a must for a good meal, especially for the athletes. Sports nutrition and exercise among the early Greeks meant also the inclusion of other source of protein, fish for instance, which the seas of Mediterranean is known for in the ancient times. Poultry was also part of the early Greeks’ diet.
Vegetables and carbohydrates were also considered as important element of sports nutrition and exercise among the ancient people. Even among the soldiers of the Roman Empire, a balance diet is important to maintain their strength, both in the battlefield and during exercise.
Alexander the Great was known to have discovered the nutritional value of onions that from Egypt, he brought some specimens and had these planted and later cultivated in other parts of his empire. The Romans, just like the Greeks, used cabbage not only as food, but also as antidote for their drunken soldiers. Beets, turnips, artichokes, and radishes also form the long list of edible vegetables cultivated and used during this period.
The ancient athlete’s diet
Just like today’s coaches, trainers during the ancient times occupied an exalted place among their people, and also among the athletes themselves. They not only provide exercise regimen for their athletes but also directly involve in the preparation of foods for their charges. Sports nutrition and exercise apparently, is a concept not lost to the early coaches and athletes.
From the foods that consisted the regular diet of the ancient athletes, such as cheese, figs, and meal cakes, the attempt of the ancient trainers to developed special meal for their athletes were apparent.
Though meat was not consumed in large quantities by the athletes during originally, it was observed later that athletes who are given regular dosage of meat for protein source, had more long lasting strength. It was in the fifth century BC, when meat became a craze among the ancient athletes.
During this time, Slymphalos, an Olympic champion in the in the long-distance race, introduced the meat diet to help athletes in their exercises. It was the earliest attempt of a professional athlete to come up with a systematized sports nutrition and exercise. Milo of Croton, won five Olympic awards from 536 to 520 B.C., was reputed to have consumed 9 kilogram of meat during his training period. | 839 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Holocaust was a catastrophic, cataclysmic event in history that took place.
over 55 years ago, but why is it still so important to us today? One of the many.
reasons it is still widely discussed today, is because of the many rights it.
violated for the Jews as human beings. The main goal of the holocaust was for.
Nazis to try and kill every Jewish person alive in Europe. Many Nazi leaders.
tried their hardest do to this, and went unpunished for their actions. All of.
this tradgedy and calamity started when Adolf Hitler came into power.
Adolf Hitler and his Third Reich came to power in 1938, the Jews in Europe.
knew they were in trouble. Hitler blamed them for Germany's rapid fall as a.
world power and he made sure they were to be punished for their supposedly wrong.
doings. Elie Wiesel's novel Night, is about his own.
family's struggle to survive the terrifying years of the early.
1940's. Wiesel exists in a minority of Jews who lived to share his.
unfortunate and disturbing experiences. Elie, his three siblings, and parents.
were from Sighet, Transylvania. Most of the townspeople believed that living.
in Sighet put them far out of Hitler's reach, but they eventually were forced.
to face the harsh reality near the end of the war. This came as a surprise to.
them because the Jews had been following the path of the war.
closely by listening to the radio. The Jews of Sighet began to question.
themselves and ask is it possible for one man and his Fascist party to wipe out.
an entire race of people. Although Elie 217;s family was financially stable, their ownership of the family store made them more visible to the Nazi's, and therefore put them in great danger.
Elie pleaded with his father to sell the family business and liquidate it so.
they could move far off to a place where Hitler could not get to them. He.
feared that the Fascist party was coming to wipe out the town of Sighet and.
that his family would lose everything that they dreamed of and worked for. | <urn:uuid:8ea2ad35-0a5c-4f71-b947-a062714bf5b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/7348.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.987951 | 477 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3262214064598... | 2 | The Holocaust was a catastrophic, cataclysmic event in history that took place.
over 55 years ago, but why is it still so important to us today? One of the many.
reasons it is still widely discussed today, is because of the many rights it.
violated for the Jews as human beings. The main goal of the holocaust was for.
Nazis to try and kill every Jewish person alive in Europe. Many Nazi leaders.
tried their hardest do to this, and went unpunished for their actions. All of.
this tradgedy and calamity started when Adolf Hitler came into power.
Adolf Hitler and his Third Reich came to power in 1938, the Jews in Europe.
knew they were in trouble. Hitler blamed them for Germany's rapid fall as a.
world power and he made sure they were to be punished for their supposedly wrong.
doings. Elie Wiesel's novel Night, is about his own.
family's struggle to survive the terrifying years of the early.
1940's. Wiesel exists in a minority of Jews who lived to share his.
unfortunate and disturbing experiences. Elie, his three siblings, and parents.
were from Sighet, Transylvania. Most of the townspeople believed that living.
in Sighet put them far out of Hitler's reach, but they eventually were forced.
to face the harsh reality near the end of the war. This came as a surprise to.
them because the Jews had been following the path of the war.
closely by listening to the radio. The Jews of Sighet began to question.
themselves and ask is it possible for one man and his Fascist party to wipe out.
an entire race of people. Although Elie 217;s family was financially stable, their ownership of the family store made them more visible to the Nazi's, and therefore put them in great danger.
Elie pleaded with his father to sell the family business and liquidate it so.
they could move far off to a place where Hitler could not get to them. He.
feared that the Fascist party was coming to wipe out the town of Sighet and.
that his family would lose everything that they dreamed of and worked for. | 463 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A New Documentary Exposes The Massacre In Porvenir, Texas That Left 15 Mexican-Americans Dead
Porvenir is a Spanish word. If you break it down, por venir literally means to come, and the translation is the future. It’s also the name of what used to be a tiny town in Texas located right next to the Rio Grande on the border. The village of Porvenir in Texas, which is a town no more, had roots that reflect the brutal and deadly colonization that this country was built on.
“Porvenir, Texas” is a new documentary on PBS that brings to light the massacre that happened on the border more than 100 years ago.
As the tense immigration crisis continues in this country today, the documentary “Porvenir, Texas” shows how this struggle has been part of our history since the inception of the United States of America.
The story of the massacre cannot be told before discussing the war between the U.S. and Mexico. While the U.S. continued to expand in the southwest through its war with Mexico, the battle to live and remain in the country affected the most vulnerable people who weren’t part of the war at all. They were Mexicans who lived in Texas and along the border before it was ever part of the United States. However, after Mexico lost Texas to the United States, those living in Texas, became Americans overnight. That didn’t please the incoming residents — white people looking to make the country their home.
The documentary exposes the brutal killing of 15 Mexican men — some who were American as well — which the U.S. tried to hide from history.
With the expansion of the U.S. throughout its new state of Texas, white ranchers staked their claim in areas that were owned by Mexican-Americans. Like gentrification today, Texas was also gentrified during the Wild West, which meant Mexicans, who were now Americans, were displaced because of higher taxes.
With the revolution still going on in the Mexican border and new white ranchers taking over land, racial tensions were high. White people were told that all Mexicans were “bandits” and Mexican-Americans were in fear for their lives thinking they could be killed based on the color of their skin.
White people were killing Mexican-Americans outright with no consequences, and the film shows graphic images of that.
Here’s a summary of that fateful violent night as reported by NBC News: “In the early morning hours of Jan. 28, 1918, a group of ranchers, Texas Rangers, and U.S. Army cavalry soldiers entered the village and rousted the residents from their beds. They led away 15 unarmed men and boys of Mexican descent to a nearby bluff, where they shot and killed them. These victims ranged in age from 16 to 72, and some were American citizens. The town’s women and children fled across the border to Mexico for safety. The next day, the perpetrators returned and burned the village to the ground. Porvenir ceased to exist.”
We have no idea how many other Mexican-Americans were killed with such brutality during this period because there’s no record of it. The only reason the story of Porvenir can be told today is because of two men that documented what happened.
Harry Warren was a white teacher that worked with some of the community in Porvenir and wrote about what happened that night. He also was a witness to the bodies. José Tomás (“J.T.”) Canales, who was a state legislator at the time, launched an investigation against the Rangers, and his depositions and testimony have been preserved as well.
“There were many cases like Porvenir, where the initial response from the state was to try to fabricate what really took place,” Monica Muñoz Martinez, an assistant professor at Brown University and the founding member of the public history project Refusing To Forget, told NBC News. “It was not unusual for the state to try to justify such acts, by criminalizing the victims. Residents of Porvenir were described at times as squatters or bandits. None of this is true.”
Christina Fernandez Shapter produced the film and spoke about the importance of making sure these stories are never forgotten.
“I am Mexican American myself, I am from Texas, my family has been here for generations,” she told NBC News. “And I know we all have stories in our families, sometimes of land being taken from us or other injustices.”
Here’s a clip of the film.
Click here to watch the entire documentary. | <urn:uuid:b67b4bca-d532-4bd6-af96-2c18cd1e673d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wearemitu.com/entertainment/documentary-porvenir-texas-massacre/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00330.warc.gz | en | 0.985156 | 975 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.11202016472... | 1 | A New Documentary Exposes The Massacre In Porvenir, Texas That Left 15 Mexican-Americans Dead
Porvenir is a Spanish word. If you break it down, por venir literally means to come, and the translation is the future. It’s also the name of what used to be a tiny town in Texas located right next to the Rio Grande on the border. The village of Porvenir in Texas, which is a town no more, had roots that reflect the brutal and deadly colonization that this country was built on.
“Porvenir, Texas” is a new documentary on PBS that brings to light the massacre that happened on the border more than 100 years ago.
As the tense immigration crisis continues in this country today, the documentary “Porvenir, Texas” shows how this struggle has been part of our history since the inception of the United States of America.
The story of the massacre cannot be told before discussing the war between the U.S. and Mexico. While the U.S. continued to expand in the southwest through its war with Mexico, the battle to live and remain in the country affected the most vulnerable people who weren’t part of the war at all. They were Mexicans who lived in Texas and along the border before it was ever part of the United States. However, after Mexico lost Texas to the United States, those living in Texas, became Americans overnight. That didn’t please the incoming residents — white people looking to make the country their home.
The documentary exposes the brutal killing of 15 Mexican men — some who were American as well — which the U.S. tried to hide from history.
With the expansion of the U.S. throughout its new state of Texas, white ranchers staked their claim in areas that were owned by Mexican-Americans. Like gentrification today, Texas was also gentrified during the Wild West, which meant Mexicans, who were now Americans, were displaced because of higher taxes.
With the revolution still going on in the Mexican border and new white ranchers taking over land, racial tensions were high. White people were told that all Mexicans were “bandits” and Mexican-Americans were in fear for their lives thinking they could be killed based on the color of their skin.
White people were killing Mexican-Americans outright with no consequences, and the film shows graphic images of that.
Here’s a summary of that fateful violent night as reported by NBC News: “In the early morning hours of Jan. 28, 1918, a group of ranchers, Texas Rangers, and U.S. Army cavalry soldiers entered the village and rousted the residents from their beds. They led away 15 unarmed men and boys of Mexican descent to a nearby bluff, where they shot and killed them. These victims ranged in age from 16 to 72, and some were American citizens. The town’s women and children fled across the border to Mexico for safety. The next day, the perpetrators returned and burned the village to the ground. Porvenir ceased to exist.”
We have no idea how many other Mexican-Americans were killed with such brutality during this period because there’s no record of it. The only reason the story of Porvenir can be told today is because of two men that documented what happened.
Harry Warren was a white teacher that worked with some of the community in Porvenir and wrote about what happened that night. He also was a witness to the bodies. José Tomás (“J.T.”) Canales, who was a state legislator at the time, launched an investigation against the Rangers, and his depositions and testimony have been preserved as well.
“There were many cases like Porvenir, where the initial response from the state was to try to fabricate what really took place,” Monica Muñoz Martinez, an assistant professor at Brown University and the founding member of the public history project Refusing To Forget, told NBC News. “It was not unusual for the state to try to justify such acts, by criminalizing the victims. Residents of Porvenir were described at times as squatters or bandits. None of this is true.”
Christina Fernandez Shapter produced the film and spoke about the importance of making sure these stories are never forgotten.
“I am Mexican American myself, I am from Texas, my family has been here for generations,” she told NBC News. “And I know we all have stories in our families, sometimes of land being taken from us or other injustices.”
Here’s a clip of the film.
Click here to watch the entire documentary. | 918 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the early Islam, women were considered inferior, but due to the evolution of mysticism as a cult that emerged from within the Islamic faith, it has made many women attain the level of sainthood that was earlier a preserve for men only. The Islamic religion has a caste system for the priesthood that was strictly for men.
According to Smith (1977), “It is the development of mysticism or Sufism within Islam, which gave women their great opportunity to attain the rank of sainthood.” The objective of the mysticism is to renounce the worldly things and become clean so that one can have total devotion to God.
Al-wahatiyya in Al-Sulami (1021) defined Sufism as “…rejecting all worldly means of support and ending all worldly attachment.” Thus, the religion of mysticism is about focusing on the heavenly interests and purposes rather than getting involved with the people or material things.
Mysticism regards gender equality in serving God because “in the spiritual life, there could be neither male nor female. All whom God had called to be the saints could attain, by following the Path, to union with Himself, and all who attained, have their royal rank, as spiritual beings, in the world to come” (Smith, 1977). The Sufi women aimed at perfect union with God by making sure that they had no extra burden from the world to carry as they had better relinquish their burden through repentance than continually carry the burden in the sinful world.
Mysticism is a form of religion among Sufi women where the women are the leaders in its establishment and development. Rabi’a of Basra was chosen to be the first woman saint to lead mysticism because she the Islamic region no longer restricts women from reaching sainthood.
The Sufi women heaped lot of praises to the Rabi’a that she was devoted to God like men; hence, she is more than just a woman. Smith (1997), describes Rabi’a as “the head of the women disciples and the chief of the women ascetics, of those who observed the sacred law, who were God fearing and zealous… and she was one of those who were pre-eminent and experienced in grace and goodness.”
The religious qualities of Rabi’a made her to be given chance to lead in the growth of mysticism by the Sufi woman. The biography of the saint Rabi’a is so fascinating and mystical she grew without parents, become a slave and her devotion to God made her master release her. When she was free, she experienced direct communication with God as the sakina glory of God shone over her head when she prayed.
Rabi’a took her pilgrimage to Mecca and on her way, the ass she was using to carry her luggage died and Instead of seeking help from strangers, she refused saying that she was dependent on God only but not His creatures. She earnestly prayed until a miracle happened when her ass stirred up and the she continues on her pilgrim journey. God in the desert directly answered the prayers of Rabi’a and this encourages her to devote her life to God more.
When Rabi’a successfully completed her pilgrimage, she went back to Basra where she become devoted to God and walk according to mystic Way of renouncing the world and asceticism. Rabi’a resolved to remain celibate because she considered marriage as a hindrance to the attainment and fulfillment of the highest will of God.
According to Smith (1977), “…purgation was the first stage towards stage towards the attainment of the mystic’s goal, and asceticism was enjoined on all who entered the novitiate.” The Way of mysticism begins when one renounce the worldly distractions like marriage as in the case of Rabi’a and then a process of daily devotion in order to be made clean and free from sins.
Fatima is another Sufi woman of Nishapur who demonstrated sainthood. She was the oldest Gnostic and many people come to seek her so that she can interpret and reveal the secrets within the Quran. She was very famous due to her great devotion to God in that many commended as the second Mary. Fatima (Al-Sulami, 1021) said, “One who acts for the sake of God while desiring to witness Him is a Gnostic, whereas one who acts in the hope that God will notice him is the sincere believer.”
Fatima dedicated her life in the service of God and many people realized her devotion. Abu Yazd (Al-Sulami 1021) admits that, “In all of my life, I have only seen one true man and one true woman. The woman was Fatima of Nishapur. When informed her about one of the stages of spirituality, she would take the news as if she had experienced it herself.”
Other Sufi women have been shown to have strong mystic beliefs; taking their time in solitude while praying and fasting, renouncing the world pleasure like marriage, even though against cultural and religious persuasions of Muslims depicts how the women of Sufi are zealous in their services to God
Mysticism is a cult within the Islamic religion because some of its teachings are not solely based on the Quran but other sources. The Rabi’a experience during her pilgrim in the desert is like to the Biblical experience of Moses, the sakina glory corresponded to halo in Christianity.
The concepts of purgation and repentance have Biblical origin. Quran teaching recognizes the teachings of the prophet Muhammad as the central to the beliefs of Muslims. Smith (1977) proves that, “the title saint was bestowed to women upon equality with men, and since Islam has no order of priesthood and no priestly caste, there was nothing to prevent a woman from reaching the highest religious rank in the hierarchy of Muslim saints.”
The mysticism grew because when the women were given equal chance of serving God, they exercised Islamic belief out of the context of Quran and introduced their fundamental beliefs of asceticism, celibacy and purgation as the necessary requirement to attain highest level of mysticism. The Muslim theologians were against mysticism as the movement of the Sufi women because of their sainthood, their influence and the form of worship they were practicing.
The religion of mysticism is depicted as the religion of women and that the women are the most devoted in their service to God. The devotion of Rabi’a, Fatima and other saints is that of asceticism and their experiences impact greatly on the religious and social aspects of their societies.
Many men praised their good works and service to God. For example, a man had to say this about Fatima, “In all of my life, I have only seen one true man and one true woman. The woman was Fatima of Nishapur. When informed her about one of the stages of spirituality, she would take the news as if she had experienced it herself” (Al-Sulami, 1021).
Fatima is equated to a man in her capacity of serving God meaning women have been treated as inferior in their abilities to serve God with the great zeal as men. The establishment of mysticism gave women a chance to be equal with their male counter parts and attain sainthood. Smith (1977) quotes Attar that, “saintship may be found in a woman as naturally as in a man.” The prophets teach that, what matters to God is the purpose of the heart and not the outward appearance.
