Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
“Love” The Odyssey of Homer 15 February Similes in The Odyssey The Odyssey is one of the epic poems attributed to Homer. It depicts the struggles of Odysseus after the Trojan War. Suitors are already swarming his wife, Penelope, while Penelopes son, Telemachos, looks for his father, under the direction of the goddess Athene. Kalypso holds Odysseus captive in her island as her lover. In Mount Olympos, where the gods reside, the goddess Athene asks her father, Zeus, to take pity on Odysseus and to compel Kalpyso to liberate him. Zeus fulfills Athene’s request. Unfortunately, Poseidon creates a horrible storm that destroys Odysseus’ wooden raft, so he washes to the land of the Phaiakians. This essay interprets the figures of speech in The Odyssey (Book 5) during the time that Odysseus floats hopelessly in the ocean. Personification is used in Book 5 of The Odyssey. Homer says: “when Dawn with the lovely hair had brought the third morning,” Dawn has been turned into a person with beautiful hair. By hair, it refers also to “gold,” which is the color of the sun. This means that it is a fine day, when Odysseus sees land for the first time. Another interpretation is that Dawn is “hope.” It is the breaking of the day, where light shines on earth. For Odysseus who has been floating in the seas for some time, to see land is to spark hope in his heart. In addition, Dawn can also refer to Athene. This goddess has been helping Odysseus, since he is her favorite. If not without her divine intercession for her father and other forms of assistance, Odysseus would have been kept prisoner in Kalypso’s island forever. Athene is the Dawn in Odysseus’ life, because she constantly shines blessings for him, in order to escape his would-have-been-dreadful life. When Odysseus sees land, he views life more positively. The word “welcome” describes his feeling for this land that will help him survive. When he sees this land, the simile is “And as welcome as the show of life again in a father is to his children” (Homer). Odysseus sees the land as a part of his life, his existence. The land is his father; a father who welcomes his long lost child, for indeed, Odysseus has been literally lost for a long time. Odysseus longs for his father, this land that would help him reach his family once more. The words “wasting long away, and the hateful death spirit has brushed him,” explain his sickness. He has been terribly sick in the seas, after swimming when his raft has been destroyed. After two days of swimming and floating, it is inevitable for his physical body to deteriorate, until “the hateful death spirit has brushed him.” It is hateful, because Odysseus wants to survive. The “death spirit” refers to the coming of his death. It only brushes him, which means that Odysseus is so close to dying from exhaustion and emotional depression. Hope comes once more in the form of land: “so welcome appeared land and forest now to Odysseus,/and he swam, pressing on, so as to set foot on the mainland” (Homer). Again, land welcomes him. Land is his “salvation” (Bynum). Odysseus feels that he has found his life once more. On dry land, he can recover and pursue his goals of going home and being reunited with his family. He “presses on” or endures to swim, for in this land, his journey will continue. He needs to recover his strength and this land will give him his strength back. Several figures of speech are identified, including similes and personification. These figures of speech serve to describe events and emotions in a metaphorical manner. They assert the poetic beauty of a man’s struggles to be with his loved ones, no matter what it takes. Bynum, D.E. Myth and Ritual: Two Faces of Tradition. Web. 13 Feb. 2012. Homer. The Odyssey.	<urn:uuid:d3432de4-01ac-4eff-80a9-39015529e837>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://summarystory.com/the-odyssey/love-the-odyssey-of-homer/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00294.warc.gz	en	0.980373	945	3.625	4	[ 0.04649953544139862, 0.07517790794372559, 0.3406040668487549, -0.08591178804636002, -0.48207393288612366, -0.3630950450897217, 0.032357364892959595, 0.5865631699562073, 0.13569889962673187, -0.3416314125061035, -0.04188203066587448, -0.6755152940750122, -0.28087010979652405, 0.437601089477...	9	“Love” The Odyssey of Homer 15 February Similes in The Odyssey The Odyssey is one of the epic poems attributed to Homer. It depicts the struggles of Odysseus after the Trojan War. Suitors are already swarming his wife, Penelope, while Penelopes son, Telemachos, looks for his father, under the direction of the goddess Athene. Kalypso holds Odysseus captive in her island as her lover. In Mount Olympos, where the gods reside, the goddess Athene asks her father, Zeus, to take pity on Odysseus and to compel Kalpyso to liberate him. Zeus fulfills Athene’s request. Unfortunately, Poseidon creates a horrible storm that destroys Odysseus’ wooden raft, so he washes to the land of the Phaiakians. This essay interprets the figures of speech in The Odyssey (Book 5) during the time that Odysseus floats hopelessly in the ocean. Personification is used in Book 5 of The Odyssey. Homer says: “when Dawn with the lovely hair had brought the third morning,” Dawn has been turned into a person with beautiful hair. By hair, it refers also to “gold,” which is the color of the sun. This means that it is a fine day, when Odysseus sees land for the first time. Another interpretation is that Dawn is “hope.” It is the breaking of the day, where light shines on earth. For Odysseus who has been floating in the seas for some time, to see land is to spark hope in his heart. In addition, Dawn can also refer to Athene. This goddess has been helping Odysseus, since he is her favorite. If not without her divine intercession for her father and other forms of assistance, Odysseus would have been kept prisoner in Kalypso’s island forever. Athene is the Dawn in Odysseus’ life, because she constantly shines blessings for him, in order to escape his would-have-been-dreadful life. When Odysseus sees land, he views life more positively. The word “welcome” describes his feeling for this land that will help him survive. When he sees this land, the simile is “And as welcome as the show of life again in a father is to his children” (Homer). Odysseus sees the land as a part of his life, his existence. The land is his father; a father who welcomes his long lost child, for indeed, Odysseus has been literally lost for a long time. Odysseus longs for his father, this land that would help him reach his family once more. The words “wasting long away, and the hateful death spirit has brushed him,” explain his sickness. He has been terribly sick in the seas, after swimming when his raft has been destroyed. After two days of swimming and floating, it is inevitable for his physical body to deteriorate, until “the hateful death spirit has brushed him.” It is hateful, because Odysseus wants to survive. The “death spirit” refers to the coming of his death. It only brushes him, which means that Odysseus is so close to dying from exhaustion and emotional depression. Hope comes once more in the form of land: “so welcome appeared land and forest now to Odysseus,/and he swam, pressing on, so as to set foot on the mainland” (Homer). Again, land welcomes him. Land is his “salvation” (Bynum). Odysseus feels that he has found his life once more. On dry land, he can recover and pursue his goals of going home and being reunited with his family. He “presses on” or endures to swim, for in this land, his journey will continue. He needs to recover his strength and this land will give him his strength back. Several figures of speech are identified, including similes and personification. These figures of speech serve to describe events and emotions in a metaphorical manner. They assert the poetic beauty of a man’s struggles to be with his loved ones, no matter what it takes. Bynum, D.E. Myth and Ritual: Two Faces of Tradition. Web. 13 Feb. 2012. Homer. The Odyssey.	902	ENGLISH	1
Father Braun, to whose kindness the writer is indebted for the above account of the causes of the ritual changes in the Carolingian epoch, adds that the papacy was never narrowminded in its attitude towards local rites, and that it was not until the close of the middle ages, when diversity had become confusion and worse, that it began to insist upon uniformity. On the whole it must be said that in those towns where the democratic party gained the upper hand an unruly policy abroad and a narrowminded protection at home resulted. And it may not be fanciful to suggest that the obvious growth of McKinley in breadth and power during his term as president was due to his being the representative of a larger constituency, less local and less narrowminded. 29 a with suspicion, and where every effort was made to thwart his far-seeing and patriotic political combinations, which were beyond the comprehension of his self-seeking and narrowminded contemporaries. That his virtue was not equal to every trial must be admitted, but that he was anything like the morose and narrowminded bigot he is commonly represented there is nothing whatever to show. The word usage examples above have been gathered from various sources to reflect current and historial usage. They do not represent the opinions of YourDictionary.com.	<urn:uuid:7af7d540-0b9a-49dc-b0c0-0f41af6854f6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sentence.yourdictionary.com/narrowminded	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00196.warc.gz	en	0.985786	262	3.390625	3	[ -0.3426078259944916, 0.18827153742313385, 0.30687063932418823, -0.12958429753780365, -0.17738597095012665, 0.24389563500881195, 0.2602008879184723, 0.12947829067707062, 0.02700193226337433, -0.3652118742465973, 0.25505170226097107, 0.10615784674882889, 0.12078807502985, 0.37359413504600525...	2	Father Braun, to whose kindness the writer is indebted for the above account of the causes of the ritual changes in the Carolingian epoch, adds that the papacy was never narrowminded in its attitude towards local rites, and that it was not until the close of the middle ages, when diversity had become confusion and worse, that it began to insist upon uniformity. On the whole it must be said that in those towns where the democratic party gained the upper hand an unruly policy abroad and a narrowminded protection at home resulted. And it may not be fanciful to suggest that the obvious growth of McKinley in breadth and power during his term as president was due to his being the representative of a larger constituency, less local and less narrowminded. 29 a with suspicion, and where every effort was made to thwart his far-seeing and patriotic political combinations, which were beyond the comprehension of his self-seeking and narrowminded contemporaries. That his virtue was not equal to every trial must be admitted, but that he was anything like the morose and narrowminded bigot he is commonly represented there is nothing whatever to show. The word usage examples above have been gathered from various sources to reflect current and historial usage. They do not represent the opinions of YourDictionary.com.	261	ENGLISH	1
The general historical tools and language is apart of the social forces that influence the lives of youth in Boston. History, historical themes, social forces and G’ GREASES is also a big part of how social forces influences the youth in Boston. G’ GREASES is "an acronym and a useful tool to analyze history and the world around us. It provides different ‘lenses’ for understanding historical events, historical themes and the world we currently live in." Social Forces influenced Boston during three case studies we went through in class. Case study 1): Lowell Mills 1830, Case Study 2): Forced Busing in Boston 1970, Case Study 3): DSNI (Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative) 1980-1990. In these three case studies G’GREASES will be identified. G: geography, G: government, R: religion, E: economics, A: art/ architecture, S: science/ technology, E: education, S: social/ cultural values. Each case study will prove two to three of these social forces. The Lowell Mills was a new age for women because they came to Lowell looking for work. The Lowell Mills was supposed to be an opportunity for women who wanted to have a sense of independence. The people involved in the Lowell Mills were the girls that came in and thought they wanted some independence, and the guards that watched them and kept them in line. The Lowell Mills happened because back then the women was the ones who worked and the men went to school. The idea that man and women occupied different areas of responsibility was another reason why the Lowell Mills happened. The Lowell Mills started in 1830 during the Industrial Revolution; the Lowell Mills took place in the mills further north of Boston. During the Lowell Mills there were many social forces being talked around such as "Economics, government, and social/ cultural values." Economics shaped the Lowell Mills because the girls needed money for their brother’s education or for their family’s rent and bills. They needed too much as possible for survival. The government shaped the Lowell Mills, because the Mills was changing the government. Social/ Cultural values shaped the Mills because of the roles of women, which many leave home, for independence. This also shapes social and cultural values because of the separate spheres, which for men was supposed to be public and "rough", and a women which was supposed to be private "nurturing". Boston Public Schools was forced to be desegregated, under judge Garrity’s Phrase I and II. Students from Roxbury were being forced to be bused to Charlestown. Most of the Charlestown’s parents forbade this from happening and most of the Roxbury parents feared for their children lives. The people involved in the forced busing in Boston School Committee, City Council members, Louise Day Hicks, Judge Garrity, angry white parents, angry black parents scared and upset children. Forced busing in Boston happened because of parents in the urban areas were tired of their children not getting the same education as the suburban students. Forced Busing in Boston started in 1974 during the Civil Rights Era in 1954-1975. Forced busing in Boston was between towns and areas such as Roxbury and Charlestown. During the Forced Busing in Boston there were a lot of social forces related to it such as "government, education, and geography" Government was at work here because the 14th Amendment was present which the "equal protection is under the law". Many of the people who were against the busing had signs starting that we have "equal rights" referring to the 14th Amendment. Geography was also at work here because I don’t think the whole Forced Busing in Boston was about race, it was more on where they (students) live and where they (students) came from. Busing was from Roxbury to Charlestown and Charlestown to Roxbury, mind you Roxbury is considering an urban area, and Charlestown was predominately white which was consider a better education than Roxbury. Education was at work here as were because the whole busing was because the urban parents wanted a better education for their children, so they wanted them to go to the better schools, which was in Charlestown at the time. Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative (DSNI) was a community activism urban renewal and revitalization group. The Dudley community came together in a vision, a struggle and a change and the neighborhood and its resident reclaiming its own power. It was about turning a blighted neighborhood of Boston around through, grassroots, organizing, planning, and activism, the DSNI came together, and it all, John Barros and the whole Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative. DSNI came about because people in Boston who lived in Dudley or on Dudley Street were tired of seeing waste all on their streets. They were tired of seeing empty lots filled with nothing but trash, and seeing many people with no jobs and no home. DSNI wanted to make a difference in the way they lived. Seeing drug dealers all in the parks while the kids are they’re playing. Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative came around in the beginning of the 1980-1990 during the period of Urban Renewal in American cities. DSNI was in Roxbury, Ma in Dudley. DSNI was impacted by a lot of different social forces that help make it what it is now such as "geography, government, and art/ architecture." Geography is a part of DSNI because their main idea was to get their area and their community clean. Government was also a part of DSNI because they were basically their own government; they made their own rules and went through the loop in the system. They also made their own structure of a building for the community, which brings me to Art/ Architecture. They had a plan on how they wanted their community. They had a vision of success and power and they achieved it. People’s lives are in so many ways variable because there is so many things people expect and don’t expect. The path people take are or can be negative and positive, if people want to live up to what society wants or "the white man" then you can’t be shocked about the way your life ends up. But people also might know or not know that you can always overthrow society and think for yourself. People listen to "society" and think that there not going to make it in life or they are not going anywhere but where society takes them. For example Lowell Mills, those girls lived up to society stating that girls had to work while the men are at school, but they were shocked on how badly they were being treated and how they had to act. That is a negative way people are influenced. The positive way people are influenced is that people can hear, but neither listens, nor follows, but hears, think, and know that this is not what he/she wants for her life and they can change. For example DSNI they could have just let the streets of Dudley be dirty because that is what people were used to. But they listened to all those stereotypes about Dudley and did something about it. They made there own paths. People state that the United States is one of the wealthiest countries on Earth. It is also known as the land of opportunity. But what people fail to know is America makes a statement of its own. America makes it known if you are not "white" and you are a "minority" the land of opportunity is very slim. With little or no education you can’t go far in the "land of free". But even if you do have an education but you are "black" you are not likely to land that dream job. Most "blacks" are living in poverty because they don’t get a lot nor enough opportunities and/ or resources to prove they are as equal as everyone else mainly "whites". But at times the very ones we look down upon are the very ones who chose to be that way. Some people, who do live in poverty and is colored, choose to live that way. Most people of color say "it’s the white man keeping us down" but you never tried to make a difference. You never tried to get back on your feet whenever you were knocked by "the man" it seems like everyone who isn’t doing right is blaming him. If you think about it the "man" is no one but your own imagination, the "man" is society and it is up to you to say if you’re going to listen to what society wants you to be? Or are you going to tried and fight for what you deserve? Okay if you think the "white man" is keeping you down and you don’t do anything, then it’s you who is keeping yourself down no one but yourself. Not trying to sound naive, but I think most not all but some uses society as an excuse of not having a job, or not being able to fen for oneself. The 'general story' about education in Boston and in the country is you either have an education and hope that it is "good" in standards to get a well paying job (higher class), you have a education that you can get a job (working class), or you don't have an education and no job except for Burger King (lower class 'poor'). The most important thing to know about education is that the system itself is all-wrong. The system groups students and adults into social classes. There is a upper class who consist of kids who was born with parents with money or went to a suburban school, a middle (working) class who is predominantly black students whose family worked all their lives to make sure their kids get a good education or that made sure their kids was supported, and finally the lower (poor) class who is also predominantly black, is just poor with little or no education, and the only way to go is get one or go down. The educational system has and always will set up students for failure. This brings me to my next point, of how the educational system groups students by race. A question that has been brought up about the education in Boston is "why is education bias when it comes down to race?" Racism was brought up back in the day with slavery. The funny thing is slavery has ended but racism is getting stronger and it is happening in our schools whether we see it or not. For example, stated in the Challenge Journal written by Robert Rothman they group the students by race when they took their state test. "98% whites" and "82% African Americans" passed their test, but what they don't understand is that the more they collect this data and the way they represented their data to the schools and teachers can be done differently. A major finding about education that also came out of the Challenge Journal was the "achievement gap" between the "white students" and the "minority/ poor students". The achievement gap is basically this trend in education that has been going on for some time now. About five years ago a school that was doing really good with test scores looked deeper into the score to realize that the "white" students was scoring higher than the "minorities", and they realized that "their overall wide performance masked wide differences" the school was the Lanier Middle School in Houston. Finding this information they set out to try and close the "gap" of education. The "achievement gap" is being a concern to rise, because you can see it a lot in Boston public schools. You can see the white students having a better educational experience than the black "minority" students. Another problem that is connected to the "achievement gap" is the facts of unqualified teachers are the ones teaching the "minority" students. In the Challenge Journal, Robert Rothman said, "perhaps the most important resource is the quality of the teaching force." Which is a good concept to think about, because yes the students should take responsibility of what their education is, but how can they? How can they do it when they have teachers who are not qualified? "High school students in high-poverty schools are more than twice likely to be taught by a teachers lacking certification in his/her field" stated in the Challenge Journal.	<urn:uuid:97e23baf-9b63-4e93-8834-458d6e34db33>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bcla.digication.com/nporter-e-portfolio07/Section_4_Historical_Connections_Sociological	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00354.warc.gz	en	0.985376	2,537	3.796875	4	[ 0.2761574983596802, 0.21944084763526917, 0.2532365620136261, -0.3741362988948822, -0.3238791525363922, 0.10177755355834961, -0.004072712268680334, -0.19602587819099426, -0.005193748511373997, -0.2820657789707184, -0.1016567051410675, 0.12084977328777313, 0.09909144788980484, -0.16673482954...	1	The general historical tools and language is apart of the social forces that influence the lives of youth in Boston. History, historical themes, social forces and G’ GREASES is also a big part of how social forces influences the youth in Boston. G’ GREASES is "an acronym and a useful tool to analyze history and the world around us. It provides different ‘lenses’ for understanding historical events, historical themes and the world we currently live in." Social Forces influenced Boston during three case studies we went through in class. Case study 1): Lowell Mills 1830, Case Study 2): Forced Busing in Boston 1970, Case Study 3): DSNI (Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative) 1980-1990. In these three case studies G’GREASES will be identified. G: geography, G: government, R: religion, E: economics, A: art/ architecture, S: science/ technology, E: education, S: social/ cultural values. Each case study will prove two to three of these social forces. The Lowell Mills was a new age for women because they came to Lowell looking for work. The Lowell Mills was supposed to be an opportunity for women who wanted to have a sense of independence. The people involved in the Lowell Mills were the girls that came in and thought they wanted some independence, and the guards that watched them and kept them in line. The Lowell Mills happened because back then the women was the ones who worked and the men went to school. The idea that man and women occupied different areas of responsibility was another reason why the Lowell Mills happened. The Lowell Mills started in 1830 during the Industrial Revolution; the Lowell Mills took place in the mills further north of Boston. During the Lowell Mills there were many social forces being talked around such as "Economics, government, and social/ cultural values." Economics shaped the Lowell Mills because the girls needed money for their brother’s education or for their family’s rent and bills. They needed too much as possible for survival. The government shaped the Lowell Mills, because the Mills was changing the government. Social/ Cultural values shaped the Mills because of the roles of women, which many leave home, for independence. This also shapes social and cultural values because of the separate spheres, which for men was supposed to be public and "rough", and a women which was supposed to be private "nurturing". Boston Public Schools was forced to be desegregated, under judge Garrity’s Phrase I and II. Students from Roxbury were being forced to be bused to Charlestown. Most of the Charlestown’s parents forbade this from happening and most of the Roxbury parents feared for their children lives. The people involved in the forced busing in Boston School Committee, City Council members, Louise Day Hicks, Judge Garrity, angry white parents, angry black parents scared and upset children. Forced busing in Boston happened because of parents in the urban areas were tired of their children not getting the same education as the suburban students. Forced Busing in Boston started in 1974 during the Civil Rights Era in 1954-1975. Forced busing in Boston was between towns and areas such as Roxbury and Charlestown. During the Forced Busing in Boston there were a lot of social forces related to it such as "government, education, and geography" Government was at work here because the 14th Amendment was present which the "equal protection is under the law". Many of the people who were against the busing had signs starting that we have "equal rights" referring to the 14th Amendment. Geography was also at work here because I don’t think the whole Forced Busing in Boston was about race, it was more on where they (students) live and where they (students) came from. Busing was from Roxbury to Charlestown and Charlestown to Roxbury, mind you Roxbury is considering an urban area, and Charlestown was predominately white which was consider a better education than Roxbury. Education was at work here as were because the whole busing was because the urban parents wanted a better education for their children, so they wanted them to go to the better schools, which was in Charlestown at the time. Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative (DSNI) was a community activism urban renewal and revitalization group. The Dudley community came together in a vision, a struggle and a change and the neighborhood and its resident reclaiming its own power. It was about turning a blighted neighborhood of Boston around through, grassroots, organizing, planning, and activism, the DSNI came together, and it all, John Barros and the whole Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative. DSNI came about because people in Boston who lived in Dudley or on Dudley Street were tired of seeing waste all on their streets. They were tired of seeing empty lots filled with nothing but trash, and seeing many people with no jobs and no home. DSNI wanted to make a difference in the way they lived. Seeing drug dealers all in the parks while the kids are they’re playing. Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative came around in the beginning of the 1980-1990 during the period of Urban Renewal in American cities. DSNI was in Roxbury, Ma in Dudley. DSNI was impacted by a lot of different social forces that help make it what it is now such as "geography, government, and art/ architecture." Geography is a part of DSNI because their main idea was to get their area and their community clean. Government was also a part of DSNI because they were basically their own government; they made their own rules and went through the loop in the system. They also made their own structure of a building for the community, which brings me to Art/ Architecture. They had a plan on how they wanted their community. They had a vision of success and power and they achieved it. People’s lives are in so many ways variable because there is so many things people expect and don’t expect. The path people take are or can be negative and positive, if people want to live up to what society wants or "the white man" then you can’t be shocked about the way your life ends up. But people also might know or not know that you can always overthrow society and think for yourself. People listen to "society" and think that there not going to make it in life or they are not going anywhere but where society takes them. For example Lowell Mills, those girls lived up to society stating that girls had to work while the men are at school, but they were shocked on how badly they were being treated and how they had to act. That is a negative way people are influenced. The positive way people are influenced is that people can hear, but neither listens, nor follows, but hears, think, and know that this is not what he/she wants for her life and they can change. For example DSNI they could have just let the streets of Dudley be dirty because that is what people were used to. But they listened to all those stereotypes about Dudley and did something about it. They made there own paths. People state that the United States is one of the wealthiest countries on Earth. It is also known as the land of opportunity. But what people fail to know is America makes a statement of its own. America makes it known if you are not "white" and you are a "minority" the land of opportunity is very slim. With little or no education you can’t go far in the "land of free". But even if you do have an education but you are "black" you are not likely to land that dream job. Most "blacks" are living in poverty because they don’t get a lot nor enough opportunities and/ or resources to prove they are as equal as everyone else mainly "whites". But at times the very ones we look down upon are the very ones who chose to be that way. Some people, who do live in poverty and is colored, choose to live that way. Most people of color say "it’s the white man keeping us down" but you never tried to make a difference. You never tried to get back on your feet whenever you were knocked by "the man" it seems like everyone who isn’t doing right is blaming him. If you think about it the "man" is no one but your own imagination, the "man" is society and it is up to you to say if you’re going to listen to what society wants you to be? Or are you going to tried and fight for what you deserve? Okay if you think the "white man" is keeping you down and you don’t do anything, then it’s you who is keeping yourself down no one but yourself. Not trying to sound naive, but I think most not all but some uses society as an excuse of not having a job, or not being able to fen for oneself. The 'general story' about education in Boston and in the country is you either have an education and hope that it is "good" in standards to get a well paying job (higher class), you have a education that you can get a job (working class), or you don't have an education and no job except for Burger King (lower class 'poor'). The most important thing to know about education is that the system itself is all-wrong. The system groups students and adults into social classes. There is a upper class who consist of kids who was born with parents with money or went to a suburban school, a middle (working) class who is predominantly black students whose family worked all their lives to make sure their kids get a good education or that made sure their kids was supported, and finally the lower (poor) class who is also predominantly black, is just poor with little or no education, and the only way to go is get one or go down. The educational system has and always will set up students for failure. This brings me to my next point, of how the educational system groups students by race. A question that has been brought up about the education in Boston is "why is education bias when it comes down to race?" Racism was brought up back in the day with slavery. The funny thing is slavery has ended but racism is getting stronger and it is happening in our schools whether we see it or not. For example, stated in the Challenge Journal written by Robert Rothman they group the students by race when they took their state test. "98% whites" and "82% African Americans" passed their test, but what they don't understand is that the more they collect this data and the way they represented their data to the schools and teachers can be done differently. A major finding about education that also came out of the Challenge Journal was the "achievement gap" between the "white students" and the "minority/ poor students". The achievement gap is basically this trend in education that has been going on for some time now. About five years ago a school that was doing really good with test scores looked deeper into the score to realize that the "white" students was scoring higher than the "minorities", and they realized that "their overall wide performance masked wide differences" the school was the Lanier Middle School in Houston. Finding this information they set out to try and close the "gap" of education. The "achievement gap" is being a concern to rise, because you can see it a lot in Boston public schools. You can see the white students having a better educational experience than the black "minority" students. Another problem that is connected to the "achievement gap" is the facts of unqualified teachers are the ones teaching the "minority" students. In the Challenge Journal, Robert Rothman said, "perhaps the most important resource is the quality of the teaching force." Which is a good concept to think about, because yes the students should take responsibility of what their education is, but how can they? How can they do it when they have teachers who are not qualified? "High school students in high-poverty schools are more than twice likely to be taught by a teachers lacking certification in his/her field" stated in the Challenge Journal.	2,514	ENGLISH	1
Yeats is one of the last Romantics. Discuss. William Butler Yeats, a much read and loved Irish poet even today, is considered by many as one of the finest poets of the 20th century. His contributions to English poetical traditions are many, like Sailing to Byzantium, The Second Coming, Easter 1916, Adam’s Curse, Lapis Lazuli, etc. to name a few. Yeats was chiefly influenced by Percy Bysshe Shelley, a major English Romantic poet. "Magic" was one theme that Yeats probably took from Shelley. Besides this, Yeats once admitted, however, that William Blake, another Romantic poet, had a more profound influence on his poetical style than Shelley. Yeats was also an ardent admirer of other Romantic poets like S.T Coleridge, William Wordsworth and Lord Byron. He borrowed from them the Romantic symbolism, subjects, diction and vision. The romantic influence can be seen in his later poems like Sailing to Byzantium where we find his escapist tendencies that are interwoven with themes of life, magic and death. Yeats witnessed a stormy Irish history of subjugation that creatively touched his poetic style. Yeats poetry shows his fascination with Irish past, traditions and myths. In the later years, Yeats poetry became mature and acquired alluring mysticism, in comparison to his poetry of early years, which is lyrical but less intense. Yeats Romanticism is rebellious, revolutionary, reflective and sensational. Yeats himself declared that he and his associates were last Romantics in his poem- Coole Park And Ballylee, 1931 We were the last romantics - chose for theme Traditional sanctity and loveliness; Though Yeats style was inclined to being Romantic, there is some amount of contradiction in saying that he was truly Romantic. His constant interest towards Irish Nationalism and Irish National affairs, resulted in bringing a touch of Modernism in his poetry, which is why Yeats is also often referred to as a Modern Poet. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:b414401c-159b-4c4b-8357-723ee4b94022>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/yeats-one-last-romantics-discuss-419063?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00245.warc.gz	en	0.981932	429	3.34375	3	[ 0.022017408162355423, 0.0649024024605751, 0.5375354886054993, 0.07529772818088531, -0.003221447579562664, 0.09134361892938614, 0.24854058027267456, -0.43745532631874084, -0.2613079249858856, -0.6306971907615662, -0.5100357532501221, -0.03620881214737892, 0.09763728827238083, -0.18611152470...	2	Yeats is one of the last Romantics. Discuss. William Butler Yeats, a much read and loved Irish poet even today, is considered by many as one of the finest poets of the 20th century. His contributions to English poetical traditions are many, like Sailing to Byzantium, The Second Coming, Easter 1916, Adam’s Curse, Lapis Lazuli, etc. to name a few. Yeats was chiefly influenced by Percy Bysshe Shelley, a major English Romantic poet. "Magic" was one theme that Yeats probably took from Shelley. Besides this, Yeats once admitted, however, that William Blake, another Romantic poet, had a more profound influence on his poetical style than Shelley. Yeats was also an ardent admirer of other Romantic poets like S.T Coleridge, William Wordsworth and Lord Byron. He borrowed from them the Romantic symbolism, subjects, diction and vision. The romantic influence can be seen in his later poems like Sailing to Byzantium where we find his escapist tendencies that are interwoven with themes of life, magic and death. Yeats witnessed a stormy Irish history of subjugation that creatively touched his poetic style. Yeats poetry shows his fascination with Irish past, traditions and myths. In the later years, Yeats poetry became mature and acquired alluring mysticism, in comparison to his poetry of early years, which is lyrical but less intense. Yeats Romanticism is rebellious, revolutionary, reflective and sensational. Yeats himself declared that he and his associates were last Romantics in his poem- Coole Park And Ballylee, 1931 We were the last romantics - chose for theme Traditional sanctity and loveliness; Though Yeats style was inclined to being Romantic, there is some amount of contradiction in saying that he was truly Romantic. His constant interest towards Irish Nationalism and Irish National affairs, resulted in bringing a touch of Modernism in his poetry, which is why Yeats is also often referred to as a Modern Poet. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	432	ENGLISH	1
Germany plans to close all its nuclear reactors by 2022 as another nuclear power plant is going offline on December 31. With this, Germany will have six nuclear power plants to shut by 2022. This step has been taken in the wake of the Fukushima disaster that took place in 2011 in Japan. Nuclear power generation in Germany has been declining with the shutdown of its nuclear plants in the past few years, while electricity production from renewable sources is on the rise. Germany, where coal, hard coal, and lignite combined currently provide around 35 percent of power generation, has a longer timetable for phasing out coal than the UK and Italy, for example—who plan their coal exit by 2025—not only because of its vast coal industry, but also because Germany will shut down all its nuclear power plants within the next three years.	<urn:uuid:2e7beab7-69f5-47c9-9c2a-249bc8b481e8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.asiannuclearenergy.com/germany-to-phase-out-nuclear-reactors-by-2022/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00081.warc.gz	en	0.981198	166	3.28125	3	[ 0.022876176983118057, 0.1796066015958786, -0.05315906181931496, -0.17188146710395813, 0.3233169913291931, 0.2285221964120865, -0.7717902660369873, -0.06777819246053696, -0.16401368379592896, 0.03494514897465706, 0.09680219739675522, -0.37089675664901733, -0.07022413611412048, 0.13547828793...	4	Germany plans to close all its nuclear reactors by 2022 as another nuclear power plant is going offline on December 31. With this, Germany will have six nuclear power plants to shut by 2022. This step has been taken in the wake of the Fukushima disaster that took place in 2011 in Japan. Nuclear power generation in Germany has been declining with the shutdown of its nuclear plants in the past few years, while electricity production from renewable sources is on the rise. Germany, where coal, hard coal, and lignite combined currently provide around 35 percent of power generation, has a longer timetable for phasing out coal than the UK and Italy, for example—who plan their coal exit by 2025—not only because of its vast coal industry, but also because Germany will shut down all its nuclear power plants within the next three years.	182	ENGLISH	1
This week in year 6… In Maths, we are focusing on decimals and the following: - Understanding the value of digits in numbers given to three decimal places. - Multiplying decimals by 10, 100 and 1000. - Dividing decimals by 10, 100 and 1000. - Multiplying decimals by integers. In literacy, the children completed a new process in their writing, which was very successful. The aim was to plan, write and edit a letter home in the perspective of William (an evacuee). They began by creating a boxed up plan, which helped to create ideas for each paragraph in their letter and aid with cohesion through paragraphs. Following this, the children were able to write their letters in sections and uplevel their work as they went on. The standard of their writing is definitely improving already! Let’s keep this up please year 6!! We also had a visit from the children in year 4 this week. It so happens that year 4 were writing a diary entry at the same time as year 6 so we decided to have a shared writing session. The children were able to sit in groups/pairs and share their diary entries with each other. This was really successful and helped the children to gain inspiration from one another. Year 6 have had another successful and hard working week! In maths, we have revisited fractions and the children have built their confidence in: - Adding and subtracting fractions and mixed numbers. - Multiplying fractions and mixed numbers. - Dividing fractions and mixed numbers. - Ordering and comparing fractions. In literacy, we have continued with our text ‘Goodnight Mister Tom’. The class have thoroughly enjoyed reading the first few chapters of the book and I am really enjoying their enthusiasm for the topic. The children have really impressed me with their efforts in up levelling their vocabulary. We have completed a variety of drama/role-play activities to help the children with their writing, which they have been fully engaged in. Welcome back Year 6! We hope the children had a lovely and restful Christmas break. I also want to thank the children and staff in Year 6 for being so welcoming on my return to Orchard Way. I am really looking forward to working with this year group and feel excited about the rest of the year ahead! Year 6 have been working incredibly hard this week and I am really impressed with their efforts so far. In maths, we have revised the four operations and looked at a variety of formal written and mental methods to complete these calculations. The children have also learnt a new method for long division, which we will be practising a lot more of over the coming weeks. In literacy, we have started a new text (‘Goodnight Mister Tom’) and our focus this week was meeting tales. The children started off by looking at an example of a meeting tale and identifying how it is structured. By the end of week, they were able to independently write their own meeting tale. We will be continuing with this over the next week or two. Our topic this term is ‘War! What is it good for?’ This is also linked to our literacy work and the class were able to discuss the events in WW2. The children took part in a conscience alley and were able to identify reasons for and against evacuating children during this time. Well done for a fantastic first week back year 6! In the last two weeks, we have been very busy with preparing and performing in the church concert, wearing our Christmas jumpers, eating our school Christmas dinner, watching our Christmas pantomime and enjoying our Christmas party. We have also found the time to make some beautiful Christmas snowflake decorations. This week, the children have been working very hard completing practice SATs tests. However, we have also really enjoyed our Sparkle and Shine morning, when the children made some beautiful felt Christmas decorations. They have learned how to sew, how to create different stitch techniques and they have had the opportunity to complete some paper crafting too. Thank you very much to everyone who was able to come in and help. We are very grateful for all your support in making our Sparkle and Shine morning a great success!	<urn:uuid:f8068b59-c02b-415c-bc0e-7f8c2e301163>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.orchardway.croydon.sch.uk/year-6/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00349.warc.gz	en	0.981874	878	3.5	4	[ -0.41710400581359863, -0.22396695613861084, 0.004964278545230627, -0.5143299102783203, -0.3951979875564575, 0.012353749945759773, -0.3870249390602112, 0.26247385144233704, 0.25803911685943604, 0.06879133731126785, 0.18700069189071655, -0.06966885924339294, -0.2189837396144867, 0.2281932979...	1	This week in year 6… In Maths, we are focusing on decimals and the following: - Understanding the value of digits in numbers given to three decimal places. - Multiplying decimals by 10, 100 and 1000. - Dividing decimals by 10, 100 and 1000. - Multiplying decimals by integers. In literacy, the children completed a new process in their writing, which was very successful. The aim was to plan, write and edit a letter home in the perspective of William (an evacuee). They began by creating a boxed up plan, which helped to create ideas for each paragraph in their letter and aid with cohesion through paragraphs. Following this, the children were able to write their letters in sections and uplevel their work as they went on. The standard of their writing is definitely improving already! Let’s keep this up please year 6!! We also had a visit from the children in year 4 this week. It so happens that year 4 were writing a diary entry at the same time as year 6 so we decided to have a shared writing session. The children were able to sit in groups/pairs and share their diary entries with each other. This was really successful and helped the children to gain inspiration from one another. Year 6 have had another successful and hard working week! In maths, we have revisited fractions and the children have built their confidence in: - Adding and subtracting fractions and mixed numbers. - Multiplying fractions and mixed numbers. - Dividing fractions and mixed numbers. - Ordering and comparing fractions. In literacy, we have continued with our text ‘Goodnight Mister Tom’. The class have thoroughly enjoyed reading the first few chapters of the book and I am really enjoying their enthusiasm for the topic. The children have really impressed me with their efforts in up levelling their vocabulary. We have completed a variety of drama/role-play activities to help the children with their writing, which they have been fully engaged in. Welcome back Year 6! We hope the children had a lovely and restful Christmas break. I also want to thank the children and staff in Year 6 for being so welcoming on my return to Orchard Way. I am really looking forward to working with this year group and feel excited about the rest of the year ahead! Year 6 have been working incredibly hard this week and I am really impressed with their efforts so far. In maths, we have revised the four operations and looked at a variety of formal written and mental methods to complete these calculations. The children have also learnt a new method for long division, which we will be practising a lot more of over the coming weeks. In literacy, we have started a new text (‘Goodnight Mister Tom’) and our focus this week was meeting tales. The children started off by looking at an example of a meeting tale and identifying how it is structured. By the end of week, they were able to independently write their own meeting tale. We will be continuing with this over the next week or two. Our topic this term is ‘War! What is it good for?’ This is also linked to our literacy work and the class were able to discuss the events in WW2. The children took part in a conscience alley and were able to identify reasons for and against evacuating children during this time. Well done for a fantastic first week back year 6! In the last two weeks, we have been very busy with preparing and performing in the church concert, wearing our Christmas jumpers, eating our school Christmas dinner, watching our Christmas pantomime and enjoying our Christmas party. We have also found the time to make some beautiful Christmas snowflake decorations. This week, the children have been working very hard completing practice SATs tests. However, we have also really enjoyed our Sparkle and Shine morning, when the children made some beautiful felt Christmas decorations. They have learned how to sew, how to create different stitch techniques and they have had the opportunity to complete some paper crafting too. Thank you very much to everyone who was able to come in and help. We are very grateful for all your support in making our Sparkle and Shine morning a great success!	857	ENGLISH	1
Some scholars identify these remains as those of Smenkhkarewho seems to have been coregent with Akhenaton in the final years of his reign; others have suggested the mummy may be Akhenaton himself. Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich By his third regnal year Tutankhaten had abandoned Tell el-Amarna and moved his residence to Memphisthe administrative capital, near modern Cairo. He changed his name to Tutankhamun and issued a decree restoring the temples, images, personnel, and privileges of the old gods. In addition to a palace built at Karnak and a memorial temple in western Thebesboth now largely vanished, the chief extant monument of Tutankhamun is the Colonnade of the Temple of Luxorwhich he decorated with reliefs depicting the Opet festival, an annual rite of renewal involving the king, the three chief deities of Karnak Amon, Mutand Khonsand the local form of Amon at Luxor. But why is he so famous? This answer can be attributed to the discovery of his tomb and his elaborate treasure. It was a phenomenal discovery that made headlines across the world. For the first time, a tomb, which was almost intact, had been discovered and remained hidden from robbers for thousands of years. It has been estimated that he was about eight or nine years old when this throne exchange took place. His father, which is believed to be Akhenaten, had changed the religious system and the old beliefs that had been practiced for hundreds of years before him. This religious change angered many angry citizens and priests. Tutankamun was left with an angry and chaotic Egypt to rule. His mother remains a mystery as well but she is believed to be Kiya. It is thought that Tutankhaton must have had a good childhood. He probably spent his younger years hunting, swimming, and studying. His tomb revealed he enjoyed board games. Like most children, he probably found politics unexciting and went about his environment enjoying leisurely activities. He was also believed to be an ill child due to the many walking canes that were found inside his tomb. He was wed to his half-sister Ankhensenpaaton, the daughter of Nefertiti and Akhenaten. A few years later Tutankaton started to bring back gods that were forbidden by Akhenaten. Their names were changed to reflect their beliefs towards Amun eighth Heh god of the Ogdoad and probably to ease the angry priests who missed their old Egypt. This movement was probably suggested by Ay a high ranking official and advisor to show the Egyptians and priests that things were slowly returning to the original ways. With the ancient beliefs restored and the movement of the new capital, King Tutankhamun threw lavish parties to show his support for Amun. Tuankhamun was only a child while the old gods were being reinstated, but could a child make decisions of this magnitude at such a young age? Ay and Hermhab were probably the sole drive behind the throne. Could this be why old gods were reinstated and King Tut changed his name? It could have been a great possibility due to the records left behind, which showed Egypt was in a poor state after Akhenaten. Sometime during his tenth year of reigning, Egypt was at war with the Hittites. During this confrontation Tutankhamun suddenly died. King Tut had not left a male heir to the throne and the children that he had were stillborn. King Tut died at around eighteen or nineteen years old. Ay went on to rule for only 4 years and died shortly after acquiring the throne.Content of King Tut's Tomb. Content of King Tut's Tomb - Tutankhamun The content of the King Tut's tomb contained such fabulous treasures that the very thought fills people with awe inspiring wonder. The Golden Mask of King Tutankhamen (Photo by Bjørn Christian Tørrissen licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Unported license). The rumor of an ancient curse didn't stop this archaeologist from opening the tomb of King Tut. Death Shall Come on Swift Wings To Him Who. King Tut is chiefly known for his intact tomb, discovered in Egypt's Valley of the Kings in Since then, his remains have held millions in awe over the mystery of his life and death. King. Aug 21, · Watch video · Because Tutankhamen’s remains revealed a hole in the back of the skull, some historians had concluded that the young king was assassinated, but recent tests suggest that the hole was made during. Learn about the history of Tutankhamun after Howard Carter, the archaeologist, and his patron, Lord Carnarvon, opened the tomb of Tutankhamun. The Life and Death of a King. King Casimir was born November 30, as the third and the youngest son of King Władysław II Jagiełło .	<urn:uuid:4178e92e-63b6-4393-9809-f6963ea31731>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://buqefomaqefa.tranceformingnlp.com/king-tutankhamen-the-life-of-the-young-king-37766fd.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00507.warc.gz	en	0.986263	1,018	3.5	4	[ -0.18468010425567627, 0.725676953792572, 0.25361108779907227, 0.19702747464179993, -0.666562557220459, 0.02772410213947296, 0.6007227897644043, -0.011743301525712013, -0.30140215158462524, 0.08300358057022095, -0.0799299031496048, -0.4959854483604431, 0.04971008375287056, 0.366428911685943...	1	Some scholars identify these remains as those of Smenkhkarewho seems to have been coregent with Akhenaton in the final years of his reign; others have suggested the mummy may be Akhenaton himself. Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich By his third regnal year Tutankhaten had abandoned Tell el-Amarna and moved his residence to Memphisthe administrative capital, near modern Cairo. He changed his name to Tutankhamun and issued a decree restoring the temples, images, personnel, and privileges of the old gods. In addition to a palace built at Karnak and a memorial temple in western Thebesboth now largely vanished, the chief extant monument of Tutankhamun is the Colonnade of the Temple of Luxorwhich he decorated with reliefs depicting the Opet festival, an annual rite of renewal involving the king, the three chief deities of Karnak Amon, Mutand Khonsand the local form of Amon at Luxor. But why is he so famous? This answer can be attributed to the discovery of his tomb and his elaborate treasure. It was a phenomenal discovery that made headlines across the world. For the first time, a tomb, which was almost intact, had been discovered and remained hidden from robbers for thousands of years. It has been estimated that he was about eight or nine years old when this throne exchange took place. His father, which is believed to be Akhenaten, had changed the religious system and the old beliefs that had been practiced for hundreds of years before him. This religious change angered many angry citizens and priests. Tutankamun was left with an angry and chaotic Egypt to rule. His mother remains a mystery as well but she is believed to be Kiya. It is thought that Tutankhaton must have had a good childhood. He probably spent his younger years hunting, swimming, and studying. His tomb revealed he enjoyed board games. Like most children, he probably found politics unexciting and went about his environment enjoying leisurely activities. He was also believed to be an ill child due to the many walking canes that were found inside his tomb. He was wed to his half-sister Ankhensenpaaton, the daughter of Nefertiti and Akhenaten. A few years later Tutankaton started to bring back gods that were forbidden by Akhenaten. Their names were changed to reflect their beliefs towards Amun eighth Heh god of the Ogdoad and probably to ease the angry priests who missed their old Egypt. This movement was probably suggested by Ay a high ranking official and advisor to show the Egyptians and priests that things were slowly returning to the original ways. With the ancient beliefs restored and the movement of the new capital, King Tutankhamun threw lavish parties to show his support for Amun. Tuankhamun was only a child while the old gods were being reinstated, but could a child make decisions of this magnitude at such a young age? Ay and Hermhab were probably the sole drive behind the throne. Could this be why old gods were reinstated and King Tut changed his name? It could have been a great possibility due to the records left behind, which showed Egypt was in a poor state after Akhenaten. Sometime during his tenth year of reigning, Egypt was at war with the Hittites. During this confrontation Tutankhamun suddenly died. King Tut had not left a male heir to the throne and the children that he had were stillborn. King Tut died at around eighteen or nineteen years old. Ay went on to rule for only 4 years and died shortly after acquiring the throne.Content of King Tut's Tomb. Content of King Tut's Tomb - Tutankhamun The content of the King Tut's tomb contained such fabulous treasures that the very thought fills people with awe inspiring wonder. The Golden Mask of King Tutankhamen (Photo by Bjørn Christian Tørrissen licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Unported license). The rumor of an ancient curse didn't stop this archaeologist from opening the tomb of King Tut. Death Shall Come on Swift Wings To Him Who. King Tut is chiefly known for his intact tomb, discovered in Egypt's Valley of the Kings in Since then, his remains have held millions in awe over the mystery of his life and death. King. Aug 21, · Watch video · Because Tutankhamen’s remains revealed a hole in the back of the skull, some historians had concluded that the young king was assassinated, but recent tests suggest that the hole was made during. Learn about the history of Tutankhamun after Howard Carter, the archaeologist, and his patron, Lord Carnarvon, opened the tomb of Tutankhamun. The Life and Death of a King. King Casimir was born November 30, as the third and the youngest son of King Władysław II Jagiełło .	1,007	ENGLISH	1
December 5, 1952, was a chilly one in London, prompting residents to warm their homes by lighting their coal fireplaces and unknowingly contributing to a catastrophe that would kill thousands. The event only lasted five days, but it delivered a death toll of more than four thousand. Some researchers have estimated the number to be as high as twelve thousand. What the unsuspecting Londoners didn’t know was that the cold that day was caused by an anticyclone poised over the city pushing air downwards and causing a temperature inversion, which is an upper layer of warm air trapping cold air at the ground level. Unfortunately, the smoke from the chimneys as well as emissions from factories and automobiles were also trapped. With no wind to disperse the smoke, what began as an ordinary fog quickly became a thirty-mile-wide mass of smog, nicknamed “pea-souper” due to its yellowish-brown color. Nightfall on December 5 only served to increase the smog and the morning sun was unable to burn it away. The same thing happened on the next two nights, causing the situation to grow even more dangerous. Police Officer uses flare to direct traffic Visibility became extremely limited, shutting down public transportation. Flights were grounded and train routes were canceled, with only the London Underground remaining operational. Even boats were forced to dock due to limited visibility. Conductors had to walk in front of the buses which continued to run and guide them down the streets. Residents were urged to stay indoors and those who chose to venture out risked becoming lost in the dense fog. Drivers struggled to see as their headlights failed to penetrate the smog and they were eventually forced to abandon their vehicles in the middle of the road. However, those who decided to complete their journeys on foot did not fare much better. People covering their faces against the smog In some areas, people couldn’t even see their own feet as they walked through the smog. They were forced to breathe in the sickening air as they blindly made their way down streets and sidewalks coated in a black oily residue. By the time they reached their destinations, their faces would be covered in the stuff. Some of the Londoners attempted to protect their health by using scarves to cover their noses and mouths, though others were able to obtain actual smog masks. Sadly, this would prove to be insufficient protection from the deadly toxins in the air. Eventually, even the ones who decided to stay indoors were at risk as the smog managed to make its way inside buildings. Recent studies have analyzed other smog events in an attempt to understand London’s Great Smog and have concluded that nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide combined with the fog to create sulfuric acid and, once the sun had burned off the fog, the residents of London were breathing in concentrated drops of acid. Police officer wearing a smog mask As so often happens during events which disrupt the day to day order, a crime wave ensued. Headlines from the event mention the chaos in London, claiming over a hundred cases of “smash and grab” robberies. One headline in particular claims that a girl was “stabbed to death with a stiletto in fog.” There was also an active serial killer in London at the time of the Great Smog, but there is no evidence that any of his victims were murdered during the event. Pedestrians attempting to navigate the smog In fact, for most of the residents, it was pretty much business as usual. Fog, and at times smog, was a regular thing in London and, while this particular smog was thicker than what they were used to, they saw no reason to panic. It wasn’t until after the fog lifted that the extent of the devastation became clear. On December 9, the wind picked up, at last, blowing away the poisonous air. Once the numbers were tallied, they realized the catastrophic effects of the smog, which claimed four thousand lives during the event itself. Those most affected were children and the elderly, as well as anyone with any pre-existing respiratory conditions. There were also reports of birds and cattle succumbing to the effects of the toxic air. The death rate in London continued to be elevated for months after the smog lifted. Initially thought to be the result of a flu epidemic, the deaths were later determined to be respiratory tract infections associated with hypoxia. This increased the total number of smog-induced casualties to between eight thousand and twelve thousand. Factories emitting toxins into the air The event forced the British government to face the deadly consequences of coal burning. An investigation was conducted in the wake of the Great Smog which led Parliament to pass the Clean Air Act of 1956. The Act ordered the designation of “smoke control areas” in which only smokeless fuels could be burned. It also worked to shift London to using cleaner fuel sources, moving power stations away from cities, and increasing the height of chimneys. The Great Smog of 1952 was not the first or even the last, smog event to take lives in London. However, it was the deadliest.	<urn:uuid:6a4b0184-925f-4bad-927d-a332b70420ae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.webnewsys.com/2019/12/londons-great-smog-of-1952.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00351.warc.gz	en	0.986327	1,056	3.421875	3	[ -0.1639338731765747, 0.11015260219573975, 0.5897212028503418, -0.2643888294696808, 0.3522549569606781, 0.0015270039439201355, 0.47128570079803467, -0.07222676277160645, -0.34024280309677124, 0.3011719584465027, 0.0015592372510582209, 0.25904881954193115, -0.00973728857934475, 0.14338809251...	10	December 5, 1952, was a chilly one in London, prompting residents to warm their homes by lighting their coal fireplaces and unknowingly contributing to a catastrophe that would kill thousands. The event only lasted five days, but it delivered a death toll of more than four thousand. Some researchers have estimated the number to be as high as twelve thousand. What the unsuspecting Londoners didn’t know was that the cold that day was caused by an anticyclone poised over the city pushing air downwards and causing a temperature inversion, which is an upper layer of warm air trapping cold air at the ground level. Unfortunately, the smoke from the chimneys as well as emissions from factories and automobiles were also trapped. With no wind to disperse the smoke, what began as an ordinary fog quickly became a thirty-mile-wide mass of smog, nicknamed “pea-souper” due to its yellowish-brown color. Nightfall on December 5 only served to increase the smog and the morning sun was unable to burn it away. The same thing happened on the next two nights, causing the situation to grow even more dangerous. Police Officer uses flare to direct traffic Visibility became extremely limited, shutting down public transportation. Flights were grounded and train routes were canceled, with only the London Underground remaining operational. Even boats were forced to dock due to limited visibility. Conductors had to walk in front of the buses which continued to run and guide them down the streets. Residents were urged to stay indoors and those who chose to venture out risked becoming lost in the dense fog. Drivers struggled to see as their headlights failed to penetrate the smog and they were eventually forced to abandon their vehicles in the middle of the road. However, those who decided to complete their journeys on foot did not fare much better. People covering their faces against the smog In some areas, people couldn’t even see their own feet as they walked through the smog. They were forced to breathe in the sickening air as they blindly made their way down streets and sidewalks coated in a black oily residue. By the time they reached their destinations, their faces would be covered in the stuff. Some of the Londoners attempted to protect their health by using scarves to cover their noses and mouths, though others were able to obtain actual smog masks. Sadly, this would prove to be insufficient protection from the deadly toxins in the air. Eventually, even the ones who decided to stay indoors were at risk as the smog managed to make its way inside buildings. Recent studies have analyzed other smog events in an attempt to understand London’s Great Smog and have concluded that nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide combined with the fog to create sulfuric acid and, once the sun had burned off the fog, the residents of London were breathing in concentrated drops of acid. Police officer wearing a smog mask As so often happens during events which disrupt the day to day order, a crime wave ensued. Headlines from the event mention the chaos in London, claiming over a hundred cases of “smash and grab” robberies. One headline in particular claims that a girl was “stabbed to death with a stiletto in fog.” There was also an active serial killer in London at the time of the Great Smog, but there is no evidence that any of his victims were murdered during the event. Pedestrians attempting to navigate the smog In fact, for most of the residents, it was pretty much business as usual. Fog, and at times smog, was a regular thing in London and, while this particular smog was thicker than what they were used to, they saw no reason to panic. It wasn’t until after the fog lifted that the extent of the devastation became clear. On December 9, the wind picked up, at last, blowing away the poisonous air. Once the numbers were tallied, they realized the catastrophic effects of the smog, which claimed four thousand lives during the event itself. Those most affected were children and the elderly, as well as anyone with any pre-existing respiratory conditions. There were also reports of birds and cattle succumbing to the effects of the toxic air. The death rate in London continued to be elevated for months after the smog lifted. Initially thought to be the result of a flu epidemic, the deaths were later determined to be respiratory tract infections associated with hypoxia. This increased the total number of smog-induced casualties to between eight thousand and twelve thousand. Factories emitting toxins into the air The event forced the British government to face the deadly consequences of coal burning. An investigation was conducted in the wake of the Great Smog which led Parliament to pass the Clean Air Act of 1956. The Act ordered the designation of “smoke control areas” in which only smokeless fuels could be burned. It also worked to shift London to using cleaner fuel sources, moving power stations away from cities, and increasing the height of chimneys. The Great Smog of 1952 was not the first or even the last, smog event to take lives in London. However, it was the deadliest.	1,044	ENGLISH	1
Lord of Flies This is a novel by Golding that presents a great conflict that exists in our societies between the two wide groups of the civilized instincts of community members and the uncivilized instincts of the community members. It illustrates vividly the struggles that are always present in the community elements these are between the orderly elements of society such as power struggles, morality, laws of the land and people’s culture and customs, and the disorderly elements of society such as bloodlust, violence, selfishness, anarchy, amorality and the greed for power. These the author describes with the help of an example of the rise and fall of an isolated, makeshift civilization that is brought down by the greed and instincts of those who tries to rescue it. The novel has four main characters, Ralph, Simon, Jack and Piggy who young boys are taking an adventure in an isolated island. The author uses several symbols to illustrate and explain the conflicts that exist. For example he portrays the different characters of the four characters that reveal their different leadership qualifications and how the boys continuously conflicts in their arguments and in their desires. When the boys decide to elect their leader, one stands out to be the best leader than the others. All the four boys represent the different personalities of human beings which are power and instinct, kindness, rationality and wisdom. Ralph stands out to be the best leader in the island when he was voted in as the chief. This is because he portrays the following vital qualities of a leader. First Ralph is noted to have a rational mind. In my opinion, a good leader should be someone is very organized and sober in his reasoning and in decision making. He should be someone that is respectable and treats people fairly especially his juniors. He demonstrates his abilities of authority in how he organizes his sessions and treats the kids when he inquires about their opinions when he wants to act or do something. He said and I quote, “We can’t have everybody talking at once, we’ll have hands up like at school” this is a quality of a good leader as it portrays his ability of organizing the kids in an orderly manner to prevent rowdiness and this gives each of the kids equal chance of expressing their views on the matter. This therefore makes the kids to give him respect as he also respects them. Ralph became very clever and wise in his strategy which slowly built up his reputation. He said “we’ll all have rules! Lots of rule!” the statement is very authoritative and has a voice of order which is a quality of a good leader. He must be able to have authority over the juniors’ n order to gain the respect and the good reputation. Ralph tries as much to bring the boys together as united because he knew that if he employs anarchy form of leadership, the boys will be divided and they turn against him and eventually, they will revolt. When the boys are united, then they can work very effectively and efficiently. Even in the building of the huts, they will unite and work very fast (Golding 1962). Another important aspect of Ralph’s quality is that he knows how to prioritize his activities. He says, “We need shelters as a sort of home” since they were anticipating to be rescued from the lonely island, Ralph knew that there was need to be organized and be protected from some harmful eventualities that may arise in the future in the jungle such as attacks by wild insects or animals and also there was need to protect the boys from the harsh weather and cold of the night. This portrays Ralph as logical, mature and visionary than the other three. When the boys had hunted, they used the fire to roast their food and some had the view of putting the fire out after that. Ralph through his wisdom, insisted that the fire be kept burning even if there was no meat to be roasted on it. This is because he believed that the only way they could be noticed and rescued is by the help of the fire as the island was a lonely place that people rarely visited. Jack is portrayed as just concentrating in the hunting careering not on the fire as a source of help. This boosts Ralph’s leadership skills as someone who cannot be easily swayed from his ideas (Golding 1962). Among other qualities of Ralph is that he is moral and he acts fairly to everyone. When he notices that an individual is hurt by his sentiments, he apologises to maintain that unity. He understands the feelings of the boys. This is noted when he showed sympathy for Piggy when he was hurt. He therefore gains the respect and moral support of the boys by equal treatment, compassion, love and his empathy. These are not portrayed by the other boys (Golding 1962). In conclusion therefore, I wish to ascertain that Ralph is a great and qualified leader than Piggy, Simon and Jack. His ability combines and supersedes those of the other three boys. He is rational, clever, wise, organized, visionary, sensible, moral, humble, courageous, authoritative and able to keep justice. These make him the best chief for the stranded boys in the island (Golding 1962). Golding, William. Lord of the Flies, New York, Coward- McCann, 1962	<urn:uuid:6c05bf91-157e-4a22-85ae-4421ad2dfb20>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://summarystory.com/lord-of-the-flies/lord-of-flies-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00321.warc.gz	en	0.982665	1,070	3.578125	4	[ 0.1488366276025772, 0.12224628776311874, 0.21301034092903137, -0.13028544187545776, -0.04943588376045227, -0.28622961044311523, 0.5278973579406738, -0.18479448556900024, -0.2734750509262085, 0.06417755782604218, 0.1875329613685608, 0.20058786869049072, 0.4090673327445984, 0.410256445407867...	11	Lord of Flies This is a novel by Golding that presents a great conflict that exists in our societies between the two wide groups of the civilized instincts of community members and the uncivilized instincts of the community members. It illustrates vividly the struggles that are always present in the community elements these are between the orderly elements of society such as power struggles, morality, laws of the land and people’s culture and customs, and the disorderly elements of society such as bloodlust, violence, selfishness, anarchy, amorality and the greed for power. These the author describes with the help of an example of the rise and fall of an isolated, makeshift civilization that is brought down by the greed and instincts of those who tries to rescue it. The novel has four main characters, Ralph, Simon, Jack and Piggy who young boys are taking an adventure in an isolated island. The author uses several symbols to illustrate and explain the conflicts that exist. For example he portrays the different characters of the four characters that reveal their different leadership qualifications and how the boys continuously conflicts in their arguments and in their desires. When the boys decide to elect their leader, one stands out to be the best leader than the others. All the four boys represent the different personalities of human beings which are power and instinct, kindness, rationality and wisdom. Ralph stands out to be the best leader in the island when he was voted in as the chief. This is because he portrays the following vital qualities of a leader. First Ralph is noted to have a rational mind. In my opinion, a good leader should be someone is very organized and sober in his reasoning and in decision making. He should be someone that is respectable and treats people fairly especially his juniors. He demonstrates his abilities of authority in how he organizes his sessions and treats the kids when he inquires about their opinions when he wants to act or do something. He said and I quote, “We can’t have everybody talking at once, we’ll have hands up like at school” this is a quality of a good leader as it portrays his ability of organizing the kids in an orderly manner to prevent rowdiness and this gives each of the kids equal chance of expressing their views on the matter. This therefore makes the kids to give him respect as he also respects them. Ralph became very clever and wise in his strategy which slowly built up his reputation. He said “we’ll all have rules! Lots of rule!” the statement is very authoritative and has a voice of order which is a quality of a good leader. He must be able to have authority over the juniors’ n order to gain the respect and the good reputation. Ralph tries as much to bring the boys together as united because he knew that if he employs anarchy form of leadership, the boys will be divided and they turn against him and eventually, they will revolt. When the boys are united, then they can work very effectively and efficiently. Even in the building of the huts, they will unite and work very fast (Golding 1962). Another important aspect of Ralph’s quality is that he knows how to prioritize his activities. He says, “We need shelters as a sort of home” since they were anticipating to be rescued from the lonely island, Ralph knew that there was need to be organized and be protected from some harmful eventualities that may arise in the future in the jungle such as attacks by wild insects or animals and also there was need to protect the boys from the harsh weather and cold of the night. This portrays Ralph as logical, mature and visionary than the other three. When the boys had hunted, they used the fire to roast their food and some had the view of putting the fire out after that. Ralph through his wisdom, insisted that the fire be kept burning even if there was no meat to be roasted on it. This is because he believed that the only way they could be noticed and rescued is by the help of the fire as the island was a lonely place that people rarely visited. Jack is portrayed as just concentrating in the hunting careering not on the fire as a source of help. This boosts Ralph’s leadership skills as someone who cannot be easily swayed from his ideas (Golding 1962). Among other qualities of Ralph is that he is moral and he acts fairly to everyone. When he notices that an individual is hurt by his sentiments, he apologises to maintain that unity. He understands the feelings of the boys. This is noted when he showed sympathy for Piggy when he was hurt. He therefore gains the respect and moral support of the boys by equal treatment, compassion, love and his empathy. These are not portrayed by the other boys (Golding 1962). In conclusion therefore, I wish to ascertain that Ralph is a great and qualified leader than Piggy, Simon and Jack. His ability combines and supersedes those of the other three boys. He is rational, clever, wise, organized, visionary, sensible, moral, humble, courageous, authoritative and able to keep justice. These make him the best chief for the stranded boys in the island (Golding 1962). Golding, William. Lord of the Flies, New York, Coward- McCann, 1962	1,071	ENGLISH	1
Large parts of the US experienced unusually cold weather following the arrival of a polar vortex that sent temperatures in the Midwest as well as in the East Coast dipping between January and March. This was not the first time the country experienced such weather though it has been exceptionally brutal as the so-called vortex broken into two, bringing coldest conditions in decades to many cities. Large-scale transport disruptions were reported while many were confined to their homes in order to stay warm. Authorities also said at least 21 people have died as the cold snap bear down on the country. Polar vortex as the name suggests is a band of strong winds that lived in the high Arctic. They are mostly formed during the winter and usually are locked in the Arctic region by cold air throughout the winter. Occasionally however, they could venture down south, causing the mercury to drop below freezing level in populated locations such as Canada and the US. Its movement can also be influenced by weather or waves of air. With the sun rising over the Arctic however, the vortex will eventually dissipate into nothing, providing some relief for those living on its path. For the populace, the latest round of polar vortex had also caused major inconvenience as frigid cold weather descended into their cities and towns. Flights were cancelled or delayed at major airports including Chicago’s O’Hare International (ORD) while rivers also turned into ice, hampering water transportation in the city. As the temperature dipped to -22 degrees Fahrenheit (-30 degrees Celsius), emergency measures were taken to ensure that the public was adequately protected. Gas companies for instance asked residents to turn down their thermostats so that the demands for heating can be regulated. The public has also been advised to stay indoors to keep themselves warm. Additionally, the homeless people were also not forgotten as city authorities and volunteers set up warming centers for them. At least six such centers were set up in Chicago alone it became one of the most affected cities by the polar vortex. There is still no clear reason on why the vortex was able to break though the formidable cold air that locked it in the Arctic though studies have been conducted in the past to identify possible factors. One of the factors that have cited by many scientists is climate change. While the studies conducted are by no means conclusive, scientists have pointed out that jet stream over Europe and North America are becoming wavier as the planet warms. As the stream interacts with the vortex, it also brought down temperatures further south. Scientists however cautioned that more studies would need to be conducted on this concept amid the higher possibility of such weather events happening in the future. Following is a timeline of extreme cold in the US as well as SAFEY reports: The adverse weather descended into the US between January and February, bringing together severe disruptions to large parts of the Midwest. SAFEY sent out at least 17 alerts during this period. - First alert by SAFEY on the adverse weather on 22 January - Winter storm warnings were issued for Iowa, Wisconsin, Madison, Milwaukee and the Chicago metropolitan area. Heavy snowfall and freezing rains were expected in the affected locations. - Second alert by SAFEY on the adverse weather on 27 January - Forecasters indicated that a severe snowstorm will hit the Midwest and Great Lakes till at least 31 January. Cities that were included in the alert were North Dakota, northern Illinois, South Dakota, Minnesota, Chicago, Kansas City, Missouri, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Ohio and Pittsburgh. - Subsequent alerts by SAFEY as flight disruptions grip Chicago’s main airport - Multiple alerts were sent out for users between 29-31 January as the O’Hare International Airport in Chicago suffered from days of flight cancellations and delays. Amtrak also cancelled train services to and from Chicago during the same period. - Alert issued for wintry conditions on 6 February SAFEY continued its reporting on the cold weather as another round of cold snap was expected in Midwest and Northeast of the US on 6 February. Senior Analyst and Office Manager Malaysia Copyright Safeture 2019	<urn:uuid:429849dc-4213-478a-9a57-82e636172e72>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.safeyglobal.com/polar-vortex-sweeps-us	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00344.warc.gz	en	0.982927	822	3.59375	4	[ -0.10661793500185013, -0.1354745775461197, 0.4581044912338257, -0.07839877903461456, 0.7216792106628418, 0.1900467574596405, 0.47833728790283203, -0.2388634979724884, -0.11392601579427719, -0.1099538579583168, -0.044496942311525345, -0.04982644319534302, 0.28647351264953613, 0.090716935694...	13	Large parts of the US experienced unusually cold weather following the arrival of a polar vortex that sent temperatures in the Midwest as well as in the East Coast dipping between January and March. This was not the first time the country experienced such weather though it has been exceptionally brutal as the so-called vortex broken into two, bringing coldest conditions in decades to many cities. Large-scale transport disruptions were reported while many were confined to their homes in order to stay warm. Authorities also said at least 21 people have died as the cold snap bear down on the country. Polar vortex as the name suggests is a band of strong winds that lived in the high Arctic. They are mostly formed during the winter and usually are locked in the Arctic region by cold air throughout the winter. Occasionally however, they could venture down south, causing the mercury to drop below freezing level in populated locations such as Canada and the US. Its movement can also be influenced by weather or waves of air. With the sun rising over the Arctic however, the vortex will eventually dissipate into nothing, providing some relief for those living on its path. For the populace, the latest round of polar vortex had also caused major inconvenience as frigid cold weather descended into their cities and towns. Flights were cancelled or delayed at major airports including Chicago’s O’Hare International (ORD) while rivers also turned into ice, hampering water transportation in the city. As the temperature dipped to -22 degrees Fahrenheit (-30 degrees Celsius), emergency measures were taken to ensure that the public was adequately protected. Gas companies for instance asked residents to turn down their thermostats so that the demands for heating can be regulated. The public has also been advised to stay indoors to keep themselves warm. Additionally, the homeless people were also not forgotten as city authorities and volunteers set up warming centers for them. At least six such centers were set up in Chicago alone it became one of the most affected cities by the polar vortex. There is still no clear reason on why the vortex was able to break though the formidable cold air that locked it in the Arctic though studies have been conducted in the past to identify possible factors. One of the factors that have cited by many scientists is climate change. While the studies conducted are by no means conclusive, scientists have pointed out that jet stream over Europe and North America are becoming wavier as the planet warms. As the stream interacts with the vortex, it also brought down temperatures further south. Scientists however cautioned that more studies would need to be conducted on this concept amid the higher possibility of such weather events happening in the future. Following is a timeline of extreme cold in the US as well as SAFEY reports: The adverse weather descended into the US between January and February, bringing together severe disruptions to large parts of the Midwest. SAFEY sent out at least 17 alerts during this period. - First alert by SAFEY on the adverse weather on 22 January - Winter storm warnings were issued for Iowa, Wisconsin, Madison, Milwaukee and the Chicago metropolitan area. Heavy snowfall and freezing rains were expected in the affected locations. - Second alert by SAFEY on the adverse weather on 27 January - Forecasters indicated that a severe snowstorm will hit the Midwest and Great Lakes till at least 31 January. Cities that were included in the alert were North Dakota, northern Illinois, South Dakota, Minnesota, Chicago, Kansas City, Missouri, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Ohio and Pittsburgh. - Subsequent alerts by SAFEY as flight disruptions grip Chicago’s main airport - Multiple alerts were sent out for users between 29-31 January as the O’Hare International Airport in Chicago suffered from days of flight cancellations and delays. Amtrak also cancelled train services to and from Chicago during the same period. - Alert issued for wintry conditions on 6 February SAFEY continued its reporting on the cold weather as another round of cold snap was expected in Midwest and Northeast of the US on 6 February. Senior Analyst and Office Manager Malaysia Copyright Safeture 2019	824	ENGLISH	1