The Sufi women are the women who serve God with great zeal. The emergence of mysticism provided gender equality in the Islamic religion thus women explored their capacities to reach sainthood and incorporated other believes other than the Islamic beliefs that lead to their rejection by the Muslim theologians. Mysticism is a form of religion among Sufi women that involve asceticism and purgation so that one can appear worth to worship God and attain eternal bliss.
Mysticism has demonstrated the women’s ability to serve God equally as men, dismissing the cultural and societal perceptions that had limited and degrades their pursuits of eternal life. Their male counter parts and theologians were appalled by the influence of the Sufi women, threatening the own influence on the religion and the society. Thus, mysticism becomes the appealing religion to women because of the freedom from the restricting Islamic laws and culture.
Al-Sulami, A. (1021). A Memorial of Female Sufi Devotees, Fons Vitae.
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0.0045920349657535... | 1 | In the early Islam, women were considered inferior, but due to the evolution of mysticism as a cult that emerged from within the Islamic faith, it has made many women attain the level of sainthood that was earlier a preserve for men only. The Islamic religion has a caste system for the priesthood that was strictly for men.
According to Smith (1977), “It is the development of mysticism or Sufism within Islam, which gave women their great opportunity to attain the rank of sainthood.” The objective of the mysticism is to renounce the worldly things and become clean so that one can have total devotion to God.
Al-wahatiyya in Al-Sulami (1021) defined Sufism as “…rejecting all worldly means of support and ending all worldly attachment.” Thus, the religion of mysticism is about focusing on the heavenly interests and purposes rather than getting involved with the people or material things.
Mysticism regards gender equality in serving God because “in the spiritual life, there could be neither male nor female. All whom God had called to be the saints could attain, by following the Path, to union with Himself, and all who attained, have their royal rank, as spiritual beings, in the world to come” (Smith, 1977). The Sufi women aimed at perfect union with God by making sure that they had no extra burden from the world to carry as they had better relinquish their burden through repentance than continually carry the burden in the sinful world.
Mysticism is a form of religion among Sufi women where the women are the leaders in its establishment and development. Rabi’a of Basra was chosen to be the first woman saint to lead mysticism because she the Islamic region no longer restricts women from reaching sainthood.
The Sufi women heaped lot of praises to the Rabi’a that she was devoted to God like men; hence, she is more than just a woman. Smith (1997), describes Rabi’a as “the head of the women disciples and the chief of the women ascetics, of those who observed the sacred law, who were God fearing and zealous… and she was one of those who were pre-eminent and experienced in grace and goodness.”
The religious qualities of Rabi’a made her to be given chance to lead in the growth of mysticism by the Sufi woman. The biography of the saint Rabi’a is so fascinating and mystical she grew without parents, become a slave and her devotion to God made her master release her. When she was free, she experienced direct communication with God as the sakina glory of God shone over her head when she prayed.
Rabi’a took her pilgrimage to Mecca and on her way, the ass she was using to carry her luggage died and Instead of seeking help from strangers, she refused saying that she was dependent on God only but not His creatures. She earnestly prayed until a miracle happened when her ass stirred up and the she continues on her pilgrim journey. God in the desert directly answered the prayers of Rabi’a and this encourages her to devote her life to God more.
When Rabi’a successfully completed her pilgrimage, she went back to Basra where she become devoted to God and walk according to mystic Way of renouncing the world and asceticism. Rabi’a resolved to remain celibate because she considered marriage as a hindrance to the attainment and fulfillment of the highest will of God.
According to Smith (1977), “…purgation was the first stage towards stage towards the attainment of the mystic’s goal, and asceticism was enjoined on all who entered the novitiate.” The Way of mysticism begins when one renounce the worldly distractions like marriage as in the case of Rabi’a and then a process of daily devotion in order to be made clean and free from sins.
Fatima is another Sufi woman of Nishapur who demonstrated sainthood. She was the oldest Gnostic and many people come to seek her so that she can interpret and reveal the secrets within the Quran. She was very famous due to her great devotion to God in that many commended as the second Mary. Fatima (Al-Sulami, 1021) said, “One who acts for the sake of God while desiring to witness Him is a Gnostic, whereas one who acts in the hope that God will notice him is the sincere believer.”
Fatima dedicated her life in the service of God and many people realized her devotion. Abu Yazd (Al-Sulami 1021) admits that, “In all of my life, I have only seen one true man and one true woman. The woman was Fatima of Nishapur. When informed her about one of the stages of spirituality, she would take the news as if she had experienced it herself.”
Other Sufi women have been shown to have strong mystic beliefs; taking their time in solitude while praying and fasting, renouncing the world pleasure like marriage, even though against cultural and religious persuasions of Muslims depicts how the women of Sufi are zealous in their services to God
Mysticism is a cult within the Islamic religion because some of its teachings are not solely based on the Quran but other sources. The Rabi’a experience during her pilgrim in the desert is like to the Biblical experience of Moses, the sakina glory corresponded to halo in Christianity.
The concepts of purgation and repentance have Biblical origin. Quran teaching recognizes the teachings of the prophet Muhammad as the central to the beliefs of Muslims. Smith (1977) proves that, “the title saint was bestowed to women upon equality with men, and since Islam has no order of priesthood and no priestly caste, there was nothing to prevent a woman from reaching the highest religious rank in the hierarchy of Muslim saints.”
The mysticism grew because when the women were given equal chance of serving God, they exercised Islamic belief out of the context of Quran and introduced their fundamental beliefs of asceticism, celibacy and purgation as the necessary requirement to attain highest level of mysticism. The Muslim theologians were against mysticism as the movement of the Sufi women because of their sainthood, their influence and the form of worship they were practicing.
The religion of mysticism is depicted as the religion of women and that the women are the most devoted in their service to God. The devotion of Rabi’a, Fatima and other saints is that of asceticism and their experiences impact greatly on the religious and social aspects of their societies.
Many men praised their good works and service to God. For example, a man had to say this about Fatima, “In all of my life, I have only seen one true man and one true woman. The woman was Fatima of Nishapur. When informed her about one of the stages of spirituality, she would take the news as if she had experienced it herself” (Al-Sulami, 1021).
Fatima is equated to a man in her capacity of serving God meaning women have been treated as inferior in their abilities to serve God with the great zeal as men. The establishment of mysticism gave women a chance to be equal with their male counter parts and attain sainthood. Smith (1977) quotes Attar that, “saintship may be found in a woman as naturally as in a man.” The prophets teach that, what matters to God is the purpose of the heart and not the outward appearance.
The Sufi women are the women who serve God with great zeal. The emergence of mysticism provided gender equality in the Islamic religion thus women explored their capacities to reach sainthood and incorporated other believes other than the Islamic beliefs that lead to their rejection by the Muslim theologians. Mysticism is a form of religion among Sufi women that involve asceticism and purgation so that one can appear worth to worship God and attain eternal bliss.
Mysticism has demonstrated the women’s ability to serve God equally as men, dismissing the cultural and societal perceptions that had limited and degrades their pursuits of eternal life. Their male counter parts and theologians were appalled by the influence of the Sufi women, threatening the own influence on the religion and the society. Thus, mysticism becomes the appealing religion to women because of the freedom from the restricting Islamic laws and culture.
Al-Sulami, A. (1021). A Memorial of Female Sufi Devotees, Fons Vitae.
Smith, M. (1977). Rabi’a the Mystic. The University of Texas Press.USA | 1,789 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was as early as in that M.
It was also provided that the representatives of the provinces and the Indian states will re-assemble for framing the new Constitution. But most important Committee was Drafting Committee.
It is conventional that the head of the slate will act on the advice rendered to him by the Council of Ministers, except during a short period in India when Forty-Second Constitution Amendment Act, passed and it was made obligatory for the head of the state to act on the advice of his Council of Ministers.
Such a monarch can guide the politicians and that guidance is very much needed in India. Nothing can happen unless most of the people in the country want it.
Adult or Restricted Franchise: Then another problem was whether the people of India should be given the right to vote on the basis of universal adult franchise or some restrictions should be put on voting right of the people.
Thus applying his second criterion of quantity he lists his constitution as monarchy or tyrannyaristocracy or oligarchy and polity or democracy. Problem of Reservation of Seats: A very serious problem which the Assembly had to face was that of reservation of seats.
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0.35111910104751... | 1 | It was as early as in that M.
It was also provided that the representatives of the provinces and the Indian states will re-assemble for framing the new Constitution. But most important Committee was Drafting Committee.
It is conventional that the head of the slate will act on the advice rendered to him by the Council of Ministers, except during a short period in India when Forty-Second Constitution Amendment Act, passed and it was made obligatory for the head of the state to act on the advice of his Council of Ministers.
Such a monarch can guide the politicians and that guidance is very much needed in India. Nothing can happen unless most of the people in the country want it.
Adult or Restricted Franchise: Then another problem was whether the people of India should be given the right to vote on the basis of universal adult franchise or some restrictions should be put on voting right of the people.
Thus applying his second criterion of quantity he lists his constitution as monarchy or tyrannyaristocracy or oligarchy and polity or democracy. Problem of Reservation of Seats: A very serious problem which the Assembly had to face was that of reservation of seats.
The Form of Government: First major problem before the Constituent Assembly was that it was to decide about the form of government, which India in future should have. | 258 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Council of war
A council of war is a term in military science that describes a meeting held to decide on a course of action, usually in the midst of a battle. Under normal circumstances, decisions are made by a commanding officer, optionally communicated and coordinated by staff officers, and then implemented by subordinate officers. Councils of war are typically held when matters of great importance must be decided, consensus must be reached with subordinates, or when the commanding officer is unsure of his or her position. The classic council of war includes a discussion and then a vote, often taken without the senior commander present to influence or intimidate the subordinates. The tradition in such meetings is that the officers vote in reverse sequence of their seniority, with the junior officers voting first.
A variation on the traditional council of war is one in which the subordinates vote, but the results are considered merely advisory to the overall commander, who then makes a final decision. Such a meeting was held on July 2, 1863, during the Battle of Gettysburg, in which Major General George G. Meade, commanding the Union Army of the Potomac, convened his Corps commanders and staff to discuss whether they should withdraw from the battlefield or, if not, whether they should attack Robert E. Lee's Confederate army or await his attack. Historical evidence indicates that Meade had already determined to stay and await Lee's attack, which occurred on July 3, the disastrous attack known as Pickett's Charge. But Meade formed consensus in his staff and improved their confidence by encouraging a two-hour discussion and vote, which fortunately resulted in the outcome he was seeking.
In civilian usage, a council of war can describe any important meeting, such as in business, that must reach a decision under the pressure of adverse conditions.
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0.4325975775718689... | 1 | Council of war
A council of war is a term in military science that describes a meeting held to decide on a course of action, usually in the midst of a battle. Under normal circumstances, decisions are made by a commanding officer, optionally communicated and coordinated by staff officers, and then implemented by subordinate officers. Councils of war are typically held when matters of great importance must be decided, consensus must be reached with subordinates, or when the commanding officer is unsure of his or her position. The classic council of war includes a discussion and then a vote, often taken without the senior commander present to influence or intimidate the subordinates. The tradition in such meetings is that the officers vote in reverse sequence of their seniority, with the junior officers voting first.
A variation on the traditional council of war is one in which the subordinates vote, but the results are considered merely advisory to the overall commander, who then makes a final decision. Such a meeting was held on July 2, 1863, during the Battle of Gettysburg, in which Major General George G. Meade, commanding the Union Army of the Potomac, convened his Corps commanders and staff to discuss whether they should withdraw from the battlefield or, if not, whether they should attack Robert E. Lee's Confederate army or await his attack. Historical evidence indicates that Meade had already determined to stay and await Lee's attack, which occurred on July 3, the disastrous attack known as Pickett's Charge. But Meade formed consensus in his staff and improved their confidence by encouraging a two-hour discussion and vote, which fortunately resulted in the outcome he was seeking.
In civilian usage, a council of war can describe any important meeting, such as in business, that must reach a decision under the pressure of adverse conditions.
This military-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. | 382 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Located between the Bronx and Riker's Island, situated in the middle of New York City's East River in an area known as Hell's Gate is North Brother Island. In 1885 if you were sick and contagious, you would be brought to this 20-acre island along with other patients from the five boroughs. In most cases the patients did not come here voluntarily but were forced to do so. It was far enough to stop disease from spreading, leaving those living and dying there feeling isolated. But in a city that was overcrowded and pestilence-stricken it was the best option to keep the populace safe.
Riverside was built on the north end of the island, and it was initially used for those stricken with smallpox. Over the next decades it was used to quarantine those infected with typhus, scarlet fever and yellow fever.
There was food shortages, and no heating during the cold winter months. As a result of all of this, the mortality rate for those who were banished here was very high, to the point that being sent to North Brother Island was seen as practically synonymous with a death sentence. Since the bedraggled patients were not allowed to leave until they recovered and these were the days before telephones, many of the people who left for North Brother Island were never to return. Their friends and families never heard from them again or knew what had become of them.
It was greatly feared by the general populace, who refused to go anywhere near it. Even the ponderous ferries of the river gave it a wide berth.
Lepers were also brought to the island and confined to wooden huts within the boundaries of the hospital, thus making it New York City's only official leper colony.
But it wasn’t just the leper colony for which North Brother Island has become most notorious. This forgotten place was also once home to Mary Mallon, an Irish immigrant known to the history as Typhoid Mary. Mallon was thought to be responsible for spreading the deadly disease through a number of families. And with a fatality rate as high as three in ten, typhoid is a particularly nasty way to go. She was brought to North Brother Island in 1907.
What starts out as a low grade fever and cramping quickly leads to delirium as blood begins to clot beneath the skin. This is followed by inflammation of the brain and intestinal hemorrhaging. Mary Mallon was asymptomatic, but advances in epidemiology meant that doctors could trace the cause of an outbreak. In every job that Mallon had held down in New York, people had become sick with typhoid, and one had died.
Typhoid Mary was incarcerated for three years while the authorities figured out what to do with her. Somewhere in the region of 163 samples of bodily fluids and tissues were taken from her.
In 1910 her wish to be freed was granted on the condition that she sign an affidavit stating that she would stop working as a cook and take proper hygienic measures to stop spreading the disease.
Although Mary agreed to these terms and was allowed to return to the mainland, she worked briefly as a laundress before changing her name and resuming the better paying work as a cook, which not surprisingly led to more infections of typhoid fever wherever she went. The worst outbreak she was directly responsible for was at Sloane Hospital for Women in New York City, where she worked in 1915, and which resulted in 25 people coming down with the disease and two dying from it.
After this, authorities arrested Mary and she was sent back to North Brother Island, where she would spend the next two decades languishing until her death at the age of 69, on November 11, 1938 from pneumonia. Ultimately, Typhoid Mary unintentionally infected a total of 53 people with typhoid fever during her life, and still believed she was not responsible at the time of her death.
Around that time, when New York was accepting huge numbers of immigrants from other countries and the majority were forced into crowded and unsanitary living quarters, these diseases were spreading quickly. The city had to do something. Riverside was its answer. But the situation there wasn't much better -- out of sight, out of mind. Conditions were bad, the mortality rate among patients was high and the recovery rate low.
Patients lived in tents, pavilions, and cottages in and around the hospital. Those struggling with leprosy were confined to wooden shacks on the perimeter. When the weather was bad, the ferries that ran between North Brother Island and the Bronx were anchored and no food was delivered. According to those who survived and made it back to New York proper, life at Riverside was "the black hole of Calcutta."
Disease was not even the only death associated with the island, as North Brother Island was the scene of what remains the worst maritime disaster ever recorded in New York history.
On June 15, 1904, the passenger steamship General Slocum was carrying a large number of German immigrants from St. Mark’s Evangelical Lutheran Church on their way to a church picnic when the ship somehow caught fire. The burning, flaming ship eventually sank, and when the smoke cleared around 1,021 of the 1,342 people on board had died, either from the fire or from drowning. The survivors of the wreck were taken to North Brother Island to receive medical care.
The wreck remained ensconced within its watery grave until it was salvaged to be converted into a barge, Maryland, which strangely enough would also sink into the depths of the Atlantic Ocean in 1911 while on a voyage to deliver a load of coal.
By the 1940s, the grounds of Riverside Hospital had become a convalescence for wounded World War Two soldiers. North Brother Island was transformed into a housing center meant for veterans and their families. But the need to take a ferry in order to get anywhere meant that many chose to relocate as soon as they could.
The island gave one last dying gasp in the form of a drug rehabilitation center for heroin addicts in the 1950s, but this too was to be short lived and the island fell silent in 1963, when all human activity there was ceased and the buildings decommissioned and abandoned to be left behind to the ages.
The crumbling remains of North Brother Island and its abandoned quarantine hospital are now heavily overgrown, eerie ruins that lurk amid the unchecked foliage of the tiny, forgotten island. The location is now strictly off-limits to the public.
More chilling still is the fact that the forgotten, unwanted nature of the derelict buildings mirrors the tragic fate of many who passed through North Brother Island, especially those who never left the confines of Riverside Hospital alive. The crumbling ruins are their memorial, and those who look closely will find traces of those quarantined patients even today.
Discarded keys are heaped in piles. Phone books from the 1950s lie open to the last pages touched by human hands, and developed X-rays can still be read. Graffiti scrawled by patients long gone still covers the walls. In one building, the forlorn door of a nurses’ station is pockmarked by bullet holes.
It is perhaps no surprise at all that North Brother Island, with its history of death and who knows how many unmarked graves hiding within the underbrush, is said to be lousy with ghosts. Visitors have reported various strange phenomena here, which have perhaps made them reconsider their journey to these desolate shores. Eerie sounds, phantoms voices, unseen hands touching, pulling, or shoving, malfunctioning electrical equipment, and EVP phenomena, this place covers the whole spectrum of ghostly phenomena.
There have even been some cases of urban explorers fleeing the island in sheer terror, vowing never to return. This is a place not only spooky in appearance, but also apparently permeated by the despair and ghosts of its history. It makes one wonder if the sheer weight of pain and hardship can congeal and imprint itself onto a place just as surely as an image onto film. Perhaps these are events and emotions that etch upon the fabric of reality itself. It is a creepy thought to be sure.
There are mysterious places all around us, some of them hiding in plain sight. Whether it be because they are burdened with a tragic, dark history, tormented by the memories of the long dead who suffered there, or literally haunted by the spirits of the past, these are eerie locations not necessarily confined to the isolated corners of the world. Sometimes these locales can be found right amongst us, living parallel to our thrumming cities as if on another plane of existence, forgotten echoes of a bygone time reverberating through reality. There amidst the streaks of our city lights and the tireless activity of humankind these places squat, stuck between the dreamland of dead history and the bright beacons of our burgeoning development; lost, rugged, mysterious lands in a sea of concrete.
sources - urbanghostsmedia mysteriousuniverse nymag
We want you to feel at home when you post a comment on Stranger Than Fiction Stories. That’s why we reserve the right to delete comments and ban users as needed to keep the comment threads here civil and substantive. So read the guidelines below to make sure you are coloring inside the lines.
Do you have a story to tell? | <urn:uuid:1828fcc4-d321-40d6-86d0-423aa829d77e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.miamighostchronicles.com/stranger-than-fiction/leper | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00465.warc.gz | en | 0.981491 | 1,920 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.616171061992... | 7 | Located between the Bronx and Riker's Island, situated in the middle of New York City's East River in an area known as Hell's Gate is North Brother Island. In 1885 if you were sick and contagious, you would be brought to this 20-acre island along with other patients from the five boroughs. In most cases the patients did not come here voluntarily but were forced to do so. It was far enough to stop disease from spreading, leaving those living and dying there feeling isolated. But in a city that was overcrowded and pestilence-stricken it was the best option to keep the populace safe.
Riverside was built on the north end of the island, and it was initially used for those stricken with smallpox. Over the next decades it was used to quarantine those infected with typhus, scarlet fever and yellow fever.
There was food shortages, and no heating during the cold winter months. As a result of all of this, the mortality rate for those who were banished here was very high, to the point that being sent to North Brother Island was seen as practically synonymous with a death sentence. Since the bedraggled patients were not allowed to leave until they recovered and these were the days before telephones, many of the people who left for North Brother Island were never to return. Their friends and families never heard from them again or knew what had become of them.
It was greatly feared by the general populace, who refused to go anywhere near it. Even the ponderous ferries of the river gave it a wide berth.
Lepers were also brought to the island and confined to wooden huts within the boundaries of the hospital, thus making it New York City's only official leper colony.
But it wasn’t just the leper colony for which North Brother Island has become most notorious. This forgotten place was also once home to Mary Mallon, an Irish immigrant known to the history as Typhoid Mary. Mallon was thought to be responsible for spreading the deadly disease through a number of families. And with a fatality rate as high as three in ten, typhoid is a particularly nasty way to go. She was brought to North Brother Island in 1907.
What starts out as a low grade fever and cramping quickly leads to delirium as blood begins to clot beneath the skin. This is followed by inflammation of the brain and intestinal hemorrhaging. Mary Mallon was asymptomatic, but advances in epidemiology meant that doctors could trace the cause of an outbreak. In every job that Mallon had held down in New York, people had become sick with typhoid, and one had died.
Typhoid Mary was incarcerated for three years while the authorities figured out what to do with her. Somewhere in the region of 163 samples of bodily fluids and tissues were taken from her.
In 1910 her wish to be freed was granted on the condition that she sign an affidavit stating that she would stop working as a cook and take proper hygienic measures to stop spreading the disease.
Although Mary agreed to these terms and was allowed to return to the mainland, she worked briefly as a laundress before changing her name and resuming the better paying work as a cook, which not surprisingly led to more infections of typhoid fever wherever she went. The worst outbreak she was directly responsible for was at Sloane Hospital for Women in New York City, where she worked in 1915, and which resulted in 25 people coming down with the disease and two dying from it.
After this, authorities arrested Mary and she was sent back to North Brother Island, where she would spend the next two decades languishing until her death at the age of 69, on November 11, 1938 from pneumonia. Ultimately, Typhoid Mary unintentionally infected a total of 53 people with typhoid fever during her life, and still believed she was not responsible at the time of her death.
Around that time, when New York was accepting huge numbers of immigrants from other countries and the majority were forced into crowded and unsanitary living quarters, these diseases were spreading quickly. The city had to do something. Riverside was its answer. But the situation there wasn't much better -- out of sight, out of mind. Conditions were bad, the mortality rate among patients was high and the recovery rate low.
Patients lived in tents, pavilions, and cottages in and around the hospital. Those struggling with leprosy were confined to wooden shacks on the perimeter. When the weather was bad, the ferries that ran between North Brother Island and the Bronx were anchored and no food was delivered. According to those who survived and made it back to New York proper, life at Riverside was "the black hole of Calcutta."
Disease was not even the only death associated with the island, as North Brother Island was the scene of what remains the worst maritime disaster ever recorded in New York history.
On June 15, 1904, the passenger steamship General Slocum was carrying a large number of German immigrants from St. Mark’s Evangelical Lutheran Church on their way to a church picnic when the ship somehow caught fire. The burning, flaming ship eventually sank, and when the smoke cleared around 1,021 of the 1,342 people on board had died, either from the fire or from drowning. The survivors of the wreck were taken to North Brother Island to receive medical care.
The wreck remained ensconced within its watery grave until it was salvaged to be converted into a barge, Maryland, which strangely enough would also sink into the depths of the Atlantic Ocean in 1911 while on a voyage to deliver a load of coal.
By the 1940s, the grounds of Riverside Hospital had become a convalescence for wounded World War Two soldiers. North Brother Island was transformed into a housing center meant for veterans and their families. But the need to take a ferry in order to get anywhere meant that many chose to relocate as soon as they could.
The island gave one last dying gasp in the form of a drug rehabilitation center for heroin addicts in the 1950s, but this too was to be short lived and the island fell silent in 1963, when all human activity there was ceased and the buildings decommissioned and abandoned to be left behind to the ages.
The crumbling remains of North Brother Island and its abandoned quarantine hospital are now heavily overgrown, eerie ruins that lurk amid the unchecked foliage of the tiny, forgotten island. The location is now strictly off-limits to the public.
More chilling still is the fact that the forgotten, unwanted nature of the derelict buildings mirrors the tragic fate of many who passed through North Brother Island, especially those who never left the confines of Riverside Hospital alive. The crumbling ruins are their memorial, and those who look closely will find traces of those quarantined patients even today.
Discarded keys are heaped in piles. Phone books from the 1950s lie open to the last pages touched by human hands, and developed X-rays can still be read. Graffiti scrawled by patients long gone still covers the walls. In one building, the forlorn door of a nurses’ station is pockmarked by bullet holes.
It is perhaps no surprise at all that North Brother Island, with its history of death and who knows how many unmarked graves hiding within the underbrush, is said to be lousy with ghosts. Visitors have reported various strange phenomena here, which have perhaps made them reconsider their journey to these desolate shores. Eerie sounds, phantoms voices, unseen hands touching, pulling, or shoving, malfunctioning electrical equipment, and EVP phenomena, this place covers the whole spectrum of ghostly phenomena.
There have even been some cases of urban explorers fleeing the island in sheer terror, vowing never to return. This is a place not only spooky in appearance, but also apparently permeated by the despair and ghosts of its history. It makes one wonder if the sheer weight of pain and hardship can congeal and imprint itself onto a place just as surely as an image onto film. Perhaps these are events and emotions that etch upon the fabric of reality itself. It is a creepy thought to be sure.
There are mysterious places all around us, some of them hiding in plain sight. Whether it be because they are burdened with a tragic, dark history, tormented by the memories of the long dead who suffered there, or literally haunted by the spirits of the past, these are eerie locations not necessarily confined to the isolated corners of the world. Sometimes these locales can be found right amongst us, living parallel to our thrumming cities as if on another plane of existence, forgotten echoes of a bygone time reverberating through reality. There amidst the streaks of our city lights and the tireless activity of humankind these places squat, stuck between the dreamland of dead history and the bright beacons of our burgeoning development; lost, rugged, mysterious lands in a sea of concrete.
sources - urbanghostsmedia mysteriousuniverse nymag
We want you to feel at home when you post a comment on Stranger Than Fiction Stories. That’s why we reserve the right to delete comments and ban users as needed to keep the comment threads here civil and substantive. So read the guidelines below to make sure you are coloring inside the lines.
Do you have a story to tell? | 1,960 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Over the years, Jamestown Rediscovery archaeologists have recovered European pottery right beside Virginia Indian ceramics. Because of their design and material, the two types were easy to tell apart. This ceramic vessel, however, appears to have been made by a colonist but has impressions of a Virginia Indian basket on the exterior. It is evidence that in James Fort there was a complex cultural exchange between English and the Powhatan Indians.
This basket pot is thought to have been the work of Robert Cotton, an English pipe-maker who arrived on the Phoenix in 1608. It is made from the same clay as pipes made by Cotton after his arrival. Although the function of the pot is unknown, archaeologists speculate that it could have been used as a muffle (a vessel used to insulate the pipes during the firing process).
The unique design of the pot is reflective of the interaction between the English and Virginia Indians in the early years of James Fort. The Powhatans were eager to acquire the exotic trade goods brought by the English. At the same time, the colonists were observing the objects used by the Indians to accomplish tasks in what, to the English, was a strange and unfamiliar world. In the early contexts of James Fort, archaeologists have found artifacts in traditional indigenous forms that were shaped by iron tools. Does this mean the Indians were adopting the use of European tools in their technologies or were Englishmen copying Indian objects that were better suited to the new conditions they faced in Virginia? The close contact between the Powhatans and English colonists created a “third space” where objects, materials, and techniques were exchanged and modified. | <urn:uuid:d6214481-2da0-4c61-8107-0e716bd4c004> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historicjamestowne.org/selected-artifacts/basket-pot/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.986221 | 332 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.3202154338359... | 14 | Over the years, Jamestown Rediscovery archaeologists have recovered European pottery right beside Virginia Indian ceramics. Because of their design and material, the two types were easy to tell apart. This ceramic vessel, however, appears to have been made by a colonist but has impressions of a Virginia Indian basket on the exterior. It is evidence that in James Fort there was a complex cultural exchange between English and the Powhatan Indians.
This basket pot is thought to have been the work of Robert Cotton, an English pipe-maker who arrived on the Phoenix in 1608. It is made from the same clay as pipes made by Cotton after his arrival. Although the function of the pot is unknown, archaeologists speculate that it could have been used as a muffle (a vessel used to insulate the pipes during the firing process).
The unique design of the pot is reflective of the interaction between the English and Virginia Indians in the early years of James Fort. The Powhatans were eager to acquire the exotic trade goods brought by the English. At the same time, the colonists were observing the objects used by the Indians to accomplish tasks in what, to the English, was a strange and unfamiliar world. In the early contexts of James Fort, archaeologists have found artifacts in traditional indigenous forms that were shaped by iron tools. Does this mean the Indians were adopting the use of European tools in their technologies or were Englishmen copying Indian objects that were better suited to the new conditions they faced in Virginia? The close contact between the Powhatans and English colonists created a “third space” where objects, materials, and techniques were exchanged and modified. | 331 | ENGLISH | 1 |
19th Jul 1919: To celebrate and mark the end of the Great War, a Bank Holiday was declared in Britain with the focal point a Victory or Peace Parade (click on link for film) by 15,000 victorious Allied troops from twelve nations through the streets of London. It was reported that as many as 5 million people turned out for the parade along a seven mile route from Knightsbridge through Westminster and onto Buckingham Palace. Though the prevailing mood was in the main triumphant, the day of celebration and victory parade attracted some criticism from those who felt that the money would be better spent supporting returning servicemen who faced physical and mental injuries, and who needed work and a place to live.
A Cenotaph (photograph above) monument to those killed and wounded was unveiled in Whitehall by King George V, to mark the end point of the victory parade. Architect Sir Edwin Lutyens was commissioned by Lloyd George at the start of the month to design the monument, and had just 2 weeks to create a piece befitting of the memory of the fallen. Though it was a temporary wood and plaster construction, the Cenotaph was soon decorated with flower wreaths and the decision was soon made to create a more permanent structure made from Portland stone and in the same design. Unveiled by the King on 11th November 1920 with the arrival of the Unknown Warrior en-route to Westminster Abbey, the Cenotaph remains the main focal point of remembrance in the UK.
28th Jun 1919: The Treaty of Versailles. Although the armistice, signed on 11th November 1918, ended the actual fighting of the First World War, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the Peace Treaty, and thus ending the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. The treaty was signed on 28th June 1919 in Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which had directly led to the war. Germany and Austria-Hungary were not invited to the negotiations, instead they were only allowed to present a response to the treaty, which they expected to be based on the ‘Fourteen Points’ put forward by US President Wilson prior to the Armistice. Terms of the Peace Treaty were drawn up mainly by the ‘Big Four’ of British Prime Minister Lloyd George, French Prime Minister Frances Clemenceau, President Wilson, and Italy’s Prime Minister Vittoria Orlando, with the first three deciding the key decisions. Australia also sent its own delegation under the leadership of Prime Minister William Hughes.
Germany was shocked at the severity of the terms and protested the contradictions between the assurances made when the armistice was negotiated and the actual treaty. One of the most important and controversial required “Germany to accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage” during the war. This article later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty required Germany to disarm, make ample territorial concessions and pay reparations to the countries that had formed the Allied ‘Entente’ powers.
The Allies, especially the French who had the most to fear from a resurgent Germany on its borders, wanted to make sure that Germany would never again pose a military threat to the rest of Europe, and the treaty contained a number of stipulations to guarantee this aim. The German army was restricted to 100,000 men and the general staff was eliminated; the manufacture of armoured cars, tanks, submarines, airplanes, and poison gas was forbidden; and only a small number of specified factories could make weapons or munitions. All of Germany west of the Rhine and up to 30 miles (50 km) east of it was to be a demilitarized zone. The forced disarmament of Germany, it was hoped, would be accompanied by voluntary disarmament in other nations.
The population and territory of Germany was reduced by about 10 percent by the treaty. In the west, Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France having been in German hands since 1871 and the end of the Franco-Prussian War, and the Saarland was placed under the supervision of the League of Nations until 1935. In the north, three small areas were given to Belgium, and northern Schleswig was returned to Denmark. In the east, Poland was resurrected, given most of former German West Prussia and Poznan plus a corridor to the Baltic Sea between East Prussia and the rest of Germany, and part of Upper Silesia after a plebiscite. All Germany’s overseas colonies in China, in the Pacific, and in Africa were taken over by Britain, France, Japan, and other Allied nations. Included in their lost colonial possessions was German New Guinea. Other lands south of the equator became the Territory of New Guinea, a League of Nations Mandate Territory under Australian administration until 1949 (interrupted by Japanese occupation during the New Guinea campaign) when it was merged with the Australian territory of Papua to become the Territory of Papua and New Guinea, which eventually became modern Papua New Guinea. In 1923, the League of Nations gave Australia a trustee mandate over Nauru, with the United Kingdom and New Zealand as co-trustees.
The cost of the reparations was assessed in 1921 at being 132 billion marks, roughly equivalent to US$442 billion or UK£284 billion in 2019. At the time economists, notably John Maynard Keynes (a British delegate to the Paris Peace Conference), predicted that the treaty was too harsh – a “Carthaginian peace” – and said the reparations figure was excessive and counter-productive, views that since then have been the subject of ongoing debate by historians and economists.
In the years after it was ratified the Treaty of Versailles was revised and altered, mostly in Germany’s favour. Many historians claim that the combination of a harsh treaty and subsequent lax enforcement of its provisions paved the way for the upsurge of German militarism in the 1930s. The huge German reparations and the war guilt clause fostered deep resentment of the settlement in Germany, and when Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland in 1936 (a violation of the treaty), the Allies did nothing to stop him, thus encouraging future German aggression. The Treaty of Versailles was supposed to ensure a lasting peace by punishing Germany and setting up a League of Nations to solve diplomatic problems. Instead it left a legacy of political and geographical difficulties which have often been blamed for starting the Second World War.
21st June 1919: Following the end of the First World War the German High Seas Fleet was interned at the British Royal Navy’s base at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands under the terms of the Armistice whilst negotiations took place over the fate of the ships. Fearing that all of the ships would be seized and divided amongst the Allied powers, the German commander, Admiral Ludwig von Reuter, decided to scuttle the fleet. Intervening British guard ships were able to beach a number of the ships, but 52 of the 74 interned vessels sank. Nine German sailors were shot and killed plus sixteen wounded aboard their lifeboats rowing towards land. Many of the wrecks were salvaged over the next two decades and were towed away for scrapping, the rest left and are now dive sites.
14th February 1919: The initial draft of the Covenant of the League of Nations comprising of 26 articles was completed and published under the close supervision of US President Woodrow Wilson. However while the League was accepted by many nations the US Congress refused to accept American membership of the League.