April 30, 1999 Prior to the Civil War and Reconstruction, the main goal of the African American population was to be granted freedom. African Americans had been enslaved since 1619 in America, when the first slaves were sold on the auction block. However, their concepts of freedom were extremely romanticized and highly unrealistic as a direct result of the atrocities they witnessed and endured in the institution of slavery. They visualized the abolition of slavery to be comparable with the coming of Jesus Christ. Yet when politics made that day become reality on January 1, 1863, the newly freed men and women were utterly disappointed and in disarray. After living their lives under the institution of slavery, the former slaves were literally left to survive on their own without the proper tools such as opportunities, provisions, or education. This race of people, for whom it was illegal to learn to read or write and even to congregate in groups of three or more, was now released into the same society that had enslaved them, and which was now supposed to open its arms and accept them as equals. Along with this freedom came a sudden change in identity, a clinging to faith, and a supposed new placement within society. ?The Negro became in the first year contraband of war; that is, property belonging to the enemy and valuable to the invader. And in addition to that, he became, as the South quickly saw, the key to Southern resistance. Either these four million laborers remained quietly at work to raise food for their fighters, or the fighter starved. Simultaneously, when the dream of the North for man-power produced riots, the only additional troops that the North could depend on were 200,000 Negroes, for without them, as Lincoln said, the North could not have won the war.? (DuBois, 80) In spite of this, the treatment of African Americans from slavery to freedom could only be thought of as different according to the law because conceptually the two identities, slave and free, closely parallel each other even today. Survival was a key element for the lives of African Americans during slavery. Its guiding principle was the ability to endure the oppression to secure the continuation of the race. Slaves recognized that adaptation to the new environment and culture in the New World would be the main factor for their ability to stay alive. They began this adaptation process, called survival faith, by creating a sub-culture which merged traditional African practices with those the slaves were forced to adopt from their masters. The African slaves brought with them all of their African traditions but were suppressed from utilizing them in their original fashion. Therefore, they merged remnants of African cultures including ?the great Bantu tribes from Sierra Leone to South Africa; the Sudanese, straight across the center of the continent, from the Atlantic to the Valley of the Nile; the Nilotic Negroes and the black and brown Hamites, allied with Egypt; the tribes of the great lakes; the Pygmies and the Hottentots; and in addition to these, distinct traces of both Berber and Arab? (DuBois, 3) with those remnants of European and Native American cultures. This new culture was comprised of dance, rhythmic music, folk traditions and values, religious beliefs, food and its preparation, cultivation of crops, herbal medicines, socialization of children, philosophy of respect for elders, oral traditions, etc. Within each aspect of the new African American culture, survival was somehow intertwined either directly or indirectly. Along with the notion of survival faith came the belief that if the slaves were not to be free from oppression in this life, they would certainly be free from oppression in the next life. This religious rationale held a functional value and assisted the slaves in concentrating on the freedom in the next life, but with this belief the slaves were reneging any hope of equality in their lives on this earth. This is the mentality behind the slave who compared the abolition of slavery to the coming of Jesus Christ. He created in his mind the idea that the only time he would see freedom was when the heavens opened and the Son of God himself came down to deliver all of the slaves from their oppressors. Although this idea was effective in allowing the slaves to tolerate oppression, it did not promote an end to the problem but rather the endurance of it. Hence, on the day that Lincoln delivered the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, although this day was much anticipated, the slaves were severely unprepared. They identified with freedom only in theory so their concepts of freedom tended to be exaggerated and extravagant. Instead they needed to be preparing for freedom in an existential sense such as being able to read, learning how the system operates outside of slavery, how to obtain land, etc. Some slaves had knowledge of these real post-slavery necessities but the average slave believed that the Lord would provide and indeed He did provide but not without giving them reality check. The needs of the former slaves were an open invitation for the American Missionary Association, Freedmen?s Aid Societies, schoolteachers, and other benevolent societies from the North to assist in developing, exposing, and educating them in their new identity and way of life. ?To the aid of the government, and even before the government took definite organized hold, came religious and benevolent organizations. The first was the American Missionary Association, which grew out of the organization for the defense of the Negroes who rebelled and captured the slave ship Amistad and brought it into Connecticut in 1837?.They extended their work in 1862-1863, establishing missions down the Atlantic Coast, and in Missouri, and along the Mississippi. By 1864, they had reached the Negroes in nearly all the Southern States.? (DuBois, 77) These organizations brought with them finances to open schools, provide shelter and other services, distribute food, etc. The missionaries attempted to educate the adults with knowledge on how to obtain land by teaching them to interpret deeds, the importance of sending their children to school instead of working the fields, etc. The government also intervened during Reconstruction by providing the resources of the Freedmen?s Bureau. The Freedmen?s Bureau was designed by Congress to facilitate the transition of the former slaves to freedom. The Bureau took on many aspects as a relief association ?to aid refugees and freedman by furnishing supplies and medical services, establishing schools, supervising contracts between freedmen and their employers, and managing confiscated or abandoned lands.? (Franklin, 37) The Bureau acted as a liaison between the former slaves and their employers in regards to them seeking labor. Any labor disputes between the former slaves and planters was brought to the Bureau for investigation and arbitration. The main successes of the Bureau lied in its strides in assisting the freedmen and their children receive education. Through this effort, along with the assistance of African American labor and finances from religious and philanthropic agencies, they founded many famous African American colleges such as Howard, Clark-Atlanta, and Hampton Institute. The main principle that the missionaries and organizations were attempting to instill in the former slaves was that without land and education they would not be able to protect their freedom in this hostile society. However, their were many contradictions within the Reconstruction Era that exploited the former slaves instead of uplifting them. For example, the Federal Government conceived ?The Grand Experiment? which was done under the Treasury Department headed by Salmon P. Chase. In order to prove that African Americans were worthy of freedom they were to pick cotton and these profits would go to the government while the laborers were paid, at most, a minimum wage, if any wage at all. Another instance involved a supposed abolitionist and economist who was also a major profiteer in an area of South Carolina called Port Royal. Port Royal was one of a major sea port and had a population of about 8,000 newly freed men and women whose main concern was to obtain land and feed their families. The economist, Philbert, decided he would use these factors to his advantage. He devised a ?deal? with the freedmen that would have them sign a contract which they interpreted to mean that would be own a piece of land. Instead, the contracts they signed meant that now they worked for Philbert and were increasing his wealth instead of their own. Many whites schemed and counted on the African Americans being na?ve in order to boost their lost profits. This is the beginning of neo-slavery with regards to sharecropping in the South. While the Reconstruction Era was intending to make the situation for African Americans easier, it never dealt with the notion that the only view Whites held for African Americans was that of servitude. Southerners wanted African Americans to remain in and return to their condition of servitude so they contrived ways to ensure they would always remain in this position. Contrary to popular belief, the reason that Abraham Lincoln emancipated the slaves was solely for political purposes. ?(Lincoln) simply could not envisage free Negroes in the United States? (DuBois, 82) but he needed to breakdown the Southern economy so that the North would win the Civil War and the southern states would be forced to surrender and return to the Union. Thus the reasoning that the Emancipation Proclamation was an edict that freed the slaves that were in states rebelling against the Union and not the slaves in the loyal border states, in these cases the slaves simply walked off the plantations. Yet after his plan unfolded Lincoln made certain that he offered support for the southern states, in order that their transition back to the Union be smooth. ?On December 8 he issued his Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction. In it he offered pardon to any former Confederates who would take the oath to support ? the Constitution of the United States and the Union of the states thereunder.??He further stipulated that when persons equal in number to tenth of the votes cast in the presidential election of 1860 had taken oath and established a government. Lincoln?s plan excluded all Negroes from participation either in oath-taking, voting, or holding office. Governments under presidential reconstruction were to be governments by white men.? (Franklin, 17) Therefore, Lincoln was certainly acting in his own presidential interests and in the best interests of a White male dominated society not in the interests of a better, more equal, society. Even when the former slaves thought they had allies, the motives behind their allies? actions did not concern their best interests at all. On April 15, 1865 President Lincoln was assassinated and Andrew Johnson was sworn in hours after his death. This change in leadership could be seen as a turn for the worst as far as support for the freedmen was concerned. Although Johnson fully supported the Union and its principles he was in no way against Southerners. In fact, it was under his administration that the rebel states were readmitted ?into constitutional relations with the federal government when ?that portion of the people?who are loyal? had written a constitution and established a government under it.? (Franklin, 31) For this reason alone, Johnson was considered very lenient toward those states in the Union which had rebelled. These states did not receive the punishment that should have been handed down to them for committing the high treason that the Republicans accused them of. However, the larger picture was strictly political. The North just wanted to restore the Union to its original status. This became a great opportunity for the Southern states to exercise the most control over their own governments and Constitutions without interference on a federal level. This would be the key factor in how the stage was set to return African Americans to their proper place, at the bottom. Although history tells us that Reconstruction was a joyous era where tremendous change occurred, the reality was that a change occurred and it was not for the better but rather it was from blatant racism to covert racism. In other words, the racism that we experience today held its roots during the Reconstruction Era. While W.E.B. DuBois was correct when he stated that Reconstruction was the only time in history that America practiced a true democracy, this era is and has been somewhat exaggerated as a period when African Americans were considered equals. It is in my opinion that the only reason that the likes of Blanche Bruce, P.B.S. Pinchback, Reverend James Lynch, Oscar J. Dunn, Hiram Revels, and C.C. Antoine were allowed to participate in this ?true democracy? was because the White government had not been sophisticated enough to deter this type of activity from occurring. It didn?t take them long to figure out how to put an end to this ?Ethiopian minstrelsy (and) Ham radicalism in its glory? (Franklin, 105). Reconstruction should be regarded as a time of confusion for the White government because they had not planned for the freedom of African Americans in an existential fashion but rather only under the Thirteenth Amendment. Thus, when the Black Codes were established during the period of 1865-1867, although they were frowned upon by the North, ?legislatures repealed the more objectionable features of (them)?. (Franklin, 141) ?While historians have given scant attention to the work of the Southern legislatures in 1865-1867 in the general area of attention to the enactment of laws affecting Negroes. This is understandable, for the ?black codes? enacted within a year following the Civil War were the greatest concern of the Southern legislatures. They forecast, to a remarkable degree, the future attitude of former Confederates toward the place of the Negro in the South and in American life. While there were variations from state to state, they embodied some common features. They recognized the right of Negroes to hold property, to sue and be sued, and to have legal marriages and offspring. There were important qualifications, however: Negroes were competent witnesses only in cases where one or both parties were Negroes; Negroes who intermarried with whites were guilty of a felony, punishable by a long prison term?. (Franklin, 48) ?Other state laws and town ordinances were designed to maintain what the legislators considered due subordination of the freedmen. They were to handle no firearms or other weapons, and they were to possess no alcoholic beverages. In Opelousas, Louisiana, no Negro was allowed to come within the limits of the town wthout special permssion of his employer. Many communities required Negroes to be off the streets by a specified hour, while others had laws against Negroes using ?insulting gestures? or ?exercising the function of a minister of the Gospel? without a license. Most of the laws employed such terms as ?master? and ?servant? and clearly implied a distinction that consigned the Negro to a hopelessly inferior status?? (Franklin, 49) The Northern states basically supported the actions of the South allowing this occur and thus became a key element in establishing this newer form of racism. These Black codes were among one of their worst fears when readmitting the Southern states into the Union. Their concern with the Black codes dealt was politically motivated. They were threatened by this imitation of slavery because they viewed it as the Southern states trying to reestablish the Democratic Party of the South and not as a reinstitution of a system of inferiority. They felt that too much power too soon after the War may rekindle the feelings of rebellion amongst the Southern Democrats which was something they did not want to repeat. However, they did not realize that the repercussions of allowing these codes to exist would be the literal massacre of thousands of innocent African Americans all in the name of White Supremacy. The organization of the Ku Klux Klan began in Pulaski, Tennessee in 1865 and their reign of terror exists even today. They used the notion of White Supremacy to attack the African American community and to place themselves on an even higher scale than they already thought themselves to be. Former slaveholders fell into a deep trauma and financial depression after the Civil War. Many of these slaveholders were unable to accept the reality that their primary source of income was now to be regarded as a part of the free labor force to be paid for their labor and that they would also need to find employment themselves. This group began experiencing increases in alcoholism and drug use. The former slaveholders became bitter, frustrated, and angry that they had lost their control over others. Many of them did not fully survive the transition from slavery to freedom, just as many African Americans did not recover from this period. Reconstruction was a terrible era for the entire American population. This segment of the population was quite receptive to the Ku Klux Klan and its principles of White Supremacy. There were also other types of Klan members instinctively interested in the ideals of White Supremacy. The first type were the former slaveholders, and Confederate officials that had fought hard in the Civil War to maintain the Southern way of life. The second type were the common criminals. They were the members that could use the Klan attire, hood and gown, to hide behind while they committed acts of rape, murder, arson, and lynching. The final group were the poor white population of the South who feared the economic competition of African American workers. They needed to protect their jobs from the highly skilled artisans and former slaves who would be willing to accept less pay to begin their new lives. With these groups at the helm of the organization membership grew at an astronomical rate and the organization was extremely successful during its inception. W.W. Holden, Governor of North Carolina during this period describes the Ku Klux Klan in his state: ?These combinations were at first purely political in their character, and many good citizens were induced to join them. But gradually under the leadership of ambitious and discontented politicians and under the pretext that society needed to be regulated by some authority outside or above the law, their character was changed, and those secret Klans began to commit murder, to rob, whip, scourge, and mutilate unoffending citizens? They met in secret, in disguise, and arms, in a dress of a certain kind intended to conceal their persons and their horses, and to terrify those whom they menaced or assaulted. They held their camps, and under leaders they decreed judgment against their peaceable fellow-citizens from mere intimidations to scourgings, mutilations, the burning of churches, schoolhouses, mills, and in many cases to murder. This organization, under different names but cemented by a common purpose, is believed to have embraced not less than 40,000 voters in North Carolina.? (DuBois, 533-534) By 1871, their membership grew to 550,000 and their heinous and corrupt activities began. It has been documented that they lynched 34 African American women for being ?sassy? during this period but this is just the written evidence. The real evidence of the rise of the Ku Klux Klan is in the decline in the strides for equality that African Americans made during this era. The KKK, as they are called, is considered the invisible government of the South which coexisted with the developments of legal methods of segregation and disenfranchisement to keep African Americans in a racially subordinate status. This was the primary goal for the KKK and this purpose would have been defeated had it not have been for support from the Federal government. After legal segregation was placed into law in the South, the KKK experienced a high decline in membership primarily because many of its members felt that the goal of the organization had been fulfilled. The remaining members made certain that the goals of the KKK stayed in place for as long as possible. The stage was set during Reconstruction to keep African Americans in a subordinate position in American society. No matter how many accomplishments we seem to produce, there is always something established by the White power structure to offset or counter our achievements. I believe that no matter what we say or do to contribute to this society, they will not be satisfied until we return to our original positions as slaves because that is the primary reason we were brought to this unyielding land. Yet, as Maya Angelou so eloquently stated, ?still we rise?. There must be something distinguished about a race to have endured what we have and still have survived when the odds were against us. We have already won the war here in America but it is up to them to abandon denial of this fact so we can all uplift society under a new reconstruction called true equality. in America. Russell and Russell: New York, 1963. Franklin, V.P. Black Self-Determination. Lawrence Hill and Company: Connecticut, 1984.	<urn:uuid:b27241e0-f744-4f1c-90ff-35d4026a40b7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essay.ua-referat.com/Black_Reconstruction	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00028.warc.gz	en	0.983183	4,210	4.28125	4	[ -0.5311784744262695, 0.5696011781692505, 0.1761564314365387, 0.1250036060810089, 0.06629860401153564, 0.07948987931013107, -0.2988903522491455, -0.2581775188446045, -0.1633349359035492, 0.321388304233551, 0.3727912902832031, 0.07628107070922852, -0.36089274287223816, 0.040132008492946625, ...	2	April 30, 1999 Prior to the Civil War and Reconstruction, the main goal of the African American population was to be granted freedom. African Americans had been enslaved since 1619 in America, when the first slaves were sold on the auction block. However, their concepts of freedom were extremely romanticized and highly unrealistic as a direct result of the atrocities they witnessed and endured in the institution of slavery. They visualized the abolition of slavery to be comparable with the coming of Jesus Christ. Yet when politics made that day become reality on January 1, 1863, the newly freed men and women were utterly disappointed and in disarray. After living their lives under the institution of slavery, the former slaves were literally left to survive on their own without the proper tools such as opportunities, provisions, or education. This race of people, for whom it was illegal to learn to read or write and even to congregate in groups of three or more, was now released into the same society that had enslaved them, and which was now supposed to open its arms and accept them as equals. Along with this freedom came a sudden change in identity, a clinging to faith, and a supposed new placement within society. ?The Negro became in the first year contraband of war; that is, property belonging to the enemy and valuable to the invader. And in addition to that, he became, as the South quickly saw, the key to Southern resistance. Either these four million laborers remained quietly at work to raise food for their fighters, or the fighter starved. Simultaneously, when the dream of the North for man-power produced riots, the only additional troops that the North could depend on were 200,000 Negroes, for without them, as Lincoln said, the North could not have won the war.? (DuBois, 80) In spite of this, the treatment of African Americans from slavery to freedom could only be thought of as different according to the law because conceptually the two identities, slave and free, closely parallel each other even today. Survival was a key element for the lives of African Americans during slavery. Its guiding principle was the ability to endure the oppression to secure the continuation of the race. Slaves recognized that adaptation to the new environment and culture in the New World would be the main factor for their ability to stay alive. They began this adaptation process, called survival faith, by creating a sub-culture which merged traditional African practices with those the slaves were forced to adopt from their masters. The African slaves brought with them all of their African traditions but were suppressed from utilizing them in their original fashion. Therefore, they merged remnants of African cultures including ?the great Bantu tribes from Sierra Leone to South Africa; the Sudanese, straight across the center of the continent, from the Atlantic to the Valley of the Nile; the Nilotic Negroes and the black and brown Hamites, allied with Egypt; the tribes of the great lakes; the Pygmies and the Hottentots; and in addition to these, distinct traces of both Berber and Arab? (DuBois, 3) with those remnants of European and Native American cultures. This new culture was comprised of dance, rhythmic music, folk traditions and values, religious beliefs, food and its preparation, cultivation of crops, herbal medicines, socialization of children, philosophy of respect for elders, oral traditions, etc. Within each aspect of the new African American culture, survival was somehow intertwined either directly or indirectly. Along with the notion of survival faith came the belief that if the slaves were not to be free from oppression in this life, they would certainly be free from oppression in the next life. This religious rationale held a functional value and assisted the slaves in concentrating on the freedom in the next life, but with this belief the slaves were reneging any hope of equality in their lives on this earth. This is the mentality behind the slave who compared the abolition of slavery to the coming of Jesus Christ. He created in his mind the idea that the only time he would see freedom was when the heavens opened and the Son of God himself came down to deliver all of the slaves from their oppressors. Although this idea was effective in allowing the slaves to tolerate oppression, it did not promote an end to the problem but rather the endurance of it. Hence, on the day that Lincoln delivered the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, although this day was much anticipated, the slaves were severely unprepared. They identified with freedom only in theory so their concepts of freedom tended to be exaggerated and extravagant. Instead they needed to be preparing for freedom in an existential sense such as being able to read, learning how the system operates outside of slavery, how to obtain land, etc. Some slaves had knowledge of these real post-slavery necessities but the average slave believed that the Lord would provide and indeed He did provide but not without giving them reality check. The needs of the former slaves were an open invitation for the American Missionary Association, Freedmen?s Aid Societies, schoolteachers, and other benevolent societies from the North to assist in developing, exposing, and educating them in their new identity and way of life. ?To the aid of the government, and even before the government took definite organized hold, came religious and benevolent organizations. The first was the American Missionary Association, which grew out of the organization for the defense of the Negroes who rebelled and captured the slave ship Amistad and brought it into Connecticut in 1837?.They extended their work in 1862-1863, establishing missions down the Atlantic Coast, and in Missouri, and along the Mississippi. By 1864, they had reached the Negroes in nearly all the Southern States.? (DuBois, 77) These organizations brought with them finances to open schools, provide shelter and other services, distribute food, etc. The missionaries attempted to educate the adults with knowledge on how to obtain land by teaching them to interpret deeds, the importance of sending their children to school instead of working the fields, etc. The government also intervened during Reconstruction by providing the resources of the Freedmen?s Bureau. The Freedmen?s Bureau was designed by Congress to facilitate the transition of the former slaves to freedom. The Bureau took on many aspects as a relief association ?to aid refugees and freedman by furnishing supplies and medical services, establishing schools, supervising contracts between freedmen and their employers, and managing confiscated or abandoned lands.? (Franklin, 37) The Bureau acted as a liaison between the former slaves and their employers in regards to them seeking labor. Any labor disputes between the former slaves and planters was brought to the Bureau for investigation and arbitration. The main successes of the Bureau lied in its strides in assisting the freedmen and their children receive education. Through this effort, along with the assistance of African American labor and finances from religious and philanthropic agencies, they founded many famous African American colleges such as Howard, Clark-Atlanta, and Hampton Institute. The main principle that the missionaries and organizations were attempting to instill in the former slaves was that without land and education they would not be able to protect their freedom in this hostile society. However, their were many contradictions within the Reconstruction Era that exploited the former slaves instead of uplifting them. For example, the Federal Government conceived ?The Grand Experiment? which was done under the Treasury Department headed by Salmon P. Chase. In order to prove that African Americans were worthy of freedom they were to pick cotton and these profits would go to the government while the laborers were paid, at most, a minimum wage, if any wage at all. Another instance involved a supposed abolitionist and economist who was also a major profiteer in an area of South Carolina called Port Royal. Port Royal was one of a major sea port and had a population of about 8,000 newly freed men and women whose main concern was to obtain land and feed their families. The economist, Philbert, decided he would use these factors to his advantage. He devised a ?deal? with the freedmen that would have them sign a contract which they interpreted to mean that would be own a piece of land. Instead, the contracts they signed meant that now they worked for Philbert and were increasing his wealth instead of their own. Many whites schemed and counted on the African Americans being na?ve in order to boost their lost profits. This is the beginning of neo-slavery with regards to sharecropping in the South. While the Reconstruction Era was intending to make the situation for African Americans easier, it never dealt with the notion that the only view Whites held for African Americans was that of servitude. Southerners wanted African Americans to remain in and return to their condition of servitude so they contrived ways to ensure they would always remain in this position. Contrary to popular belief, the reason that Abraham Lincoln emancipated the slaves was solely for political purposes. ?(Lincoln) simply could not envisage free Negroes in the United States? (DuBois, 82) but he needed to breakdown the Southern economy so that the North would win the Civil War and the southern states would be forced to surrender and return to the Union. Thus the reasoning that the Emancipation Proclamation was an edict that freed the slaves that were in states rebelling against the Union and not the slaves in the loyal border states, in these cases the slaves simply walked off the plantations. Yet after his plan unfolded Lincoln made certain that he offered support for the southern states, in order that their transition back to the Union be smooth. ?On December 8 he issued his Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction. In it he offered pardon to any former Confederates who would take the oath to support ? the Constitution of the United States and the Union of the states thereunder.??He further stipulated that when persons equal in number to tenth of the votes cast in the presidential election of 1860 had taken oath and established a government. Lincoln?s plan excluded all Negroes from participation either in oath-taking, voting, or holding office. Governments under presidential reconstruction were to be governments by white men.? (Franklin, 17) Therefore, Lincoln was certainly acting in his own presidential interests and in the best interests of a White male dominated society not in the interests of a better, more equal, society. Even when the former slaves thought they had allies, the motives behind their allies? actions did not concern their best interests at all. On April 15, 1865 President Lincoln was assassinated and Andrew Johnson was sworn in hours after his death. This change in leadership could be seen as a turn for the worst as far as support for the freedmen was concerned. Although Johnson fully supported the Union and its principles he was in no way against Southerners. In fact, it was under his administration that the rebel states were readmitted ?into constitutional relations with the federal government when ?that portion of the people?who are loyal? had written a constitution and established a government under it.? (Franklin, 31) For this reason alone, Johnson was considered very lenient toward those states in the Union which had rebelled. These states did not receive the punishment that should have been handed down to them for committing the high treason that the Republicans accused them of. However, the larger picture was strictly political. The North just wanted to restore the Union to its original status. This became a great opportunity for the Southern states to exercise the most control over their own governments and Constitutions without interference on a federal level. This would be the key factor in how the stage was set to return African Americans to their proper place, at the bottom. Although history tells us that Reconstruction was a joyous era where tremendous change occurred, the reality was that a change occurred and it was not for the better but rather it was from blatant racism to covert racism. In other words, the racism that we experience today held its roots during the Reconstruction Era. While W.E.B. DuBois was correct when he stated that Reconstruction was the only time in history that America practiced a true democracy, this era is and has been somewhat exaggerated as a period when African Americans were considered equals. It is in my opinion that the only reason that the likes of Blanche Bruce, P.B.S. Pinchback, Reverend James Lynch, Oscar J. Dunn, Hiram Revels, and C.C. Antoine were allowed to participate in this ?true democracy? was because the White government had not been sophisticated enough to deter this type of activity from occurring. It didn?t take them long to figure out how to put an end to this ?Ethiopian minstrelsy (and) Ham radicalism in its glory? (Franklin, 105). Reconstruction should be regarded as a time of confusion for the White government because they had not planned for the freedom of African Americans in an existential fashion but rather only under the Thirteenth Amendment. Thus, when the Black Codes were established during the period of 1865-1867, although they were frowned upon by the North, ?legislatures repealed the more objectionable features of (them)?. (Franklin, 141) ?While historians have given scant attention to the work of the Southern legislatures in 1865-1867 in the general area of attention to the enactment of laws affecting Negroes. This is understandable, for the ?black codes? enacted within a year following the Civil War were the greatest concern of the Southern legislatures. They forecast, to a remarkable degree, the future attitude of former Confederates toward the place of the Negro in the South and in American life. While there were variations from state to state, they embodied some common features. They recognized the right of Negroes to hold property, to sue and be sued, and to have legal marriages and offspring. There were important qualifications, however: Negroes were competent witnesses only in cases where one or both parties were Negroes; Negroes who intermarried with whites were guilty of a felony, punishable by a long prison term?. (Franklin, 48) ?Other state laws and town ordinances were designed to maintain what the legislators considered due subordination of the freedmen. They were to handle no firearms or other weapons, and they were to possess no alcoholic beverages. In Opelousas, Louisiana, no Negro was allowed to come within the limits of the town wthout special permssion of his employer. Many communities required Negroes to be off the streets by a specified hour, while others had laws against Negroes using ?insulting gestures? or ?exercising the function of a minister of the Gospel? without a license. Most of the laws employed such terms as ?master? and ?servant? and clearly implied a distinction that consigned the Negro to a hopelessly inferior status?? (Franklin, 49) The Northern states basically supported the actions of the South allowing this occur and thus became a key element in establishing this newer form of racism. These Black codes were among one of their worst fears when readmitting the Southern states into the Union. Their concern with the Black codes dealt was politically motivated. They were threatened by this imitation of slavery because they viewed it as the Southern states trying to reestablish the Democratic Party of the South and not as a reinstitution of a system of inferiority. They felt that too much power too soon after the War may rekindle the feelings of rebellion amongst the Southern Democrats which was something they did not want to repeat. However, they did not realize that the repercussions of allowing these codes to exist would be the literal massacre of thousands of innocent African Americans all in the name of White Supremacy. The organization of the Ku Klux Klan began in Pulaski, Tennessee in 1865 and their reign of terror exists even today. They used the notion of White Supremacy to attack the African American community and to place themselves on an even higher scale than they already thought themselves to be. Former slaveholders fell into a deep trauma and financial depression after the Civil War. Many of these slaveholders were unable to accept the reality that their primary source of income was now to be regarded as a part of the free labor force to be paid for their labor and that they would also need to find employment themselves. This group began experiencing increases in alcoholism and drug use. The former slaveholders became bitter, frustrated, and angry that they had lost their control over others. Many of them did not fully survive the transition from slavery to freedom, just as many African Americans did not recover from this period. Reconstruction was a terrible era for the entire American population. This segment of the population was quite receptive to the Ku Klux Klan and its principles of White Supremacy. There were also other types of Klan members instinctively interested in the ideals of White Supremacy. The first type were the former slaveholders, and Confederate officials that had fought hard in the Civil War to maintain the Southern way of life. The second type were the common criminals. They were the members that could use the Klan attire, hood and gown, to hide behind while they committed acts of rape, murder, arson, and lynching. The final group were the poor white population of the South who feared the economic competition of African American workers. They needed to protect their jobs from the highly skilled artisans and former slaves who would be willing to accept less pay to begin their new lives. With these groups at the helm of the organization membership grew at an astronomical rate and the organization was extremely successful during its inception. W.W. Holden, Governor of North Carolina during this period describes the Ku Klux Klan in his state: ?These combinations were at first purely political in their character, and many good citizens were induced to join them. But gradually under the leadership of ambitious and discontented politicians and under the pretext that society needed to be regulated by some authority outside or above the law, their character was changed, and those secret Klans began to commit murder, to rob, whip, scourge, and mutilate unoffending citizens? They met in secret, in disguise, and arms, in a dress of a certain kind intended to conceal their persons and their horses, and to terrify those whom they menaced or assaulted. They held their camps, and under leaders they decreed judgment against their peaceable fellow-citizens from mere intimidations to scourgings, mutilations, the burning of churches, schoolhouses, mills, and in many cases to murder. This organization, under different names but cemented by a common purpose, is believed to have embraced not less than 40,000 voters in North Carolina.? (DuBois, 533-534) By 1871, their membership grew to 550,000 and their heinous and corrupt activities began. It has been documented that they lynched 34 African American women for being ?sassy? during this period but this is just the written evidence. The real evidence of the rise of the Ku Klux Klan is in the decline in the strides for equality that African Americans made during this era. The KKK, as they are called, is considered the invisible government of the South which coexisted with the developments of legal methods of segregation and disenfranchisement to keep African Americans in a racially subordinate status. This was the primary goal for the KKK and this purpose would have been defeated had it not have been for support from the Federal government. After legal segregation was placed into law in the South, the KKK experienced a high decline in membership primarily because many of its members felt that the goal of the organization had been fulfilled. The remaining members made certain that the goals of the KKK stayed in place for as long as possible. The stage was set during Reconstruction to keep African Americans in a subordinate position in American society. No matter how many accomplishments we seem to produce, there is always something established by the White power structure to offset or counter our achievements. I believe that no matter what we say or do to contribute to this society, they will not be satisfied until we return to our original positions as slaves because that is the primary reason we were brought to this unyielding land. Yet, as Maya Angelou so eloquently stated, ?still we rise?. There must be something distinguished about a race to have endured what we have and still have survived when the odds were against us. We have already won the war here in America but it is up to them to abandon denial of this fact so we can all uplift society under a new reconstruction called true equality. in America. Russell and Russell: New York, 1963. Franklin, V.P. Black Self-Determination. Lawrence Hill and Company: Connecticut, 1984.	4,292	ENGLISH	1
In the 19-century, there was a migration which developed a huge population. This migration is known as the California Gold Rush. The discovery of gold in the valley, sparked the rush to establish and news quickly spread to thousands of gold miners. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Why Was Goldern Rush Beneficial?" essay for youCreate order Over 300,000 miners migrated to California in 1850 which created a great impact on families. Gold miners all around the world had to take a risk and leave their homes, and their loved ones in order to pursue a better opportunity.The California Gold Rush of 1848 built the foundation of california success with the emergence of entrepreneurs attracting different cultures from around the world for social and economics reasons. Life as a forty-niner was very harsh, the percentage of people who became wealthy off of mining was so low. Many were planning on getting rich off gold, but the work itself was very laborious. The environment and homes began destroying the landscape because of a need for warmth causing various amounts of wildfires, the use of chemicals in rivers to help find gold caused many fishes to die. The increment of supply and demand began to rise and was a crucial at the time foremost provoking economic decline. Overpopulating San Francisco in a fleet, prices going up top prices were being paid. Immigrants were treated as awful as slaves they were attack financially with taxes and laws. Also violently seen as threats, Peter Hardermen the first governor of california openly declared and demanded their removal he would pay bounties to white settlers for exchange of indians scalps .Competition for gold was brutal and some lost it all. Captain Sutter was a swiss immigrant leaving unpaid debts behind and establishing a 50,000 acres agriculture community called New Switzerland. Soon, not knowing he had land full of gold, until an employee one day found a golden nugget. He tried to keep quiet but word got around about his find. Months later Sutters workers quit on him and went to search for gold. While thousands became rich off his land, Sutter was close to becoming bankrupt . Gold mining became a big industry over time, eliminating individual miners not being able to afford resources. First reason why the gold rush became such a great movement for california is because not many people succeeded on astonishing and becoming wealthy by finding gold as everyone had fantasized. People became financially steady and wealthy by becoming entrepreneurs then mining for gold. After time the industrial constructed california which brought many to quit looking for gold and starting their own business like Philip Armour, who would later found a meatpacking empire in Chicago, made a fortune operating the sluices that controlled the flow of water into the rivers being mine And also Before John Studebaker built one of America’s great automobile fortunes, he manufactured wheelbarrows for Gold Rush miners constructing a lifestyle. Building up such a great start for these entrepreneurs to their future success in America with the astonishing movement of the gold rush. Immigrants had a such huge impact in the whole settlement bringing the different culture of california today. From South Americans, Mexicans, Irish and Chinese. In 1850 25% of california was immigrants from all over the world bringing new engagements in and out cultural wise. With not alot of knowledge they left their motherland for a new life. Strived for the california dream working as miners and even some becoming entrepreneurs. One of the races that shaped California the greatest were the Chinese. About 23,000 of the immigrants were from China. The Chinese were welcomed everywhere and were wanted by everyone as laborers, carpenters, and as cooks, since the restaurants they established were well patronized. Immigrants also helped economically making california a state of America faster with their population 14,000 to 250,000 in only four years. There is no doubt that immigration left a major mark in California that is still seen today. Even if it was through big or small reasons, business or the government, immigration is what built the california into what the foundation of the state we know of now. Helping the rush period in california creating a national economic impact long term that lead california its success. Connected with the rush resulting becoming the california dream. Seen as a place of new beginnings wealth could could reward hard work and goodluck after years it spreaded around america and became the american dream. Increase of population and community being built. Shaping the U.S economy development and social advancement. The impact of the gold rush became the success of California we know today. With the evolution of entrepreneurs and cultural wise of California, through there finance and societal. Benefiting the whole country with the perspective of the american dream. Finally, throughout the years California became the great, famous and outstanding state we all know because of the rush. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:404df03c-8994-48f8-90ab-1473455be738>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/why-was-goldern-rush-beneficial/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00284.warc.gz	en	0.981113	1,030	3.65625	4	[ 0.04167530685663223, -0.02238740585744381, 0.022834138944745064, 0.3366142213344574, 0.035606108605861664, -0.06352262198925018, -0.16439518332481384, 0.238571435213089, -0.16640505194664001, 0.2012166976928711, 0.4820505380630493, -0.12684211134910583, 0.1522456854581833, 0.13837239146232...	1	In the 19-century, there was a migration which developed a huge population. This migration is known as the California Gold Rush. The discovery of gold in the valley, sparked the rush to establish and news quickly spread to thousands of gold miners. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Why Was Goldern Rush Beneficial?" essay for youCreate order Over 300,000 miners migrated to California in 1850 which created a great impact on families. Gold miners all around the world had to take a risk and leave their homes, and their loved ones in order to pursue a better opportunity.The California Gold Rush of 1848 built the foundation of california success with the emergence of entrepreneurs attracting different cultures from around the world for social and economics reasons. Life as a forty-niner was very harsh, the percentage of people who became wealthy off of mining was so low. Many were planning on getting rich off gold, but the work itself was very laborious. The environment and homes began destroying the landscape because of a need for warmth causing various amounts of wildfires, the use of chemicals in rivers to help find gold caused many fishes to die. The increment of supply and demand began to rise and was a crucial at the time foremost provoking economic decline. Overpopulating San Francisco in a fleet, prices going up top prices were being paid. Immigrants were treated as awful as slaves they were attack financially with taxes and laws. Also violently seen as threats, Peter Hardermen the first governor of california openly declared and demanded their removal he would pay bounties to white settlers for exchange of indians scalps .Competition for gold was brutal and some lost it all. Captain Sutter was a swiss immigrant leaving unpaid debts behind and establishing a 50,000 acres agriculture community called New Switzerland. Soon, not knowing he had land full of gold, until an employee one day found a golden nugget. He tried to keep quiet but word got around about his find. Months later Sutters workers quit on him and went to search for gold. While thousands became rich off his land, Sutter was close to becoming bankrupt . Gold mining became a big industry over time, eliminating individual miners not being able to afford resources. First reason why the gold rush became such a great movement for california is because not many people succeeded on astonishing and becoming wealthy by finding gold as everyone had fantasized. People became financially steady and wealthy by becoming entrepreneurs then mining for gold. After time the industrial constructed california which brought many to quit looking for gold and starting their own business like Philip Armour, who would later found a meatpacking empire in Chicago, made a fortune operating the sluices that controlled the flow of water into the rivers being mine And also Before John Studebaker built one of America’s great automobile fortunes, he manufactured wheelbarrows for Gold Rush miners constructing a lifestyle. Building up such a great start for these entrepreneurs to their future success in America with the astonishing movement of the gold rush. Immigrants had a such huge impact in the whole settlement bringing the different culture of california today. From South Americans, Mexicans, Irish and Chinese. In 1850 25% of california was immigrants from all over the world bringing new engagements in and out cultural wise. With not alot of knowledge they left their motherland for a new life. Strived for the california dream working as miners and even some becoming entrepreneurs. One of the races that shaped California the greatest were the Chinese. About 23,000 of the immigrants were from China. The Chinese were welcomed everywhere and were wanted by everyone as laborers, carpenters, and as cooks, since the restaurants they established were well patronized. Immigrants also helped economically making california a state of America faster with their population 14,000 to 250,000 in only four years. There is no doubt that immigration left a major mark in California that is still seen today. Even if it was through big or small reasons, business or the government, immigration is what built the california into what the foundation of the state we know of now. Helping the rush period in california creating a national economic impact long term that lead california its success. Connected with the rush resulting becoming the california dream. Seen as a place of new beginnings wealth could could reward hard work and goodluck after years it spreaded around america and became the american dream. Increase of population and community being built. Shaping the U.S economy development and social advancement. The impact of the gold rush became the success of California we know today. With the evolution of entrepreneurs and cultural wise of California, through there finance and societal. Benefiting the whole country with the perspective of the american dream. Finally, throughout the years California became the great, famous and outstanding state we all know because of the rush. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	1,025	ENGLISH	1
Centuries-old Babri Mosque was built in 1528–29 (935 AH) by general Mir Baqi, on orders of the Mughal emperor Babar, in Ayodhya, India. A dispute arose among Muslims and Hindus communities in the 18th Century, as Hindus claim the place as the birthplace of Hindu deity God Rama. In 1853, British rulers divided the courtyard into two parts by a fence and dedicated a part for Hindus to worship and another part was still in-use by Muslims as usual. In 1947, Sub-continent was divided into Muslim Majority Pakistan and Hindu Majority India. The tension was afresh as Hindus gained a majority in India. Muslims constitute around 15% of the population. In the 1950s the case was formally filed into court for the right of worship by Hindus. But due to lack of evidence and due to the nature of sensitivity, the case was not finalized for seven decades. It was pending and prolonged for 70 years, as no one was able to give a final verdict based on facts in favor of Muslims and scared of violence from Hindu Community. The mosque was attacked and demolished by Karsevaks in 1992 and ignited communal violence across the country. Where more than 2000 Muslims were killed. Since then, Indian Courts were sitting on the case and sacred to reveals the facts due to backlash by Hindu extremists. Prime Minister Modi, was among the mob attacked on Babri Mosque in 1992. He was playing a leading role in the attack on the Mosque. He was also involved in the massacre of thousands of killings of Muslims in 2002 in Gujrat when he was Chief Minister of Gujrat state. Prime Minister Modi, belongs to RSS an extremist Hindu political party. During his election campaign earlier this year, he declared to hand over the place of Babri Mosque to Hindus and finally he votes from the extremist Hindu segment of the society and won the election by a majority. He kept his promise and pressurized Courts in India and finally, he did, what was expected. Indian Government deployed extra force to suppress any reaction from Muslims and arrested or detained Muslim scholars, activists, leaders, politicians and common citizens. The court decision was decided already and all precautionary measures were placed in advance. According to reports about court decision “India’s Supreme Court has awarded Hindus control of a disputed religious site in the town of Ayodhya for the construction of a temple, in a landmark verdict announced amid heightened security across the country. Muslims will be given five acres of land at an alternative site in Ayodhya, in northern Uttar Pradesh state, the top court ruled on Saturday”. The court decision is biased, against the basic principles of justice, and highly politicized. It has spread a wave of anger among the 2 billion Muslims around the world. The Muslims in India are in minority, and suppressed, may not react in any intensity, but has hurt the feelings. The hate and polarity may have grown further. Since the Modi came into power, his bias and anti-minority policies were exercised. During his first tenure, BJP was not in the absolute majority, so he could not harm the minorities to that extent. But during his second tenure, he got an absolute majority, where he can make any legislation according to his wishes. He has harmed Minorities to an irreversible extent. Like his accession of Kashmir, anti-Muslimism policies in Assam regarding citizenship issue, and latest, his pressure on courts to give verdict which courts could not give since the 1950s. This decision is a message of hate, Nazism, ant-minorities and a black spot on the face of India. There was a time when people think India the largest democracy and a secular state. But today, India has been hijacked by extremist Hindus, and it has become a Hindu extremist state, no longer a secular state. The elections were held under a very tense environment, where Hindu extremists were using all types of torture, pressure, and dirty-tricks to force people to vote for extremist’s Hindu candidates. It was not a free and fair election, where people can vote according to their free will without any pressure. So, India is not the largest democracy anymore. It has turned into an extremists’ Hindus state. Where minorities are victims. There is a reaction from moderate Hindus within the India and opposition parties are also expressing their dissatisfaction. Human rights organizations, NGOs and impartial civic society are also considering it a biased decision. Media is scared to criticize openly, but not satisfied with this politicization. Muslims inside India are sacred and are afraid of more cruelty. In the international community, it has been criticized widely and especially the Western World is also not satisfied with its handling and politicization. The civilized world has been criticizing the biased decision and afraid of a reaction from the Muslim world. OIC is also not satisfied with this decision. The general public in Muslim countries is not happy and very angry about such an unfair court verdict. In fact, India has been exposed and the civilized world has seen the true face of India. Author: Prof. Engr. Zamir Ahmed Awan, Sinologist, ex-Diplomat, Academician, Researcher, member editorial board (World Scientific), Peace-activist, Geo-analyst, Non-Resident Fellow of CCG (Center for China and Globalization), Islamabad, Pakistan.	<urn:uuid:9c3e8ee0-9d2f-42ef-a243-e2507f234847>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://perspectivebd.com/archives/3630	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00095.warc.gz	en	0.980824	1,104	3.5	4	[ 0.03575167804956436, 0.486574649810791, -0.24978625774383545, 0.14833858609199524, -0.17595720291137695, 0.026405543088912964, -0.005784487817436457, -0.09638474881649017, 0.2147173434495926, 0.0017006369307637215, -0.3096845746040344, -0.30680400133132935, -0.0048602065071463585, 0.446647...	6	Centuries-old Babri Mosque was built in 1528–29 (935 AH) by general Mir Baqi, on orders of the Mughal emperor Babar, in Ayodhya, India. A dispute arose among Muslims and Hindus communities in the 18th Century, as Hindus claim the place as the birthplace of Hindu deity God Rama. In 1853, British rulers divided the courtyard into two parts by a fence and dedicated a part for Hindus to worship and another part was still in-use by Muslims as usual. In 1947, Sub-continent was divided into Muslim Majority Pakistan and Hindu Majority India. The tension was afresh as Hindus gained a majority in India. Muslims constitute around 15% of the population. In the 1950s the case was formally filed into court for the right of worship by Hindus. But due to lack of evidence and due to the nature of sensitivity, the case was not finalized for seven decades. It was pending and prolonged for 70 years, as no one was able to give a final verdict based on facts in favor of Muslims and scared of violence from Hindu Community. The mosque was attacked and demolished by Karsevaks in 1992 and ignited communal violence across the country. Where more than 2000 Muslims were killed. Since then, Indian Courts were sitting on the case and sacred to reveals the facts due to backlash by Hindu extremists. Prime Minister Modi, was among the mob attacked on Babri Mosque in 1992. He was playing a leading role in the attack on the Mosque. He was also involved in the massacre of thousands of killings of Muslims in 2002 in Gujrat when he was Chief Minister of Gujrat state. Prime Minister Modi, belongs to RSS an extremist Hindu political party. During his election campaign earlier this year, he declared to hand over the place of Babri Mosque to Hindus and finally he votes from the extremist Hindu segment of the society and won the election by a majority. He kept his promise and pressurized Courts in India and finally, he did, what was expected. Indian Government deployed extra force to suppress any reaction from Muslims and arrested or detained Muslim scholars, activists, leaders, politicians and common citizens. The court decision was decided already and all precautionary measures were placed in advance. According to reports about court decision “India’s Supreme Court has awarded Hindus control of a disputed religious site in the town of Ayodhya for the construction of a temple, in a landmark verdict announced amid heightened security across the country. Muslims will be given five acres of land at an alternative site in Ayodhya, in northern Uttar Pradesh state, the top court ruled on Saturday”. The court decision is biased, against the basic principles of justice, and highly politicized. It has spread a wave of anger among the 2 billion Muslims around the world. The Muslims in India are in minority, and suppressed, may not react in any intensity, but has hurt the feelings. The hate and polarity may have grown further. Since the Modi came into power, his bias and anti-minority policies were exercised. During his first tenure, BJP was not in the absolute majority, so he could not harm the minorities to that extent. But during his second tenure, he got an absolute majority, where he can make any legislation according to his wishes. He has harmed Minorities to an irreversible extent. Like his accession of Kashmir, anti-Muslimism policies in Assam regarding citizenship issue, and latest, his pressure on courts to give verdict which courts could not give since the 1950s. This decision is a message of hate, Nazism, ant-minorities and a black spot on the face of India. There was a time when people think India the largest democracy and a secular state. But today, India has been hijacked by extremist Hindus, and it has become a Hindu extremist state, no longer a secular state. The elections were held under a very tense environment, where Hindu extremists were using all types of torture, pressure, and dirty-tricks to force people to vote for extremist’s Hindu candidates. It was not a free and fair election, where people can vote according to their free will without any pressure. So, India is not the largest democracy anymore. It has turned into an extremists’ Hindus state. Where minorities are victims. There is a reaction from moderate Hindus within the India and opposition parties are also expressing their dissatisfaction. Human rights organizations, NGOs and impartial civic society are also considering it a biased decision. Media is scared to criticize openly, but not satisfied with this politicization. Muslims inside India are sacred and are afraid of more cruelty. In the international community, it has been criticized widely and especially the Western World is also not satisfied with its handling and politicization. The civilized world has been criticizing the biased decision and afraid of a reaction from the Muslim world. OIC is also not satisfied with this decision. The general public in Muslim countries is not happy and very angry about such an unfair court verdict. In fact, India has been exposed and the civilized world has seen the true face of India. Author: Prof. Engr. Zamir Ahmed Awan, Sinologist, ex-Diplomat, Academician, Researcher, member editorial board (World Scientific), Peace-activist, Geo-analyst, Non-Resident Fellow of CCG (Center for China and Globalization), Islamabad, Pakistan.	1,122	ENGLISH	1
Two of the most influential Americans of the 20th Century were born on this day to parents who had fled the the Jim Crow South and faced heartbreak in the North that propelled them on their respective paths during their short lives. Lorraine Vivian Hansberry, whose beloved play, “A Raisin in the Sun,” became a classic in American theater, was born May 19, 1930, in Chicago, to Carl and Nannie Hansberry, a real estate broker and a school teacher, who had journeyed to Chicago from Mississippi and Tennessee during the Great Migration. Malcolm Little, who as Malcolm X would become one of the most recognized and debated figures in American history, was born in Omaha, Nebraska, on May 19, 1925, to Earl Little, a lay minister who had journeyed north from Georgia, and Louise Little, who had been born in Grenada. Hansberry’s parents left the Jim Crow South only to discover hostility in the North. She was eight years old when her father bought a house in the all-white Washington Park section of Chicago. There she witnessed violence against her family as her parents tried to stand their ground. The neighbors attacked them and filed suit to force the Hansberrys out, backed by state courts and restrictive covenants. The Hansberrys took their case to the Supreme Court to challenge the restrictive covenants and to return to the house they bought. The case culminated in a 1940 Supreme Court decision that helped strike a blow against segregation, though the hostility continued. A mob surrounded their house at one point, throwing bricks and broken concrete, narrowly missing young Lorraine’s head. It would not be until the late 1960’s that fair housing legislation would take effect. The turmoil inspired Hansberry to write “A Raisin in the Sun,” about a black family on the South Side of Chicago living in dilapidated housing and at odds over what to do after the death of the patriarch. The play debuted on Broadway in 1959 and was nominated for four Tony Awards. The film version was released in 1961 with Sidney Poitier, Claudia McNeil, Ruby Dee, Diana Sands reprising their Broadway roles. Hansberry said that their housing ordeal had “required our family to occupy disputed property in a hellishly hostile ‘white neighborhood’ in which literally howling mobs surrounded our house.” She recalled being “spat at, cursed and pummeled in the daily trek to and from school. And I also remember my desperate and courageous mother, patrolling our household all night with a loaded German Luger, doggedly guarding her four children, while my father fought the respectable part of the battle in the Washington court.” Malcolm X was six years old when his father, who had been been under continuous attack for his role in civil rights in the North, died a violent, mysterious death that plunged the family into poverty and dislocation. Despite the upheaval, Malcolm was accomplished in his predominantly white school, but when he shared his dream of becoming a lawyer, a teacher told him that the law was “no realistic goal for a n—–.” He dropped out soon afterward. He would go on to become known as Detroit Red, Malcolm X and el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz, a voice of the dispossessed and a counterweight to Dr. Martin Luther King during the Civil Rights Movement. Denzel Washington portrayed him in Spike Lee’s 1992 film ” Malcolm X.” TIME Magazine has named “The Autobiography of Malcolm X” as one of the 10 most influential works of nonfiction of the 20th Century. Malcolm X was assassinated in the Audubon Ballroom in February 1965 at the age of 39. The site of his birth home in North Omaha is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Lorraine Hansberry died at age 34 in January 1965 after a battle with pancreatic cancer. The house that her family had to fight for back in the 1930s, at 6140 South Rhodes, is now a Chicago landmark. For more information: “To Be Young, Gifted and Black” by Lorraine Hansberry. “The Autobiography of Malcolm X” as told to Alex Haley. — The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration	<urn:uuid:9b8e251d-41fa-4d4b-a298-67af299680b1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jackie4morgan.com/2015/05/21/two-influential-african-americans-of-20th-century/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00226.warc.gz	en	0.983478	906	3.65625	4	[ -0.1969982385635376, 0.032732583582401276, -0.05309026688337326, -0.3360227942466736, 0.10467849671840668, 0.34255069494247437, 0.0013352124951779842, 0.017245905473828316, -0.4459868371486664, -0.18057411909103394, 0.0624878890812397, 0.48307323455810547, 0.20883315801620483, 0.0193646065...	9	Two of the most influential Americans of the 20th Century were born on this day to parents who had fled the the Jim Crow South and faced heartbreak in the North that propelled them on their respective paths during their short lives. Lorraine Vivian Hansberry, whose beloved play, “A Raisin in the Sun,” became a classic in American theater, was born May 19, 1930, in Chicago, to Carl and Nannie Hansberry, a real estate broker and a school teacher, who had journeyed to Chicago from Mississippi and Tennessee during the Great Migration. Malcolm Little, who as Malcolm X would become one of the most recognized and debated figures in American history, was born in Omaha, Nebraska, on May 19, 1925, to Earl Little, a lay minister who had journeyed north from Georgia, and Louise Little, who had been born in Grenada. Hansberry’s parents left the Jim Crow South only to discover hostility in the North. She was eight years old when her father bought a house in the all-white Washington Park section of Chicago. There she witnessed violence against her family as her parents tried to stand their ground. The neighbors attacked them and filed suit to force the Hansberrys out, backed by state courts and restrictive covenants. The Hansberrys took their case to the Supreme Court to challenge the restrictive covenants and to return to the house they bought. The case culminated in a 1940 Supreme Court decision that helped strike a blow against segregation, though the hostility continued. A mob surrounded their house at one point, throwing bricks and broken concrete, narrowly missing young Lorraine’s head. It would not be until the late 1960’s that fair housing legislation would take effect. The turmoil inspired Hansberry to write “A Raisin in the Sun,” about a black family on the South Side of Chicago living in dilapidated housing and at odds over what to do after the death of the patriarch. The play debuted on Broadway in 1959 and was nominated for four Tony Awards. The film version was released in 1961 with Sidney Poitier, Claudia McNeil, Ruby Dee, Diana Sands reprising their Broadway roles. Hansberry said that their housing ordeal had “required our family to occupy disputed property in a hellishly hostile ‘white neighborhood’ in which literally howling mobs surrounded our house.” She recalled being “spat at, cursed and pummeled in the daily trek to and from school. And I also remember my desperate and courageous mother, patrolling our household all night with a loaded German Luger, doggedly guarding her four children, while my father fought the respectable part of the battle in the Washington court.” Malcolm X was six years old when his father, who had been been under continuous attack for his role in civil rights in the North, died a violent, mysterious death that plunged the family into poverty and dislocation. Despite the upheaval, Malcolm was accomplished in his predominantly white school, but when he shared his dream of becoming a lawyer, a teacher told him that the law was “no realistic goal for a n—–.” He dropped out soon afterward. He would go on to become known as Detroit Red, Malcolm X and el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz, a voice of the dispossessed and a counterweight to Dr. Martin Luther King during the Civil Rights Movement. Denzel Washington portrayed him in Spike Lee’s 1992 film ” Malcolm X.” TIME Magazine has named “The Autobiography of Malcolm X” as one of the 10 most influential works of nonfiction of the 20th Century. Malcolm X was assassinated in the Audubon Ballroom in February 1965 at the age of 39. The site of his birth home in North Omaha is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Lorraine Hansberry died at age 34 in January 1965 after a battle with pancreatic cancer. The house that her family had to fight for back in the 1930s, at 6140 South Rhodes, is now a Chicago landmark. For more information: “To Be Young, Gifted and Black” by Lorraine Hansberry. “The Autobiography of Malcolm X” as told to Alex Haley. — The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration	922	ENGLISH	1
Legally, the son had given up his rights for further inheritance and therefore wasn’t really like a son. Morally, the son’s behavior was not up to the typical family standards of the time. His behavior would still be frowned upon today. The father twice says that his son was back from the dead. This raises the question, in what ways was he dead? There are two hypothetical responses to this question. The first refers to the famine that the son was exposed to. It is possible that the father had heard about the famine and assumed that, since he hadn’t heard from him in a long time, his youngest son had not survived the famine.Order now The second possibility talks about where the son left to go. The parable states that the son moved to a distant country. This country was most likely a Gentile country because many Jews lived in Gentile areas. In those days, it was not uncommon for Jews to perform funerals for their children that either moved to Gentile communities or that married Gentiles. It is possible that this is what he meant, however it is highly unlikely that he would disown his child and then open his arms to him as he did. Up until the conflict with the older son, the parable has many parallels to the other two stories in the trilogy. The older son is brought into the picture in order to introduce a further lesson. It has been said that the parable is more like two parables tied together the phrase, “was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found. ” In some ways, both sons on the parable are lost, one who left home and one still at home. The older son expresses anger towards his long lost brother, in contrast to the warm love the father expends. The son complains that he hasn’t even gotten a young goat, yet they killed the fatted calf for the other son. This complaint hints at long time resentment. The son shows disrespect towards his father, as well as his brother. In this way, he broke the fourth commandment and was just as sinful as his hated brother. He makes unfounded accusations that his brother had wasted the money on prostitutes when nowhere in the parable is there any evidence that he had. The father willingly forgives his son for this just as easily as he forgave his youngest son. He tells him that everything he has is also his sons, hinting that all of the inheritance would go to the eldest son. This hinting cannot be solidified because, once again, the details about the property are not specified because it is not relevant in Jesus’ lesson. The only important thing is that the father forgave both of his sons. Each of the characters in this parable can be compared to another person or group of people. The characters are just a way of teaching a lesson to each of the people they represent. In this parable, the father symbolizes God. It shows that God will rejoice and honor any and every sinner that repents. It also emphasizes that God doesn’t need to wait for a full apology. He recognizes the sentiment and considers that enough to forgive. Jesus also uses the parable to address those who criticized him for being around sinners by chiding them for not rejoicing that the sinners were interested in what he had to teach. The parable does not necessarily say we should seek out those sinners, but that we should be glad and open when they come to us to be taught. The parable of the Prodigal Son was just one of many parables that Jesus told to get his message out to the people. The themes from this particular parable are timeless. No matter what, God will always forgive us when we show only the slightest repentance and we should always forgive those who show repentance towards us. Bibliography > Author Unknown. Parable of the Lost Son. 09 December 2004. The Boston Christian Bible Study Resources. 30 November 2005. http://www. bcbsr. com/survey/pb134. html > Keating, Thomas. The Parable of the Prodigal Son. 2005. Contemplative Outreach Ltd. 30 November 2005. http://centeringprayer. com/kingdom/kingdom03. htm. > Morrison, Michael. Parable of the Lost Son. 1992. Worldwide Church of God. 30 November 2005. http://www. wcg. org/lit/bible/gospels/lostson. htm. > “Prodigal Son” Wikipedia. 4 November 2005. http://en.wikipedia.org/Prodigal_Son . Show preview only The above	<urn:uuid:4b16414d-a311-4d3b-b15a-8923d910f05f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/literary-arts/poetry/parable-prodigal-son-41318/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00427.warc.gz	en	0.98135	963	3.40625	3	[ -0.35442855954170227, 0.46796298027038574, -0.1993742138147354, -0.200708270072937, -0.009054104797542095, -0.008669339120388031, 0.193699449300766, 0.0266379676759243, 0.02799203246831894, 0.06582453846931458, -0.002059923019260168, 0.1820165514945984, 0.15299227833747864, 0.2867315411567...	5	Legally, the son had given up his rights for further inheritance and therefore wasn’t really like a son. Morally, the son’s behavior was not up to the typical family standards of the time. His behavior would still be frowned upon today. The father twice says that his son was back from the dead. This raises the question, in what ways was he dead? There are two hypothetical responses to this question. The first refers to the famine that the son was exposed to. It is possible that the father had heard about the famine and assumed that, since he hadn’t heard from him in a long time, his youngest son had not survived the famine.Order now The second possibility talks about where the son left to go. The parable states that the son moved to a distant country. This country was most likely a Gentile country because many Jews lived in Gentile areas. In those days, it was not uncommon for Jews to perform funerals for their children that either moved to Gentile communities or that married Gentiles. It is possible that this is what he meant, however it is highly unlikely that he would disown his child and then open his arms to him as he did. Up until the conflict with the older son, the parable has many parallels to the other two stories in the trilogy. The older son is brought into the picture in order to introduce a further lesson. It has been said that the parable is more like two parables tied together the phrase, “was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found. ” In some ways, both sons on the parable are lost, one who left home and one still at home. The older son expresses anger towards his long lost brother, in contrast to the warm love the father expends. The son complains that he hasn’t even gotten a young goat, yet they killed the fatted calf for the other son. This complaint hints at long time resentment. The son shows disrespect towards his father, as well as his brother. In this way, he broke the fourth commandment and was just as sinful as his hated brother. He makes unfounded accusations that his brother had wasted the money on prostitutes when nowhere in the parable is there any evidence that he had. The father willingly forgives his son for this just as easily as he forgave his youngest son. He tells him that everything he has is also his sons, hinting that all of the inheritance would go to the eldest son. This hinting cannot be solidified because, once again, the details about the property are not specified because it is not relevant in Jesus’ lesson. The only important thing is that the father forgave both of his sons. Each of the characters in this parable can be compared to another person or group of people. The characters are just a way of teaching a lesson to each of the people they represent. In this parable, the father symbolizes God. It shows that God will rejoice and honor any and every sinner that repents. It also emphasizes that God doesn’t need to wait for a full apology. He recognizes the sentiment and considers that enough to forgive. Jesus also uses the parable to address those who criticized him for being around sinners by chiding them for not rejoicing that the sinners were interested in what he had to teach. The parable does not necessarily say we should seek out those sinners, but that we should be glad and open when they come to us to be taught. The parable of the Prodigal Son was just one of many parables that Jesus told to get his message out to the people. The themes from this particular parable are timeless. No matter what, God will always forgive us when we show only the slightest repentance and we should always forgive those who show repentance towards us. Bibliography > Author Unknown. Parable of the Lost Son. 09 December 2004. The Boston Christian Bible Study Resources. 30 November 2005. http://www. bcbsr. com/survey/pb134. html > Keating, Thomas. The Parable of the Prodigal Son. 2005. Contemplative Outreach Ltd. 30 November 2005. http://centeringprayer. com/kingdom/kingdom03. htm. > Morrison, Michael. Parable of the Lost Son. 1992. Worldwide Church of God. 30 November 2005. http://www. wcg. org/lit/bible/gospels/lostson. htm. > “Prodigal Son” Wikipedia. 4 November 2005. http://en.wikipedia.org/Prodigal_Son . Show preview only The above	982	ENGLISH	1
If you’re asked to think about women in war, your mind will probably be cast back to the infamous poster of ‘Rosie the Riveter’ – sleeves rolled up, hair tied back and ready to get really stuck in to helping the war effort by working the jobs men left behind. The poster has a rallying cry of ‘We Can Do It!‘ as Rosie flexes her muscles. The reality is, however, that this 1943 poster was scarcely seen during the war period and, in fact, only came to the public’s attention in the 1980s when it was rediscovered. It’s interesting, because the fate of such an iconic image of feminist culture arguably mimics the treatment of ’empowered’ women during the war: unseen, forgotten and lost at the very moment they were deemed to not be useful anymore. However, once given a taste of freedom and independence, women were unwilling to give up and go back to their designated stations and, despite there being positive steps forward in terms of their rights and freedoms, it was made clear that they still had a long way to go if they were to expect absolute equality. Prior to WWI, the small number of women who worked (the rest were devoted housewives and mothers) were limited to the domestic field, with roles including teaching and textiles. These professions were all considered menial and unimportant ‘women’s work’, with their lower rates of pay reflecting this. Most women were also expected to stop working once married, a stark contrast to the 40% of married women who were later employed as part of the war effort. This, however, all changed two years into WWI as men were conscripted to fight in the military, leaving a manpower crisis on the Home Front. Women, in turn, had to work to fill that gap, with them working in typically ‘male’ industries like engineering, transport, agriculture, and even law enforcement and the civil service. These women mobilised to work were often sent far away to do so. With no husbands, children or any other responsibilities, women were free to do as they wished with their wages and led fully independent life. A lot of the women came from middle-class families and were married off at a young age, meaning that they had never experienced manual work or the independence this lifestyle had to offer. They contributed widely not only to the Home Front but also to the munitions industry – by 1917, 80% of all weaponry used by the British Army was produced in munitions factories, who primarily employed women. The National Union of Women’s Suffrage even stopped campaigning during WWI and fully co-operated with the government to ensure women were able to contribute to the war effort. It is widely argued that the role of women in WWI contributed to our victory – as Germany’s inability to completely mobilise women in the same way that Britain did during this period is one of the most widely-cited reasons for their defeat. However, they didn’t get a lot of thanks for it. They were paid significantly less than men despite them doing the same job, and actively campaigned in an attempt to get the pay they deserved. A committee addressing this issue was made by the War Cabinet in 1917 as a result of this campaign, but they ultimately ruled that women couldn’t possibly do an equal amount of work to men because they had ‘lesser strength and special health problems’. Indeed, men were concerned that due to the fact women cost less, they would be kept on in the roles previously occupied by men after the war. They also argued the case for ‘dilution’, which is where unskilled women were taking on skilled employment, which led to men feeling threatened and undermined. As a result of these concerns, the ‘dilution agreement‘ was reached. As part of this agreement, women were only trained to a semi-skilled level and had to be supervised at all times. In addition to this, the majority of working women lost their jobs after WWI ended to make room for the men. A law was put in place – The Restoration of Pre-War Practices Act – which meant that returning soldiers could walk right back into their old job whilst women were meant to ‘restore’ their ‘pre-war’ position as a loving wife and mother. Within a few years of the end of WWI, 25% of all women were back in domestic service. Furthermore, a lot of women working in munition factories worked with hazardous chemicals without any adequate protection. In the years that followed, women who worked in these factories faced a vast range of health problems including spleen enlargement, anaemia, a weakened immune system, infertility and liver failure, which led to these women being dubbed the ‘canary girls’ due to the associated jaundice. They were often deformed as a result of working with these chemicals – with a common side effect being the enlargement of breasts and other regions. There were also reports of babies born to munition workers being severely deformed, but there was very little press coverage of this issue and very few attempts were made to resolve it, meaning that munition workers in WWII faced similar conditions. The good thing about women in war, however, is that it ignited in women a passion for a different way of life. In the decade following the end of WWI, women’s suffrage groups were campaigning harder than ever with significant results. 8.4 million women gained the right to vote in 1918, with the Representation of the People’s Act allowing suitably qualified women over thirty to vote. Later that same year, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act enabled women to be elected as members of Parliament – with a woman being subsequently elected as a MP in the 1918 General Election. Total suffrage equality was then granted with the passing of the extended Representation of the People’s Act in 1928, which extended women’s right to vote on the same terms men had had in the last decade. Ultimately, although institutional sexism wasn’t solved in its entirety during WWI, it did give women a taste of life above their designated ‘stations’ and, in turn, inspired them to fight for equality for the years to come.	<urn:uuid:b054e771-5ecf-4df4-829f-fecfee20d38b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wessexscene.co.uk/features/2019/12/21/war-peace-the-feminist-movement/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00052.warc.gz	en	0.991423	1,316	4.03125	4	[ -0.24036246538162231, 0.5678604245185852, 0.047246191650629044, 0.432810515165329, 0.36006078124046326, 0.5118809342384338, 0.01348317600786686, 0.33185967803001404, -0.10063651204109192, -0.35497307777404785, 0.10762082040309906, -0.10460732877254486, 0.04917008429765701, 0.23506447672843...	10	If you’re asked to think about women in war, your mind will probably be cast back to the infamous poster of ‘Rosie the Riveter’ – sleeves rolled up, hair tied back and ready to get really stuck in to helping the war effort by working the jobs men left behind. The poster has a rallying cry of ‘We Can Do It!‘ as Rosie flexes her muscles. The reality is, however, that this 1943 poster was scarcely seen during the war period and, in fact, only came to the public’s attention in the 1980s when it was rediscovered. It’s interesting, because the fate of such an iconic image of feminist culture arguably mimics the treatment of ’empowered’ women during the war: unseen, forgotten and lost at the very moment they were deemed to not be useful anymore. However, once given a taste of freedom and independence, women were unwilling to give up and go back to their designated stations and, despite there being positive steps forward in terms of their rights and freedoms, it was made clear that they still had a long way to go if they were to expect absolute equality. Prior to WWI, the small number of women who worked (the rest were devoted housewives and mothers) were limited to the domestic field, with roles including teaching and textiles. These professions were all considered menial and unimportant ‘women’s work’, with their lower rates of pay reflecting this. Most women were also expected to stop working once married, a stark contrast to the 40% of married women who were later employed as part of the war effort. This, however, all changed two years into WWI as men were conscripted to fight in the military, leaving a manpower crisis on the Home Front. Women, in turn, had to work to fill that gap, with them working in typically ‘male’ industries like engineering, transport, agriculture, and even law enforcement and the civil service. These women mobilised to work were often sent far away to do so. With no husbands, children or any other responsibilities, women were free to do as they wished with their wages and led fully independent life. A lot of the women came from middle-class families and were married off at a young age, meaning that they had never experienced manual work or the independence this lifestyle had to offer. They contributed widely not only to the Home Front but also to the munitions industry – by 1917, 80% of all weaponry used by the British Army was produced in munitions factories, who primarily employed women. The National Union of Women’s Suffrage even stopped campaigning during WWI and fully co-operated with the government to ensure women were able to contribute to the war effort. It is widely argued that the role of women in WWI contributed to our victory – as Germany’s inability to completely mobilise women in the same way that Britain did during this period is one of the most widely-cited reasons for their defeat. However, they didn’t get a lot of thanks for it. They were paid significantly less than men despite them doing the same job, and actively campaigned in an attempt to get the pay they deserved. A committee addressing this issue was made by the War Cabinet in 1917 as a result of this campaign, but they ultimately ruled that women couldn’t possibly do an equal amount of work to men because they had ‘lesser strength and special health problems’. Indeed, men were concerned that due to the fact women cost less, they would be kept on in the roles previously occupied by men after the war. They also argued the case for ‘dilution’, which is where unskilled women were taking on skilled employment, which led to men feeling threatened and undermined. As a result of these concerns, the ‘dilution agreement‘ was reached. As part of this agreement, women were only trained to a semi-skilled level and had to be supervised at all times. In addition to this, the majority of working women lost their jobs after WWI ended to make room for the men. A law was put in place – The Restoration of Pre-War Practices Act – which meant that returning soldiers could walk right back into their old job whilst women were meant to ‘restore’ their ‘pre-war’ position as a loving wife and mother. Within a few years of the end of WWI, 25% of all women were back in domestic service. Furthermore, a lot of women working in munition factories worked with hazardous chemicals without any adequate protection. In the years that followed, women who worked in these factories faced a vast range of health problems including spleen enlargement, anaemia, a weakened immune system, infertility and liver failure, which led to these women being dubbed the ‘canary girls’ due to the associated jaundice. They were often deformed as a result of working with these chemicals – with a common side effect being the enlargement of breasts and other regions. There were also reports of babies born to munition workers being severely deformed, but there was very little press coverage of this issue and very few attempts were made to resolve it, meaning that munition workers in WWII faced similar conditions. The good thing about women in war, however, is that it ignited in women a passion for a different way of life. In the decade following the end of WWI, women’s suffrage groups were campaigning harder than ever with significant results. 8.4 million women gained the right to vote in 1918, with the Representation of the People’s Act allowing suitably qualified women over thirty to vote. Later that same year, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act enabled women to be elected as members of Parliament – with a woman being subsequently elected as a MP in the 1918 General Election. Total suffrage equality was then granted with the passing of the extended Representation of the People’s Act in 1928, which extended women’s right to vote on the same terms men had had in the last decade. Ultimately, although institutional sexism wasn’t solved in its entirety during WWI, it did give women a taste of life above their designated ‘stations’ and, in turn, inspired them to fight for equality for the years to come.	1,277	ENGLISH	1
An Iron Age shield that was discovered in Yorkshire, England has been called “the most important British Celtic art object of the millennium”. The shield was found in a “warrior grave” that was unearthed in Pocklington last year at a housing development site called “The Mile”. The face of the 30-inch bronze shield (pictures can be seen here) contained swirling and asymmetrical patterns along with a central raised boss. In fact, the swirling pattern was quite common in early Celtic art and the “La Tène” culture that inhabited Europe from approximately 450-1 B.C. Additionally, it had a puncture hole that would have been made by a sword and there was evidence of repair work done to the shield. The fact that there was a puncture hole from a sword is very interesting, as that type of shield was previously thought to have been more of a ceremonial item than something used in battle. “The shield features a scalloped border. This previously unknown design feature is not comparable to any other Iron Age finds across Europe, adding to its valuable uniqueness,” explained Paula Ware from MAP Archaeological Practice. She went on to say, “The popular belief is that elaborate metal-faced shields were purely ceremonial, reflecting status, but not used in battle,” adding, “Our investigation challenges this with the evidence of a puncture wound in the shield typical of a sword. Signs of repairs can also be seen, suggesting the shield was not only old but likely to have been well-used.” There was one other similar shield uncovered from the Thames River in 1849 – called the Wandsworth shield – and is currently in the British Museum. In addition to the shield, other remains found in the grave include two humans, two horses, and sacrificial pigs. In fact, the two horses were positioned in such a way that they appeared as though they were leaping out of the grave, indicating a belief in the afterlife. There was also an upright chariot as well as other artifacts such as a brooch that was made from bronze and red glass. The shield was discovered lying face down underneath a man’s skeleton. The remains are believed to date back to around 320-174 B.C. The owner of the shield was a man who passed away after the age of 46 and was probably a much respected member of the community because there were six pigs that were buried beside him as sacrificial offerings. He was buried adjacent to a younger man who was injured before his death. As for what caused the older man’s death, it’s highly likely that he didn’t die in battle but from natural causes associated with old age. “We don’t know how the man died. There are some blunt force traumas but they wouldn’t have killed him,” said Ware. This Iron Age discovery is certainly a significant find. “The magnitude and preservation of the Pocklington chariot burial has no British parallel, providing a greater insight into the Iron Age epoch,” Ware noted.	<urn:uuid:11430b8c-da87-4904-9d34-6062aa98afdb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mysteriousuniverse.org/2019/12/iron-age-shield-has-been-described-as-the-most-important-find-of-the-millennium/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00165.warc.gz	en	0.98693	646	3.46875	3	[ -0.37077391147613525, 0.5810707211494446, 0.30022209882736206, 0.18201059103012085, -0.20756271481513977, -0.10481853038072586, 0.006604876834899187, 0.15902870893478394, -0.38525205850601196, -0.294120192527771, 0.0708596408367157, -0.7724261283874512, -0.07345888018608093, 0.395967066287...	11	An Iron Age shield that was discovered in Yorkshire, England has been called “the most important British Celtic art object of the millennium”. The shield was found in a “warrior grave” that was unearthed in Pocklington last year at a housing development site called “The Mile”. The face of the 30-inch bronze shield (pictures can be seen here) contained swirling and asymmetrical patterns along with a central raised boss. In fact, the swirling pattern was quite common in early Celtic art and the “La Tène” culture that inhabited Europe from approximately 450-1 B.C. Additionally, it had a puncture hole that would have been made by a sword and there was evidence of repair work done to the shield. The fact that there was a puncture hole from a sword is very interesting, as that type of shield was previously thought to have been more of a ceremonial item than something used in battle. “The shield features a scalloped border. This previously unknown design feature is not comparable to any other Iron Age finds across Europe, adding to its valuable uniqueness,” explained Paula Ware from MAP Archaeological Practice. She went on to say, “The popular belief is that elaborate metal-faced shields were purely ceremonial, reflecting status, but not used in battle,” adding, “Our investigation challenges this with the evidence of a puncture wound in the shield typical of a sword. Signs of repairs can also be seen, suggesting the shield was not only old but likely to have been well-used.” There was one other similar shield uncovered from the Thames River in 1849 – called the Wandsworth shield – and is currently in the British Museum. In addition to the shield, other remains found in the grave include two humans, two horses, and sacrificial pigs. In fact, the two horses were positioned in such a way that they appeared as though they were leaping out of the grave, indicating a belief in the afterlife. There was also an upright chariot as well as other artifacts such as a brooch that was made from bronze and red glass. The shield was discovered lying face down underneath a man’s skeleton. The remains are believed to date back to around 320-174 B.C. The owner of the shield was a man who passed away after the age of 46 and was probably a much respected member of the community because there were six pigs that were buried beside him as sacrificial offerings. He was buried adjacent to a younger man who was injured before his death. As for what caused the older man’s death, it’s highly likely that he didn’t die in battle but from natural causes associated with old age. “We don’t know how the man died. There are some blunt force traumas but they wouldn’t have killed him,” said Ware. This Iron Age discovery is certainly a significant find. “The magnitude and preservation of the Pocklington chariot burial has no British parallel, providing a greater insight into the Iron Age epoch,” Ware noted.	612	ENGLISH	1