18th January 1919: The start of the Paris peace negotiations. To the surprise of many in Germany, given that their armies were still on foreign land, the Germans were not given a fair place at the table. On the other hand the Allies were deeply divided on their aims, with the French wanting to cripple Germany for centuries, but President Woodrow Wilson’s American delegation wanting a League of Nations (although the American people were much less keen on the idea). Although there were 32 countries and nationalities represented, events were dominated by the small group of the major nations which became known as the ‘Big Four’, France, Britain, US, and Italy. | <urn:uuid:2f7a5f1a-482a-49e9-83b1-9adffdd53272> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://anzac-22nd-battalion.com/western-front-1919/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00233.warc.gz | en | 0.980121 | 1,700 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.54172605... | 4 | 19th Jul 1919: To celebrate and mark the end of the Great War, a Bank Holiday was declared in Britain with the focal point a Victory or Peace Parade (click on link for film) by 15,000 victorious Allied troops from twelve nations through the streets of London. It was reported that as many as 5 million people turned out for the parade along a seven mile route from Knightsbridge through Westminster and onto Buckingham Palace. Though the prevailing mood was in the main triumphant, the day of celebration and victory parade attracted some criticism from those who felt that the money would be better spent supporting returning servicemen who faced physical and mental injuries, and who needed work and a place to live.
A Cenotaph (photograph above) monument to those killed and wounded was unveiled in Whitehall by King George V, to mark the end point of the victory parade. Architect Sir Edwin Lutyens was commissioned by Lloyd George at the start of the month to design the monument, and had just 2 weeks to create a piece befitting of the memory of the fallen. Though it was a temporary wood and plaster construction, the Cenotaph was soon decorated with flower wreaths and the decision was soon made to create a more permanent structure made from Portland stone and in the same design. Unveiled by the King on 11th November 1920 with the arrival of the Unknown Warrior en-route to Westminster Abbey, the Cenotaph remains the main focal point of remembrance in the UK.
28th Jun 1919: The Treaty of Versailles. Although the armistice, signed on 11th November 1918, ended the actual fighting of the First World War, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the Peace Treaty, and thus ending the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. The treaty was signed on 28th June 1919 in Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which had directly led to the war. Germany and Austria-Hungary were not invited to the negotiations, instead they were only allowed to present a response to the treaty, which they expected to be based on the ‘Fourteen Points’ put forward by US President Wilson prior to the Armistice. Terms of the Peace Treaty were drawn up mainly by the ‘Big Four’ of British Prime Minister Lloyd George, French Prime Minister Frances Clemenceau, President Wilson, and Italy’s Prime Minister Vittoria Orlando, with the first three deciding the key decisions. Australia also sent its own delegation under the leadership of Prime Minister William Hughes.
Germany was shocked at the severity of the terms and protested the contradictions between the assurances made when the armistice was negotiated and the actual treaty. One of the most important and controversial required “Germany to accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage” during the war. This article later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty required Germany to disarm, make ample territorial concessions and pay reparations to the countries that had formed the Allied ‘Entente’ powers.
The Allies, especially the French who had the most to fear from a resurgent Germany on its borders, wanted to make sure that Germany would never again pose a military threat to the rest of Europe, and the treaty contained a number of stipulations to guarantee this aim. The German army was restricted to 100,000 men and the general staff was eliminated; the manufacture of armoured cars, tanks, submarines, airplanes, and poison gas was forbidden; and only a small number of specified factories could make weapons or munitions. All of Germany west of the Rhine and up to 30 miles (50 km) east of it was to be a demilitarized zone. The forced disarmament of Germany, it was hoped, would be accompanied by voluntary disarmament in other nations.
The population and territory of Germany was reduced by about 10 percent by the treaty. In the west, Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France having been in German hands since 1871 and the end of the Franco-Prussian War, and the Saarland was placed under the supervision of the League of Nations until 1935. In the north, three small areas were given to Belgium, and northern Schleswig was returned to Denmark. In the east, Poland was resurrected, given most of former German West Prussia and Poznan plus a corridor to the Baltic Sea between East Prussia and the rest of Germany, and part of Upper Silesia after a plebiscite. All Germany’s overseas colonies in China, in the Pacific, and in Africa were taken over by Britain, France, Japan, and other Allied nations. Included in their lost colonial possessions was German New Guinea. Other lands south of the equator became the Territory of New Guinea, a League of Nations Mandate Territory under Australian administration until 1949 (interrupted by Japanese occupation during the New Guinea campaign) when it was merged with the Australian territory of Papua to become the Territory of Papua and New Guinea, which eventually became modern Papua New Guinea. In 1923, the League of Nations gave Australia a trustee mandate over Nauru, with the United Kingdom and New Zealand as co-trustees.
The cost of the reparations was assessed in 1921 at being 132 billion marks, roughly equivalent to US$442 billion or UK£284 billion in 2019. At the time economists, notably John Maynard Keynes (a British delegate to the Paris Peace Conference), predicted that the treaty was too harsh – a “Carthaginian peace” – and said the reparations figure was excessive and counter-productive, views that since then have been the subject of ongoing debate by historians and economists.
In the years after it was ratified the Treaty of Versailles was revised and altered, mostly in Germany’s favour. Many historians claim that the combination of a harsh treaty and subsequent lax enforcement of its provisions paved the way for the upsurge of German militarism in the 1930s. The huge German reparations and the war guilt clause fostered deep resentment of the settlement in Germany, and when Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland in 1936 (a violation of the treaty), the Allies did nothing to stop him, thus encouraging future German aggression. The Treaty of Versailles was supposed to ensure a lasting peace by punishing Germany and setting up a League of Nations to solve diplomatic problems. Instead it left a legacy of political and geographical difficulties which have often been blamed for starting the Second World War.
21st June 1919: Following the end of the First World War the German High Seas Fleet was interned at the British Royal Navy’s base at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands under the terms of the Armistice whilst negotiations took place over the fate of the ships. Fearing that all of the ships would be seized and divided amongst the Allied powers, the German commander, Admiral Ludwig von Reuter, decided to scuttle the fleet. Intervening British guard ships were able to beach a number of the ships, but 52 of the 74 interned vessels sank. Nine German sailors were shot and killed plus sixteen wounded aboard their lifeboats rowing towards land. Many of the wrecks were salvaged over the next two decades and were towed away for scrapping, the rest left and are now dive sites.
14th February 1919: The initial draft of the Covenant of the League of Nations comprising of 26 articles was completed and published under the close supervision of US President Woodrow Wilson. However while the League was accepted by many nations the US Congress refused to accept American membership of the League.
18th January 1919: The start of the Paris peace negotiations. To the surprise of many in Germany, given that their armies were still on foreign land, the Germans were not given a fair place at the table. On the other hand the Allies were deeply divided on their aims, with the French wanting to cripple Germany for centuries, but President Woodrow Wilson’s American delegation wanting a League of Nations (although the American people were much less keen on the idea). Although there were 32 countries and nationalities represented, events were dominated by the small group of the major nations which became known as the ‘Big Four’, France, Britain, US, and Italy. | 1,770 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Beginning • The Industrial Revolution transformed Europe from an agricultural society into an industrial society of constant growth. • New technology revolutionized the way people lived, worked, interacted, and governed. • Began in Great Britain around 1780, took 50 years to spread throughout Europe. • By 1814, one out of every four pieces of manufactured goods in the world came from British factories.
British Industry • The Industrial Revolution started because the British food supply rose, leading to cheaper food and more money to purchase manufactured goods. • The rise in available food also led to a population boom. Lots of available workers. • British investors had a lot of money to invest in new technology, machines, and factories. • Because of its colonies, Britain had lots of natural resources and a supply of markets in which to sell goods.
Cotton • Cotton production was one of Britain’s industries. • Cotton was traditionally spun and weaved by hand, and turned into clothing and other goods by workers who worked at home. • New inventions, such as the water-powered loom, made it possible to produce cotton goods faster. • Workers were brought out of the home and into factories that were built around machines.
Cotton and Steam • In 1782, James Watt adapted the steam-powered engine to drive machinery. • Steam power was used to spin and weave cotton, replacing the water-powered loom. • Production increased and factories could be built anywhere – access to running water was no longer needed. • By 1840, cotton cloth became Britain’s most valuable product.
Steam Engine • The steam engine drove the Industrial Revolution. • Because it ran on coal, the coal industry expanded. • Britain had a huge supply of coal. • Coal also allowed for the production of better quality iron, which was used to construct stronger buildings and tools. • Britain produced 17,000 tons of iron in 1740. By 1852, it was producing 3 million tons a year.
Railroads • Resources needed to be moved to factories to make goods, and goods needed to be moved to markets. • Railroads were created to solve this problem. • By 1850, Britain had 6,000 miles of track. Trains were powered by coal and steam engines. • Peasants and farmers moved to the cities to build railroads and work in factories.
The Cycle of Growth • The speed of trains made it cheaper to transport goods, which made goods cheaper. The trains also brought the goods to new markets. • This allowed more people to buy goods, and created more of a demand for new goods. • This led to more factories and a demand for new inventions and new machines that could produce goods cheaper and faster.
Effects on People • Europe’s population doubled between 1750 and 1850 to 266 million people. • Less disease, more food. • People moved to the city to work in the newly created industries – nine British cities had over 100,000 people in 1850. • Many people lived in miserable conditions in the rapidly growing cities. • A movement was started to clean up the cities and provide adequate waste removal and access to clean air and water.
Workers • Industrial workers faced horrible working conditions. • Some worked 16 hours a day, 6 days a week. • The average American in 2012 works 7.5 hours a day, 5 days a week. • There was no minimum wage • Workers could be fired for any reason with no warning • Factories were often unsafe and hot.
Workers, cont. • In Britain, women and children made up 2/3 of the workforce. • A child could work in a factory at the age of 9, but was limited to an 8 hour work day until the age of 13. • Women were paid less than men – sometimes half as much for the same work. • Married men were expected to work to support the family. • Married women were expected to stay at home and perform low paying jobs, such as doing other people’s laundry.
Socialism • The harsh working conditions led to interest in a movement called socialism. • Under socialism, a society, usually government, owns and controls the means of production, such as factories and natural resources. • In theory, all people would benefit the same from a socialist factory’s work, because “everyone” owns the factory. • Early socialists thought that this idea would promote equality among the people in a society and replace competition with cooperation. | <urn:uuid:3ab91294-4852-4132-894c-4d45bb4d4ec4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.slideserve.com/anisa/the-industrial-revolution-powerpoint-ppt-presentation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.980385 | 905 | 4 | 4 | [
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-0.088536448776... | 1 | Beginning • The Industrial Revolution transformed Europe from an agricultural society into an industrial society of constant growth. • New technology revolutionized the way people lived, worked, interacted, and governed. • Began in Great Britain around 1780, took 50 years to spread throughout Europe. • By 1814, one out of every four pieces of manufactured goods in the world came from British factories.
British Industry • The Industrial Revolution started because the British food supply rose, leading to cheaper food and more money to purchase manufactured goods. • The rise in available food also led to a population boom. Lots of available workers. • British investors had a lot of money to invest in new technology, machines, and factories. • Because of its colonies, Britain had lots of natural resources and a supply of markets in which to sell goods.
Cotton • Cotton production was one of Britain’s industries. • Cotton was traditionally spun and weaved by hand, and turned into clothing and other goods by workers who worked at home. • New inventions, such as the water-powered loom, made it possible to produce cotton goods faster. • Workers were brought out of the home and into factories that were built around machines.
Cotton and Steam • In 1782, James Watt adapted the steam-powered engine to drive machinery. • Steam power was used to spin and weave cotton, replacing the water-powered loom. • Production increased and factories could be built anywhere – access to running water was no longer needed. • By 1840, cotton cloth became Britain’s most valuable product.
Steam Engine • The steam engine drove the Industrial Revolution. • Because it ran on coal, the coal industry expanded. • Britain had a huge supply of coal. • Coal also allowed for the production of better quality iron, which was used to construct stronger buildings and tools. • Britain produced 17,000 tons of iron in 1740. By 1852, it was producing 3 million tons a year.
Railroads • Resources needed to be moved to factories to make goods, and goods needed to be moved to markets. • Railroads were created to solve this problem. • By 1850, Britain had 6,000 miles of track. Trains were powered by coal and steam engines. • Peasants and farmers moved to the cities to build railroads and work in factories.
The Cycle of Growth • The speed of trains made it cheaper to transport goods, which made goods cheaper. The trains also brought the goods to new markets. • This allowed more people to buy goods, and created more of a demand for new goods. • This led to more factories and a demand for new inventions and new machines that could produce goods cheaper and faster.
Effects on People • Europe’s population doubled between 1750 and 1850 to 266 million people. • Less disease, more food. • People moved to the city to work in the newly created industries – nine British cities had over 100,000 people in 1850. • Many people lived in miserable conditions in the rapidly growing cities. • A movement was started to clean up the cities and provide adequate waste removal and access to clean air and water.
Workers • Industrial workers faced horrible working conditions. • Some worked 16 hours a day, 6 days a week. • The average American in 2012 works 7.5 hours a day, 5 days a week. • There was no minimum wage • Workers could be fired for any reason with no warning • Factories were often unsafe and hot.
Workers, cont. • In Britain, women and children made up 2/3 of the workforce. • A child could work in a factory at the age of 9, but was limited to an 8 hour work day until the age of 13. • Women were paid less than men – sometimes half as much for the same work. • Married men were expected to work to support the family. • Married women were expected to stay at home and perform low paying jobs, such as doing other people’s laundry.
Socialism • The harsh working conditions led to interest in a movement called socialism. • Under socialism, a society, usually government, owns and controls the means of production, such as factories and natural resources. • In theory, all people would benefit the same from a socialist factory’s work, because “everyone” owns the factory. • Early socialists thought that this idea would promote equality among the people in a society and replace competition with cooperation. | 946 | ENGLISH | 1 |
To Savannah And The Sea
From his headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia, Union major general William T. Sherman prepared for his next move. It was a bold plan. He would cut his supply line, which extended back to Tennessee. The line provided his army with food and material, but it was long and difficult to defend against enemy raiders. He also would cut the telegraph wires that kept him connected to his superiors. That would stop all communications between him and his commander, Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant. At first, Grant expressed reservations about the plan, but his faith in Sherman won out. Grant told him, “Go as you propose.”
Before Sherman abandoned Atlanta, he ordered all its military installations burned. He knew that once the Union army left, Georgians would reclaim their city. He didn’t want the Confederacy to be able to use Atlanta as a military and transportation hub again. The fire grew out of control, and about half of the city was destroyed.
On November 15, Sherman set out with 62,000 soldiers on his March to the Sea. His goal was to destroy the infrastructure that supplied the Confederate army with food and materiel. He also wanted to show the people of Georgia that the Confederate government was not able to protect them. The sight of Union soldiers marching unchallenged through the heart of the South, Sherman believed, would crush the people living there. It would bring the war to a speedy conclusion. A quick end would mean fewer lives lost on both sides.
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READ THE ENTIRE ISSUE | <urn:uuid:8ea498bd-f2dd-44a4-9941-2203ef22b309> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.magzter.com/articles/11347/257195/5a6a743b3a0fa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00406.warc.gz | en | 0.984508 | 352 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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From his headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia, Union major general William T. Sherman prepared for his next move. It was a bold plan. He would cut his supply line, which extended back to Tennessee. The line provided his army with food and material, but it was long and difficult to defend against enemy raiders. He also would cut the telegraph wires that kept him connected to his superiors. That would stop all communications between him and his commander, Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant. At first, Grant expressed reservations about the plan, but his faith in Sherman won out. Grant told him, “Go as you propose.”
Before Sherman abandoned Atlanta, he ordered all its military installations burned. He knew that once the Union army left, Georgians would reclaim their city. He didn’t want the Confederacy to be able to use Atlanta as a military and transportation hub again. The fire grew out of control, and about half of the city was destroyed.
On November 15, Sherman set out with 62,000 soldiers on his March to the Sea. His goal was to destroy the infrastructure that supplied the Confederate army with food and materiel. He also wanted to show the people of Georgia that the Confederate government was not able to protect them. The sight of Union soldiers marching unchallenged through the heart of the South, Sherman believed, would crush the people living there. It would bring the war to a speedy conclusion. A quick end would mean fewer lives lost on both sides.
Continue Reading with Magzter GOLD
Log-in, if you are already a subscriber
Get unlimited access to thousands of curated premium stories and 5,000+ magazines
READ THE ENTIRE ISSUE | 355 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 4th September 1825 the Grand Old Man of India, Dadabhai Naoroji was born in Mumbai to a prominent Parsi family.
Dadabhai Naoroji was an educator, ordained Parsi priest, intellectual, cotton trader, politician and a social leader. He was also the first Asian to be a British MP. Naoroji was even the founder of the Indian National Congress along with A.O Hume and Dinshaw Edulji Wacha. Through his book, Poverty and the Un-British Rule (published in 1901), Naoroji pointed out that most of India’s wealth went to Britain.
In 1850 at the age of 20, Dadabhai Naoroji was offered the position of Professor at the Elphinstone Institute in Mumbai. He was the first Indian to hold such a position. In 1855 Naoroji became Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Mumbai. Later that year Naoriji travelled to London to become partner in Cama and Co, the first Indian company that was established in Britain and he resigned after three years of partnership citing ethical reasons. Following that Naoroji established Naoroji and Co in 1859, his own cotton trading company. He later became a Professor of Gujarati at the University College of London.
In 1867, Naoroji helped set up the East India Association, an organization set up before the formation of the Indian National Congress, which wanted to put forward the Indian point of view to the Britrish. The association received great support from prominent Englishmen which helped them influence the British Parliament.
Naoroji became Prime Minister of Baroda in 1874 and was the member of Legislative Council of Mumbai from 1885 to 1888. He was also the member of the Indian National Association founded by Surendranath Banerjee in Kolkata. These two groups were later merged in the Indian National Congress since they had the same vision and objectives. Naoroji was elected President of the Congress in 1886. Back in Britain to carry on his political immersion, Naoroji was elected the first British-Indian Member of Parliament. He was assisted by Muhammad Ali Jinnah (future founder of Pakistan) in his political duties as MP. In 1906 Naoroji was elected again as the President of the Indian National Congress. He is remembered for his moderate views even when the party was divided between the extremists and the moderates. Naoroji was also a mentor to Mahatma Gandhi and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
Most of Dadbhai Naoroji’s work revolved around the drain of wealth from India to Britain because of Colonial rule. Throughout his work through economics, Naoroji tried to prove that Britain was in fact draining money out of India. To explain this, Naoroji define six factors:
- India is ruled by a foreign government.
- India does not attack foreign immigrants who bring labour and capital to contribute to the Indian economy.
- India pays for British Civil Administration and occupational army.
- India pays for empires built within and outside the country.
- Opening the country to free trade was in a way exploiting India by offering high paying jobs to foreigners.
- The main income earners in India would eventually leave the country with the money earned because they were foreigners.
Though Naoroji did give credit to the British for the services they introduced to India, such as the railways. But he argued that most of the money earned by the railways was drained out of India. Hence the money earned by the railways did not belong to India. Similarly, the East India Company would buy Indian goods with the money drained from India and export them back to Britain.
When elected to the Parliament, in his first speech Naoroji questioned the place of India within India. He explained that India was Britain’s subject or slave depending on how willing Britain was on giving India the institutions that the British operated. If these institutions were given to India then India would be able to self govern and the revenue earned would remain in India. Naoroji also championed the cause of equal employment and was against Indians taking on mediocre jobs that they were overqualified for, while the British got all the high paying jobs. Dadabhai Naoroji believed that to stop the drain, India needed to develop industries so that revenue could be kept within the country.
Dadabhai Naoroji passed away on 30th June 1917 in Mumbai. Following his death many places have been named after him; such as the Dadabhai Naoroji Road in Mumbai, the Dadabhai Naoroji Road in Karachi (Pakistan), Naoroji Street in London and Naoriji Nagar in Delhi.
Also on This Day:
1888: Gandhi left for England for his Bar-at-Law. | <urn:uuid:49f1e3f2-0ee3-4b82-9031-4a52930db130> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mapsofindia.com/on-this-day/4th-september-1825-the-grand-old-man-of-india-dadabhai-naoroji-is-born | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.98085 | 979 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.619591414928... | 4 | On 4th September 1825 the Grand Old Man of India, Dadabhai Naoroji was born in Mumbai to a prominent Parsi family.
Dadabhai Naoroji was an educator, ordained Parsi priest, intellectual, cotton trader, politician and a social leader. He was also the first Asian to be a British MP. Naoroji was even the founder of the Indian National Congress along with A.O Hume and Dinshaw Edulji Wacha. Through his book, Poverty and the Un-British Rule (published in 1901), Naoroji pointed out that most of India’s wealth went to Britain.
In 1850 at the age of 20, Dadabhai Naoroji was offered the position of Professor at the Elphinstone Institute in Mumbai. He was the first Indian to hold such a position. In 1855 Naoroji became Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Mumbai. Later that year Naoriji travelled to London to become partner in Cama and Co, the first Indian company that was established in Britain and he resigned after three years of partnership citing ethical reasons. Following that Naoroji established Naoroji and Co in 1859, his own cotton trading company. He later became a Professor of Gujarati at the University College of London.
In 1867, Naoroji helped set up the East India Association, an organization set up before the formation of the Indian National Congress, which wanted to put forward the Indian point of view to the Britrish. The association received great support from prominent Englishmen which helped them influence the British Parliament.
Naoroji became Prime Minister of Baroda in 1874 and was the member of Legislative Council of Mumbai from 1885 to 1888. He was also the member of the Indian National Association founded by Surendranath Banerjee in Kolkata. These two groups were later merged in the Indian National Congress since they had the same vision and objectives. Naoroji was elected President of the Congress in 1886. Back in Britain to carry on his political immersion, Naoroji was elected the first British-Indian Member of Parliament. He was assisted by Muhammad Ali Jinnah (future founder of Pakistan) in his political duties as MP. In 1906 Naoroji was elected again as the President of the Indian National Congress. He is remembered for his moderate views even when the party was divided between the extremists and the moderates. Naoroji was also a mentor to Mahatma Gandhi and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
Most of Dadbhai Naoroji’s work revolved around the drain of wealth from India to Britain because of Colonial rule. Throughout his work through economics, Naoroji tried to prove that Britain was in fact draining money out of India. To explain this, Naoroji define six factors:
- India is ruled by a foreign government.
- India does not attack foreign immigrants who bring labour and capital to contribute to the Indian economy.
- India pays for British Civil Administration and occupational army.
- India pays for empires built within and outside the country.
- Opening the country to free trade was in a way exploiting India by offering high paying jobs to foreigners.
- The main income earners in India would eventually leave the country with the money earned because they were foreigners.
Though Naoroji did give credit to the British for the services they introduced to India, such as the railways. But he argued that most of the money earned by the railways was drained out of India. Hence the money earned by the railways did not belong to India. Similarly, the East India Company would buy Indian goods with the money drained from India and export them back to Britain.
When elected to the Parliament, in his first speech Naoroji questioned the place of India within India. He explained that India was Britain’s subject or slave depending on how willing Britain was on giving India the institutions that the British operated. If these institutions were given to India then India would be able to self govern and the revenue earned would remain in India. Naoroji also championed the cause of equal employment and was against Indians taking on mediocre jobs that they were overqualified for, while the British got all the high paying jobs. Dadabhai Naoroji believed that to stop the drain, India needed to develop industries so that revenue could be kept within the country.
Dadabhai Naoroji passed away on 30th June 1917 in Mumbai. Following his death many places have been named after him; such as the Dadabhai Naoroji Road in Mumbai, the Dadabhai Naoroji Road in Karachi (Pakistan), Naoroji Street in London and Naoriji Nagar in Delhi.
Also on This Day:
1888: Gandhi left for England for his Bar-at-Law. | 1,008 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ice in Summer
Legendary Old West gambler and lawman turned sportswriter Bat Masterson observed, in the last column he wrote before he died, that the rich and poor get the same amount of ice in a lifetime, but the rich get their ice in the summer and the poor get theirs in the winter.
Masterson used ice in this instance as a metaphor but the literal truth, in Masterson’s day, was that the north had ice about any time they wanted it, and the sultry south had precious little of it in the good ol’ summertime. Ships laden with ice that had been sawed from northern ponds and lakes the previous winter visited the Texas coast in its early days of statehood, but most of Texas never saw some much as a single cube of the stuff. When railroads came to Texas in the early 1870s, the northern ice was packed in sawdust-insulated cars and shipped to a hot and thirsty South, bringing that cool commodity to communities far from the coast.
We don’t think of ice as an agricultural crop but in those days the ice crop was almost as important to the economy of the northern states as grain. Even so, supplies in Texas rarely lasted past mid-July. Those fortunate few with the ways and means to build their own icehouses did just that and shipped in their own private supplies of ice, which makes us realize that Bat Masterson was probably more literally correct than we’re giving him credit for.
When the Civil War stopped shipments from the North, one of the main complaints in Texas was the lack of ice, which led to Texas pioneering artificial ice making and refrigeration. An ice-making machine developed in France made it through the Union blockade and was quickly installed in San Antonio. The icehouse and the icebox weren’t far behind.
Glance at brief histories of Texas communities where business from a given year are listed and you notice how many towns included an icehouse right along with the churches, stores, post offices and cotton gins.
In their time, the icehouse served not only as a purveyor of frozen water but also as a sort of community center and a convenience store, long before the term was invented. One of the world’s best known convenience store chains, 7-11, owned by the Southland Corporation, was originally known as the Consumers Ice Company and later as the Southland Ice Company.
Enterprising icehouse operators realized that people might buy a cold beer or soda pop if such items were put on ice and sold. Milk, too. And butter. And why not have the baker drop off some bread while he’s making his rounds? It wasn’t long before that enterprising icehouse operator found he was selling a lot more groceries than ice.
At home, before the advent of the modern refrigerator, people used iceboxes. The old iceboxes, which people didn’t seem to miss once they were replaced by refrigerators, had hollow walls lined with tin or zinc. They were packed with insulation like cork, sawdust, straw or seaweed. A large block of ice was stored in an area near the top of the box, allowing cool air to circulate to otherwise perishable items – milk, butter and the like – in the lower compartments. Water from the melting ice had to be drained or emptied every day. When the ice was all gone, it was time for another trip to the icehouse, or it was delivered by an iceman.
As early as the 1920s, the number of Texas icehouses began to decline as more homes got electricity and more refrigerators were sold, but Texas still had more iceboxes than refrigerators in the 1940s. By 1950, close to 90 percent of Texas families had some kind of refrigeration, and that fact quickly made the community icehouse and the family iceboxes relics from the past, relegated to long ago census counts.
The old icehouses still dot the Texas landscape. Some have been abandoned, shells of a once-thriving business, but others have been converted into various enterprises and many of them specialize in beer. A new generation of Texan is more inclined to think of the icehouse as a place to grab a cold beer which, if you think about it, isn’t that different from the function the icehouse served in its heyday.
The day of the icehouse and the ice box has come and gone and won't be coming back. We don't sit on our porches in front of a block of ice to get cool anymore. Come to think of it, we don't sit outside on our porches much at all anymore.
Mostly we go inside and turn on another marvel of the modern world – the air conditioner. | <urn:uuid:dd25e166-ef38-4682-8fd0-caafcf8ac6bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.claycoppedge.com/ice-in-summer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00442.warc.gz | en | 0.984298 | 988 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.074983432888984... | 9 | Ice in Summer
Legendary Old West gambler and lawman turned sportswriter Bat Masterson observed, in the last column he wrote before he died, that the rich and poor get the same amount of ice in a lifetime, but the rich get their ice in the summer and the poor get theirs in the winter.
Masterson used ice in this instance as a metaphor but the literal truth, in Masterson’s day, was that the north had ice about any time they wanted it, and the sultry south had precious little of it in the good ol’ summertime. Ships laden with ice that had been sawed from northern ponds and lakes the previous winter visited the Texas coast in its early days of statehood, but most of Texas never saw some much as a single cube of the stuff. When railroads came to Texas in the early 1870s, the northern ice was packed in sawdust-insulated cars and shipped to a hot and thirsty South, bringing that cool commodity to communities far from the coast.
We don’t think of ice as an agricultural crop but in those days the ice crop was almost as important to the economy of the northern states as grain. Even so, supplies in Texas rarely lasted past mid-July. Those fortunate few with the ways and means to build their own icehouses did just that and shipped in their own private supplies of ice, which makes us realize that Bat Masterson was probably more literally correct than we’re giving him credit for.
When the Civil War stopped shipments from the North, one of the main complaints in Texas was the lack of ice, which led to Texas pioneering artificial ice making and refrigeration. An ice-making machine developed in France made it through the Union blockade and was quickly installed in San Antonio. The icehouse and the icebox weren’t far behind.
Glance at brief histories of Texas communities where business from a given year are listed and you notice how many towns included an icehouse right along with the churches, stores, post offices and cotton gins.
In their time, the icehouse served not only as a purveyor of frozen water but also as a sort of community center and a convenience store, long before the term was invented. One of the world’s best known convenience store chains, 7-11, owned by the Southland Corporation, was originally known as the Consumers Ice Company and later as the Southland Ice Company.
Enterprising icehouse operators realized that people might buy a cold beer or soda pop if such items were put on ice and sold. Milk, too. And butter. And why not have the baker drop off some bread while he’s making his rounds? It wasn’t long before that enterprising icehouse operator found he was selling a lot more groceries than ice.
At home, before the advent of the modern refrigerator, people used iceboxes. The old iceboxes, which people didn’t seem to miss once they were replaced by refrigerators, had hollow walls lined with tin or zinc. They were packed with insulation like cork, sawdust, straw or seaweed. A large block of ice was stored in an area near the top of the box, allowing cool air to circulate to otherwise perishable items – milk, butter and the like – in the lower compartments. Water from the melting ice had to be drained or emptied every day. When the ice was all gone, it was time for another trip to the icehouse, or it was delivered by an iceman.
As early as the 1920s, the number of Texas icehouses began to decline as more homes got electricity and more refrigerators were sold, but Texas still had more iceboxes than refrigerators in the 1940s. By 1950, close to 90 percent of Texas families had some kind of refrigeration, and that fact quickly made the community icehouse and the family iceboxes relics from the past, relegated to long ago census counts.
The old icehouses still dot the Texas landscape. Some have been abandoned, shells of a once-thriving business, but others have been converted into various enterprises and many of them specialize in beer. A new generation of Texan is more inclined to think of the icehouse as a place to grab a cold beer which, if you think about it, isn’t that different from the function the icehouse served in its heyday.
The day of the icehouse and the ice box has come and gone and won't be coming back. We don't sit on our porches in front of a block of ice to get cool anymore. Come to think of it, we don't sit outside on our porches much at all anymore.
Mostly we go inside and turn on another marvel of the modern world – the air conditioner. | 972 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A question about Jane Eyre??
What part does home and family play in Jane's life??
- ari-pupLv 71 decade agoFavorite Answer
This may help you:
Jane does not experience a typical family life throughout the novel. Her various living arrangements led her through different households, yet none were a representation of the norm of family life in the nineteenth century. Through research of families in the nineteenth century, it is clear that Jane’s life does not follow with the stereotypical family made up of a patriarchal father and nurturing mother, both whose primary focus was in raising their children. Jane’s life was void of this true family experience so common during the nineteenth century. Yet, Jane is surrounded by men, who in giving an accurate portrayal of fathers and masculinity in the nineteenth century, fulfill on one hand the father role that had never been present in her life, and on the other hand the husband portrait that Jane seeks out throughout the novel.
The reader first learns of Jane when she is an inhabitant of Gateshead. At Gateshead, Jane was excluded from the rest of the family. She was merely an outsider looking in on a nuclear family, excluding the father, who had died. We know that Jane’s Uncle Reed, the father and dominant figure of Gateshead, when alive, was a kind man. He was the guardian for Jane and when dying made his wife promise to always care for Jane. After his death, his wife resented the little girl and did not want to care for her. Knowing what we know of family life in the nineteenth century, we know that Jane’s life would have been much different if her uncle Reed had not died. Being the master of the home one can assume that he would have made sure that everyone in the household would have treated Jane well and with love and respect. A father’s authority was unquestioned. Once Mr. Reed had died, the masculine dominance was somewhat given to his son who did not care for Jane and made her life miserable by all of his cruelty and abuse. Although he did not rule the home, due to his young age, his authority as seen by Jane was unquestioned.
Jane next lived at Lowood. This institution was anything but a true family unit. However, Jane sought out people to care for and who would care for her in return. Helen Burns and Miss Temple became very close to Jane. In ways like the mother of the typical family served as a moral guide and a nurturer, so too did Helen Burns, and to a certain extent Miss Temple. Jane sought love and a nurturing spirit and found them in these two women.
At Thornfield, Jane is closely associated with the servants, as she is merely a governess. There was no established family unit at Thornfield. Although Rochester fits some descriptions of the father figure and master of the house, they had in no way established a family. In addition, Jane was an outsider here as well.
While living with St. John, Mary, and Diana Rivers, Jane again found herself seeking, yet not finding, a true family. There was a loving relationship between the members of the home. However, it was still not a representation of family life in the nineteenth century. However, when Jane discovers that she has inherited money from her uncle, she demands that the siblings take her in as a family member forever, despite her lack of true familial association. This incident does show, however, Jane’s search and need for family life.
Get more in the link below: | <urn:uuid:7a194c1e-1eeb-4e05-8c3a-d6b2652b7712> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070405080433AAm122R | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.990121 | 728 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.29740911722183... | 2 | A question about Jane Eyre??
What part does home and family play in Jane's life??
- ari-pupLv 71 decade agoFavorite Answer
This may help you:
Jane does not experience a typical family life throughout the novel. Her various living arrangements led her through different households, yet none were a representation of the norm of family life in the nineteenth century. Through research of families in the nineteenth century, it is clear that Jane’s life does not follow with the stereotypical family made up of a patriarchal father and nurturing mother, both whose primary focus was in raising their children. Jane’s life was void of this true family experience so common during the nineteenth century. Yet, Jane is surrounded by men, who in giving an accurate portrayal of fathers and masculinity in the nineteenth century, fulfill on one hand the father role that had never been present in her life, and on the other hand the husband portrait that Jane seeks out throughout the novel.
The reader first learns of Jane when she is an inhabitant of Gateshead. At Gateshead, Jane was excluded from the rest of the family. She was merely an outsider looking in on a nuclear family, excluding the father, who had died. We know that Jane’s Uncle Reed, the father and dominant figure of Gateshead, when alive, was a kind man. He was the guardian for Jane and when dying made his wife promise to always care for Jane. After his death, his wife resented the little girl and did not want to care for her. Knowing what we know of family life in the nineteenth century, we know that Jane’s life would have been much different if her uncle Reed had not died. Being the master of the home one can assume that he would have made sure that everyone in the household would have treated Jane well and with love and respect. A father’s authority was unquestioned. Once Mr. Reed had died, the masculine dominance was somewhat given to his son who did not care for Jane and made her life miserable by all of his cruelty and abuse. Although he did not rule the home, due to his young age, his authority as seen by Jane was unquestioned.
Jane next lived at Lowood. This institution was anything but a true family unit. However, Jane sought out people to care for and who would care for her in return. Helen Burns and Miss Temple became very close to Jane. In ways like the mother of the typical family served as a moral guide and a nurturer, so too did Helen Burns, and to a certain extent Miss Temple. Jane sought love and a nurturing spirit and found them in these two women.
At Thornfield, Jane is closely associated with the servants, as she is merely a governess. There was no established family unit at Thornfield. Although Rochester fits some descriptions of the father figure and master of the house, they had in no way established a family. In addition, Jane was an outsider here as well.