Charles Martel had two sons, Pepin and Carloman. For a time they ruled together, but Carloman wished to lead a religious life, so he went to a monastery and became a monk. Then Pepin was sole ruler. Pepin was quite low in stature, and therefore was called Pepin the Short. But he had great strength and courage. A story is told of him, which shows how fearless he was. One day he went with a few of his nobles to a circus to see a fight between a lion and a bull. Soon after the fight began, it looked as though the bull was getting the worst of it. Pepin cried out to his companions: "Will one of you separate the beasts?" But there was no answer. None of them had the courage to make the attempt. Then Pepin jumped from his seat, rushed into the arena, and with a thrust of his sword killed the lion. In the early years of Pepin's rule as mayor of the palace the throne was occupied by a king named Childeric (Chil'-der-ic) III. Like his father and the other "do-nothing" kings, Childeric cared more for pleasures and amusements than for affairs of government. Pepin was the real ruler, and after a while he began to think that he ought to have the title of king, as he had all the power and did all the work of governing and defending the kingdom. So he sent some friends to Rome to consult the Pope. They said to His Holiness: "Holy father, who ought to be the king of France — the man who has the title, or the man who has the power and does all the duties of king?" "Certainly, " replied the Pope, "the man who has the power and does the duties." "Then, surely, " said they, "Pepin ought to be the king of the Franks; for he has all the power." The Pope gave his consent, and Pepin was crowned king of the Franks; and thus the reign of Childeric ended and that of Pepin began. During nearly his whole reign Pepin was engaged in war. Several times he went to Italy to defend the Pope against the Lombards . These people occupied certain parts of Italy , including the province still called Lombardy . Pepin conquered them and gave as a present to the Pope that part of their possessions which extended for some distance around Rome . This was called "Pepin's Donation." It was the beginning of what is known as the "temporal power" of the Popes, that is, their power as rulers of part of Italy . Pepin died in 768.	<urn:uuid:d7fa3b1d-06f4-45c6-8324-23f727a51d21>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/40/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00461.warc.gz	en	0.993645	559	3.28125	3	[ -0.2290765792131424, 0.7669409513473511, 0.08687140047550201, -0.21661633253097534, -0.4558413624763489, -0.39728569984436035, 0.5646312236785889, -0.0032231584191322327, 0.157662034034729, -0.34261053800582886, -0.43879368901252747, -0.2542983889579773, 0.4585409462451935, 0.1146758645772...	1	Charles Martel had two sons, Pepin and Carloman. For a time they ruled together, but Carloman wished to lead a religious life, so he went to a monastery and became a monk. Then Pepin was sole ruler. Pepin was quite low in stature, and therefore was called Pepin the Short. But he had great strength and courage. A story is told of him, which shows how fearless he was. One day he went with a few of his nobles to a circus to see a fight between a lion and a bull. Soon after the fight began, it looked as though the bull was getting the worst of it. Pepin cried out to his companions: "Will one of you separate the beasts?" But there was no answer. None of them had the courage to make the attempt. Then Pepin jumped from his seat, rushed into the arena, and with a thrust of his sword killed the lion. In the early years of Pepin's rule as mayor of the palace the throne was occupied by a king named Childeric (Chil'-der-ic) III. Like his father and the other "do-nothing" kings, Childeric cared more for pleasures and amusements than for affairs of government. Pepin was the real ruler, and after a while he began to think that he ought to have the title of king, as he had all the power and did all the work of governing and defending the kingdom. So he sent some friends to Rome to consult the Pope. They said to His Holiness: "Holy father, who ought to be the king of France — the man who has the title, or the man who has the power and does all the duties of king?" "Certainly, " replied the Pope, "the man who has the power and does the duties." "Then, surely, " said they, "Pepin ought to be the king of the Franks; for he has all the power." The Pope gave his consent, and Pepin was crowned king of the Franks; and thus the reign of Childeric ended and that of Pepin began. During nearly his whole reign Pepin was engaged in war. Several times he went to Italy to defend the Pope against the Lombards . These people occupied certain parts of Italy , including the province still called Lombardy . Pepin conquered them and gave as a present to the Pope that part of their possessions which extended for some distance around Rome . This was called "Pepin's Donation." It was the beginning of what is known as the "temporal power" of the Popes, that is, their power as rulers of part of Italy . Pepin died in 768.	554	ENGLISH	1
in Greek thought was not in literature for its own sake, but in the spirit it expressed. The mental freedom, the sense of the order and beauty of nature, which animated Greek expression, aroused men to think and observe in a similar untrammeled fashion. The history of science in the sixteenth century shows that the dawning sciences of physical nature largely borrowed their points of departure from the new interest in Greek literature. As Windelband has said, the new science of nature was the daughter of humanism. The favorite notion of the time was that man was in microcosm that which the universe was in macrocosm. This fact raises anew the question of how it was that nature and man were later separated and a sharp division made between language and literature and the physical sciences. Four reasons may be suggested. (a) The old tradition was firmly intrenched in institutions. Politics, law, and diplomacy remained of necessity branches of authoritative literature, for the social sciences did not develop until the methods of the sciences of physics and chemistry, to say nothing of biology, were much further advanced. The same is largely true of history. Moreover, the methods used for effective teaching of the languages were well developed; the inertia of academic custom was on their side. Just as the new interest in literature, especially Greek, had not been allowed at first to find lodgment in the scholastically organized universities, so when it found its way into them it joined hands with the older learning to minimize the influence of experimental science. The men who taught were rarely trained in science; the men who were scientifically competent worked in private laboratories and through the medium of academies which promoted research, but which were not organized as teaching bodies. Finally, the aristocratic tradition which looked down upon material things and upon the senses and the hands was still mighty. (b) The protestant revolt brought with it an immense increase of interest in theological discussion and controversies.	<urn:uuid:bdea8c91-a6d9-46b3-bfcc-fb469149c0a5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Democracy_and_Education.djvu/348	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00266.warc.gz	en	0.984436	392	3.40625	3	[ 0.07640265673398972, 0.5614222288131714, 0.33705729246139526, -0.34199321269989014, -0.11763766407966614, -0.28050488233566284, -0.08799207210540771, 0.5727498531341553, -0.09430087357759476, 0.1123126745223999, -0.11328109353780746, -0.22280897200107574, -0.08911313116550446, 0.3782307505...	1	in Greek thought was not in literature for its own sake, but in the spirit it expressed. The mental freedom, the sense of the order and beauty of nature, which animated Greek expression, aroused men to think and observe in a similar untrammeled fashion. The history of science in the sixteenth century shows that the dawning sciences of physical nature largely borrowed their points of departure from the new interest in Greek literature. As Windelband has said, the new science of nature was the daughter of humanism. The favorite notion of the time was that man was in microcosm that which the universe was in macrocosm. This fact raises anew the question of how it was that nature and man were later separated and a sharp division made between language and literature and the physical sciences. Four reasons may be suggested. (a) The old tradition was firmly intrenched in institutions. Politics, law, and diplomacy remained of necessity branches of authoritative literature, for the social sciences did not develop until the methods of the sciences of physics and chemistry, to say nothing of biology, were much further advanced. The same is largely true of history. Moreover, the methods used for effective teaching of the languages were well developed; the inertia of academic custom was on their side. Just as the new interest in literature, especially Greek, had not been allowed at first to find lodgment in the scholastically organized universities, so when it found its way into them it joined hands with the older learning to minimize the influence of experimental science. The men who taught were rarely trained in science; the men who were scientifically competent worked in private laboratories and through the medium of academies which promoted research, but which were not organized as teaching bodies. Finally, the aristocratic tradition which looked down upon material things and upon the senses and the hands was still mighty. (b) The protestant revolt brought with it an immense increase of interest in theological discussion and controversies.	389	ENGLISH	1
FACTS \| December 30, 2019: Here are the facts you need to know about U Kiang Nangbah. #1. U Kiang Nangbah was a freedom fighter from Meghalaya who led an uprising against the British. #2. U Kiang Nangbah was born to Ka Rimai Nangbah at Tpeppale in Jowai. When the British annexed the Jaintia Kingdom in the year 1835, it is said that he was a child which is why the exact date of birth is not known. #3. The brave U Kiang Nangbah led an uprising against the British and was hanged by the British publicly at Iawmusiang in Jowai, West Jaintia Hills district on 30 December 1862. #4. In the year 1967, a government college was also opened in Jowai to honour this brave warrior. #5. A postage stamp was issued by Government of India to commemorate him in 2001.	<urn:uuid:f93c4b92-5478-4632-8689-66f1df905e95>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shillongnews.in/5-facts-about-meghalaya-freedom-fighter-u-kiang-nangbah-you-should-know/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00049.warc.gz	en	0.983301	207	3.40625	3	[ -0.2867356240749359, 0.48117566108703613, 0.13905611634254456, -0.24791160225868225, 0.06325086206197739, 0.44745397567749023, 0.6168985366821289, 0.15724746882915497, 0.02774191088974476, 0.24628905951976776, 0.03667844459414482, -0.6845590472221375, -0.13324910402297974, 0.15359686315059...	5	FACTS \| December 30, 2019: Here are the facts you need to know about U Kiang Nangbah. #1. U Kiang Nangbah was a freedom fighter from Meghalaya who led an uprising against the British. #2. U Kiang Nangbah was born to Ka Rimai Nangbah at Tpeppale in Jowai. When the British annexed the Jaintia Kingdom in the year 1835, it is said that he was a child which is why the exact date of birth is not known. #3. The brave U Kiang Nangbah led an uprising against the British and was hanged by the British publicly at Iawmusiang in Jowai, West Jaintia Hills district on 30 December 1862. #4. In the year 1967, a government college was also opened in Jowai to honour this brave warrior. #5. A postage stamp was issued by Government of India to commemorate him in 2001.	224	ENGLISH	1
Disappearances in Syria: the facts What is a disappearance? An ‘enforced disappearance’ is when a person is arrested, detained or abducted by the authorities, or by people acting with their authorization, support, or acquiescence. Those responsible then deny that the person is being held, or conceal their fate or whereabouts. What is happening in Syria? Thousands of suspected opponents of the government have been arbitrarily arrested and detained; many appear to have been subjected to enforced disappearance. Some remain missing – their fate or whereabouts unknown to their families, who are often in anguish and despair. Others who were subjected to enforced disappearance but eventually released after languishing for months in secret detention have told Amnesty International about the torture and other ill-treatment they endured. When did disappearances start in Syria? Enforced disappearances were a major human rights concern during the rule of Hafez al-Assad, who was president of Syria from 1971 until his death in 2000. The number of people subjected to enforced disappearance has sharply risen since the beginning of the crisis in March 2011. How many people has this affected? Local organizations report that thousands of civilians have been killed in the custody of Syrian security forces, and tens of thousands have been subjected to enforced disappearances since 2011. How are people treated in detention? Conditions in unofficial detention centres in particular have been described as catastrophic. Large numbers of people are held in very small spaces. There is not enough food or water – one detainee told us that others in his cell were so desperate for water that they drank from the toilet. Unsanitary conditions and a lack of medical care cause serious disease. Torture and other ill-treatment is rife: for example, people have reported being beaten with various objects as well as being placed in stress positions and then beaten, especially during interrogation. What are families told? The families of those who have been taken are often denied any information about their whereabouts or the reasons for their arrest or abduction. Some families have spent years without knowing where their loved ones are, or whether they are still alive.	<urn:uuid:bfc3035c-4d58-43f4-adcc-74939cb4e81b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2015/11/syria-disappearances-factfile/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00511.warc.gz	en	0.983108	426	3.296875	3	[ 0.3983745872974396, 0.10152546316385269, 0.21405662596225739, -0.21838504076004028, 0.39920324087142944, 0.0808338075876236, 0.5685009360313416, 0.14594116806983948, 0.1825338453054428, -0.06586723029613495, 0.30829763412475586, 0.2043125331401825, 0.31268954277038574, 0.14801006019115448,...	5	Disappearances in Syria: the facts What is a disappearance? An ‘enforced disappearance’ is when a person is arrested, detained or abducted by the authorities, or by people acting with their authorization, support, or acquiescence. Those responsible then deny that the person is being held, or conceal their fate or whereabouts. What is happening in Syria? Thousands of suspected opponents of the government have been arbitrarily arrested and detained; many appear to have been subjected to enforced disappearance. Some remain missing – their fate or whereabouts unknown to their families, who are often in anguish and despair. Others who were subjected to enforced disappearance but eventually released after languishing for months in secret detention have told Amnesty International about the torture and other ill-treatment they endured. When did disappearances start in Syria? Enforced disappearances were a major human rights concern during the rule of Hafez al-Assad, who was president of Syria from 1971 until his death in 2000. The number of people subjected to enforced disappearance has sharply risen since the beginning of the crisis in March 2011. How many people has this affected? Local organizations report that thousands of civilians have been killed in the custody of Syrian security forces, and tens of thousands have been subjected to enforced disappearances since 2011. How are people treated in detention? Conditions in unofficial detention centres in particular have been described as catastrophic. Large numbers of people are held in very small spaces. There is not enough food or water – one detainee told us that others in his cell were so desperate for water that they drank from the toilet. Unsanitary conditions and a lack of medical care cause serious disease. Torture and other ill-treatment is rife: for example, people have reported being beaten with various objects as well as being placed in stress positions and then beaten, especially during interrogation. What are families told? The families of those who have been taken are often denied any information about their whereabouts or the reasons for their arrest or abduction. Some families have spent years without knowing where their loved ones are, or whether they are still alive.	430	ENGLISH	1
As a 1st grader, the idea of home work can sound fun until you have been at school all day then go home and start doing homework. This can be especially difficult if the weather is nice or there is snow and you want to go and play with your friends. The problem is that if you do go out straight away, you know that you have homework hanging over you so you don’t have as much fun as you would do if you had already tackled that geometry task. The best way to tackle the problem is to have a plan. The plan is simple and if you do the work straight away it will take less time than if you leave it until later. If you still feel a little down about completing the work then remember why it needs to be done. After you have had a snack, choose where you feel comfortable to do your work. Sitting in front of the TV is not a good idea as it can be too distracting. If you get stuck then ask for some help. You parents may be able to help, but if they can’t then tell your teacher as soon as you get chance first thing in the morning. You may have an older brother or sister who may have had the some work to complete a year or two ago. As you are a 1st grader you may only have about ten minutes of Geometry to do, and some of it may be a practical task, such as finding shapes or objects with angles. You may even find that you enjoy the task so much that you want to do more. If you make it your rule that you will always do your homework as soon as you get home, then that will be a good routine to get into as you will get more homework as you progress through grade school.	<urn:uuid:31559a45-99a4-45a0-bf84-1d814108cd6a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://minimal-english.com/new-strategy-for-1st-grade-geometry-homework	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00129.warc.gz	en	0.984161	366	3.40625	3	[ -0.15220972895622253, -0.2649632394313812, 0.40507879853248596, -0.49348461627960205, -0.7595683336257935, -0.06610163301229477, -0.05112967640161514, 0.20294544100761414, 0.10757958143949509, -0.13840845227241516, -0.027707478031516075, 0.3482872247695923, 0.1760813295841217, 0.6178765296...	1	As a 1st grader, the idea of home work can sound fun until you have been at school all day then go home and start doing homework. This can be especially difficult if the weather is nice or there is snow and you want to go and play with your friends. The problem is that if you do go out straight away, you know that you have homework hanging over you so you don’t have as much fun as you would do if you had already tackled that geometry task. The best way to tackle the problem is to have a plan. The plan is simple and if you do the work straight away it will take less time than if you leave it until later. If you still feel a little down about completing the work then remember why it needs to be done. After you have had a snack, choose where you feel comfortable to do your work. Sitting in front of the TV is not a good idea as it can be too distracting. If you get stuck then ask for some help. You parents may be able to help, but if they can’t then tell your teacher as soon as you get chance first thing in the morning. You may have an older brother or sister who may have had the some work to complete a year or two ago. As you are a 1st grader you may only have about ten minutes of Geometry to do, and some of it may be a practical task, such as finding shapes or objects with angles. You may even find that you enjoy the task so much that you want to do more. If you make it your rule that you will always do your homework as soon as you get home, then that will be a good routine to get into as you will get more homework as you progress through grade school.	355	ENGLISH	1
Guggenheim is a true reflection of the avant-garde art that took over in the 20th century. Here, we’re exploring some of the more fascinating bits of this iconic woman’s life and her important contributions to art. Guggenheim’s father died on the Titanic. Born to a well-to-do family in New York on August 26, 1898, Guggenheim’s family had fortunes connected to mining and smelting. She lived like American royalty but, with a neglectful mother and absent father. Guggenheim and her sister were often left to their own devices. Still, she had a certain affinity for her father and when he died on the Titanic, she suffered a nervous breakdown. Guggenheim shaved off her eyebrows in high school. Due to some failed business transactions, Guggenheim’s immediate family lost much of their wealth and even though they were still very well off, they felt jilted by the rest of the Guggenheims. Eventually, she’d come to reject her bourgeois upbringing and considered herself the “black sheep” of the family. Guggenheim shaved off her eyebrows in an act of rebellion, as she always loved to put people in a state of shock. Strangely enough, it became a trend among her peers. If you’re unsure of whether or not Guggenheim was avant-garde with a rebel heart, perhaps her eyebrow-less look will convince you. Let’s just say, her inclination toward the outcasts and misfits started young. In 1920, Guggenheim worked in one of the first woman-owned bookstores in the U.S. Sunwise Turn was an avant-garde bookstore in midtown Manhattan, owned by Mary Horgan Mowbray-Clarke and Madge Jenison. Mowbray-Clarke was the wife to a sculptor and Jenison was an acclaimed author and activist, so the bookstore would often hold small art exhibitions for emerging artists. At the time, Guggenheim was 21 and living off an inheritance. Instead of being compensated for her work at the store with money, she collected experimental paintings from the exhibitions. She gave money and meals to poor artists and writers. Marcel Duchamp was a close friend and mentor to Guggenheim. Toward the end of 1920, Guggenheim decided to move to Paris, interested in exploring Classical and Renaissance art. There, she met countless avant-garde writers and notably formed a close friendship with Duchamp. Duchamp was part of a Dadaist movement that was sweeping the art world at the time. Guggenheim would later say that Duchamp “taught me everything I know about modern art.” The first piece Guggenheim bought was Jean Arp’s Head and Shell. After 15 years of tumultuous marriages, divorces, and romantic relationships gone awry, Guggenheim wanted something new and considered opening a publishing company or art gallery. After receiving an inheritance from her mother’s death in 1937, she was able to open the art gallery Guggenheim Jeune in London in 1938. She started buying one piece from every exhibition, marking the beginnings of her private collection. The first piece she bought was Head and Shell by Jean Arp stating that “the instant I felt it, I wanted to own it.” Guggenheim smuggled art out of Europe during World War II. Guggenheim Jeune was considered a success by critics, but the gallery lost money during the first year. She decided it’d be better to open a modern art museum with the help of art historian Herbert Read and advisor Howard Putzel instead, closing Guggenheim Jeune in 1939. However, World War II broke out on September 1, 1939, and let’s just say that the Nazi regime wasn’t a fan of the bohemian lifestyle that Guggenheim was promoting with her art collection. Read made her a list of all the artwork she should present at her new museum’s first exhibition and she traveled to Paris, collecting them all with her own money. Many artists were desperate to flee France and sold her their work without much hassle. She was buying one piece per day at the time and acquired work from Klee, Man Ray, Dali, Picasso, Ernst, and others. However, it then became pertinent to protect her growing collection from the Germans when Paris was invaded in 1940. Guggenheim shipped her collection to the United States disguised as household items, packing them with sheets and casserole dishes. The plan worked and she made her way to New York herself in 1941 to reunite with the art. Guggenheim gave Mark Rothko, Jackson Pollock, Hans Hoffman, and many others their first shows. In 1942, Guggenheim opened her Art of This Century Gallery. The gallery devoted much of its exhibitions to surrealism, cubism, and abstract art. It was one of the first galleries in New York City to integrate American and European art. As many artists from Europe were fleeing the war and ending up in the U.S. She continued working with Putzel and discovered a newfound love of American artists. She provided Jackson Pollock with a monthly stipend and held one of the first art exhibitions devoted to women called Exhibition by 31 Women in 1942. In 1946, Guggenheim wrote an autobiography that enraged her family and was ill-received by critics. In the aftermath, she closed her gallery in 1947 and moved to Venice to get away from it all. She lived there for the rest of her life, continuing to show her collection and support the artists she loved. Guggenheim was not an artist, but made her mark on the art world as a collector. Saving priceless works from the Nazis and setting trends with every move she made. Guggenheim helped put modern art and female talent on the world’s stage.	<urn:uuid:32c266e9-122a-4c69-a1c9-e68f1765d75f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thecollector.com/peggy-guggenheim-fascinating-facts-about-the-fascinating-woman/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00398.warc.gz	en	0.980457	1,278	3.28125	3	[ 0.15448693931102753, 0.12916028499603271, 0.1400292068719864, -0.0920347198843956, -0.2169022262096405, -0.023877758532762527, 0.16349215805530548, 0.28695935010910034, -0.18771344423294067, -0.6404916644096375, 0.651795506477356, 0.06754100322723389, -0.10122332721948624, 0.15016826987266...	3	Guggenheim is a true reflection of the avant-garde art that took over in the 20th century. Here, we’re exploring some of the more fascinating bits of this iconic woman’s life and her important contributions to art. Guggenheim’s father died on the Titanic. Born to a well-to-do family in New York on August 26, 1898, Guggenheim’s family had fortunes connected to mining and smelting. She lived like American royalty but, with a neglectful mother and absent father. Guggenheim and her sister were often left to their own devices. Still, she had a certain affinity for her father and when he died on the Titanic, she suffered a nervous breakdown. Guggenheim shaved off her eyebrows in high school. Due to some failed business transactions, Guggenheim’s immediate family lost much of their wealth and even though they were still very well off, they felt jilted by the rest of the Guggenheims. Eventually, she’d come to reject her bourgeois upbringing and considered herself the “black sheep” of the family. Guggenheim shaved off her eyebrows in an act of rebellion, as she always loved to put people in a state of shock. Strangely enough, it became a trend among her peers. If you’re unsure of whether or not Guggenheim was avant-garde with a rebel heart, perhaps her eyebrow-less look will convince you. Let’s just say, her inclination toward the outcasts and misfits started young. In 1920, Guggenheim worked in one of the first woman-owned bookstores in the U.S. Sunwise Turn was an avant-garde bookstore in midtown Manhattan, owned by Mary Horgan Mowbray-Clarke and Madge Jenison. Mowbray-Clarke was the wife to a sculptor and Jenison was an acclaimed author and activist, so the bookstore would often hold small art exhibitions for emerging artists. At the time, Guggenheim was 21 and living off an inheritance. Instead of being compensated for her work at the store with money, she collected experimental paintings from the exhibitions. She gave money and meals to poor artists and writers. Marcel Duchamp was a close friend and mentor to Guggenheim. Toward the end of 1920, Guggenheim decided to move to Paris, interested in exploring Classical and Renaissance art. There, she met countless avant-garde writers and notably formed a close friendship with Duchamp. Duchamp was part of a Dadaist movement that was sweeping the art world at the time. Guggenheim would later say that Duchamp “taught me everything I know about modern art.” The first piece Guggenheim bought was Jean Arp’s Head and Shell. After 15 years of tumultuous marriages, divorces, and romantic relationships gone awry, Guggenheim wanted something new and considered opening a publishing company or art gallery. After receiving an inheritance from her mother’s death in 1937, she was able to open the art gallery Guggenheim Jeune in London in 1938. She started buying one piece from every exhibition, marking the beginnings of her private collection. The first piece she bought was Head and Shell by Jean Arp stating that “the instant I felt it, I wanted to own it.” Guggenheim smuggled art out of Europe during World War II. Guggenheim Jeune was considered a success by critics, but the gallery lost money during the first year. She decided it’d be better to open a modern art museum with the help of art historian Herbert Read and advisor Howard Putzel instead, closing Guggenheim Jeune in 1939. However, World War II broke out on September 1, 1939, and let’s just say that the Nazi regime wasn’t a fan of the bohemian lifestyle that Guggenheim was promoting with her art collection. Read made her a list of all the artwork she should present at her new museum’s first exhibition and she traveled to Paris, collecting them all with her own money. Many artists were desperate to flee France and sold her their work without much hassle. She was buying one piece per day at the time and acquired work from Klee, Man Ray, Dali, Picasso, Ernst, and others. However, it then became pertinent to protect her growing collection from the Germans when Paris was invaded in 1940. Guggenheim shipped her collection to the United States disguised as household items, packing them with sheets and casserole dishes. The plan worked and she made her way to New York herself in 1941 to reunite with the art. Guggenheim gave Mark Rothko, Jackson Pollock, Hans Hoffman, and many others their first shows. In 1942, Guggenheim opened her Art of This Century Gallery. The gallery devoted much of its exhibitions to surrealism, cubism, and abstract art. It was one of the first galleries in New York City to integrate American and European art. As many artists from Europe were fleeing the war and ending up in the U.S. She continued working with Putzel and discovered a newfound love of American artists. She provided Jackson Pollock with a monthly stipend and held one of the first art exhibitions devoted to women called Exhibition by 31 Women in 1942. In 1946, Guggenheim wrote an autobiography that enraged her family and was ill-received by critics. In the aftermath, she closed her gallery in 1947 and moved to Venice to get away from it all. She lived there for the rest of her life, continuing to show her collection and support the artists she loved. Guggenheim was not an artist, but made her mark on the art world as a collector. Saving priceless works from the Nazis and setting trends with every move she made. Guggenheim helped put modern art and female talent on the world’s stage.	1,236	ENGLISH	1
Government Pg 2 Without laws there would be chaos and mayhem. Laws are based on morals passed down through the ages through Judeo-Christian history. The dignity of human life, common decency, and the support of traditional family values have been the backbone to society and are crucial to society. It has been witnessed and experienced that the break down of the family is the break down of society. Government laws and the judicial system must uphold the underlining values. Today, in the Twenty First Century, these very values are under attack. Butler in 1851, portrait by George Richmond Josephine Elizabeth Butler (née Grey; 13 April 1828 – 30 December 1906) was an English feminist and social reformer in the Victorian era. She campaigned for women's suffrage, the right of women to better education, the end of coverture in British law, the abolition of child prostitution, and an end to human trafficking of young women and children into European prostitution. Grey grew up in a well-to-do and politically connected progressive family which helped develop in her a strong social conscience and firmly held religious ideals. She married George Butler, an Anglican divine and schoolmaster, and the couple had four children, the last of whom, Eva, died falling from a banister. The death was a turning point for Butler, and she focused her feelings on helping others, starting with the inhabitants of a local workhouse. Campaign for the protection of children from abuse Passionate Christian Josephine Butler campaigned for the age of consent to be set and was a key figure in other social reforms such as the abolition of child prostitution, and an end to human trafficking of young women and children into European prostitution. Anthony Ashley Cooper Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury KG (28 April 1801 – 1 October 1885) The 7th Earl of Shaftsbury was inspired by his faith to do many things. He became a Tory MP (Member of Parliament) in 1826, and almost immediately became a leader of the movement for factory reform. He was responsible for promoting a plethora of reform causes, including the Factory Acts of 1847 and 1853, the Ten Hour Bill, as well as the Mines and Collieries Act 1842 and the Lunacy Act 1845. One of his chief interests was the welfare of children, and he was chairman of the Ragged Schools Union and a keen supporter of Florence Nightingale. He was also involved as patron and president in the field of model dwellings companies, which sought to improve the housing of working classes in England. Richard Oastler (20 December 1789 – 22 August 1861) "the Factory King" The protection of young people and children who had been laboring in factories became the passion of Richard Oastler. He became a strong advocate for reduced hours on child labor. The Factory Act came into being in 1847. Elizabeth Fry (née Gurney; 21 May 1780 – 12 October 1845), often referred to as Betsy Fry, was an English prison reformer, social reformer and, as a Quaker, a Christian philanthropist. She has often been referred to as the "angel of prisons". Fry was a major driving force behind new legislation to make the treatment of prisoners more humane, and she was supported in her efforts by Queen Victoria. She was depicted on the Bank of England £5 note from 2001–2016. Fry kept extensive and revealing diaries. Prompted by a family friend, Stephen Grellet, Fry visited Newgate Prison in 1813. The conditions she saw there horrified her. The women's section was overcrowded with women and children, some of whom had not even received a trial. The prisoners did their own cooking and washing in the small cells in which they slept on straw. She returned the following day with food and clothes for some prisoners. Fry returned in 1816 and was eventually able to fund a prison school for the children who were imprisoned with their mothers. Rather than attempt to impose discipline on the women, she suggested rules and then asked the prisoners to vote on them. In 1817 she helped found the Association for the Reformation of the Female Prisoners in Newgate. This association provided materials for women so that they could learn to sew patchwork which was calming and also allowed skills to develop, such as needlework and knitting which could offer employment when they were out of prison and then could earn money for themselves. This approach was copied elsewhere and led to the eventual creation of the British Ladies' Society for Promoting the Reformation of Female Prisoners in 1821. She also promoted the idea of rehabilitation instead of harsh punishment which was taken on by the city authorities in London as well as many other authorities and prisons. One admirer was Queen Victoria, who granted her an audience a few times before she was Queen and contributed money to her cause after she ascended to the throne.Another admirer was Robert Peel who passed several acts to further her cause including the Gaols Act 1823. The act was largely ineffective, because there were no inspectors to make sure that it was being followed. At the age of 18, young Elizabeth was deeply moved by the preaching of William Savery, an American Quaker. Motivated by his words, she took an interest in the poor, the sick, and the prisoners. She collected old clothes for the poor, visited those who were sick in her neighborhood, and started a Sunday school in the summer house to teach children to read. Fry was a major driving force behind new legislation to make the treatment of prisoners more humane, and she was supported in her efforts by the reigning monarch. Since 2001, she has been depicted on the Bank of England £5 note. Slavery Abolition Act 1833 William Wilberforce (24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833) was an English politician known as a leader of the movement to stop the slave trade. Wilberforce was a Member of Parliament and in office, 31 October 1780 – February 1825. He was a devout Christian and was convinced of the importance of religion, morality and education. He championed causes and campaigns such as the Society for the Suppression of Vice, British missionary work in India, the creation of a free colony in Sierra Leone, the foundation of the Church Mission Society, and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. His underlying conservatism led him to support politically and socially controversial legislation, and resulted in criticism that he was ignoring injustices at home while campaigning for the enslaved abroad. Lewis Wallace (April 10, 1827 – February 15, 1905) was an American lawyer, Union general in the American Civil War, governor of the New Mexico Territory, politician, diplomat, and author from Indiana. Among his novels and biographies, Wallace is best known for his historical adventure story, Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ (1880), a bestselling novel that has been called "the most influential Christian book of the nineteenth century." Wallace's military career included service in the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War. He was appointed Indiana's adjutant general and commanded the 11th Indiana Infantry Regiment. Wallace, who attained the rank of major general, participated in the Battle of Fort Donelson, the Battle of Shiloh, and the Battle of Monocacy. He also served on the military commission for the trials of the Lincoln assassination conspirators, and presided over the trial of Henry Wirz, the Confederate commandant of the Andersonville prison camp. Wallace resigned from the U.S. Army in November 1865 and briefly served as a major general in the Mexican army, before returning to the United States. Wallace was appointed governor of the New Mexico Territory (1878–81) and served as U.S. minister to the Ottoman Empire (1881–85). Wallace retired to his home in Crawfordsville, Indiana, where he continued to write until his death in 1905. John Wanamaker (July 11, 1838 – December 12, 1922) was an American merchant and religious, civic and political figure, considered by some to be a proponent of advertising and a "pioneer in marketing". He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and served as U.S. Postmaster General. He built the World's first Department Store. In 1889 Wanamaker began the First Penny Savings Bank in order to encourage thrift. That same year he was appointed United States Postmaster General by President Benjamin Harrison. Wanamaker was credited by his friends with introducing the first commemorative stamp and many efficiencies to the Postal Service. He was the first to make plans for free rural postal service in the United States, although the plan was not implemented until 1896.	<urn:uuid:c0de7e2c-0abd-49fd-872d-dd61af81526d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.debunkingatheism.com/government-pg-3-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00346.warc.gz	en	0.982102	1,810	3.328125	3	[ -0.14668402075767517, -0.04181334376335144, 0.13712719082832336, -0.5003184080123901, -0.2254352569580078, 0.4303802251815796, -0.07958786189556122, -0.2061595618724823, -0.1627899706363678, 0.343036949634552, 0.03655831515789032, -0.23417964577674866, 0.37533414363861084, 0.03045372292399...	5	Government Pg 2 Without laws there would be chaos and mayhem. Laws are based on morals passed down through the ages through Judeo-Christian history. The dignity of human life, common decency, and the support of traditional family values have been the backbone to society and are crucial to society. It has been witnessed and experienced that the break down of the family is the break down of society. Government laws and the judicial system must uphold the underlining values. Today, in the Twenty First Century, these very values are under attack. Butler in 1851, portrait by George Richmond Josephine Elizabeth Butler (née Grey; 13 April 1828 – 30 December 1906) was an English feminist and social reformer in the Victorian era. She campaigned for women's suffrage, the right of women to better education, the end of coverture in British law, the abolition of child prostitution, and an end to human trafficking of young women and children into European prostitution. Grey grew up in a well-to-do and politically connected progressive family which helped develop in her a strong social conscience and firmly held religious ideals. She married George Butler, an Anglican divine and schoolmaster, and the couple had four children, the last of whom, Eva, died falling from a banister. The death was a turning point for Butler, and she focused her feelings on helping others, starting with the inhabitants of a local workhouse. Campaign for the protection of children from abuse Passionate Christian Josephine Butler campaigned for the age of consent to be set and was a key figure in other social reforms such as the abolition of child prostitution, and an end to human trafficking of young women and children into European prostitution. Anthony Ashley Cooper Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury KG (28 April 1801 – 1 October 1885) The 7th Earl of Shaftsbury was inspired by his faith to do many things. He became a Tory MP (Member of Parliament) in 1826, and almost immediately became a leader of the movement for factory reform. He was responsible for promoting a plethora of reform causes, including the Factory Acts of 1847 and 1853, the Ten Hour Bill, as well as the Mines and Collieries Act 1842 and the Lunacy Act 1845. One of his chief interests was the welfare of children, and he was chairman of the Ragged Schools Union and a keen supporter of Florence Nightingale. He was also involved as patron and president in the field of model dwellings companies, which sought to improve the housing of working classes in England. Richard Oastler (20 December 1789 – 22 August 1861) "the Factory King" The protection of young people and children who had been laboring in factories became the passion of Richard Oastler. He became a strong advocate for reduced hours on child labor. The Factory Act came into being in 1847. Elizabeth Fry (née Gurney; 21 May 1780 – 12 October 1845), often referred to as Betsy Fry, was an English prison reformer, social reformer and, as a Quaker, a Christian philanthropist. She has often been referred to as the "angel of prisons". Fry was a major driving force behind new legislation to make the treatment of prisoners more humane, and she was supported in her efforts by Queen Victoria. She was depicted on the Bank of England £5 note from 2001–2016. Fry kept extensive and revealing diaries. Prompted by a family friend, Stephen Grellet, Fry visited Newgate Prison in 1813. The conditions she saw there horrified her. The women's section was overcrowded with women and children, some of whom had not even received a trial. The prisoners did their own cooking and washing in the small cells in which they slept on straw. She returned the following day with food and clothes for some prisoners. Fry returned in 1816 and was eventually able to fund a prison school for the children who were imprisoned with their mothers. Rather than attempt to impose discipline on the women, she suggested rules and then asked the prisoners to vote on them. In 1817 she helped found the Association for the Reformation of the Female Prisoners in Newgate. This association provided materials for women so that they could learn to sew patchwork which was calming and also allowed skills to develop, such as needlework and knitting which could offer employment when they were out of prison and then could earn money for themselves. This approach was copied elsewhere and led to the eventual creation of the British Ladies' Society for Promoting the Reformation of Female Prisoners in 1821. She also promoted the idea of rehabilitation instead of harsh punishment which was taken on by the city authorities in London as well as many other authorities and prisons. One admirer was Queen Victoria, who granted her an audience a few times before she was Queen and contributed money to her cause after she ascended to the throne.Another admirer was Robert Peel who passed several acts to further her cause including the Gaols Act 1823. The act was largely ineffective, because there were no inspectors to make sure that it was being followed. At the age of 18, young Elizabeth was deeply moved by the preaching of William Savery, an American Quaker. Motivated by his words, she took an interest in the poor, the sick, and the prisoners. She collected old clothes for the poor, visited those who were sick in her neighborhood, and started a Sunday school in the summer house to teach children to read. Fry was a major driving force behind new legislation to make the treatment of prisoners more humane, and she was supported in her efforts by the reigning monarch. Since 2001, she has been depicted on the Bank of England £5 note. Slavery Abolition Act 1833 William Wilberforce (24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833) was an English politician known as a leader of the movement to stop the slave trade. Wilberforce was a Member of Parliament and in office, 31 October 1780 – February 1825. He was a devout Christian and was convinced of the importance of religion, morality and education. He championed causes and campaigns such as the Society for the Suppression of Vice, British missionary work in India, the creation of a free colony in Sierra Leone, the foundation of the Church Mission Society, and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. His underlying conservatism led him to support politically and socially controversial legislation, and resulted in criticism that he was ignoring injustices at home while campaigning for the enslaved abroad. Lewis Wallace (April 10, 1827 – February 15, 1905) was an American lawyer, Union general in the American Civil War, governor of the New Mexico Territory, politician, diplomat, and author from Indiana. Among his novels and biographies, Wallace is best known for his historical adventure story, Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ (1880), a bestselling novel that has been called "the most influential Christian book of the nineteenth century." Wallace's military career included service in the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War. He was appointed Indiana's adjutant general and commanded the 11th Indiana Infantry Regiment. Wallace, who attained the rank of major general, participated in the Battle of Fort Donelson, the Battle of Shiloh, and the Battle of Monocacy. He also served on the military commission for the trials of the Lincoln assassination conspirators, and presided over the trial of Henry Wirz, the Confederate commandant of the Andersonville prison camp. Wallace resigned from the U.S. Army in November 1865 and briefly served as a major general in the Mexican army, before returning to the United States. Wallace was appointed governor of the New Mexico Territory (1878–81) and served as U.S. minister to the Ottoman Empire (1881–85). Wallace retired to his home in Crawfordsville, Indiana, where he continued to write until his death in 1905. John Wanamaker (July 11, 1838 – December 12, 1922) was an American merchant and religious, civic and political figure, considered by some to be a proponent of advertising and a "pioneer in marketing". He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and served as U.S. Postmaster General. He built the World's first Department Store. In 1889 Wanamaker began the First Penny Savings Bank in order to encourage thrift. That same year he was appointed United States Postmaster General by President Benjamin Harrison. Wanamaker was credited by his friends with introducing the first commemorative stamp and many efficiencies to the Postal Service. He was the first to make plans for free rural postal service in the United States, although the plan was not implemented until 1896.	1,927	ENGLISH	1
Clayton, Julie. (1999) Lost for Words. New Scientists Planet Science, 24. The first point I came across in this article was understanding the meaning of this condition. Many people diagnosed with this disability are often not diagnosed properly. A lot of people are labeled as slow learners. People with dyslexia dont have difficulty understanding the meanings of words or recognizing letters and shapes of letters. With this information, this has led scientists to believe that the problem is in the language centers of the brain. John Stein of Oxford University, specialist in vision, has a different opinion however. His theory is that this condition is a neurological problem that during the fetal development something attacks or damages the young cells as they are growing and try to connect to the inside of the brain. Some argue that this is a very selective attack by attacking only those nerves that relay information about fast changing events. The most controversial part of this theory is that the attack may come from the mothers immune system. The next point that I came across was when the article stated by Paula Talhal, of Rutgers University in Newark. She said that dyslexics have a problem with a variety of sounds. They fail to hear 2 pure tones as separate if they are presented too close together. Most people notice the gap between tones is about 40 milliseconds or more, but people with dyslexia find this too fast to detect. Researchers have also said that there is a link with auditory and visual problems. People, who have trouble detecting fast sound changes, also have trouble detecting rapidly changing visual signals. This correlates with peoples ability to read and spell. Stein then goes a step further by saying that chemical reactions of the bodys autonomic pilot, the cerebellum, are slightly different in people with dyslexia, which would explain why people with dyslexia are more clumsy and less coordinated than others. The last point that I came across was Steins hopes that dyslexia will be seen as a far broader syndrome than how it is seen right now. His tests of visual perception could lead to other ways to find more subtle differences between people with dyslexia. Armed with this knowledge teachers will be able to remediate a childs particular weakness. He would also like to see dyslexia diagnosed at an earlier age than it has been being done so. He has ideas of using simple tests for young children. He also says, If you could introduce tests at say, the age of three, then you could intervene early and reduce the long-term suffering of many people. what to look for and if they feel there is a problem they should look at it further than just labeling the child. The next points talked about the problems that people with dyslexia have with hearing. That they cannot put things that sound too much the same together. For example, ba and da. This is hard for students with dyslexia to discriminate because they involve rapid changes in sound frequency. I agree with what he was saying about testing children with simple, yet effective tests. He would say to do this at an early age too. He mentioned the age of three years. I feel that would be great if you could find out that your child has dyslexia when he/she was three years old. There is much time for improvement if you would diagnose it that early. I think that children should be tested that early. I dont think it is fair for children to have to go through four years of school before someone realizes that they have a learning disability. It is not fair to the child and it puts them further behind then they should be.	<urn:uuid:18bcf555-f1d5-4a26-9ab6-414e0930cb34>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/dylexias/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00117.warc.gz	en	0.98292	729	3.3125	3	[ -0.18105611205101013, -0.08265051990747452, -0.027829859405755997, 0.18037661910057068, -0.531958281993866, 0.21844197809696198, 0.5286877751350403, 0.4260410964488983, 0.1613723337650299, -0.33085691928863525, 0.4010046720504761, -0.20951110124588013, 0.3703048527240753, 0.145406097173690...	1	Clayton, Julie. (1999) Lost for Words. New Scientists Planet Science, 24. The first point I came across in this article was understanding the meaning of this condition. Many people diagnosed with this disability are often not diagnosed properly. A lot of people are labeled as slow learners. People with dyslexia dont have difficulty understanding the meanings of words or recognizing letters and shapes of letters. With this information, this has led scientists to believe that the problem is in the language centers of the brain. John Stein of Oxford University, specialist in vision, has a different opinion however. His theory is that this condition is a neurological problem that during the fetal development something attacks or damages the young cells as they are growing and try to connect to the inside of the brain. Some argue that this is a very selective attack by attacking only those nerves that relay information about fast changing events. The most controversial part of this theory is that the attack may come from the mothers immune system. The next point that I came across was when the article stated by Paula Talhal, of Rutgers University in Newark. She said that dyslexics have a problem with a variety of sounds. They fail to hear 2 pure tones as separate if they are presented too close together. Most people notice the gap between tones is about 40 milliseconds or more, but people with dyslexia find this too fast to detect. Researchers have also said that there is a link with auditory and visual problems. People, who have trouble detecting fast sound changes, also have trouble detecting rapidly changing visual signals. This correlates with peoples ability to read and spell. Stein then goes a step further by saying that chemical reactions of the bodys autonomic pilot, the cerebellum, are slightly different in people with dyslexia, which would explain why people with dyslexia are more clumsy and less coordinated than others. The last point that I came across was Steins hopes that dyslexia will be seen as a far broader syndrome than how it is seen right now. His tests of visual perception could lead to other ways to find more subtle differences between people with dyslexia. Armed with this knowledge teachers will be able to remediate a childs particular weakness. He would also like to see dyslexia diagnosed at an earlier age than it has been being done so. He has ideas of using simple tests for young children. He also says, If you could introduce tests at say, the age of three, then you could intervene early and reduce the long-term suffering of many people. what to look for and if they feel there is a problem they should look at it further than just labeling the child. The next points talked about the problems that people with dyslexia have with hearing. That they cannot put things that sound too much the same together. For example, ba and da. This is hard for students with dyslexia to discriminate because they involve rapid changes in sound frequency. I agree with what he was saying about testing children with simple, yet effective tests. He would say to do this at an early age too. He mentioned the age of three years. I feel that would be great if you could find out that your child has dyslexia when he/she was three years old. There is much time for improvement if you would diagnose it that early. I think that children should be tested that early. I dont think it is fair for children to have to go through four years of school before someone realizes that they have a learning disability. It is not fair to the child and it puts them further behind then they should be.	729	ENGLISH	1
- from Ancient Japan For thousands of years, the Japanese lived in clans. Clans are big groups of families. Leaders of each clan ruled different parts of the country. They fought all the time for land and power. By A.D. 400, the Yamato clan controlled most of the country. Its leader became emperor of Japan. Other clans still had their own lands, but they were loyal to the Yamato leader. By the late 700s, the emperor and his family lived in rich palaces in the city of Nara. Important clan members joined his court. They ruled their former lands in the emperor’s name. The noble families of the court also lived in the palace. They didn’t work with their hands like peasant farmers or craftspeople did. Instead, they painted, wrote poetry, and enjoyed nature.	<urn:uuid:abb1db5c-5a61-4738-9f09-3615ab05e2f9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://online.kidsdiscover.com/unit/samurai/topic/emperors-of-early-japan/1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00511.warc.gz	en	0.990744	172	3.90625	4	[ -0.2438914179801941, 0.320181667804718, 0.4471006393432617, 0.08966825157403946, 0.0874309167265892, -0.1614503562450409, 0.26009872555732727, -0.4673536419868469, -0.12669141590595245, 0.002027185633778572, -0.18987704813480377, -0.28742796182632446, 0.6173931360244751, 0.3941054046154022...	3	- from Ancient Japan For thousands of years, the Japanese lived in clans. Clans are big groups of families. Leaders of each clan ruled different parts of the country. They fought all the time for land and power. By A.D. 400, the Yamato clan controlled most of the country. Its leader became emperor of Japan. Other clans still had their own lands, but they were loyal to the Yamato leader. By the late 700s, the emperor and his family lived in rich palaces in the city of Nara. Important clan members joined his court. They ruled their former lands in the emperor’s name. The noble families of the court also lived in the palace. They didn’t work with their hands like peasant farmers or craftspeople did. Instead, they painted, wrote poetry, and enjoyed nature.	172	ENGLISH	1
The lives and works of people vary according to the way that people have lived and what they have accomplished. Some individuals manage to create a lasting impact on the world, while many try and fail to do so. Those that do create a last impact are ones are individuals who are remembered specially. Arnold Schoenberg is one individual who is remembered for his works to this day. In addition to his works that have had a lasting impact, his life has been eventful, and is worth taking note of. Arnold Schoenberg’s surname was Schönberg before he left Germany in 1933, and converted back to Judaism. He was born on September 13th, 1874, was Austrian, and later became American, and was renowned for becoming an American composer. He came to be associated with the expressionist movements in the early 1900s German poetry and art. Among many of Arnold Schoenberg’s work, he is perhaps most popular for his twelve-tone technique, which is an approach that makes use of tone rows (Schoenberg, 2006, 89-95). Aside from this, Schoenberg was known as an artist, a theorist of music, and a composition mentor. As mentioned earlier, Arnold Schoenberg was born in the home of an Ashkenzai Jew in Vienna. Although Schoenberg’s mother [Pauline] was a pianist and piano teacher, he was a talented self-taught individual. The only lessons Schoenberg did take were from composer Alexander von Zemlinsky, who later became his first brother-in-law. By the time, Arnold Schoenberg was in his 20s, he orchestrated operettas along with composing famous pieces of work like the Verklärte Nacht [Transfigured Night] (1899). In order to comprehend how and why Arnold Schoenberg composed his music in the manner that he did, it is worth beginning with his own words: “Had times been ‘normal’ (prior and after 1914) then the music of our time would have been very different.” Clearly this meant that he believed that it was situations and periods that people went through that triggered their creativity. From this, one might say that he was a man who adhered to ideas. Schoenberg is known as a Jewish intellectual who firmly believed in the idea of an inexpressible God. He also adhered to pursuing truth (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). Schoenberg witnessed music develop through exquisite works of the greats like Strauss, Wagner and Mahler. He listened to these greats and reached a state of saturation. He resolved that to refresh the simplicity in music, there was need to introduce a new language. This was around the time when abstract art developed and flourished in the western world (Bailey, 1999, 928-928). These were the same years when the Western world developed abstract art as well as psychoanalysis. In fact, many people at this point in time felt that thought and reason had developed to a point where there would be no return. They further thought that there was no more room for repetition of what had been achieved earlier (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). Crucial Years in Schoenberg’s Life: Between the years 1901 and 1910, Schoenberg created Five Pieces for Orchestra, and his music began to evolve quickly as time went by. By the time Schoenberg created his String Quartet opus 7 as well as his Chamber Symphony opus 9, he believed that he had achieved a personal style that was much more mature than he had achieved earlier, regardless of earlier success and satisfaction with what he created. However, in the second String Quartet opus 10 and the Three Piano Pieces opus 11, there were signs that were clear to him that reflected saturation. This was in the added notes in harmony that had reached level where it carried little meaning, between consonance and dissonance. Richard Strauss and Gustav Mahler were both taken up by Arnold Schoenberg’s and accepted his work as significant compositions (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). During 1909, Strauss went down a conservative idiom path, and during this period he rejected Schoenberg’s work. Mahler, in contrast, adopted Schoenberg’s style. Schoenberg, in return, was won over by Mahler’s first symphonies, especially the 3rd one. Later, he even said that Mahler’s work was one of a genius, and thought of Mahler as a saint. This was surprising, as Schoenberg himself was Jewish. However, Schoenberg did convert to Lutheranism, and remained a Lutheran till 1933 (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). After some early setbacks, Schoenberg began to gain public recognition. His works such as the poem Pelleas und Melisande performed at Berlin , and, the Gurrelieder at Vienna on 13 February 1913 were important to his success. In particular, it was the latter that received an ovation that went on for a quarter of an hour. In contrast to this work, there were other works of Schoenberg’s that were not received, as they probably should have. Much of his work, however, was not well received. Schoenberg’s Chamber Symphony No. 1 was performed before a small audience, which gave him a mild reaction (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). In 1908, Schoenberg’s wife [Mathilde] left him for a younger artist [Richard Gerstl]. She later returned to her husband and children. Schoenberg’s work apparently changed during this period. A work worth taking note of during this time is “You lean against a silver-willow” (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). After 1908, Schoenberg’s music changed fromality. This prompted polarized responses to what he created. This was perhaps when Schoenberg’s followers and students recognized him as one of the most important and influential figures in music. Critics, however, continued to hate his work. During this time, he also created a revolutionary composition, known as the String Quartet No. 2. Another one of Schoenberg’s well-known works is Pierrot Lunaire (Bailey, 1999, 928-928). Disruptions and Incomplete Work: The First World War had sparked a crisis in Schenberg’s life, and he remained interrupted from his work. This caused him to leave many pieces of work incomplete. By the time he was 42, he was drafted into the army, leaving many unfinished works behind, and also denying him the time he needed to work on his at. While he was in the army, many soldiers asked whether Schoenberg was the same composed. To them he replied: “I admit it, but it’s like this. Someone had to be, and no one else wanted to, so I took it on myself.” Once Schoenberg was back from serving his time in the army, he embarked upon developing order. He did this to make his musical texture simpler and clearer. This is what helped him to create the “method of composition with twelve tones” (Schoenberg, 2006, 89-95). Schoenberg’s Music Theory: The method of 12 tones was actually the twelve pitches of an octave that are regarded as equal. There is also no single note or tonality that is given the importance it had in classical harmony. Schoenberg referred to it as the equivalent in music of Albert Einstein’s theories (Schoenberg, 2006, 89-95). This is how he once told a friend [Josef Rufer] about it when he went out for a walk one day: “I have today made a discovery which will ensure the supremacy of German music for the next hundred years”. Often, this quote is misunderstood. Schoenberg’s remarks were most probably his wry and ironic humor, which he was known for, and it is most likely that he referred to the deterioration of the dominant political stand of the German-speaking world in the past. It is further thought that he would have liked to stand with Bach and Beethoven (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). Arnold Schoenberg was given the duty as Director at the Prussian Academy of Arts for a Master Class in Composition . However, he could not begin his work there until 1926 because of ill health. Schoenberg carried on working in this position until Adolf Hitler was elected in 1933, when he was exiled. Schoenberg’s new Life in America: Arnold Schoenberg re-affirmed his Jewish faith and left behind Lutheranism at this point in time. Schoenberg’s first appointment as a teacher was at Boston’s Malkin Conservatory. Then, he taught at the Los Angeles University of Southern California as well as at the University of California, Los Angeles. Later, he settled in Brentwood Park. Here, he met and became friends with the composer, George Gershwin. This is where Schoenberg lived for the rest of his life (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). The work Schoenberg created during his time in California had apparently returned to the quasi-tonal harmony. However, this harmony he created was very distinctive, and he did not re-use classical harmony. From this creation of his, one can say that Schoenberg did believe that music evolved naturally from its past. Schoenberg once said: “my music is not really modern, just badly played” (Schoenberg, 2006, 89-95). Schoenberg’s Creativity in America: In subsequent years, Arnold Schoenberg produced musical works that demonstrated his method of creating newer classical music, which was different from what had been created in the past. It is thought that one of these pieces of music was supposed to an opera [Moses und Aron]. However, it is thought that it was not completed because of Schoenberg’s psychological condition. In this piece of music, he depicts Moses crying out his frustration due to not being able to express himself. With this work, it is also said that Schoenberg might have considered himself to be a prophet too (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). During Schoenberg’s final phase of his life, he created some works that he was most noted for, which included the tedious Violin Concerto , created during the period (1934/36). He also created the Kol Nidre for chorus and orchestra in 1938, the haunting Piano Concerto in 1942, the Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte, in 1942, as well as the memorial for Holocaust victims, A Survivor from Warsaw in 1947. Schoenberg could not complete his work on the opera, Moses und Aron (1932/33). In 1941, Schoenberg’s citizenship was neutralized, and thus, was known as a neutralized citizen of the United States (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). Like many people Schoenberg too had beliefs and superstitions. He had triskaidekaphobia, which fear of the number thirteen . It is thought that it was this superstition that brought about his death. Schoenberg had feared that the year he would die in would be a multiple of the number 13, which is why he feared his 65th birthday. So well known was this fear to his friends, that one of them requested Dane Rudhyar to produce Schoenberg’s horoscope. Schoenberg’s fear might have been reinforced when he heard what the horoscope read; it was a dangerous year for him, but not necessarily a fatal one. However, on Schoenberg’s 76th birthday, a Viennese musician and astrologist Oscar Adler warned Schoenberg of what could lie ahead inthis year. He wrote a message to Arnold Schoenberg alerting him that this year was a critical one for him. Adler wrote: Schoenberg’s age 76 meant: 7 + 6 = 13. This note shocked Schoenberg because he had never thought o it the calculation of 13 in this way. Schoenberg now was obsessed with this, and many who were close to him quoted him: “If I can only pull through this year I shall be safe.” It was Friday, July 13, of Schoenberg’s 76th year; he lay in bed, sick, depressed and anxious over what could happen to him. The whole day went by, and just before midnight, his wife told him, “You see, the day is almost over. All that worry was for nothing.” Just as she finished uttering those words, Schoenberg looked at her and died (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). Final Thoughts on Arnold Schoenberg’s Life and Works: It is very apparent from the life and works of Arnold Schoenberg, as well as the circumstances within which he created his work, Schoenberg was an individual who was affected by his surroundings. He was not one of the many individuals who shut themselves up and ignore the world to create what they want. Instead, Schoenberg admits that his work, and other music as well created during the times in which he lived is affected by situations. This is reflected in his quote mentioned earlier as well: “Had times been ‘normal’ (prior and after 1914) then the music of our time would have been very different” (Bailey, 1999, 928-928). Schoenberg was not only a person who was open to outside influences. He was an individual who experienced the harshness of life too. This can be said because of the fact that he fought in the army during the First World War, and also suffered marital problems. His change in composing was clearly visible when he experienced war and marital problems. In addition to experiencing a major war as well as personal relationship breakdown, Arnold Schoenberg also witnessed major regime change in the country that he lived in, Germany. He watched Germany sink into fascism, and subsequently witnessed the war, knowing that his originating country was region around which the war pivoted. Apart from the unpleasant experiences, Schoenberg was influenced by great musicians. These musicians such as Mozart helped him form the basis of his listening skills. This is an important consideration due to the fact that Arnold Schoenberg was a self-taught musician with little formal education in music. Not only did this music and other pleasant experiences help Schoenberg create his own unique musical compositions, but it also gave a slant to his personality. Schoenberg was also known for his wry humor that was sometimes misunderstood, and an example of this is his commonly misinterpreted quote about him ensuring “the supremacy of German music for the next hundred years”. It is quite clear what he meant by this because today one knows more about his personality and his style of humor.	<urn:uuid:235cb215-5d25-411e-8d09-7b6d45ddcf50>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://webgamesday.com/the-life-and-works-of-arnold-schoenberg/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00033.warc.gz	en	0.989715	3,163	3.984375	4	[ -0.10614872723817825, 0.26541563868522644, -0.23160004615783691, -0.1999790072441101, -0.3340151309967041, 0.283166766166687, 0.30964434146881104, -0.12765303254127502, -0.006926985457539558, -0.24410785734653473, 0.16942603886127472, 0.3804663419723511, -0.00027027702890336514, 0.20096968...	6	The lives and works of people vary according to the way that people have lived and what they have accomplished. Some individuals manage to create a lasting impact on the world, while many try and fail to do so. Those that do create a last impact are ones are individuals who are remembered specially. Arnold Schoenberg is one individual who is remembered for his works to this day. In addition to his works that have had a lasting impact, his life has been eventful, and is worth taking note of. Arnold Schoenberg’s surname was Schönberg before he left Germany in 1933, and converted back to Judaism. He was born on September 13th, 1874, was Austrian, and later became American, and was renowned for becoming an American composer. He came to be associated with the expressionist movements in the early 1900s German poetry and art. Among many of Arnold Schoenberg’s work, he is perhaps most popular for his twelve-tone technique, which is an approach that makes use of tone rows (Schoenberg, 2006, 89-95). Aside from this, Schoenberg was known as an artist, a theorist of music, and a composition mentor. As mentioned earlier, Arnold Schoenberg was born in the home of an Ashkenzai Jew in Vienna. Although Schoenberg’s mother [Pauline] was a pianist and piano teacher, he was a talented self-taught individual. The only lessons Schoenberg did take were from composer Alexander von Zemlinsky, who later became his first brother-in-law. By the time, Arnold Schoenberg was in his 20s, he orchestrated operettas along with composing famous pieces of work like the Verklärte Nacht [Transfigured Night] (1899). In order to comprehend how and why Arnold Schoenberg composed his music in the manner that he did, it is worth beginning with his own words: “Had times been ‘normal’ (prior and after 1914) then the music of our time would have been very different.” Clearly this meant that he believed that it was situations and periods that people went through that triggered their creativity. From this, one might say that he was a man who adhered to ideas. Schoenberg is known as a Jewish intellectual who firmly believed in the idea of an inexpressible God. He also adhered to pursuing truth (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). Schoenberg witnessed music develop through exquisite works of the greats like Strauss, Wagner and Mahler. He listened to these greats and reached a state of saturation. He resolved that to refresh the simplicity in music, there was need to introduce a new language. This was around the time when abstract art developed and flourished in the western world (Bailey, 1999, 928-928). These were the same years when the Western world developed abstract art as well as psychoanalysis. In fact, many people at this point in time felt that thought and reason had developed to a point where there would be no return. They further thought that there was no more room for repetition of what had been achieved earlier (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). Crucial Years in Schoenberg’s Life: Between the years 1901 and 1910, Schoenberg created Five Pieces for Orchestra, and his music began to evolve quickly as time went by. By the time Schoenberg created his String Quartet opus 7 as well as his Chamber Symphony opus 9, he believed that he had achieved a personal style that was much more mature than he had achieved earlier, regardless of earlier success and satisfaction with what he created. However, in the second String Quartet opus 10 and the Three Piano Pieces opus 11, there were signs that were clear to him that reflected saturation. This was in the added notes in harmony that had reached level where it carried little meaning, between consonance and dissonance. Richard Strauss and Gustav Mahler were both taken up by Arnold Schoenberg’s and accepted his work as significant compositions (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). During 1909, Strauss went down a conservative idiom path, and during this period he rejected Schoenberg’s work. Mahler, in contrast, adopted Schoenberg’s style. Schoenberg, in return, was won over by Mahler’s first symphonies, especially the 3rd one. Later, he even said that Mahler’s work was one of a genius, and thought of Mahler as a saint. This was surprising, as Schoenberg himself was Jewish. However, Schoenberg did convert to Lutheranism, and remained a Lutheran till 1933 (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). After some early setbacks, Schoenberg began to gain public recognition. His works such as the poem Pelleas und Melisande performed at Berlin , and, the Gurrelieder at Vienna on 13 February 1913 were important to his success. In particular, it was the latter that received an ovation that went on for a quarter of an hour. In contrast to this work, there were other works of Schoenberg’s that were not received, as they probably should have. Much of his work, however, was not well received. Schoenberg’s Chamber Symphony No. 1 was performed before a small audience, which gave him a mild reaction (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). In 1908, Schoenberg’s wife [Mathilde] left him for a younger artist [Richard Gerstl]. She later returned to her husband and children. Schoenberg’s work apparently changed during this period. A work worth taking note of during this time is “You lean against a silver-willow” (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). After 1908, Schoenberg’s music changed fromality. This prompted polarized responses to what he created. This was perhaps when Schoenberg’s followers and students recognized him as one of the most important and influential figures in music. Critics, however, continued to hate his work. During this time, he also created a revolutionary composition, known as the String Quartet No. 2. Another one of Schoenberg’s well-known works is Pierrot Lunaire (Bailey, 1999, 928-928). Disruptions and Incomplete Work: The First World War had sparked a crisis in Schenberg’s life, and he remained interrupted from his work. This caused him to leave many pieces of work incomplete. By the time he was 42, he was drafted into the army, leaving many unfinished works behind, and also denying him the time he needed to work on his at. While he was in the army, many soldiers asked whether Schoenberg was the same composed. To them he replied: “I admit it, but it’s like this. Someone had to be, and no one else wanted to, so I took it on myself.” Once Schoenberg was back from serving his time in the army, he embarked upon developing order. He did this to make his musical texture simpler and clearer. This is what helped him to create the “method of composition with twelve tones” (Schoenberg, 2006, 89-95). Schoenberg’s Music Theory: The method of 12 tones was actually the twelve pitches of an octave that are regarded as equal. There is also no single note or tonality that is given the importance it had in classical harmony. Schoenberg referred to it as the equivalent in music of Albert Einstein’s theories (Schoenberg, 2006, 89-95). This is how he once told a friend [Josef Rufer] about it when he went out for a walk one day: “I have today made a discovery which will ensure the supremacy of German music for the next hundred years”. Often, this quote is misunderstood. Schoenberg’s remarks were most probably his wry and ironic humor, which he was known for, and it is most likely that he referred to the deterioration of the dominant political stand of the German-speaking world in the past. It is further thought that he would have liked to stand with Bach and Beethoven (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). Arnold Schoenberg was given the duty as Director at the Prussian Academy of Arts for a Master Class in Composition . However, he could not begin his work there until 1926 because of ill health. Schoenberg carried on working in this position until Adolf Hitler was elected in 1933, when he was exiled. Schoenberg’s new Life in America: Arnold Schoenberg re-affirmed his Jewish faith and left behind Lutheranism at this point in time. Schoenberg’s first appointment as a teacher was at Boston’s Malkin Conservatory. Then, he taught at the Los Angeles University of Southern California as well as at the University of California, Los Angeles. Later, he settled in Brentwood Park. Here, he met and became friends with the composer, George Gershwin. This is where Schoenberg lived for the rest of his life (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). The work Schoenberg created during his time in California had apparently returned to the quasi-tonal harmony. However, this harmony he created was very distinctive, and he did not re-use classical harmony. From this creation of his, one can say that Schoenberg did believe that music evolved naturally from its past. Schoenberg once said: “my music is not really modern, just badly played” (Schoenberg, 2006, 89-95). Schoenberg’s Creativity in America: In subsequent years, Arnold Schoenberg produced musical works that demonstrated his method of creating newer classical music, which was different from what had been created in the past. It is thought that one of these pieces of music was supposed to an opera [Moses und Aron]. However, it is thought that it was not completed because of Schoenberg’s psychological condition. In this piece of music, he depicts Moses crying out his frustration due to not being able to express himself. With this work, it is also said that Schoenberg might have considered himself to be a prophet too (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). During Schoenberg’s final phase of his life, he created some works that he was most noted for, which included the tedious Violin Concerto , created during the period (1934/36). He also created the Kol Nidre for chorus and orchestra in 1938, the haunting Piano Concerto in 1942, the Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte, in 1942, as well as the memorial for Holocaust victims, A Survivor from Warsaw in 1947. Schoenberg could not complete his work on the opera, Moses und Aron (1932/33). In 1941, Schoenberg’s citizenship was neutralized, and thus, was known as a neutralized citizen of the United States (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). Like many people Schoenberg too had beliefs and superstitions. He had triskaidekaphobia, which fear of the number thirteen . It is thought that it was this superstition that brought about his death. Schoenberg had feared that the year he would die in would be a multiple of the number 13, which is why he feared his 65th birthday. So well known was this fear to his friends, that one of them requested Dane Rudhyar to produce Schoenberg’s horoscope. Schoenberg’s fear might have been reinforced when he heard what the horoscope read; it was a dangerous year for him, but not necessarily a fatal one. However, on Schoenberg’s 76th birthday, a Viennese musician and astrologist Oscar Adler warned Schoenberg of what could lie ahead inthis year. He wrote a message to Arnold Schoenberg alerting him that this year was a critical one for him. Adler wrote: Schoenberg’s age 76 meant: 7 + 6 = 13. This note shocked Schoenberg because he had never thought o it the calculation of 13 in this way. Schoenberg now was obsessed with this, and many who were close to him quoted him: “If I can only pull through this year I shall be safe.” It was Friday, July 13, of Schoenberg’s 76th year; he lay in bed, sick, depressed and anxious over what could happen to him. The whole day went by, and just before midnight, his wife told him, “You see, the day is almost over. All that worry was for nothing.” Just as she finished uttering those words, Schoenberg looked at her and died (Shawn, 2002, 34-45). Final Thoughts on Arnold Schoenberg’s Life and Works: It is very apparent from the life and works of Arnold Schoenberg, as well as the circumstances within which he created his work, Schoenberg was an individual who was affected by his surroundings. He was not one of the many individuals who shut themselves up and ignore the world to create what they want. Instead, Schoenberg admits that his work, and other music as well created during the times in which he lived is affected by situations. This is reflected in his quote mentioned earlier as well: “Had times been ‘normal’ (prior and after 1914) then the music of our time would have been very different” (Bailey, 1999, 928-928). Schoenberg was not only a person who was open to outside influences. He was an individual who experienced the harshness of life too. This can be said because of the fact that he fought in the army during the First World War, and also suffered marital problems. His change in composing was clearly visible when he experienced war and marital problems. In addition to experiencing a major war as well as personal relationship breakdown, Arnold Schoenberg also witnessed major regime change in the country that he lived in, Germany. He watched Germany sink into fascism, and subsequently witnessed the war, knowing that his originating country was region around which the war pivoted. Apart from the unpleasant experiences, Schoenberg was influenced by great musicians. These musicians such as Mozart helped him form the basis of his listening skills. This is an important consideration due to the fact that Arnold Schoenberg was a self-taught musician with little formal education in music. Not only did this music and other pleasant experiences help Schoenberg create his own unique musical compositions, but it also gave a slant to his personality. Schoenberg was also known for his wry humor that was sometimes misunderstood, and an example of this is his commonly misinterpreted quote about him ensuring “the supremacy of German music for the next hundred years”. It is quite clear what he meant by this because today one knows more about his personality and his style of humor.	3,197	ENGLISH	1
It is an science book. In Cornu's elaborate memoir upon the determination of the velocity of light, several objections are made to the plan followed by Foucault, which will be considered in the latter part of this work. It may, however, be stated that the most important among these was that the deflection was too small to be measured with the required degree of accuracy. In order to employ this method, therefore, it was absolutely necessary that the deflection should be increased. In November, 1877, a modification of Foucault's arrangement suggested itself, by which this result could be accomplished. Between this time and March of the following year a number of preliminary experiments were performed in order to familiarize myself with the optical arrangements. The first experiment tried with the revolving mirror produced a deflection considerably greater than that obtained by Foucault. Thus far the only apparatus used was such as could be adapted from the apparatus in the laboratory of the Naval Academy. At the expense of dollar 10 a revolving mirror was made, which could execute 128 turns per second. The apparatus was installed in May, 1878, at the laboratory. The distance used was 500 feet, and the deflection was about twenty times that obtained by Foucault.	<urn:uuid:5c28e82c-0d86-4d48-817b-28c655784662>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.apple.com/za/book/experimental-determination-of-the-velocity-of-light/id510613225	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00048.warc.gz	en	0.983375	251	3.484375	3	[ -0.29553332924842834, 0.07290627062320709, 0.44687455892562866, -0.05831008031964302, -0.2774645984172821, 0.37167587876319885, -0.005000860895961523, 0.6278184652328491, 0.08964294195175171, -0.07017692178487778, 0.37087592482566833, -0.5546326041221619, -0.20397672057151794, 0.1552825868...	6	It is an science book. In Cornu's elaborate memoir upon the determination of the velocity of light, several objections are made to the plan followed by Foucault, which will be considered in the latter part of this work. It may, however, be stated that the most important among these was that the deflection was too small to be measured with the required degree of accuracy. In order to employ this method, therefore, it was absolutely necessary that the deflection should be increased. In November, 1877, a modification of Foucault's arrangement suggested itself, by which this result could be accomplished. Between this time and March of the following year a number of preliminary experiments were performed in order to familiarize myself with the optical arrangements. The first experiment tried with the revolving mirror produced a deflection considerably greater than that obtained by Foucault. Thus far the only apparatus used was such as could be adapted from the apparatus in the laboratory of the Naval Academy. At the expense of dollar 10 a revolving mirror was made, which could execute 128 turns per second. The apparatus was installed in May, 1878, at the laboratory. The distance used was 500 feet, and the deflection was about twenty times that obtained by Foucault.	265	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 15/05/2012) The Princely State of Tripura was one of the native states during the rule of the British Empire in India . During the early 19th century, the region was appointed as one of the princely states of India under the indirect rule of the British administration. The region covered a total area of 4,116 sq m and comprised of a total population of 513,952 in the year 1941. Tripura state was located to the north-east of the mouths of the Ganga River , and was bounded by the British Province of Assam v on the north and by the Province of Bengal on the south. Tripur was the name of the 40th mythical ruler of the region. In the year 1911, the princely state of Tripura included 1 town and 1,463 villages. The territory was under the Eastern States Agency and after 1936, came under the administration of the Bengal States Agency. The Princely State of Tripura was appointed as one of the Salute states of India with a gun salute of 13 guns. The native ruler, who held the title of Maharaja, exercised administrative and jurisdictional powers over the state. Tripura state was segregated into 6 units for administrative purposes. There was also a separate judiciary. The princely state did not pay any tribute to the British government of India and there were no engagements between the 2 governments. The native ruler had large holdings of land in British India, which was known as Chakla Roshanabad. It generated better revenues than the Maharaja's own State of Tripura. The British courts have always decided the disputed successions that involved the devolution of the holdings. Thus their rulings generally fixed the succession to the royal throne or gadi of the princely state of Tripura. The native ruler of the state held the title of Raja until 1919 and later was styled as Maharaja. The ruling Rajputs of the state descended from Dhrujya, who was a prince of the Chandravanshi ruling family. It is considered the territory of Tripura was established in the 1st century AD by Tipras, hill people from China. In the early 17th century, the Mughal forces changed the lowlands of Tripura into a zamindari and renamed it as Roshanabad. The British East India Company recognized the rule of the Manikya rajas in the hilly regions after the year 1785. A sanad embodied the family law of succession in 1904. The Raja could appoint the successor of his successor from among the male members of his family. The last ruler of the princely state of Tripura in 1947 was the 185th of his line. After the country achived independence and the withdrawal of the British administration on 15th August 1947, the princely state of Changbhakar was acceded to the newly formed Dominion of India, also known as the Union of India . Presently, Tripura is a state in North East India and is regarded as one of the Seven Sister States.	<urn:uuid:54513fe3-9325-41a2-bb3b-ef0777de42d5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/60/princely_state_tripura.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00477.warc.gz	en	0.982814	637	3.859375	4	[ -0.20585095882415771, 0.22089344263076782, 0.505609393119812, -0.3013216257095337, -0.816730797290802, -0.216968834400177, 0.44037893414497375, -0.2132684588432312, -0.11045954376459122, -0.04164198413491249, 0.13963830471038818, -0.5396303534507751, 0.4139784872531891, 0.2446797639131546,...	5	(Last Updated on : 15/05/2012) The Princely State of Tripura was one of the native states during the rule of the British Empire in India . During the early 19th century, the region was appointed as one of the princely states of India under the indirect rule of the British administration. The region covered a total area of 4,116 sq m and comprised of a total population of 513,952 in the year 1941. Tripura state was located to the north-east of the mouths of the Ganga River , and was bounded by the British Province of Assam v on the north and by the Province of Bengal on the south. Tripur was the name of the 40th mythical ruler of the region. In the year 1911, the princely state of Tripura included 1 town and 1,463 villages. The territory was under the Eastern States Agency and after 1936, came under the administration of the Bengal States Agency. The Princely State of Tripura was appointed as one of the Salute states of India with a gun salute of 13 guns. The native ruler, who held the title of Maharaja, exercised administrative and jurisdictional powers over the state. Tripura state was segregated into 6 units for administrative purposes. There was also a separate judiciary. The princely state did not pay any tribute to the British government of India and there were no engagements between the 2 governments. The native ruler had large holdings of land in British India, which was known as Chakla Roshanabad. It generated better revenues than the Maharaja's own State of Tripura. The British courts have always decided the disputed successions that involved the devolution of the holdings. Thus their rulings generally fixed the succession to the royal throne or gadi of the princely state of Tripura. The native ruler of the state held the title of Raja until 1919 and later was styled as Maharaja. The ruling Rajputs of the state descended from Dhrujya, who was a prince of the Chandravanshi ruling family. It is considered the territory of Tripura was established in the 1st century AD by Tipras, hill people from China. In the early 17th century, the Mughal forces changed the lowlands of Tripura into a zamindari and renamed it as Roshanabad. The British East India Company recognized the rule of the Manikya rajas in the hilly regions after the year 1785. A sanad embodied the family law of succession in 1904. The Raja could appoint the successor of his successor from among the male members of his family. The last ruler of the princely state of Tripura in 1947 was the 185th of his line. After the country achived independence and the withdrawal of the British administration on 15th August 1947, the princely state of Changbhakar was acceded to the newly formed Dominion of India, also known as the Union of India . Presently, Tripura is a state in North East India and is regarded as one of the Seven Sister States.	695	ENGLISH	1
Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on March 5, 1931, between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, who was at the time the Viceroy of India. It was a political agreement that was signed before the second Round Table Conference. Background of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact? Between March and April 1930, Mahatma Gandhi had initiated the Salt Satyagrah or the salt march to produce salt from the sea water in the coastal village of Dandi. The march was the first act in the civil disobedience campaign. The government has imposed a series of laws which prohibited Indians from independently producing or selling salt. They were also forced to buy expensive and heavily taxed salt. The salt satyagrah was in protest against these policies of the British and gave an impetus to the civil disobedience movement. The British cracked down on the satyagrahis and arrested Mahatma Gandhi. However, the movement progressed and gained strength attracting tens of thousands of people. The British used many ruthless measures to crush the movement such as lathi charge, firing on the protestors, arrests etc. By the end of 1930, prominent Congressmen like Jawaharlal Nehru and thousands of ordinary Indians were lodged in Jail. The movement had not only created troubles for the British in India but had also garnered media attention around the world. Lord Irwin was looking for a way to get out of the impasse and invited Mahatma Gandhi for talks and in 1931 he was released from prison. Thus, the two men began negotiations and in 1931 the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed. A total of eight meetings were held between the two leaders and these lasted 24 hours. The pact, which was signed by Lord Irwin on behalf of the government and Mahatma Gandhi, on behalf of the Indian National Congress agreed on the following points The points of the agreement agreed upon were: All the political prisoners who were not convicted for creating violence were to be released immediately. Villages that were located along the coast were given the right to make salt for their consumption. Confiscated properties of the satyagrahis was to be restored. Peaceful picketing of foreign clothes and liquor shops was to be permitted. The ban over the Congress was to be lifted. All ordinances were to be withdrawn and prosecutions ended. Meanwhile, the Congress agreed to end the Civil Disobedience Movement and to participate in the Second Round Table Conference. Impact of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact The Gandhi-Irwin Pact had far reaching implications for the Congress as well as India. British acceptance of the Congress as the sole representative of the people of India brought the premier Indian party on an equal footing with the government. Even though the Congress had suspended the Civil Disobedience movement, the status and prestige of the Congress were significantly increased after the signing of the pact. Know more facts on our Bapu: 1,244 total views, 12 views today	<urn:uuid:c3cd13e2-6ba3-47f7-b75c-60d7e9cff3c2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/history/what-was-the-gandhi-irwin-pact	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00057.warc.gz	en	0.986398	604	4.0625	4	[ -0.250507652759552, 0.39694535732269287, 0.05865264683961868, -0.10155774652957916, -0.6129862070083618, -0.1631205677986145, 0.5757105946540833, -0.236810103058815, 0.03347238898277283, -0.1717073917388916, 0.37692898511886597, -0.4504584074020386, 0.619683027267456, 0.42196083068847656, ...	1	Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on March 5, 1931, between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, who was at the time the Viceroy of India. It was a political agreement that was signed before the second Round Table Conference. Background of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact? Between March and April 1930, Mahatma Gandhi had initiated the Salt Satyagrah or the salt march to produce salt from the sea water in the coastal village of Dandi. The march was the first act in the civil disobedience campaign. The government has imposed a series of laws which prohibited Indians from independently producing or selling salt. They were also forced to buy expensive and heavily taxed salt. The salt satyagrah was in protest against these policies of the British and gave an impetus to the civil disobedience movement. The British cracked down on the satyagrahis and arrested Mahatma Gandhi. However, the movement progressed and gained strength attracting tens of thousands of people. The British used many ruthless measures to crush the movement such as lathi charge, firing on the protestors, arrests etc. By the end of 1930, prominent Congressmen like Jawaharlal Nehru and thousands of ordinary Indians were lodged in Jail. The movement had not only created troubles for the British in India but had also garnered media attention around the world. Lord Irwin was looking for a way to get out of the impasse and invited Mahatma Gandhi for talks and in 1931 he was released from prison. Thus, the two men began negotiations and in 1931 the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed. A total of eight meetings were held between the two leaders and these lasted 24 hours. The pact, which was signed by Lord Irwin on behalf of the government and Mahatma Gandhi, on behalf of the Indian National Congress agreed on the following points The points of the agreement agreed upon were: All the political prisoners who were not convicted for creating violence were to be released immediately. Villages that were located along the coast were given the right to make salt for their consumption. Confiscated properties of the satyagrahis was to be restored. Peaceful picketing of foreign clothes and liquor shops was to be permitted. The ban over the Congress was to be lifted. All ordinances were to be withdrawn and prosecutions ended. Meanwhile, the Congress agreed to end the Civil Disobedience Movement and to participate in the Second Round Table Conference. Impact of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact The Gandhi-Irwin Pact had far reaching implications for the Congress as well as India. British acceptance of the Congress as the sole representative of the people of India brought the premier Indian party on an equal footing with the government. Even though the Congress had suspended the Civil Disobedience movement, the status and prestige of the Congress were significantly increased after the signing of the pact. Know more facts on our Bapu: 1,244 total views, 12 views today	624	ENGLISH	1
Development and learning is a very important aspect of your children’s life. With this stage they will be able to learn things quickly in the future and of different fields. Although, there are many stages of learning in EYFS but there are 7 basic learning stages that every child has to go through. First is communication and language development. This is the first and the most important stage where children learn their first baby words like; mama, dad, short words of water or short words for milk. This can enhance their communication skills and their language developed faster, they will be able to say different words in short time. By playing different games, their physical development will be growing every day. Not only playing games but feeding the babies with healthy food will also help in fast and healthy physical development. The parents are also guided to play games and suggested the kind of food they should provide for their baby. Most EYFS also have a doctor on standby if the baby is allergic to any food; they immediately identify it and also inform to the nearest hospital and suggest the parents to look out for the food they give to them. Children will also learn some phonemic and have literacy development in EYFS. Here, the children will also learn about different shapes and will also be able to identify them. They also learn the feelings of hot and cold, yes and no commands. They will learn different sounds like like; birds chirping, dog barking etc. EYFS also make sure that the child is being well fit with the other children, by making them more social, teaching them hello and good bye waving. Children also learn to show love and affection by learning social development, flying kisses and nodding head to yes and no. Scientists say that children at the age of 5 if picks up a guitar they will most likely to become a guitarist of play guitar as a hobby. Just like that EYFS make sure to expose children at different things at early stage and see what they are attracted to. Being in a different country matters and if you have moved to another country with a 5-year old, you will want to get him/her enrolled in EYFS. Being an expat in the UAE is difficult for a 5-year old child, but you can find many EYFS nurseries in Dubai and also there are some of the top ranked nurseries in downtown Dubai.	<urn:uuid:76654103-e668-421f-8134-4d683880804b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.couponmakeover.com/general/information-about-child-development-at-an-eyfs-nursery/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00041.warc.gz	en	0.983022	485	3.296875	3	[ -0.05218639224767685, -0.31089887022972107, 0.4746258556842804, -0.43077510595321655, -0.5252015590667725, 0.5260525345802307, -0.21316751837730408, 0.03258204460144043, -0.21791121363639832, 0.06220802664756775, -0.018833102658391, 0.043850794434547424, 0.33973294496536255, 0.361651450395...	14	Development and learning is a very important aspect of your children’s life. With this stage they will be able to learn things quickly in the future and of different fields. Although, there are many stages of learning in EYFS but there are 7 basic learning stages that every child has to go through. First is communication and language development. This is the first and the most important stage where children learn their first baby words like; mama, dad, short words of water or short words for milk. This can enhance their communication skills and their language developed faster, they will be able to say different words in short time. By playing different games, their physical development will be growing every day. Not only playing games but feeding the babies with healthy food will also help in fast and healthy physical development. The parents are also guided to play games and suggested the kind of food they should provide for their baby. Most EYFS also have a doctor on standby if the baby is allergic to any food; they immediately identify it and also inform to the nearest hospital and suggest the parents to look out for the food they give to them. Children will also learn some phonemic and have literacy development in EYFS. Here, the children will also learn about different shapes and will also be able to identify them. They also learn the feelings of hot and cold, yes and no commands. They will learn different sounds like like; birds chirping, dog barking etc. EYFS also make sure that the child is being well fit with the other children, by making them more social, teaching them hello and good bye waving. Children also learn to show love and affection by learning social development, flying kisses and nodding head to yes and no. Scientists say that children at the age of 5 if picks up a guitar they will most likely to become a guitarist of play guitar as a hobby. Just like that EYFS make sure to expose children at different things at early stage and see what they are attracted to. Being in a different country matters and if you have moved to another country with a 5-year old, you will want to get him/her enrolled in EYFS. Being an expat in the UAE is difficult for a 5-year old child, but you can find many EYFS nurseries in Dubai and also there are some of the top ranked nurseries in downtown Dubai.	481	ENGLISH	1
18th December - The Festival of Epona Written by Anne Newman 17th December 2019 Known as Rhiannon in Wales, Macha in Ireland, Epona’s name comes from the Gaulish word epos (“horse”). This ancient horse goddess is one of the most well-known of all the Celtic gods and goddesses. Horses played an important role in Celtic society. Naturally, the protector of horses would play an equally important role. Epona translates as “divine mare” or “mare goddess”. Epona has been revered since the Iron Age. Small shrines, known as aediculae, were built in her honour by horse owners and often decorated with roses. More inscriptions, statues, and shrines dedicated to her have been found than for any other Celtic god or goddess. Even the Romans adopted this Celtic goddess. Epona has been revered since the Iron Age. She was also a giver of life, health, fertility and plenty, and a protectress of humans on the journey through death and on the Other Side. Her role as a psychopomp, or guide of souls, is clear from the way she is depicted in Gaulish cemeteries. At La Horge-au-Sablon, a burial ground of the Medioatrici at Metz, in eastern Gaul, images of Epona were offered by relatives of the deceased; one depicts the goddess on her mare, leading a mortal to the Otherworld. Epona is usually shown riding side-saddle on a mare or between twin horses. She was regarded as a patron by cavalrymen, including the Aedui, used as auxiliaries by Julius Caesar, and soldiers prayed to her to protect their horses (and themselves) in battle. She is the protector of horses, stables, and horse owners. She is the guardian of agriculture and transportation. In addition, Epona has been associated with birds. Her birds were said to have the ability to put the living to sleep and to rouse the dead. She has also been pictured with cornucopias and baskets filled with fruits, especially apples and thus she has been linked to fertility.	<urn:uuid:9e0f1fb6-b2d9-4bc3-8fcd-6d1ad14564ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.taracelebrations.org/celebrations/other-notable-dates-and-festivals/october-to-december/18th-december-the-festival-of-epona	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00023.warc.gz	en	0.980298	466	3.46875	3	[ -0.13487854599952698, 0.2877819836139679, 0.35959115624427795, 0.7696108222007751, -0.5078548192977905, 0.23573653399944305, 0.17678529024124146, 0.11905957758426666, 0.3794175684452057, 0.48597845435142517, -0.4823327362537384, -0.8822491765022278, -0.20047448575496674, 0.1225057020783424...	7	18th December - The Festival of Epona Written by Anne Newman 17th December 2019 Known as Rhiannon in Wales, Macha in Ireland, Epona’s name comes from the Gaulish word epos (“horse”). This ancient horse goddess is one of the most well-known of all the Celtic gods and goddesses. Horses played an important role in Celtic society. Naturally, the protector of horses would play an equally important role. Epona translates as “divine mare” or “mare goddess”. Epona has been revered since the Iron Age. Small shrines, known as aediculae, were built in her honour by horse owners and often decorated with roses. More inscriptions, statues, and shrines dedicated to her have been found than for any other Celtic god or goddess. Even the Romans adopted this Celtic goddess. Epona has been revered since the Iron Age. She was also a giver of life, health, fertility and plenty, and a protectress of humans on the journey through death and on the Other Side. Her role as a psychopomp, or guide of souls, is clear from the way she is depicted in Gaulish cemeteries. At La Horge-au-Sablon, a burial ground of the Medioatrici at Metz, in eastern Gaul, images of Epona were offered by relatives of the deceased; one depicts the goddess on her mare, leading a mortal to the Otherworld. Epona is usually shown riding side-saddle on a mare or between twin horses. She was regarded as a patron by cavalrymen, including the Aedui, used as auxiliaries by Julius Caesar, and soldiers prayed to her to protect their horses (and themselves) in battle. She is the protector of horses, stables, and horse owners. She is the guardian of agriculture and transportation. In addition, Epona has been associated with birds. Her birds were said to have the ability to put the living to sleep and to rouse the dead. She has also been pictured with cornucopias and baskets filled with fruits, especially apples and thus she has been linked to fertility.	451	ENGLISH	1
The Burmese left no garrisons behind, and within a few months various small Thai principalities were formed, all claiming the inheritance of the King of Ayutthaya. However a general of half Chinese blood, Phya Taksin, soon defeated all his rivals, and as early as 1769, with the aid of the few loyal survivors of the catastrophe, he proclaimed himself King of the re-united land. For his new residence he selected Dhonburi on the right bank of the Menam, opposite Bangkok. Under his reign the reconquest of the vassal states begun; Chiang Mai was finally regained from the Burmese in 1775, and Luang Prabang and Vientiane had to recognise Thai suzerainty. In his later years Taksin fell victim to religious mania, and in a palace revolution of his ministers and generals he was deposed and condemned to death. Taksin’s chief general, Chao Phya Chakri, who had for some time been the real ruler but was at the moment away on a campaign in Cambodia, was crowned King on his return in 1782 as Rama I. He chose Bangkok as his capital, and began to adorn it with palaces and temples on the model of Ayutthaya. Rama I was the first King of the dynasty which still reigns in Thailand today. His full title was Somdetj Phra Buddha Yot Fa Chulalok, Rama I. He reigned from 1782 to 1809. During the first years after the fall of Ayutthaya the Thais made great efforts to restore their lost traditions. Following the accounts of survivors, the court ceremonial was re-established, and officials were ordered to follow the old laws. The re-codification of the laws was completed in 1805. 350 monks and laymen produced a new edition of the basic Buddhist rules and doctrines. The ancient Buddha figures were brought to Bangkok from the abandoned temples to embellish new monasteries, whose architecture closely followed older models. Rama I’s son ascended the throne as Somdetj Phra Buddha Loes La Nabhalai, Rama II and reigned until 1824. He was a highly gifted monarch, and devoted himself to preserving the few remains of Thai literature that had survived the fall of Ayutthaya. Under his son, Somdetj Phra Nang Klao, Rama III (1824-1851), new developments gradually took place, with less exclusive regard for the revival of tradition. Trade with China flourished, and Chinese merchants began to develop sugar plantations. Tin from the mines of the Malay peninsula became an important export. But the most decisive innovation was the, at first hesitant, re-opening of the country to western trade. A group of influential nobles under the leadership of Prince Mongkut aimed at the extensive introduction of western ideas. After the death of Rama III, Prince Mongkut was crowned King as Somdetj Phra Chom Klao, Rama IV. Before Mongkut succeeded to the throne on the death of his half-brother he had lived for 27 years in a Wat as a Buddhist monk. During this time he had learnt Latin and English, had familiarised himself with foreign customs, and had observed the cultural and political influence of Europe on the neighbouring states. He believed that Thailand could only maintain its sovereignty in the face of the colonial powers by adopting western methods. Accordingly, soon after his accession, he entered into diplomatic relations with the European powers and the U.S.A. In keeping with this, Thai trade, which had previously been subject to many restrictions, was much liberalised. A trade treaty was signed with Britain in 1855, and with France in 1856. Other states followed: Denmark, Portugal, Holland, Prussia (1862), Belgium, Italy, Sweden and Norway. During this period a currency was instituted, the first printing-press established and a government newspaper published. The King also supported Christian missionaries, whose services as teachers and doctors he appreciated. He had European teachers for his sons, and did all he could to spread western ideas. Finally, he promoted the codification of Thai law on western lines. Territorially, however, when France established a protectorate over Cambodia, he had to abandon his territories there with the exception of the provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap.	<urn:uuid:612c5775-d8cc-4563-8ac8-05f60f714023>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thailandtourist.net/about-thailand-tourism/thailand-history/history-of-thailand-bangkok/2330/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00053.warc.gz	en	0.982887	914	3.578125	4	[ -0.5126022696495056, 0.5705783367156982, 0.20016813278198242, -0.20917418599128723, -0.522705078125, 0.12977111339569092, 0.43399515748023987, -0.20755994319915771, -0.06126386672258377, -0.1354622095823288, 0.1341867744922638, -0.42305368185043335, 0.1626763492822647, 0.7685998678207397, ...	15	The Burmese left no garrisons behind, and within a few months various small Thai principalities were formed, all claiming the inheritance of the King of Ayutthaya. However a general of half Chinese blood, Phya Taksin, soon defeated all his rivals, and as early as 1769, with the aid of the few loyal survivors of the catastrophe, he proclaimed himself King of the re-united land. For his new residence he selected Dhonburi on the right bank of the Menam, opposite Bangkok. Under his reign the reconquest of the vassal states begun; Chiang Mai was finally regained from the Burmese in 1775, and Luang Prabang and Vientiane had to recognise Thai suzerainty. In his later years Taksin fell victim to religious mania, and in a palace revolution of his ministers and generals he was deposed and condemned to death. Taksin’s chief general, Chao Phya Chakri, who had for some time been the real ruler but was at the moment away on a campaign in Cambodia, was crowned King on his return in 1782 as Rama I. He chose Bangkok as his capital, and began to adorn it with palaces and temples on the model of Ayutthaya. Rama I was the first King of the dynasty which still reigns in Thailand today. His full title was Somdetj Phra Buddha Yot Fa Chulalok, Rama I. He reigned from 1782 to 1809. During the first years after the fall of Ayutthaya the Thais made great efforts to restore their lost traditions. Following the accounts of survivors, the court ceremonial was re-established, and officials were ordered to follow the old laws. The re-codification of the laws was completed in 1805. 350 monks and laymen produced a new edition of the basic Buddhist rules and doctrines. The ancient Buddha figures were brought to Bangkok from the abandoned temples to embellish new monasteries, whose architecture closely followed older models. Rama I’s son ascended the throne as Somdetj Phra Buddha Loes La Nabhalai, Rama II and reigned until 1824. He was a highly gifted monarch, and devoted himself to preserving the few remains of Thai literature that had survived the fall of Ayutthaya. Under his son, Somdetj Phra Nang Klao, Rama III (1824-1851), new developments gradually took place, with less exclusive regard for the revival of tradition. Trade with China flourished, and Chinese merchants began to develop sugar plantations. Tin from the mines of the Malay peninsula became an important export. But the most decisive innovation was the, at first hesitant, re-opening of the country to western trade. A group of influential nobles under the leadership of Prince Mongkut aimed at the extensive introduction of western ideas. After the death of Rama III, Prince Mongkut was crowned King as Somdetj Phra Chom Klao, Rama IV. Before Mongkut succeeded to the throne on the death of his half-brother he had lived for 27 years in a Wat as a Buddhist monk. During this time he had learnt Latin and English, had familiarised himself with foreign customs, and had observed the cultural and political influence of Europe on the neighbouring states. He believed that Thailand could only maintain its sovereignty in the face of the colonial powers by adopting western methods. Accordingly, soon after his accession, he entered into diplomatic relations with the European powers and the U.S.A. In keeping with this, Thai trade, which had previously been subject to many restrictions, was much liberalised. A trade treaty was signed with Britain in 1855, and with France in 1856. Other states followed: Denmark, Portugal, Holland, Prussia (1862), Belgium, Italy, Sweden and Norway. During this period a currency was instituted, the first printing-press established and a government newspaper published. The King also supported Christian missionaries, whose services as teachers and doctors he appreciated. He had European teachers for his sons, and did all he could to spread western ideas. Finally, he promoted the codification of Thai law on western lines. Territorially, however, when France established a protectorate over Cambodia, he had to abandon his territories there with the exception of the provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap.	940	ENGLISH	1
The Organisation of a Roman Legion The Second Legion, like all legions, comprised some five and a half thousand men. The basic unit was the century of eighty men commanded by a centurion with an optio acting as second in command. The century was divided into eight-man sections which shared a room together in barracks and a tent when on campaign. Six centuries made up a cohort, and ten cohorts made up a legion, with the first cohort being double-size. Each legion was accompanied by a cavalry unit of one hundred and twenty men, divided into four squadrons, who served as scouts and messengers. In descending order the main ranks were: The legate was a man from an aristocratic background. Typically in his mid-thirties, the legate would command the legion for up to five years and hope to make something of a name for himself in order to enhance his subsequent political career. The camp prefect would be a grizzled veteran who would previously have been the chief centurion of the legion and was at the summit of a professional soldier's career. He was armed with vast experience and integrity, and to him would fall the command of the legion should the legate be absent or hors de combat. Six tribunes served as staff officers. These would be men in their early twenties serving in the army for the first time to gain administrative experience before taking up junior posts in civil administration. The senior tribune was different. He was destined for high political office and eventual command of a legion. Sixty centurions provided the disciplinary and training backbone of the legion. They were hand-picked for their command qualities and a willingness to fight to the death. Accordingly their casualty rate far exceeded other ranks. The most senior centurion commanded the First Century of the First Cohort and was a highly decorated and respected individual. The four decurions of the legion commanded the cavalry squadrons and hoped for promotion to the command of auxiliary cavalry units. Each centurion was assisted by an optio who would act as an orderly, with minor command duties. Optios would be waiting for a vacancy in the centurionate. Below the optios were the legionaries, men who had signed on for twenty-five years. In theory, a man had to be a Roman citizen to qualify for enlistment, but recruits were increasingly drawn from local populations and given Roman citizenship on joining the legions. Lower in status than the legionaries were the men of the auxiliary cohorts. They were recruited from the provinces and provided the Roman Empire with its cavalry, light infantry and other specialist skills. Roman citizenship was awarded on completion of twenty-five years of service.	<urn:uuid:e7f9904d-1649-445c-8ee3-5f5832237e72>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/98153/1/Scarrow_-_When_the_Eagle_Hunts.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00543.warc.gz	en	0.984811	544	3.59375	4	[ -0.48341280221939087, 0.47640734910964966, 0.37835732102394104, -0.27385562658309937, -0.5668856501579285, -0.006905270740389824, -0.2227744460105896, 0.3715568780899048, 0.10353049635887146, -0.2513326406478882, 0.12917327880859375, -0.28070327639579773, -0.07316147536039352, 0.4303830564...	1	The Organisation of a Roman Legion The Second Legion, like all legions, comprised some five and a half thousand men. The basic unit was the century of eighty men commanded by a centurion with an optio acting as second in command. The century was divided into eight-man sections which shared a room together in barracks and a tent when on campaign. Six centuries made up a cohort, and ten cohorts made up a legion, with the first cohort being double-size. Each legion was accompanied by a cavalry unit of one hundred and twenty men, divided into four squadrons, who served as scouts and messengers. In descending order the main ranks were: The legate was a man from an aristocratic background. Typically in his mid-thirties, the legate would command the legion for up to five years and hope to make something of a name for himself in order to enhance his subsequent political career. The camp prefect would be a grizzled veteran who would previously have been the chief centurion of the legion and was at the summit of a professional soldier's career. He was armed with vast experience and integrity, and to him would fall the command of the legion should the legate be absent or hors de combat. Six tribunes served as staff officers. These would be men in their early twenties serving in the army for the first time to gain administrative experience before taking up junior posts in civil administration. The senior tribune was different. He was destined for high political office and eventual command of a legion. Sixty centurions provided the disciplinary and training backbone of the legion. They were hand-picked for their command qualities and a willingness to fight to the death. Accordingly their casualty rate far exceeded other ranks. The most senior centurion commanded the First Century of the First Cohort and was a highly decorated and respected individual. The four decurions of the legion commanded the cavalry squadrons and hoped for promotion to the command of auxiliary cavalry units. Each centurion was assisted by an optio who would act as an orderly, with minor command duties. Optios would be waiting for a vacancy in the centurionate. Below the optios were the legionaries, men who had signed on for twenty-five years. In theory, a man had to be a Roman citizen to qualify for enlistment, but recruits were increasingly drawn from local populations and given Roman citizenship on joining the legions. Lower in status than the legionaries were the men of the auxiliary cohorts. They were recruited from the provinces and provided the Roman Empire with its cavalry, light infantry and other specialist skills. Roman citizenship was awarded on completion of twenty-five years of service.	537	ENGLISH	1
Our own century appears to be such a time; our discomforts arise partly from our position in an age that we know is dying while we are in the dark about what will emerge. This should give us some understanding and fellow feeling for the people of fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Europe, who also lived in an age of crisis and upheaval, as the old yielded to the new. The distresses of the time resulted largely from the desperate resistance of entrenched ideas and institutions to the thrust of the different and unfamiliar. It was a time for expressing the African-American culture. Many famous people began their writing or gained their recognition during this time. Many things came about during the Harlem Renaissance; things such as jazz and blues, poetry, dance, and musical theater. The Great Migration of African-American people from the rural South to the North, and many into Harlem was the cause of this phenomenon. Harlem was originally a Dutch settlement. Harlem became one of the largest African- American communities in the United States, and during the Harlem Renaissance became a center for art and literature. Many great writers came about during this time, one of which was Langston Hughes. Hughes was born in with the name James Langston Hughes, and died in He lived most of his adult life in Harlem. He grew up without a stable family environment. His father moved to Mexico, and he never really saw much of him. Hughes had and still has a great influence on poetry. He wrote many poems, and continued to write even after the Harlem Renaissance. He loved Harlem that was his home. He watched it decline with the onset of the Great Depression. He saw Harlem turn into a place to be feared by many. It was a sad and dangerous place to be, after the depression. Langston Hughes valued the teaching of children. He often traveled to schools and read his poetry. He wanted to inspire the youth, and make them feel good about themselves. \|History of Europe - The Middle Ages \| barnweddingvt.com\|\|It was also a time of fear and superstition.\| He did not only write poetry, but that is what he is famous for. Much of his poetry talks of the hardships, poverty, inequality, etc. His work has inspired many people, and is read by many students and scholars. He is a great positive role model. I personally love his poetry. It describes these problems within our society that still have yet to be resolved. Hughes writes about how the African-American people have been all over the world. I think that this poem is showing how these people are everywhere. That in America we act as if they are subordinate, but he is saying to the white people, look at all my race has accomplished. This is a positive poem. It does not talk directly about racism nor puts down the white race for being prejudiced Lauter Even if he is sent to eat in the kitchen, he is as much a part as anyone else. One day he will not be made to hide and eat in the kitchen. One day people will see that African-Americans are beautiful people, and will be ashamed of how they were treated. This poem gives hope to the black community. It makes them yearn for the day when equality will come and racism will end. Too bad that the day has still not yet come in this century Lauter He wonders what happens to dreams that are deferred. How long must one still dream of something that seems like it will never come. The African-American people have been waiting to be seen as equal for many years, yet it still seems so out of reach. His poetry seems to address this over and over again Lauter To disown their heritage in a way and become part of white America. He talks about how they should learn to appreciate their diversity and their culture. The blacks should be proud of their individuality. He thinks that many blacks are taught by white teachers, see white books and pictures, white papers, and then want to be what they are seeing.Welcome to barnweddingvt.com Medieval castles in Europe were built over a period of more than years - from around AD to AD. Indeed they were built so well that many medieval castles (or at the very least their ruins) can still be seen today - a . Capturing the energy of the nation's capital, Renaissance Washington, DC Downtown Hotel is a superior destination for business and leisure travel. Explore some of the country's most celebrated attractions, including the White House and the National Mall. In C.E., Pepin of Heristal, a Merovingian ruler, united the Frankish territories and centered his kingdom in Belgium and other Rhine regions. His son, Charles Martel, took over after he died and formed an alliance with the Church which helped the Merovingian Dynasty (and Christianity) to . The Renaissance, meaning a?re-birth,. was a time of many changes. These changes wrought pandemonium among the civilized people of earth. There was a recovery and discovery of medieval texts in which scholars were deeply impressed by. Continuity & Change Over Time (CCOT) Essay Europe Taylor Question: analyze the social and economic continuities and changes that occurred in Europe between and During the time period between and The Renaissance gave birth to a renewed interest in culture and a glorification of the human body. Notables such as Martin Luther and John Locke espoused the theory that high fitness levels enhanced intellectual learning.	<urn:uuid:9985dcda-01f2-4284-aeb5-7e6cbb569c49>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://halyfococi.barnweddingvt.com/change-over-time-renaissance-500-c-e-4643jv.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00549.warc.gz	en	0.985744	1,126	3.671875	4	[ -0.3649083375930786, 0.2913273274898529, 0.41724252700805664, 0.23948147892951965, -0.08734253793954849, 0.3511166572570801, 0.14515775442123413, -0.03810524195432663, -0.2269769310951233, -0.12447710335254669, 0.14367645978927612, 0.2798740565776825, -0.06148861348628998, 0.27849745750427...	1	Our own century appears to be such a time; our discomforts arise partly from our position in an age that we know is dying while we are in the dark about what will emerge. This should give us some understanding and fellow feeling for the people of fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Europe, who also lived in an age of crisis and upheaval, as the old yielded to the new. The distresses of the time resulted largely from the desperate resistance of entrenched ideas and institutions to the thrust of the different and unfamiliar. It was a time for expressing the African-American culture. Many famous people began their writing or gained their recognition during this time. Many things came about during the Harlem Renaissance; things such as jazz and blues, poetry, dance, and musical theater. The Great Migration of African-American people from the rural South to the North, and many into Harlem was the cause of this phenomenon. Harlem was originally a Dutch settlement. Harlem became one of the largest African- American communities in the United States, and during the Harlem Renaissance became a center for art and literature. Many great writers came about during this time, one of which was Langston Hughes. Hughes was born in with the name James Langston Hughes, and died in He lived most of his adult life in Harlem. He grew up without a stable family environment. His father moved to Mexico, and he never really saw much of him. Hughes had and still has a great influence on poetry. He wrote many poems, and continued to write even after the Harlem Renaissance. He loved Harlem that was his home. He watched it decline with the onset of the Great Depression. He saw Harlem turn into a place to be feared by many. It was a sad and dangerous place to be, after the depression. Langston Hughes valued the teaching of children. He often traveled to schools and read his poetry. He wanted to inspire the youth, and make them feel good about themselves. \|History of Europe - The Middle Ages \| barnweddingvt.com\|\|It was also a time of fear and superstition.\| He did not only write poetry, but that is what he is famous for. Much of his poetry talks of the hardships, poverty, inequality, etc. His work has inspired many people, and is read by many students and scholars. He is a great positive role model. I personally love his poetry. It describes these problems within our society that still have yet to be resolved. Hughes writes about how the African-American people have been all over the world. I think that this poem is showing how these people are everywhere. That in America we act as if they are subordinate, but he is saying to the white people, look at all my race has accomplished. This is a positive poem. It does not talk directly about racism nor puts down the white race for being prejudiced Lauter Even if he is sent to eat in the kitchen, he is as much a part as anyone else. One day he will not be made to hide and eat in the kitchen. One day people will see that African-Americans are beautiful people, and will be ashamed of how they were treated. This poem gives hope to the black community. It makes them yearn for the day when equality will come and racism will end. Too bad that the day has still not yet come in this century Lauter He wonders what happens to dreams that are deferred. How long must one still dream of something that seems like it will never come. The African-American people have been waiting to be seen as equal for many years, yet it still seems so out of reach. His poetry seems to address this over and over again Lauter To disown their heritage in a way and become part of white America. He talks about how they should learn to appreciate their diversity and their culture. The blacks should be proud of their individuality. He thinks that many blacks are taught by white teachers, see white books and pictures, white papers, and then want to be what they are seeing.Welcome to barnweddingvt.com Medieval castles in Europe were built over a period of more than years - from around AD to AD. Indeed they were built so well that many medieval castles (or at the very least their ruins) can still be seen today - a . Capturing the energy of the nation's capital, Renaissance Washington, DC Downtown Hotel is a superior destination for business and leisure travel. Explore some of the country's most celebrated attractions, including the White House and the National Mall. In C.E., Pepin of Heristal, a Merovingian ruler, united the Frankish territories and centered his kingdom in Belgium and other Rhine regions. His son, Charles Martel, took over after he died and formed an alliance with the Church which helped the Merovingian Dynasty (and Christianity) to . The Renaissance, meaning a?re-birth,. was a time of many changes. These changes wrought pandemonium among the civilized people of earth. There was a recovery and discovery of medieval texts in which scholars were deeply impressed by. Continuity & Change Over Time (CCOT) Essay Europe Taylor Question: analyze the social and economic continuities and changes that occurred in Europe between and During the time period between and The Renaissance gave birth to a renewed interest in culture and a glorification of the human body. Notables such as Martin Luther and John Locke espoused the theory that high fitness levels enhanced intellectual learning.	1,099	ENGLISH	1
Previous Challenge Entry (Level 2 – Intermediate) Topic: Illustrate the meaning of “All that Glitters is Not Gold” (without using the actual phrase or literal example). (01/24/08) - TITLE: A TRIBUTE TO GRANDPA By Sylvia Hensel LEAVE COMMENT ON ARTICLE SEND A PRIVATE COMMENT ADD TO MY FAVORITES Grandpa was born in the late mid l800’s and grew up with stories of the great wealth to be found in America. His lived on a farm in a small village in Italy which was very poor and where everyone strove to make a living at whatever they could. Many had decided to find their fortune in this land of promise and worked hard to save for passage to travel there. My grandpa dreamed of the day when he too would make the trip to America. It took many years, but the day came when he had enough for the fare and a little more to hold him over till he found his fortune. He would then to return to Italy and bring his family back to his new home in this promise land. When they docked in New York City, he excitedly left the ship eager to see for himself the truth of all he hade heard. What he found was not streets of gold, but streets littered with garbage and sewage. The disappointment was almost unbearable. Jobs were nearly non-existent and it wasn’t long before his meager savings were gone. Not knowing what to do, he turned to the one place where he knew he could count on for help, his church. To his utter disbelief, they refused to help in any way and turned him out. He was a broken man. His concerns for his physical needs were nothing compared to his need to know that God still loved him, for he felt it was God Himself that had abandoned him. He walked the streets of New York City not knowing where to go. As he walked, he heard music playing and made his way to a street corner where a small band, consisting of a drum, tambourine and trumpet were playing. He stayed and listened, not only to the music, but to the message preached. When everyone left, he stayed to talk with the group who had ministered. They invited him to come with them to the shelter where they fed and housed him and continued to preach the Word to him. Soon, he received Christ as his Savior and in due time, he himself became a Salvation Army minister and began preaching on the streets of New York. A few years later he returned to Italy. He converted the entire village. It was said of him, that he would go out in the fields and while he worked, he would praise the Lord so loudly he could be heard throughout the village. Grandpa never made it back to America, but three of his daughters did, one being my mother. I never had the opportunity to meet or ever talked with my grandpa. This story is all I have of him. I have always cherished it and it gives me great pleasure to share it with you. My grandpa’s dream was to bring his family to his new home in the promise land. His dream is coming true because he laid a firm foundation through daily prayer for his family’s salvation, not for his immediate family only, but for seven generations to come. I am the third generation and my daughter the fourth and we in turn, along with our husbands, are praying for seven more. His dream continues to live. Bye for now, grandpa. I love you. See you at home. The opinions expressed by authors may not necessarily reflect the opinion of FaithWriters.com. If you died today, are you absolutely certain that you would go to heaven? You can be right now. CLICK HERE JOIN US at FaithWriters for Free. Grow as a Writer and Spread the Gospel.	<urn:uuid:bc36eee1-d7e8-4f07-b7b9-1f91ab58ec84>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.faithwriters.com/wc-article-level2-previous.php?id=20920	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00391.warc.gz	en	0.992294	815	3.359375	3	[ -0.3488120436668396, 0.11733274161815643, -0.07524757087230682, 0.06564464420080185, -0.211994931101799, 0.040127966552972794, 0.29246240854263306, 0.1222556084394455, -0.23368118703365326, -0.14901621639728546, 0.38665658235549927, 0.1800818145275116, 0.2065509557723999, 0.330047965049743...	1	Previous Challenge Entry (Level 2 – Intermediate) Topic: Illustrate the meaning of “All that Glitters is Not Gold” (without using the actual phrase or literal example). (01/24/08) - TITLE: A TRIBUTE TO GRANDPA By Sylvia Hensel LEAVE COMMENT ON ARTICLE SEND A PRIVATE COMMENT ADD TO MY FAVORITES Grandpa was born in the late mid l800’s and grew up with stories of the great wealth to be found in America. His lived on a farm in a small village in Italy which was very poor and where everyone strove to make a living at whatever they could. Many had decided to find their fortune in this land of promise and worked hard to save for passage to travel there. My grandpa dreamed of the day when he too would make the trip to America. It took many years, but the day came when he had enough for the fare and a little more to hold him over till he found his fortune. He would then to return to Italy and bring his family back to his new home in this promise land. When they docked in New York City, he excitedly left the ship eager to see for himself the truth of all he hade heard. What he found was not streets of gold, but streets littered with garbage and sewage. The disappointment was almost unbearable. Jobs were nearly non-existent and it wasn’t long before his meager savings were gone. Not knowing what to do, he turned to the one place where he knew he could count on for help, his church. To his utter disbelief, they refused to help in any way and turned him out. He was a broken man. His concerns for his physical needs were nothing compared to his need to know that God still loved him, for he felt it was God Himself that had abandoned him. He walked the streets of New York City not knowing where to go. As he walked, he heard music playing and made his way to a street corner where a small band, consisting of a drum, tambourine and trumpet were playing. He stayed and listened, not only to the music, but to the message preached. When everyone left, he stayed to talk with the group who had ministered. They invited him to come with them to the shelter where they fed and housed him and continued to preach the Word to him. Soon, he received Christ as his Savior and in due time, he himself became a Salvation Army minister and began preaching on the streets of New York. A few years later he returned to Italy. He converted the entire village. It was said of him, that he would go out in the fields and while he worked, he would praise the Lord so loudly he could be heard throughout the village. Grandpa never made it back to America, but three of his daughters did, one being my mother. I never had the opportunity to meet or ever talked with my grandpa. This story is all I have of him. I have always cherished it and it gives me great pleasure to share it with you. My grandpa’s dream was to bring his family to his new home in the promise land. His dream is coming true because he laid a firm foundation through daily prayer for his family’s salvation, not for his immediate family only, but for seven generations to come. I am the third generation and my daughter the fourth and we in turn, along with our husbands, are praying for seven more. His dream continues to live. Bye for now, grandpa. I love you. See you at home. The opinions expressed by authors may not necessarily reflect the opinion of FaithWriters.com. If you died today, are you absolutely certain that you would go to heaven? You can be right now. CLICK HERE JOIN US at FaithWriters for Free. Grow as a Writer and Spread the Gospel.	788	ENGLISH	1
To Kill a Mockingbird Chapters 1-3 Questions 1. What does it mean to “act responsibly? ” Explain what a person needs to do to “act responsibly” in the 1930’s in Maycomb, Alabama? Acting responsibly basically means that you have to do the right thing no matter what the situation, and you have to be mature and act your age even when you might not like doing so. In the 1930s in Maycomb, Alabama if you were a woman, for example, you would need to stay home and cook the food and clean for the family. You would just always have to know your place and what was morally correct to make any decision. 2. Who can people relate to in Maycomb, Alabama? Identify your impressions of Dill, Calpurnia, Jem, the narrator, Atticus, the Radleys, Miss Stephanie Crawford, and Miss Caroline Fisher. Dill seems a little immature. Calpurnia was the family cook who seemed trustworthy, yet different than the other characters. Jem seems childlike, although he is (later to be found out) more mature than Scout. The narrator (Scout, we find out later) seems very childlike but has keen senses. Atticus is compassionate, understanding, and supportive. The Radleys seem mysterious, along with The Radley Place. Miss Stephanie Crawford is a gossiping know-it-all neighbor. Miss Caroline Fisher seems genuine. 3. What are some essential family values and family history that have shaped the people in this community? Love, happiness, and being happy were core values. Family essentials were making sure everyone in the family helped out with everything, each pulling their own weight to get things done, which was much harder in the 1930s without technology. 4. What behaviors are accepted in the Maycomb community? What behaviors are not acceptable in the community? Many behaviors were acceptable that we would not consider acceptable today. The questioning of a white lawyer taking the case of a black man was acceptable in Maycomb. Therefore, the reactions of the community to Atticus were also behaviors that were seen as acceptable. Also, Aunt Alexandra’s demanding of Scout to be a “proper young lady” is also acceptable. Therefore, women are only really seen as acceptable if they obey the stereotypes. What Maycomb believes is not acceptable is taking the law into your own hands. 5. Which characters inform Scout about proper behavior? How do these characters tell her to act? Aunt Alexandra. She tells Scout that she should be a proper lady since she is growing up. She says that she should attend the ladies’ social events in the Maycomb area. She is also supposed to wear dresses and not dress or play like the boys do. 6. What is Walter Cunningham like? What does his behavior during lunch suggest about his home life? Walter Cunningham and his family were very poor people. He didn’t have money for lunch, he was very dirty, and didn’t appear to have manners or formal education. When he poured all the syrup all over all of his food, you can assume that he doesn’t get luxuries like syrup very often since he and his family do not have much. Scout made fun of him and probably thought he was really strange. 7. Describe Miss Caroline’s interactions with Burris Ewell. What does this suggest about Miss Caroline? What does this suggest about the Ewells? Burris disobeys the class rules, so Miss Caroline asks him to come in front of the room and put his hands out. She whips his hands with a ruler several time. Is suggest she is harsh and he is disobedient. 8. What do you think of the way Atticus treats Walter? Atticus treats Walter with upmost respect. He knows of his shy ways and goes out of his way to accommodate him. 9. Does Scout learn anything from Walter’s visit? What do you think this is? Yes. Scout was taught not to be mean to the poor kids, which translates into the life lesson of learning at an early age not to “judge a book by the cover”, which applies to people, too. Additionally, she is taught not to belittle others due to their circumstances. 10. Atticus says that you never really understand a person “until you climb into his skin and walk around in it. ” What does this mean? What does this suggest about Atticus? Is it an easy thing for Scout to learn? It means that you can’t judge a person until you put yourself into their situation. This suggests that Atticus is very understanding, empathetic, compassionate person when it comes to understanding others. I don’t think that this is easy for Scout to learn because she is young and somewhat childlike. Chapter 4 Questions 11. What does Scout think of current fashions in education? What do her opinions reveal about Scout’s character? Scout doesn’t like the current system of learning. She thinks it’s useless because she knows everything the way Atticus already taught her. It reveals that she is impatient and immature. 12. What risky behavior do Scout and Jem engage in? Jem and Scout go to the Boo Radley house and try to sneak up on him to see what he is up to. 13. Why do the children make Boo’s story into a game? I think that Jem and Scout made Boo Radley’s story into a game because it would help them get over being afraid of him after they rolled the tire right up to the porch. I think they made up the game to know more about him, but maybe also to make fun of him. 14. How does Atticus react to the game? What does his reaction tell us about his character? Atticus did not like the game. He told them to quit playing it. He told them to mind their own business. This shows that he is an honest and respectable man. 15. Identify at least 2 slang words/phrases appropriate to the 1930’s in Maycomb, Alabama. Translate these words/phrases into today’s language. Loot is now called money and reckon means to think or to have a hunch or an idea. Chapter 5 Questions 16. Describe the relationship between Dill and Scout. Include how he treats her and how she reacts to his treatment. How is this treatment typical and atypical (not typical) of this setting? Dill really likes Scout and he asked her to marry him. Then he forgets that he asked her to marry him. She beats him up. Then, when he is about to leave, he tells her he will always love his. This is pretty typical of kids in a game sort of way. 17. Characterize Miss Maudie Atkinson (characterization = personality traits, actions, thoughts/feelings, other people’s points of view). How typical is she of Maycomb’s women? What do the children think of her? Miss Maudie Atkinson is not like the other women of Maycomb in that she treats them kindly and avoids patronizing them. She is a supportive of Atticus and his efforts in defending Tom, which does not always make the rest of the community like her, but it does mean that the kids will respect and trust her. 8. What reasons does Atticus give for the children not to play the Boo Radley game? Do you think he is right? Why? Atticus tells Jem, Dill, and Scout that they will give everyone the wrong idea about Boo Radley. No I don’t think that Atticus was right because it’s just a game and the kids honestly probably don’t think of it that way, plus the adults should not make judgments based on the kids’ game. Chapter 6 Questions 19. What kind of risky activity do Scout, Jem and Dill engage in? Explain their cover-up (how they avoid being caught). Scout, Dill, and Jem go onto the Radley property to try to see inside. They hear a noise and get scared and run back. Then when Jem is getting under the fence, his pants get stuck. He could not get them out so he just left them there and kept running home. They hear a gunshot, so they run back to see the neighbors gathered around the Radley place. To cover-up, they ask what is going on and play dumb like they don’t know what’s happening. 20. Who is blamed for trespassing on the Radley Place? What does this blame reveal about the setting (time and place) of the novel? They blame an African American for trespassing. It was a time period when racism was a huge issues. 1. What causes fear in the hearts of Scout and Jem? They are very fearful of what may happen to their father even though they do not completely understand. Chapter 7 Questions 22. Does Jem still fear the gifts in the tree? Give reasons for your answer. At first, Jem is scared of the gifts from the tree. He is scared because everyone says anything off of the Radley place is poisoned. After a while, he is not scared, because when Scout ate from the tree she didn’t die. 23. When the children plan to send a letter to the person who leaves the gifts, they are prevented. How does this happen? Who does it, and why might he do so? They are stopped by the cement that was put in the hole in the tree. Mr. Avery did that because the tree was unhealthy and he didn’t want it to rot. He probably didn’t want the kids to find the items in the tree. 24. Can you find any evidence that Jem is more mature and wise (intelligence and awareness that comes with age/experience) than Scout? Provide at least one example that supports your answer. It really just seems like Jem acts like a child most of the time instead of asking his age, to me. He ran from the Radley place, which was a bravery challenge. If he was wise and more mature he would know that is was stupid and would have not ran or been wise enough to not play the Boo Radley game at all to begin with. All of his knowledge seems to be from school and book smarts, and he doesn’t even seem to have too much of that. Chapter 8 Questions 25. Identify at least two details in this chapter that reveal the setting (time period and place) of this novel. You can tell that is was in this time period because there is a lot of racism towards the African American people and there are really high levels of expectations for children. 26. Why is Jem’s snowman creation so unacceptable to both Atticus and Miss Maudie? Because the snowman was black and they thought that it was probably mocking Boo Radley. 27. What does the fire at Miss Maudie’s house reveal about the people living in Alabama in the 1930s? It revealed that there were some very nice people in the area who helped her out in her time of need and who cared about her. 28. Besides Atticus, identify a new character who supports Jem and Scout. Provide evidence to support this character’s benevolent spirit. Uncle is one of the new characters who support Jem and Scout. He is helpful and nice to them. Chapter 9 Questions 29. Why does Atticus feel he should defend Tom Robinson? Is it usual for (white) lawyers to do their best for black clients in Alabama during this time period? Atticus feels he should defend Tom Robinson because he thinks that Mr. Robinson is no different than anyone else. This is an outrage in Alabama. The reason for this is because of the very racial time period that the story is set in. 30. Scout and Jem have “mixed feelings” about Christmas. What are these feelings and why do they feel this way? Jem and Scout bother like the tree and Uncle Jack Finch, but they both hate seeing their Aunt Alexandra, their Uncle Jimmy, and their cousin Francis. They hate Uncle Jimmy because he is to quiet and is not fun at all while their aunt is so proper that she drives them nuts. As for Francis, he is just spoiled and Jem and Scout do not care for him either. 31. Uncle Jack Finch tells Scout that she is growing out of her pants. What does this mean and why might he say it? Scout is acting older, and growing out of her immaturity. She is also become more of a lady than a tomboy kid. She was never raised as a girly girl because there wasn’t a mother or female figure of authority, but she is growing into her womanhood all on her own. 32. Describe Aunt Alexandra and explain her negative feelings about Scout. How does Aunt Alexandra perpetuate (promote and continue) stereotypes? She doesn’t like that Scout is a tomboy and not a formal proper woman. That is a complete stereotype that she is describing. She tried to make Scout someone that she’s not. 33. Does Scout learn anything form overhearing Atticus’s conversation with Uncle Jack? What might this be? Yes, she overhears that Tom Robinson is innocent but doomed. 34. Explain at least two examples that reveal Atticus’s parenting skills. Hint: What is Atticus trying to teach his children, Jem and Scout? Atticus is trying to teach his children fairness. When Uncle Jack punishes Scout, she gets really mad because Atticus listens to both sides of the story before making a decision. When he tells Scout that he couldn’t go to church and worship Go if he didn’t try and help Tom, he’s showing his children what integrity is. Chapter 10 Questions 35. Scout says that “Atticus was feeble” (weak). Do you think that this is her view as she tells the story or her view when she was younger? Does she still think this after the events recorded in this chapter? Why/Why not? I think her view of Atticus being feeble was when she was younger. She doesn’t think this after the events are recorded in this chapter though. She doesn’t think this because she finds out that there are different ways to be strong other than physical strength. 36. In this chapter Atticus tells his children that “it’s a sin to kill a mockingbird” (p. 90). What reason does he give for saying this? Atticus says that mockingbirds never do anything wrong. That all they ever do is provide them with good music. Therefore, it is a sin to kill a mockingbird. 37. What does the shooting of Tim Johnson reveal about Heck Tate and Atticus? It shows how each views the racial issues in the book. How Atticus is against discrimination and that Heck really doesn’t care. 38. Jem and Scout have different views about telling people at school how well Atticus can shoot. Explain this difference. Which view is closer to your own? Scout wants to go to school and tell everyone that her dad was a great shooter. Jem says no, it’s not a good idea. He says that if Atticus hadn’t told them so far there must be a good reason that he didn’t want other people to know. My opinion favors Jem’s. I would not go tell everyone without permission. Chapter 11 Questions 39. How does Atticus advise Jem to react to Mrs. Dubose’s taunts? He tells them not to take them seriously and that she is just pestering them, but Jem does not listen to Atticus. 40. Characterize Mrs. Dubose. Characterization includes personality traits, actions, thoughts/feelings, and other people’s points of view. She seems odd and bitter. I wouldn’t want to meet her. She seems that even though she is sick she doesn’t have to nag and make fun of people or call them names. 41. What request does Mrs. Dubose make of Jem? What does Mrs. Dubose gain from this “punishment” to Jem? What does Jem gain? Mrs. Dubose asks Jem to come to her house every day after school and read to her. She also wants him to fix her plants. She gains company whereas Jem gains respect and learns how to “keep his head” better when people say things that he doesn’t approve of or doesn’t agree with. 42. What does Atticus teach Jem and Scout about understanding antagonizing and belittling language and people like Mrs. Dubose? Atticus teaches Jem and Scout that they need to walk a mile in the other person’s shoes before judging and sometimes there are other circumstances unknown to the person. 43. Chapters ten and eleven are the last two chapters in the first part of the book. Explain why Harper Lee chooses to end the first part here. Chapter 10 and 11 of this book prove to be a turning point in the lives of Atticus’s children. In Chapter 10, Jem and Scout discover that Atticus is not “feeble” and has humility and marksmanship. Chapter 11 is important in Jem’s maturing and growing up. He learns a lot from his visit with Mrs. Dubose. Chapter 12 Questions 44. Briefly explain Jem’s and Scout’s visit to the First Purchase church (Calpurnia’s church). What do people think/feel about them? How do they feel about this experience? The black people there hate white people. 45. What new things to Scout and Jem learn at this church about how the black people live? They learn that blacks are not well educated and most of them cannot read. They don’t have hymn books in the church because there is no need since the people can’t read them. 46. Describe Calpurnia’s education and her son’s education – refer to their literacy. Calpurnia and her son have very good education compared to the rest of their church. They are two out of the three people who were able to read in their church. Since they learned from a book of commentaries called “Blackstone’s Commentaries”, and the writer knew fine English, then they could probably speak and write just as well as Aunt Alexandra. 7. Explain why Calpurnia speaks differently in the Finch household, and among her neighbors at church. How is language different in a workplace and in a social setting and/or around family? Calpurnia speaks differently at home, and with Jem and Scout because she has to fit in with both of the groups. Calpurnia has to be formal and proper at her workplace, and doesn’t want to influence Jem and Scout by talking badly, and influencing their education. With friends and family and members of the church, she has to talk like them to fit in and not make them feel bad or like she is better than them or above them. Chapter 13 Questions 48. Why does Aunt Alexandra come to stay with Atticus and his family? What is she like? Aunt Alexandra comes to stay with Atticus and his family because Atticus has to work during the summer and he can’t be home to watch Jem and Scout. Aunt Alexandra is a very proper person and can be very harsh and insensitive. She wants them to be more proper, too. 49. Read the first two things Alexandra says when she comes to stay at the Finch house. Are these typical of her or not? She says “Put my bad in the front bedroom, Calpurnia”. This is typical of her because she is being bossy and giving instructions. Then she says “Jem Louise, stop scratching your head” which was also very typical of her since she was correcting him in an effort to make him more proper. 50. Alexandra things Scout is dullI (not clever). Why does she think this, and is she right? Are all adults good at knowing how clever young people are? She understands and sees that Scout is still childlike and doesn’t know when to keep her mouth shut. I think she’s right. Not all adults are good at this but most of them are when children are at a younger age. 51. How does Aunt Alexandra involve herself in Maycomb’s social life? She has a good social life there. She knows and talks to everyone. She acts like a high-class aristocrat. She has lunch with all the ladies in Maycomb and invites them over for a tea party. 52. Comment on Aunt Alexandra’s ideas about breeding and family. Why does Atticus tell them to forget it? Who is right, do you think? Aunt Alexandra is attempting to be very proud of her family, whereas Atticus tries to lessen the influence of the family by emphasizing the right of each person to be an individual. The ideas of the Old South is contrasted her with the New South. She’s a snob worried about history and heritage. She has deep roots. I think family is important but there is no need to be a snob about who you are and where you come from because in the end we are all equal. Chapter 14 Questions 53. Who does Scout find hiding under bed? Why is this person hiding in the Finch home? Scout finds Dill hiding under the bed. He is hiding there because of his dad. He is mean to Dill and dislikes him. He put him in a cellar and locked him up until a guy came and got him out. He is at the Finch home so he can stay with the Finch family while he is hiding. 54. Why is Jem considered a “traitor”? Why is he also considered a maturing, more responsible young man? He told Atticus that Dill was there when Dill didn’t want anyone to know. He had felt he had betrayed Dill. He also did a very responsible thing by not hiding it. If he had hidden it there would have been many more problems to follow. Chapter 15 Questions 55. Describe Jem’s behavior when he confronts Atticus at the jailhouse and also meets a mob of hostile men. Jem doesn’t want to take Scout home when Atticus tells him to. He didn’t listen to his father very well. He is scared that his father might get hurt. 56. Describe Scout’s behavior in the setting mentioned above. Scout’s behavior showed how she was raised. She acted like nothing bad happened and calmed down the mob. Chapter 16 Questions 57. Describe how the Maycomb people act at the courthouse square – when they arrive to view the trial of Tom Robinson. The Maycomb people at the courthouse acted with, if you will, the white woman, Mayella Ewell, who was supposedly raped by Tom Robinson. They acted this way because most people at that time were racist. Many of them wanted Tom Robinson put in jail because Mayella’s innocent appearance tricked the people, making her look pitiful, victimized, and helpless and making Tom look guilty and bad. 8. Where do Jem, Scout and Dill sit in the courthouse? Why is this significant? Jem, Scout, and Dill all sit with the black people at the top of the courthouse. This is significant because their father, Atticus, is a white lawyer defending a black man. Normally white kids would not sit with the black people in the courthouse, only with other white people. Chapter 17 Questions 59. Describe Tom Robinson’s alleged crime, as told by Bob Ewell and Heck Tate. He is accused of raping Mayella Ewell. He apparently got inside of her home and beat and “took advantage of her”. 60. What evidence does Atticus reveal about Bob Ewell that may find him guilty of Tom Robinson’s alleged crime? Atticus was asking Bob Ewell some questions that may have revealed that he is guilty. He had him write his name and found out that he was left handed. He found out that Tom Robinson couldn’t move his left hand. Mayella had told Atticus that she was beaten mostly on her right side of her face. Someone that was left handed would have had to beat her on the right side. 61. Characterize Bob Ewell (describe his actions, language/speech, and other people’s points of view). Bob is certainly the most evil character in the book. He is crude, rude, and socially unacceptable. He beats his daughter and even possibly rapes her. He fails to properly provide for his children or make sure that they go to school as they should. He falsely accuses Tom of assaulting Mayella, his daughter, and then stalks Tom’s wife. Chapter 18 Questions 62. Characterize Mayella on the witness stand. Remember, characterization includes personality traits, actions, thoughts/feelings, language/speech, and other people’s points of view. What are your opinions of her? Explain. Mayella Ewell seemed really scared and angry when Atticus is asking her questions about the crime. She was also really nervous. She starts to act aggressively and defensive towards Atticus, and she starts yelling at him. I think that Mayella Ewell doesn’t know what to say while she’s up there because her dad made her believe a lie. 63. Comparison: How are Mayella and her father similar? Contrast: How are they different? Mayella and her father are both alike because they both have poor speech and both dropped out of school. The also both have similar appearances and ideas, like that they both hate Tom Robinson. In contrast, apparently Bob is lazy and Mayella is hardworking in that she seems to be the one doing all the work around the house. 64. How does Mayella incriminate her father on the witness stand? Why does this help Tom Robinson’s case? Mayella tells them that he is tolerable except when he drinks. It helps Tom’s case because then they have a reason to believe that he could have come home drunk and beaten Mayella. If that was true then that would explain all of the bruises around Mayella’s neck. Chapter 19 Questions 65. How does Tom Robinson’s testimony help his case? How does his testimony hurt his case? Tom Robinson’s testimony helps his case because he stays calm the whole time he’s answering questions up on the witness stand. His testimony also went along with the evidence that Atticus uncovered about Tom and his one good hand. It hurt his case because Bob Ewell and Heck Tate made is seem like Tom wanted to rape Mayella Ewell. 66. Which characters have courage to break society’s code of ethics for this setting? Explain their courageous acts. The jury. They know Tom is not guilty. But they are scared to say something. They don’t want to be hated. Chapter 20 Questions 67. How does Atticus’s closing statement help his defendant, Tom Robinson? How does his closing statement hurt his defendant? His closing statement was very thought out but not as powerful. I think he might have helped when he discussed how all men are created equal and therefore should be treated equally. 68. How do you think the jury will react to Atticus’s closing statement? Explain your reasoning. I think that Atticus’s last statement will make the jury think. I think that the jury will decided that Tom is going to lose because there wasn’t enough evidence to help Tom. I don’t think the last statement was strong enough compared to the rest of the case. Chapter 21 Questions 69. Who believes that Tom Robinson has a chance at being set free? Why do they believe this? Atticus, Jem, and Scout are some of the people who believe that Tom Robinson has a chance. 70. Why do Reverend Sykes and the rest of the African American spectators stand for Atticus, even after his defendant Tom was found guilty? Reverend Sykes and the rest of the African American spectators stand for Atticus because they know that he tried his absolute hardest to get Tom freed even though it was a very hard case to defend due to the severe racial issues of the era. They know that Atticus is fair and doesn’t judge people, especially not based on their color as all the people of that time did. Chapter 22 Questions 71. Explain how Atticus’s character has influenced Jem. Identify evidence that supports Jem’s reaction to the guilty verdict. Like a lot of little boys, Jem wants to be just like his father, Atticus. Atticus wants to win the case, so Jem wasn’t happy when Atticus lost his case. Atticus was confident, so Jem was also. Therefore he was upset and disappointed by the verdict. 72. How do the children (Jem, Scout, and Dill) deal with the outcome of the trial? What do their coping mechanisms reveal about each one of them? Jem, Scout, and Dill are sad and angry with the verdict because they felt that Atticus fought a good fight and proved Tom innocent. The verdict made them angry because it didn’t go their way. Dill gets mad and frustrated with people. Jem just doesn’t want to talk about it at all. Scout on the other hand wants to talk about it and try to learn more about what is going on. 73. How do the adults (Atticus, Miss Rachel, Calpurnia, Aunt Alexandra, Miss Stephanie, Miss Maudie, and Bob Ewell) deal with the outcome of the trial? What do their reactions and comments reveal about each of their characters? Atticus reaches a point of frustration immediately after the trial, but his usual optimism returns the next day when he begins discussing appeals. Miss Maudie makes Jem aware of an entire network of people who were quietly working in Tom Robinson’s favor. Aunt Alexandra is humbled and truly sorry for Atticus’s failure. Miss Stephanie was a busy body and a gossiper, and still is. Bob Ewell is pleased. Chapter 23 Questions 74. How did Bob Ewell confront Atticus? How did Atticus react? What does Atticus’s reaction reveal about his character? Bob Ewell spit in Atticus’s face, and cursed him. He said that he was going to kill him. He asked Atticus if he was too proud to fight and Atticus said he was too old to fight. This reveals that Atticus is realistic, sensible, and calm. 75. What does circumstantial evidence mean in terms of Tom’s trial? Things that aren’t officially proved, but are obviously there. 76. Why don’t Maycomb citizens sit on juries in their town? They do not want to do jury duty because they are scared that if they choose innocent that people will go after them. Then if they choose guilty the defendant will go after them. 77. Why does Scout want to befriend Walter Cunningham now (after learning more about the inner workings of the trail)? Scout wants to befriend him because she realized that she should be nicer to other people, even when they are different than her. But Aunt Alexandra says that she should not befriend him because he isn’t their kind of people. 78. Why does Aunt Alexandra accept that the Cunningham’s may be good but are not “our kind of folks”? Do you think that people should mix only with others of the same social class and/or race? And class/race-divisions good or bad for societies? She means that the Cunningham’s don’t act like they do. They are not good people, to her. They have no manners, in her opinion. They’re poor, in comparison to her. I think that social boundaries and divisions are not helpful in a society, but they’re always going to be there. Having said that, even with those divisions, people should never see themselves better than others and should always mix with people of different social classes, race, incomes, jobs, etc. 79. Identify evidence in the story that reveals Scout is naive and childlike and Jem is more mature and adult-like in his understanding of people. Jem knows when to keep his mouth shut and Scout doesn’t. Chapter 24 Questions 80. How does Scout feel about women (Aunt Alexandra, Miss Rachel, Mrs. Merriweather, Miss Stephanie, and Miss Maudie) and their discussions in this chapter? How do they treat Scout? Scout feels normal, but yet she knows she needs to act lady-like around the women. She asked the women appropriate questions to be discussed, just like a proper grownup lady would engage in the conversation. The women treat Scout as if she were to be a lady, but talking to her as if she was a child. They had very good respect for each other. 81. What can you learn from the women of Maycomb about proper and improper behavior? You can learn the “Do’s” and “Do Not’s” of proper etiquette in Maycomb, and proper topics of conversation. For example, Tom Robinson’s death was not a proper conversation topic for the gathering. 82. Why did Tom try to escape from prison? He gave up. He just didn’t want to deal with all the fuss anymore, so he just left and ran. 83. Explain briefly Tom was killed. Tom was shot when he was climbing over the fence surrounding the exercise yard. He was shot seventeen times through the back. He was shot with what was a standard police gun back then. Chapter 25 Questions 84. How is the meaning of the title revealed in this chapter? The title is revealed because Atticus says it’s a sin to kill a mockingbird. When the children ask why he says that the only thing that mockingbirds do is make beautiful music. They don’t harm anything therefore it’s a sin to kill them. Translating this to the situation, don’t kill someone who is innocent. They can be accused of many things, but that doesn’t mean they did it. 85. Why is Tom’s death considered “typical” in Maycomb? Tom’s death is consider normal because a death of a black man in Maycomb is not a big deal or anything new, because they are treated so badly and there was so much racism. 6. How does Mr. Underwood feel about Tom’s death? Why did the author choose to include Mr. Underwood’s opinions about Tom’s death? In his editorial he compared Tom’s death to the “senseless slaughter of a songbird”, which indirectly means that he thinks Tom was innocent and unjustly killed for something that he didn’t do. The author probably included his view to show that not everyone in Maycomb was prejudiced against blacks. 87. Why is the court of public opinion sometimes more influential than the court of law? Refer to the novel and an example in real life. The court of public opinion is sometimes more influential than the court of law since there are more people in the public than there are in the court of law. Also, the public can believe anything they want and in the law all they can believe is what the law presents to them for each case. 88. What do you think Ewell meant when he said “if made one down and about two more to go”? What can you predict will happen next? I think that he meant that he was going to come after the Finch family next. I think that he told Atticus that because he was going to get him. Chapter 26 Questions 89. Identify at least one example that Scout is growing up and maturing and one example that Jem is growing up and maturing. One example that Scout is growing up is when she has tea with her Aunt and her Aunt’s friends. She doesn’t act like a boy. As for Jem, it’s at the court when we see him maturing. He pays attention and acts respectable and responsible. 90. Why is it hypocritical of Miss Gates to teach a lesson on Hitler’s persecution of the Jews? It is hypocritical because it is basically the same thing that is currently been going on in their society. The blacks are the Jews and the whites represent Hitler and the Nazis. 1. What is Harper Lee’s purpose in writing this chapter? Think about the message she wants to send her readers. I think she is trying to say that we need to treat everyone equally and that we should treat people as we would like to be treated. Don’t harm anything that is innocent because to them they thought they were doing the right thing all along. Chapter 27 Questions 92. Identify three threats the Bob Ewell allegedly makes against some Maycomb townspeople. Bob threatened Atticus for “taking” his job. He also went to Judge Taylor’s house and made loud noises. Then he would harass Helen Robinson, Tom Robinson’s wife. 3. Why do you believe the author, Harper Lee, included the Halloween story in her novel? Describe any significance you believe it has. It was important because that is when they got attacked. When they went back home Boo Radley was there. And Boo Radley helped Jem and Scout. Chapter 28 Questions 94. Identify at least two sings that foreshadow trouble ahead. One sign is that they heard something in the bushes. Also, Cecil Jacobs scared them. 95. Describe the significant event in this chapter that forever changes Jem and Scout. Boo Radley came out of his house and actually talked to Scout and Jem while Jem was unconscious. Chapter 29 Questions 96. Who is the stranger standing in the corner of Jem’s room? Why might he be there? It was Boo Radley, aka Arthur Radley. He wanted to make sure that Jem and Scout were safe. 97. Why is Scout’s ham costume significant to the story? There was a gash on the side of the costume from a knife. If it weren’t for the chicken wire in that costume she would have been killed. 98. Who is the perpetrator (the person responsible for the crime)? How do you know who he is? The perpetrator was Bob Ewell. I know it was him because he was still trying to get back at Atticus for the jury trial. He told Atticus he would get back at him. Also, because he was the one that was found dead on the ground with a knife in him. Also, he was the only other suspect. Chapter 30 Questions 99. Why did Heck Tate insist that Bob Ewell’s death was self-inflicted? In what way is this partly true? Heck Tate says that it was self-inflicted because he says that he tripped on the root of a tree and was stabbed with the knife. It is partly true because of the way he was laying when he died. He also said Jem didn’t have the strength to push him over. Chapter 31 Questions 100. Comment on the way the narrator (Scout) summarizes earlier events and characters to show their significance. Refer to events and characters that include Boo Radley, Jem, Atticus, and the neighborhood as a whole. Why do you think Harper Lee (the author) chose to end her novel this way? Scout explains the neighborhood in the dark. The fire, everyone helped including Mr. Radley. The author used the characters in different chapters of the book. She chose to end her novel this way because she looked back at the book like when they were scared of Boo Radley and when they made it a game and then at the end since she knew him she thought that she should end it as if the community was in peace again. It ends with suspense in an impacting way.	<urn:uuid:6863772d-41aa-4ff9-b41e-de0742b1a557>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebooksummary.com/to-kill-a-mockingbird-145-473	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00421.warc.gz	en	0.983911	8,337	3.921875	4	[ -0.2517818808555603, -0.13547196984291077, 0.008008105680346489, -0.2310778796672821, 0.0329894945025444, -0.12676215171813965, 0.5548297762870789, 0.18525347113609314, -0.413278192281723, -0.21648810803890228, 0.2093241810798645, -0.116956926882267, 0.05901223048567772, -0.093213796615600...	1	To Kill a Mockingbird Chapters 1-3 Questions 1. What does it mean to “act responsibly? ” Explain what a person needs to do to “act responsibly” in the 1930’s in Maycomb, Alabama? Acting responsibly basically means that you have to do the right thing no matter what the situation, and you have to be mature and act your age even when you might not like doing so. In the 1930s in Maycomb, Alabama if you were a woman, for example, you would need to stay home and cook the food and clean for the family. You would just always have to know your place and what was morally correct to make any decision. 2. Who can people relate to in Maycomb, Alabama? Identify your impressions of Dill, Calpurnia, Jem, the narrator, Atticus, the Radleys, Miss Stephanie Crawford, and Miss Caroline Fisher. Dill seems a little immature. Calpurnia was the family cook who seemed trustworthy, yet different than the other characters. Jem seems childlike, although he is (later to be found out) more mature than Scout. The narrator (Scout, we find out later) seems very childlike but has keen senses. Atticus is compassionate, understanding, and supportive. The Radleys seem mysterious, along with The Radley Place. Miss Stephanie Crawford is a gossiping know-it-all neighbor. Miss Caroline Fisher seems genuine. 3. What are some essential family values and family history that have shaped the people in this community? Love, happiness, and being happy were core values. Family essentials were making sure everyone in the family helped out with everything, each pulling their own weight to get things done, which was much harder in the 1930s without technology. 4. What behaviors are accepted in the Maycomb community? What behaviors are not acceptable in the community? Many behaviors were acceptable that we would not consider acceptable today. The questioning of a white lawyer taking the case of a black man was acceptable in Maycomb. Therefore, the reactions of the community to Atticus were also behaviors that were seen as acceptable. Also, Aunt Alexandra’s demanding of Scout to be a “proper young lady” is also acceptable. Therefore, women are only really seen as acceptable if they obey the stereotypes. What Maycomb believes is not acceptable is taking the law into your own hands. 5. Which characters inform Scout about proper behavior? How do these characters tell her to act? Aunt Alexandra. She tells Scout that she should be a proper lady since she is growing up. She says that she should attend the ladies’ social events in the Maycomb area. She is also supposed to wear dresses and not dress or play like the boys do. 6. What is Walter Cunningham like? What does his behavior during lunch suggest about his home life? Walter Cunningham and his family were very poor people. He didn’t have money for lunch, he was very dirty, and didn’t appear to have manners or formal education. When he poured all the syrup all over all of his food, you can assume that he doesn’t get luxuries like syrup very often since he and his family do not have much. Scout made fun of him and probably thought he was really strange. 7. Describe Miss Caroline’s interactions with Burris Ewell. What does this suggest about Miss Caroline? What does this suggest about the Ewells? Burris disobeys the class rules, so Miss Caroline asks him to come in front of the room and put his hands out. She whips his hands with a ruler several time. Is suggest she is harsh and he is disobedient. 8. What do you think of the way Atticus treats Walter? Atticus treats Walter with upmost respect. He knows of his shy ways and goes out of his way to accommodate him. 9. Does Scout learn anything from Walter’s visit? What do you think this is? Yes. Scout was taught not to be mean to the poor kids, which translates into the life lesson of learning at an early age not to “judge a book by the cover”, which applies to people, too. Additionally, she is taught not to belittle others due to their circumstances. 10. Atticus says that you never really understand a person “until you climb into his skin and walk around in it. ” What does this mean? What does this suggest about Atticus? Is it an easy thing for Scout to learn? It means that you can’t judge a person until you put yourself into their situation. This suggests that Atticus is very understanding, empathetic, compassionate person when it comes to understanding others. I don’t think that this is easy for Scout to learn because she is young and somewhat childlike. Chapter 4 Questions 11. What does Scout think of current fashions in education? What do her opinions reveal about Scout’s character? Scout doesn’t like the current system of learning. She thinks it’s useless because she knows everything the way Atticus already taught her. It reveals that she is impatient and immature. 12. What risky behavior do Scout and Jem engage in? Jem and Scout go to the Boo Radley house and try to sneak up on him to see what he is up to. 13. Why do the children make Boo’s story into a game? I think that Jem and Scout made Boo Radley’s story into a game because it would help them get over being afraid of him after they rolled the tire right up to the porch. I think they made up the game to know more about him, but maybe also to make fun of him. 14. How does Atticus react to the game? What does his reaction tell us about his character? Atticus did not like the game. He told them to quit playing it. He told them to mind their own business. This shows that he is an honest and respectable man. 15. Identify at least 2 slang words/phrases appropriate to the 1930’s in Maycomb, Alabama. Translate these words/phrases into today’s language. Loot is now called money and reckon means to think or to have a hunch or an idea. Chapter 5 Questions 16. Describe the relationship between Dill and Scout. Include how he treats her and how she reacts to his treatment. How is this treatment typical and atypical (not typical) of this setting? Dill really likes Scout and he asked her to marry him. Then he forgets that he asked her to marry him. She beats him up. Then, when he is about to leave, he tells her he will always love his. This is pretty typical of kids in a game sort of way. 17. Characterize Miss Maudie Atkinson (characterization = personality traits, actions, thoughts/feelings, other people’s points of view). How typical is she of Maycomb’s women? What do the children think of her? Miss Maudie Atkinson is not like the other women of Maycomb in that she treats them kindly and avoids patronizing them. She is a supportive of Atticus and his efforts in defending Tom, which does not always make the rest of the community like her, but it does mean that the kids will respect and trust her. 8. What reasons does Atticus give for the children not to play the Boo Radley game? Do you think he is right? Why? Atticus tells Jem, Dill, and Scout that they will give everyone the wrong idea about Boo Radley. No I don’t think that Atticus was right because it’s just a game and the kids honestly probably don’t think of it that way, plus the adults should not make judgments based on the kids’ game. Chapter 6 Questions 19. What kind of risky activity do Scout, Jem and Dill engage in? Explain their cover-up (how they avoid being caught). Scout, Dill, and Jem go onto the Radley property to try to see inside. They hear a noise and get scared and run back. Then when Jem is getting under the fence, his pants get stuck. He could not get them out so he just left them there and kept running home. They hear a gunshot, so they run back to see the neighbors gathered around the Radley place. To cover-up, they ask what is going on and play dumb like they don’t know what’s happening. 20. Who is blamed for trespassing on the Radley Place? What does this blame reveal about the setting (time and place) of the novel? They blame an African American for trespassing. It was a time period when racism was a huge issues. 1. What causes fear in the hearts of Scout and Jem? They are very fearful of what may happen to their father even though they do not completely understand. Chapter 7 Questions 22. Does Jem still fear the gifts in the tree? Give reasons for your answer. At first, Jem is scared of the gifts from the tree. He is scared because everyone says anything off of the Radley place is poisoned. After a while, he is not scared, because when Scout ate from the tree she didn’t die. 23. When the children plan to send a letter to the person who leaves the gifts, they are prevented. How does this happen? Who does it, and why might he do so? They are stopped by the cement that was put in the hole in the tree. Mr. Avery did that because the tree was unhealthy and he didn’t want it to rot. He probably didn’t want the kids to find the items in the tree. 24. Can you find any evidence that Jem is more mature and wise (intelligence and awareness that comes with age/experience) than Scout? Provide at least one example that supports your answer. It really just seems like Jem acts like a child most of the time instead of asking his age, to me. He ran from the Radley place, which was a bravery challenge. If he was wise and more mature he would know that is was stupid and would have not ran or been wise enough to not play the Boo Radley game at all to begin with. All of his knowledge seems to be from school and book smarts, and he doesn’t even seem to have too much of that. Chapter 8 Questions 25. Identify at least two details in this chapter that reveal the setting (time period and place) of this novel. You can tell that is was in this time period because there is a lot of racism towards the African American people and there are really high levels of expectations for children. 26. Why is Jem’s snowman creation so unacceptable to both Atticus and Miss Maudie? Because the snowman was black and they thought that it was probably mocking Boo Radley. 27. What does the fire at Miss Maudie’s house reveal about the people living in Alabama in the 1930s? It revealed that there were some very nice people in the area who helped her out in her time of need and who cared about her. 28. Besides Atticus, identify a new character who supports Jem and Scout. Provide evidence to support this character’s benevolent spirit. Uncle is one of the new characters who support Jem and Scout. He is helpful and nice to them. Chapter 9 Questions 29. Why does Atticus feel he should defend Tom Robinson? Is it usual for (white) lawyers to do their best for black clients in Alabama during this time period? Atticus feels he should defend Tom Robinson because he thinks that Mr. Robinson is no different than anyone else. This is an outrage in Alabama. The reason for this is because of the very racial time period that the story is set in. 30. Scout and Jem have “mixed feelings” about Christmas. What are these feelings and why do they feel this way? Jem and Scout bother like the tree and Uncle Jack Finch, but they both hate seeing their Aunt Alexandra, their Uncle Jimmy, and their cousin Francis. They hate Uncle Jimmy because he is to quiet and is not fun at all while their aunt is so proper that she drives them nuts. As for Francis, he is just spoiled and Jem and Scout do not care for him either. 