While living with St. John, Mary, and Diana Rivers, Jane again found herself seeking, yet not finding, a true family. There was a loving relationship between the members of the home. However, it was still not a representation of family life in the nineteenth century. However, when Jane discovers that she has inherited money from her uncle, she demands that the siblings take her in as a family member forever, despite her lack of true familial association. This incident does show, however, Jane’s search and need for family life.
Get more in the link below: | 711 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Presidential Debate Truman Vs FDR 1 In this paper you are about to read, I am going to convince you that Harry S. Truman would have been a much better choice for the 32nd President of the United States then Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR). Who was Harry S. Truman? First of all, you’re probably wondering why I did not include his full middle name in the opening paragraph. Well, believe it or not the “S” initial did not actually stand for anything, which was a common practice among the Irish at the time.
His parents chose “S” as his “middle name” in an attempt to please both of Harry’s grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. Anyway, He was born on a simple farm but was an avid reader with a thirst for knowledge. He had a love of history and politics and even studied law for several years. Harry served in the war, where his leadership skills were already evident as a Field Artillery Commander. Eventually he came to represent the Democratic Party. Truman was elected a judge of the Jackson County Court (an administrative position) in 1922. He became a Senator in 1934.
During World War II he headed the Senate War Investigating Committee, checking into waste and corruption and saving perhaps as much as 15 billion dollars. Truman had been Vice President for only 82 days when he had to step up as President due to Franklin Roosevelt’s death on April 12, 1945. Little did he know that after his time in office, he would be considered one of the greatest presidents in the history of the United States of America. When Harry Truman became President, he took office under FDR’s shadow, and the American citizens hoped he could be the next “legendary” leader.
Unfortunately for Truman, he had had very little communication with Roosevelt about world affairs or domestic politics and was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top secret Manhattan Project, which was about to test the world’s first atomic bomb. Faced with difficult decisions early on, Truman quoted, “I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me. ” The U. S. and other nations were fearful at the time that Nazi Germany was creating nuclear weapons for warfare.
However, the United States decided to use its atomic weapon against Japan because it refused to agree to the terms of surrender offered in the Potsdam Declaration set up by the United States, United Kingdom and China. On August 6, 1945, the U. S. dropped its first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. Three days later, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. Japan surrendered five days later. Truman said that this move was necessary to insure victory over Japan, and he really had no other viable options. Truman himself is quoted as saying, “ I did what I needed to do to stop the war and I would do it again if necessary”.
President Truman had hoped that the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japan would force other countries to do away with their nuclear weapons programs. Unfortunately, this did not happen. However, Truman attempted to make nuclear peace worldwide, so no other country 2 would have to endure the deadly force of nuclear bombs. President Truman’s decision to “drop the bomb” did save hundreds of thousands of lives that could have been lost in a potential invasion of mainland Japan-lives that were needed to continue in the war effort! With the end of the war came the ultimate challenge of getting the United States back on its feet in the aftermath.
There was a major railway strike in 1946 that was unprecedented in the nation’s history, that meant virtually all passenger and freight lines went to a standstill for over a month. That strike threatened the entire infrastructure of the nation. Goods were not reaching their destinations and passengers had a difficult time traveling from one town to another. When the railway workers turned down a proposed settlement, President Truman seized control of the railways and threatened to draft striking workers into the armed military. Soon after that, the strikers agreed to a settlement.
Although, many felt that President Truman’s threat was out of line and created a rift between him and labor workers, he got the job done and made sure the railways continued to operate for US citizens, keeping the economy moving! In 1947, President Truman started to get involved in foreign affairs. Although he claimed no personal expertise on foreign matters, on March 12, 1947, he called for immediate economic and military aid to both Greece, which was threatened by a communist insurrection, and to Turkey, which was under pressure from Soviet expansion in the Mediterranean. Engaged in the Cold War with the Soviet Union, the U.
S. sought to protect those countries from falling under Soviet influence after Britain announced that it could no longer give them aid. In response to Truman’s message, Congress appropriated $400 million in aid. This became the famous Truman Doctrine. President Truman may have been born with poor eye-sight, but he had great vision! This is evident in his creation of the Marshall Plan, (which went from 1947–1951) also called the European Recovery Program, which aimed to help rebuild postwar Europe. This was a large-scale economic American program of cash grants to Europe, without expected pay-back.
The goal of the United States was the rebuilding a war-devastated region, removing trade barriers, modernizing industry, and making Europe prosperous again. Thanks to President Truman, the living conditions for Europe were vastly improved and he helped eased the suffering of thousands of people in a war-torn nation. Yes, arguably, this may have been an expensive project, but he now shared a close bond with the European government, and the USA was looked upon by other countries as a generous and giving nation. President Truman once said, “A man cannot have character unless he lives with a fundamental system of morals that creates character”.
Truman was defining his own character as that of a true humanitarian. During his State of the Union address in January 1949, President Harry S. Truman unveiled plans for a legislative agenda that he termed the Fair Deal that would build upon the New Deal plans developed by his predecessor Franklin Delano Roosevelt. The primary goals of 3 Truman’s Fair Deal were to increase employment to capacity, provide assistance to farmers and extend Social Security to the nation. His Fair Deal recommended that all Americans have health insurance, that the minimum wage be increased, and that, by law, all Americans be guaranteed equal rights.
Although Truman was unable to implement the entirety of his Fair Deal reform program, a great deal of social and economic progress took place under his administration. A Census report confirmed that gains in housing, education, living standards, and income under the Truman administration were unparalleled in American history. By 1953, 62 million Americans had jobs, a gain of 11 million in seven years, while unemployment had all but vanished. Farm income, dividends, and corporate income were at all-time highs, and there had not been a failure of an insured bank in nearly nine years.
The minimum wage had also been increased while Social Security benefits had been doubled, and 8 million veterans had attended college by the end of the Truman administration. To make matters better for America later on, millions of homes had been constructed through government financing, and many people were being given loans to start up their businesses. Poverty was also significantly reduced, with one estimate suggesting that the percentage of Americans living in poverty had fallen from 33% of the population in 1949 to 28% by 1952.
Progress had also been made in civil rights, with the desegregation of both the federal civil Service and the armed forces and the creation of the Commission on Civil Rights. In fact, according to one reliable historian source, Truman had “Done more than any President since Lincoln to awaken American conscience to the issues of civil rights”. Personally speaking, I think this New Deal Program is the most significant reason Harry Truman should have been President of the United States. This deal was very significant, as it improved American citizen’s lives during that time period, and for many years to come.
FDR’s New Deal Coalition was nowhere near as important as this one, as FDR’s New Deal Coalition started in 1932, and ended in 1968. Many political figures did not support the deal, and there were many labor disputes. Other then the atomic bomb dropping in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the New Deal Program is what he will be most remembered for in American History. President Truman saw his popularity rise and fall during his days as president. His public approval rating early in 1948, an election year, was a dismal thirty six percent. Many people, including members of his own Democratic Party, believed re-election was nearly impossible.
In fact, there was an effort to try to get Democrats to abandon President Truman and instead go with war hero, General Dwight D. Eisenhower. However, Eisenhower wasn’t interested in the proposal at the time. The United States presidential election of 1948 is considered by most historians as the greatest election upset in American history. Virtually every prediction indicated that President Harry S. Truman would be defeated by Republican Thomas E. Dewey. Truman won, overcoming a three-way split in his own party. Truman’s surprise victory was the fifth consecutive win for the Democratic Party in a presidential election.
As a result of the 1948 congressional election, 4 the Democrats would regain control of both houses of Congress. Thus, Truman’s election confirmed the Democratic Party’s status as the nation’s majority party, a status they would hold until 1952. This is another crucial victory for Truman over FDR, as he overcame adversity and somehow managed to win the election. Truman was a strong supporter of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which established a formal peacetime military alliance with Canada and many of the democratic European nations that had not fallen under Soviet control following World War II.
Truman successfully guided the treaty through the Senate in 1949 and assigned Dwight D. Eisenhower as the first commander. NATO’s goals were to contain Soviet expansion in Europe and to send a definite message to communist leaders that the world’s democracies were willing and able to build new security structures in support of democratic principles. The United States, Britain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Portugal, Iceland, and Canada were the original treaty signatories; Greece and Turkey joined in 1952.
Thanks to Harry Truman, the USA is part of NATO, the most common collective defense organization in the world today. On a Youtube Video that I watched, called “What Would Harry Truman Think of Obama”, President Truman stood for civil rights. This was clearly evident on his Inauguration day, where in his speech he demanded that all Washington DC hotels and restaurants serve people of all race. Back in 1949, this would have been a HUGE deal. Now fast forward 60 years later to 2009, where there is now an African – American president (Obama)! Truman appears to have layed the ground-work for this, nudging America along.
So, partly thanks to former President Truman, the United States now has an outstanding, current President who is helping to build unity within that country and perhaps throughout the world. In the book Truman (found in Indigo) written by David McCullough, a bibliography of Harry Truman’s life, one reviewer said, “Not only an outstanding bibliography, but a great American story as well, by a master of the art, it’s about how modern America was made. It is also about character and leadership in a time that needed both. (Daniel Yergin, author The Prize:
The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power) Before I conclude, I want to throw a few reasons out there why Franklin Roosevelt did not deserve to be President. In regard to the New Deal he created, the problem with it was that it gave too much power to the government. They were in charge of the economy and large industrial companies. This in turn could lead to a dictatorship where the liberties of individuals would be taken away. Programs favored whites over the African Americans. There was discrimination and unwarranted job firings. Harry Truman tried to get rid of discrimination, and FDR only made it worse!
Are you familiar with FDR’s infamous “court-packing” plan, which would have allowed him to appoint new justices and to remake the Supreme Court according to his will, showing his basic contempt for constitutional processes? Oh, I almost forgot. He was also partly responsible for Japanese internment camps during World War II. Over 100,000 5 Japanese-Americans were forced to do labor in harsh conditions in these camps. Thank you President Roosevelt! In conclusion, I firmly believe America made the wrong decision by voting Franklin Roosevelt into Presidency. Harry Truman was a significantly better candidate for the job.
From ending WW1 and saving countless American lives’, to creating thousands of jobs and bringing the Americans out of a post-war economic depression, Harry S. Truman is one the greatest Presidents in the history of the United States. Bibliography: http://www. whitehouse. gov/about/presidents/harrystruman http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=d5W6noE6wzE http://www. conservapedia. com/Harry_S. _Truman http://americanhistory. about. com/od/harrystruman/a/ff_harrytruman. htm http://bioguide. congress. gov/scripts/biodisplay. pl? index=T000387 Truman – David McCullough | <urn:uuid:775b1db0-46a8-49b0-96da-1e80d214da7f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://indybedbugpros.com/presidential-debate-truman-vs-fdr-4946/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.982229 | 2,826 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Presidential Debate Truman Vs FDR 1 In this paper you are about to read, I am going to convince you that Harry S. Truman would have been a much better choice for the 32nd President of the United States then Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR). Who was Harry S. Truman? First of all, you’re probably wondering why I did not include his full middle name in the opening paragraph. Well, believe it or not the “S” initial did not actually stand for anything, which was a common practice among the Irish at the time.
His parents chose “S” as his “middle name” in an attempt to please both of Harry’s grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. Anyway, He was born on a simple farm but was an avid reader with a thirst for knowledge. He had a love of history and politics and even studied law for several years. Harry served in the war, where his leadership skills were already evident as a Field Artillery Commander. Eventually he came to represent the Democratic Party. Truman was elected a judge of the Jackson County Court (an administrative position) in 1922. He became a Senator in 1934.
During World War II he headed the Senate War Investigating Committee, checking into waste and corruption and saving perhaps as much as 15 billion dollars. Truman had been Vice President for only 82 days when he had to step up as President due to Franklin Roosevelt’s death on April 12, 1945. Little did he know that after his time in office, he would be considered one of the greatest presidents in the history of the United States of America. When Harry Truman became President, he took office under FDR’s shadow, and the American citizens hoped he could be the next “legendary” leader.
Unfortunately for Truman, he had had very little communication with Roosevelt about world affairs or domestic politics and was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top secret Manhattan Project, which was about to test the world’s first atomic bomb. Faced with difficult decisions early on, Truman quoted, “I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me. ” The U. S. and other nations were fearful at the time that Nazi Germany was creating nuclear weapons for warfare.
However, the United States decided to use its atomic weapon against Japan because it refused to agree to the terms of surrender offered in the Potsdam Declaration set up by the United States, United Kingdom and China. On August 6, 1945, the U. S. dropped its first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. Three days later, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. Japan surrendered five days later. Truman said that this move was necessary to insure victory over Japan, and he really had no other viable options. Truman himself is quoted as saying, “ I did what I needed to do to stop the war and I would do it again if necessary”.
President Truman had hoped that the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japan would force other countries to do away with their nuclear weapons programs. Unfortunately, this did not happen. However, Truman attempted to make nuclear peace worldwide, so no other country 2 would have to endure the deadly force of nuclear bombs. President Truman’s decision to “drop the bomb” did save hundreds of thousands of lives that could have been lost in a potential invasion of mainland Japan-lives that were needed to continue in the war effort! With the end of the war came the ultimate challenge of getting the United States back on its feet in the aftermath.
There was a major railway strike in 1946 that was unprecedented in the nation’s history, that meant virtually all passenger and freight lines went to a standstill for over a month. That strike threatened the entire infrastructure of the nation. Goods were not reaching their destinations and passengers had a difficult time traveling from one town to another. When the railway workers turned down a proposed settlement, President Truman seized control of the railways and threatened to draft striking workers into the armed military. Soon after that, the strikers agreed to a settlement.
Although, many felt that President Truman’s threat was out of line and created a rift between him and labor workers, he got the job done and made sure the railways continued to operate for US citizens, keeping the economy moving! In 1947, President Truman started to get involved in foreign affairs. Although he claimed no personal expertise on foreign matters, on March 12, 1947, he called for immediate economic and military aid to both Greece, which was threatened by a communist insurrection, and to Turkey, which was under pressure from Soviet expansion in the Mediterranean. Engaged in the Cold War with the Soviet Union, the U.
S. sought to protect those countries from falling under Soviet influence after Britain announced that it could no longer give them aid. In response to Truman’s message, Congress appropriated $400 million in aid. This became the famous Truman Doctrine. President Truman may have been born with poor eye-sight, but he had great vision! This is evident in his creation of the Marshall Plan, (which went from 1947–1951) also called the European Recovery Program, which aimed to help rebuild postwar Europe. This was a large-scale economic American program of cash grants to Europe, without expected pay-back.
The goal of the United States was the rebuilding a war-devastated region, removing trade barriers, modernizing industry, and making Europe prosperous again. Thanks to President Truman, the living conditions for Europe were vastly improved and he helped eased the suffering of thousands of people in a war-torn nation. Yes, arguably, this may have been an expensive project, but he now shared a close bond with the European government, and the USA was looked upon by other countries as a generous and giving nation. President Truman once said, “A man cannot have character unless he lives with a fundamental system of morals that creates character”.
Truman was defining his own character as that of a true humanitarian. During his State of the Union address in January 1949, President Harry S. Truman unveiled plans for a legislative agenda that he termed the Fair Deal that would build upon the New Deal plans developed by his predecessor Franklin Delano Roosevelt. The primary goals of 3 Truman’s Fair Deal were to increase employment to capacity, provide assistance to farmers and extend Social Security to the nation. His Fair Deal recommended that all Americans have health insurance, that the minimum wage be increased, and that, by law, all Americans be guaranteed equal rights.
Although Truman was unable to implement the entirety of his Fair Deal reform program, a great deal of social and economic progress took place under his administration. A Census report confirmed that gains in housing, education, living standards, and income under the Truman administration were unparalleled in American history. By 1953, 62 million Americans had jobs, a gain of 11 million in seven years, while unemployment had all but vanished. Farm income, dividends, and corporate income were at all-time highs, and there had not been a failure of an insured bank in nearly nine years.
The minimum wage had also been increased while Social Security benefits had been doubled, and 8 million veterans had attended college by the end of the Truman administration. To make matters better for America later on, millions of homes had been constructed through government financing, and many people were being given loans to start up their businesses. Poverty was also significantly reduced, with one estimate suggesting that the percentage of Americans living in poverty had fallen from 33% of the population in 1949 to 28% by 1952.
Progress had also been made in civil rights, with the desegregation of both the federal civil Service and the armed forces and the creation of the Commission on Civil Rights. In fact, according to one reliable historian source, Truman had “Done more than any President since Lincoln to awaken American conscience to the issues of civil rights”. Personally speaking, I think this New Deal Program is the most significant reason Harry Truman should have been President of the United States. This deal was very significant, as it improved American citizen’s lives during that time period, and for many years to come.
FDR’s New Deal Coalition was nowhere near as important as this one, as FDR’s New Deal Coalition started in 1932, and ended in 1968. Many political figures did not support the deal, and there were many labor disputes. Other then the atomic bomb dropping in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the New Deal Program is what he will be most remembered for in American History. President Truman saw his popularity rise and fall during his days as president. His public approval rating early in 1948, an election year, was a dismal thirty six percent. Many people, including members of his own Democratic Party, believed re-election was nearly impossible.
In fact, there was an effort to try to get Democrats to abandon President Truman and instead go with war hero, General Dwight D. Eisenhower. However, Eisenhower wasn’t interested in the proposal at the time. The United States presidential election of 1948 is considered by most historians as the greatest election upset in American history. Virtually every prediction indicated that President Harry S. Truman would be defeated by Republican Thomas E. Dewey. Truman won, overcoming a three-way split in his own party. Truman’s surprise victory was the fifth consecutive win for the Democratic Party in a presidential election.
As a result of the 1948 congressional election, 4 the Democrats would regain control of both houses of Congress. Thus, Truman’s election confirmed the Democratic Party’s status as the nation’s majority party, a status they would hold until 1952. This is another crucial victory for Truman over FDR, as he overcame adversity and somehow managed to win the election. Truman was a strong supporter of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which established a formal peacetime military alliance with Canada and many of the democratic European nations that had not fallen under Soviet control following World War II.
Truman successfully guided the treaty through the Senate in 1949 and assigned Dwight D. Eisenhower as the first commander. NATO’s goals were to contain Soviet expansion in Europe and to send a definite message to communist leaders that the world’s democracies were willing and able to build new security structures in support of democratic principles. The United States, Britain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Portugal, Iceland, and Canada were the original treaty signatories; Greece and Turkey joined in 1952.
Thanks to Harry Truman, the USA is part of NATO, the most common collective defense organization in the world today. On a Youtube Video that I watched, called “What Would Harry Truman Think of Obama”, President Truman stood for civil rights. This was clearly evident on his Inauguration day, where in his speech he demanded that all Washington DC hotels and restaurants serve people of all race. Back in 1949, this would have been a HUGE deal. Now fast forward 60 years later to 2009, where there is now an African – American president (Obama)! Truman appears to have layed the ground-work for this, nudging America along.
So, partly thanks to former President Truman, the United States now has an outstanding, current President who is helping to build unity within that country and perhaps throughout the world. In the book Truman (found in Indigo) written by David McCullough, a bibliography of Harry Truman’s life, one reviewer said, “Not only an outstanding bibliography, but a great American story as well, by a master of the art, it’s about how modern America was made. It is also about character and leadership in a time that needed both. (Daniel Yergin, author The Prize:
The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power) Before I conclude, I want to throw a few reasons out there why Franklin Roosevelt did not deserve to be President. In regard to the New Deal he created, the problem with it was that it gave too much power to the government. They were in charge of the economy and large industrial companies. This in turn could lead to a dictatorship where the liberties of individuals would be taken away. Programs favored whites over the African Americans. There was discrimination and unwarranted job firings. Harry Truman tried to get rid of discrimination, and FDR only made it worse!
Are you familiar with FDR’s infamous “court-packing” plan, which would have allowed him to appoint new justices and to remake the Supreme Court according to his will, showing his basic contempt for constitutional processes? Oh, I almost forgot. He was also partly responsible for Japanese internment camps during World War II. Over 100,000 5 Japanese-Americans were forced to do labor in harsh conditions in these camps. Thank you President Roosevelt! In conclusion, I firmly believe America made the wrong decision by voting Franklin Roosevelt into Presidency. Harry Truman was a significantly better candidate for the job.
From ending WW1 and saving countless American lives’, to creating thousands of jobs and bringing the Americans out of a post-war economic depression, Harry S. Truman is one the greatest Presidents in the history of the United States. Bibliography: http://www. whitehouse. gov/about/presidents/harrystruman http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=d5W6noE6wzE http://www. conservapedia. com/Harry_S. _Truman http://americanhistory. about. com/od/harrystruman/a/ff_harrytruman. htm http://bioguide. congress. gov/scripts/biodisplay. pl? index=T000387 Truman – David McCullough | 2,849 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If Noah’s Flood was Worldwide, then where is the Evidence?
There is much evidence pointing toward a worldwide flood in the days of Noah. On every continent we find sea animal fossils in rock layers high above sea level. There are marine fossils in most of the rock layers in the Grand Canyon. This includes the rim of the canyon at 7,000 feet above sea level. These rock layers must have been deposited beneath ocean waters loaded with sediment which swept over northern Arizona and into most of North America.
Over 270 stories of a worldwide flood exist in many cultures around the world. This is called historical collaboration. A flood story in China records that Fuhi, his wife, three sons and three daughters escape a great flood and were the only people alive on earth. A flood story in Hawaii records Nu-u and his family escaped a global flood by building a great canoe and filling it with animals. Only he and his family were left alive. Some of the details in these various were lost over time, but the important parts remained; man was very sinful, God judged the world by destroying it with a worldwide flood, the animals and a righteous family were saved.
A worldwide flood would have produced vast rock and mud deposits, burying billions of land, air and sea creatures along with much of the earth’s vegetation. And that’s exactly what you find all over the world. The animals, many of whom turned into fossils, are found in many rock layers; something only a worldwide flood could do. Masses of plants turned into huge deposits of coal and oil. The earth’s crust has massive amounts of layered sedimentary rock, sometimes miles deep. These layers of sandstone, limestone and shale laid down by water were once soft like mud, but they are now hard stone. Some layers extend across continents; only a global flood could accomplish this. There is also volcanic rock layers extending over much of the earth. They are often mixed in with the sedimentary layers and often with vast volcanic lava which erupted under water.
In 1971, a rock collector found some bones recently exposed by a bulldozer in hard sandstone in Utah. What he found was the lower half of two human skeletons. He excavated further and found the skeletons of ten humans buried under fifty-eight feet of rock hard sandstone. These skeletons have the appearance of being washed into place, rather than being buried as in a grave. It seems obvious these ten people were buried rapidly by some kind of massive flood. These skeletons indicate rapid burial in water and mud which later turned into stone, something only a massive flood could do.
But they deliberately forget that long ago by God’s word the heavens existed
and the earth was formed out of water and by water. By these waters also the
world of that time was deluged and destroyed.
2 Peter 3:5-6 | <urn:uuid:29e0b1d7-fd4c-4b0a-b11e-da5b25a27231> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wmcreationfellowship.org/if-noahs-flood-was-worldwide-then-where-is-the-evidence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00300.warc.gz | en | 0.983438 | 586 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.12750542163... | 4 | If Noah’s Flood was Worldwide, then where is the Evidence?
There is much evidence pointing toward a worldwide flood in the days of Noah. On every continent we find sea animal fossils in rock layers high above sea level. There are marine fossils in most of the rock layers in the Grand Canyon. This includes the rim of the canyon at 7,000 feet above sea level. These rock layers must have been deposited beneath ocean waters loaded with sediment which swept over northern Arizona and into most of North America.
Over 270 stories of a worldwide flood exist in many cultures around the world. This is called historical collaboration. A flood story in China records that Fuhi, his wife, three sons and three daughters escape a great flood and were the only people alive on earth. A flood story in Hawaii records Nu-u and his family escaped a global flood by building a great canoe and filling it with animals. Only he and his family were left alive. Some of the details in these various were lost over time, but the important parts remained; man was very sinful, God judged the world by destroying it with a worldwide flood, the animals and a righteous family were saved.
A worldwide flood would have produced vast rock and mud deposits, burying billions of land, air and sea creatures along with much of the earth’s vegetation. And that’s exactly what you find all over the world. The animals, many of whom turned into fossils, are found in many rock layers; something only a worldwide flood could do. Masses of plants turned into huge deposits of coal and oil. The earth’s crust has massive amounts of layered sedimentary rock, sometimes miles deep. These layers of sandstone, limestone and shale laid down by water were once soft like mud, but they are now hard stone. Some layers extend across continents; only a global flood could accomplish this. There is also volcanic rock layers extending over much of the earth. They are often mixed in with the sedimentary layers and often with vast volcanic lava which erupted under water.
In 1971, a rock collector found some bones recently exposed by a bulldozer in hard sandstone in Utah. What he found was the lower half of two human skeletons. He excavated further and found the skeletons of ten humans buried under fifty-eight feet of rock hard sandstone. These skeletons have the appearance of being washed into place, rather than being buried as in a grave. It seems obvious these ten people were buried rapidly by some kind of massive flood. These skeletons indicate rapid burial in water and mud which later turned into stone, something only a massive flood could do.
But they deliberately forget that long ago by God’s word the heavens existed
and the earth was formed out of water and by water. By these waters also the
world of that time was deluged and destroyed.
2 Peter 3:5-6 | 581 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Education Corner 28
- Category: Education Corner
- Published: Wednesday, 21 December 2016 16:17
- Written by Richard Womack, Ed.D
- Hits: 4187
Last edition we left you with a very interesting situation. The young Navarro had found the phrase “Columbus discovers America” in the textbook and he had his 5th graders change the words to “One of the First Europeans to Come to the New World”. He had his students make the changes in ink. Navarro was informed he was breaking a school rule about writing in the textbooks. The students told him they were never to write in the textbooks and “never in ink”. So we were left with the critical thinking question-should Navarro have broken the school rule? Explain.
When giving this case study question to pre-service teachers or in-service teachers the answer is almost always a No. They stress it is important to follow school rules and marking in ink is something students should not do. And furthermore they say it was not right for Navarro to insist they do so. Teachers should not break school rules after all teachers are models for student behaviors. But they also realize that saying “Columbus discovered America” was like saying “Magellan discovered Guam” or “Pedro Fernandes de Quiros discovered Pohnpei”. Micronesians correctly learn that Europeans did not discover Pacific Islands—their own ancestors-the Polynesians, Melanesians and Micronesians were the first to inhabit and therefore discovered our islands. The use of discover seems almost an insult. So the No to breaking rules becomes a No but with further explanations. It is always suggested that Navarro should have gone to Principal Francetta and explained the problem and asked permission or that Navarro could write a separate page for each of them to put in their books—as an insert. But to be sure once they think critically a simple Yes or No is not sufficient. Even if our case study took place in Trust Territory Times when U S History was taught teachers do not want to see anything as Guam was discovered Guam or de Quiros discovered Pohnpei in any Micronesian history books. Teachers should not break rules as young Navarro did but they should correct curriculum when they find examples as Columbus discovering America and calling the native peoples Indians. Remember Columbus thought he had reached the Indies. Today’s U S textbooks do not make these errors but they did during the Trust Territory Times when Navarro was just beginning his teaching career.
Case Study: Navarro Continues
Young Navarro had survived his first day and his lesson about Columbus. And as you learned in the last case study Navarro liked the students and he was now sure what it was he would be teaching. With the religion matter settled and having looked through the 5th grade texts he saw that the eight grade science simply titled Your Environment. He hoped that the science book would not have to be changed. There were so many new things, bad things happening in the environment. He had learned in college that humans were making some mistakes, big mistakes and just as he had decided to teach his 5th graders he would need to inform the 8th grade students about these environmental problems that were now becoming obvious to the scientists. He thought about history, social science, and social studies. The term social meant people. “Whenever you have people” he thought, “You always have some people interpreting why people behave like they do.” At 22, Navarro was still confused about why people act as they do. Perhaps that is why the young man liked science and math. “You can prove things in science, there were scientific laws to follow and there was the scientific method,” he thought. “At the end of a math problem there is an answer and a correct answer if the problem was done correctly.” At the young age of 22, Navarro had learned that solving human problems was far more difficult than solving a math or science problem. Human beings—Homo sapiens—were very unpredictable.
Navarro was to teach United States history as his islands were still under the U. S. Trust Territory but he wondered why by now there was no Micronesian history book as that seemed more important to him. Soon the various Micronesian entities would be granted independence. Surely there should be someone somewhere doing that. But he was so new at this teaching that he figured he should not say anything. Besides Navarro had already broken school rules over a history matter and he thought he would leave the Micronesian history matter to experienced teachers. Nevertheless, Navarro had not liked the way the U.S. history book had shown Columbus all triumphant planting the flag of Spain. The young teacher also wondered what Columbus had said in the picture that had his crew and some native people. He guessed it was something as “I claim this land and all the land from this place to wherever or forever” and then he thought of the Native Americans pictured. They were smiling and looking happy but the young man knew that they had to be saying something, even if it were under their breaths. “Did this guy say that they owned the land to wherever and forever?” the first one says. “Yes and I wonder if the colored cloth means that these guys intend to own the water, or the air or fire too?” These thoughts made Navarro laugh to himself even though they were not really funny. The whole idea of Colonialism was so very important in the Social Studies particularly for Micronesian history. Navarro knew that land ownership by individuals did not even appear in Micronesia until the German Times at the end of the 19th century. Finally, Navarro decided he would be just fine with most of the content in U. S. History and everything else for that matter. What to teach was easy ... but how he was going to teach now occupied his mind.
He reviewed his yellow pad and his good teacher list and the two words he had used-imaginative and creative kept popping up. But these words confused him. What had he meant by not boring and not dull but imaginative and creative? He thought again and said to himself, “They made it interesting.” These thoughts lead him to the next obvious question—How did they make it interesting? The answers to this ‘How’ would help him. He was sure of that. To be continued......... | <urn:uuid:a0603b60-fdd6-4a19-a2f0-dba161c60d2b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.kpress.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=488:education-corner-28&catid=2&Itemid=115 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00000.warc.gz | en | 0.989531 | 1,335 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.440554320812... | 1 | Education Corner 28
- Category: Education Corner
- Published: Wednesday, 21 December 2016 16:17
- Written by Richard Womack, Ed.D
- Hits: 4187
Last edition we left you with a very interesting situation. The young Navarro had found the phrase “Columbus discovers America” in the textbook and he had his 5th graders change the words to “One of the First Europeans to Come to the New World”. He had his students make the changes in ink. Navarro was informed he was breaking a school rule about writing in the textbooks. The students told him they were never to write in the textbooks and “never in ink”. So we were left with the critical thinking question-should Navarro have broken the school rule? Explain.
When giving this case study question to pre-service teachers or in-service teachers the answer is almost always a No. They stress it is important to follow school rules and marking in ink is something students should not do. And furthermore they say it was not right for Navarro to insist they do so. Teachers should not break school rules after all teachers are models for student behaviors. But they also realize that saying “Columbus discovered America” was like saying “Magellan discovered Guam” or “Pedro Fernandes de Quiros discovered Pohnpei”. Micronesians correctly learn that Europeans did not discover Pacific Islands—their own ancestors-the Polynesians, Melanesians and Micronesians were the first to inhabit and therefore discovered our islands. The use of discover seems almost an insult. So the No to breaking rules becomes a No but with further explanations. It is always suggested that Navarro should have gone to Principal Francetta and explained the problem and asked permission or that Navarro could write a separate page for each of them to put in their books—as an insert. But to be sure once they think critically a simple Yes or No is not sufficient. Even if our case study took place in Trust Territory Times when U S History was taught teachers do not want to see anything as Guam was discovered Guam or de Quiros discovered Pohnpei in any Micronesian history books. Teachers should not break rules as young Navarro did but they should correct curriculum when they find examples as Columbus discovering America and calling the native peoples Indians. Remember Columbus thought he had reached the Indies. Today’s U S textbooks do not make these errors but they did during the Trust Territory Times when Navarro was just beginning his teaching career.
Case Study: Navarro Continues
Young Navarro had survived his first day and his lesson about Columbus. And as you learned in the last case study Navarro liked the students and he was now sure what it was he would be teaching. With the religion matter settled and having looked through the 5th grade texts he saw that the eight grade science simply titled Your Environment. He hoped that the science book would not have to be changed. There were so many new things, bad things happening in the environment. He had learned in college that humans were making some mistakes, big mistakes and just as he had decided to teach his 5th graders he would need to inform the 8th grade students about these environmental problems that were now becoming obvious to the scientists. He thought about history, social science, and social studies. The term social meant people. “Whenever you have people” he thought, “You always have some people interpreting why people behave like they do.” At 22, Navarro was still confused about why people act as they do. Perhaps that is why the young man liked science and math. “You can prove things in science, there were scientific laws to follow and there was the scientific method,” he thought. “At the end of a math problem there is an answer and a correct answer if the problem was done correctly.” At the young age of 22, Navarro had learned that solving human problems was far more difficult than solving a math or science problem. Human beings—Homo sapiens—were very unpredictable.
Navarro was to teach United States history as his islands were still under the U. S. Trust Territory but he wondered why by now there was no Micronesian history book as that seemed more important to him. Soon the various Micronesian entities would be granted independence. Surely there should be someone somewhere doing that. But he was so new at this teaching that he figured he should not say anything. Besides Navarro had already broken school rules over a history matter and he thought he would leave the Micronesian history matter to experienced teachers. Nevertheless, Navarro had not liked the way the U.S. history book had shown Columbus all triumphant planting the flag of Spain. The young teacher also wondered what Columbus had said in the picture that had his crew and some native people. He guessed it was something as “I claim this land and all the land from this place to wherever or forever” and then he thought of the Native Americans pictured. They were smiling and looking happy but the young man knew that they had to be saying something, even if it were under their breaths. “Did this guy say that they owned the land to wherever and forever?” the first one says. “Yes and I wonder if the colored cloth means that these guys intend to own the water, or the air or fire too?” These thoughts made Navarro laugh to himself even though they were not really funny. The whole idea of Colonialism was so very important in the Social Studies particularly for Micronesian history. Navarro knew that land ownership by individuals did not even appear in Micronesia until the German Times at the end of the 19th century. Finally, Navarro decided he would be just fine with most of the content in U. S. History and everything else for that matter. What to teach was easy ... but how he was going to teach now occupied his mind.