31. Uncle Jack Finch tells Scout that she is growing out of her pants. What does this mean and why might he say it? Scout is acting older, and growing out of her immaturity. She is also become more of a lady than a tomboy kid. She was never raised as a girly girl because there wasn’t a mother or female figure of authority, but she is growing into her womanhood all on her own. 32. Describe Aunt Alexandra and explain her negative feelings about Scout. How does Aunt Alexandra perpetuate (promote and continue) stereotypes? She doesn’t like that Scout is a tomboy and not a formal proper woman. That is a complete stereotype that she is describing. She tried to make Scout someone that she’s not. 33. Does Scout learn anything form overhearing Atticus’s conversation with Uncle Jack? What might this be? Yes, she overhears that Tom Robinson is innocent but doomed. 34. Explain at least two examples that reveal Atticus’s parenting skills. Hint: What is Atticus trying to teach his children, Jem and Scout? Atticus is trying to teach his children fairness. When Uncle Jack punishes Scout, she gets really mad because Atticus listens to both sides of the story before making a decision. When he tells Scout that he couldn’t go to church and worship Go if he didn’t try and help Tom, he’s showing his children what integrity is. Chapter 10 Questions 35. Scout says that “Atticus was feeble” (weak). Do you think that this is her view as she tells the story or her view when she was younger? Does she still think this after the events recorded in this chapter? Why/Why not? I think her view of Atticus being feeble was when she was younger. She doesn’t think this after the events are recorded in this chapter though. She doesn’t think this because she finds out that there are different ways to be strong other than physical strength. 36. In this chapter Atticus tells his children that “it’s a sin to kill a mockingbird” (p. 90). What reason does he give for saying this? Atticus says that mockingbirds never do anything wrong. That all they ever do is provide them with good music. Therefore, it is a sin to kill a mockingbird. 37. What does the shooting of Tim Johnson reveal about Heck Tate and Atticus? It shows how each views the racial issues in the book. How Atticus is against discrimination and that Heck really doesn’t care. 38. Jem and Scout have different views about telling people at school how well Atticus can shoot. Explain this difference. Which view is closer to your own? Scout wants to go to school and tell everyone that her dad was a great shooter. Jem says no, it’s not a good idea. He says that if Atticus hadn’t told them so far there must be a good reason that he didn’t want other people to know. My opinion favors Jem’s. I would not go tell everyone without permission. Chapter 11 Questions 39. How does Atticus advise Jem to react to Mrs. Dubose’s taunts? He tells them not to take them seriously and that she is just pestering them, but Jem does not listen to Atticus. 40. Characterize Mrs. Dubose. Characterization includes personality traits, actions, thoughts/feelings, and other people’s points of view. She seems odd and bitter. I wouldn’t want to meet her. She seems that even though she is sick she doesn’t have to nag and make fun of people or call them names. 41. What request does Mrs. Dubose make of Jem? What does Mrs. Dubose gain from this “punishment” to Jem? What does Jem gain? Mrs. Dubose asks Jem to come to her house every day after school and read to her. She also wants him to fix her plants. She gains company whereas Jem gains respect and learns how to “keep his head” better when people say things that he doesn’t approve of or doesn’t agree with. 42. What does Atticus teach Jem and Scout about understanding antagonizing and belittling language and people like Mrs. Dubose? Atticus teaches Jem and Scout that they need to walk a mile in the other person’s shoes before judging and sometimes there are other circumstances unknown to the person. 43. Chapters ten and eleven are the last two chapters in the first part of the book. Explain why Harper Lee chooses to end the first part here. Chapter 10 and 11 of this book prove to be a turning point in the lives of Atticus’s children. In Chapter 10, Jem and Scout discover that Atticus is not “feeble” and has humility and marksmanship. Chapter 11 is important in Jem’s maturing and growing up. He learns a lot from his visit with Mrs. Dubose. Chapter 12 Questions 44. Briefly explain Jem’s and Scout’s visit to the First Purchase church (Calpurnia’s church). What do people think/feel about them? How do they feel about this experience? The black people there hate white people. 45. What new things to Scout and Jem learn at this church about how the black people live? They learn that blacks are not well educated and most of them cannot read. They don’t have hymn books in the church because there is no need since the people can’t read them. 46. Describe Calpurnia’s education and her son’s education – refer to their literacy. Calpurnia and her son have very good education compared to the rest of their church. They are two out of the three people who were able to read in their church. Since they learned from a book of commentaries called “Blackstone’s Commentaries”, and the writer knew fine English, then they could probably speak and write just as well as Aunt Alexandra. 7. Explain why Calpurnia speaks differently in the Finch household, and among her neighbors at church. How is language different in a workplace and in a social setting and/or around family? Calpurnia speaks differently at home, and with Jem and Scout because she has to fit in with both of the groups. Calpurnia has to be formal and proper at her workplace, and doesn’t want to influence Jem and Scout by talking badly, and influencing their education. With friends and family and members of the church, she has to talk like them to fit in and not make them feel bad or like she is better than them or above them. Chapter 13 Questions 48. Why does Aunt Alexandra come to stay with Atticus and his family? What is she like? Aunt Alexandra comes to stay with Atticus and his family because Atticus has to work during the summer and he can’t be home to watch Jem and Scout. Aunt Alexandra is a very proper person and can be very harsh and insensitive. She wants them to be more proper, too. 49. Read the first two things Alexandra says when she comes to stay at the Finch house. Are these typical of her or not? She says “Put my bad in the front bedroom, Calpurnia”. This is typical of her because she is being bossy and giving instructions. Then she says “Jem Louise, stop scratching your head” which was also very typical of her since she was correcting him in an effort to make him more proper. 50. Alexandra things Scout is dullI (not clever). Why does she think this, and is she right? Are all adults good at knowing how clever young people are? She understands and sees that Scout is still childlike and doesn’t know when to keep her mouth shut. I think she’s right. Not all adults are good at this but most of them are when children are at a younger age. 51. How does Aunt Alexandra involve herself in Maycomb’s social life? She has a good social life there. She knows and talks to everyone. She acts like a high-class aristocrat. She has lunch with all the ladies in Maycomb and invites them over for a tea party. 52. Comment on Aunt Alexandra’s ideas about breeding and family. Why does Atticus tell them to forget it? Who is right, do you think? Aunt Alexandra is attempting to be very proud of her family, whereas Atticus tries to lessen the influence of the family by emphasizing the right of each person to be an individual. The ideas of the Old South is contrasted her with the New South. She’s a snob worried about history and heritage. She has deep roots. I think family is important but there is no need to be a snob about who you are and where you come from because in the end we are all equal. Chapter 14 Questions 53. Who does Scout find hiding under bed? Why is this person hiding in the Finch home? Scout finds Dill hiding under the bed. He is hiding there because of his dad. He is mean to Dill and dislikes him. He put him in a cellar and locked him up until a guy came and got him out. He is at the Finch home so he can stay with the Finch family while he is hiding. 54. Why is Jem considered a “traitor”? Why is he also considered a maturing, more responsible young man? He told Atticus that Dill was there when Dill didn’t want anyone to know. He had felt he had betrayed Dill. He also did a very responsible thing by not hiding it. If he had hidden it there would have been many more problems to follow. Chapter 15 Questions 55. Describe Jem’s behavior when he confronts Atticus at the jailhouse and also meets a mob of hostile men. Jem doesn’t want to take Scout home when Atticus tells him to. He didn’t listen to his father very well. He is scared that his father might get hurt. 56. Describe Scout’s behavior in the setting mentioned above. Scout’s behavior showed how she was raised. She acted like nothing bad happened and calmed down the mob. Chapter 16 Questions 57. Describe how the Maycomb people act at the courthouse square – when they arrive to view the trial of Tom Robinson. The Maycomb people at the courthouse acted with, if you will, the white woman, Mayella Ewell, who was supposedly raped by Tom Robinson. They acted this way because most people at that time were racist. Many of them wanted Tom Robinson put in jail because Mayella’s innocent appearance tricked the people, making her look pitiful, victimized, and helpless and making Tom look guilty and bad. 8. Where do Jem, Scout and Dill sit in the courthouse? Why is this significant? Jem, Scout, and Dill all sit with the black people at the top of the courthouse. This is significant because their father, Atticus, is a white lawyer defending a black man. Normally white kids would not sit with the black people in the courthouse, only with other white people. Chapter 17 Questions 59. Describe Tom Robinson’s alleged crime, as told by Bob Ewell and Heck Tate. He is accused of raping Mayella Ewell. He apparently got inside of her home and beat and “took advantage of her”. 60. What evidence does Atticus reveal about Bob Ewell that may find him guilty of Tom Robinson’s alleged crime? Atticus was asking Bob Ewell some questions that may have revealed that he is guilty. He had him write his name and found out that he was left handed. He found out that Tom Robinson couldn’t move his left hand. Mayella had told Atticus that she was beaten mostly on her right side of her face. Someone that was left handed would have had to beat her on the right side. 61. Characterize Bob Ewell (describe his actions, language/speech, and other people’s points of view). Bob is certainly the most evil character in the book. He is crude, rude, and socially unacceptable. He beats his daughter and even possibly rapes her. He fails to properly provide for his children or make sure that they go to school as they should. He falsely accuses Tom of assaulting Mayella, his daughter, and then stalks Tom’s wife. Chapter 18 Questions 62. Characterize Mayella on the witness stand. Remember, characterization includes personality traits, actions, thoughts/feelings, language/speech, and other people’s points of view. What are your opinions of her? Explain. Mayella Ewell seemed really scared and angry when Atticus is asking her questions about the crime. She was also really nervous. She starts to act aggressively and defensive towards Atticus, and she starts yelling at him. I think that Mayella Ewell doesn’t know what to say while she’s up there because her dad made her believe a lie. 63. Comparison: How are Mayella and her father similar? Contrast: How are they different? Mayella and her father are both alike because they both have poor speech and both dropped out of school. The also both have similar appearances and ideas, like that they both hate Tom Robinson. In contrast, apparently Bob is lazy and Mayella is hardworking in that she seems to be the one doing all the work around the house. 64. How does Mayella incriminate her father on the witness stand? Why does this help Tom Robinson’s case? Mayella tells them that he is tolerable except when he drinks. It helps Tom’s case because then they have a reason to believe that he could have come home drunk and beaten Mayella. If that was true then that would explain all of the bruises around Mayella’s neck. Chapter 19 Questions 65. How does Tom Robinson’s testimony help his case? How does his testimony hurt his case? Tom Robinson’s testimony helps his case because he stays calm the whole time he’s answering questions up on the witness stand. His testimony also went along with the evidence that Atticus uncovered about Tom and his one good hand. It hurt his case because Bob Ewell and Heck Tate made is seem like Tom wanted to rape Mayella Ewell. 66. Which characters have courage to break society’s code of ethics for this setting? Explain their courageous acts. The jury. They know Tom is not guilty. But they are scared to say something. They don’t want to be hated. Chapter 20 Questions 67. How does Atticus’s closing statement help his defendant, Tom Robinson? How does his closing statement hurt his defendant? His closing statement was very thought out but not as powerful. I think he might have helped when he discussed how all men are created equal and therefore should be treated equally. 68. How do you think the jury will react to Atticus’s closing statement? Explain your reasoning. I think that Atticus’s last statement will make the jury think. I think that the jury will decided that Tom is going to lose because there wasn’t enough evidence to help Tom. I don’t think the last statement was strong enough compared to the rest of the case. Chapter 21 Questions 69. Who believes that Tom Robinson has a chance at being set free? Why do they believe this? Atticus, Jem, and Scout are some of the people who believe that Tom Robinson has a chance. 70. Why do Reverend Sykes and the rest of the African American spectators stand for Atticus, even after his defendant Tom was found guilty? Reverend Sykes and the rest of the African American spectators stand for Atticus because they know that he tried his absolute hardest to get Tom freed even though it was a very hard case to defend due to the severe racial issues of the era. They know that Atticus is fair and doesn’t judge people, especially not based on their color as all the people of that time did. Chapter 22 Questions 71. Explain how Atticus’s character has influenced Jem. Identify evidence that supports Jem’s reaction to the guilty verdict. Like a lot of little boys, Jem wants to be just like his father, Atticus. Atticus wants to win the case, so Jem wasn’t happy when Atticus lost his case. Atticus was confident, so Jem was also. Therefore he was upset and disappointed by the verdict. 72. How do the children (Jem, Scout, and Dill) deal with the outcome of the trial? What do their coping mechanisms reveal about each one of them? Jem, Scout, and Dill are sad and angry with the verdict because they felt that Atticus fought a good fight and proved Tom innocent. The verdict made them angry because it didn’t go their way. Dill gets mad and frustrated with people. Jem just doesn’t want to talk about it at all. Scout on the other hand wants to talk about it and try to learn more about what is going on. 73. How do the adults (Atticus, Miss Rachel, Calpurnia, Aunt Alexandra, Miss Stephanie, Miss Maudie, and Bob Ewell) deal with the outcome of the trial? What do their reactions and comments reveal about each of their characters? Atticus reaches a point of frustration immediately after the trial, but his usual optimism returns the next day when he begins discussing appeals. Miss Maudie makes Jem aware of an entire network of people who were quietly working in Tom Robinson’s favor. Aunt Alexandra is humbled and truly sorry for Atticus’s failure. Miss Stephanie was a busy body and a gossiper, and still is. Bob Ewell is pleased. Chapter 23 Questions 74. How did Bob Ewell confront Atticus? How did Atticus react? What does Atticus’s reaction reveal about his character? Bob Ewell spit in Atticus’s face, and cursed him. He said that he was going to kill him. He asked Atticus if he was too proud to fight and Atticus said he was too old to fight. This reveals that Atticus is realistic, sensible, and calm. 75. What does circumstantial evidence mean in terms of Tom’s trial? Things that aren’t officially proved, but are obviously there. 76. Why don’t Maycomb citizens sit on juries in their town? They do not want to do jury duty because they are scared that if they choose innocent that people will go after them. Then if they choose guilty the defendant will go after them. 77. Why does Scout want to befriend Walter Cunningham now (after learning more about the inner workings of the trail)? Scout wants to befriend him because she realized that she should be nicer to other people, even when they are different than her. But Aunt Alexandra says that she should not befriend him because he isn’t their kind of people. 78. Why does Aunt Alexandra accept that the Cunningham’s may be good but are not “our kind of folks”? Do you think that people should mix only with others of the same social class and/or race? And class/race-divisions good or bad for societies? She means that the Cunningham’s don’t act like they do. They are not good people, to her. They have no manners, in her opinion. They’re poor, in comparison to her. I think that social boundaries and divisions are not helpful in a society, but they’re always going to be there. Having said that, even with those divisions, people should never see themselves better than others and should always mix with people of different social classes, race, incomes, jobs, etc. 79. Identify evidence in the story that reveals Scout is naive and childlike and Jem is more mature and adult-like in his understanding of people. Jem knows when to keep his mouth shut and Scout doesn’t. Chapter 24 Questions 80. How does Scout feel about women (Aunt Alexandra, Miss Rachel, Mrs. Merriweather, Miss Stephanie, and Miss Maudie) and their discussions in this chapter? How do they treat Scout? Scout feels normal, but yet she knows she needs to act lady-like around the women. She asked the women appropriate questions to be discussed, just like a proper grownup lady would engage in the conversation. The women treat Scout as if she were to be a lady, but talking to her as if she was a child. They had very good respect for each other. 81. What can you learn from the women of Maycomb about proper and improper behavior? You can learn the “Do’s” and “Do Not’s” of proper etiquette in Maycomb, and proper topics of conversation. For example, Tom Robinson’s death was not a proper conversation topic for the gathering. 82. Why did Tom try to escape from prison? He gave up. He just didn’t want to deal with all the fuss anymore, so he just left and ran. 83. Explain briefly Tom was killed. Tom was shot when he was climbing over the fence surrounding the exercise yard. He was shot seventeen times through the back. He was shot with what was a standard police gun back then. Chapter 25 Questions 84. How is the meaning of the title revealed in this chapter? The title is revealed because Atticus says it’s a sin to kill a mockingbird. When the children ask why he says that the only thing that mockingbirds do is make beautiful music. They don’t harm anything therefore it’s a sin to kill them. Translating this to the situation, don’t kill someone who is innocent. They can be accused of many things, but that doesn’t mean they did it. 85. Why is Tom’s death considered “typical” in Maycomb? Tom’s death is consider normal because a death of a black man in Maycomb is not a big deal or anything new, because they are treated so badly and there was so much racism. 6. How does Mr. Underwood feel about Tom’s death? Why did the author choose to include Mr. Underwood’s opinions about Tom’s death? In his editorial he compared Tom’s death to the “senseless slaughter of a songbird”, which indirectly means that he thinks Tom was innocent and unjustly killed for something that he didn’t do. The author probably included his view to show that not everyone in Maycomb was prejudiced against blacks. 87. Why is the court of public opinion sometimes more influential than the court of law? Refer to the novel and an example in real life. The court of public opinion is sometimes more influential than the court of law since there are more people in the public than there are in the court of law. Also, the public can believe anything they want and in the law all they can believe is what the law presents to them for each case. 88. What do you think Ewell meant when he said “if made one down and about two more to go”? What can you predict will happen next? I think that he meant that he was going to come after the Finch family next. I think that he told Atticus that because he was going to get him. Chapter 26 Questions 89. Identify at least one example that Scout is growing up and maturing and one example that Jem is growing up and maturing. One example that Scout is growing up is when she has tea with her Aunt and her Aunt’s friends. She doesn’t act like a boy. As for Jem, it’s at the court when we see him maturing. He pays attention and acts respectable and responsible. 90. Why is it hypocritical of Miss Gates to teach a lesson on Hitler’s persecution of the Jews? It is hypocritical because it is basically the same thing that is currently been going on in their society. The blacks are the Jews and the whites represent Hitler and the Nazis. 1. What is Harper Lee’s purpose in writing this chapter? Think about the message she wants to send her readers. I think she is trying to say that we need to treat everyone equally and that we should treat people as we would like to be treated. Don’t harm anything that is innocent because to them they thought they were doing the right thing all along. Chapter 27 Questions 92. Identify three threats the Bob Ewell allegedly makes against some Maycomb townspeople. Bob threatened Atticus for “taking” his job. He also went to Judge Taylor’s house and made loud noises. Then he would harass Helen Robinson, Tom Robinson’s wife. 3. Why do you believe the author, Harper Lee, included the Halloween story in her novel? Describe any significance you believe it has. It was important because that is when they got attacked. When they went back home Boo Radley was there. And Boo Radley helped Jem and Scout. Chapter 28 Questions 94. Identify at least two sings that foreshadow trouble ahead. One sign is that they heard something in the bushes. Also, Cecil Jacobs scared them. 95. Describe the significant event in this chapter that forever changes Jem and Scout. Boo Radley came out of his house and actually talked to Scout and Jem while Jem was unconscious. Chapter 29 Questions 96. Who is the stranger standing in the corner of Jem’s room? Why might he be there? It was Boo Radley, aka Arthur Radley. He wanted to make sure that Jem and Scout were safe. 97. Why is Scout’s ham costume significant to the story? There was a gash on the side of the costume from a knife. If it weren’t for the chicken wire in that costume she would have been killed. 98. Who is the perpetrator (the person responsible for the crime)? How do you know who he is? The perpetrator was Bob Ewell. I know it was him because he was still trying to get back at Atticus for the jury trial. He told Atticus he would get back at him. Also, because he was the one that was found dead on the ground with a knife in him. Also, he was the only other suspect. Chapter 30 Questions 99. Why did Heck Tate insist that Bob Ewell’s death was self-inflicted? In what way is this partly true? Heck Tate says that it was self-inflicted because he says that he tripped on the root of a tree and was stabbed with the knife. It is partly true because of the way he was laying when he died. He also said Jem didn’t have the strength to push him over. Chapter 31 Questions 100. Comment on the way the narrator (Scout) summarizes earlier events and characters to show their significance. Refer to events and characters that include Boo Radley, Jem, Atticus, and the neighborhood as a whole. Why do you think Harper Lee (the author) chose to end her novel this way? Scout explains the neighborhood in the dark. The fire, everyone helped including Mr. Radley. The author used the characters in different chapters of the book. She chose to end her novel this way because she looked back at the book like when they were scared of Boo Radley and when they made it a game and then at the end since she knew him she thought that she should end it as if the community was in peace again. It ends with suspense in an impacting way.	8,257	ENGLISH	1
Hey Class Today we will be learning about an amazing person in our past Confucius! “Do unto others as you would have done to yourself.” Confucius was an amazing man he was born in Lu which is now Shandong and lived from about 551 to 479 BC, later on in his Life he was known as Master Kong as he made and taught the religion of Confucianism, which is still a religion today. Dont worry all you need is to put the work in, your a work of progress. Confucius made the religion of Confucianism about his life's past and presents so he new everything he taught was true and would help others. He tells followers of Confucianism easy rules, such as to always obay and be nice to your parents cause his son did not. Generate new knowledge while mulling over the old and becoming a teacher to others” Confusius never had these crazy things for behavor but he did have his golden rule. (above words frome Confucius) This golden rule also could only be truly fallowed by doing the 5 constants, Humanity, Rectitude, Tradition, Knowledge, and Scrupulousness Well thanks thats it for today class Confucius never saw someone who couldn't do something anyone could do anything according to Confucius all they were was just a work in progress. While Confucius thought everyone was great he pushed them as everyone wanted to be like him and teach others and he told them. And in the end, the amazing man Confucius had grown his religion for amazing people	<urn:uuid:65240c0a-80c0-494d-a6a2-c285b7393baa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/46c0caf9/confuisious	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00506.warc.gz	en	0.992076	338	3.5625	4	[ -0.28458327054977417, 0.1308548003435135, 0.42408597469329834, -0.4996890425682068, -0.013771467842161655, -0.04581337049603462, 0.5803889036178589, 0.015362516976892948, -0.05738250911235809, -0.2394447773694992, 0.10606593638658524, -0.4166244566440582, 0.27677419781684875, 0.09527114778...	1	Hey Class Today we will be learning about an amazing person in our past Confucius! “Do unto others as you would have done to yourself.” Confucius was an amazing man he was born in Lu which is now Shandong and lived from about 551 to 479 BC, later on in his Life he was known as Master Kong as he made and taught the religion of Confucianism, which is still a religion today. Dont worry all you need is to put the work in, your a work of progress. Confucius made the religion of Confucianism about his life's past and presents so he new everything he taught was true and would help others. He tells followers of Confucianism easy rules, such as to always obay and be nice to your parents cause his son did not. Generate new knowledge while mulling over the old and becoming a teacher to others” Confusius never had these crazy things for behavor but he did have his golden rule. (above words frome Confucius) This golden rule also could only be truly fallowed by doing the 5 constants, Humanity, Rectitude, Tradition, Knowledge, and Scrupulousness Well thanks thats it for today class Confucius never saw someone who couldn't do something anyone could do anything according to Confucius all they were was just a work in progress. While Confucius thought everyone was great he pushed them as everyone wanted to be like him and teach others and he told them. And in the end, the amazing man Confucius had grown his religion for amazing people	331	ENGLISH	1
“How the Bible Came to Be: Part 2, The Word Is Preserved,” Ensign, Feb. 1982, 32 There were several ways to record and preserve records anciently—none of them easy. The most common was to use papyrus, made from pith scraped from the papyrus plant, then wetted and pressed together. Scribes could write on both the front and back. (See Ezek. 2:10.) For more space, additional scrolls could be pasted at the bottom, the whole being rolled around rods. Some rolls may have reached as long as thirty-five feet, though such length would obviously become very clumsy and unwieldy. Clay tablets were also written upon and then baked in the sun or in kilns. More durable than papyrus, clay tablets are more commonly discovered in ancient ruins. Records were also made upon writing-boards—flat boards of wood or ivory cut out in such a way that an inlay of wax could be written upon. The boards were hinged together to become a folding book. Perhaps this is the kind of record Ezekiel is referring to when he speaks of the sticks of Judah and Ephraim being joined into one stick. (See Ezek. 37:16–17.) Animal skin (leather) was also used by the Hebrews. And for very significant religious records, metals were used. (Laban’s brass plates are an example.) While we can mention all these methods quite easily in passing, we do the ancient scribes injustice if we do not at least acknowledge the great hand labor required to prepare these writing materials before even one letter could ever be set down upon them. The process of writing is tedious and immensely challenging even under the best of conditions. To expend all the energies necessary to write in those days with what we would consider inadequate light, awkward writing instruments, difficult writing materials, and uncomfortable surroundings would incur sacrifices which we can only vaguely imagine. The preservation of records was of great concern to the Hebrews. From the first, scriptures were treated with the utmost care: Moses’ writings were preserved in the ark of the covenant. The scriptures record the names of those who were called to be state scribes, for this was considered an office of very great importance. Senior scribes were even given their own rooms in the palaces and temples. Ancient writings remained only in the hands of priests and were read only by scribes. Each scroll had to be copied directly from another scroll, and until the destruction of the temple, official copies were taken directly from the master copy in the temple. The official scrolls were the most holy objects in the synagogue and were treated in every way like treasures. New scribes were carefully instructed about the sacredness of their task: “My son, be careful in thy work, for it is heavenly work, lest thou err in omitting or in adding one jot [the smallest letter in the Hebrew alphabet] and so cause the destruction of the whole world.”1 The scriptures are far more than just history: they are the word of the Lord. As such, they deserve to be put in the most beautiful setting possible. And, for the most part, they were, even though each writer spoke out of his own time and culture, and in spite of human weaknesses. The record is not merely prose: it is rhythmic prose, and often even poetry. In fact, several of the prophetic books are in part or almost wholly poetic, although we may not recognize this at first since Hebrew poetry differs from English poetry. Rather than using a repetition of sounds for effectiveness, Hebrew poetry achieves its impact through a rhythmic repetition and balance of ideas, either similar or contrasting. This style carries truth to the ear in a more powerful, more pleasing, more memorable way. Imagine, to be prophet and poet both! But surely poetic gifts did not come readily. We can only imagine the many additional hours, the greater mental fatigue, the greater patience required to work and rework, to write and rewrite the scriptures until the form was rhythmic and the imagery and language poetic. This quality of the Hebrew scriptures augments another unique quality: history saturated with similitudes and prophecies of Christ, the ultimate Suffering Servant. Some of the Hebrew authors not only wrote about, but also experienced their prophecies. One was asked to offer a son as sacrifice; another struggled through a wilderness as savior to a rebellious and bondaged people. It is only when we realize that their ultimate gift to the word of God was the lives they led that we can fully grasp just how much they really gave for the sake of truth. Aramaic is generally thought to have been the general tongue of the Hebrews after their Babylonian captivity. Since it was also the language used in trade and diplomatic relations over a wide area, it became entrenched as the everyday speech of the inhabitants of Judah. Therefore, from the fourth century B.C., the Hebrew scriptures were an enigma for most Jews unless translated for them. Yet at that point, according to Jewish tradition, written translations were forbidden, as if the language and the concepts were inseparable. Oral translations were permitted, but only by official synagogue translators. Even then, the translation had to be done verse by verse in the Torah and at least after every third verse in the “Prophets.”2 The oral translations, or Targums, were more than just translations. They were interpretation and explanation, sometimes even extending into sermons. The religious leaders found these methods actually useful in overcoming what they felt were easily misunderstood passages. An example used by one scholar of explanatory translation is that given for Exodus 24:10 [Ex. 24:10] which states, “And they saw the God of Israel.” In Aramaic it would be translated and interpreted, “And they saw the glory of the God of Israel.”3 It is particularly interesting that the passages indicating an anthropomorphic (physical) God were the ones most often explained away. It is not surprising, then, that when One arrived a few centuries later claiming to be the Son of God, his claim was met with hostility: the rejection of a God with a body of flesh and bones had begun long before. Eventually, written Targums were also allowed, but the translations had to be written between the lines of the Hebrew on the scrolls. Translation into Aramaic became quite extensive: remnants of Targums of almost all the books of the Old Testament have been discovered. But there was a need for other translations as well. With the conquest of Palestine by Alexander the Great in 333 B.C., there was another dispersion of Jews, this time to Egypt. Again, many who adapted themselves to living in other lands never returned. Now there were two major centers of the Diaspora (scattering): Babylon and Alexandria. Alexander’s conquests had spread the use of Greek throughout a very wide area, and Greek became the language used in commercial and literary enterprises. Most Jews living in lands other than Judah became Greek-speaking. And so around 250 B.C. a translation was made of the Hebrew scriptures into Greek. How it came about is highly debatable. One ancient account, popular among early Christians but viewed as legend by scholars today, is contained in a narrative called the “Letter of Aristeas.” According to this story, King Ptolemy of Egypt heard of the excellent Jewish records and desired a copy in Greek for his growing library. To obtain them, he sent a group, including Aristeas, to the high priest in Jerusalem, loaded with presents. The Jews agreed to his offer and sent scholars back to Egypt to carry out the translative work. According to the legend, each of these seventy-two elders worked upon the translations separately, but when they compared the results of their progress, their renderings were identical. The work was accomplished within a period of seventy-two days. Because of these elements of seventy—seventy-two elders and seventy-two days—the work came to be known as the Septuagint, Latin for seventy.4 Modern scholars obviously have doubts about the authenticity of such a legend. Generally, they do agree that the translation probably occurred in Alexandria and that it was probably done by Jewish translators from Jerusalem. Regardless of its exact origins, the Septuagint was well accepted by the Jews of Alexandria, and, as we will see later, became a powerful influence in later years. What became the record of the Jews, though sparse in parts, had been built step by step from the time of Adam. It had grown to a collection of many sacred writings and had been translated into the changing common languages of the people. But now its very Author, the One from whom it had all originally sprung, appeared upon the scene. The scriptures themselves relate this wondrous happening: “In the beginning was the Word, … and the Word was God. … And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us.” (John 1:1, 14.) He who from the beginning had uttered the words which prophets had written and man had studied and vocalized and repeated—he of whom all the scriptures had borne witness—came among his people. Although they possessed his words, they understood them not, and he rebuked them, saying, “Ye do err, not knowing the scriptures.” (Matt. 22:29.) And although they possessed his words, they did them not, and he rebuked them, saying, “The scribes and the Pharisees sit in Moses’ seat: All therefore whatsoever they bid you observe, that observe and do; but do not ye after their works: for they say, and do not.” (Matt. 23:2–3.) While in the flesh, he repeated his word in awesome irony: “Did ye never read in the scriptures, The stone which the builders rejected, the same is become the head of the corner?” (Matt. 21:42.) And finally, he fulfilled his word before their very eyes and even at their doing. His atonement, crucifixion, and resurrection were the fulfillment of all that the prophets had spoken. After his resurrection, he showed his disciples how the Old Testament had borne witness of all the events which had just come to pass. On the road to Emmaus those who walked with him exclaimed, “Did not our heart burn within us … while he opened to us the scriptures?” (Luke 24:32.) And then he departed, and his disciples were left to take the joyful news that the old word—the laws, prophecies, and covenants—had been fulfilled through Christ’s life and death. The basic scripture of the earliest Christians was the Septuagint, the Hebrew record translated into Greek. But the record was used in a new way—as a witness of Christ. It was in this role that the Septuagint began to play a very important part. When the Christian message began to spread outside the borders of Palestine, the Septuagint became the main instrument of teaching and conversion. Already in the international tongue of Greek, it allowed a rapid spreading of the gospel to many nations. (And interestingly, its name, Septuagint, takes on new meaning: it became a missionary—a seventy—to all the nations.) Several incidents in the New Testament detail conversions occurring through the use of the Old Testament. One missionary, Apollos, “mightily convinced the Jews, and that publicly, shewing by the scriptures [the Old Testament] that Jesus was Christ.” (Acts 18:28.) The Hebrew records, then, were not abandoned by the first Christians. Rather, they were studied even more diligently, but with new eyes. Unlike the unconverted Jews, who believed these records contained all, Christians (both Jewish and gentile) were taught that they contained but the first step—testaments which would lead to new life through the Savior. Just as there emerged vast differences in the way Jew and Christian interpreted the ancient writings, so there were some differences in the actual manuscripts they used. There are differences in the wording found in Greek and Hebrew scrolls. The Septuagint’s “a virgin shall conceive” was “a young woman” in the later Masoretic version. Exactly how and at what point such differences emerged is uncertain.5 In addition, early Christian Apostles made reference to teachings found in writings attributed to Moses and Enoch but which are not found in scriptures possessed by traditional Judaism. Various manuscripts discovered in modern times claim that after his resurrection Christ himself gave his Apostles certain ancient writings the Jews didn’t possess.6 The fact that the Septuagint was being utilized so extensively by Christ’s followers was greatly disturbing to rabbinic Jews. Disavowing the Septuagint, they prepared translations of the Greek that were more acceptable to them, making references to an anthropomorphic God less obvious.7 Many events at this time had devastating impact upon the Jews: the rise of Christianity, which, to them, was a major apostasy; Christianity’s misappropriation of their scriptures; the fall of Jerusalem; and the second destruction of the temple. These events caused them to reexamine the status of their records. Since the temple, their central place of worship, had again been destroyed, they became even more “the religion of the book,” for the book was the only religious thing of a physical nature left to them.8 Sometime during the first century the Jews made a final determination of what constituted authoritative Jewish scriptures. There is evidence that the Council of Jamnia in A.D. 90 may have been the culmination of this effort, for the council debated the authority of certain books and established a fixed canon of Judaic writings.9 Among books not included were some accepted by the Christians. Apocalyptic writings, in particular, were the ones most consistently discriminated against and have survived (except for Daniel and parts of Ezekiel, Isaiah, and Zechariah) only in non-canonical works.10 To ensure thereafter that the canon would be preserved uniformally, all future Hebrew manuscripts were made to conform to a certain pattern, and variant texts were destroyed or suppressed.11 Much of the work of preserving the Hebrew scriptures through the centuries after Christ was accomplished by the Masoretes, traditional Jewish scholars who worked in Palestine and Babylon between the sixth and tenth centuries A.D. The Hebrew manuscript with which they dealt was a solid mass of consonants: there were no written vowels, no word separations, no punctuations. The tedious work of transcribing and the lack of space had led Hebrew scribes to utilize this shorthand system. Regarding the text as sacred, the Masoretes were reluctant to insert vowels, but they developed a system of using dots and dashes which stood for certain vowels. In essence, they were filling out the words without changing the consonantal text.12 The copying methods of the Masoretes were strictly prescribed by Talmudic law. Among the rules were the following: (1) A synagogue roll had to be written on skins of clean animals prepared specifically by a synagogue Jew. (2) Only authentic copies were to be recopied, and scribes were not to deviate in the least. (3) Nothing must be written from memory.13 For years, scholars searching for original copies of our scriptures were unable to find any Old Testament copies in Hebrew older than the ninth century A.D. Part of the reason for this is that as new copies were made, the old were burned or buried.14 Though parts of some manuscripts eventually turned up, the real breakthrough came in the 1940s when the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. Among the scrolls were one of Isaiah and portions of other Old Testament books. Although they agree generally with later copies, there are also important points of divergence, enough to arouse some belief that variant pristine texts once existed.15 Although the Old Testament has been canonized and theoretically completed, scholars today still search for its sources and for its original texts. Regardless of its failings, the Old Testament as preserved by the Jews deserves high tribute. It is praised by scholars of many faiths. Some point out that unlike the tales of other Near Eastern cultures, archaeological evidence shows that Israel’s story is true history and deserves praise for its respect for fact—particularly since respect for fact did not generally prevail during the time of its writing. Others point out that while neighboring cultures had records of beliefs and ways of life, these beliefs died and are known now only because of excavations centuries later. But the Jewish history and record of beliefs, far from dying and being buried, “has provided a continuing tradition and a source of constant study; people have read it, re-examined it and lived by it.”16 Thus, from the beginning, the word went forth from God. Men received it and sought to hold on to it. Though some was lost, much was saved. Our eighth article of faith recognizes this fact, and yet it affirms the record’s divine origin, and that it must be read with an ear tuned to the voice of the Spirit. Although we look forward to the time when the records will be whole, that which we now have is reverenced and appreciated. It is a good foundation upon which many things have been and will yet be built. End of Part 2. To be continued.	<urn:uuid:b5050294-5d25-4bba-8c0c-5709e04c0078>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1982/02/how-the-bible-came-to-be-part-2-the-word-is-preserved?lang=eng	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00274.warc.gz	en	0.982667	3,631	3.625	4	[ -0.30290377140045166, 0.6605217456817627, 0.3532901704311371, 0.055681806057691574, -0.26044946908950806, -0.11751983314752579, -0.15982908010482788, 0.11136817187070847, -0.0923529863357544, 0.29676806926727295, -0.5831769704818726, 0.014135099947452545, 0.4573865234851837, 0.082070425152...	4	“How the Bible Came to Be: Part 2, The Word Is Preserved,” Ensign, Feb. 1982, 32 There were several ways to record and preserve records anciently—none of them easy. The most common was to use papyrus, made from pith scraped from the papyrus plant, then wetted and pressed together. Scribes could write on both the front and back. (See Ezek. 2:10.) For more space, additional scrolls could be pasted at the bottom, the whole being rolled around rods. Some rolls may have reached as long as thirty-five feet, though such length would obviously become very clumsy and unwieldy. Clay tablets were also written upon and then baked in the sun or in kilns. More durable than papyrus, clay tablets are more commonly discovered in ancient ruins. Records were also made upon writing-boards—flat boards of wood or ivory cut out in such a way that an inlay of wax could be written upon. The boards were hinged together to become a folding book. Perhaps this is the kind of record Ezekiel is referring to when he speaks of the sticks of Judah and Ephraim being joined into one stick. (See Ezek. 37:16–17.) Animal skin (leather) was also used by the Hebrews. And for very significant religious records, metals were used. (Laban’s brass plates are an example.) While we can mention all these methods quite easily in passing, we do the ancient scribes injustice if we do not at least acknowledge the great hand labor required to prepare these writing materials before even one letter could ever be set down upon them. The process of writing is tedious and immensely challenging even under the best of conditions. To expend all the energies necessary to write in those days with what we would consider inadequate light, awkward writing instruments, difficult writing materials, and uncomfortable surroundings would incur sacrifices which we can only vaguely imagine. The preservation of records was of great concern to the Hebrews. From the first, scriptures were treated with the utmost care: Moses’ writings were preserved in the ark of the covenant. The scriptures record the names of those who were called to be state scribes, for this was considered an office of very great importance. Senior scribes were even given their own rooms in the palaces and temples. Ancient writings remained only in the hands of priests and were read only by scribes. Each scroll had to be copied directly from another scroll, and until the destruction of the temple, official copies were taken directly from the master copy in the temple. The official scrolls were the most holy objects in the synagogue and were treated in every way like treasures. New scribes were carefully instructed about the sacredness of their task: “My son, be careful in thy work, for it is heavenly work, lest thou err in omitting or in adding one jot [the smallest letter in the Hebrew alphabet] and so cause the destruction of the whole world.”1 The scriptures are far more than just history: they are the word of the Lord. As such, they deserve to be put in the most beautiful setting possible. And, for the most part, they were, even though each writer spoke out of his own time and culture, and in spite of human weaknesses. The record is not merely prose: it is rhythmic prose, and often even poetry. In fact, several of the prophetic books are in part or almost wholly poetic, although we may not recognize this at first since Hebrew poetry differs from English poetry. Rather than using a repetition of sounds for effectiveness, Hebrew poetry achieves its impact through a rhythmic repetition and balance of ideas, either similar or contrasting. This style carries truth to the ear in a more powerful, more pleasing, more memorable way. Imagine, to be prophet and poet both! But surely poetic gifts did not come readily. We can only imagine the many additional hours, the greater mental fatigue, the greater patience required to work and rework, to write and rewrite the scriptures until the form was rhythmic and the imagery and language poetic. This quality of the Hebrew scriptures augments another unique quality: history saturated with similitudes and prophecies of Christ, the ultimate Suffering Servant. Some of the Hebrew authors not only wrote about, but also experienced their prophecies. One was asked to offer a son as sacrifice; another struggled through a wilderness as savior to a rebellious and bondaged people. It is only when we realize that their ultimate gift to the word of God was the lives they led that we can fully grasp just how much they really gave for the sake of truth. Aramaic is generally thought to have been the general tongue of the Hebrews after their Babylonian captivity. Since it was also the language used in trade and diplomatic relations over a wide area, it became entrenched as the everyday speech of the inhabitants of Judah. Therefore, from the fourth century B.C., the Hebrew scriptures were an enigma for most Jews unless translated for them. Yet at that point, according to Jewish tradition, written translations were forbidden, as if the language and the concepts were inseparable. Oral translations were permitted, but only by official synagogue translators. Even then, the translation had to be done verse by verse in the Torah and at least after every third verse in the “Prophets.”2 The oral translations, or Targums, were more than just translations. They were interpretation and explanation, sometimes even extending into sermons. The religious leaders found these methods actually useful in overcoming what they felt were easily misunderstood passages. An example used by one scholar of explanatory translation is that given for Exodus 24:10 [Ex. 24:10] which states, “And they saw the God of Israel.” In Aramaic it would be translated and interpreted, “And they saw the glory of the God of Israel.”3 It is particularly interesting that the passages indicating an anthropomorphic (physical) God were the ones most often explained away. It is not surprising, then, that when One arrived a few centuries later claiming to be the Son of God, his claim was met with hostility: the rejection of a God with a body of flesh and bones had begun long before. Eventually, written Targums were also allowed, but the translations had to be written between the lines of the Hebrew on the scrolls. Translation into Aramaic became quite extensive: remnants of Targums of almost all the books of the Old Testament have been discovered. But there was a need for other translations as well. With the conquest of Palestine by Alexander the Great in 333 B.C., there was another dispersion of Jews, this time to Egypt. Again, many who adapted themselves to living in other lands never returned. Now there were two major centers of the Diaspora (scattering): Babylon and Alexandria. Alexander’s conquests had spread the use of Greek throughout a very wide area, and Greek became the language used in commercial and literary enterprises. Most Jews living in lands other than Judah became Greek-speaking. And so around 250 B.C. a translation was made of the Hebrew scriptures into Greek. How it came about is highly debatable. One ancient account, popular among early Christians but viewed as legend by scholars today, is contained in a narrative called the “Letter of Aristeas.” According to this story, King Ptolemy of Egypt heard of the excellent Jewish records and desired a copy in Greek for his growing library. To obtain them, he sent a group, including Aristeas, to the high priest in Jerusalem, loaded with presents. The Jews agreed to his offer and sent scholars back to Egypt to carry out the translative work. According to the legend, each of these seventy-two elders worked upon the translations separately, but when they compared the results of their progress, their renderings were identical. The work was accomplished within a period of seventy-two days. Because of these elements of seventy—seventy-two elders and seventy-two days—the work came to be known as the Septuagint, Latin for seventy.4 Modern scholars obviously have doubts about the authenticity of such a legend. Generally, they do agree that the translation probably occurred in Alexandria and that it was probably done by Jewish translators from Jerusalem. Regardless of its exact origins, the Septuagint was well accepted by the Jews of Alexandria, and, as we will see later, became a powerful influence in later years. What became the record of the Jews, though sparse in parts, had been built step by step from the time of Adam. It had grown to a collection of many sacred writings and had been translated into the changing common languages of the people. But now its very Author, the One from whom it had all originally sprung, appeared upon the scene. The scriptures themselves relate this wondrous happening: “In the beginning was the Word, … and the Word was God. … And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us.” (John 1:1, 14.) He who from the beginning had uttered the words which prophets had written and man had studied and vocalized and repeated—he of whom all the scriptures had borne witness—came among his people. Although they possessed his words, they understood them not, and he rebuked them, saying, “Ye do err, not knowing the scriptures.” (Matt. 22:29.) And although they possessed his words, they did them not, and he rebuked them, saying, “The scribes and the Pharisees sit in Moses’ seat: All therefore whatsoever they bid you observe, that observe and do; but do not ye after their works: for they say, and do not.” (Matt. 23:2–3.) While in the flesh, he repeated his word in awesome irony: “Did ye never read in the scriptures, The stone which the builders rejected, the same is become the head of the corner?” (Matt. 21:42.) And finally, he fulfilled his word before their very eyes and even at their doing. His atonement, crucifixion, and resurrection were the fulfillment of all that the prophets had spoken. After his resurrection, he showed his disciples how the Old Testament had borne witness of all the events which had just come to pass. On the road to Emmaus those who walked with him exclaimed, “Did not our heart burn within us … while he opened to us the scriptures?” (Luke 24:32.) And then he departed, and his disciples were left to take the joyful news that the old word—the laws, prophecies, and covenants—had been fulfilled through Christ’s life and death. The basic scripture of the earliest Christians was the Septuagint, the Hebrew record translated into Greek. But the record was used in a new way—as a witness of Christ. It was in this role that the Septuagint began to play a very important part. When the Christian message began to spread outside the borders of Palestine, the Septuagint became the main instrument of teaching and conversion. Already in the international tongue of Greek, it allowed a rapid spreading of the gospel to many nations. (And interestingly, its name, Septuagint, takes on new meaning: it became a missionary—a seventy—to all the nations.) Several incidents in the New Testament detail conversions occurring through the use of the Old Testament. One missionary, Apollos, “mightily convinced the Jews, and that publicly, shewing by the scriptures [the Old Testament] that Jesus was Christ.” (Acts 18:28.) The Hebrew records, then, were not abandoned by the first Christians. Rather, they were studied even more diligently, but with new eyes. Unlike the unconverted Jews, who believed these records contained all, Christians (both Jewish and gentile) were taught that they contained but the first step—testaments which would lead to new life through the Savior. Just as there emerged vast differences in the way Jew and Christian interpreted the ancient writings, so there were some differences in the actual manuscripts they used. There are differences in the wording found in Greek and Hebrew scrolls. The Septuagint’s “a virgin shall conceive” was “a young woman” in the later Masoretic version. Exactly how and at what point such differences emerged is uncertain.5 In addition, early Christian Apostles made reference to teachings found in writings attributed to Moses and Enoch but which are not found in scriptures possessed by traditional Judaism. Various manuscripts discovered in modern times claim that after his resurrection Christ himself gave his Apostles certain ancient writings the Jews didn’t possess.6 The fact that the Septuagint was being utilized so extensively by Christ’s followers was greatly disturbing to rabbinic Jews. Disavowing the Septuagint, they prepared translations of the Greek that were more acceptable to them, making references to an anthropomorphic God less obvious.7 Many events at this time had devastating impact upon the Jews: the rise of Christianity, which, to them, was a major apostasy; Christianity’s misappropriation of their scriptures; the fall of Jerusalem; and the second destruction of the temple. These events caused them to reexamine the status of their records. Since the temple, their central place of worship, had again been destroyed, they became even more “the religion of the book,” for the book was the only religious thing of a physical nature left to them.8 Sometime during the first century the Jews made a final determination of what constituted authoritative Jewish scriptures. There is evidence that the Council of Jamnia in A.D. 90 may have been the culmination of this effort, for the council debated the authority of certain books and established a fixed canon of Judaic writings.9 Among books not included were some accepted by the Christians. Apocalyptic writings, in particular, were the ones most consistently discriminated against and have survived (except for Daniel and parts of Ezekiel, Isaiah, and Zechariah) only in non-canonical works.10 To ensure thereafter that the canon would be preserved uniformally, all future Hebrew manuscripts were made to conform to a certain pattern, and variant texts were destroyed or suppressed.11 Much of the work of preserving the Hebrew scriptures through the centuries after Christ was accomplished by the Masoretes, traditional Jewish scholars who worked in Palestine and Babylon between the sixth and tenth centuries A.D. The Hebrew manuscript with which they dealt was a solid mass of consonants: there were no written vowels, no word separations, no punctuations. The tedious work of transcribing and the lack of space had led Hebrew scribes to utilize this shorthand system. Regarding the text as sacred, the Masoretes were reluctant to insert vowels, but they developed a system of using dots and dashes which stood for certain vowels. In essence, they were filling out the words without changing the consonantal text.12 The copying methods of the Masoretes were strictly prescribed by Talmudic law. Among the rules were the following: (1) A synagogue roll had to be written on skins of clean animals prepared specifically by a synagogue Jew. (2) Only authentic copies were to be recopied, and scribes were not to deviate in the least. (3) Nothing must be written from memory.13 For years, scholars searching for original copies of our scriptures were unable to find any Old Testament copies in Hebrew older than the ninth century A.D. Part of the reason for this is that as new copies were made, the old were burned or buried.14 Though parts of some manuscripts eventually turned up, the real breakthrough came in the 1940s when the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. Among the scrolls were one of Isaiah and portions of other Old Testament books. Although they agree generally with later copies, there are also important points of divergence, enough to arouse some belief that variant pristine texts once existed.15 Although the Old Testament has been canonized and theoretically completed, scholars today still search for its sources and for its original texts. Regardless of its failings, the Old Testament as preserved by the Jews deserves high tribute. It is praised by scholars of many faiths. Some point out that unlike the tales of other Near Eastern cultures, archaeological evidence shows that Israel’s story is true history and deserves praise for its respect for fact—particularly since respect for fact did not generally prevail during the time of its writing. Others point out that while neighboring cultures had records of beliefs and ways of life, these beliefs died and are known now only because of excavations centuries later. But the Jewish history and record of beliefs, far from dying and being buried, “has provided a continuing tradition and a source of constant study; people have read it, re-examined it and lived by it.”16 Thus, from the beginning, the word went forth from God. Men received it and sought to hold on to it. Though some was lost, much was saved. Our eighth article of faith recognizes this fact, and yet it affirms the record’s divine origin, and that it must be read with an ear tuned to the voice of the Spirit. Although we look forward to the time when the records will be whole, that which we now have is reverenced and appreciated. It is a good foundation upon which many things have been and will yet be built. End of Part 2. To be continued.	3,584	ENGLISH	1
The British Royal Navy was the first to grasp the importance of the aircraft carrier and the first to embark on a carrier construction program and establish a Fleet Air Arm. Between the end of the First World War and the beginning of the Second the Royal Navy would build 7 carriers. These ships in almost all cases were somewhat experimental as the Royal Navy experimented with flight deck and island designs, arresting systems, catapults and designs. The initial ships were all converted from other types with only two the Hermes and Ark Royal being built from the keel up as carriers. HMS Furious: Furious was built as a Courageous class large light cruiser and mounted two 18” guns in single turrets. A flying off platform was added as was a second flight deck aft following the removal of those guns. She operated Fleet Air Arm Sopwith Pups but aircraft that attempted to land on her aft deck encountered severe turbulence caused by the air currents coming around the superstructure and funnel gasses. She was the first ship to land an aircraft underway on August 2nd 1917 during her trials however the pilot Squadron Commander Edwin Dunning was killed when his Pup’s engine choked on a later attempt. After the war Furious was laid up until she was taken in hand for conversion to an Aircraft Carrier between 1921 and 1925. When she was completed she could operate a 36 aircraft air group. Between the wars she supported Fleet operations and was used in the testing and evaluation of aircraft. She conducted the first night landing on a carrier when she landed a Blackburn Dart on 6 May 1926. She received a number of overhauls and modernizations. During the war she supported numerous fleet operations including the North Africa landings, operations in the Mediterranean and operations against German fleet units in Norway including the Battleship Tirpitz. Her limitations began to show and she was placed in reserve in September 1944 and paid off in April 1945. She was subsequently used to evaluate the effects of explosives on her structure. She was sold for scrap in 1948. HMS Argus 1918 HMS Argus: The Argus was converted from the Italian Ocean Liner Conte Rosso which was purchases by the Royal Navy with the intent of converting her into an Aircraft Carrier. She was built with a flush unobstructed flight deck after the Royal Navy’s unsuccessful divided flight deck experiment used on the HMS Furious following her conversion from a Light Battle Cruiser to a carrier. Argus was launched in 1917 and commissioned just prior to the end of the war on September 19th 1918. Argus was small (15,775 tons) She was only capable of 20 knots and carried 18 aircraft. Like the USS Langley she was not a true frontline though she was used in that role as well as a training ship until the end of the 1920s when she was withdrawn from frontline service. Since she was built before the Washington Naval Treaty she was considered an experimental ship and not counted against Britain. By the 1930s she was regulated to serving as a tender for remote controlled DH.82B Queen Bees. During the early part of World War II the Royal Navy suffered heavy losses and the Argus assumed front line duties escorting convoys in the Atlantic and Mediterranean and ferrying badly needed aircraft to Malta for the Royal Air Force. She finally was withdrawn from service in 1944 and used as an accommodation ship until scrapped in 1946. HMS Eagle 1942 HMS Eagle: Eagle was laid down as the Chilean Battleship Admirante Cochrane prior to World War I and her construction was suspended until the Royal Navy purchased her for completion as a through deck Aircraft Carrier. She was 667.5 feet long and displaced 26,000 tons full load and carried up to 21 aircraft. She conducted sea trials but was taken back to the shipyard for improvements including an all oil-fired plant, anti-torpedo bulges and a longer island structure. She was commissioned in 1924 an saw much service through the 1920s and 1930s serving in the Mediterranean and the Far East until the outbreak of the Second World War. With the outbreak of hostilities she was recalled from the Far East where she spent most of her time in the Mediterranean escorting convoys, launching airstrikes against Italian bases and fleet units sinking the submarine Iride and the depot ship Monte Gargano in the Gulf of Bomba on 22 August 1941. HMS Eagle burning and sinking She was damaged by near misses by Luftwaffe bombers in October returned to England for repairs before returning to the Mediterranean in February 1942. She and her aircraft were very important in the defense of Malta until she was sunk during another Malta relief mission Operation Pedestal by the German U-Boat U-73 on 11 August 1942. Hit by 4 torpedoes she sank in 4 minutes with the loss of 160 officers and crew. HMS Hermes: The Hermes was the first carrier built as such from the keel up using a cruiser type hull. The design of the Japanese carrier Hosho was influenced by Hermes which was launched before Hosho was laid down although Hosho commissioned earlier. Hermes was a pioneer design with a full length flush flight deck and starboard side island structure. She was limited by her small size and slow speed although she could embark almost as many aircraft than could the much larger Eagle. She did have significant limitations including protection, endurance, only 6,000 miles at 18 knots and small air group size which varied from 15-20 aircraft. She primarily served on the China Station until placed in reserve in 1937. In 1939 she was reactivated briefly serving with the Home Fleet before being assigned to the South Atlantic Station. She sailed with HMS Prince of Wales for the Far East in late 1941 but did not accompany the Prince of Wales and Repulse to Singapore where they would be sunk when trying to intercept a Japanese convoy on December 8th 1941. HMS Hermes sinking after Japanese air attack new Ceylon She remained at Ceylon and escaped from the harbor before the Japanese carrier’s arrived, however returning to port she was spotted by a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft and attacked by 70 Japanese attack planes which hit her 40 times sinking her with the loss of 307 of her 664 man crew on 9 April 1942. HMS Glorious and a destroyer taken from Ark Royal at close of Norwegian campaign HMS Glorious: The Glorious was one of the three Courageous class Battlecruisers designed and built in World War One. Her sister ship HMS Furious had already been taken in hand for complete conversion to an aircraft when the Washington Naval Treaty was ratified. Under the terms of the treaty the Royal Navy had to significantly reduce its number of capital ships. With their large size and high speed the Courageous class ships, like the American Lexington class were ideal candidates for conversion to aircraft carriers. Glorious underwent conversion from 1924 until 1930 when she was recommissioned. With an overall length of 786 feet and full load displacement of 27,859 tons she could carry 48 aircraft and steam at 30 knots. She would spend much of her career in the Mediterranean and undergo modernization from 1934-1935. At the outbreak of the war she was in the Mediterranean and would take part in the hunt for the German Pocket-Battleship Admiral Scheer in the Indian Ocean until being brought back to the Home Fleet for operations in the Norwegian Campaign. HMS Glorious sinking picture taken from Scharnhorst As the British withdraw was completed her Commander requested to steam independently to Scapa Flow to hold a courts martial proceeding against his former Air Group Commander. Sailing with two escorting destroyers Glorious was sighted by the German Battlecruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau on June 8th 1941. Unprepared with no Combat Air Patrol up or aircraft at the ready Glorious and her two escorting destroyers were sunk by the German warships. Only 43 of her complement and air group of nearly 1400 men survived. HMS Courageous entering Malta HMS Courageous: Courageous like her sister HMS Glorious was taken in hand for conversion to an aircraft carrier in 1924 was recommissioned as such in 1928. She would serve primarily with the Atlantic and Home Fleets between the wars and upon commencement of hostilities. HMS Courageous sinking after being torpedoed by U-29 17 September 1939 He became part of a U-Boat Hunter Killer Group and on the 17th of September 1939 barely 2 weeks after the start of the war she was sunk by two torpedoes fired by the U-29 taking with her 518 of her crew including her Captain. Her loss sent a shudder through the Admiralty and resulted in Fleet Carriers being pulled from this type of duty. HMS Ark Royal HMS Ark Royal: Ark Royal was the first truly modern Royal Navy carrier. Designed from the keel up as such she incorporated arresting gear and steam catapults. She also was built with two hangar decks as well as elevators that were integral to the hull and thus protected by the ship’s armor belt. Designed to operate 72 aircraft she normally operated 50-60 as the size and weight of aircraft had increased during the time of her construction and commissioning. Displacing 27,800 tons fully loaded she was 800 feet long and had a top speed of 31 knots and range of 7600 nautical miles (8700 miles) at 20 knots being the only British carrier of the era to compare favorably with her American and Japanese counterparts. Commissioned in December of 1938 Ark Royal which was intended for service in the Far East was deployed with the Home Fleet and in the Mediterranean until the outbreak of the war. Initially employed on Hunter Killer duty she and her escorting destroyers sank the U-39 on 14 September 1939 followed by the hunt for the Pocket Battleship Graf Spee. She saw action in Norway and was a bulwark of British strength in the Mediterranean where she took part in the attack on the French Fleet at Mes-el-Kébir following the French surrender to Germany and the refusal of the French Commander to either scuttle the fleet or bring to British controlled waters. She was engaged in numerous engagements and operations including the support of Malta, operations against the Italian Fleet and air strikes on Italian shore installations. She survived frequent air attacks by the Luftwaffe during these operations. When the Bismarck broke out into the Atlantic Ark Royal was dispatched with Force H to assist in the hunt. Ark Royal’s Fairly Swordfish torpedo bombers found the Bismarck on 26 May 1941 and on their last chance to damage the German behemoth stuck her with a torpedo which jammed the Bismarck’s rudders allowing British Battleships to sink her the following day. She returned to the Mediterranean after this where she was again engaged in protecting convoys bound for Malta. While returning with Force H to Gibraltar following one of these runs on 10 November 1941 she was attacked by U-81 which scored a hit with one torpedo. A combination of poor command response, for which her Captain was found guilty of at court-martial as well as design flaws related to her electric power plant which made damage control nearly impossible once power was lost were responsible for her sinking. The Royal Navy helped pioneer the development of the aircraft carrier but most of their early ships had significant limitations in design, obsolescent aircraft and poor employment which were responsible for the losses of several of the ships. However they did contribute to Britain’s ability to survive during the early years of the war. The ships officers and men of these ships company as well as their air groups helped maintain the sea lanes which kept her in the war and allowed her forces to continue to fight in North Africa during the darkest days of the war. One can never minimize their service or sacrifice in the especially in the early days of the war. Today the Royal Navy has no Aircraft Carriers in commission. The last the Ark Royal was paid off this year and it will be nearly a decade before the new Queen Elizabeth class enters service. Until then the Royal Navy will have no capability to project air power in support of any contingency. Let us hope for Britain that no such contingency arises.	<urn:uuid:0db8570a-2057-44a5-8df5-4f35497bacfe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://padresteve.com/tag/hms-argus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00318.warc.gz	en	0.984379	2,467	3.671875	4	[ -0.2679821252822876, 0.2868117094039917, 0.28068724274635315, -0.6301448941230774, -0.17859262228012085, 0.032134801149368286, -0.07148372381925583, 0.3531203866004944, -0.1642814576625824, -0.36150670051574707, 0.4318757653236389, -0.37645775079727173, 0.0783575177192688, 0.47891306877136...	2	The British Royal Navy was the first to grasp the importance of the aircraft carrier and the first to embark on a carrier construction program and establish a Fleet Air Arm. Between the end of the First World War and the beginning of the Second the Royal Navy would build 7 carriers. These ships in almost all cases were somewhat experimental as the Royal Navy experimented with flight deck and island designs, arresting systems, catapults and designs. The initial ships were all converted from other types with only two the Hermes and Ark Royal being built from the keel up as carriers. HMS Furious: Furious was built as a Courageous class large light cruiser and mounted two 18” guns in single turrets. A flying off platform was added as was a second flight deck aft following the removal of those guns. She operated Fleet Air Arm Sopwith Pups but aircraft that attempted to land on her aft deck encountered severe turbulence caused by the air currents coming around the superstructure and funnel gasses. She was the first ship to land an aircraft underway on August 2nd 1917 during her trials however the pilot Squadron Commander Edwin Dunning was killed when his Pup’s engine choked on a later attempt. After the war Furious was laid up until she was taken in hand for conversion to an Aircraft Carrier between 1921 and 1925. When she was completed she could operate a 36 aircraft air group. Between the wars she supported Fleet operations and was used in the testing and evaluation of aircraft. She conducted the first night landing on a carrier when she landed a Blackburn Dart on 6 May 1926. She received a number of overhauls and modernizations. During the war she supported numerous fleet operations including the North Africa landings, operations in the Mediterranean and operations against German fleet units in Norway including the Battleship Tirpitz. Her limitations began to show and she was placed in reserve in September 1944 and paid off in April 1945. She was subsequently used to evaluate the effects of explosives on her structure. She was sold for scrap in 1948. HMS Argus 1918 HMS Argus: The Argus was converted from the Italian Ocean Liner Conte Rosso which was purchases by the Royal Navy with the intent of converting her into an Aircraft Carrier. She was built with a flush unobstructed flight deck after the Royal Navy’s unsuccessful divided flight deck experiment used on the HMS Furious following her conversion from a Light Battle Cruiser to a carrier. Argus was launched in 1917 and commissioned just prior to the end of the war on September 19th 1918. Argus was small (15,775 tons) She was only capable of 20 knots and carried 18 aircraft. Like the USS Langley she was not a true frontline though she was used in that role as well as a training ship until the end of the 1920s when she was withdrawn from frontline service. Since she was built before the Washington Naval Treaty she was considered an experimental ship and not counted against Britain. By the 1930s she was regulated to serving as a tender for remote controlled DH.82B Queen Bees. During the early part of World War II the Royal Navy suffered heavy losses and the Argus assumed front line duties escorting convoys in the Atlantic and Mediterranean and ferrying badly needed aircraft to Malta for the Royal Air Force. She finally was withdrawn from service in 1944 and used as an accommodation ship until scrapped in 1946. HMS Eagle 1942 HMS Eagle: Eagle was laid down as the Chilean Battleship Admirante Cochrane prior to World War I and her construction was suspended until the Royal Navy purchased her for completion as a through deck Aircraft Carrier. She was 667.5 feet long and displaced 26,000 tons full load and carried up to 21 aircraft. She conducted sea trials but was taken back to the shipyard for improvements including an all oil-fired plant, anti-torpedo bulges and a longer island structure. She was commissioned in 1924 an saw much service through the 1920s and 1930s serving in the Mediterranean and the Far East until the outbreak of the Second World War. With the outbreak of hostilities she was recalled from the Far East where she spent most of her time in the Mediterranean escorting convoys, launching airstrikes against Italian bases and fleet units sinking the submarine Iride and the depot ship Monte Gargano in the Gulf of Bomba on 22 August 1941. HMS Eagle burning and sinking She was damaged by near misses by Luftwaffe bombers in October returned to England for repairs before returning to the Mediterranean in February 1942. She and her aircraft were very important in the defense of Malta until she was sunk during another Malta relief mission Operation Pedestal by the German U-Boat U-73 on 11 August 1942. Hit by 4 torpedoes she sank in 4 minutes with the loss of 160 officers and crew. HMS Hermes: The Hermes was the first carrier built as such from the keel up using a cruiser type hull. The design of the Japanese carrier Hosho was influenced by Hermes which was launched before Hosho was laid down although Hosho commissioned earlier. Hermes was a pioneer design with a full length flush flight deck and starboard side island structure. She was limited by her small size and slow speed although she could embark almost as many aircraft than could the much larger Eagle. She did have significant limitations including protection, endurance, only 6,000 miles at 18 knots and small air group size which varied from 15-20 aircraft. She primarily served on the China Station until placed in reserve in 1937. In 1939 she was reactivated briefly serving with the Home Fleet before being assigned to the South Atlantic Station. She sailed with HMS Prince of Wales for the Far East in late 1941 but did not accompany the Prince of Wales and Repulse to Singapore where they would be sunk when trying to intercept a Japanese convoy on December 8th 1941. HMS Hermes sinking after Japanese air attack new Ceylon She remained at Ceylon and escaped from the harbor before the Japanese carrier’s arrived, however returning to port she was spotted by a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft and attacked by 70 Japanese attack planes which hit her 40 times sinking her with the loss of 307 of her 664 man crew on 9 April 1942. HMS Glorious and a destroyer taken from Ark Royal at close of Norwegian campaign HMS Glorious: The Glorious was one of the three Courageous class Battlecruisers designed and built in World War One. Her sister ship HMS Furious had already been taken in hand for complete conversion to an aircraft when the Washington Naval Treaty was ratified. Under the terms of the treaty the Royal Navy had to significantly reduce its number of capital ships. With their large size and high speed the Courageous class ships, like the American Lexington class were ideal candidates for conversion to aircraft carriers. Glorious underwent conversion from 1924 until 1930 when she was recommissioned. With an overall length of 786 feet and full load displacement of 27,859 tons she could carry 48 aircraft and steam at 30 knots. She would spend much of her career in the Mediterranean and undergo modernization from 1934-1935. At the outbreak of the war she was in the Mediterranean and would take part in the hunt for the German Pocket-Battleship Admiral Scheer in the Indian Ocean until being brought back to the Home Fleet for operations in the Norwegian Campaign. HMS Glorious sinking picture taken from Scharnhorst As the British withdraw was completed her Commander requested to steam independently to Scapa Flow to hold a courts martial proceeding against his former Air Group Commander. Sailing with two escorting destroyers Glorious was sighted by the German Battlecruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau on June 8th 1941. Unprepared with no Combat Air Patrol up or aircraft at the ready Glorious and her two escorting destroyers were sunk by the German warships. Only 43 of her complement and air group of nearly 1400 men survived. HMS Courageous entering Malta HMS Courageous: Courageous like her sister HMS Glorious was taken in hand for conversion to an aircraft carrier in 1924 was recommissioned as such in 1928. She would serve primarily with the Atlantic and Home Fleets between the wars and upon commencement of hostilities. HMS Courageous sinking after being torpedoed by U-29 17 September 1939 He became part of a U-Boat Hunter Killer Group and on the 17th of September 1939 barely 2 weeks after the start of the war she was sunk by two torpedoes fired by the U-29 taking with her 518 of her crew including her Captain. Her loss sent a shudder through the Admiralty and resulted in Fleet Carriers being pulled from this type of duty. HMS Ark Royal HMS Ark Royal: Ark Royal was the first truly modern Royal Navy carrier. Designed from the keel up as such she incorporated arresting gear and steam catapults. She also was built with two hangar decks as well as elevators that were integral to the hull and thus protected by the ship’s armor belt. Designed to operate 72 aircraft she normally operated 50-60 as the size and weight of aircraft had increased during the time of her construction and commissioning. Displacing 27,800 tons fully loaded she was 800 feet long and had a top speed of 31 knots and range of 7600 nautical miles (8700 miles) at 20 knots being the only British carrier of the era to compare favorably with her American and Japanese counterparts. Commissioned in December of 1938 Ark Royal which was intended for service in the Far East was deployed with the Home Fleet and in the Mediterranean until the outbreak of the war. Initially employed on Hunter Killer duty she and her escorting destroyers sank the U-39 on 14 September 1939 followed by the hunt for the Pocket Battleship Graf Spee. She saw action in Norway and was a bulwark of British strength in the Mediterranean where she took part in the attack on the French Fleet at Mes-el-Kébir following the French surrender to Germany and the refusal of the French Commander to either scuttle the fleet or bring to British controlled waters. She was engaged in numerous engagements and operations including the support of Malta, operations against the Italian Fleet and air strikes on Italian shore installations. She survived frequent air attacks by the Luftwaffe during these operations. When the Bismarck broke out into the Atlantic Ark Royal was dispatched with Force H to assist in the hunt. Ark Royal’s Fairly Swordfish torpedo bombers found the Bismarck on 26 May 1941 and on their last chance to damage the German behemoth stuck her with a torpedo which jammed the Bismarck’s rudders allowing British Battleships to sink her the following day. She returned to the Mediterranean after this where she was again engaged in protecting convoys bound for Malta. While returning with Force H to Gibraltar following one of these runs on 10 November 1941 she was attacked by U-81 which scored a hit with one torpedo. A combination of poor command response, for which her Captain was found guilty of at court-martial as well as design flaws related to her electric power plant which made damage control nearly impossible once power was lost were responsible for her sinking. The Royal Navy helped pioneer the development of the aircraft carrier but most of their early ships had significant limitations in design, obsolescent aircraft and poor employment which were responsible for the losses of several of the ships. However they did contribute to Britain’s ability to survive during the early years of the war. The ships officers and men of these ships company as well as their air groups helped maintain the sea lanes which kept her in the war and allowed her forces to continue to fight in North Africa during the darkest days of the war. One can never minimize their service or sacrifice in the especially in the early days of the war. Today the Royal Navy has no Aircraft Carriers in commission. The last the Ark Royal was paid off this year and it will be nearly a decade before the new Queen Elizabeth class enters service. Until then the Royal Navy will have no capability to project air power in support of any contingency. Let us hope for Britain that no such contingency arises.	2,706	ENGLISH	1
History of the Gypsies Gypsies have long been among the most mysterious, exotic peoples on earth. They have been described as a race of nomads, who have no real home. Gypsies do have their own language, Romani, and they identify themselves as Romani people. Gypsies came to Europe long ago from India. Gypsy history remained unknown for centuries, largely because they had no written language, and strangely enough, they had forgotten where they came from. Gypsies generally claimed to be Egyptians—hence the name "Gypsy." Europeans eventually discovered that the Romani language is related to certain dialects of India, and from there Gypsy history was gradually put together. Gypsies were a low caste people in India who made their living as wandering musicians and singers. In the year 430, Gypsy musicians, (12,000 of them) from the tribe of India known as Jat (called Zott by Persians) were given as a gift to the Persian King Bahram V. Large numbers of them were captured by the Byzantines in Syria, where they were lauded as great acrobats and jugglers, about 855. Gypsies are noted in the twelfth-century history of Constantinople as bear keepers, snake charmers, fortune tellers, and sellers of magic amulets to ward off the evil eye. Balsamon warned the Greeks to avoid these "ventriloquists and wizards" that he said were in league with the Devil. Symon Simeonis describes Gypsies in Crete (1323) as "asserting themselves to be of the family of Ham. They rarely or never stop in one place beyond thirty days, but always wandering and fugitive, as though accursed by God . . . from field to field with their oblong tents, back and low." Gypsies living in Modon are described in 1497 by Arnold von Harff as "many poor black naked people . . . called Gypsies . . . follow all kinds of trade, such as shoemaking and cobbling and also smithery." Gypsies are reported in Serbia in 1348; Croatia in 1362 (as goldsmiths); and Romania in 1378—as slaves put to work as barbers, tailors, bakers, masons, and household servants. Gypsies first surface in Switzerland, Hungary, Germany, and Spain in 1414-1417. During this time they traveled about with a Safe-Conduct (similar to a Passport) from Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund. After Sigismund died, Gypsies traveled around Europe with safe-conduct letters from the Pope. Those from Sigismund were legitimate, but the supposed papal letters were forgeries. Hermann Conerus wrote this about Gypsies: "They traveled in bands and camped at night in the fields outside the towns . . . They were great thieves, especially their women, and several of them in various places were seized and put to death." In Switzerland, it was noted that Gypsies wore rags that resembled blankets but were bedecked in gold and silver jewelry. The Gypsy women became known as palm readers and petty thieves, suspected of sorcery. Many towns in Europe began to pay Gypsies to go away as soon as they appeared. A Bologna chronicle from 1422 gave this account of a visit from a Gypsy group: "Amongst those who wished to have their fortunes told, few went to consult without having their purse stolen . . . The women of the band wandered about the town, six or eight together; they entered the houses of the citizens and told idle tales, during which some of them laid hold of whatever could be taken. In the same way, they visited the shops under the pretext of buying something, but one of them would steal." In the fifteenth century, the Gypsies spread many myths about themselves around the Europe. The greatest of these myths was outlined in the forged papal letter. The letter stated that the Gypsies had been sentenced by the Pope for their collective sins to live as nomads, never to sleep in a bed. Along with that sad tale, the letter instructed the people reading it to give the Gypsies food, money, and beer, and exempt them from any tolls and taxes. Even though the majority of Gypsy people left the Ottoman Empire and moved on to Europe, some remained. Suleiman the Magnificent issued a decree to regulate Gypsy prostitution in 1530. It is known that Gypsy men played a significant role as miners in the Ottoman Empire of the sixteenth century. Others were watchmen, iron workers, and charcoal-burners. In 1696, Sultan Mustafa II issued orders for Gypsies to be disciplined for their immoral and disorderly lifestyles. They were described as "pimps and prostitutes." But we also find that Gypsy people worked in the Ottoman Empire as broom-makers, chimney-sweeps, musicians, weapon-repairers, and in the manufacture of weapons and ammunition. Gypsies are first noted as musicians in European history in 1469 (Italy). In 1493, they were banned from Milan because they were beggars and thieves who disturbed the peace. While a turban wearing Gypsy woman told your fortune, her children would pick your pockets. It was said that the Gypsy women cast spells and practiced witchcraft; the Gypsy men were experts at picking locks and pilfering horses. Settled people are usually suspicious of rootless, masterless wanderers with no fixed address. The Gypsies traveled about Europe as did no other people, so they knew more than most about what was happening in various countries, and the activities of their inhabitants. This led to rumors that Gypsies were being used as spies. In 1497, the Diet (legislature) of the Holy Roman Empire issued a decree that expelled all Gypsies from Germany for espionage. In 1510, Switzerland followed suit and added the death penalty. A Swiss chronicler denounced Gypsies as "useless rascals who wander about in our day, and of whom the most worthy is a thief, for they live solely for stealing." 133 laws against Gypsies were passed in the Holy Roman Empire between 1551 and 1774. One of those, passed in 1710, made it a crime to be a Gypsy woman or an old Gypsy man in Germany. They were widely viewed as a godless and wicked people. Violators were to be flogged, branded, and deported. To be a Gypsy man in Germany was to be given a life sentence of prison at hard labor. Children of Gypsy people were taken away from them and put into good Christian homes. In the face of this persecution, we find Gypsy men in Germany forming gangs and turning violent in the eighteenth century. A huge crowd gathered at Giessen, Hesse, to watch the executions of 26 Gypsies in 1726. They were a gang led by the notorious Hemperla (Johannes la Fortun). Some were hung; some were beheaded. The most famous of the German Gypsy brigands was Hannikel (Jakob Reinhard). He was hanged in 1783, along with three of his henchmen, for murder. Hannikel had himself a little army, which included women and children. His father was a platoon drummer. In view of this violence, the King of Prussia decided in 1790 that Gypsy men should all be drafted into the military. Other European countries followed suit, and Gypsy men have since served as soldiers for every country in Europe. We first find Gypsies in Scotland in 1505 as tinkers, peddlers, dancers, raconteurs, guisers, and mountebanks. In 1609, the Vagabonds Act was aimed at Gypsies, and four male members of the Faw family were hung in 1611 for not maintaining a permanent address. Eight more men, six of them with the last name of Faa, were hanged in 1624 for being "Egyptians." The Scottish Gypsy surnames Faa and Baille go back perhaps 500 years. A new decree was issued in 1624 that traveling Gypsy men would be arrested and hanged, Gypsy women without children would be drowned, and gypsy women with children would be whipped and branded on the cheek. Billy Marshall was a famous Gypsy King in Scotland. He died in 1792 after living 120 years. Billy Marshall fathered over 100 children, some by his 17 wives, and some by other gals. In England, the Egyptian Act of 1530 was passed to expel Gypsies from the realm, for being lewd vagabonds, conning the good citizens out of their money, and committing a rash of felony robberies. In 1562, Queen Elizabeth signed an order designed to force Gypsies to settle into permanent dwellings, or face death. Several were hanged in 1577, nine more in 1596, and 13 in the 1650s. Under King James I, England began to deport Gypsy people to the American colonies, as well as Jamaica and Barbados. Dumping undesirables into the colonies became a widespread practice, not only Gypsies, but also "thieves, beggars, and whores." Abram Wood and his family were the first Gypsies to settle in Wales, circa 1730. Abram was a great fiddler and storyteller. He became known as the King of the Welsh Gypsies. The sons and grandsons of Abram Wood mastered the national instrument of Wales: the harp. In Provence, it seems the Gypsies were welcomed. It is there that they first began to be called Bohemians. People flocked to them to have their fortunes told. The Gypsies claimed to have dukes and counts among them and later added captains and kings. The Spanish nobility protected the Gypsies at first. Gypsy women were adored for their beauty and seductive charms; Gypsy men were admired as excellent judges of the quality of horses, and hired by nobles to procure them for their stables. But in 1499 King Charles expelled all Gypsies from Spain, under penalty of enslavement. King Philip III again ordered all Gypsies (who were called Gitanos) out of Spain in 1619, this time under penalty of death. An exception was granted for those who would settle down in one place, dress as Spaniards, and stop speaking their ancient language. Philip IV lowered the penalties to six years on the galleys for men and a good flogging for women, in 1633. The city with the most Gypsies was, at the time, Seville. Many Gypsies were publicly flogged there for deceiving the populace by claiming to reveal secrets by divination, heal the sick by magic, cast spells, and for selling maps to buried treasure. A new plan was hatched and executed in 1749, by which all Gypsies in Spain (est. 12,000) would be rounded up in a single night, their possessions confiscated and forced into slavery. Gypsy women were sent to work as spinners, boys in factories, men in mines and shipyards. Fourteen years later, they were freed by King Charles III. In 1783, legislation was enacted whereby all Gypsy people were required to maintain a permanent address (but not in Madrid). However, this bill banned them from working in many of their popular livelihoods, such as shearing, trading in markets or fairs, and inn keeping. Those who continued to live as nomads were to have their children taken from them and placed in orphanages; a second offense would result in execution. Portugal banned Gypsies in 1526, and any of them born there were deported to the Portuguese African colonies. The first record of Gypsy people being deported to Brazil appears in 1574. Whole groups of them were sent to Brazil in 1686. There were also times in the seventeenth century when the policy was only to send Gypsy women to the colonies, while the men were enslaved on galleys. The King of France, Charles IX, banned Gypsies in 1561. He ordered that any Gypsy man caught in France be sentenced to three years on the galleys, in spite of the fact that they were pronounced a non-violent people. In 1607, Henry IV enjoyed Gypsy dancers at court. By 1666, Gypsy men were again condemned to galleys—this time for life—and Gypsy women caught in France had their heads shaved. The Gypsies were declared royal servants in Hungary, and valued as smiths and makers of fine weaponry. They were called "Pharaoh's people" on official Hungarian documents. In a letter from the queen's court in Vienna (1543) it says "here the most excellent Egyptian musicians play." Gypsies also served as messengers and executioners. Gypsies were expelled from Denmark in 1536 and Sweden in 1560. All these problems with the authorities of European countries had the result that a large number of Gypsy encampments were set up in remote areas on borders since police had no authority beyond their province. More and more Gypsy men and women were being flogged and branded. A census was conducted in Hungary (1783) that counted over 50,000 Gypsies. They are described as wanderers who lived in tents except in winter, when they retreated into cave dwellings. Gypsies had no chairs or beds, did not use kitchen utensils, ate mostly meat and noodles, loved tobacco and alcohol. They were disdained for eating carrion. Gypsy people had only one set of clothes, but lots of jewelry. They were known to be peddlers, beggars, and thieves. Gypsy men were renowned as excellent horsemen, and horse traders. Some worked as skinners, as makers of sieves or wooden implements, as gold-sifters or gold-washers, even as tavern keepers. Gypsies were known as an exceptionally proud people, but with little shame or honor. Parents loved their children very much but did not educate them. The Gypsy way of life was contrary to the rules of every organized society. And those who did settle down were disdained by those who continued as nomads. It is estimated that 800,000 Gypsies lived in Europe by the year 1800. They were most numerous in the Balkans, and had a substantial presence in Spain and Italy. About this time a German scholar, Heinrich Gellmann, proved that the Romani language was linked to some languages of India. Although these people would no longer be considered Egyptians, the name Gypsy stuck (as well as the word "gyp"). During the nineteenth century, Gypsies became prominent as musicians, chiefly in Hungary, Spain, and Russia. Hungarian nobility developed a tradition of having a Gypsy minstrel next to the host of a banquet to play for his guests. Before long Gypsy bands proliferated, always including a virtuoso violinist. The first famous Gypsy violinist was Janos Bihari, from Bratislava, who performed at the Congress of Vienna in 1814. By 1850, Gypsy music was popular all over Europe. Gypsy groups went on the road to perform, some as far as America. In 1865, Ferenc Bunko played for the King of Prussia. Imitators of the famous Gypsy bands were soon ubiquitous in Europe, playing in taverns, markets, fairs, festivals, and weddings. In Russia, Gypsies were beloved more for their singing talents. Most every noble family employed a Gypsy chorus, with Gypsy women (who were also dancers) in the main roles, accompanied by a seven-string Russian guitar. The first recorded singer of flamenco music in Spain is a Gypsy man, Tio Luis el de la Juliana. The Census of Hungary in 1893 identified 275,000 Gypsies, with the vast majority of them by now sedentary, gathered in their own enclaves. 90 percent of the Gypsy people were illiterate; 70 percent of Gypsy children did not attend school. Besides musicians and horse traders, the Gypsy men were primarily engaged as smiths, brick makers, and construction workers. Women were mostly hawkers. The largest concentration of them was in Transylvania. In Victorian England, we see the emergence of Gypsy caravans with horse-drawn wagons (vardos), and donkeys or mules in train. Nomadic Gypsies still lived in tents—even in winter. The Gypsy folk are noted at this time as tinkers, potters, basket makers, brush makers, and cheapjacks. It is also in the nineteenth century that they become known as Travelers. It appears that the Gypsy population in Britain was about 13,000 by 1900. The Gypsies served a useful function by distributing goods to remote towns and villages, not yet served by trains. They enlivened village festivals with their musicianship, singing, and dancing. They gained a good reputation as people who could repair most anything. Townsfolk would await the arrival of the Travelers to hear the latest news and gossip from other parts of the realm. Gypsies were also quite involved in the harvesting of hops in England and Ireland, while their womenfolk worked carnivals and fairs telling fortunes. One writer invited tourists to come and see the Gypsies, but advised them to come in the morning, as at night the Gypsies are inebriated. The coming of mechanized harvesting machines, as well as cheap machine-manufactured goods, lessened the demand for work common to Gypsy travelers. In Romania, 200,000 Gypsy persons were still enslaved in the first half of the nineteenth century. They worked as grooms, coachmen, cooks, barbers, tailors, farriers, comb makers, and domestic servants. Their masters could kill them with impunity. One reformer described the treatment of these slaves in Iasi: "human beings wearing chains on their arms and legs, others with iron clamps round their foreheads . . . Cruel floggings and other punishments, such as starvation, being hung over smoking fires, being thrown naked into a frozen river . . . children torn from the breasts of those who brought them into the world, and sold . . . like cattle." Before World War One, Gypsies drew huge crowds in England and France when they would wander into a town. People longed to see Gypsy women in person, with gold coins around their necks and bosoms, as well as in their hair-plaits. Gypsy men would call on factories, breweries, hotels, and restaurants in search of work repairing copper vessels and the like. The United States welcomed a large number of Ludar, or "Romanian Gypsies" (actually most were from Bosnia) from 1880 to 1914. These people joined circuses as animal trainers and performers. Passenger manifests show that they brought bears and monkeys with them across the Atlantic. In traditional Gypsy culture, the father arranges the marriage of his son with the father of a prospective bride. The young people generally have the right of refusal. The father of the groom pays a bride-price, which varies according to the status of the two fathers and the two families, as well as the girl's potential as an earner and "history." The new couple then resides with the parents of the groom. The new bride must perform household duties for her in-laws. Sometimes families exchange daughters as brides for their respective sons. A great fear of Gypsy people through the ages has been of the mullo (a ghost or vampire). In some tribes of Gypsies, it is customary to destroy all property belonging to a dead person to prevent them from haunting the living. In England, this would include the person's living-wagon (van). The Gypsies also dread being declared "polluted" by their clan, which is social death. One can become polluted (defiled) by contact with an unclean female, whose lower parts are considered marime. This term is complicated but we can safely say it has much to do with genitalia, bodily functions, puberty, menstruation, sex, pregnancy, and childbirth. Gypsies were never well received in Germany. Near the close of the nineteenth century, things got worse as Germans subscribed to the theories of Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso. One of his ideas was that criminality is inherited. As one proof of this, Lombroso pointed to the Gypsies, whom he described as generation after generation of people who are vain, shameless, shiftless, noisy, licentious, and violent. Not to mention puppeteers and accordion players. In 1886, Bismarck noted "complaints about the mischief caused by bands of Gypsies traveling about in the Reich and their increasing molestation of the population." In 1899, a clearing house was set up in Munich to collate reports of the movements of Gypsies. The general German opinion was that the nomadic Gypsies used the cover of being entertainers and perfume dealers, but actually focused on begging and stealing. In 1905, Alfred Dillmann distributed his Gypsy Book to police around Europe. The book profiled 3,500 Gypsies. Dillmann hoped it would help eradicate the "Gypsy Plague." By 1926, laws were passed that made it compulsory for Gypsies in Germany to have a permanent address and maintain regular employment. Violators were sentenced to two years in a workhouse. The reason for this penalty was: "These people are by nature opposed to all work and find it especially difficult to tolerate any restriction of their nomadic life; nothing, therefore, hits them harder than loss of liberty, coupled with forced labor." In Switzerland, after 1926, Gypsy children were taken from their parents; their names were changed, and placed in foster homes. This policy ended in 1973. Nazi spokesman Georg Nawrocki had this to say in 1937: "It was in keeping with the inner weakness and mendacity of the Weimar Republic that it showed no instinct for tackling the Gypsy question. . . . We, on the other hand, see the Gypsy question as above all a racial problem, which must be solved and which is being solved." The National Socialists designated Gypsies, along with Jews, for annihilation. Dr. Robert Ritter, a Nazi scientist, wrote in 1940: "Gypsies [are] a people of entirely primitive ethnological origins, whose mental backwardness makes them incapable of real social adaptation . . . The Gypsy question can only be solved when . . . the good-for-nothing Gypsy individuals . . . [are] in large labor camps and kept working there, and when further breeding of this population . . . is stopped once and for all." The National Socialist Workers Party (NAZI) rounded up the Gypsies for "protective custody," and shipped them off to concentration camps. Gypsy persons were forcibly sterilized, the subjects of medical experiments, injected with typhus, worked to death, starved to death, froze to death, and gassed in various numbers. The total dead at the hands of the Nazis is estimated to be 275,000. By the 1960s, Gypsy caravans were now mostly drawn with motorized vehicles, and tents had largely been replaced by rough shacks. Many took up residence in state supplied slum housing. Most Gypsies remained uneducated and illiterate. Many of the men became scrap dealers, and some worked with copper to produce ornamental, decorative pieces of art. Gypsy women were still noted for fortune telling and begging. Some Gypsy children turned to shoplifting, picking pockets, and stealing from vehicles, since they were immune to prosecution. One would expect that Gypsy people would have fared well under Communist regimes, what with their stated philosophy of equality for all. But entrepreneurial activities were illegal in Communist states, and these were the specialties of Gypsies. There were 134,000 Gypsies in the Soviet Union in 1959; by the census of 1979 they numbered 209,000. Nomadism was against Soviet law. Work in Soviet factories and farms held little appeal to Gypsies. Starting in the 1950s, Poland offered housing and employment to Gypsies, but most continued to wander. Therefore, Gypsies were forbidden to travel in caravans in 1964. This law was strictly enforced, and within two years 80 percent of Gypsy children were enrolled in school. In Czechoslovakia, a law was passed in 1958 that forced Gypsies into settlements. Violators had their horses killed and wagons burned. The Czech people looked down on Gypsies as a primitive, backward, and degenerate people. 222,000 of them were counted in the 1966 census, and 9 percent of all babies born that year in Czechoslovakia were Gypsies. Their numbers rose to 288,000 by 1980. Romania, in the early 1970s, tried to obliterate Gypsy culture and force the Gypsies into squalid ghettos. Their valuables were confiscated, including their favorite form of savings—huge old gold coins. Bulgaria forbade Gypsies to travel and closed their associations and newspapers. Things were better under the milder form of Communism practiced in Yugoslavia. There we see television and radio stations that broadcast in the Romani language. Gypsies began to participate in regional politics, and a few hundred of them became doctors, lawyers, and engineers. Still, only 20 percent of Gypsy adults had even attended elementary school. They settled in small towns, and began buying and selling ready-made goods, surplus and seconds, and used clothing. Gypsies embraced education more readily in Britain. They seemed to become aware that at least basic school learning is necessary in the modern age. It is handy to be able to write estimates and receipts; to read plans and manuals; to hold a driving license and insurance; and mostly, to be able to deal with Britain's social services bureaucracy. A 1989 report by the European Community stated that only 35 percent of 500,000 Gypsy children in the 12 member states attended school regularly; half had never been to school even one time; hardly any went on to secondary education; and Gypsy adults had an illiteracy rate of 50 percent. Spain decided to integrate the Gypsies, but there was a fierce backlash from Spanish citizens against having Gypsies as neighbors, or having their children attend school with Gypsy children. In Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria settled Gypsy families were beaten up and their houses set on fire. For this reason, some reverted to the nomadic life. Today, there are five or six million Gypsies living in Europe. Over one million live in Romania; half a million in both Bulgaria and Hungary; a quarter of a million in Russia, Spain, Serbia, and Slovakia. In France and Italy, Gypsy families still work the circus and fairgrounds. In many countries they operate repair services of various types; sell used cars, furniture, antiques, and junk; sell carpet and textiles. They still hawk, make music, and tell fortunes. One new development is the rise in Pentecostalism among Gypsies. There is even a Gypsy Evangelical Church, with over 200 churches in France alone. There have been six World Romani Congress forums held, from 1971 to 2004, to discuss how best to press for rights for the Gypsy people. My primary source for this article is The Gypsies by Sir Angus Fraser. Questions & Answers My exposure to the gypsy culture was a gift however do they still sell off their daughters around age 9 to much older men? Do they still lack official birth names, social security numbers, consistent addresses, and or bank accounts? Do they still sell junk RV's to old people that have been spray painted and molded with bondo? This was what I experienced. I am not aware of the selling of children to old men. I would think most of them do have government papers but maybe not consistent addresses. As to the RV question I would guess 'yes' but I have no evidence to back that up.Helpful 27 How many Gypsies are in the US, and are they considered pests? It is estimated that we have one million Gypsies in America. I certainly do not consider them 'pests' and in my long life have never heard them described as anything but people - just like everybody else.Helpful 27	<urn:uuid:0ce6215a-0d1a-43b7-8771-209f1549d5e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://owlcation.com/humanities/The-Gypsies	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00428.warc.gz	en	0.98497	5,999	3.40625	3	[ 0.3501836955547333, 0.18117322027683258, 0.16531969606876373, 0.04850008338689804, -0.20086678862571716, -0.09247662872076035, 0.11359693109989166, -0.1296616792678833, 0.2426760047674179, -0.06596343964338303, 0.11705587804317474, -0.039810456335544586, -0.17945191264152527, 0.18179106712...	1	History of the Gypsies Gypsies have long been among the most mysterious, exotic peoples on earth. They have been described as a race of nomads, who have no real home. Gypsies do have their own language, Romani, and they identify themselves as Romani people. Gypsies came to Europe long ago from India. Gypsy history remained unknown for centuries, largely because they had no written language, and strangely enough, they had forgotten where they came from. Gypsies generally claimed to be Egyptians—hence the name "Gypsy." Europeans eventually discovered that the Romani language is related to certain dialects of India, and from there Gypsy history was gradually put together. Gypsies were a low caste people in India who made their living as wandering musicians and singers. In the year 430, Gypsy musicians, (12,000 of them) from the tribe of India known as Jat (called Zott by Persians) were given as a gift to the Persian King Bahram V. Large numbers of them were captured by the Byzantines in Syria, where they were lauded as great acrobats and jugglers, about 855. Gypsies are noted in the twelfth-century history of Constantinople as bear keepers, snake charmers, fortune tellers, and sellers of magic amulets to ward off the evil eye. Balsamon warned the Greeks to avoid these "ventriloquists and wizards" that he said were in league with the Devil. Symon Simeonis describes Gypsies in Crete (1323) as "asserting themselves to be of the family of Ham. They rarely or never stop in one place beyond thirty days, but always wandering and fugitive, as though accursed by God . . . from field to field with their oblong tents, back and low." Gypsies living in Modon are described in 1497 by Arnold von Harff as "many poor black naked people . . . called Gypsies . . . follow all kinds of trade, such as shoemaking and cobbling and also smithery." Gypsies are reported in Serbia in 1348; Croatia in 1362 (as goldsmiths); and Romania in 1378—as slaves put to work as barbers, tailors, bakers, masons, and household servants. Gypsies first surface in Switzerland, Hungary, Germany, and Spain in 1414-1417. During this time they traveled about with a Safe-Conduct (similar to a Passport) from Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund. After Sigismund died, Gypsies traveled around Europe with safe-conduct letters from the Pope. Those from Sigismund were legitimate, but the supposed papal letters were forgeries. Hermann Conerus wrote this about Gypsies: "They traveled in bands and camped at night in the fields outside the towns . . . They were great thieves, especially their women, and several of them in various places were seized and put to death." In Switzerland, it was noted that Gypsies wore rags that resembled blankets but were bedecked in gold and silver jewelry. The Gypsy women became known as palm readers and petty thieves, suspected of sorcery. Many towns in Europe began to pay Gypsies to go away as soon as they appeared. A Bologna chronicle from 1422 gave this account of a visit from a Gypsy group: "Amongst those who wished to have their fortunes told, few went to consult without having their purse stolen . . . The women of the band wandered about the town, six or eight together; they entered the houses of the citizens and told idle tales, during which some of them laid hold of whatever could be taken. In the same way, they visited the shops under the pretext of buying something, but one of them would steal." In the fifteenth century, the Gypsies spread many myths about themselves around the Europe. The greatest of these myths was outlined in the forged papal letter. The letter stated that the Gypsies had been sentenced by the Pope for their collective sins to live as nomads, never to sleep in a bed. Along with that sad tale, the letter instructed the people reading it to give the Gypsies food, money, and beer, and exempt them from any tolls and taxes. Even though the majority of Gypsy people left the Ottoman Empire and moved on to Europe, some remained. Suleiman the Magnificent issued a decree to regulate Gypsy prostitution in 1530. It is known that Gypsy men played a significant role as miners in the Ottoman Empire of the sixteenth century. Others were watchmen, iron workers, and charcoal-burners. In 1696, Sultan Mustafa II issued orders for Gypsies to be disciplined for their immoral and disorderly lifestyles. They were described as "pimps and prostitutes." But we also find that Gypsy people worked in the Ottoman Empire as broom-makers, chimney-sweeps, musicians, weapon-repairers, and in the manufacture of weapons and ammunition. Gypsies are first noted as musicians in European history in 1469 (Italy). In 1493, they were banned from Milan because they were beggars and thieves who disturbed the peace. While a turban wearing Gypsy woman told your fortune, her children would pick your pockets. It was said that the Gypsy women cast spells and practiced witchcraft; the Gypsy men were experts at picking locks and pilfering horses. Settled people are usually suspicious of rootless, masterless wanderers with no fixed address. The Gypsies traveled about Europe as did no other people, so they knew more than most about what was happening in various countries, and the activities of their inhabitants. This led to rumors that Gypsies were being used as spies. In 1497, the Diet (legislature) of the Holy Roman Empire issued a decree that expelled all Gypsies from Germany for espionage. In 1510, Switzerland followed suit and added the death penalty. A Swiss chronicler denounced Gypsies as "useless rascals who wander about in our day, and of whom the most worthy is a thief, for they live solely for stealing." 133 laws against Gypsies were passed in the Holy Roman Empire between 1551 and 1774. One of those, passed in 1710, made it a crime to be a Gypsy woman or an old Gypsy man in Germany. They were widely viewed as a godless and wicked people. Violators were to be flogged, branded, and deported. To be a Gypsy man in Germany was to be given a life sentence of prison at hard labor. Children of Gypsy people were taken away from them and put into good Christian homes. In the face of this persecution, we find Gypsy men in Germany forming gangs and turning violent in the eighteenth century. A huge crowd gathered at Giessen, Hesse, to watch the executions of 26 Gypsies in 1726. They were a gang led by the notorious Hemperla (Johannes la Fortun). Some were hung; some were beheaded. The most famous of the German Gypsy brigands was Hannikel (Jakob Reinhard). He was hanged in 1783, along with three of his henchmen, for murder. Hannikel had himself a little army, which included women and children. His father was a platoon drummer. In view of this violence, the King of Prussia decided in 1790 that Gypsy men should all be drafted into the military. Other European countries followed suit, and Gypsy men have since served as soldiers for every country in Europe. We first find Gypsies in Scotland in 1505 as tinkers, peddlers, dancers, raconteurs, guisers, and mountebanks. In 1609, the Vagabonds Act was aimed at Gypsies, and four male members of the Faw family were hung in 1611 for not maintaining a permanent address. Eight more men, six of them with the last name of Faa, were hanged in 1624 for being "Egyptians." The Scottish Gypsy surnames Faa and Baille go back perhaps 500 years. A new decree was issued in 1624 that traveling Gypsy men would be arrested and hanged, Gypsy women without children would be drowned, and gypsy women with children would be whipped and branded on the cheek. Billy Marshall was a famous Gypsy King in Scotland. He died in 1792 after living 120 years. Billy Marshall fathered over 100 children, some by his 17 wives, and some by other gals. In England, the Egyptian Act of 1530 was passed to expel Gypsies from the realm, for being lewd vagabonds, conning the good citizens out of their money, and committing a rash of felony robberies. In 1562, Queen Elizabeth signed an order designed to force Gypsies to settle into permanent dwellings, or face death. Several were hanged in 1577, nine more in 1596, and 13 in the 1650s. Under King James I, England began to deport Gypsy people to the American colonies, as well as Jamaica and Barbados. Dumping undesirables into the colonies became a widespread practice, not only Gypsies, but also "thieves, beggars, and whores." Abram Wood and his family were the first Gypsies to settle in Wales, circa 1730. Abram was a great fiddler and storyteller. He became known as the King of the Welsh Gypsies. The sons and grandsons of Abram Wood mastered the national instrument of Wales: the harp. In Provence, it seems the Gypsies were welcomed. It is there that they first began to be called Bohemians. People flocked to them to have their fortunes told. The Gypsies claimed to have dukes and counts among them and later added captains and kings. The Spanish nobility protected the Gypsies at first. Gypsy women were adored for their beauty and seductive charms; Gypsy men were admired as excellent judges of the quality of horses, and hired by nobles to procure them for their stables. But in 1499 King Charles expelled all Gypsies from Spain, under penalty of enslavement. King Philip III again ordered all Gypsies (who were called Gitanos) out of Spain in 1619, this time under penalty of death. An exception was granted for those who would settle down in one place, dress as Spaniards, and stop speaking their ancient language. Philip IV lowered the penalties to six years on the galleys for men and a good flogging for women, in 1633. The city with the most Gypsies was, at the time, Seville. Many Gypsies were publicly flogged there for deceiving the populace by claiming to reveal secrets by divination, heal the sick by magic, cast spells, and for selling maps to buried treasure. A new plan was hatched and executed in 1749, by which all Gypsies in Spain (est. 12,000) would be rounded up in a single night, their possessions confiscated and forced into slavery. Gypsy women were sent to work as spinners, boys in factories, men in mines and shipyards. Fourteen years later, they were freed by King Charles III. In 1783, legislation was enacted whereby all Gypsy people were required to maintain a permanent address (but not in Madrid). However, this bill banned them from working in many of their popular livelihoods, such as shearing, trading in markets or fairs, and inn keeping. Those who continued to live as nomads were to have their children taken from them and placed in orphanages; a second offense would result in execution. Portugal banned Gypsies in 1526, and any of them born there were deported to the Portuguese African colonies. The first record of Gypsy people being deported to Brazil appears in 1574. Whole groups of them were sent to Brazil in 1686. There were also times in the seventeenth century when the policy was only to send Gypsy women to the colonies, while the men were enslaved on galleys. The King of France, Charles IX, banned Gypsies in 1561. He ordered that any Gypsy man caught in France be sentenced to three years on the galleys, in spite of the fact that they were pronounced a non-violent people. In 1607, Henry IV enjoyed Gypsy dancers at court. By 1666, Gypsy men were again condemned to galleys—this time for life—and Gypsy women caught in France had their heads shaved. The Gypsies were declared royal servants in Hungary, and valued as smiths and makers of fine weaponry. They were called "Pharaoh's people" on official Hungarian documents. In a letter from the queen's court in Vienna (1543) it says "here the most excellent Egyptian musicians play." Gypsies also served as messengers and executioners. Gypsies were expelled from Denmark in 1536 and Sweden in 1560. All these problems with the authorities of European countries had the result that a large number of Gypsy encampments were set up in remote areas on borders since police had no authority beyond their province. More and more Gypsy men and women were being flogged and branded. A census was conducted in Hungary (1783) that counted over 50,000 Gypsies. They are described as wanderers who lived in tents except in winter, when they retreated into cave dwellings. Gypsies had no chairs or beds, did not use kitchen utensils, ate mostly meat and noodles, loved tobacco and alcohol. They were disdained for eating carrion. Gypsy people had only one set of clothes, but lots of jewelry. They were known to be peddlers, beggars, and thieves. Gypsy men were renowned as excellent horsemen, and horse traders. Some worked as skinners, as makers of sieves or wooden implements, as gold-sifters or gold-washers, even as tavern keepers. Gypsies were known as an exceptionally proud people, but with little shame or honor. Parents loved their children very much but did not educate them. The Gypsy way of life was contrary to the rules of every organized society. And those who did settle down were disdained by those who continued as nomads. It is estimated that 800,000 Gypsies lived in Europe by the year 1800. They were most numerous in the Balkans, and had a substantial presence in Spain and Italy. About this time a German scholar, Heinrich Gellmann, proved that the Romani language was linked to some languages of India. Although these people would no longer be considered Egyptians, the name Gypsy stuck (as well as the word "gyp"). During the nineteenth century, Gypsies became prominent as musicians, chiefly in Hungary, Spain, and Russia. Hungarian nobility developed a tradition of having a Gypsy minstrel next to the host of a banquet to play for his guests. Before long Gypsy bands proliferated, always including a virtuoso violinist. The first famous Gypsy violinist was Janos Bihari, from Bratislava, who performed at the Congress of Vienna in 1814. By 1850, Gypsy music was popular all over Europe. Gypsy groups went on the road to perform, some as far as America. In 1865, Ferenc Bunko played for the King of Prussia. Imitators of the famous Gypsy bands were soon ubiquitous in Europe, playing in taverns, markets, fairs, festivals, and weddings. In Russia, Gypsies were beloved more for their singing talents. Most every noble family employed a Gypsy chorus, with Gypsy women (who were also dancers) in the main roles, accompanied by a seven-string Russian guitar. The first recorded singer of flamenco music in Spain is a Gypsy man, Tio Luis el de la Juliana. The Census of Hungary in 1893 identified 275,000 Gypsies, with the vast majority of them by now sedentary, gathered in their own enclaves. 90 percent of the Gypsy people were illiterate; 70 percent of Gypsy children did not attend school. Besides musicians and horse traders, the Gypsy men were primarily engaged as smiths, brick makers, and construction workers. Women were mostly hawkers. The largest concentration of them was in Transylvania. In Victorian England, we see the emergence of Gypsy caravans with horse-drawn wagons (vardos), and donkeys or mules in train. Nomadic Gypsies still lived in tents—even in winter. The Gypsy folk are noted at this time as tinkers, potters, basket makers, brush makers, and cheapjacks. It is also in the nineteenth century that they become known as Travelers. It appears that the Gypsy population in Britain was about 13,000 by 1900. The Gypsies served a useful function by distributing goods to remote towns and villages, not yet served by trains. They enlivened village festivals with their musicianship, singing, and dancing. They gained a good reputation as people who could repair most anything. Townsfolk would await the arrival of the Travelers to hear the latest news and gossip from other parts of the realm. Gypsies were also quite involved in the harvesting of hops in England and Ireland, while their womenfolk worked carnivals and fairs telling fortunes. One writer invited tourists to come and see the Gypsies, but advised them to come in the morning, as at night the Gypsies are inebriated. The coming of mechanized harvesting machines, as well as cheap machine-manufactured goods, lessened the demand for work common to Gypsy travelers. In Romania, 200,000 Gypsy persons were still enslaved in the first half of the nineteenth century. They worked as grooms, coachmen, cooks, barbers, tailors, farriers, comb makers, and domestic servants. Their masters could kill them with impunity. One reformer described the treatment of these slaves in Iasi: "human beings wearing chains on their arms and legs, others with iron clamps round their foreheads . . . Cruel floggings and other punishments, such as starvation, being hung over smoking fires, being thrown naked into a frozen river . . . children torn from the breasts of those who brought them into the world, and sold . . . like cattle." Before World War One, Gypsies drew huge crowds in England and France when they would wander into a town. People longed to see Gypsy women in person, with gold coins around their necks and bosoms, as well as in their hair-plaits. Gypsy men would call on factories, breweries, hotels, and restaurants in search of work repairing copper vessels and the like. The United States welcomed a large number of Ludar, or "Romanian Gypsies" (actually most were from Bosnia) from 1880 to 1914. These people joined circuses as animal trainers and performers. Passenger manifests show that they brought bears and monkeys with them across the Atlantic. In traditional Gypsy culture, the father arranges the marriage of his son with the father of a prospective bride. The young people generally have the right of refusal. The father of the groom pays a bride-price, which varies according to the status of the two fathers and the two families, as well as the girl's potential as an earner and "history." The new couple then resides with the parents of the groom. The new bride must perform household duties for her in-laws. Sometimes families exchange daughters as brides for their respective sons. A great fear of Gypsy people through the ages has been of the mullo (a ghost or vampire). In some tribes of Gypsies, it is customary to destroy all property belonging to a dead person to prevent them from haunting the living. In England, this would include the person's living-wagon (van). The Gypsies also dread being declared "polluted" by their clan, which is social death. One can become polluted (defiled) by contact with an unclean female, whose lower parts are considered marime. This term is complicated but we can safely say it has much to do with genitalia, bodily functions, puberty, menstruation, sex, pregnancy, and childbirth. Gypsies were never well received in Germany. Near the close of the nineteenth century, things got worse as Germans subscribed to the theories of Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso. One of his ideas was that criminality is inherited. As one proof of this, Lombroso pointed to the Gypsies, whom he described as generation after generation of people who are vain, shameless, shiftless, noisy, licentious, and violent. Not to mention puppeteers and accordion players. In 1886, Bismarck noted "complaints about the mischief caused by bands of Gypsies traveling about in the Reich and their increasing molestation of the population." In 1899, a clearing house was set up in Munich to collate reports of the movements of Gypsies. The general German opinion was that the nomadic Gypsies used the cover of being entertainers and perfume dealers, but actually focused on begging and stealing. In 1905, Alfred Dillmann distributed his Gypsy Book to police around Europe. The book profiled 3,500 Gypsies. Dillmann hoped it would help eradicate the "Gypsy Plague." By 1926, laws were passed that made it compulsory for Gypsies in Germany to have a permanent address and maintain regular employment. Violators were sentenced to two years in a workhouse. The reason for this penalty was: "These people are by nature opposed to all work and find it especially difficult to tolerate any restriction of their nomadic life; nothing, therefore, hits them harder than loss of liberty, coupled with forced labor." In Switzerland, after 1926, Gypsy children were taken from their parents; their names were changed, and placed in foster homes. This policy ended in 1973. Nazi spokesman Georg Nawrocki had this to say in 1937: "It was in keeping with the inner weakness and mendacity of the Weimar Republic that it showed no instinct for tackling the Gypsy question. . . . We, on the other hand, see the Gypsy question as above all a racial problem, which must be solved and which is being solved." The National Socialists designated Gypsies, along with Jews, for annihilation. Dr. Robert Ritter, a Nazi scientist, wrote in 1940: "Gypsies [are] a people of entirely primitive ethnological origins, whose mental backwardness makes them incapable of real social adaptation . . . The Gypsy question can only be solved when . . . the good-for-nothing Gypsy individuals . . . [are] in large labor camps and kept working there, and when further breeding of this population . . . is stopped once and for all." The National Socialist Workers Party (NAZI) rounded up the Gypsies for "protective custody," and shipped them off to concentration camps. Gypsy persons were forcibly sterilized, the subjects of medical experiments, injected with typhus, worked to death, starved to death, froze to death, and gassed in various numbers. The total dead at the hands of the Nazis is estimated to be 275,000. By the 1960s, Gypsy caravans were now mostly drawn with motorized vehicles, and tents had largely been replaced by rough shacks. Many took up residence in state supplied slum housing. Most Gypsies remained uneducated and illiterate. Many of the men became scrap dealers, and some worked with copper to produce ornamental, decorative pieces of art. Gypsy women were still noted for fortune telling and begging. Some Gypsy children turned to shoplifting, picking pockets, and stealing from vehicles, since they were immune to prosecution. One would expect that Gypsy people would have fared well under Communist regimes, what with their stated philosophy of equality for all. But entrepreneurial activities were illegal in Communist states, and these were the specialties of Gypsies. There were 134,000 Gypsies in the Soviet Union in 1959; by the census of 1979 they numbered 209,000. Nomadism was against Soviet law. Work in Soviet factories and farms held little appeal to Gypsies. Starting in the 1950s, Poland offered housing and employment to Gypsies, but most continued to wander. Therefore, Gypsies were forbidden to travel in caravans in 1964. This law was strictly enforced, and within two years 80 percent of Gypsy children were enrolled in school. In Czechoslovakia, a law was passed in 1958 that forced Gypsies into settlements. Violators had their horses killed and wagons burned. The Czech people looked down on Gypsies as a primitive, backward, and degenerate people. 222,000 of them were counted in the 1966 census, and 9 percent of all babies born that year in Czechoslovakia were Gypsies. Their numbers rose to 288,000 by 1980. Romania, in the early 1970s, tried to obliterate Gypsy culture and force the Gypsies into squalid ghettos. Their valuables were confiscated, including their favorite form of savings—huge old gold coins. Bulgaria forbade Gypsies to travel and closed their associations and newspapers. Things were better under the milder form of Communism practiced in Yugoslavia. There we see television and radio stations that broadcast in the Romani language. Gypsies began to participate in regional politics, and a few hundred of them became doctors, lawyers, and engineers. Still, only 20 percent of Gypsy adults had even attended elementary school. They settled in small towns, and began buying and selling ready-made goods, surplus and seconds, and used clothing. Gypsies embraced education more readily in Britain. They seemed to become aware that at least basic school learning is necessary in the modern age. It is handy to be able to write estimates and receipts; to read plans and manuals; to hold a driving license and insurance; and mostly, to be able to deal with Britain's social services bureaucracy. A 1989 report by the European Community stated that only 35 percent of 500,000 Gypsy children in the 12 member states attended school regularly; half had never been to school even one time; hardly any went on to secondary education; and Gypsy adults had an illiteracy rate of 50 percent. Spain decided to integrate the Gypsies, but there was a fierce backlash from Spanish citizens against having Gypsies as neighbors, or having their children attend school with Gypsy children. In Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria settled Gypsy families were beaten up and their houses set on fire. For this reason, some reverted to the nomadic life. Today, there are five or six million Gypsies living in Europe. Over one million live in Romania; half a million in both Bulgaria and Hungary; a quarter of a million in Russia, Spain, Serbia, and Slovakia. In France and Italy, Gypsy families still work the circus and fairgrounds. In many countries they operate repair services of various types; sell used cars, furniture, antiques, and junk; sell carpet and textiles. They still hawk, make music, and tell fortunes. One new development is the rise in Pentecostalism among Gypsies. There is even a Gypsy Evangelical Church, with over 200 churches in France alone. There have been six World Romani Congress forums held, from 1971 to 2004, to discuss how best to press for rights for the Gypsy people. My primary source for this article is The Gypsies by Sir Angus Fraser. Questions & Answers My exposure to the gypsy culture was a gift however do they still sell off their daughters around age 9 to much older men? Do they still lack official birth names, social security numbers, consistent addresses, and or bank accounts? Do they still sell junk RV's to old people that have been spray painted and molded with bondo? This was what I experienced. I am not aware of the selling of children to old men. I would think most of them do have government papers but maybe not consistent addresses. As to the RV question I would guess 'yes' but I have no evidence to back that up.Helpful 27 How many Gypsies are in the US, and are they considered pests? It is estimated that we have one million Gypsies in America. I certainly do not consider them 'pests' and in my long life have never heard them described as anything but people - just like everybody else.Helpful 27	6,292	ENGLISH	1
The Penobscot sachem Joseph Orono died in 1801, too early to know about his consolation prize for losing his people’s land to white settlers. He lived plenty long, though. He was said to have been born in 1688, which made him 113 when he died in 1801. If that’s true, Joseph Orono lived through every one of the French and Indian Wars as well as the American Revolution, in which he participated Five years after his death, Orono, Maine named itself after him. He probably would have preferred the land along the Penobscot River promised him, and then taken. Historical accounts agree that Joseph Orono had reddish hair, blue eyes and a pale complexion. He spoke fluent French, English and Penobscot. Accounts disagree about his lineage. Some say he had some relation to Baron de Castine, a French nobleman who married an Indian. (Castine also had a town named after him in Maine.) Perhaps Orono was Castine’s son-in-law, or grandson. Joseph Orono himself said his father was French, and his mother half French, half Indian. A devout Catholic, he believed the Indians had suffered from war, and advocated peace. White people viewed him favorably, and described him as able, friendly and sagacious. In 1775, Joseph Orono and three other Penobscot chiefs went to air their grievances to the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, as Maine then belonged to that colony. The Indian delegation stopped in Falmouth, now Portland, where the people gave them money, horses and a carriage to help them on their journey. On June 21, 1775, Joseph Orono addressed the Provincial Congress on behalf of the whole Penobscot tribe. As he spoke, the men inside could hear the groans of the soldiers dying of their battle wounds. Orono said that if the Congress took care of his people’s grievances, the Penobscots would aid the rebels with their whole force. Those grievances consisted chiefly of trespasses by the whites upon their timber lands and cheating them in trade. The committee responded warmly, and said the Indians’ complaints would receive their attention as soon as they could take a breath from the Revolution. Eventually, Massachusetts signed a treaty giving six miles of land on each side of the Penobscot river to the Indians. In 1779, the British built a fort in what is now Castine. Joseph Orono communicated intelligence about their activities to the patriots. Massachusetts then sent the Penobscot Expedition to Castine, and the Penobscot Indians fought with them. Whether Joseph Orono actually fought is unclear; he would have been 91. The British routed the Americans in the worst naval disaster until Pearl Harbor. But Joseph Orono continued to help the cause, communicating intelligence to patriots in Machias and Halifax. In 1780, Joseph Orono earned his Indian nickname, K’tolaqu. It means ‘frigate.’ Orono went to Newport, R.I., where French forces had landed before marching to Yorktown. His mission: to request a Catholic priest from the French consul. But he was so amazed by the French frigates in the harbor that he couldn’t stop talking about them afterword. Joseph Orono had often stayed and hunted with a friend on Deer Isle, a white settler named Seth Webb. After he broke with other Penobscots in 1783, he moved a small group of his people to White Island, off Deer Isle. They established a little village with a Franciscan missionary, a Catholic chapel and wigwams. But they couldn’t live in peace there, either. In 1786, Joseph Orono complained to Massachusetts Commissioner Benjamin Lincoln, once a member of the Provincial Congress. People were chopping down his trees and burning the wigwams, he said. A decade later, Massachusetts reneged on its deal to deed the land along the Penobscot River to Orono’s people. All they had left was the Penobscot Indian Island Reservation. Five years after Joseph Orono died, white settlers near the Indian reservation incorporated, naming the town Orono. Today, the University of Maine has its main campus there. An island in Penobscot Bay also bears his name. In May 2018, the University of Maine and the Penobscot Nation were scheduled to signed an agreement ‘formalizing their collaborations in the past decade to help manage the tribe’s cultural heritage.’ With thanks to Canoe Indians of Down East Maine, by Bill Haviland. This story about the Penobscot chief Joseph Orono was updated in 2019.	<urn:uuid:8703b070-7e8a-4da8-99cb-e3194a18330f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/joseph-orono-blue-eyed-indian-helped-revolutionary-cause/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00146.warc.gz	en	0.981098	1,015	3.609375	4	[ -0.07099302113056183, 0.32863733172416687, 0.4606180489063263, -0.3927309215068817, -0.5408332943916321, 0.36270642280578613, 0.711054265499115, 0.13781921565532684, 0.07292556762695312, -0.1138358935713768, -0.043440841138362885, -0.3357950448989868, 0.22133858501911163, 0.168380901217460...	3	The Penobscot sachem Joseph Orono died in 1801, too early to know about his consolation prize for losing his people’s land to white settlers. He lived plenty long, though. He was said to have been born in 1688, which made him 113 when he died in 1801. If that’s true, Joseph Orono lived through every one of the French and Indian Wars as well as the American Revolution, in which he participated Five years after his death, Orono, Maine named itself after him. He probably would have preferred the land along the Penobscot River promised him, and then taken. Historical accounts agree that Joseph Orono had reddish hair, blue eyes and a pale complexion. He spoke fluent French, English and Penobscot. Accounts disagree about his lineage. Some say he had some relation to Baron de Castine, a French nobleman who married an Indian. (Castine also had a town named after him in Maine.) Perhaps Orono was Castine’s son-in-law, or grandson. Joseph Orono himself said his father was French, and his mother half French, half Indian. A devout Catholic, he believed the Indians had suffered from war, and advocated peace. White people viewed him favorably, and described him as able, friendly and sagacious. In 1775, Joseph Orono and three other Penobscot chiefs went to air their grievances to the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, as Maine then belonged to that colony. The Indian delegation stopped in Falmouth, now Portland, where the people gave them money, horses and a carriage to help them on their journey. On June 21, 1775, Joseph Orono addressed the Provincial Congress on behalf of the whole Penobscot tribe. As he spoke, the men inside could hear the groans of the soldiers dying of their battle wounds. Orono said that if the Congress took care of his people’s grievances, the Penobscots would aid the rebels with their whole force. Those grievances consisted chiefly of trespasses by the whites upon their timber lands and cheating them in trade. The committee responded warmly, and said the Indians’ complaints would receive their attention as soon as they could take a breath from the Revolution. Eventually, Massachusetts signed a treaty giving six miles of land on each side of the Penobscot river to the Indians. In 1779, the British built a fort in what is now Castine. Joseph Orono communicated intelligence about their activities to the patriots. Massachusetts then sent the Penobscot Expedition to Castine, and the Penobscot Indians fought with them. Whether Joseph Orono actually fought is unclear; he would have been 91. The British routed the Americans in the worst naval disaster until Pearl Harbor. But Joseph Orono continued to help the cause, communicating intelligence to patriots in Machias and Halifax. In 1780, Joseph Orono earned his Indian nickname, K’tolaqu. It means ‘frigate.’ Orono went to Newport, R.I., where French forces had landed before marching to Yorktown. His mission: to request a Catholic priest from the French consul. But he was so amazed by the French frigates in the harbor that he couldn’t stop talking about them afterword. Joseph Orono had often stayed and hunted with a friend on Deer Isle, a white settler named Seth Webb. After he broke with other Penobscots in 1783, he moved a small group of his people to White Island, off Deer Isle. They established a little village with a Franciscan missionary, a Catholic chapel and wigwams. But they couldn’t live in peace there, either. In 1786, Joseph Orono complained to Massachusetts Commissioner Benjamin Lincoln, once a member of the Provincial Congress. People were chopping down his trees and burning the wigwams, he said. A decade later, Massachusetts reneged on its deal to deed the land along the Penobscot River to Orono’s people. All they had left was the Penobscot Indian Island Reservation. Five years after Joseph Orono died, white settlers near the Indian reservation incorporated, naming the town Orono. Today, the University of Maine has its main campus there. An island in Penobscot Bay also bears his name. In May 2018, the University of Maine and the Penobscot Nation were scheduled to signed an agreement ‘formalizing their collaborations in the past decade to help manage the tribe’s cultural heritage.’ With thanks to Canoe Indians of Down East Maine, by Bill Haviland. This story about the Penobscot chief Joseph Orono was updated in 2019.	1,009	ENGLISH	1
Most people have heard at some point that house plants are good for your health because they can clean, filter and purify the air of various toxins and pollutants. A lot of people know that this has been proved by science, although Just a few house plants that clean the air in your office and homemost people don't know about the actual studies or which plants are best for the job. Humans have always "known" plants did more than provide food for us or look good, but there was no real science to support this idea. It wasn't until The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) began to think about future life-support systems so humans could live on the moon and other planets that the ability of plants to filter and purify the air was exposed in full detail. NASA proposed that if humans traveled to inhospitable planets then small biospheres would need to exist in order to support them, much like a spacecraft provides a suitable environment for its passengers as they travel through space. The issue however was that at the time spacecrafts could only be used for short periods due to the quick build up volatile organic chemicals, coming both from the people themselves as well as various equipment and machinery used on the craft. Between 1980 and 1984 NASA proved plants in sealed test chambers that were exposed to volatile organic chemicals could remove them from the air. Including formaldehyde which is found in, or used to produce, a multitude of everyday products, from fabrics and furniture to tobacco smoke and gas stoves. Numerous scientific studies have shown it is dangerous to human health, the US National Toxicology Program in 2011 even went as far as to label it as a "human carcinogen". In 1984 people were very excited by NASA's findings and as a result they funded significant research looking at house plants and their air purifying abilities. Dr Bill Wolverton was one of the scientists brought on board to help research and study the effects of houseplants on air quality in contained spaces and produced some of the most popular and commonly referenced research papers about the topic.	<urn:uuid:2ac57807-fbda-4b0d-8108-9844c362ea61>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://oxyplant.in/blog_one.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00347.warc.gz	en	0.981326	419	3.265625	3	[ 0.1918618232011795, 0.06249460577964783, 0.447248637676239, 0.029689950868487358, 0.3258642256259918, -0.14577677845954895, 0.4515427052974701, 0.24447695910930634, -0.460015207529068, 0.4165009558200836, -0.12122958898544312, -0.3646247982978821, -0.0045173135586082935, 0.2467107325792312...	3	Most people have heard at some point that house plants are good for your health because they can clean, filter and purify the air of various toxins and pollutants. A lot of people know that this has been proved by science, although Just a few house plants that clean the air in your office and homemost people don't know about the actual studies or which plants are best for the job. Humans have always "known" plants did more than provide food for us or look good, but there was no real science to support this idea. It wasn't until The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) began to think about future life-support systems so humans could live on the moon and other planets that the ability of plants to filter and purify the air was exposed in full detail. NASA proposed that if humans traveled to inhospitable planets then small biospheres would need to exist in order to support them, much like a spacecraft provides a suitable environment for its passengers as they travel through space. The issue however was that at the time spacecrafts could only be used for short periods due to the quick build up volatile organic chemicals, coming both from the people themselves as well as various equipment and machinery used on the craft. Between 1980 and 1984 NASA proved plants in sealed test chambers that were exposed to volatile organic chemicals could remove them from the air. Including formaldehyde which is found in, or used to produce, a multitude of everyday products, from fabrics and furniture to tobacco smoke and gas stoves. Numerous scientific studies have shown it is dangerous to human health, the US National Toxicology Program in 2011 even went as far as to label it as a "human carcinogen". In 1984 people were very excited by NASA's findings and as a result they funded significant research looking at house plants and their air purifying abilities. Dr Bill Wolverton was one of the scientists brought on board to help research and study the effects of houseplants on air quality in contained spaces and produced some of the most popular and commonly referenced research papers about the topic.	426	ENGLISH	1
Alan Turing was an English mathematician and was a pioneer of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. During WW2, he was instrumental in breaking the German Enigma code, leading to Allied victory over Nazi Germany. Alan Turing and The German Enigma Code The Enigma machine is an encryption device developed and used in the early-to-mid-20th century to protect communication. It was employed mainly by Nazi Germany during World War II, in all branches of the German military. The Enigma has an electromechanical rotor mechanism that scrambles the 26 letters of the alphabet. It works when one person enters text on the Enigma’s keyboard and another person writes down which of 26 lights above the keyboard lights up at each key press. The Enigma encryption proved vulnerable to cryptanalytic attacks by Germany’s adversaries, at first Polish and French intelligence and, later, a massive effort mounted by the United Kingdom at Bletchley Park. While Germany introduced a series of improvements to Enigma, and these hampered decryption efforts to varying degrees, they did not ultimately prevent Britain and its allies from exploiting Enigma-encoded messages as a major source of intelligence during the war. So How is Alan Turing Involved? In 1939, Turing was asked to join the Government Codes and Cypher School, a British code-breaking organisation, which was moved to Bletchley Park when war was declared on 3 September. Turing’s most notable achievement at Bletchley was cracking the ‘Enigma’ code. Together with fellow code-breaker Gordon Welchman, Turing developed the ‘Bombe’, a machine based on an earlier Polish design, which from late 1940 was decoding all messages sent by the Enigma machines. Then, Turing turned his attentions to the more complex German naval signals, and together with his ‘Hut 8’ team at Bletchley, succeeded in decrypting these as well in 1941, contributing to Allied victory in the Battle of the Atlantic. In July 1942, Turing developed a complex code-breaking technique he named ‘Turingery’ for use against the Lorenz cipher messages produced by the Germans’ new ‘Geheimschreiber’(secret writer) machine. Turing also developed a secure speech system, which he named ‘Delilah’. The system, which encoded and decoded voice communications, was intended to be used in a similar way to a telephone scrambler. He demonstrated its mechanisms on one of Churchill’s speeches, but the machine was never commissioned for use in the war effort. His LGBTQ Story Turing’s homosexuality was barely heard of in mid-20th-century England and a big taboo at the time. His first love was for another pupil at Sherborne School, Christopher Morcom, whose sudden and tragic death from brucellosis left Turing utterly heartbroken and bereft. This affected him for the rest of his life. After school Turing went to King’s College Cambridge, which during the 1930s was still a centre of the Bloomsbury Group. J.M.Keynes, Virginia Woolf, and E.M Forster had led the way for Bloomsbury with their emphasis on humanity, sincerity, authenticity, and a direct approach to intellectual problems, so very different ideologies from what the Victorian era believed. They had also created perhaps the most gay-friendly environment the country had ever seen. Turing flourished in this new environment, where his own sexuality was simply accepted without fuss or protest. By the middle of the Second World War, he got engaged to a woman. He was open with his fiancée about his homosexuality. Which didn’t stop her love for him, but Turing eventually ended the relationship later on despite her acceptance. After the war, Turing moved to the University of Manchester, where he started working in the new computer science department. At the same time he was personally preoccupied with finding new ways to deal with his homosexuality in a new city. He grew in confidence because of the increasingly permissive attitudes in society that had been bred by wartime conditions, and soon found himself seeking quick sexual acts with men he met on the streets of Manchester – something that, given the nature of Turing’s work, the government took to be dangerously naive. At the time of Cold-War Britain, British intelligence was closely linked with the American CIA, at a time when US society was undergoing the paranoia and suspicion of McCarthyism. It was believed at the time that to be a homosexual was a security risk. Churchill’s civil service was keen to screen out such threats. He was prosecuted and found guilty of homosexual offences. In letters and conversations, Turing seemed to just make light of the conviction and the grim choice he was confronted with by the judge, which was either, prison or “chemical castration” (oestrogen treatment). Turing opted for the castration, and was on oestrogen treatment for the remainder of his life. As a result of his charges he also lost his security clearance, and was officially regarded as a security risk by MI5; this made it completely impossible for him to continue his work on codes. On June 7 1954, Turing was found and confirmed dead in his bed. When he was found, there was an apple on his bedside table doused in cyanide, which he had taken one bite out of. It is said that he may have committed suicide in despair at the way he had been persecuted for his homosexuality or that he may have been having mood-swings which was known to be one of the side effects of the oestrogen treatment that he was taking. Both of these are just theories as he did not leave a note or an explanation as to the real reason why he committed suicide. His LGBTQ+ Story is Important Alan Turing’s story isn’t only important to mathematical history and for his contributions to the war effort. It is also a great example of how LGBTQ+ people, despite having made important contributions to society, continue to experience discrimination. Prejudice towards us throughout history has often robbed us of a fulfilling personal life, but also of being recognised properly for our historical achievements simply because of our sexuality. Recently Turing has been named the new face on the £50 note. Which has been welcomed massively by parts of the LGBT+ community as a symbol of a country facing up to the way gay men were persecuted. Prominent gay rights spokesman Peter Tatchell said Turing’s treatment was symbolic of a “witch hunt” of gay and bisexual men, which led to 1,000 being imprisoned at any one time during the 1950s. He was among those who have welcomed Turing’s appearance on banknotes from 2021. “It’s a real milestone that signifies the degree of acceptance of LGBT people at the highest level of our society, Alan Turing is not only an icon for the LGBT community, he is an iconic figure for the whole of British society.” Turing was granted a pardon in 2013 and after a long campaign, the same pardon was extended to all men in 2016 who had been convicted of homosexual offences. Although this was a big milestone for the LGBTQ+ community. For some campaigners, nothing can appease the persecution of gay and bisexual men in the UK until 1967. The Manchester-based LGBT Foundation was formed in 1975 to help men come out after being gay was decriminalised. We need to continue to recognise people like Turing to ensure that the legacy of people is not forgotten, especially when they have made such significant contributions to our society and everyday life.	<urn:uuid:1760bec4-6b0d-4d24-9ef4-6dbc323fa654>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.allgaylong.com/blog/why-is-alan-turing-important-to-lgbtq-community/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00131.warc.gz	en	0.981392	1,581	3.859375	4	[ -0.5011385679244995, 0.09404800832271576, -0.3572632074356079, 0.013280782848596573, -0.10758458077907562, 0.027469158172607422, 0.2690120339393616, 0.10990988463163376, -0.2064502239227295, -0.08747948706150055, -0.10856685042381287, -0.016986750066280365, 0.4297758638858795, 0.0973055660...	6	Alan Turing was an English mathematician and was a pioneer of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. During WW2, he was instrumental in breaking the German Enigma code, leading to Allied victory over Nazi Germany. Alan Turing and The German Enigma Code The Enigma machine is an encryption device developed and used in the early-to-mid-20th century to protect communication. It was employed mainly by Nazi Germany during World War II, in all branches of the German military. The Enigma has an electromechanical rotor mechanism that scrambles the 26 letters of the alphabet. It works when one person enters text on the Enigma’s keyboard and another person writes down which of 26 lights above the keyboard lights up at each key press. The Enigma encryption proved vulnerable to cryptanalytic attacks by Germany’s adversaries, at first Polish and French intelligence and, later, a massive effort mounted by the United Kingdom at Bletchley Park. While Germany introduced a series of improvements to Enigma, and these hampered decryption efforts to varying degrees, they did not ultimately prevent Britain and its allies from exploiting Enigma-encoded messages as a major source of intelligence during the war. So How is Alan Turing Involved? In 1939, Turing was asked to join the Government Codes and Cypher School, a British code-breaking organisation, which was moved to Bletchley Park when war was declared on 3 September. Turing’s most notable achievement at Bletchley was cracking the ‘Enigma’ code. Together with fellow code-breaker Gordon Welchman, Turing developed the ‘Bombe’, a machine based on an earlier Polish design, which from late 1940 was decoding all messages sent by the Enigma machines. Then, Turing turned his attentions to the more complex German naval signals, and together with his ‘Hut 8’ team at Bletchley, succeeded in decrypting these as well in 1941, contributing to Allied victory in the Battle of the Atlantic. In July 1942, Turing developed a complex code-breaking technique he named ‘Turingery’ for use against the Lorenz cipher messages produced by the Germans’ new ‘Geheimschreiber’(secret writer) machine. Turing also developed a secure speech system, which he named ‘Delilah’. The system, which encoded and decoded voice communications, was intended to be used in a similar way to a telephone scrambler. He demonstrated its mechanisms on one of Churchill’s speeches, but the machine was never commissioned for use in the war effort. His LGBTQ Story Turing’s homosexuality was barely heard of in mid-20th-century England and a big taboo at the time. His first love was for another pupil at Sherborne School, Christopher Morcom, whose sudden and tragic death from brucellosis left Turing utterly heartbroken and bereft. This affected him for the rest of his life. After school Turing went to King’s College Cambridge, which during the 1930s was still a centre of the Bloomsbury Group. J.M.Keynes, Virginia Woolf, and E.M Forster had led the way for Bloomsbury with their emphasis on humanity, sincerity, authenticity, and a direct approach to intellectual problems, so very different ideologies from what the Victorian era believed. They had also created perhaps the most gay-friendly environment the country had ever seen. Turing flourished in this new environment, where his own sexuality was simply accepted without fuss or protest. By the middle of the Second World War, he got engaged to a woman. He was open with his fiancée about his homosexuality. Which didn’t stop her love for him, but Turing eventually ended the relationship later on despite her acceptance. After the war, Turing moved to the University of Manchester, where he started working in the new computer science department. At the same time he was personally preoccupied with finding new ways to deal with his homosexuality in a new city. He grew in confidence because of the increasingly permissive attitudes in society that had been bred by wartime conditions, and soon found himself seeking quick sexual acts with men he met on the streets of Manchester – something that, given the nature of Turing’s work, the government took to be dangerously naive. At the time of Cold-War Britain, British intelligence was closely linked with the American CIA, at a time when US society was undergoing the paranoia and suspicion of McCarthyism. It was believed at the time that to be a homosexual was a security risk. Churchill’s civil service was keen to screen out such threats. He was prosecuted and found guilty of homosexual offences. In letters and conversations, Turing seemed to just make light of the conviction and the grim choice he was confronted with by the judge, which was either, prison or “chemical castration” (oestrogen treatment). Turing opted for the castration, and was on oestrogen treatment for the remainder of his life. As a result of his charges he also lost his security clearance, and was officially regarded as a security risk by MI5; this made it completely impossible for him to continue his work on codes. On June 7 1954, Turing was found and confirmed dead in his bed. When he was found, there was an apple on his bedside table doused in cyanide, which he had taken one bite out of. It is said that he may have committed suicide in despair at the way he had been persecuted for his homosexuality or that he may have been having mood-swings which was known to be one of the side effects of the oestrogen treatment that he was taking. Both of these are just theories as he did not leave a note or an explanation as to the real reason why he committed suicide. His LGBTQ+ Story is Important Alan Turing’s story isn’t only important to mathematical history and for his contributions to the war effort. It is also a great example of how LGBTQ+ people, despite having made important contributions to society, continue to experience discrimination. Prejudice towards us throughout history has often robbed us of a fulfilling personal life, but also of being recognised properly for our historical achievements simply because of our sexuality. Recently Turing has been named the new face on the £50 note. Which has been welcomed massively by parts of the LGBT+ community as a symbol of a country facing up to the way gay men were persecuted. Prominent gay rights spokesman Peter Tatchell said Turing’s treatment was symbolic of a “witch hunt” of gay and bisexual men, which led to 1,000 being imprisoned at any one time during the 1950s. He was among those who have welcomed Turing’s appearance on banknotes from 2021. “It’s a real milestone that signifies the degree of acceptance of LGBT people at the highest level of our society, Alan Turing is not only an icon for the LGBT community, he is an iconic figure for the whole of British society.” Turing was granted a pardon in 2013 and after a long campaign, the same pardon was extended to all men in 2016 who had been convicted of homosexual offences. Although this was a big milestone for the LGBTQ+ community. For some campaigners, nothing can appease the persecution of gay and bisexual men in the UK until 1967. The Manchester-based LGBT Foundation was formed in 1975 to help men come out after being gay was decriminalised. We need to continue to recognise people like Turing to ensure that the legacy of people is not forgotten, especially when they have made such significant contributions to our society and everyday life.	1,560	ENGLISH	1
Throughout the past, in America, inventors and innovators took the world by storm as they came up with new ideas that shaped the world as people see it today. Arguably the most influential and important person in the early developing American society was Henry Ford. Born on July 30th, 1863, Henry Ford grew up as a farm boy in Springwells Township, Michigan, located nine miles outside of Detroit. As a young boy Ford was always fascinated with how things worked, and instead of taking broken clocks and such to the local tinkerer, Ford took it upon himself to fix them, and learn how they work. Ford would also gather up the other boys in his small town to build basic steam engines and water wheels. Ford’s parents William and Mary were simple farmer immigrants from Ireland that taught Henry all they could, but determined by the lack of excitement in his life Henry set off for Detroit to pursue his dream. Ford shows his genius early from his childhood as he continues to experiment with broken appliances around the house rather than letting a professional fix them. It’s from these early memories that made Ford interested in the way that things work, and instead of going on to become a farmer like his humble parents he decided to try his hand in the city of Detroit and pursue his interests in mechanics. “There was too much hard hand labour on our own and all other farms of the time. Even when very young I suspected that much might somehow be done in a better way. That is what took me into mechanics—although my mother always said that I was born a mechanic.”(Ford, 10). It came from hard work but Ford realized that there had to be an easier way to do work in this world where inventions were popping up left and right. Ford also in his early years shows certain characteristics that would soon shape the way he swept America off its feet, Ford developed a knack for learning by trial and error, the ability to take leadership, and was a natural born mechanic. In the early years Ford struggled to get momentum as his first few jobs he worked at terminated him within the first few weeks. After going from job to job Ford decided to try his hand in business and attended a few classes at Goldsmith, Bryant & Stratton Business University in Detroit this was Fords only business education in his entire career. After it led nowhere he finally found a stable job making brass valves on a milling machine, and became a married man to Clara Bryant. Clara was a simple farmer from Greenfield township, a few miles northeast of Ford’s homestead. Clara supported Ford’s ideas and tried to help the best she could, but Ford had even more of his time taken away when they decided to parent the child, Edsel Bryant Ford. After two years of trial and error, spending his minimal freetime in his shed and the basement underneath his job making brass valves, Ford finally revealed his first project which took to the streets in June 4th, 1896, and was named the Quadricycle. This first invention no matter how crude, sparked the beginning of something new. This first invention of Henry Ford’s was just the first to come of many that would revolutionize America. The Quadricycle is important because it almost symbolizes Ford’s drive, his initiative to keep going no matter the task, up until this point no one gave Ford the time of day, but Ford knew from the beginning that even through failed attempts he would keep going until he succeeded “Failure is simply the opportunity to begin again, this time more intelligently.”(Henry Ford Quotes). Ford continuously throughout his life learns from his mistakes, and pushes on to innovate more and excite. Ford got plenty of interest from investors and potential clients after the reveal of the Quadricycle. Ford was ecstatic, yet still felt like he needed to go bigger he got to work on a second more refined model, and after a 60 mile car ride with his most potential investor, lumber merchant William Murphy, Ford convinces him to start the Detroit Automobile Company with Ford as an engineer. After quickly failing Ford wastes no time, and starts to rebuild his reputation through racing and by beating well known racer Alexander Winton in his very first race. After years of Ford rebuilding his reputation a second company is eventually founded called the Henry Ford Company with him as the head engineer. This new company after just three short months was utterly a failure due to his time being consumed by racing, and the fact that they couldn’t produce cars fast enough to keep up with competitors. Two years later the Ford Motor Company is created and even without investing as much as a dime into the company Ford is made the vice president. Before the year is up Ford Motor Company produced the Model N which was an American best seller, and even with the success that came with it Ford knew he had to go bigger, better, and cheaper. “The ‘motorcar for the great multitude.’ Working with a hand-picked group of employees he came up with the Model T, introduced on October 1, 1908.”(The Henry Ford). Showing another side of Henry Ford is his continuous attempts at making a more innovative, and better machine that not only would be cheaper but would make vehicles more accessible for the common American. He had already had a successful model that was targeted towards the higher class, so this was seen as a new concept because from the last two decades prior to this new model T release, “horseless carriages” were seen as rich playthings that no common American could afford. Also most models of cars at the time were only suited for relatively flat gravel roads, so Ford making an effort to make this affordable automobile easy to drive, and able to handle on rough roads, made him highly appraised by the lower class. Not only that though, rough roads were more frequently seen in the countryside allowing a farmer to buy a car, not just city folk which was unheard of at this time period. This pushed America forward by turning the automobile from a fantasized luxury in someone’s life to something that was attainable. Around the end of the progressive era perhaps the most revolutionary idea that was proposed by Ford Motor Company was the assembly line. In an effort to make the new thriving model T more affordable this new method of creating cars was born that was called the assembly line, which could produce 50 cars by the time the previous method could produce one. This further decreased the price of the Model T to as low as $360 during 1916 allowing virtually everyone in the country to own a car. Not only does Ford lower the price significantly, but after getting numerous complaints from employees that work on the assembly line was bland, and after having to hire 55,000 people a year to cover only 18,000 jobs, Ford decided to raise the minimum pay at Ford Motor Company to $5.00 an hour almost doubling the current minimum wage at the time. This stopped worker complaints, and made it so the workers could actually buy the cars they manufactured which was a first in history. The automobile was not invented by Henry Ford nor was the assembly line that was produced by the brilliant minds in his company, but Ford can be held responsible for turning the unknown invention of the automobile into the single most innovative invention that gave shape to the 19th century, and continues to impact our lives today. Ford decided that cost would not influence the way he did things and it was only seen as a minor problem that could be adjusted for, which could be another reason that a person like him was so famous and influential because he complied with the common people. “Our policy is to reduce the price, extend the operations, and improve the article. You will notice that the reduction of price comes first. We have never considered any costs as fixed. Therefore we first reduce the price to a point where we believe more sales will result. Then we go ahead and try to make the price. We do not bother about the costs. The new price forces the costs down. The more usual way is to take the costs and then determine the price, and although that method may be scientific in the narrow sense, it is not scientific in the broad sense, because what earthly use is it to know the cost if it tells you you cannot manufacture at a price at which the article can be sold? But more to the point is the fact that, although one may calculate what a cost is, and of course all of our costs are carefully calculated, no one knows what a cost ought to be. One of the ways of discovering what a cost ought to be is to name a price so low as to force everybody in the place to the highest point of efficiency.” (Ford, 61). This shows Ford’s willingness to do whatever he thinks is best even when the price outweighs the profits. Ford understands that in order to have progress there needs to be change, so he continues to drive prices down until suppliers of raw materials are forced to reduce prices. After 30 years in the business Ford had revolutionized the average life of an American. After running his competitors into the ground with his low prices, and multiple bestseller models, Ford started to slow down, yet the work he had already done was noticed among the people, and he came to be one of the most respected individuals of his time. It was his views that got him to the top, the mistakes he made in the past, and his expectations of the not so distant future. It didn’t matter what the cost was or how much money was made, because as Henry Ford once said “A business that makes nothing but money is a poor business.”(Henry Ford Quotes).	<urn:uuid:20c56a0a-7463-4b5f-b1a2-a259df269c8c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alpinrunning.org/throughout-them-and-learn-how-they-work-ford/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00048.warc.gz	en	0.989295	1,978	3.5	4	[ -0.19322964549064636, 0.2430700957775116, 0.5892748832702637, 0.310553640127182, -0.30486270785331726, 0.0910961925983429, 0.24945266544818878, 0.5205824971199036, -0.2997162342071533, -0.06682951748371124, -0.15222005546092987, 0.35445815324783325, -0.23066666722297668, 0.2508831024169922...	4	Throughout the past, in America, inventors and innovators took the world by storm as they came up with new ideas that shaped the world as people see it today. Arguably the most influential and important person in the early developing American society was Henry Ford. Born on July 30th, 1863, Henry Ford grew up as a farm boy in Springwells Township, Michigan, located nine miles outside of Detroit. As a young boy Ford was always fascinated with how things worked, and instead of taking broken clocks and such to the local tinkerer, Ford took it upon himself to fix them, and learn how they work. Ford would also gather up the other boys in his small town to build basic steam engines and water wheels. Ford’s parents William and Mary were simple farmer immigrants from Ireland that taught Henry all they could, but determined by the lack of excitement in his life Henry set off for Detroit to pursue his dream. Ford shows his genius early from his childhood as he continues to experiment with broken appliances around the house rather than letting a professional fix them. It’s from these early memories that made Ford interested in the way that things work, and instead of going on to become a farmer like his humble parents he decided to try his hand in the city of Detroit and pursue his interests in mechanics. “There was too much hard hand labour on our own and all other farms of the time. Even when very young I suspected that much might somehow be done in a better way. That is what took me into mechanics—although my mother always said that I was born a mechanic.”(Ford, 10). It came from hard work but Ford realized that there had to be an easier way to do work in this world where inventions were popping up left and right. Ford also in his early years shows certain characteristics that would soon shape the way he swept America off its feet, Ford developed a knack for learning by trial and error, the ability to take leadership, and was a natural born mechanic. In the early years Ford struggled to get momentum as his first few jobs he worked at terminated him within the first few weeks. After going from job to job Ford decided to try his hand in business and attended a few classes at Goldsmith, Bryant & Stratton Business University in Detroit this was Fords only business education in his entire career. After it led nowhere he finally found a stable job making brass valves on a milling machine, and became a married man to Clara Bryant. Clara was a simple farmer from Greenfield township, a few miles northeast of Ford’s homestead. Clara supported Ford’s ideas and tried to help the best she could, but Ford had even more of his time taken away when they decided to parent the child, Edsel Bryant Ford. After two years of trial and error, spending his minimal freetime in his shed and the basement underneath his job making brass valves, Ford finally revealed his first project which took to the streets in June 4th, 1896, and was named the Quadricycle. This first invention no matter how crude, sparked the beginning of something new. This first invention of Henry Ford’s was just the first to come of many that would revolutionize America. The Quadricycle is important because it almost symbolizes Ford’s drive, his initiative to keep going no matter the task, up until this point no one gave Ford the time of day, but Ford knew from the beginning that even through failed attempts he would keep going until he succeeded “Failure is simply the opportunity to begin again, this time more intelligently.”(Henry Ford Quotes). Ford continuously throughout his life learns from his mistakes, and pushes on to innovate more and excite. Ford got plenty of interest from investors and potential clients after the reveal of the Quadricycle. Ford was ecstatic, yet still felt like he needed to go bigger he got to work on a second more refined model, and after a 60 mile car ride with his most potential investor, lumber merchant William Murphy, Ford convinces him to start the Detroit Automobile Company with Ford as an engineer. After quickly failing Ford wastes no time, and starts to rebuild his reputation through racing and by beating well known racer Alexander Winton in his very first race. After years of Ford rebuilding his reputation a second company is eventually founded called the Henry Ford Company with him as the head engineer. This new company after just three short months was utterly a failure due to his time being consumed by racing, and the fact that they couldn’t produce cars fast enough to keep up with competitors. Two years later the Ford Motor Company is created and even without investing as much as a dime into the company Ford is made the vice president. Before the year is up Ford Motor Company produced the Model N which was an American best seller, and even with the success that came with it Ford knew he had to go bigger, better, and cheaper. “The ‘motorcar for the great multitude.’ Working with a hand-picked group of employees he came up with the Model T, introduced on October 1, 1908.”(The Henry Ford). Showing another side of Henry Ford is his continuous attempts at making a more innovative, and better machine that not only would be cheaper but would make vehicles more accessible for the common American. He had already had a successful model that was targeted towards the higher class, so this was seen as a new concept because from the last two decades prior to this new model T release, “horseless carriages” were seen as rich playthings that no common American could afford. Also most models of cars at the time were only suited for relatively flat gravel roads, so Ford making an effort to make this affordable automobile easy to drive, and able to handle on rough roads, made him highly appraised by the lower class. Not only that though, rough roads were more frequently seen in the countryside allowing a farmer to buy a car, not just city folk which was unheard of at this time period. This pushed America forward by turning the automobile from a fantasized luxury in someone’s life to something that was attainable. Around the end of the progressive era perhaps the most revolutionary idea that was proposed by Ford Motor Company was the assembly line. In an effort to make the new thriving model T more affordable this new method of creating cars was born that was called the assembly line, which could produce 50 cars by the time the previous method could produce one. This further decreased the price of the Model T to as low as $360 during 1916 allowing virtually everyone in the country to own a car. Not only does Ford lower the price significantly, but after getting numerous complaints from employees that work on the assembly line was bland, and after having to hire 55,000 people a year to cover only 18,000 jobs, Ford decided to raise the minimum pay at Ford Motor Company to $5.00 an hour almost doubling the current minimum wage at the time. This stopped worker complaints, and made it so the workers could actually buy the cars they manufactured which was a first in history. The automobile was not invented by Henry Ford nor was the assembly line that was produced by the brilliant minds in his company, but Ford can be held responsible for turning the unknown invention of the automobile into the single most innovative invention that gave shape to the 19th century, and continues to impact our lives today. Ford decided that cost would not influence the way he did things and it was only seen as a minor problem that could be adjusted for, which could be another reason that a person like him was so famous and influential because he complied with the common people. “Our policy is to reduce the price, extend the operations, and improve the article. You will notice that the reduction of price comes first. We have never considered any costs as fixed. Therefore we first reduce the price to a point where we believe more sales will result. Then we go ahead and try to make the price. We do not bother about the costs. The new price forces the costs down. The more usual way is to take the costs and then determine the price, and although that method may be scientific in the narrow sense, it is not scientific in the broad sense, because what earthly use is it to know the cost if it tells you you cannot manufacture at a price at which the article can be sold? But more to the point is the fact that, although one may calculate what a cost is, and of course all of our costs are carefully calculated, no one knows what a cost ought to be. One of the ways of discovering what a cost ought to be is to name a price so low as to force everybody in the place to the highest point of efficiency.” (Ford, 61). This shows Ford’s willingness to do whatever he thinks is best even when the price outweighs the profits. Ford understands that in order to have progress there needs to be change, so he continues to drive prices down until suppliers of raw materials are forced to reduce prices. After 30 years in the business Ford had revolutionized the average life of an American. After running his competitors into the ground with his low prices, and multiple bestseller models, Ford started to slow down, yet the work he had already done was noticed among the people, and he came to be one of the most respected individuals of his time. It was his views that got him to the top, the mistakes he made in the past, and his expectations of the not so distant future. It didn’t matter what the cost was or how much money was made, because as Henry Ford once said “A business that makes nothing but money is a poor business.”(Henry Ford Quotes).	1,974	ENGLISH	1
The revolutionary war fought between 1776 – 1785 was a major impact in American history. The revolutionary was had many influential characters who shaped the revolution in various ways. The men known as the founding fathers played a major part during that war period. George Washington, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson were all crucial characters during the war. They each played different roles during the revolution, their attitude towards the new federal government was very diverse, and they each accomplished various things during their service in the office. George Washington, being our first founding father, played a strong part throughout all of the revolutionary war. Washington was an American commander who helped fight in various wars bringing victory to the U.S. He fought many battles such as the battle of Saratoga, the turning point of the Revolutionary war. "As a military strategist, salesman, and inspirational leader, Washington had influenced every phase of the revolutionary war" (Tindall and Shi 208). John Adams also played a major role during the revolution. Adams was a member of the conventional congress and helped write the declaration of independence. He also was a mediator and helped bring peace with the British through the peace treaty of England. Thomas Jefferson with help from others managed to write the declaration of independence denunciating American independence. He eventually helped guide America through the troubles of the revolutionary war. All three men were able to play very strong roles in the beginning of the revolutionary war. . Washington, Adams, and Jefferson all had very distinct ways of viewing the federal government at the time. Washington was able to view some of the flaws the continental congress and the articles of confederation contained. He believed that in order for the nation to continue to function properly a stronger central government needed to be established.	<urn:uuid:87836436-86e4-4b17-bfc8-70e41ce4c9e3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/210903.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00387.warc.gz	en	0.984071	351	4.0625	4	[ -0.006504082586616278, 0.649275004863739, 0.447212815284729, -0.2791390120983124, -0.43806910514831543, 0.6825671195983887, 0.23181523382663727, 0.5450611114501953, -0.28889018297195435, -0.26402121782302856, -0.02388065867125988, 0.5231635570526123, -0.013607586733996868, 0.29933083057403...	4	The revolutionary war fought between 1776 – 1785 was a major impact in American history. The revolutionary was had many influential characters who shaped the revolution in various ways. The men known as the founding fathers played a major part during that war period. George Washington, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson were all crucial characters during the war. They each played different roles during the revolution, their attitude towards the new federal government was very diverse, and they each accomplished various things during their service in the office. George Washington, being our first founding father, played a strong part throughout all of the revolutionary war. Washington was an American commander who helped fight in various wars bringing victory to the U.S. He fought many battles such as the battle of Saratoga, the turning point of the Revolutionary war. "As a military strategist, salesman, and inspirational leader, Washington had influenced every phase of the revolutionary war" (Tindall and Shi 208). John Adams also played a major role during the revolution. Adams was a member of the conventional congress and helped write the declaration of independence. He also was a mediator and helped bring peace with the British through the peace treaty of England. Thomas Jefferson with help from others managed to write the declaration of independence denunciating American independence. He eventually helped guide America through the troubles of the revolutionary war. All three men were able to play very strong roles in the beginning of the revolutionary war. . Washington, Adams, and Jefferson all had very distinct ways of viewing the federal government at the time. Washington was able to view some of the flaws the continental congress and the articles of confederation contained. He believed that in order for the nation to continue to function properly a stronger central government needed to be established.	356	ENGLISH	1