He reviewed his yellow pad and his good teacher list and the two words he had used-imaginative and creative kept popping up. But these words confused him. What had he meant by not boring and not dull but imaginative and creative? He thought again and said to himself, “They made it interesting.” These thoughts lead him to the next obvious question—How did they make it interesting? The answers to this ‘How’ would help him. He was sure of that. To be continued......... | 1,308 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the field, superparasitism of Lymantria dispar (L.) by Parasetigena silvestris (Robineau-Desvoidy) was not the result of random oviposition, but, because parasitoid eggs were aggregated, certain hosts were more likely to be parasitized than average. Parasitoid eggs were more aggregated when gypsy moth larvae were collected from under burlap bands than when larvae were collected elsewhere in the same 9-ha plot, resulting in lowered mortality due to parasitism. This finding suggests that collecting larvae from burlap bands may not provide accurate estimates of the impact of P. silvestris on populations of L. dispar. In laboratory studies, deposition of more than one egg on a single host significantly increased parasitoid emergence and host mortality. However, increasing superparasitism had a negative effect on both the probability that an individual parasitoid would survive to emerge from a host and the size of the puparium produced by the parasitoid. The probability of parasitoid survival was higher when fifth- rather than fourth-instar gypsy moth larvae were attacked, but puparia produced by parasitoids emerging from fifth-instar larvae were smaller. | <urn:uuid:c7757a53-5174-41a8-964a-48974c4aaa3b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://core-cms.prod.aop.cambridge.org/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Joseph%20S.%20Elkinton&eventCode=SE-AU | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.984724 | 250 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.1958875656... | 1 | In the field, superparasitism of Lymantria dispar (L.) by Parasetigena silvestris (Robineau-Desvoidy) was not the result of random oviposition, but, because parasitoid eggs were aggregated, certain hosts were more likely to be parasitized than average. Parasitoid eggs were more aggregated when gypsy moth larvae were collected from under burlap bands than when larvae were collected elsewhere in the same 9-ha plot, resulting in lowered mortality due to parasitism. This finding suggests that collecting larvae from burlap bands may not provide accurate estimates of the impact of P. silvestris on populations of L. dispar. In laboratory studies, deposition of more than one egg on a single host significantly increased parasitoid emergence and host mortality. However, increasing superparasitism had a negative effect on both the probability that an individual parasitoid would survive to emerge from a host and the size of the puparium produced by the parasitoid. The probability of parasitoid survival was higher when fifth- rather than fourth-instar gypsy moth larvae were attacked, but puparia produced by parasitoids emerging from fifth-instar larvae were smaller. | 252 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Motivation for this name change to Lafayette, who had been one President George Washington's key military colleagues, was perhaps in part due to the fact that Lafayette Square had become a political center of the city. Indeed, the old city hall, known today as Gallier Hall (built 1845-1854), faces Lafayette Square from across Saint Charles Avenue.
The statue of Henry Clay, however, was an unexpected addition. Designed by American artists Joel T. Hart, the bronze was designated for a spot at the central intersection of Saint Charles Avenue and Canal Street. It was moved from that location to Lafayette Square (only a matter of blocks away) to make adequate space for the expanded street car line that runs down Canal Street.
In addition to the featured sculpture of Clay, one will find a sculpture of Benjamin Franklin. This statue of Franklin replaced a previous statue of Franklin that was crafted in marble at during the 1860s. This statue was created to emulate the work of one of America's most famous Neoclassical sculptors, Hiram Powers. Powers had risen to acclaim in the 1840s with his iconic sculpture, The Greek Slave, which had toured the country to massive audiences. In 1862, Powers had been commissioned to create a likeness of Franklin for Washington, D.C. New Orleans' statue of Franklin was similar to Powers's sculpture.
By the 20th century, the marble on that sculpture was succumbing to the elements. In response, Chicago transplant Henry Wadsworth Gustine commissioned a bronze sculpture of Franklin. This bronze version was installed in 1926 and its marble predecessor was moved indoors. The original sculpture now stands in the atrium of Benjamin Franklin High School. | <urn:uuid:7e0767cd-bb97-4e9b-b003-e052881e5538> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/29944 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00530.warc.gz | en | 0.983732 | 338 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.199140116572... | 1 | Motivation for this name change to Lafayette, who had been one President George Washington's key military colleagues, was perhaps in part due to the fact that Lafayette Square had become a political center of the city. Indeed, the old city hall, known today as Gallier Hall (built 1845-1854), faces Lafayette Square from across Saint Charles Avenue.
The statue of Henry Clay, however, was an unexpected addition. Designed by American artists Joel T. Hart, the bronze was designated for a spot at the central intersection of Saint Charles Avenue and Canal Street. It was moved from that location to Lafayette Square (only a matter of blocks away) to make adequate space for the expanded street car line that runs down Canal Street.
In addition to the featured sculpture of Clay, one will find a sculpture of Benjamin Franklin. This statue of Franklin replaced a previous statue of Franklin that was crafted in marble at during the 1860s. This statue was created to emulate the work of one of America's most famous Neoclassical sculptors, Hiram Powers. Powers had risen to acclaim in the 1840s with his iconic sculpture, The Greek Slave, which had toured the country to massive audiences. In 1862, Powers had been commissioned to create a likeness of Franklin for Washington, D.C. New Orleans' statue of Franklin was similar to Powers's sculpture.
By the 20th century, the marble on that sculpture was succumbing to the elements. In response, Chicago transplant Henry Wadsworth Gustine commissioned a bronze sculpture of Franklin. This bronze version was installed in 1926 and its marble predecessor was moved indoors. The original sculpture now stands in the atrium of Benjamin Franklin High School. | 358 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Space to play or pause, M to mute, left and right arrows to seek, up and down arrows for volume.
Next Monday is Mabo day. In the Torres Strait it's a public holiday and in the rest of Australia it's a chance to remember a man who had a big impact on Australia's history. Sarah looks into who Mabo actually was.
And a warning to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander viewers; this story contains images of people who've died.
There are certain Australians that we remember and celebrate. People who did extraordinary things, who made a difference and changed history for the better. Eddie Koike Mabo is one of them. A man who took on the Australian legal system to fight an injustice and change the way Australian history was told.
Eddie was born on the Island of Mer also known as Murray Island in the Torres Strait off the tip of Northern Queensland. For thousands of years it had been the home of the Meriam people and from the time he was little Eddie learned about the importance of his culture.
But the country he grew up in didn't recognise even the basic rights of its first people. Indigenous Australians had to fight to be able to vote, to be paid equally, to be served in shops and go to theatres and hospitals with white Australians.
When he was a young man Eddie joined the fight for Indigenous rights. But it was in the 70's, while working as a gardener at James Cook University, that he made a discovery that would change his life. Eddie made friends with some historians at the university. He would tell them proudly about the land he owned on Mer which had been handed down to him by his ancestors. The historians had to tell him that, in fact, his people didn't own the land at all. Murray Island was officially Crown Land; owned by the Commonwealth of Australia and had been ever since British settlers arrived.
REPORTER: When Captain Cook arrived in Australia land could be claimed by the Crown if it was "Terra Nullius" or land belonging to no-one. The law said Indigenous societies didn't count because they didn't have laws or governments and they didn't own land.
But Eddie knew that wasn't true. In 1981 he was invited to speak about his people at a conference and a lawyer who was listening thought maybe Mabo could prove that terra nullius was wrong. So he and some of his fellow Murray Islanders took their case to the highest court in Australia. Mabo vs the State of Queensland became one of the most famous court cases in Australian history.
Mabo wasn't just fighting for the Meriam people. If he won it would mean other Indigenous people could claim land rights. That was controversial. Some worried about the future of Aussie industries which used the land. But others saw it as a chance to right a great wrong in Australia's past. On June 3rd in 1992 the high court made its decision.
RICHARD MORECROFT, NEWS ANCHOR: The High Court has recognised that there were people here and their descendants have rights.
Terra nullius was overturned and Indigenous land rights or Native Title was acknowledged. Despite some people's fears it didn't mean white people could have their homes taken away. It did mean people who were still living on and connected to their traditional land could finally have a say on what happened to it.
Sadly, Eddie Koike Mabo didn't get to see his victory. He died just five months before the court verdict at the age of 55. But he hasn't been forgotten. His story has been celebrated in art an in films like this. The library where he liked to study in James Cook University is now named after him. And every year on the third of June people around Australia celebrate Mabo day. | <urn:uuid:8aed34ab-ff20-4efa-84e2-1c06ee1b89d0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.abc.net.au/btn/classroom/mabo-day/10530494 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00261.warc.gz | en | 0.992563 | 775 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.591261625289... | 2 | Space to play or pause, M to mute, left and right arrows to seek, up and down arrows for volume.
Next Monday is Mabo day. In the Torres Strait it's a public holiday and in the rest of Australia it's a chance to remember a man who had a big impact on Australia's history. Sarah looks into who Mabo actually was.
And a warning to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander viewers; this story contains images of people who've died.
There are certain Australians that we remember and celebrate. People who did extraordinary things, who made a difference and changed history for the better. Eddie Koike Mabo is one of them. A man who took on the Australian legal system to fight an injustice and change the way Australian history was told.
Eddie was born on the Island of Mer also known as Murray Island in the Torres Strait off the tip of Northern Queensland. For thousands of years it had been the home of the Meriam people and from the time he was little Eddie learned about the importance of his culture.
But the country he grew up in didn't recognise even the basic rights of its first people. Indigenous Australians had to fight to be able to vote, to be paid equally, to be served in shops and go to theatres and hospitals with white Australians.
When he was a young man Eddie joined the fight for Indigenous rights. But it was in the 70's, while working as a gardener at James Cook University, that he made a discovery that would change his life. Eddie made friends with some historians at the university. He would tell them proudly about the land he owned on Mer which had been handed down to him by his ancestors. The historians had to tell him that, in fact, his people didn't own the land at all. Murray Island was officially Crown Land; owned by the Commonwealth of Australia and had been ever since British settlers arrived.
REPORTER: When Captain Cook arrived in Australia land could be claimed by the Crown if it was "Terra Nullius" or land belonging to no-one. The law said Indigenous societies didn't count because they didn't have laws or governments and they didn't own land.
But Eddie knew that wasn't true. In 1981 he was invited to speak about his people at a conference and a lawyer who was listening thought maybe Mabo could prove that terra nullius was wrong. So he and some of his fellow Murray Islanders took their case to the highest court in Australia. Mabo vs the State of Queensland became one of the most famous court cases in Australian history.
Mabo wasn't just fighting for the Meriam people. If he won it would mean other Indigenous people could claim land rights. That was controversial. Some worried about the future of Aussie industries which used the land. But others saw it as a chance to right a great wrong in Australia's past. On June 3rd in 1992 the high court made its decision.
RICHARD MORECROFT, NEWS ANCHOR: The High Court has recognised that there were people here and their descendants have rights.
Terra nullius was overturned and Indigenous land rights or Native Title was acknowledged. Despite some people's fears it didn't mean white people could have their homes taken away. It did mean people who were still living on and connected to their traditional land could finally have a say on what happened to it.
Sadly, Eddie Koike Mabo didn't get to see his victory. He died just five months before the court verdict at the age of 55. But he hasn't been forgotten. His story has been celebrated in art an in films like this. The library where he liked to study in James Cook University is now named after him. And every year on the third of June people around Australia celebrate Mabo day. | 771 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who was George Washington?
The story of America's first president
An unforgettable president ...
After all, in 1789, he was elected the first president of the United States, a country that was to become the most powerful in the world. At the end of his life, in 1799, George was an international hero.
But, if you look back into George's early years, you will see that things were not always so rosy. George was sent into the Army as a very young man. For a colonist of his generation, it was a respectable thing to do. It gave him an opportunity to make a living, and at the same time see the country, which at the time was full of wild animals and Indians. It was a tough life, but an interesting one. One could hunt forever in the vast forests. One could explore new lands seemingly forever.
A lover of Nature, George became a surveyor with the Army, a job which led him further and further into the wild, unknown country. As for the Indians, they were generally friendly, and were good trading partners. All in all, George's young years were full of carefree wandering in a new, virgin land.
In his quest to get the land beyond the mountains, the governor called upon his best soldier to deal with the situation: it was young George Washington, barely 22 years old at the time. The governor told George to go and find the French, and give them a simple message: leave the region immediately, or get ready for battle.
Wanting to serve and please his authorities, George did as he was told. He went over the mountains with a small army, found the French, and passed on the governor's message. But, of course, the French did not wish to leave. Inevitably, the conflict developed into a war, known as the French and Indian War; that is, the French and some Indian allies fighting the British colonials.
For George, it was a difficult time. To cut a long story short, it was the only time in his life that he had to surrender an army — at Fort Necessity, near the forks of the Ohio. In that battle, George nearly didn't become the first president of the United States. His army was surrounded by the French and Indians, badly outnumbered, so he had to surrender the fort. Luckily for him, the French allowed him and his army to leave with their horses and guns. The battle had been lost, but the English, who were more numerous, eventually won the war.
The French and Indian War was a learning experience for George, one that he would later exploit in the War for American Independence. Indeed, twenty years later, George was dressed in an American uniform, and fighting not against the French, but against the British.
In this war, it is said that George's fiery leadership inspired his American troops when they were starving and cold, and he emerged from the war as the greatest general.
It was no surprise that the victorious Americans chose him as their first president. As for getting his picture on the dollar bill, that didn't come until after George was long dead and gone, proving that his spirit was truly an unforgettable one.
Printing: Optimized for A4 printing with the Chrome or Firefox browsers
Copyright © Linguapress. Do not copy this document to any other website
Copying permitted for personal study, or by teachers for use with their students
1. Select the nearest equivalent to these expressions which occur in the text .
b. was going to become -
c. should have become
b. were asking for all the land -
c. considered that all land belonged to them.
b. said that the governor would send them a message -
c. told them what the governor had said;
b. almost found the first president. -
c. almost decided to join the French.
b. was something that taught him a lot. -
c. was a very difficult experience.
2. Make up questions to which these are the answers, using the question word indicated.
- In 1799 (when)
- French soldiers . (what)
- Because he wanted it too (why)
- To go out and find the French. (what)
- The French and the Indians. (who or whom)
- At Fort Necessity. (where)
- With his fiery leadership. (How)
- Much later long after his death. (when)
The passive: Get students to think up sentences about George Washington using the passive voice. There are several examples in the article, for example : he was elected the first president of the United States, George was sent into the Army as a very young man.
Reading for information :
Ask students to pick out as many words and phrases as possible that tell us what sort of a man George Washington was.
What makes a superhero?
Ask pupils to describe their superhero, and explain why he (she) is so highly considered.
copyright Linguapress 1988 - 2017.
Revised 2017 . Based on an article originally published in Freeway, the intermediate level English newsmagazine. Republication on other websites or in print is not authorised
|Linguapress; home||Découvrez l'Angleterre (en français)||Discover Britain|
EFL teachers: Help develop this resource by contributing extra teaching materials or exercises.
Click here for further details | <urn:uuid:86a1901f-dcbd-400e-aafd-d87325d513ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://linguapress.com/intermediate/george-washington.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00230.warc.gz | en | 0.98576 | 1,136 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.19365522265434265,
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... | 1 | Who was George Washington?
The story of America's first president
An unforgettable president ...
After all, in 1789, he was elected the first president of the United States, a country that was to become the most powerful in the world. At the end of his life, in 1799, George was an international hero.
But, if you look back into George's early years, you will see that things were not always so rosy. George was sent into the Army as a very young man. For a colonist of his generation, it was a respectable thing to do. It gave him an opportunity to make a living, and at the same time see the country, which at the time was full of wild animals and Indians. It was a tough life, but an interesting one. One could hunt forever in the vast forests. One could explore new lands seemingly forever.
A lover of Nature, George became a surveyor with the Army, a job which led him further and further into the wild, unknown country. As for the Indians, they were generally friendly, and were good trading partners. All in all, George's young years were full of carefree wandering in a new, virgin land.
In his quest to get the land beyond the mountains, the governor called upon his best soldier to deal with the situation: it was young George Washington, barely 22 years old at the time. The governor told George to go and find the French, and give them a simple message: leave the region immediately, or get ready for battle.
Wanting to serve and please his authorities, George did as he was told. He went over the mountains with a small army, found the French, and passed on the governor's message. But, of course, the French did not wish to leave. Inevitably, the conflict developed into a war, known as the French and Indian War; that is, the French and some Indian allies fighting the British colonials.
For George, it was a difficult time. To cut a long story short, it was the only time in his life that he had to surrender an army — at Fort Necessity, near the forks of the Ohio. In that battle, George nearly didn't become the first president of the United States. His army was surrounded by the French and Indians, badly outnumbered, so he had to surrender the fort. Luckily for him, the French allowed him and his army to leave with their horses and guns. The battle had been lost, but the English, who were more numerous, eventually won the war.
The French and Indian War was a learning experience for George, one that he would later exploit in the War for American Independence. Indeed, twenty years later, George was dressed in an American uniform, and fighting not against the French, but against the British.
In this war, it is said that George's fiery leadership inspired his American troops when they were starving and cold, and he emerged from the war as the greatest general.
It was no surprise that the victorious Americans chose him as their first president. As for getting his picture on the dollar bill, that didn't come until after George was long dead and gone, proving that his spirit was truly an unforgettable one.
Printing: Optimized for A4 printing with the Chrome or Firefox browsers
Copyright © Linguapress. Do not copy this document to any other website
Copying permitted for personal study, or by teachers for use with their students
1. Select the nearest equivalent to these expressions which occur in the text .
b. was going to become -
c. should have become
b. were asking for all the land -
c. considered that all land belonged to them.
b. said that the governor would send them a message -
c. told them what the governor had said;
b. almost found the first president. -
c. almost decided to join the French.
b. was something that taught him a lot. -
c. was a very difficult experience.
2. Make up questions to which these are the answers, using the question word indicated.
- In 1799 (when)
- French soldiers . (what)
- Because he wanted it too (why)
- To go out and find the French. (what)
- The French and the Indians. (who or whom)
- At Fort Necessity. (where)
- With his fiery leadership. (How)
- Much later long after his death. (when)
The passive: Get students to think up sentences about George Washington using the passive voice. There are several examples in the article, for example : he was elected the first president of the United States, George was sent into the Army as a very young man.
Reading for information :
Ask students to pick out as many words and phrases as possible that tell us what sort of a man George Washington was.
What makes a superhero?
Ask pupils to describe their superhero, and explain why he (she) is so highly considered.
copyright Linguapress 1988 - 2017.
Revised 2017 . Based on an article originally published in Freeway, the intermediate level English newsmagazine. Republication on other websites or in print is not authorised
|Linguapress; home||Découvrez l'Angleterre (en français)||Discover Britain|
EFL teachers: Help develop this resource by contributing extra teaching materials or exercises.
Click here for further details | 1,111 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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