The Proclamation 95, popularly known as the Emancipation Proclamation, was an executive order and a presidential decree that was issued by Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, on January 1, 1863. The proclamation ordered that all the African American slaves in the ten rebellious states be granted freedom as a means of suppressing rebellion and bringing an end to the American Civil War. The Emancipation Proclamation did not cover slaves in Union areas that were not in rebellion such as Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and Delaware. According to the Fugitive Act of 1850, all runaway slaves were required to return to their owners. However, during the American Civil War (1861-1865), some of the generals like Benjamin Butler were refused to return the slaves and declared them as contrabands of war. Many viewed this decision by the generals as a recognition of the Confederacy as a separate independent state. President Lincoln, on the other hand, considered the war as concerning the preservation of the Union rather than bringing slavery to an end. However, he distanced himself from the designation of slaves as contrabands. By mid-1862, thousands of slaves had escaped and joined the invading Northern Armies. At this point, President Lincoln was convinced that it was time to abolish slavery. On September 22, 1862, soon after the victory of the Union at Antietam, the president issued a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, ordering freeing of slaves in rebellious states by January 1, 1863. None of the Confederate states ended the rebellion against the Union and the order was signed and took effect on January 1, 1863. The Emancipation Proclamation came into effect in two stages. The first stage was the issuance of a preliminary Proclamation on September 22, 1862, outlining the intention to implement the second part, which came into effect on January 1, 1863. The Proclamation was to take effect in 10 areas of Confederacy which were all included in the second part. The four Union-occupied states alongside Tennessee were not included. The proclamation was immediately effected in Union-occupied areas of the Confederates such as Virginia, Mississippi, Winchester, and Corinth. Impact Of The Proclamation Although some sources have indicated that the Proclamation did not free any slave, on the contrary thousands of slaves were freed during the period of the war as a result of the proclamation. Some eyewitness accounts in areas such as Hilton Head and Port Royal record thousands of blacks celebrating on January 1 when they became aware of their legal status. Emancipation took place peacefully without any violence. The Proclamation also shifted the objective of the war from just uniting the country to the abolition of slavery in the US. The runaway slaves who had escaped to the Union and captured by the Union armies as “contrabands of war” were also freed when the Proclamation took effect. However, the proclamation was rejected by the Copperhead Democrats who wanted the Union restored without abolishing slavery. While some Confederates welcomed the Proclamation, the majority were enraged by it. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:15658196-a5d7-4068-a9d6-2d96ca738d7a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/when-was-the-emancipation-proclamation-and-what-did-it-do.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00243.warc.gz	en	0.980613	691	4.28125	4	[ -0.14524175226688385, 0.526818037033081, 0.3277103900909424, -0.08099181205034256, -0.45834437012672424, 0.2131010740995407, 0.05780008062720299, -0.1386791169643402, -0.1338026523590088, 0.5157603025436401, 0.299481064081192, 0.12791964411735535, -0.18026581406593323, 0.20488962531089783,...	2	The Proclamation 95, popularly known as the Emancipation Proclamation, was an executive order and a presidential decree that was issued by Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, on January 1, 1863. The proclamation ordered that all the African American slaves in the ten rebellious states be granted freedom as a means of suppressing rebellion and bringing an end to the American Civil War. The Emancipation Proclamation did not cover slaves in Union areas that were not in rebellion such as Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and Delaware. According to the Fugitive Act of 1850, all runaway slaves were required to return to their owners. However, during the American Civil War (1861-1865), some of the generals like Benjamin Butler were refused to return the slaves and declared them as contrabands of war. Many viewed this decision by the generals as a recognition of the Confederacy as a separate independent state. President Lincoln, on the other hand, considered the war as concerning the preservation of the Union rather than bringing slavery to an end. However, he distanced himself from the designation of slaves as contrabands. By mid-1862, thousands of slaves had escaped and joined the invading Northern Armies. At this point, President Lincoln was convinced that it was time to abolish slavery. On September 22, 1862, soon after the victory of the Union at Antietam, the president issued a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, ordering freeing of slaves in rebellious states by January 1, 1863. None of the Confederate states ended the rebellion against the Union and the order was signed and took effect on January 1, 1863. The Emancipation Proclamation came into effect in two stages. The first stage was the issuance of a preliminary Proclamation on September 22, 1862, outlining the intention to implement the second part, which came into effect on January 1, 1863. The Proclamation was to take effect in 10 areas of Confederacy which were all included in the second part. The four Union-occupied states alongside Tennessee were not included. The proclamation was immediately effected in Union-occupied areas of the Confederates such as Virginia, Mississippi, Winchester, and Corinth. Impact Of The Proclamation Although some sources have indicated that the Proclamation did not free any slave, on the contrary thousands of slaves were freed during the period of the war as a result of the proclamation. Some eyewitness accounts in areas such as Hilton Head and Port Royal record thousands of blacks celebrating on January 1 when they became aware of their legal status. Emancipation took place peacefully without any violence. The Proclamation also shifted the objective of the war from just uniting the country to the abolition of slavery in the US. The runaway slaves who had escaped to the Union and captured by the Union armies as “contrabands of war” were also freed when the Proclamation took effect. However, the proclamation was rejected by the Copperhead Democrats who wanted the Union restored without abolishing slavery. While some Confederates welcomed the Proclamation, the majority were enraged by it. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	730	ENGLISH	1
Saint Patrick was born in Kilpatrick, Scotland, in the year 387.His parents are Calphurnius and Conchessa.When Patrick was sixteen, he was carried off into captivity by Irish marauders and was sold as a slave to a chieftan named Milchu in Dalriada. In Dalriada, he tended his master’s flocks in the valley of the Braid and on the slopes of Slemish. When he was working the fields, he acquired a perfect knowledge of the Celtic tongue. His master was a druidical high priest, in which gave Patrick an opportunity to become familiar with all the details of Druidism from whose bondage he was destined to liberate the Irish race. Warned by an angel after six years, he fled from his cruel master and bent his steps toward the west. He traveled about 200 miles to Westport. He found a ship ready to sail and after some rebuffs was allowed on board. In a few days he arrived in Britain, but now his heart was set on devoting himself to the service of God in the sacred ministry. After wandering in dense forest for twenty-eight days they were found by others and eventually Patrick made it home to his family. He remained with them for a few years, and then decided to pursue the priesthood in answer to dreams he had about returning to Ireland. After a number of years, while he was on a short visit to the continent, probably Gaul, his name was proposed to lead a missionary expedition to Ireland. He set out around the year 432 as a bishop, and went to the headquarters of the Ulaid in Emain Macha, and there established his first church at what is now Armagh. From there he traveled predominantly in the north and west and made many converts, and trained many priests. After some time, his integrity was questioned, resulting in an inquiry at the hands of the British bishops, but he was subsequently vindicated. As the Ulaid were pushed out of more and more territory, Patrick moved with them to spend his last days in Down, from which he wrote his Confession. He died March 17, 461, in Downpatrick, Ireland. Kilpatrick still retains many memorials of Saint Patrick. His feast day, St. Patrick’s Day, is March 17, or the day he died.	<urn:uuid:405a442a-c698-40a4-b968-dd7138f31464>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://phdessay.com/saint-patrick/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00212.warc.gz	en	0.994129	481	3.28125	3	[ -0.08625394105911255, 0.40619808435440063, 0.030328694730997086, -0.2867373526096344, -0.27596747875213623, -0.3415532410144806, 0.3219073712825775, -0.10909334570169449, 0.30235448479652405, -0.3564262092113495, 0.021886346861720085, -0.5148302316665649, 0.16353334486484528, -0.0073007140...	1	Saint Patrick was born in Kilpatrick, Scotland, in the year 387.His parents are Calphurnius and Conchessa.When Patrick was sixteen, he was carried off into captivity by Irish marauders and was sold as a slave to a chieftan named Milchu in Dalriada. In Dalriada, he tended his master’s flocks in the valley of the Braid and on the slopes of Slemish. When he was working the fields, he acquired a perfect knowledge of the Celtic tongue. His master was a druidical high priest, in which gave Patrick an opportunity to become familiar with all the details of Druidism from whose bondage he was destined to liberate the Irish race. Warned by an angel after six years, he fled from his cruel master and bent his steps toward the west. He traveled about 200 miles to Westport. He found a ship ready to sail and after some rebuffs was allowed on board. In a few days he arrived in Britain, but now his heart was set on devoting himself to the service of God in the sacred ministry. After wandering in dense forest for twenty-eight days they were found by others and eventually Patrick made it home to his family. He remained with them for a few years, and then decided to pursue the priesthood in answer to dreams he had about returning to Ireland. After a number of years, while he was on a short visit to the continent, probably Gaul, his name was proposed to lead a missionary expedition to Ireland. He set out around the year 432 as a bishop, and went to the headquarters of the Ulaid in Emain Macha, and there established his first church at what is now Armagh. From there he traveled predominantly in the north and west and made many converts, and trained many priests. After some time, his integrity was questioned, resulting in an inquiry at the hands of the British bishops, but he was subsequently vindicated. As the Ulaid were pushed out of more and more territory, Patrick moved with them to spend his last days in Down, from which he wrote his Confession. He died March 17, 461, in Downpatrick, Ireland. Kilpatrick still retains many memorials of Saint Patrick. His feast day, St. Patrick’s Day, is March 17, or the day he died.	487	ENGLISH	1
A New Study Reveals Queens Were MUCH More Warlike Than Kings Scientists have proven historical queens were “38.8%” more likely to declare war than kings. When Canadian cognitive psychologist and author Steven Pinker claimed men instigated “almost all the world's wars and genocides” US researchers formally tested whether there was indeed more peace under female rulers , but their results showed the very opposite: that female rulers “caused wars” much more often. In myths, legends, folklore, and fairy tales strong male kings are portrayed as declaring and fighting in great wars and it has long been projected that women were less conflictive and more likely to maintain peace than go to war. But a new study reveals that queens waged war over the centuries a shocking 39% more than kings. Tipping Stereotypes On Their Heads A working paper by political scientists Oeindrila Dube, of the University of Chicago, and S. P. Harish, of McGill University, analyzed a selection of mostly European kings and queens who reigned between 1480 AD and 1913 which covered 193 rulers in 18 countries. A Daily Mail article says the 400 years of European history included female rulers such as Catherine the Great , who made Russia a waring nation in the 18th century, Britain's Elizabeth I , who defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588, and Isabella I of Castile , who led Spain to dominate the world in the 15th and 16th centuries. Portrait commemorating the defeat of the Spanish Armada, depicted in the background. Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolizing her international power. (Shakko / Public Domain ) Over 193 reigns the researchers found that states ruled by queens were 39% more likely to wage war than those ruled by kings. Not only did the team of researchers find that states ruled by queens were more likely to fall into conflict and war than those led by kings, but females were also more likely to gain territory and were attacked more often. Co-author Oeindrila Dube told The Times that there’s this general stereotype that men are greatly responsible for wars and genocides and that women are natural peace-makers, but “our research turns this stereotype on its head”. Marriage Mattered Little It is a common social perception that because women are (on average) physically weaker than men they are therefore less violent and more peaceful. But the authors say their findings “contradict” these misconceptions. They played with the idea that queens, more so than kings, had to show that they were not weak but they concluded that this was “unlikely” because queens were not only war-thirsty at the beginning of their reigns when a greater need to show strength existed, but also throughout the duration of their reigns. Catherine the Great came to power following a coup d'état that she organized—resulting in her husband, Peter III, being overthrown. (Magnus Manske / Public Domain ) The study also shows single queens were attacked more than single kings, probably because threatening foreign powers perceived female rulers as a “soft touch” and that their territories were more vulnerable. However, according to Sputnick News , at the same time, married queens were also more likely to attack than married kings and this was partly because they would “enlist their husbands to help them rule” while kings would rarely turn to their spouses to handle this responsibility. Were Males Pushing the Queens into War? The authors of the new paper explained that queens often put their spouses in charge of the military or fiscal reforms and this greater spousal division of labor might have enhanced the capacity of queenly reigns, “enabling queens to pursue more aggressive war policies”. The roles of male advisors pushing queen’s foreign policies towards war wasn’t factored in and the researchers said that this male influence on war should be “even larger among monarchs who acceded at a younger age” since they were more likely to be influenced by their male advisors. However, the paper says, “we do not observe this type of differential effect”. - Female Druids, the Forgotten Priestesses of the Celts - The Shrouded History of Nitocris: Was the Last Pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty a Woman? - Warrior Women: Despite what Gamers Might Believe, the Ancient World was Full of Female Fighters When Isabella I of Castile ascended to the throne in 1474 there already several plots against her and war broke out. (Zumalabe / Public Domain ) Violence Stats Change On The Street Putting this new paper in perspective, while the study proves historical queens were more violent than kings, on the street, quite the opposite is and has always been the case. A quick glance at the statistics tell that today men commit much more acts of violence than women and in 2007 the U.S. Department of Justice sponsored a National Crime Victimization Study that found “75.6% of all offenders” were male and only 20.1% were female. Therefore, when not wearing a crown, men commit violent crimes more than three times as often as women. Even taking into account the possibility that many crimes in which a woman commits violence go unreported, this disparity can't be ignored and it would take thousands of unreported violent acts to balance up these numbers. But are men really hardwired to be violent? It looks like the answer might be “no” and that woman have the same blood-thirsty tendencies when they get crowned. Top image: A new study reveals that queens were more warlike than kings. Source: Evdoha / Adobe Stock. By Ashley Cowie	<urn:uuid:48306030-286a-4c9e-9832-457dc9b56317>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ancient-origins.net/comment/35457	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00149.warc.gz	en	0.98025	1,199	3.28125	3	[ -0.051596395671367645, 0.5654860734939575, 0.49670693278312683, 0.25049689412117004, -0.1368739753961563, 0.35290706157684326, 0.11217162013053894, 0.32772499322891235, 0.3034014403820038, 0.15636679530143738, -0.16521713137626648, -0.04222016781568527, 0.025438841432332993, 0.251086235046...	14	A New Study Reveals Queens Were MUCH More Warlike Than Kings Scientists have proven historical queens were “38.8%” more likely to declare war than kings. When Canadian cognitive psychologist and author Steven Pinker claimed men instigated “almost all the world's wars and genocides” US researchers formally tested whether there was indeed more peace under female rulers , but their results showed the very opposite: that female rulers “caused wars” much more often. In myths, legends, folklore, and fairy tales strong male kings are portrayed as declaring and fighting in great wars and it has long been projected that women were less conflictive and more likely to maintain peace than go to war. But a new study reveals that queens waged war over the centuries a shocking 39% more than kings. Tipping Stereotypes On Their Heads A working paper by political scientists Oeindrila Dube, of the University of Chicago, and S. P. Harish, of McGill University, analyzed a selection of mostly European kings and queens who reigned between 1480 AD and 1913 which covered 193 rulers in 18 countries. A Daily Mail article says the 400 years of European history included female rulers such as Catherine the Great , who made Russia a waring nation in the 18th century, Britain's Elizabeth I , who defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588, and Isabella I of Castile , who led Spain to dominate the world in the 15th and 16th centuries. Portrait commemorating the defeat of the Spanish Armada, depicted in the background. Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolizing her international power. (Shakko / Public Domain ) Over 193 reigns the researchers found that states ruled by queens were 39% more likely to wage war than those ruled by kings. Not only did the team of researchers find that states ruled by queens were more likely to fall into conflict and war than those led by kings, but females were also more likely to gain territory and were attacked more often. Co-author Oeindrila Dube told The Times that there’s this general stereotype that men are greatly responsible for wars and genocides and that women are natural peace-makers, but “our research turns this stereotype on its head”. Marriage Mattered Little It is a common social perception that because women are (on average) physically weaker than men they are therefore less violent and more peaceful. But the authors say their findings “contradict” these misconceptions. They played with the idea that queens, more so than kings, had to show that they were not weak but they concluded that this was “unlikely” because queens were not only war-thirsty at the beginning of their reigns when a greater need to show strength existed, but also throughout the duration of their reigns. Catherine the Great came to power following a coup d'état that she organized—resulting in her husband, Peter III, being overthrown. (Magnus Manske / Public Domain ) The study also shows single queens were attacked more than single kings, probably because threatening foreign powers perceived female rulers as a “soft touch” and that their territories were more vulnerable. However, according to Sputnick News , at the same time, married queens were also more likely to attack than married kings and this was partly because they would “enlist their husbands to help them rule” while kings would rarely turn to their spouses to handle this responsibility. Were Males Pushing the Queens into War? The authors of the new paper explained that queens often put their spouses in charge of the military or fiscal reforms and this greater spousal division of labor might have enhanced the capacity of queenly reigns, “enabling queens to pursue more aggressive war policies”. The roles of male advisors pushing queen’s foreign policies towards war wasn’t factored in and the researchers said that this male influence on war should be “even larger among monarchs who acceded at a younger age” since they were more likely to be influenced by their male advisors. However, the paper says, “we do not observe this type of differential effect”. - Female Druids, the Forgotten Priestesses of the Celts - The Shrouded History of Nitocris: Was the Last Pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty a Woman? - Warrior Women: Despite what Gamers Might Believe, the Ancient World was Full of Female Fighters When Isabella I of Castile ascended to the throne in 1474 there already several plots against her and war broke out. (Zumalabe / Public Domain ) Violence Stats Change On The Street Putting this new paper in perspective, while the study proves historical queens were more violent than kings, on the street, quite the opposite is and has always been the case. A quick glance at the statistics tell that today men commit much more acts of violence than women and in 2007 the U.S. Department of Justice sponsored a National Crime Victimization Study that found “75.6% of all offenders” were male and only 20.1% were female. Therefore, when not wearing a crown, men commit violent crimes more than three times as often as women. Even taking into account the possibility that many crimes in which a woman commits violence go unreported, this disparity can't be ignored and it would take thousands of unreported violent acts to balance up these numbers. But are men really hardwired to be violent? It looks like the answer might be “no” and that woman have the same blood-thirsty tendencies when they get crowned. Top image: A new study reveals that queens were more warlike than kings. Source: Evdoha / Adobe Stock. By Ashley Cowie	1,190	ENGLISH	1
Slavery predates writing and can be found in almost all cultures and continents. Historically, slavery was the form that most conquistadors used to dominate people years ago. The conquistadors sold and kidnapped humans to do the physical work for them. In Africa where the human tread persist in this days, Sudan has been facing the slavery problem since twenty century. Most slaves were initially captured in wars or kidnapped in isolated raids, but some were sold into slavery trade by their parents as a means of surviving extreme conditions. However, Sudan slavery is unique though it was not based on any of the traditional reasons for enslavement. Instead, Slavery was based on a new concept because modern day. Sudan government was involved in backing and arming numerous militias in the country. They got the money by selling slave and bought more arms during the civil war. It had also found; the government has failed to enforce Sudanese laws against kidnapping, assault and forced labor. Also, religion conflicts between north and south in Sudan making the situation worse. Slavery in Sudan has been caused by these three major reasons: the impacts of internal conflicts and wars, the problems of Sudanese government actions, and the religions. Geographically, Sudan is divided in two north and south. The north part has Arab heritage, and the south part has the African heritages. These two groups of Sudanese are also divided in their language, racial, religious, and economical positions. The division of Sudan is related with its colonial and condominium history. The roots of that were basically the two rules that Sudan had during its history: Turko- Egyptian and British- Egyptian rules. The Turko- Egyptian rule began when Arab arrived first from the upper part of Egypt and crossing the red sea during the middle age. This was an expedition. The expedition had a goal to recruit people to join its military crew in 1820 under the leader of Egypt Muhammad Ali. This changed. When the British took control of Egypt in 1880. The British – Egyptian rules started. This rule allows the British could administer the north and south Sudan as separate colonies. If people from the south wanted to go to the north part or vice versa, they must have a passport to make business. One of these businesses was slave trade. The social division occurs basing these two rules. Sudan was divided in its religious, languages, and customs. Sudanese culture has two heritages. The impacts of civil wars and internal conflict changed the form of living in the country. The region has been negatively affected by two civil wars since Sudanese independence during 1955-2005. In the first civil war, from 1955 to 1972, southern insurgents, called the Anya Nya, fought against Government of Sudan for greater autonomy. By 1969, Anya Nya controlled most of southern Sudan. In 1971, the rebel group integrated into the Southern Sudan Liberation Movement, or SSLM, the precursor to today’s Sudan...	<urn:uuid:ebe34ef6-94df-4cd5-a845-10c2bb1418e4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/slavery-in-sudan	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00467.warc.gz	en	0.981238	598	3.71875	4	[ -0.21801570057868958, 0.45972248911857605, 0.36713963747024536, -0.13856326043605804, 0.09108486771583557, -0.21162672340869904, -0.04089416563510895, -0.41664478182792664, -0.08886494487524033, 0.12908396124839783, 0.3612314462661743, -0.36926308274269104, -0.07461969554424286, 0.05533860...	1	Slavery predates writing and can be found in almost all cultures and continents. Historically, slavery was the form that most conquistadors used to dominate people years ago. The conquistadors sold and kidnapped humans to do the physical work for them. In Africa where the human tread persist in this days, Sudan has been facing the slavery problem since twenty century. Most slaves were initially captured in wars or kidnapped in isolated raids, but some were sold into slavery trade by their parents as a means of surviving extreme conditions. However, Sudan slavery is unique though it was not based on any of the traditional reasons for enslavement. Instead, Slavery was based on a new concept because modern day. Sudan government was involved in backing and arming numerous militias in the country. They got the money by selling slave and bought more arms during the civil war. It had also found; the government has failed to enforce Sudanese laws against kidnapping, assault and forced labor. Also, religion conflicts between north and south in Sudan making the situation worse. Slavery in Sudan has been caused by these three major reasons: the impacts of internal conflicts and wars, the problems of Sudanese government actions, and the religions. Geographically, Sudan is divided in two north and south. The north part has Arab heritage, and the south part has the African heritages. These two groups of Sudanese are also divided in their language, racial, religious, and economical positions. The division of Sudan is related with its colonial and condominium history. The roots of that were basically the two rules that Sudan had during its history: Turko- Egyptian and British- Egyptian rules. The Turko- Egyptian rule began when Arab arrived first from the upper part of Egypt and crossing the red sea during the middle age. This was an expedition. The expedition had a goal to recruit people to join its military crew in 1820 under the leader of Egypt Muhammad Ali. This changed. When the British took control of Egypt in 1880. The British – Egyptian rules started. This rule allows the British could administer the north and south Sudan as separate colonies. If people from the south wanted to go to the north part or vice versa, they must have a passport to make business. One of these businesses was slave trade. The social division occurs basing these two rules. Sudan was divided in its religious, languages, and customs. Sudanese culture has two heritages. The impacts of civil wars and internal conflict changed the form of living in the country. The region has been negatively affected by two civil wars since Sudanese independence during 1955-2005. In the first civil war, from 1955 to 1972, southern insurgents, called the Anya Nya, fought against Government of Sudan for greater autonomy. By 1969, Anya Nya controlled most of southern Sudan. In 1971, the rebel group integrated into the Southern Sudan Liberation Movement, or SSLM, the precursor to today’s Sudan...	621	ENGLISH	1
John Hamilton Mortimer was known in his own lifetime as the ‘English Salvator’ and consciously modelled his own life and works on the seventeenth century Italian painter, Salvator Rosa. The critic Allan Cunningham noted on seeing Mortimer’s self-portrait, now known only from an etching, that he: ‘was fond of the wild, the savage, and the wonderful; and it was his pleasure…to imagine himself a chief of banditti.’ This beautifully executed sheet encapsulates Mortimer’s interest in Rosa and his myth, showing fisherman pulling ashore the corpse of a man. Salvator Rosa had a remarkable impact upon British painters during the eighteenth century, in terms of both his life and work. Biographers routinely cast Rosa as an outlaw, who had fought in the rebellion led by the Neapolitan fisherman Masaniello against Spanish rule in 1647. William Gilpin writing in 1768 observed: ‘we are told, he spent the early part of his life in a troop of banditti; and that the rocky and desolate scenes, in which he was accustomed to take refuge, furnished him with those romantic ideas in landskip, of which he is exceedingly fond…His Robbers, as his detached figures are commonly called, are supposed also to have been taken from life.’ Such stories of Rosa’s life as a banditti fuelled the admiration for his prints and paintings, which, as Gilpin articulated, were seen as the embodiment of contemporary conceptions of the sublime. Rosa’s association with banditti was entirely fabricated, but it was a construct which had great appeal to Mortimer and his contemporaries. The present drawing recalls the violent myths associated with Masaniello, showing fisherman hauling ashore their catch, the corpse of a man. Mortimer regularly showed depicted fisherman in his drawings, but this is a singular depiction of this subject-matter. The use of pen and wash suggests that the present drawing dates from early in Mortimer’s career.	<urn:uuid:5a74949d-320b-4c44-bf49-cba9c853dcdf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.libson-yarker.com/exhibitions/john-hamilton-mortimer-seven-newly-discovered-drawings/fishermen-dragging-a-dead-body-in-their-net	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00100.warc.gz	en	0.986675	421	3.3125	3	[ -0.591509997844696, 0.4173160791397095, 0.3568324148654938, 0.5654215812683105, -0.36962541937828064, -0.09562608599662781, 0.9370973110198975, 0.006467028055340052, 0.07425212860107422, -0.07344209402799606, -0.3222256302833557, 0.09902457147836685, 0.00425267918035388, 0.6161804795265198...	1	John Hamilton Mortimer was known in his own lifetime as the ‘English Salvator’ and consciously modelled his own life and works on the seventeenth century Italian painter, Salvator Rosa. The critic Allan Cunningham noted on seeing Mortimer’s self-portrait, now known only from an etching, that he: ‘was fond of the wild, the savage, and the wonderful; and it was his pleasure…to imagine himself a chief of banditti.’ This beautifully executed sheet encapsulates Mortimer’s interest in Rosa and his myth, showing fisherman pulling ashore the corpse of a man. Salvator Rosa had a remarkable impact upon British painters during the eighteenth century, in terms of both his life and work. Biographers routinely cast Rosa as an outlaw, who had fought in the rebellion led by the Neapolitan fisherman Masaniello against Spanish rule in 1647. William Gilpin writing in 1768 observed: ‘we are told, he spent the early part of his life in a troop of banditti; and that the rocky and desolate scenes, in which he was accustomed to take refuge, furnished him with those romantic ideas in landskip, of which he is exceedingly fond…His Robbers, as his detached figures are commonly called, are supposed also to have been taken from life.’ Such stories of Rosa’s life as a banditti fuelled the admiration for his prints and paintings, which, as Gilpin articulated, were seen as the embodiment of contemporary conceptions of the sublime. Rosa’s association with banditti was entirely fabricated, but it was a construct which had great appeal to Mortimer and his contemporaries. The present drawing recalls the violent myths associated with Masaniello, showing fisherman hauling ashore their catch, the corpse of a man. Mortimer regularly showed depicted fisherman in his drawings, but this is a singular depiction of this subject-matter. The use of pen and wash suggests that the present drawing dates from early in Mortimer’s career.	409	ENGLISH	1
Late nineteenth century is a period of a history in which European continent went thru forming of national question that was followed by a wave of anti-Semitism directed against a specific target. In this case, this stream was directed against Jewish population thru the whole European continent France, Germany, Austria-Hungary Empire is just the leading figures of this complex action. During that uneasy time, there were many essential players and famous personalities that played an important role in that time. This paper will focus on Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) and his standpoint as a Jewish historical figure.1 Theodor Herzl was born in Budapest to the middle-class Jewish family. He and his family moved to Vienna when he was a teenager, and he started to study law at the University of Vienna. After graduation, he became a very popular journalist for Neue Freie Presse, one of the famous Viennese newspapers. In that time in Europe was rising wave of anti-Semitism and nationalism. Prejudice, discrimination, and hate against Jewish community were during that times common. Herzl as a member of the Jewish community was affected by this social attitude as well. Also, he was aware that the status of Jewish people was not entirely explained and that there had to find a place where Jews belong. Thru his lifetime experience of a Jew, he started to engage more and more in this problem and began to look for a solution. Herzl was convinced that the only way to solve the differences between Jews and “Others” is not the assimilation or closing Jews to ghettos. Herzl came up with the idea that the best way to solve these tensions is the foundation of the Jewish state and in other words that Jewish people will have own nation and national status.2 However, this paper will mainly focus on Herzl’s life before his engagement to that problem. Why did Theodor Herzl become a Zionist? What influence him so much that he becomes such an important figure in Zionism? This paper will go close to explain reasons and motivations that lead him to become active in the Zionist movement and became a convinced Zionist. Herzl’s way to the Zionism was slow development in which he had to go thru inner conflict to discovering and understanding of the Jewish problem. Many books and articles present that the breaking point in Herzl’s life that made him become an active Zionist is so-called Dreyfus Affair. This affair happened when Herzl was in Paris as a rapporteur for the Viennese newspaper. Basically what happened is that 1894 Jewish officer Alfred Dreyfus was sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil’s Island in French Guinea. The reason of his imprisonment was alleged cooperation with German Embassy in Paris, which in Dreyfus position was unacceptable. He alleged should tell French military secrets to the enemy in this case Germany.3 This case can look like an ordinary case where an accused is convicted. However, this case was from begging very controversial and influenced by media and by the public. Especially public opinion during that time was full of anti-Jewish mood, which did not help to Dreyfus nor whole Jewish community. People of France were divided into anti-Dreyfus and Dreyfus groups Also, this case started to write a new history of France so-called Third Republic, full of political changes and antisemitism movement.4 Also, there is printed evidence of French newspapers how do they presented this process and how thru images ironically and even vulgarly presented Dreyfus and his Jewish descent. Jewish people that time was known in the society with specific and significant biological features that other people did not have as much visible. The description of ordinary Jew during that time was huge nose, big and full lips and the most evident thing was excessive Yiddish accent. The 1880s and 1890s were the time where illustration ironically presented Jews were pretty normal and accepted by the mass public.5 Action like that it just shows how the mass media played a big role in the negative portraying Dreyfus and Jews, which helped to anti-Semitism spread over France even faster. Also, it helped to spread stereotypes easily, because that time the newspaper industry was growing. During the 1890s Vienna and Paris were experiencing how media can be powerful and influential. Herzl was a witness of that too. Also, he was part of this system as an influential journalist. The mid- 1890s is the point when Herzl is in Paris seeing that French media are easily spreading the anti-Semitism over the country and Herzl’s Zionism engagement was starting to wake it up inside him.6 Herzl believed in Dreyfus innocence and which was later on proved. 1899 was a year when one of the colleagues of Dreyfus changes his statement which led to the opening the case and the new trial. This court liberated Dreyfus from the prison.7 Even though, this affair finished with happy end Herzl was shocked by the anti-Jewish propaganda and the wave of anti-Semitism in Europe. He could not believe that something like that could happen in France, place that was presented as a place of freedom and equal opportunity. The Dreyfus Affair is a historical example of a failure of a court and judicial system because the result of French court was that it sent in the conviction an innocent person. In Jewish perception, this case is an example of unfair treating of Jewish people in the European continent during the late nineteenth century. This case proves Herzl that the key is not in the assimilation of Jews or whatever change in their living habits because the anti-Semitism will more likely stay in Europe. Herzl believed that the only thing that can help to fix these tensions is that Jewish people will get recognition as a nation. He thought that thanks to land that will belong just and only to Jews other nations would fully recognize Jewish identity. He was pointing to the fact that Jewish people do not fit to the European culture and customs neither to the Muslim culture and customs.8 That is why Jewish people cannot get along with these groups of people, and that is why other cultures react negatively to Jews. Even though, this affair affected Herzl in his development of the Zionist beliefs. This affair was not the reason why he became a Zionist, even though it is often wrongly presented as a reason for his Zionist engagement. More likely, this case is one of the pieces of the puzzle that in the sum made him Zionist. Dreyfus’s story just proved to Herzl that attitudes against Jews in Europe are rising and that soon or later this system will collapse this bring the real reason why Herzl became a Zionist. The reason was the rising anti-Semitism thru Europe, especially in his homeland Austria-Hungary. It is essential to understand that Herzl path to the Zionism was long way thru which he experienced many attacks that made him convert to the Zionism if it was a personal attack on his person when he was a student at University of Vienna or attacks on people from his close community.9 It is important to understand that Herzl thru his life went thru development where he was a Jew after he was assimilated, Jew. In college he was German nationalist and later in his life when he started to work as a journalist during the era of anti-Semitism was rising it was the time when he converts to Zionism. In another word, Herzl from his young age had a personal conflict in which he was finding himself; he was ambivalence in his personal opinions. His conflict was among his Judaism and the process of assimilation. Also, Herzl was not a person who from his young age wanted to solve the Jewish question. For supporting this fact can be used as evidence is his previous work where the Jewish question was missing. He got to that topic later in his life. He became a Zionist because he believed that this is the way from the crisis.10 Anti-Semitism and negative attitudes against Jewish people was the main engine of Herzl’s transformation. Even though, assimilation of Jews was looking pretty successful anti-Semitism find a place in Austria. However, the anti-Semitism wave was not politically motivated in Austria at all. Mostly these attitudes were coming from the neighbor country Germany, where during that time nationalism was rising. Also, Austria had a large number of the German population in the country, which just helped to spread the hate. On the one hand, the government tried to integrate Jews, and it went pretty well. It took some time, but it somehow worked. Jews in Habsburg Austria 1850s received the right to buy state land or attend the trial when the defendant was a Christian belief. Shortly, Jews got the right to build a religious community in the capital city Vienna. This government gesture was conditional on taxation. It is evident that for Habsburg letting Jews in their society was the highly economical reason. However, Jews used that chance as a boost their status in society, and middle-class Jews started to attend prestigious Universities in Austria and build their status and capital. Jews slowly were getting rights, and 1867 Jews in Austria obtained the status of full-fledged citizens. On the other hand, the negative attitudes against Jews were rising, mostly because they started to be influential members of society. Another factor that helped to increase anti-Jewish attitudes were collapsed of Vienna stock market in 1873. Many factories bankrupted, and people started to point on Jewish bourgeoisie and their capital. 1882 a group of artisans, lawyers, and small business owners started to call for Jewish restriction of ownership, and they wanted to break apart Jewish monopoly and influence. Even though society was on anti-Jewish sentiment Habsburg were strictly against anti-Semitism movement. Habsburgs believed that Jewish population could be beneficial for the whole nation, despite the fact that the integration to the Austria society will take some time. Unfortunately, for Jews and Habsburgs, over the next ten years, Austria went thru the change of electoral system that leads to the rewriting of the political map. Big parties started to cooperate which created a political power that was powerful than was untouchable by the government and that helped to anti-Semitism to rise.11 He contributed to the Jewish question with two major works. One is a play The Ghetto and second is a piece called Der Judenstaat (The Jews’ State). Even today there are many discussions which from these work was more influential. However, one thing these works has common it is the Herzl’s view on the current situation that was in Europe and his solution to it. Herzl’s work can be viewed as the last stage of his development of Herzl as a Zionist because by these two pieces of work he wanted to the point of the problem, and he tried to present awareness and his solution. Herzl as a well-known journalist knew that media could bring him the necessary attention to the point of his work and the issue that he was addressing.12 He still remembered how influential media were during the Dreyfus affair and how did influence whole society in France. By writing The New Ghetto and The Jewish State Herzl wanted to spread the awareness and his solution over society across Europe. Also, by this, he introduced himself as someone who is committed Zionist, especially after publishing The Jewish state.13 In The New Ghetto (1894) play, Herzl wanted to open the question of Jewish population and point on the uneasy integration of these people in Vienna’s society. Herzl tried to show in this play ambivalence of Vienna’s culture and that Jews hardly receive equal opportunity and security in the society, even though the assimilation of Jews were occurring that time he wanted to the point that this is not the way how it can in the future work with the rising anti-Semitism. Also, his point was that it did not work already. By this play, Herzl wanted to open the debate about this problem. It is not surprising he wrote this play after the experiencing the demagogy during the Dreyfus affair.14 In the book, The Jewish’ State, published in 1896 Herzl presented himself already as a Zionist, and he introduced his idea how to solve the problem and how to solve the Jewish question. In this piece, he talks about growing anti-Semitism movement and fear from it. He also discusses the reason why so many Jews that time migrated because they live in fear and without freedom of practice their religion and values. Even though, many Jews assimilated he was pointing on the intolerance from the rest of the society and putting vulgar and negative labels on Jews. Herzl presents his point of view on that issue. He suggests that it is not about social settings in the society it is a more religious problem, and that is linked to national identity.15 According to Herzl Jewish people had to go thru so many obstacles for centuries and still they do not have own land and own nation. That is why during that time Jewish had to faceted the negative stereotypes and extreme oppression from the rest of the society. Herzl also presented specific examples from the business when people of not Jewish belief, were spreading around do not buy from Jews do not support their business. Or he cited the classical phrase from Berlin: “Out with the Jews” (33).16 Lastly, Herzl said that this situation has to be solved by giving Jewish people land and their nation where Jewish finally and liberally can live and practice their religion without any restriction and moreover live without fear from anti-Semitism. Herzl believed that with national status Jewish people would achieve the fully-fledged status and other nations and their citizens will take Jewish people seriously and without prejudices.17 In conclusion, Theodor Herzl lived in the rush time when the wave of anti-Semitism in Europe was forming and rising. As an assimilated Jew he experienced that during his studying in Vienna where he moved with his family in his university-age from Hungary. Later on, he suffered unfair treatment of Jews in France where he was reporting for an Austrian newspaper. Especially during the Dreyfus Affair, his ambivalence of a member of Jewish community stopped, and Zionist woke up in Herzl. It is not the Dreyfus Affair that made him and engages Zionist this was just the piece of the puzzle. In Herzl personality is critical to understand that he did not become Zionist overnight, but this belief developed in him over the years and his personal experiences. The last stage of his Zionist development is when he wrote play The New Ghetto, where he wanted to point on the problem of Jews in Vienna’s society, and he tried to open the debate about this issue. Another and maybe even more important work from Herzl is the Jew’s State. First of all, in this work, he presents himself as a fully committed Zionist and secondly in this piece of work Herzl wanted to bring a solution for the Jewish question. Herzl was convinced that the assimilation of Jews to the society does not work and that Jews need to achieve own nation and own Jewish nationality. The one thing from this is evident Theodor Herzl was an essential figure in the history as well as he was influential Zionist during his lifetime. As a Jew, he experiences on his own how the situation for Jews was inadequate, and he came up with a solution that was later on used. His idea helped Jewish people to gain nation and Jewish nationality as well. Theodor Herzl is rightfully called the father of Jewish state Israel. 1 Shamis, Asaf. “The journalist as a messiah: journalism, mass-circulation, and Theodor Herzl’s Zionist vision.” Israel Affairs 21, no. 4 (2015): 483-99. doi:10.1080/13537121.2015.1076188. 2 Kornberg, Jacques. Theodor Herzl: from assimilation to Zionism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. 3 “Dreyfus Affair Definition.” Dreyfus Affair. Accessed January 17, 2018. http://www.zionism-israel.com/dic/Dreyfus_Affair.htm. 4 Britannica School, s.v. “Dreyfus affair,” accessed January 17, 2018, http://school.eb.com/levels/high/article/Dreyfus-affair/101097. 5 Hyman, Paula. “The Dreyfus Affair: The Visual and the Historical.” The Journal of Modern History 61, no. 1 (1989): 88-109. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1880968. 6 Shamis,”The journalist, 484. 7 “Dreyfus Affair Definition.” Dreyfus Affair. Accessed January 17, 2018. http://www.zionism-israel.com/dic/Dreyfus_Affair.htm. 8 Heller, Daniel Kupfert. “Herzls Vision: Theodor Herzl and the Foundation of the Jewish State.” Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs 9, no. 3 (2015): 555-57. doi:10.1080/23739770.2015.1087634. 9 Kornberg, Theodor Herzl. 10 Kornberg, Theodor Herzl, 5. 11 Kornberg, Theodor Herzl, 13-34. 12 Kornberg, Theodor Herzl. 13 Shamis, “The journalist, 483-499. 14 Robertson, Ritchie, and Edward Timms. Theodor Herzl and the Origins of Zionism. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press, 1997. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed January 17, 2018). 15 Laqueur, Walter, and Barry Rubin, eds., The Israel-Arab reader: a documentary history of the Middle East conflict, 4th ed.(New York: Penguin Books, 1984): 6-11. 16 Bickerton, Ian J., and Carla L. Klausner. A concise history of the Arab-Israeli conflict. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002. 17 Laqueur, Walter, and Barry Rubin, eds., The Israel-Arab reader: a documentary history of the Middle East conflict, 4th ed.(New York: Penguin Books, 1984): 6-11.	<urn:uuid:322b3031-23a0-418b-b2a5-47800c2d1fa8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://finnolux.com/late-the-whole-european-continent-france-germany-austria-hungary/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00202.warc.gz	en	0.983193	3,814	3.65625	4	[ -0.29125428199768066, 0.4849194288253784, 0.04999290406703949, -0.10636723786592484, 0.03102421760559082, 0.20741090178489685, -0.07347295433282852, 0.27472537755966187, -0.29345518350601196, -0.09269566088914871, -0.01739601418375969, -0.17600807547569275, 0.1075870543718338, 0.2282094061...	2	Late nineteenth century is a period of a history in which European continent went thru forming of national question that was followed by a wave of anti-Semitism directed against a specific target. In this case, this stream was directed against Jewish population thru the whole European continent France, Germany, Austria-Hungary Empire is just the leading figures of this complex action. During that uneasy time, there were many essential players and famous personalities that played an important role in that time. This paper will focus on Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) and his standpoint as a Jewish historical figure.1 Theodor Herzl was born in Budapest to the middle-class Jewish family. He and his family moved to Vienna when he was a teenager, and he started to study law at the University of Vienna. After graduation, he became a very popular journalist for Neue Freie Presse, one of the famous Viennese newspapers. In that time in Europe was rising wave of anti-Semitism and nationalism. Prejudice, discrimination, and hate against Jewish community were during that times common. Herzl as a member of the Jewish community was affected by this social attitude as well. Also, he was aware that the status of Jewish people was not entirely explained and that there had to find a place where Jews belong. Thru his lifetime experience of a Jew, he started to engage more and more in this problem and began to look for a solution. Herzl was convinced that the only way to solve the differences between Jews and “Others” is not the assimilation or closing Jews to ghettos. Herzl came up with the idea that the best way to solve these tensions is the foundation of the Jewish state and in other words that Jewish people will have own nation and national status.2 However, this paper will mainly focus on Herzl’s life before his engagement to that problem. Why did Theodor Herzl become a Zionist? What influence him so much that he becomes such an important figure in Zionism? This paper will go close to explain reasons and motivations that lead him to become active in the Zionist movement and became a convinced Zionist. Herzl’s way to the Zionism was slow development in which he had to go thru inner conflict to discovering and understanding of the Jewish problem. Many books and articles present that the breaking point in Herzl’s life that made him become an active Zionist is so-called Dreyfus Affair. This affair happened when Herzl was in Paris as a rapporteur for the Viennese newspaper. Basically what happened is that 1894 Jewish officer Alfred Dreyfus was sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil’s Island in French Guinea. The reason of his imprisonment was alleged cooperation with German Embassy in Paris, which in Dreyfus position was unacceptable. He alleged should tell French military secrets to the enemy in this case Germany.3 This case can look like an ordinary case where an accused is convicted. However, this case was from begging very controversial and influenced by media and by the public. Especially public opinion during that time was full of anti-Jewish mood, which did not help to Dreyfus nor whole Jewish community. People of France were divided into anti-Dreyfus and Dreyfus groups Also, this case started to write a new history of France so-called Third Republic, full of political changes and antisemitism movement.4 Also, there is printed evidence of French newspapers how do they presented this process and how thru images ironically and even vulgarly presented Dreyfus and his Jewish descent. Jewish people that time was known in the society with specific and significant biological features that other people did not have as much visible. The description of ordinary Jew during that time was huge nose, big and full lips and the most evident thing was excessive Yiddish accent. The 1880s and 1890s were the time where illustration ironically presented Jews were pretty normal and accepted by the mass public.5 Action like that it just shows how the mass media played a big role in the negative portraying Dreyfus and Jews, which helped to anti-Semitism spread over France even faster. Also, it helped to spread stereotypes easily, because that time the newspaper industry was growing. During the 1890s Vienna and Paris were experiencing how media can be powerful and influential. Herzl was a witness of that too. Also, he was part of this system as an influential journalist. The mid- 1890s is the point when Herzl is in Paris seeing that French media are easily spreading the anti-Semitism over the country and Herzl’s Zionism engagement was starting to wake it up inside him.6 Herzl believed in Dreyfus innocence and which was later on proved. 1899 was a year when one of the colleagues of Dreyfus changes his statement which led to the opening the case and the new trial. This court liberated Dreyfus from the prison.7 Even though, this affair finished with happy end Herzl was shocked by the anti-Jewish propaganda and the wave of anti-Semitism in Europe. He could not believe that something like that could happen in France, place that was presented as a place of freedom and equal opportunity. The Dreyfus Affair is a historical example of a failure of a court and judicial system because the result of French court was that it sent in the conviction an innocent person. In Jewish perception, this case is an example of unfair treating of Jewish people in the European continent during the late nineteenth century. This case proves Herzl that the key is not in the assimilation of Jews or whatever change in their living habits because the anti-Semitism will more likely stay in Europe. Herzl believed that the only thing that can help to fix these tensions is that Jewish people will get recognition as a nation. He thought that thanks to land that will belong just and only to Jews other nations would fully recognize Jewish identity. He was pointing to the fact that Jewish people do not fit to the European culture and customs neither to the Muslim culture and customs.8 That is why Jewish people cannot get along with these groups of people, and that is why other cultures react negatively to Jews. Even though, this affair affected Herzl in his development of the Zionist beliefs. This affair was not the reason why he became a Zionist, even though it is often wrongly presented as a reason for his Zionist engagement. More likely, this case is one of the pieces of the puzzle that in the sum made him Zionist. Dreyfus’s story just proved to Herzl that attitudes against Jews in Europe are rising and that soon or later this system will collapse this bring the real reason why Herzl became a Zionist. The reason was the rising anti-Semitism thru Europe, especially in his homeland Austria-Hungary. It is essential to understand that Herzl path to the Zionism was long way thru which he experienced many attacks that made him convert to the Zionism if it was a personal attack on his person when he was a student at University of Vienna or attacks on people from his close community.9 It is important to understand that Herzl thru his life went thru development where he was a Jew after he was assimilated, Jew. In college he was German nationalist and later in his life when he started to work as a journalist during the era of anti-Semitism was rising it was the time when he converts to Zionism. In another word, Herzl from his young age had a personal conflict in which he was finding himself; he was ambivalence in his personal opinions. His conflict was among his Judaism and the process of assimilation. Also, Herzl was not a person who from his young age wanted to solve the Jewish question. For supporting this fact can be used as evidence is his previous work where the Jewish question was missing. He got to that topic later in his life. He became a Zionist because he believed that this is the way from the crisis.10 Anti-Semitism and negative attitudes against Jewish people was the main engine of Herzl’s transformation. Even though, assimilation of Jews was looking pretty successful anti-Semitism find a place in Austria. However, the anti-Semitism wave was not politically motivated in Austria at all. Mostly these attitudes were coming from the neighbor country Germany, where during that time nationalism was rising. Also, Austria had a large number of the German population in the country, which just helped to spread the hate. On the one hand, the government tried to integrate Jews, and it went pretty well. It took some time, but it somehow worked. Jews in Habsburg Austria 1850s received the right to buy state land or attend the trial when the defendant was a Christian belief. Shortly, Jews got the right to build a religious community in the capital city Vienna. This government gesture was conditional on taxation. It is evident that for Habsburg letting Jews in their society was the highly economical reason. However, Jews used that chance as a boost their status in society, and middle-class Jews started to attend prestigious Universities in Austria and build their status and capital. Jews slowly were getting rights, and 1867 Jews in Austria obtained the status of full-fledged citizens. On the other hand, the negative attitudes against Jews were rising, mostly because they started to be influential members of society. Another factor that helped to increase anti-Jewish attitudes were collapsed of Vienna stock market in 1873. Many factories bankrupted, and people started to point on Jewish bourgeoisie and their capital. 1882 a group of artisans, lawyers, and small business owners started to call for Jewish restriction of ownership, and they wanted to break apart Jewish monopoly and influence. Even though society was on anti-Jewish sentiment Habsburg were strictly against anti-Semitism movement. Habsburgs believed that Jewish population could be beneficial for the whole nation, despite the fact that the integration to the Austria society will take some time. Unfortunately, for Jews and Habsburgs, over the next ten years, Austria went thru the change of electoral system that leads to the rewriting of the political map. Big parties started to cooperate which created a political power that was powerful than was untouchable by the government and that helped to anti-Semitism to rise.11 He contributed to the Jewish question with two major works. One is a play The Ghetto and second is a piece called Der Judenstaat (The Jews’ State). Even today there are many discussions which from these work was more influential. However, one thing these works has common it is the Herzl’s view on the current situation that was in Europe and his solution to it. Herzl’s work can be viewed as the last stage of his development of Herzl as a Zionist because by these two pieces of work he wanted to the point of the problem, and he tried to present awareness and his solution. Herzl as a well-known journalist knew that media could bring him the necessary attention to the point of his work and the issue that he was addressing.12 He still remembered how influential media were during the Dreyfus affair and how did influence whole society in France. By writing The New Ghetto and The Jewish State Herzl wanted to spread the awareness and his solution over society across Europe. Also, by this, he introduced himself as someone who is committed Zionist, especially after publishing The Jewish state.13 In The New Ghetto (1894) play, Herzl wanted to open the question of Jewish population and point on the uneasy integration of these people in Vienna’s society. Herzl tried to show in this play ambivalence of Vienna’s culture and that Jews hardly receive equal opportunity and security in the society, even though the assimilation of Jews were occurring that time he wanted to the point that this is not the way how it can in the future work with the rising anti-Semitism. Also, his point was that it did not work already. By this play, Herzl wanted to open the debate about this problem. It is not surprising he wrote this play after the experiencing the demagogy during the Dreyfus affair.14 In the book, The Jewish’ State, published in 1896 Herzl presented himself already as a Zionist, and he introduced his idea how to solve the problem and how to solve the Jewish question. In this piece, he talks about growing anti-Semitism movement and fear from it. He also discusses the reason why so many Jews that time migrated because they live in fear and without freedom of practice their religion and values. Even though, many Jews assimilated he was pointing on the intolerance from the rest of the society and putting vulgar and negative labels on Jews. Herzl presents his point of view on that issue. He suggests that it is not about social settings in the society it is a more religious problem, and that is linked to national identity.15 According to Herzl Jewish people had to go thru so many obstacles for centuries and still they do not have own land and own nation. That is why during that time Jewish had to faceted the negative stereotypes and extreme oppression from the rest of the society. Herzl also presented specific examples from the business when people of not Jewish belief, were spreading around do not buy from Jews do not support their business. Or he cited the classical phrase from Berlin: “Out with the Jews” (33).16 Lastly, Herzl said that this situation has to be solved by giving Jewish people land and their nation where Jewish finally and liberally can live and practice their religion without any restriction and moreover live without fear from anti-Semitism. Herzl believed that with national status Jewish people would achieve the fully-fledged status and other nations and their citizens will take Jewish people seriously and without prejudices.17 In conclusion, Theodor Herzl lived in the rush time when the wave of anti-Semitism in Europe was forming and rising. As an assimilated Jew he experienced that during his studying in Vienna where he moved with his family in his university-age from Hungary. Later on, he suffered unfair treatment of Jews in France where he was reporting for an Austrian newspaper. Especially during the Dreyfus Affair, his ambivalence of a member of Jewish community stopped, and Zionist woke up in Herzl. It is not the Dreyfus Affair that made him and engages Zionist this was just the piece of the puzzle. In Herzl personality is critical to understand that he did not become Zionist overnight, but this belief developed in him over the years and his personal experiences. The last stage of his Zionist development is when he wrote play The New Ghetto, where he wanted to point on the problem of Jews in Vienna’s society, and he tried to open the debate about this issue. Another and maybe even more important work from Herzl is the Jew’s State. First of all, in this work, he presents himself as a fully committed Zionist and secondly in this piece of work Herzl wanted to bring a solution for the Jewish question. Herzl was convinced that the assimilation of Jews to the society does not work and that Jews need to achieve own nation and own Jewish nationality. The one thing from this is evident Theodor Herzl was an essential figure in the history as well as he was influential Zionist during his lifetime. As a Jew, he experiences on his own how the situation for Jews was inadequate, and he came up with a solution that was later on used. His idea helped Jewish people to gain nation and Jewish nationality as well. Theodor Herzl is rightfully called the father of Jewish state Israel. 1 Shamis, Asaf. “The journalist as a messiah: journalism, mass-circulation, and Theodor Herzl’s Zionist vision.” Israel Affairs 21, no. 4 (2015): 483-99. doi:10.1080/13537121.2015.1076188. 2 Kornberg, Jacques. Theodor Herzl: from assimilation to Zionism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. 3 “Dreyfus Affair Definition.” Dreyfus Affair. Accessed January 17, 2018. http://www.zionism-israel.com/dic/Dreyfus_Affair.htm. 4 Britannica School, s.v. “Dreyfus affair,” accessed January 17, 2018, http://school.eb.com/levels/high/article/Dreyfus-affair/101097. 5 Hyman, Paula. “The Dreyfus Affair: The Visual and the Historical.” The Journal of Modern History 61, no. 1 (1989): 88-109. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1880968. 6 Shamis,”The journalist, 484. 7 “Dreyfus Affair Definition.” Dreyfus Affair. Accessed January 17, 2018. http://www.zionism-israel.com/dic/Dreyfus_Affair.htm. 8 Heller, Daniel Kupfert. “Herzls Vision: Theodor Herzl and the Foundation of the Jewish State.” Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs 9, no. 3 (2015): 555-57. doi:10.1080/23739770.2015.1087634. 9 Kornberg, Theodor Herzl. 10 Kornberg, Theodor Herzl, 5. 11 Kornberg, Theodor Herzl, 13-34. 12 Kornberg, Theodor Herzl. 13 Shamis, “The journalist, 483-499. 14 Robertson, Ritchie, and Edward Timms. Theodor Herzl and the Origins of Zionism. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press, 1997. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed January 17, 2018). 15 Laqueur, Walter, and Barry Rubin, eds., The Israel-Arab reader: a documentary history of the Middle East conflict, 4th ed.(New York: Penguin Books, 1984): 6-11. 16 Bickerton, Ian J., and Carla L. Klausner. A concise history of the Arab-Israeli conflict. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002. 17 Laqueur, Walter, and Barry Rubin, eds., The Israel-Arab reader: a documentary history of the Middle East conflict, 4th ed.(New York: Penguin Books, 1984): 6-11.	3,883	ENGLISH	1
Essay on jawaharlal nehru for children in english His words had deep impact on the citizens of India. Jawaharlal Nehru was sent to Jail many times. His non alignment policy during cold war added fuel to the Indian development on all the fronts. Conclusion Jawaharlal Nehru was actively involved in the freedom struggle. Jawaharlal nehru biography The additional set of 10 lines given below will help you to enhance your essays and speeches. Even after being criticised for his works, he became one of the most influential leaders of the freedom struggle. The line given below will help you to write essays in a very effective way and you might also get prize for best essay. He was a staunch socialist and believed in equality, freedom and brotherhood. His father's name was Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru Essay 5 words Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was a great person, leader, politician, writer and speaker. After attaining the graduation degree he went to London to study law. He found the congress party and its people detached from the actual cause. He was quite an influential personality who inspired several people during his time. The children used to call them affectionately called 'chacha,' even today Jawaharlal Nehru Birthday is celebrated as Children's Day. He set up the National Planning Commission with himself as its first Chairman. He was an active supporter of world peace. Motilal Nehru himself was born posthumously in in Agra and was brought up by his uncle Nandlal an advocate. based on 23 review	<urn:uuid:c247e8b7-e07b-4693-94e8-e2f4851ace66>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://visowegihyka.anygivenchildtulsa.com/essay-on-jawaharlal-nehru-for-children-in-english626019066vq.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00559.warc.gz	en	0.984223	331	3.296875	3	[ -0.14001783728599548, 0.37828654050827026, -0.05566805601119995, -0.2814946472644806, -0.5261363983154297, 0.4860924184322357, 0.6873956918716431, 0.1779237687587738, -0.19534708559513092, -0.6148961186408997, 0.21785388886928558, 0.2633069157600403, 0.25342243909835815, 0.3257676959037781...	1	Essay on jawaharlal nehru for children in english His words had deep impact on the citizens of India. Jawaharlal Nehru was sent to Jail many times. His non alignment policy during cold war added fuel to the Indian development on all the fronts. Conclusion Jawaharlal Nehru was actively involved in the freedom struggle. Jawaharlal nehru biography The additional set of 10 lines given below will help you to enhance your essays and speeches. Even after being criticised for his works, he became one of the most influential leaders of the freedom struggle. The line given below will help you to write essays in a very effective way and you might also get prize for best essay. He was a staunch socialist and believed in equality, freedom and brotherhood. His father's name was Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru Essay 5 words Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was a great person, leader, politician, writer and speaker. After attaining the graduation degree he went to London to study law. He found the congress party and its people detached from the actual cause. He was quite an influential personality who inspired several people during his time. The children used to call them affectionately called 'chacha,' even today Jawaharlal Nehru Birthday is celebrated as Children's Day. He set up the National Planning Commission with himself as its first Chairman. He was an active supporter of world peace. Motilal Nehru himself was born posthumously in in Agra and was brought up by his uncle Nandlal an advocate. based on 23 review	326	ENGLISH	1
In the 19th century, at least 80% of the population was working class, to be middle class you had to have at least one servant. In this century, the factory system replaced the system where people were working in their own homes or small workshops. This industry caused children to work a lot more than before. However, this was seasonal and therefore, they also had more time to play. Also women started to work more, for example in the factories. The first law that actually worked to stop child labour banned children under 9 years old from working in factories. It also said that children between the age of 9 and 13 could not work for more than 12 hours a day or 48 hours a week, children from 13 to 18 were not allowed to work for more than 69 hours a week and nobody under 18 was allowed to work at night. Also, children between 9 and 13 had to be given two hours of education a day. Until halfway through the century the law only applied to textile factories, but later this was extended to all factories. In the late 19th century, workers became organized and formed unions. Factory owners usually favoured children and women because they would follow orders and not speak up for themselves where men would. A reason that so many people started working in factories was because the population of Europe had increased with more than 100% over the last century. In the 19th century, there was a law in Europe, the Compulsory Education Law. They thought that the basis of moral raising should be in logic, reason and moral intuition instead of religion. This law replaced children from the workplace into schools. Schools became tax supported, teachers more educated and children could now go to public schools. In the 19th century the attitude towards children changed even more to what we think nowadays. The role of family was considered even more important than before. The childhood was now seen as a time of fun and happiness. Girls got dolls, as a preparation to take care of children of their own later and boys got other toys and they did outdoor activities so that they developed character and would become a good healthy citizen later. However, it was still common that children worked in the beginning of the century. Families were a lot larger than nowadays, 10 children was very normal in the working class. The life expectancy of people was also a lot lower, under 50 years. The change can also be seen in the emergence of the new genre and goal of children’s literature. Instead of wanting to be didactic and teach a moral lesson, authors now wrote more humorous books that were more in tune with the child’s imagination. Christianity was still the most common religion in Europe in the 19th century. It was influenced by the French Revolution, that had just ended at the end of the 18th century, and by the Industrial Revolution, which was still fully going on until 1840. In the early 19th century the Catholic church could be...	<urn:uuid:01eeadb1-1523-4e90-b74d-da7ad08b9b25>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/review-of-life-in-the-19th-century	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00276.warc.gz	en	0.992969	599	3.453125	3	[ -0.20641842484474182, 0.10801129788160324, 0.17537707090377808, -0.14273715019226074, -0.05613354220986366, 0.20727774500846863, -0.6654067635536194, -0.09288312494754791, -0.2386334389448166, -0.09037628769874573, 0.022381216287612915, 0.3003276586532593, -0.056660205125808716, 0.25223106...	1	In the 19th century, at least 80% of the population was working class, to be middle class you had to have at least one servant. In this century, the factory system replaced the system where people were working in their own homes or small workshops. This industry caused children to work a lot more than before. However, this was seasonal and therefore, they also had more time to play. Also women started to work more, for example in the factories. The first law that actually worked to stop child labour banned children under 9 years old from working in factories. It also said that children between the age of 9 and 13 could not work for more than 12 hours a day or 48 hours a week, children from 13 to 18 were not allowed to work for more than 69 hours a week and nobody under 18 was allowed to work at night. Also, children between 9 and 13 had to be given two hours of education a day. Until halfway through the century the law only applied to textile factories, but later this was extended to all factories. In the late 19th century, workers became organized and formed unions. Factory owners usually favoured children and women because they would follow orders and not speak up for themselves where men would. A reason that so many people started working in factories was because the population of Europe had increased with more than 100% over the last century. In the 19th century, there was a law in Europe, the Compulsory Education Law. They thought that the basis of moral raising should be in logic, reason and moral intuition instead of religion. This law replaced children from the workplace into schools. Schools became tax supported, teachers more educated and children could now go to public schools. In the 19th century the attitude towards children changed even more to what we think nowadays. The role of family was considered even more important than before. The childhood was now seen as a time of fun and happiness. Girls got dolls, as a preparation to take care of children of their own later and boys got other toys and they did outdoor activities so that they developed character and would become a good healthy citizen later. However, it was still common that children worked in the beginning of the century. Families were a lot larger than nowadays, 10 children was very normal in the working class. The life expectancy of people was also a lot lower, under 50 years. The change can also be seen in the emergence of the new genre and goal of children’s literature. Instead of wanting to be didactic and teach a moral lesson, authors now wrote more humorous books that were more in tune with the child’s imagination. Christianity was still the most common religion in Europe in the 19th century. It was influenced by the French Revolution, that had just ended at the end of the 18th century, and by the Industrial Revolution, which was still fully going on until 1840. In the early 19th century the Catholic church could be...	635	ENGLISH	1
But the public services of Hamilton do not end here. To him pre-eminently belongs the glory of restoring or creating our national credit, and relieving universal financial embarrassments. The Constitution was the work of many men. Our financial system was the work of one, who worked alone, as Michael Angelo worked on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. When Washington became President, he at once made choice of Hamilton as his Secretary of the Treasury, at the recommendation of Robert Morris, _the_ financier of the Revolution, who not only acknowledged his own obligations to him, but declared that he was the only man in the United States who could settle the difficulty about the public debt. In finance, Hamilton, it is generally conceded, had an original and creative genius. "He smote the rock of the national resources," said Webster, "and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. He touched the dead corpse of the public credit, and it sprang upon its feet. The fabled birth of Minerva from the brain of Jupiter was hardly more sudden than the financial system of the United States as it burst from the conception of Alexander Hamilton." When he assumed the office of Secretary of the Treasury there were five forms of public indebtedness for which he was required to provide,--the foreign debt; debts of the Government to States; the army debt; the debt for supplies in the various departments during the war; and the old Continental issues. There was no question about the foreign debt. The assumption of the State debts incurred for the war was identical with the debts of the Union, since they were incurred for the same object. In fact, all the various obligations had to be discharged, and there was neither money nor credit. Hamilton proposed a foreign loan, to be raised in Europe; but the old financiers had sought foreign loans and failed. How was the new Congress likely to succeed any better? Only by creating confidence; making it certain that the interest of the loan would be paid, and paid in specie. In other words, they were to raise a revenue to pay this interest. This simple thing the old Congress had not thought of, or had neglected, or found impracticable. And how should the required revenue be raised? Direct taxation was odious and unreliable. Hamilton would raise it by duties on imports. But how was an impoverished country to raise money to pay the duties when there was no money? How was the dead corpse to be revived? He would develop the various industries of the nation, all in their infancy, by protecting them, so that the merchants and the manufacturers could compete with foreigners; so that foreign goods could be brought to our seaports in our own ships, and our own raw materials exchanged for articles we could not produce ourselves, and be subject to duties,--chiefly on articles of luxury, which some were rich enough to pay for. And he would offer inducements for foreigners to settle in the country, by the sale of public lands at a nominal sum,--men who had a little money, and not absolute paupers; men who could part with their superfluities for either goods manufactured or imported, and especially for some things they must have, on which light duties would be imposed, like tea and coffee; and heavy duties for things which the rich would have, like broadcloths, wines, brandies, silks, and carpets. Thus a revenue could be raised more than sufficient to pay the interest on the debt. He made this so clear by his luminous statements, going into all details, that confidence gradually was established both as to our ability and also our honesty; and money flowed in easily and plentifully from Europe, since foreigners felt certain that the interest on their loans would be paid. Thus in all his demonstrations he appealed to common-sense, not theories. He took into consideration the necessities of his own country, not the interests of other countries. He would legislate for America, not universal humanity. The one great national necessity was protection, and this he made as clear as the light of the sun. "One of our errors," said he, "is that of judging things by abstract calculations, which though geometrically true, are practically false." It was clear that the Government must have a revenue, and that revenue could only be raised by direct or indirect taxation; and he preferred, under the circumstances of the country, indirect taxes, which the people did not feel, and were not compelled to pay unless they liked; for the poor were not compelled to buy foreign imports, but if they bought them they must pay a tax to government. And he based his calculations that people could afford to purchase foreign articles, of necessity and luxury, on the enormous resources of the country,--then undeveloped, indeed, but which would be developed by increasing settlements, increasing industries, and increasing exports; and his predictions were soon fulfilled. In a few years the debt disappeared altogether, or was felt to be no burden. The country grew rich as its industries were developed; and its industries were developed by protection. I will not enter upon that unsettled question of political economy. There are two sides to it. What is adapted to the circumstances of one country may not be adapted to another; what will do for England may not do practically for Russia; and what may be adapted to the condition of a country at one period may not be adapted at another period. When a country has the monopoly of a certain manufacture, then that country can dispense with protection. Before manufactures were developed in England by the aid of steam and improved machinery, the principles of free-trade would not have been adopted by the nation. The landed interests of Great Britain required no protection forty years ago, since there was wheat enough raised in the country to supply demands. So the landed aristocracy accepted free-trade, because their interests were not jeopardized, and the interests of the manufacturers were greatly promoted. Now that the landed interests are in jeopardy from a diminished rental, they must either be protected, or the lands must be cut up into small patches and farms, as they are in France. Farmers must raise fruit and vegetables instead of wheat. When Hamilton proposed protection for our infant manufactures, they never could have grown unless they had been assisted; we should have been utterly dependent on Europe. That is just what Europe would have liked. But he did not legislate for Europe, but for America. He considered its necessities, not abstract theories, nor even the interests of other nations. How hypocritical the cant in England about free-trade! There never was free-trade in that country, except in reference to some things it must have, and some things it could monopolize. Why did Parliament retain the duty on tobacco and wines and other things? Because England must have a revenue. Hamilton did the same. He would raise a revenue, just as Great Britain raises a revenue to-day, in spite of free-trade, by taxing certain imports. And if the manufactures of England to-day should be in danger of being swamped by foreign successful competition, the Government would change its policy, and protect the manufactures. Better protect them than allow them to perish, even at the expense of national pride. But the manufactures of this country at the close of the Revolutionary War were too insignificant to expect much immediate advantage from protection. It was Hamilton's policy chiefly to raise a revenue, and to raise it by duties on imports, as the simplest and easiest and surest way, when people were poor and money was scarce. Had he lived in these days, he might have modified his views, and raised revenue in other ways. But he labored for his time and circumstances. He took into consideration the best way to raise a revenue for his day; for this he must have, somehow or other, to secure confidence and credit. He was most eminently practical. He hated visionary ideas and abstract theories; he had no faith in them at all. You can push any theory, any abstract truth even, into absurdity, as the theologians of the Middle Ages carried out their doctrines to their logical sequence. You cannot settle the complicated relations of governments by deductions. At best you can only approximate to the truth by induction, by a due consideration of conflicting questions and issues and interests. The next important measure of Hamilton was the recommendation of a National Bank, in order to facilitate the collection of the revenue. Here he encountered great opposition. Many politicians of the school of Jefferson were jealous of moneyed institutions, but Hamilton succeeded in having a hank established though not with so large a capital as he desired. It need not he told that the various debates in Congress on the funding of the national debt, on tariffs, on the bank, and other financial measures, led to the formation of two great political parties, which divided the nation for more than twenty years,--parties of which Hamilton and Jefferson were the respective leaders. Madison now left the support of Hamilton, and joined hands with the party of Jefferson, which took the name of Republican, or Democratic-Republican. The Federal party, which Hamilton headed, had the support of Washington, Adams, Jay, Pinckney, and Morris. It was composed of the most memorable names of the Revolution and, it may be added, of the more wealthy, learned, and conservative classes: some would stigmatize it as being the most aristocratic. The colleges, the courts of law, and the fashionable churches were generally presided over by Federalists. Old gentlemen of social position and stable religious opinions belonged to this party. But ambitious young men, chafing under the restraints of consecrated respectability, popular politicians, or as we might almost say the demagogues, the progressive and restless people and liberal thinkers enamored of French philosophy and theories and abstractions, were inclined to be Republicans. There were exceptions, of course. I only speak in a general way; nor would I give the impression that there were not many distinguished, able, and patriotic men enlisted in the party of Jefferson, especially in the Southern States, in Pennsylvania, and New York. Jefferson himself was, next to Hamilton, the ablest statesman of the country,--upright, sincere, patriotic, contemplative; simple in taste, yet aristocratic in habits; a writer rather than an orator, ignorant of finance, but versed in history and general knowledge, devoted to State rights, and bitterly opposed to a strong central power. He hated titles, trappings of rank and of distinction, ostentatious dress, shoe-buckles, hair-powder, pig-tails, and everything English, while he loved France and the philosophy of liberal thinkers; not a religious man, but an honest and true man. And when he became President, on the breaking up of the Federal party, partly from the indiscretions of Adams and the intrigues of Burr, and hostility to the intellectual supremacy of Hamilton,--who was never truly popular, any more than Webster and Burke were, since intellectual arrogance and superiority are offensive to fortunate or ambitious nobodies,--Jefferson's prudence and modesty kept him from meddling with the funded debt and from entangling alliances with the nation he admired. Jefferson was not sweeping in his removals from office, although he unfortunately inaugurated that fatal policy consummated by Jackson, which has since been the policy of the Government,--that spoils belong to victors. This policy has done more to demoralize the politics of the country than all other causes combined; yet it is now the aim of patriotic and enlightened men to destroy its power and re-introduce that of Washington and Hamilton, and of all nations of political experience. The civil-service reform is now one of the main questions and issues of American legislation; but so bitterly is it opposed by venal politicians that I fear it cannot be made fully operative until the country demands it as imperatively as the English did the passage of their Reform Bill. However, it has gained so much popular strength that both of the prominent political parties of the present time profess to favor it, and promise to make it effective. It would be interesting to describe the animosities of the Federal and Republican parties, which have since never been equaled in bitterness and rancor and fierceness, but I have not time. I am old enough to remember them, until they passed away with the administration of General Jackson, when other questions arose. With the struggle for ascendancy between these political parties, the public services of Hamilton closed. He resumed the practice of the law in New York, even before the close of Washington's administration. He became the leader of the Bar, without making a fortune; for in those times lawyers did not know how to charge, any more than city doctors. I doubt if his income as a lawyer ever reached $10,000 a year; but he lived well, as most lawyers do, even if they die poor. His house was the center of hospitalities, and thither resorted the best society of the city, as well as distinguished people from all parts of the country. Nor did his political influence decline after he had parted with power. He was a rare exception to most public men after their official life is ended; and nothing so peculiarly marks a great man as the continuance of influence with the absence of power; for influence and power are distinct. Influence, in fact, never passes away, but power is ephemeral. Theologians, poets, philosophers, great writers, have influence and no power; railroad kings and bank presidents have power but not necessarily influence. Saint Augustine, in a little African town, had more influence than the bishop of Rome. Rousseau had no power, but he created the French Revolution. Socrates revolutionized Greek philosophy, but had not power enough to save his life from unjust accusations. What an influence a great editor wields in these times, yet how little power he has, unless he owns the journal he directs! What an influence was enjoyed by a wise and able clergyman in New England one hundred years ago, and which was impossible without force of character and great wisdom! Hamilton had wisdom and force of character, and therefore had great influence with his party after he retired from office. Most of our public men retire to utter obscurity when they have lost office, but Hamilton was as prominent in private life as in his official duties. He was the oracle of his party, a great political sage, whose utterances had the moral force of law. He never lost the leadership of his party, even when he retired from public life. His political influence lasted till he died. He had no rewards to give, no office to fill, but he still ruled like a chieftain. It was he who defeated by his quiet influence the political aspirations of Burr, when Burr was the most popular man in the country,--a great wire-puller, a prince of politicians, a great organizer of political forces, like Van Buren and Thurlow Weed,--whose eloquent conversation and fascinating manner few men could resist, to say nothing of women. But for Hamilton, he would in all probability have been President of the United States, at a time when individual genius and ability might not unreasonably aspire to that high office. He was the rival of Jefferson, and lost the election by only one vote, after the equality of candidates had thrown the election into the House of Representatives. Hamilton did not like Jefferson, but he preferred Jefferson to Burr, since he knew that the country would be safe under his guidance, and would not be safe with so unscrupulous a man as Burr. He distrusted and disliked Burr; not because he was his rival at the Bar,--for great rival lawyers may personally be good friends, like Brougham and Lyndhurst, like Mason and Webster,--but because his political integrity was not to be trusted; because he was a selfish and scheming politician, bent on personal advancement rather than the public good. And this hostility was returned with an unrelenting and savage fierceness, which culminated in deadly wrath when Burr found that Hamilton's influence prevented his election as Governor of New York,--which office, it seems, he preferred to the Vice-presidency, which had dignity but no power. Burr wanted power rather than influence. In his bitter disappointment and remorseless rage, nothing would satisfy him but the blood of Hamilton. He picked a quarrel, and would accept neither apology nor reconciliation; he wanted revenge.	<urn:uuid:56308f32-31a0-4e9b-acdd-8c34786705e6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://history1700s.com/index.php/18th-century-history-the-basics/u-s-history-reference/620-american-founders-alexander-hamilton.html?start=2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00218.warc.gz	en	0.983287	3,358	3.34375	3	[ -0.3414953351020813, 0.1422795057296753, 0.3632935583591461, 0.12475071847438812, -0.21693438291549683, -0.2468571811914444, 0.3584192395210266, 0.315239816904068, 0.10858924686908722, 0.1446787714958191, 0.24763372540473938, 0.2645178735256195, -0.026698924601078033, 0.578048586845398, ...	3	But the public services of Hamilton do not end here. To him pre-eminently belongs the glory of restoring or creating our national credit, and relieving universal financial embarrassments. The Constitution was the work of many men. Our financial system was the work of one, who worked alone, as Michael Angelo worked on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. When Washington became President, he at once made choice of Hamilton as his Secretary of the Treasury, at the recommendation of Robert Morris, _the_ financier of the Revolution, who not only acknowledged his own obligations to him, but declared that he was the only man in the United States who could settle the difficulty about the public debt. In finance, Hamilton, it is generally conceded, had an original and creative genius. "He smote the rock of the national resources," said Webster, "and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. He touched the dead corpse of the public credit, and it sprang upon its feet. The fabled birth of Minerva from the brain of Jupiter was hardly more sudden than the financial system of the United States as it burst from the conception of Alexander Hamilton." When he assumed the office of Secretary of the Treasury there were five forms of public indebtedness for which he was required to provide,--the foreign debt; debts of the Government to States; the army debt; the debt for supplies in the various departments during the war; and the old Continental issues. There was no question about the foreign debt. The assumption of the State debts incurred for the war was identical with the debts of the Union, since they were incurred for the same object. In fact, all the various obligations had to be discharged, and there was neither money nor credit. Hamilton proposed a foreign loan, to be raised in Europe; but the old financiers had sought foreign loans and failed. How was the new Congress likely to succeed any better? Only by creating confidence; making it certain that the interest of the loan would be paid, and paid in specie. In other words, they were to raise a revenue to pay this interest. This simple thing the old Congress had not thought of, or had neglected, or found impracticable. And how should the required revenue be raised? Direct taxation was odious and unreliable. Hamilton would raise it by duties on imports. But how was an impoverished country to raise money to pay the duties when there was no money? How was the dead corpse to be revived? He would develop the various industries of the nation, all in their infancy, by protecting them, so that the merchants and the manufacturers could compete with foreigners; so that foreign goods could be brought to our seaports in our own ships, and our own raw materials exchanged for articles we could not produce ourselves, and be subject to duties,--chiefly on articles of luxury, which some were rich enough to pay for. And he would offer inducements for foreigners to settle in the country, by the sale of public lands at a nominal sum,--men who had a little money, and not absolute paupers; men who could part with their superfluities for either goods manufactured or imported, and especially for some things they must have, on which light duties would be imposed, like tea and coffee; and heavy duties for things which the rich would have, like broadcloths, wines, brandies, silks, and carpets. Thus a revenue could be raised more than sufficient to pay the interest on the debt. He made this so clear by his luminous statements, going into all details, that confidence gradually was established both as to our ability and also our honesty; and money flowed in easily and plentifully from Europe, since foreigners felt certain that the interest on their loans would be paid. Thus in all his demonstrations he appealed to common-sense, not theories. He took into consideration the necessities of his own country, not the interests of other countries. He would legislate for America, not universal humanity. The one great national necessity was protection, and this he made as clear as the light of the sun. "One of our errors," said he, "is that of judging things by abstract calculations, which though geometrically true, are practically false." It was clear that the Government must have a revenue, and that revenue could only be raised by direct or indirect taxation; and he preferred, under the circumstances of the country, indirect taxes, which the people did not feel, and were not compelled to pay unless they liked; for the poor were not compelled to buy foreign imports, but if they bought them they must pay a tax to government. And he based his calculations that people could afford to purchase foreign articles, of necessity and luxury, on the enormous resources of the country,--then undeveloped, indeed, but which would be developed by increasing settlements, increasing industries, and increasing exports; and his predictions were soon fulfilled. In a few years the debt disappeared altogether, or was felt to be no burden. The country grew rich as its industries were developed; and its industries were developed by protection. I will not enter upon that unsettled question of political economy. There are two sides to it. What is adapted to the circumstances of one country may not be adapted to another; what will do for England may not do practically for Russia; and what may be adapted to the condition of a country at one period may not be adapted at another period. When a country has the monopoly of a certain manufacture, then that country can dispense with protection. Before manufactures were developed in England by the aid of steam and improved machinery, the principles of free-trade would not have been adopted by the nation. The landed interests of Great Britain required no protection forty years ago, since there was wheat enough raised in the country to supply demands. So the landed aristocracy accepted free-trade, because their interests were not jeopardized, and the interests of the manufacturers were greatly promoted. Now that the landed interests are in jeopardy from a diminished rental, they must either be protected, or the lands must be cut up into small patches and farms, as they are in France. Farmers must raise fruit and vegetables instead of wheat. When Hamilton proposed protection for our infant manufactures, they never could have grown unless they had been assisted; we should have been utterly dependent on Europe. That is just what Europe would have liked. But he did not legislate for Europe, but for America. He considered its necessities, not abstract theories, nor even the interests of other nations. How hypocritical the cant in England about free-trade! There never was free-trade in that country, except in reference to some things it must have, and some things it could monopolize. Why did Parliament retain the duty on tobacco and wines and other things? Because England must have a revenue. Hamilton did the same. He would raise a revenue, just as Great Britain raises a revenue to-day, in spite of free-trade, by taxing certain imports. And if the manufactures of England to-day should be in danger of being swamped by foreign successful competition, the Government would change its policy, and protect the manufactures. Better protect them than allow them to perish, even at the expense of national pride. But the manufactures of this country at the close of the Revolutionary War were too insignificant to expect much immediate advantage from protection. It was Hamilton's policy chiefly to raise a revenue, and to raise it by duties on imports, as the simplest and easiest and surest way, when people were poor and money was scarce. Had he lived in these days, he might have modified his views, and raised revenue in other ways. But he labored for his time and circumstances. He took into consideration the best way to raise a revenue for his day; for this he must have, somehow or other, to secure confidence and credit. He was most eminently practical. He hated visionary ideas and abstract theories; he had no faith in them at all. You can push any theory, any abstract truth even, into absurdity, as the theologians of the Middle Ages carried out their doctrines to their logical sequence. You cannot settle the complicated relations of governments by deductions. At best you can only approximate to the truth by induction, by a due consideration of conflicting questions and issues and interests. The next important measure of Hamilton was the recommendation of a National Bank, in order to facilitate the collection of the revenue. Here he encountered great opposition. Many politicians of the school of Jefferson were jealous of moneyed institutions, but Hamilton succeeded in having a hank established though not with so large a capital as he desired. It need not he told that the various debates in Congress on the funding of the national debt, on tariffs, on the bank, and other financial measures, led to the formation of two great political parties, which divided the nation for more than twenty years,--parties of which Hamilton and Jefferson were the respective leaders. Madison now left the support of Hamilton, and joined hands with the party of Jefferson, which took the name of Republican, or Democratic-Republican. The Federal party, which Hamilton headed, had the support of Washington, Adams, Jay, Pinckney, and Morris. It was composed of the most memorable names of the Revolution and, it may be added, of the more wealthy, learned, and conservative classes: some would stigmatize it as being the most aristocratic. The colleges, the courts of law, and the fashionable churches were generally presided over by Federalists. Old gentlemen of social position and stable religious opinions belonged to this party. But ambitious young men, chafing under the restraints of consecrated respectability, popular politicians, or as we might almost say the demagogues, the progressive and restless people and liberal thinkers enamored of French philosophy and theories and abstractions, were inclined to be Republicans. There were exceptions, of course. I only speak in a general way; nor would I give the impression that there were not many distinguished, able, and patriotic men enlisted in the party of Jefferson, especially in the Southern States, in Pennsylvania, and New York. Jefferson himself was, next to Hamilton, the ablest statesman of the country,--upright, sincere, patriotic, contemplative; simple in taste, yet aristocratic in habits; a writer rather than an orator, ignorant of finance, but versed in history and general knowledge, devoted to State rights, and bitterly opposed to a strong central power. He hated titles, trappings of rank and of distinction, ostentatious dress, shoe-buckles, hair-powder, pig-tails, and everything English, while he loved France and the philosophy of liberal thinkers; not a religious man, but an honest and true man. And when he became President, on the breaking up of the Federal party, partly from the indiscretions of Adams and the intrigues of Burr, and hostility to the intellectual supremacy of Hamilton,--who was never truly popular, any more than Webster and Burke were, since intellectual arrogance and superiority are offensive to fortunate or ambitious nobodies,--Jefferson's prudence and modesty kept him from meddling with the funded debt and from entangling alliances with the nation he admired. Jefferson was not sweeping in his removals from office, although he unfortunately inaugurated that fatal policy consummated by Jackson, which has since been the policy of the Government,--that spoils belong to victors. This policy has done more to demoralize the politics of the country than all other causes combined; yet it is now the aim of patriotic and enlightened men to destroy its power and re-introduce that of Washington and Hamilton, and of all nations of political experience. The civil-service reform is now one of the main questions and issues of American legislation; but so bitterly is it opposed by venal politicians that I fear it cannot be made fully operative until the country demands it as imperatively as the English did the passage of their Reform Bill. However, it has gained so much popular strength that both of the prominent political parties of the present time profess to favor it, and promise to make it effective. It would be interesting to describe the animosities of the Federal and Republican parties, which have since never been equaled in bitterness and rancor and fierceness, but I have not time. I am old enough to remember them, until they passed away with the administration of General Jackson, when other questions arose. With the struggle for ascendancy between these political parties, the public services of Hamilton closed. He resumed the practice of the law in New York, even before the close of Washington's administration. He became the leader of the Bar, without making a fortune; for in those times lawyers did not know how to charge, any more than city doctors. I doubt if his income as a lawyer ever reached $10,000 a year; but he lived well, as most lawyers do, even if they die poor. His house was the center of hospitalities, and thither resorted the best society of the city, as well as distinguished people from all parts of the country. Nor did his political influence decline after he had parted with power. He was a rare exception to most public men after their official life is ended; and nothing so peculiarly marks a great man as the continuance of influence with the absence of power; for influence and power are distinct. Influence, in fact, never passes away, but power is ephemeral. Theologians, poets, philosophers, great writers, have influence and no power; railroad kings and bank presidents have power but not necessarily influence. Saint Augustine, in a little African town, had more influence than the bishop of Rome. Rousseau had no power, but he created the French Revolution. Socrates revolutionized Greek philosophy, but had not power enough to save his life from unjust accusations. What an influence a great editor wields in these times, yet how little power he has, unless he owns the journal he directs! What an influence was enjoyed by a wise and able clergyman in New England one hundred years ago, and which was impossible without force of character and great wisdom! Hamilton had wisdom and force of character, and therefore had great influence with his party after he retired from office. Most of our public men retire to utter obscurity when they have lost office, but Hamilton was as prominent in private life as in his official duties. He was the oracle of his party, a great political sage, whose utterances had the moral force of law. He never lost the leadership of his party, even when he retired from public life. His political influence lasted till he died. He had no rewards to give, no office to fill, but he still ruled like a chieftain. It was he who defeated by his quiet influence the political aspirations of Burr, when Burr was the most popular man in the country,--a great wire-puller, a prince of politicians, a great organizer of political forces, like Van Buren and Thurlow Weed,--whose eloquent conversation and fascinating manner few men could resist, to say nothing of women. But for Hamilton, he would in all probability have been President of the United States, at a time when individual genius and ability might not unreasonably aspire to that high office. He was the rival of Jefferson, and lost the election by only one vote, after the equality of candidates had thrown the election into the House of Representatives. Hamilton did not like Jefferson, but he preferred Jefferson to Burr, since he knew that the country would be safe under his guidance, and would not be safe with so unscrupulous a man as Burr. He distrusted and disliked Burr; not because he was his rival at the Bar,--for great rival lawyers may personally be good friends, like Brougham and Lyndhurst, like Mason and Webster,--but because his political integrity was not to be trusted; because he was a selfish and scheming politician, bent on personal advancement rather than the public good. And this hostility was returned with an unrelenting and savage fierceness, which culminated in deadly wrath when Burr found that Hamilton's influence prevented his election as Governor of New York,--which office, it seems, he preferred to the Vice-presidency, which had dignity but no power. Burr wanted power rather than influence. In his bitter disappointment and remorseless rage, nothing would satisfy him but the blood of Hamilton. He picked a quarrel, and would accept neither apology nor reconciliation; he wanted revenge.	3,349	ENGLISH	1
IT BEGAN with some marshmallows. In the 1960s Walter Mischel, a psychologist then working at Stanford University, started a series of experiments on young children. A child was left alone for 15 minutes with a marshmallow or similar treat, with the promise that, if it remained uneaten at the end of this period, a second would be added. Some of the children, who were aged four or five at the time, succumbed to temptation before time was up. Others resisted, and held out for the reward. Then, it was Dr Mischel’s turn to wait. He followed the children’s progress as they grew up. Those who had resisted, he found, did better at school than those who had given in. As adults they got better jobs, were less likely to use drugs and got into trouble with the law less frequently. Moreover, children’s family circumstances suggested that impulsive behaviour was as much learned as inherited. This suggested that it could be unlearned—improving the child in question’s chances in life.	<urn:uuid:4bdfcd93-0224-4023-aa1f-2ecd5d5678c7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.schoolinfosystem.org/2015/07/22/self-control-improves-your-prospects-but-it-may-harm-your-health/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00176.warc.gz	en	0.990577	221	3.296875	3	[ -0.18329733610153198, -0.003466477617621422, 0.10534869134426117, -0.3341394066810608, -0.22031007707118988, 0.49373558163642883, 0.0026663844473659992, -0.08864117413759232, -0.13292500376701355, -0.09236165881156921, 0.43830135464668274, -0.06540705263614655, 0.17708615958690643, 0.30485...	3	IT BEGAN with some marshmallows. In the 1960s Walter Mischel, a psychologist then working at Stanford University, started a series of experiments on young children. A child was left alone for 15 minutes with a marshmallow or similar treat, with the promise that, if it remained uneaten at the end of this period, a second would be added. Some of the children, who were aged four or five at the time, succumbed to temptation before time was up. Others resisted, and held out for the reward. Then, it was Dr Mischel’s turn to wait. He followed the children’s progress as they grew up. Those who had resisted, he found, did better at school than those who had given in. As adults they got better jobs, were less likely to use drugs and got into trouble with the law less frequently. Moreover, children’s family circumstances suggested that impulsive behaviour was as much learned as inherited. This suggested that it could be unlearned—improving the child in question’s chances in life.	220	ENGLISH	1
Ancient Olympics featured different kinds of sporting events like boxing, racing, and wrestling. The last of the running races to have found inclusion in the games was the hoplitodromos, a running race in which athletes would race against each other for 800 yards, not in nude but wearing full armor along with shields plus helmets. This race was added in 520 BC. 12. It was illegal for married women to watch the Olympics Women per se weren’t allowed to compete in the Olympic Games. But, when it came to married ones, the games couldn’t be watched in person. Laws were very strict regarding this and any woman found violating these would get a heavy penalty as punishment. The ancient Greek society was quite conservative which didn’t want married women to see naked athletes in the stadium. This was due to the fact that married women and young athletes could enter into illicit relations that were completely against the norm of the society. 13. Animal sacrifice was in practice at the opening of the games Animal sacrifice marked the opening of the ancient Olympic Games as most sporting events were originally regarded religious and were deeply connected with rituals. Before the games would start, the priests would bring a domestic animal like bulls or pigs at the altar and then sacrifice them to bring good luck and appease the gods. 14. The Olympic Games were eliminated in 393 AD by Emperor Theodosius The Olympic Games were regarded as ‘Non Christian’ and were Pagan in origin which was the reason why Emperor Theodosius prohibited and eliminated these in 393 AD. However, the seeds for its elimination were sown somewhere around 313 when Christianity was growing in strength and became the major religion of all people. Emperor Constantine in this wave declared freedom of Christianity, and this encouraged Theodosius to issue a mandate to prohibit and abolish any ritual that was Pagan. When the games first began, they continued for five long days. In these five days, a calendar was made to divide all events. In the first three days, various sports were conducted, while the rest of the days were reserved for religious rituals and festivities. According to valid findings, when the first Olympics were held, the athletes gathered for a feasting ceremony on the final and fifth day. On that day, 100 oxen were slaughtered as animal sacrifice and then eaten in the feast. The Olympics were a major event in ancient Greece, and drew quite attention from spectators. A large number of athletes participated with much gusto in a variety of sports like races and wrestling. Though, people posses quite a bit of knowledge about the ancient Olympics, but, there remains a few undiscovered facts that will startle you!	<urn:uuid:30d4772a-8d64-4b31-a97b-0eee9d48e186>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyly.com/greek-history/ancient-olympics-facts/3/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00184.warc.gz	en	0.990642	546	3.53125	4	[ 0.0014368044212460518, 0.6567596197128296, 0.03545293211936951, -0.12255911529064178, -0.13667578995227814, 0.22830744087696075, -0.21203598380088806, 0.1237289234995842, 0.33046019077301025, 0.30822840332984924, -0.3555613160133362, -0.5441861152648926, -0.1687868982553482, 0.299903035163...	2	Ancient Olympics featured different kinds of sporting events like boxing, racing, and wrestling. The last of the running races to have found inclusion in the games was the hoplitodromos, a running race in which athletes would race against each other for 800 yards, not in nude but wearing full armor along with shields plus helmets. This race was added in 520 BC. 12. It was illegal for married women to watch the Olympics Women per se weren’t allowed to compete in the Olympic Games. But, when it came to married ones, the games couldn’t be watched in person. Laws were very strict regarding this and any woman found violating these would get a heavy penalty as punishment. The ancient Greek society was quite conservative which didn’t want married women to see naked athletes in the stadium. This was due to the fact that married women and young athletes could enter into illicit relations that were completely against the norm of the society. 13. Animal sacrifice was in practice at the opening of the games Animal sacrifice marked the opening of the ancient Olympic Games as most sporting events were originally regarded religious and were deeply connected with rituals. Before the games would start, the priests would bring a domestic animal like bulls or pigs at the altar and then sacrifice them to bring good luck and appease the gods. 14. The Olympic Games were eliminated in 393 AD by Emperor Theodosius The Olympic Games were regarded as ‘Non Christian’ and were Pagan in origin which was the reason why Emperor Theodosius prohibited and eliminated these in 393 AD. However, the seeds for its elimination were sown somewhere around 313 when Christianity was growing in strength and became the major religion of all people. Emperor Constantine in this wave declared freedom of Christianity, and this encouraged Theodosius to issue a mandate to prohibit and abolish any ritual that was Pagan. When the games first began, they continued for five long days. In these five days, a calendar was made to divide all events. In the first three days, various sports were conducted, while the rest of the days were reserved for religious rituals and festivities. According to valid findings, when the first Olympics were held, the athletes gathered for a feasting ceremony on the final and fifth day. On that day, 100 oxen were slaughtered as animal sacrifice and then eaten in the feast. The Olympics were a major event in ancient Greece, and drew quite attention from spectators. A large number of athletes participated with much gusto in a variety of sports like races and wrestling. Though, people posses quite a bit of knowledge about the ancient Olympics, but, there remains a few undiscovered facts that will startle you!	553	ENGLISH	1
Court System Paper In the United States, there are two separate court systems: State and Federal. The two court systems were made to keep State and Federal matters separate. Under the State court, legislatures were able to generate a variety of laws. The following will review on how the two different systems came, and how the systems relate to today. Two branches are equally important, and the following is going to mention about how both the State and Federal Courts interact with one another. A State court will differ from all 50 states. If one were to look at the capitols of each state, there of course is a state court in each one. All were made at different times, therefore making each state different from one another. At the start of the 13 colonies, the head of the state was not voted on (as voting was not created yet), but merely decided upon by the king. However, the three key branches of the court system were not decided yet since the governor had control and power. Lastly was the third court level, having a case that the courts appeal, with the head of the state and the members that he had chosen were the ones that heard the case which the Grand Jury was brought in at this time (Carp & Stidham, 2001). As centuries have changed, so did those who practiced law. Those who studied law became more abundant, with the old way of the courts were starting to be taken over by a more contemporary court system. Each state that entered the Constitution or American Colonies, started to form their own set of rules and governing, which is when the State Court system was made. Developments of the Federal Courts, formerly when the Constitution was created, the United States had the Articles of Confederation. What the Articles of Confederation was, is a document that assigned too much authority to one side and not enough to the other, meaning when it came to legislative and executive authority, there was no separation. In 1787 (N.A., 2012) those that signed the Articles of Confederation formed together in Philadelphia to go over what had been signed, and make corrections. Since this was done, there were no longer two branches as before (legislative and executive), but it also added the judicial branch. At the conference in Philadelphia, there were two different plans that were brought up for discussion. First, was the Virginia Plan and then shortly after was the New Jersey Plan (Chin & Stern, 1997). Even though both of these plans had potential behind them, there were also cons to these plans. The first line of Article III of the United States Constitution begins like this, “The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme Court and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.” (U.S Code, 2004). Federal courts have a heavy burden of making sure that the proper cases are heard and at a reasonable time. Federal courts are aware that what they do affects both the State Courts and the United States Supreme Court. The United States jurisdictional sectors were established in 1774. 200 years later, the Supreme Court (which is the highest court level) was starting to take face and plant roots in the federal court system. Our Supreme Court consists of a little more than a dozen courts of appeals and almost 100 district courts. In lieu of the above courts, are a few courts that have been granted complete authority to listen to a particular type of case. Supreme Court is the only court system that cannot be touched by Congress. Supreme Court does not listen to just any type of case, it listens to cases including those that deal with the United States Constitution, where the United States is either the Plaintiff or the Defendant, or issues dealing with Maritime (N.A., 2012). On average, the Supreme Court will get thousands of cases each year, but out of those thousands of cases, they may only hear about 100, so the…	<urn:uuid:8683ed1e-06f5-43f7-b6ec-90c098361334>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Umeka-Walton-Court-System-Paper-613688.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00017.warc.gz	en	0.985179	797	3.875	4	[ -0.7154512405395508, -0.2294960618019104, -0.05699044093489647, -0.13785403966903687, -0.25050681829452515, 0.143898606300354, -0.002556365681812167, -0.10309630632400513, 0.5095000267028809, 0.3760896325111389, -0.23710569739341736, 0.5112535953521729, -0.04631349816918373, -0.10760444402...	1	Court System Paper In the United States, there are two separate court systems: State and Federal. The two court systems were made to keep State and Federal matters separate. Under the State court, legislatures were able to generate a variety of laws. The following will review on how the two different systems came, and how the systems relate to today. Two branches are equally important, and the following is going to mention about how both the State and Federal Courts interact with one another. A State court will differ from all 50 states. If one were to look at the capitols of each state, there of course is a state court in each one. All were made at different times, therefore making each state different from one another. At the start of the 13 colonies, the head of the state was not voted on (as voting was not created yet), but merely decided upon by the king. However, the three key branches of the court system were not decided yet since the governor had control and power. Lastly was the third court level, having a case that the courts appeal, with the head of the state and the members that he had chosen were the ones that heard the case which the Grand Jury was brought in at this time (Carp & Stidham, 2001). As centuries have changed, so did those who practiced law. Those who studied law became more abundant, with the old way of the courts were starting to be taken over by a more contemporary court system. Each state that entered the Constitution or American Colonies, started to form their own set of rules and governing, which is when the State Court system was made. Developments of the Federal Courts, formerly when the Constitution was created, the United States had the Articles of Confederation. What the Articles of Confederation was, is a document that assigned too much authority to one side and not enough to the other, meaning when it came to legislative and executive authority, there was no separation. In 1787 (N.A., 2012) those that signed the Articles of Confederation formed together in Philadelphia to go over what had been signed, and make corrections. Since this was done, there were no longer two branches as before (legislative and executive), but it also added the judicial branch. At the conference in Philadelphia, there were two different plans that were brought up for discussion. First, was the Virginia Plan and then shortly after was the New Jersey Plan (Chin & Stern, 1997). Even though both of these plans had potential behind them, there were also cons to these plans. The first line of Article III of the United States Constitution begins like this, “The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme Court and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.” (U.S Code, 2004). Federal courts have a heavy burden of making sure that the proper cases are heard and at a reasonable time. Federal courts are aware that what they do affects both the State Courts and the United States Supreme Court. The United States jurisdictional sectors were established in 1774. 200 years later, the Supreme Court (which is the highest court level) was starting to take face and plant roots in the federal court system. Our Supreme Court consists of a little more than a dozen courts of appeals and almost 100 district courts. In lieu of the above courts, are a few courts that have been granted complete authority to listen to a particular type of case. Supreme Court is the only court system that cannot be touched by Congress. Supreme Court does not listen to just any type of case, it listens to cases including those that deal with the United States Constitution, where the United States is either the Plaintiff or the Defendant, or issues dealing with Maritime (N.A., 2012). On average, the Supreme Court will get thousands of cases each year, but out of those thousands of cases, they may only hear about 100, so the…	831	ENGLISH	1
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was the son of Tiberius Gracchus, who was twice consul, honored with two triumphs, and also a censor (Plutarch). He was known as being an eloquent and calculating public speaker, and caught the attention of the head of the Senate, Appius Claudius, who arranged the marriage between Tiberius and his own daughter (Plutarch). Before beginning his political career, he served in the military in Africa and was well known for his courage and being the first over the walls of the enemy fortifications (Plutarch). After his military action, Tiberius was elected Tribune of the Plebs, and drafted a law that would grant land to veterans of the army who before were left with nothing but the spoils that they managed to attain through the generosity of their general (Plutarch). However, he was blocked by a fellow tribune and a close friend, Marcus Octavius, and was forced to take more severe measures to get the law to a vote. He locked the Temple of Saturn and the consuls begged of him to stop this madness, but even the Senate could not bring things to order. Tiberius decided to pursue an illegal path of action and planned to remove Octavius from his Tribuneship so that he could pass his law (Plutarch). Tiberius Gracchus publicly spoke that either one of them had to be disposed of their office or the only other way to settle their differences would be civil war. He turned it to a popular vote as to whom should be removed from office, and the people voted out Octavius, and thus the land bill was ratified and made law (Plutarch). With Octavius out of office, Tiberius appointed a client of his to the position, which increased his own power, and the Senate was outwardly distrustful, and some senators feared and hated his popularity. When the will of a king, Attalus, came to Rome, bequeathing his money to the Roman people, Tiberius suggested that the money should be divided up among the poor citizens, and this greatly offended the senators and they began to take direct action against him (Plutarch). They accused him of violating the inviolable nature of political office in removing Octavius, and he gave a speech in apology but also challenged the sanctity of political office (Plutarch). At this point, Tiberius sensed that a conspiracy for his murder was underway and addressed the people, out of whom many pitched tents around his home to protect him. However, Flavius Flaccus, who was a senator, told Tiberius that he was to be assassinated, and when Tiberius prepared to defend himself, Flavius rushed into the Senate house and declared that Tiberius was trying to become king, a most heinous crime. Therefore, Nasica asked the senators to defend the Republic and grabbed stools and other clubs, and chased Tiberius through the city. Publius Satureius is credited with the first killing blow. He was a fellow Tribune of Tiberius and not a member of the Senate, but many of the noble Senators caused fatal wounds on the elder Gracchi brother (Plutarch). Thusly, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus died in 133 B.C.E and opened the door for further political quarreling and bloodshed in Rome for the next 100 years. Image showing the senators beating Tiberius to death with clubs. (Image source: http://lowres-picturecabinet.com.s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/173/main/119/739538.jpg)	<urn:uuid:c3d2250c-c46d-4269-a2ee-5e18a4996e77>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sites.psu.edu/deathoftiberiusgracchus/tiberius-sempronius-gracchus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00111.warc.gz	en	0.987675	770	3.8125	4	[ 0.08807185292243958, 0.49759846925735474, 0.4191242754459381, -0.262086421251297, -0.2817683219909668, -0.6983029842376709, 0.41016727685928345, 0.09168720245361328, 0.09781976789236069, -0.29335206747055054, 0.013199957087635994, -0.3516659140586853, -0.10588068515062332, 0.43864333629608...	2	Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was the son of Tiberius Gracchus, who was twice consul, honored with two triumphs, and also a censor (Plutarch). He was known as being an eloquent and calculating public speaker, and caught the attention of the head of the Senate, Appius Claudius, who arranged the marriage between Tiberius and his own daughter (Plutarch). Before beginning his political career, he served in the military in Africa and was well known for his courage and being the first over the walls of the enemy fortifications (Plutarch). After his military action, Tiberius was elected Tribune of the Plebs, and drafted a law that would grant land to veterans of the army who before were left with nothing but the spoils that they managed to attain through the generosity of their general (Plutarch). However, he was blocked by a fellow tribune and a close friend, Marcus Octavius, and was forced to take more severe measures to get the law to a vote. He locked the Temple of Saturn and the consuls begged of him to stop this madness, but even the Senate could not bring things to order. Tiberius decided to pursue an illegal path of action and planned to remove Octavius from his Tribuneship so that he could pass his law (Plutarch). Tiberius Gracchus publicly spoke that either one of them had to be disposed of their office or the only other way to settle their differences would be civil war. He turned it to a popular vote as to whom should be removed from office, and the people voted out Octavius, and thus the land bill was ratified and made law (Plutarch). With Octavius out of office, Tiberius appointed a client of his to the position, which increased his own power, and the Senate was outwardly distrustful, and some senators feared and hated his popularity. When the will of a king, Attalus, came to Rome, bequeathing his money to the Roman people, Tiberius suggested that the money should be divided up among the poor citizens, and this greatly offended the senators and they began to take direct action against him (Plutarch). They accused him of violating the inviolable nature of political office in removing Octavius, and he gave a speech in apology but also challenged the sanctity of political office (Plutarch). At this point, Tiberius sensed that a conspiracy for his murder was underway and addressed the people, out of whom many pitched tents around his home to protect him. However, Flavius Flaccus, who was a senator, told Tiberius that he was to be assassinated, and when Tiberius prepared to defend himself, Flavius rushed into the Senate house and declared that Tiberius was trying to become king, a most heinous crime. Therefore, Nasica asked the senators to defend the Republic and grabbed stools and other clubs, and chased Tiberius through the city. Publius Satureius is credited with the first killing blow. He was a fellow Tribune of Tiberius and not a member of the Senate, but many of the noble Senators caused fatal wounds on the elder Gracchi brother (Plutarch). Thusly, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus died in 133 B.C.E and opened the door for further political quarreling and bloodshed in Rome for the next 100 years. Image showing the senators beating Tiberius to death with clubs. (Image source: http://lowres-picturecabinet.com.s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/173/main/119/739538.jpg)	770	ENGLISH	1
The Aztec calendar was the calendar that belonged to the Aztec people who lived in pre-Columbian Mexico. It shares the basic structures of the calendars that were used during ancient America. This calendar is a carving that was recorded on the Aztec calendar stone and is currently in the national museum of anthropology and history in Chapultepec Park, in Mexico City. The original sun stone was carved in the middle of the 15th century and was a 12 inch massive stone slab weighing almost 25 tons, has a diameter of close to 12 feet and is 3feet thick (Somerville 2009). Its original name is cuauhxicalli eagle bowl. This Aztec was carved during the reign of the 6th monarch of Aztec in the year 1479 and it was dedicated to the principal Aztec deity, the sun, this is why it is called the sun stone. It had both mythological and astronomical importance. It was discovered in the main square for Mexico City on December 17, 1790. General Porfirio Diaz the president of the republic in 1885 had it transferred from the wall of the western tower of the metropolitan cathedral to the national museum of archaeology and history .the Aztec calendar consisted of 365 days and a 260 day ritual cycle that was used by the priests for dive purposes. These two cycles combined formed a 52 year century. Every month in the calendar had a name and each month was numbered from one to twenty and each month had a name and a patron god or ritual that was to take place. For example month number one was known as atlacacauallo interpreted to mean the ceasing of water, had the patron god tlaloc and children were to be sacrificed to water gods. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! The carving has the face of the sun, and the sun to the Aztecs was the Lord of Heaven-tonatiuh where all daily and periodic phenomena took place around. The head has a crown, a pendant on the nose, earrings and a necklace. All these accessories are magnificent as befits the character of the deity. The hair is blonde depicting the golden color of the sun. It also has wrinkles on the face and they show age and maturity. The tongue sticks out and is in the form of an obsidian knife, and has a symbolic meaning indicating that the deity demands to be fed with blood and human hearts. The image of the sun god Tonatiuh within the sign Ollin means that it represented the last of the Aztec cosmological era. The Aztec calendar shows us that these people had knowledge in astronomy and mathematics .they also believed in many gods to whom they paid tribute to everyday. They sacrificed both animals and humans to their gods to satisfy them when they believed that they were angry. The 260 day ritual marked the beginning of another spiritual year when the priest would cut out the heart of a person with a knife. Their calendar also shows us that they practiced agriculture as they had seasons. they also loved art as this sculpture is not simple .it is made of limestone and precious metals .it also had a political message as there is a sign representing the 13threed visible on the surface which is the year that the sculpture was completed it marked the re-birth of the Aztec empire as well as the rise of Itzcoatl as the emperor of Aztec. The Mexican temples are filled with Aztec symbols. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:2cbcc25d-9c88-49a3-9870-5f983c29cbb6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/aztec-calendar-sun-stone.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00101.warc.gz	en	0.98182	749	4	4	[ -0.16903862357139587, 0.5585454702377319, 0.3292752504348755, 0.2778712511062622, -0.5041462182998657, -0.3062194287776947, 0.20342609286308289, 0.26316922903060913, -0.2604493498802185, 0.19458994269371033, 0.1375887095928192, -0.19149145483970642, 0.3703063130378723, 0.5948700904846191, ...	1	The Aztec calendar was the calendar that belonged to the Aztec people who lived in pre-Columbian Mexico. It shares the basic structures of the calendars that were used during ancient America. This calendar is a carving that was recorded on the Aztec calendar stone and is currently in the national museum of anthropology and history in Chapultepec Park, in Mexico City. The original sun stone was carved in the middle of the 15th century and was a 12 inch massive stone slab weighing almost 25 tons, has a diameter of close to 12 feet and is 3feet thick (Somerville 2009). Its original name is cuauhxicalli eagle bowl. This Aztec was carved during the reign of the 6th monarch of Aztec in the year 1479 and it was dedicated to the principal Aztec deity, the sun, this is why it is called the sun stone. It had both mythological and astronomical importance. It was discovered in the main square for Mexico City on December 17, 1790. General Porfirio Diaz the president of the republic in 1885 had it transferred from the wall of the western tower of the metropolitan cathedral to the national museum of archaeology and history .the Aztec calendar consisted of 365 days and a 260 day ritual cycle that was used by the priests for dive purposes. These two cycles combined formed a 52 year century. Every month in the calendar had a name and each month was numbered from one to twenty and each month had a name and a patron god or ritual that was to take place. For example month number one was known as atlacacauallo interpreted to mean the ceasing of water, had the patron god tlaloc and children were to be sacrificed to water gods. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! The carving has the face of the sun, and the sun to the Aztecs was the Lord of Heaven-tonatiuh where all daily and periodic phenomena took place around. The head has a crown, a pendant on the nose, earrings and a necklace. All these accessories are magnificent as befits the character of the deity. The hair is blonde depicting the golden color of the sun. It also has wrinkles on the face and they show age and maturity. The tongue sticks out and is in the form of an obsidian knife, and has a symbolic meaning indicating that the deity demands to be fed with blood and human hearts. The image of the sun god Tonatiuh within the sign Ollin means that it represented the last of the Aztec cosmological era. The Aztec calendar shows us that these people had knowledge in astronomy and mathematics .they also believed in many gods to whom they paid tribute to everyday. They sacrificed both animals and humans to their gods to satisfy them when they believed that they were angry. The 260 day ritual marked the beginning of another spiritual year when the priest would cut out the heart of a person with a knife. Their calendar also shows us that they practiced agriculture as they had seasons. they also loved art as this sculpture is not simple .it is made of limestone and precious metals .it also had a political message as there is a sign representing the 13threed visible on the surface which is the year that the sculpture was completed it marked the re-birth of the Aztec empire as well as the rise of Itzcoatl as the emperor of Aztec. The Mexican temples are filled with Aztec symbols. Most popular orders	773	ENGLISH	1
On December 10, 1901, the first Nobel Prizes were awarded in Stockholm, Sweden in the fields of physics, medicine, chemistry, literature, and peace. Here are 6 things you didn't know about this prestigious award... A Mistaken Obituary Led Alfred Nobel to Establish the Prize An obituary was published in France in 1888 noting the death of inventor Alfred Nobel, but it was Nobel’s brother, Ludwig, who had passed away. The obituary was insulting, saying that Nobel made himself wealthy by inventing ways to kill people faster. Because he was concerned about how people would remember him, Nobel came up with the idea of the Nobel Prize, which was funded by proceedings of a trust from his estate. Nominations Are Kept Secret for a Long Time Nominations for the Nobel Prize begin every year in September, and individuals are not allowed to nominate themselves. Once the nominations have been received, they are sent to the four nominating committees. No one knows if they have even been nominated until they have been notified that they have won, and the record of those who were nominated is kept under seal for half a century. One Woman Was Nominated 48 Times But Never Won Lise Meitner was a physicist who worked on projects involving nuclear physics and radioactivity. Although she was nominated numerous times by leading scientists in the field for the Nobel Prize in physics and chemistry, she never won. She, along with Otto Robert Frisch, not only explained how nuclear fission worked but gave it its name. Some Really Nice Prizes Come With the Award, Including Money Prize winners are called laureates, after the Greek laurel wreath given to champions in ancient times.Nobel laureates receive gold medals as well as diplomas decorated with the work of renowned artists and calligraphers.The prize money comes out of income from investments made with the late Nobel's estate. The purse is currently 8 million kronor ($1.3 million) for the full award. Posthumous Nominations Are Not Allowed for Those Who Die Nobel Prize rules stipulate that the award cannot be given posthumously. The only exception was made in 2011 when Canadian immunologist Ralph Steinman received the Nobel for Physiology or Medicine. The Nobel committee made its announcement on October 3, unaware that Steinman had died a few days earlier. After some deliberation, the committee decided to let Steinman keep it. According to Steinman's daughter, her father had joked about the Nobel shortly before he died. "They don't give it to you if you have passed away," he said. "I got to hold out for that." Several People Have Turned Down The Nobel It’s rare, but it has happened. Two Nobel laureates declined their prizes. It’s rare, but it has happened. French philosopher and writer Jean-Paul Satre was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature in 1964, but declined the honor. In 1973, Communist Vietnamese leader Le Duc Tho was jointly awarded the peace prize with U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger for their work negotiating the Paris Peace Accords during the Vietnam War. Kissinger accepted his award, but Tho refused, stating that a true peace had not actually been achieved. Adolf Hitler also forbade Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes in 1938 and 1939, while the Soviet Union forced Boris Pasternak to turn down his 1958 literature award.	<urn:uuid:ecf4bdf7-3fb3-495a-9e79-ab68993fa185>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://play-trivia.com/blog/article.asp?a=C99D56	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00084.warc.gz	en	0.982759	714	3.53125	4	[ -0.12547872960567474, 0.7529792785644531, 0.0989575907588005, -0.18995508551597595, 0.052183497697114944, -0.012777063064277172, 0.555963933467865, 0.1996021270751953, 0.3122393786907196, 0.230056494474411, 0.6282076239585876, -0.11158598214387894, -0.08401873707771301, -0.0164154469966888...	7	On December 10, 1901, the first Nobel Prizes were awarded in Stockholm, Sweden in the fields of physics, medicine, chemistry, literature, and peace. Here are 6 things you didn't know about this prestigious award... A Mistaken Obituary Led Alfred Nobel to Establish the Prize An obituary was published in France in 1888 noting the death of inventor Alfred Nobel, but it was Nobel’s brother, Ludwig, who had passed away. The obituary was insulting, saying that Nobel made himself wealthy by inventing ways to kill people faster. Because he was concerned about how people would remember him, Nobel came up with the idea of the Nobel Prize, which was funded by proceedings of a trust from his estate. Nominations Are Kept Secret for a Long Time Nominations for the Nobel Prize begin every year in September, and individuals are not allowed to nominate themselves. Once the nominations have been received, they are sent to the four nominating committees. No one knows if they have even been nominated until they have been notified that they have won, and the record of those who were nominated is kept under seal for half a century. One Woman Was Nominated 48 Times But Never Won Lise Meitner was a physicist who worked on projects involving nuclear physics and radioactivity. Although she was nominated numerous times by leading scientists in the field for the Nobel Prize in physics and chemistry, she never won. She, along with Otto Robert Frisch, not only explained how nuclear fission worked but gave it its name. Some Really Nice Prizes Come With the Award, Including Money Prize winners are called laureates, after the Greek laurel wreath given to champions in ancient times.Nobel laureates receive gold medals as well as diplomas decorated with the work of renowned artists and calligraphers.The prize money comes out of income from investments made with the late Nobel's estate. The purse is currently 8 million kronor ($1.3 million) for the full award. Posthumous Nominations Are Not Allowed for Those Who Die Nobel Prize rules stipulate that the award cannot be given posthumously. The only exception was made in 2011 when Canadian immunologist Ralph Steinman received the Nobel for Physiology or Medicine. The Nobel committee made its announcement on October 3, unaware that Steinman had died a few days earlier. After some deliberation, the committee decided to let Steinman keep it. According to Steinman's daughter, her father had joked about the Nobel shortly before he died. "They don't give it to you if you have passed away," he said. "I got to hold out for that." Several People Have Turned Down The Nobel It’s rare, but it has happened. Two Nobel laureates declined their prizes. It’s rare, but it has happened. French philosopher and writer Jean-Paul Satre was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature in 1964, but declined the honor. In 1973, Communist Vietnamese leader Le Duc Tho was jointly awarded the peace prize with U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger for their work negotiating the Paris Peace Accords during the Vietnam War. Kissinger accepted his award, but Tho refused, stating that a true peace had not actually been achieved. Adolf Hitler also forbade Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes in 1938 and 1939, while the Soviet Union forced Boris Pasternak to turn down his 1958 literature award.	736	ENGLISH	1
The life of mao zedong Mao's career in the army was brief and uneventful. Small raids and attacks on outlying Communist strongholds had not discouraged them. What did mao zedong do Mao hoped for a wide range of useful ideas, expecting only mild criticism of his policies. It became clear that Mao knew how to organize a revolution, but was totally inept at running a country. Mao chose the more centrist Hua Guofeng to carry on his vision. During the early s, Mao continued his restless challenge of what he perceived as new forms of domination in his words, "revisionism," or "capitalist restoration". As word spread that the Communists had escaped extermination by the Kuomintang, many young people migrated to Yanan. He found that the peasantry were increasingly restless and some had seized land from wealthy landowners to found communes. He remained there for three days, until being discovered by a family member and brought home. Each family received a share of the profits and a small plot of land. Activities Take a ten question quiz about this page. After some intense arguing with other leaders, who wanted to conduct a final stand against the government forces, he convinced them that retreat was the better tactic. He instituted positive changes in China, including promoting the status of women, doubling the school population and improving literacy, and increasing access to health care, which dramatically raised life expectancy. The revolution over, Mao resigned from the army in , after six months as a soldier. Yichang agreed to fund his son's tuition and dormitory space, and so the sixteen-year-old Mao set off to Dongshan with his older cousin, Wen Yunchang, who was also enrolled there. He was still part of the government, but no longer had absolute power. Mao watched as China's last dynasty crumbled. How did mao zedong come to power He developed a small but strong army of guerilla fighters, and directed the torture and execution of any dissidents who defied party law. Mao cultivated a "cult of personality". During the meetings, it became apparent that Mao's health was deteriorating, and not much was accomplished because Mao was not always clear in his statements or intentions. The results were disastrous; an estimated million Chinese starved in the Great Famine of Activities Take a ten question quiz about this page. Following the establishment of the PRC People's Republic of China in , Mao was responsible for many of the political initiatives that transformed the face of China. He accepted that there was great variation in revolutionary enthusiasm across the country, and that a flexible policy of land redistribution was necessary. Chiang Kai-shek's troops surrounded the Red Army in the mountains of Jiangxi, forcing them to make a desperate escape in He accepted that there was great variation in revolutionary enthusiasm across the country, and that a flexible policy of land redistribution was necessary. Domestically, he became increasingly wary of his subordinates' approach to development, fearing that it was fostering deep social and political inequalities. At the age of 14, Mao Tse-tung's father arranged a marriage for him, but he never accepted it. It was during this time that Mao's cult of personality grew to immense proportions. He spent six months in and as a soldier in the barracks at Changsha, during the revolution that overthrew the Qing Dynasty. The life of mao zedong In October , Chiang amassed nearly 1 million government forces and surrounded the Communist stronghold. This was the start of China's Civil War. Unfortunately the plan backfired. The successful and famous Anyuan coal mines strikes contrary to later Party historians depended on both "proletarian" and "bourgeois" strategies. Comment about this article, ask questions, or add new information about this topic: Name:. While his emphasis on China's self-reliance and the rapid industrialization that he promoted is credited with laying the foundation for China's late 20th century development, his harsh methods and insensitivity to anyone who didn't give him full faith and allegiance have been widely rebuked as self-defeating. The decision had been made by his father, who wanted Mao to devote his attentions to the family business by working on the farm and managing the financial accounts. He found that the peasantry were increasingly restless and some had seized land from wealthy landowners to found communes. While some advocated a reformist transition to a constitutional monarchy , most revolutionaries advocated republicanism , arguing for an elected presidency. Death Mao ruled China until he died on September 9, from Parkinson's disease. One of his final major acts was to reopen contact with the United States. based on 60 review	<urn:uuid:8a37236e-842a-47aa-baa2-a4cea7df8fd5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pavysidonifa.whatshanesaid.com/the-life-of-mao-zedong440056674fj.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00236.warc.gz	en	0.985808	957	3.46875	3	[ -0.40273767709732056, 0.5493550300598145, 0.2542475163936615, 0.1637323498725891, 0.18358996510505676, 0.35149747133255005, 0.14663369953632355, 0.037830594927072525, -0.4236464202404022, 0.004692766349762678, 0.6798335313796997, -0.09167365729808807, 0.4039401412010193, 0.1576978862285614...	2	The life of mao zedong Mao's career in the army was brief and uneventful. Small raids and attacks on outlying Communist strongholds had not discouraged them. What did mao zedong do Mao hoped for a wide range of useful ideas, expecting only mild criticism of his policies. It became clear that Mao knew how to organize a revolution, but was totally inept at running a country. Mao chose the more centrist Hua Guofeng to carry on his vision. During the early s, Mao continued his restless challenge of what he perceived as new forms of domination in his words, "revisionism," or "capitalist restoration". As word spread that the Communists had escaped extermination by the Kuomintang, many young people migrated to Yanan. He found that the peasantry were increasingly restless and some had seized land from wealthy landowners to found communes. He remained there for three days, until being discovered by a family member and brought home. Each family received a share of the profits and a small plot of land. Activities Take a ten question quiz about this page. After some intense arguing with other leaders, who wanted to conduct a final stand against the government forces, he convinced them that retreat was the better tactic. He instituted positive changes in China, including promoting the status of women, doubling the school population and improving literacy, and increasing access to health care, which dramatically raised life expectancy. The revolution over, Mao resigned from the army in , after six months as a soldier. Yichang agreed to fund his son's tuition and dormitory space, and so the sixteen-year-old Mao set off to Dongshan with his older cousin, Wen Yunchang, who was also enrolled there. He was still part of the government, but no longer had absolute power. Mao watched as China's last dynasty crumbled. How did mao zedong come to power He developed a small but strong army of guerilla fighters, and directed the torture and execution of any dissidents who defied party law. Mao cultivated a "cult of personality". During the meetings, it became apparent that Mao's health was deteriorating, and not much was accomplished because Mao was not always clear in his statements or intentions. The results were disastrous; an estimated million Chinese starved in the Great Famine of Activities Take a ten question quiz about this page. Following the establishment of the PRC People's Republic of China in , Mao was responsible for many of the political initiatives that transformed the face of China. He accepted that there was great variation in revolutionary enthusiasm across the country, and that a flexible policy of land redistribution was necessary. Chiang Kai-shek's troops surrounded the Red Army in the mountains of Jiangxi, forcing them to make a desperate escape in He accepted that there was great variation in revolutionary enthusiasm across the country, and that a flexible policy of land redistribution was necessary. Domestically, he became increasingly wary of his subordinates' approach to development, fearing that it was fostering deep social and political inequalities. At the age of 14, Mao Tse-tung's father arranged a marriage for him, but he never accepted it. It was during this time that Mao's cult of personality grew to immense proportions. He spent six months in and as a soldier in the barracks at Changsha, during the revolution that overthrew the Qing Dynasty. The life of mao zedong In October , Chiang amassed nearly 1 million government forces and surrounded the Communist stronghold. This was the start of China's Civil War. Unfortunately the plan backfired. The successful and famous Anyuan coal mines strikes contrary to later Party historians depended on both "proletarian" and "bourgeois" strategies. Comment about this article, ask questions, or add new information about this topic: Name:. While his emphasis on China's self-reliance and the rapid industrialization that he promoted is credited with laying the foundation for China's late 20th century development, his harsh methods and insensitivity to anyone who didn't give him full faith and allegiance have been widely rebuked as self-defeating. The decision had been made by his father, who wanted Mao to devote his attentions to the family business by working on the farm and managing the financial accounts. He found that the peasantry were increasingly restless and some had seized land from wealthy landowners to found communes. While some advocated a reformist transition to a constitutional monarchy , most revolutionaries advocated republicanism , arguing for an elected presidency. Death Mao ruled China until he died on September 9, from Parkinson's disease. One of his final major acts was to reopen contact with the United States. based on 60 review	965	ENGLISH	1
Women 's Suffrage Of The 1920 ' S Essay 23 October 2016 Prior to the 1920’s, American women faced many decades of unfairness and inequality. They were not given most of the privileges and opportunities that men were. They had little to no authority and were treated disrespectfully by men. Women, their children, and their belongings were considered the property of their husbands and they had nearly complete power over them. However, between the mid 1910’s to the early 1920’s, things started to turn more towards women’s favor. Many women fought tirelessly throughout the entirety of their lives for the respect they deserved and by the mid 1920’s, women in the United States discovered new rights and an entirely new status in society. Before any major events supporting women’s rights took place in America in the 1910’s, women had dealt with plenty of inequality between the sexes. Their life tended to center around the farm and their family. (Bryant, “How War Changed the Role of Women in the United States”) Women were thought to be weaker than men, and therefore couldn’t work the same jobs as them. Joyce Bryant of The Yale-New Haven Teacher’s Institute wrote that many women worked side by side with their spouses without being given the ability to share in any of the political power with them. (“How War Changed the Role of Women in the United States”) She continued on to say that middle class women continued to perform their traditional work, but it wasn’t…	<urn:uuid:70eca8b1-92b3-439f-ac38-12652d8d46ed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/Women-s-Suffrage-Of-The-1920-S/F3US3CVHLJXXQ	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00156.warc.gz	en	0.987458	325	3.9375	4	[ -0.21081601083278656, 0.07817176729440689, 0.07690554112195969, 0.04616638273000717, -0.3667086660861969, 0.5081622004508972, -0.1819945126771927, 0.3352445960044861, -0.028636761009693146, -0.19698786735534668, 0.1678694635629654, 0.3471256196498871, 0.08754626661539078, 0.009789527393877...	1	Women 's Suffrage Of The 1920 ' S Essay 23 October 2016 Prior to the 1920’s, American women faced many decades of unfairness and inequality. They were not given most of the privileges and opportunities that men were. They had little to no authority and were treated disrespectfully by men. Women, their children, and their belongings were considered the property of their husbands and they had nearly complete power over them. However, between the mid 1910’s to the early 1920’s, things started to turn more towards women’s favor. Many women fought tirelessly throughout the entirety of their lives for the respect they deserved and by the mid 1920’s, women in the United States discovered new rights and an entirely new status in society. Before any major events supporting women’s rights took place in America in the 1910’s, women had dealt with plenty of inequality between the sexes. Their life tended to center around the farm and their family. (Bryant, “How War Changed the Role of Women in the United States”) Women were thought to be weaker than men, and therefore couldn’t work the same jobs as them. Joyce Bryant of The Yale-New Haven Teacher’s Institute wrote that many women worked side by side with their spouses without being given the ability to share in any of the political power with them. (“How War Changed the Role of Women in the United States”) She continued on to say that middle class women continued to perform their traditional work, but it wasn’t…	324	ENGLISH	1
Past Continuous Tense The past continuous tense describes an ongoing activity that began at some time in the past and progresses up until (and perhaps beyond) a second occurrence in the past. The second occurrence interrupts the progressive activity. Both actions have already taken place before the present time. - She was sunbathing when the first few sprinkles of rain fell from the sky. - The thief was reaching for her wallet just as she inadvertently moved away. The mention of a specific time can also serve to interrupt the past continuous tense activity. - At precisely 6 PM, I was eating cheese and crackers. - Last week, I was still hurting from her rude remarks. When your sentence contains two or more activities in the past continuous tense, the reader assumes that they are happening simultaneously. - I was making dinner while you were washing the car. - The birds were singing at the crack of dawn while Thomas was up studying for his big test. Forming the Past Continuous Tense You form the past continuous tense with the past tense form of the verb “to be” + the the -ing form of the root verb. - I was reading when you interrupted me. - She was hanging upside down when she fell on the playground. - The doctor was taking out his stitches as he fainted. Making the Past Continuous Tense Negative Make the past continuous tense negative by adding “was not” to the -ing form of the root verb. - The car wasn’t running properly first thing this morning. - At 2 AM, we weren’t dancing with as much energy as we had been earlier in the evening. - I wasn’t writing the paper while she was studying for the exam. Phrasing the Past Continuous Tense as a Question To make a question with the past continuous tense, begin with the past tense form of the verb “to be,” followed by the subject and the -ing form of the root verb. Interrogatives can also begin with adverbs expressing time or place. - Weren’t you driving on the wrong side of the road when you got in an accident? - Where were you coming from when I saw you? - What were you doing when I walked in just now? Learn more about verb tenses.	<urn:uuid:614ae252-d330-4132-9b66-0f7cc9c82fb0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.k12reader.com/term/past-continuous-tense/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00162.warc.gz	en	0.982425	489	3.265625	3	[ -0.5141851902008057, -0.09575001150369644, 0.3734182119369507, 0.07504165917634964, -0.2101968675851822, 0.11820753663778305, 0.4390391707420349, -0.2647116184234619, 0.5503551959991455, -0.09633141756057739, 0.11349429935216904, 0.1717371940612793, 0.08382079005241394, 0.32778504490852356...	14	Past Continuous Tense The past continuous tense describes an ongoing activity that began at some time in the past and progresses up until (and perhaps beyond) a second occurrence in the past. The second occurrence interrupts the progressive activity. Both actions have already taken place before the present time. - She was sunbathing when the first few sprinkles of rain fell from the sky. - The thief was reaching for her wallet just as she inadvertently moved away. The mention of a specific time can also serve to interrupt the past continuous tense activity. - At precisely 6 PM, I was eating cheese and crackers. - Last week, I was still hurting from her rude remarks. When your sentence contains two or more activities in the past continuous tense, the reader assumes that they are happening simultaneously. - I was making dinner while you were washing the car. - The birds were singing at the crack of dawn while Thomas was up studying for his big test. Forming the Past Continuous Tense You form the past continuous tense with the past tense form of the verb “to be” + the the -ing form of the root verb. - I was reading when you interrupted me. - She was hanging upside down when she fell on the playground. - The doctor was taking out his stitches as he fainted. Making the Past Continuous Tense Negative Make the past continuous tense negative by adding “was not” to the -ing form of the root verb. - The car wasn’t running properly first thing this morning. - At 2 AM, we weren’t dancing with as much energy as we had been earlier in the evening. - I wasn’t writing the paper while she was studying for the exam. Phrasing the Past Continuous Tense as a Question To make a question with the past continuous tense, begin with the past tense form of the verb “to be,” followed by the subject and the -ing form of the root verb. Interrogatives can also begin with adverbs expressing time or place. - Weren’t you driving on the wrong side of the road when you got in an accident? - Where were you coming from when I saw you? - What were you doing when I walked in just now? Learn more about verb tenses.	453	ENGLISH	1
One of the means for US to know more about the history of sports and its improvements throughout the years is through a persons past experiences. In 1944, Indonesia was under colonial control of the Netherlands. It was not until the end of 1949, when Indonesia obtained its independence from the Netherlands (Steven Drakely, 2005) The history of sport is not well documented as little was written on it, for this reason, I interviewed Crecentia Saroha an Indonesian woman in order to get first hand information on the history of sport. I will try to explore how two different cultures Dutch and Indonesia interact to shape the physical activity opportunities in Indonesia. Crecentia was born and bred in Indonesia, at a place called Sidikalang. Her father was a salesperson while the mother was a housewife. She is the third born in a family of six sisters and four brothers. They are Catholics. At the age of 67, Crecentia admits much has changed in the arena of Sports. During her childhood, the most popular games were Badminton and ‘Sepak takrow’. This sport term is new to me so I ask her to ex pound. “Sepak takraw is a combination between volleyball and soccer. Basically it is played like volleyball without the use of hands but the feet and head only just like soccer,” explains Crecentia. In addition, the ball is not supposed to touch the ground, which is similar to volleyball. She says. Crecentia loved to swim by the lake nearby her house, a skill she learnt at school. Sports were emphasized at school level and mandatory morning exercises were given before school started. Crecentia adds. Crecentia admits that she enjoyed sports even without thinking about its use for our bodies. ‘Back in the school days ‘Pendedikan Jasmni’ was mandatory. “The teachers told me doing sports we can maintain our healthy body as well as physical appearance,” says Crecentia. The role of women in some cultures was limited to child bearing and playing good wife and mothers. Women were discouraged from participating in any leisure or physical activity despite the benefits. The struggle for women rights and specifically involvement in sport changed during the civil rights era. As Bell, R.(2007) denotes ‘The push for civil rights, which culminated in the passage of civil rights Act of 1964, helped increase the status of women and minorities’ Women were able to engage in sport. From this knowledge, I am interested to know if there were any stambling blocks in doing sports during Crecentias childhood days. Things like gender difference, social class, culture and religion, I suggest. According to Crecentia, she does not believe there was any on her part. She was raised under Catholic influence. However, she adds that back in those days women obligations were different from those of men, which had an impact on sports. For instance, she says ordinary women could not do sport as their leisure activity. Women needed to dress themselves and get ready to married at a young age. Nevertheless, Crecentia’s family was different and she had the independence to choose her leisure activities. The revolution of women in America seems to have had spill off effects into other nations across the world. This seems to be the case because Crenentia does not mention any restrictions placed on her to participate in sports. Unlike other women, she was independent to choose her leisure sport. Benjamin Radars in his book The American Revolution: from the age of folk games to the age of Television Sports (2004) illustrates that ‘the revolution in women’s athletics is at full, running tide, bringing with it a sea of change not just in activities but attitudes as well’. Crecentia attitude is a clear illustration of change in attitude. From our interview she says, “Do not tell anyone. But I do enjoy sports without thinking about its use for our body”, then she laughs. She also uses expressions as ‘I do feel to enjoy swimming the most because I love kicking water’ and ‘it is my nature I would say.’ The history of sports in Indonesia seems to have been trouble free. So far, Crecentia makes no mention of discrimination. However, history literature has documented numerous issues of racial discrimination. I am inclined to probe further into Crecentias childhood. Besides the difference in obligation that women had to fulfill when they were young, I wonder if there was any racism in sports. America had a troubled history fighting racism. Heroes like Martin Luther king in his speech ‘I have a dream’ said that I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. However, Crecentia is quick to tell me that she does not think there was any discrimination in sports in lines of race. Crecentia loved to swim by the nearby lake and kick in the water. She says it is her nature with that attitude one should naturally assume that she would have turn profession at that early age. Sports were viewed as important and mandatory at school. When asked what happened of her swimming she reports that back in her days women were not free to roam around and do any sort of leisure activities. They were supposed to dress themselves and get ready to be married at a young age. Even though she was not tied down by this ideology, she was somewhat confined by the cultural views of others. It seems that through the interaction of the Dutch and Indonesians, participation in leisure time and physical activity increased among women. The issues of gender equality in terms of access to education, careers and sports have been central since the women liberation movements in the United States in the 1960s. (Dong Jinxia, 2003) Changes have resulted developments like Title IX and Sex Discrimination Acts contributed to this. According to Radar, he remarks “Title IX in effect simply outlawed any sexual discrimination by school districts.” To some extent, title IX revolutionized sporting in Indonesia in terms of enforcing mandatory physical education or as commonly known in Indonesia ‘Pendidikan Jasmani’ On the back of these developments, there still existed some discrimination on basis of social class. Crecentia let me know that her parents were peasants. Her father a small-scale sales man and the mother a homemaker and a family of ten; barely enough money was left to partake in leisure activities like sport. According to Berg and Pasgorel (2006), Individuals with low incomes are usually sidelined from physical exercises compared to those with higher incomes. In addition, the culture of a people depicts what they value as important. In the case of Crecentia, sports may not have been valued as other things like marriage and child bearing come first. From Crecentia’s account, great importance was attached to sports. When asked if there are any differences in terms of sports since her childhood up to date she responds by saying “I do not thing there is any difference in terms of sports. All that is different is the way of thinking about the importance of sports’ Indonesia’s value sports and many traditional games such as Sepak takraw are still played in Indonesia learning more on it as a recreational activity rather than a professional sport. Badminton and tennis takes precedence in Indonesia. For instance, Indonesia is long standing champions in badminton and tennis with legendary players such as Ruby Hartans and Katty Zimmerman. The government of Indonesia particularly encourages ‘Sports for all’ women and men from all social cadres are encouraged to participate. (http://cp-pc.ca/english/indonesia/sports.html). The impact of gender equality in sport has been profound. Indonesian women now participate on other sports besides the popular badminton and soccer. It is interesting to note that the first gold medal won in the Olympics held at Seoul in 1998 was from the Indonesians women archery team (http://cp-pc.ca/english/indonesia/sports.html) This went a long way to confirm Chairman Mao’s slogans ‘women hold half the sky’ and ‘women can do what men can do’. (Dong Jinxia) Sport has had great importance since historic times. Physical activity keeps of stress, fights diseases and boost overall immunity. Some people say that a sport is the remedy of life or even the springtime of youth. Crecentia emphatically agrees and adds that the older one is the more one thinks on how important sport is to ones life.	<urn:uuid:d6525114-5fc2-475c-8ddd-9d3ab9fafa1a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://paperap.com/paper-on-essay-sports-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00509.warc.gz	en	0.980902	1,773	3.328125	3	[ 0.027612362056970596, 0.35797515511512756, 0.37390923500061035, -0.41530174016952515, 0.13250544667243958, 0.5778818726539612, 0.3595241606235504, 0.4235520362854004, 0.011968163773417473, 0.2594826817512512, -0.1340762972831726, -0.8598815202713013, -0.4380270838737488, 0.4047467410564422...	6	One of the means for US to know more about the history of sports and its improvements throughout the years is through a persons past experiences. In 1944, Indonesia was under colonial control of the Netherlands. It was not until the end of 1949, when Indonesia obtained its independence from the Netherlands (Steven Drakely, 2005) The history of sport is not well documented as little was written on it, for this reason, I interviewed Crecentia Saroha an Indonesian woman in order to get first hand information on the history of sport. I will try to explore how two different cultures Dutch and Indonesia interact to shape the physical activity opportunities in Indonesia. Crecentia was born and bred in Indonesia, at a place called Sidikalang. Her father was a salesperson while the mother was a housewife. She is the third born in a family of six sisters and four brothers. They are Catholics. At the age of 67, Crecentia admits much has changed in the arena of Sports. During her childhood, the most popular games were Badminton and ‘Sepak takrow’. This sport term is new to me so I ask her to ex pound. “Sepak takraw is a combination between volleyball and soccer. Basically it is played like volleyball without the use of hands but the feet and head only just like soccer,” explains Crecentia. In addition, the ball is not supposed to touch the ground, which is similar to volleyball. She says. Crecentia loved to swim by the lake nearby her house, a skill she learnt at school. Sports were emphasized at school level and mandatory morning exercises were given before school started. Crecentia adds. Crecentia admits that she enjoyed sports even without thinking about its use for our bodies. ‘Back in the school days ‘Pendedikan Jasmni’ was mandatory. “The teachers told me doing sports we can maintain our healthy body as well as physical appearance,” says Crecentia. The role of women in some cultures was limited to child bearing and playing good wife and mothers. Women were discouraged from participating in any leisure or physical activity despite the benefits. The struggle for women rights and specifically involvement in sport changed during the civil rights era. As Bell, R.(2007) denotes ‘The push for civil rights, which culminated in the passage of civil rights Act of 1964, helped increase the status of women and minorities’ Women were able to engage in sport. From this knowledge, I am interested to know if there were any stambling blocks in doing sports during Crecentias childhood days. Things like gender difference, social class, culture and religion, I suggest. According to Crecentia, she does not believe there was any on her part. She was raised under Catholic influence. However, she adds that back in those days women obligations were different from those of men, which had an impact on sports. For instance, she says ordinary women could not do sport as their leisure activity. Women needed to dress themselves and get ready to married at a young age. Nevertheless, Crecentia’s family was different and she had the independence to choose her leisure activities. The revolution of women in America seems to have had spill off effects into other nations across the world. This seems to be the case because Crenentia does not mention any restrictions placed on her to participate in sports. Unlike other women, she was independent to choose her leisure sport. Benjamin Radars in his book The American Revolution: from the age of folk games to the age of Television Sports (2004) illustrates that ‘the revolution in women’s athletics is at full, running tide, bringing with it a sea of change not just in activities but attitudes as well’. Crecentia attitude is a clear illustration of change in attitude. From our interview she says, “Do not tell anyone. But I do enjoy sports without thinking about its use for our body”, then she laughs. She also uses expressions as ‘I do feel to enjoy swimming the most because I love kicking water’ and ‘it is my nature I would say.’ The history of sports in Indonesia seems to have been trouble free. So far, Crecentia makes no mention of discrimination. However, history literature has documented numerous issues of racial discrimination. I am inclined to probe further into Crecentias childhood. Besides the difference in obligation that women had to fulfill when they were young, I wonder if there was any racism in sports. America had a troubled history fighting racism. Heroes like Martin Luther king in his speech ‘I have a dream’ said that I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. However, Crecentia is quick to tell me that she does not think there was any discrimination in sports in lines of race. Crecentia loved to swim by the nearby lake and kick in the water. She says it is her nature with that attitude one should naturally assume that she would have turn profession at that early age. Sports were viewed as important and mandatory at school. When asked what happened of her swimming she reports that back in her days women were not free to roam around and do any sort of leisure activities. They were supposed to dress themselves and get ready to be married at a young age. Even though she was not tied down by this ideology, she was somewhat confined by the cultural views of others. It seems that through the interaction of the Dutch and Indonesians, participation in leisure time and physical activity increased among women. The issues of gender equality in terms of access to education, careers and sports have been central since the women liberation movements in the United States in the 1960s. (Dong Jinxia, 2003) Changes have resulted developments like Title IX and Sex Discrimination Acts contributed to this. According to Radar, he remarks “Title IX in effect simply outlawed any sexual discrimination by school districts.” To some extent, title IX revolutionized sporting in Indonesia in terms of enforcing mandatory physical education or as commonly known in Indonesia ‘Pendidikan Jasmani’ On the back of these developments, there still existed some discrimination on basis of social class. Crecentia let me know that her parents were peasants. Her father a small-scale sales man and the mother a homemaker and a family of ten; barely enough money was left to partake in leisure activities like sport. According to Berg and Pasgorel (2006), Individuals with low incomes are usually sidelined from physical exercises compared to those with higher incomes. In addition, the culture of a people depicts what they value as important. In the case of Crecentia, sports may not have been valued as other things like marriage and child bearing come first. From Crecentia’s account, great importance was attached to sports. When asked if there are any differences in terms of sports since her childhood up to date she responds by saying “I do not thing there is any difference in terms of sports. All that is different is the way of thinking about the importance of sports’ Indonesia’s value sports and many traditional games such as Sepak takraw are still played in Indonesia learning more on it as a recreational activity rather than a professional sport. Badminton and tennis takes precedence in Indonesia. For instance, Indonesia is long standing champions in badminton and tennis with legendary players such as Ruby Hartans and Katty Zimmerman. The government of Indonesia particularly encourages ‘Sports for all’ women and men from all social cadres are encouraged to participate. (http://cp-pc.ca/english/indonesia/sports.html). The impact of gender equality in sport has been profound. Indonesian women now participate on other sports besides the popular badminton and soccer. It is interesting to note that the first gold medal won in the Olympics held at Seoul in 1998 was from the Indonesians women archery team (http://cp-pc.ca/english/indonesia/sports.html) This went a long way to confirm Chairman Mao’s slogans ‘women hold half the sky’ and ‘women can do what men can do’. (Dong Jinxia) Sport has had great importance since historic times. Physical activity keeps of stress, fights diseases and boost overall immunity. Some people say that a sport is the remedy of life or even the springtime of youth. Crecentia emphatically agrees and adds that the older one is the more one thinks on how important sport is to ones life.	1,746	ENGLISH	1
In contrast to near St. Lawrence's Church, Drothem church was referred to as the 'peasant's church' and used as a parish church by the rural population rather than the strictly urban. The present church was probably preceded by a wooden church on approximately the same site. Remains of a Franciscan monastery have been excavated in the close vicinity of Drothem church, leading scholars to believe that the church started its history as part of the monastery, which in turn was founded on land donated from the royal manor nearby. The first written records mentioning the church date from 1307, but construction of the church started sometime during the second half of the 13th century. The present-day vestry is the oldest part of the church. Later alterations have been plentiful, as the church has been damaged both by fire on several occasions, and also in war, during the Northern Seven Years' War when Danish troops under the command of Daniel Rantzau caused damage to the church. In 1586, the church was still in disrepair and the congregation pleaded to the king (John III of Sweden) to help funding the repairs. The church is built of stone with some details made of brick, and whitewashed. Both the west and the east façades are decorated with blind arches and crow-stepped gables. Heavy buttresses support the building. The roof is made of shingle. The church has an external belfry. Inside, the church is divided into a nave and two aisles by two rows of pillars, carrying Gothic vaults. The altarpiece is from Germany, made in 1512 and, according to a note written in medieval German found in the altar, by a craftsman called Vlögel. The baptismal font is from the 13th century. Other noteworthy interior details include the pulpit, from 1704, and an altar painting from the 17th century, originally forming part of an epitaph.References: The Temple of Portunus or Temple of Fortuna Virilis ('manly fortune') is one of the best preserved of all Roman temples. Its dedication remains unclear, as ancient sources mention several temples in this area of Rome, without saying enough to make it clear which this is. The temple was originally built in the third or fourth century BC but was rebuilt between 120-80 BC, the rectangular building consists of a tetrastyle portico and cella, raised on a high podium reached by a flight of steps, which it retains. The temple owes its state of preservation to its being converted for use as a church in 872 and rededicated to Santa Maria Egyziaca (Saint Mary of Egypt). Its Ionic order has been much admired, drawn and engraved and copied since the 16th century. The original coating of stucco over its tufa and travertine construction has been lost.	<urn:uuid:46141f2a-6500-4890-968f-abc253c371e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.spottinghistory.com/view/2063/drothem-church/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00223.warc.gz	en	0.983195	596	3.515625	4	[ 0.07170702517032623, 0.642783522605896, 0.10224611312150955, 0.01832822524011135, 0.22041289508342743, 0.008967899717390537, -0.7406152486801147, -0.07320891320705414, 0.2098989337682724, 0.283375084400177, 0.02280190959572792, -0.37685805559158325, 0.36993446946144104, -0.0161086190491914...	1	In contrast to near St. Lawrence's Church, Drothem church was referred to as the 'peasant's church' and used as a parish church by the rural population rather than the strictly urban. The present church was probably preceded by a wooden church on approximately the same site. Remains of a Franciscan monastery have been excavated in the close vicinity of Drothem church, leading scholars to believe that the church started its history as part of the monastery, which in turn was founded on land donated from the royal manor nearby. The first written records mentioning the church date from 1307, but construction of the church started sometime during the second half of the 13th century. The present-day vestry is the oldest part of the church. Later alterations have been plentiful, as the church has been damaged both by fire on several occasions, and also in war, during the Northern Seven Years' War when Danish troops under the command of Daniel Rantzau caused damage to the church. In 1586, the church was still in disrepair and the congregation pleaded to the king (John III of Sweden) to help funding the repairs. The church is built of stone with some details made of brick, and whitewashed. Both the west and the east façades are decorated with blind arches and crow-stepped gables. Heavy buttresses support the building. The roof is made of shingle. The church has an external belfry. Inside, the church is divided into a nave and two aisles by two rows of pillars, carrying Gothic vaults. The altarpiece is from Germany, made in 1512 and, according to a note written in medieval German found in the altar, by a craftsman called Vlögel. The baptismal font is from the 13th century. Other noteworthy interior details include the pulpit, from 1704, and an altar painting from the 17th century, originally forming part of an epitaph.References: The Temple of Portunus or Temple of Fortuna Virilis ('manly fortune') is one of the best preserved of all Roman temples. Its dedication remains unclear, as ancient sources mention several temples in this area of Rome, without saying enough to make it clear which this is. The temple was originally built in the third or fourth century BC but was rebuilt between 120-80 BC, the rectangular building consists of a tetrastyle portico and cella, raised on a high podium reached by a flight of steps, which it retains. The temple owes its state of preservation to its being converted for use as a church in 872 and rededicated to Santa Maria Egyziaca (Saint Mary of Egypt). Its Ionic order has been much admired, drawn and engraved and copied since the 16th century. The original coating of stucco over its tufa and travertine construction has been lost.	608	ENGLISH	1
The building of the Zichy palace was built on the main square of Komárno, and for centuries it played an important role in the history of the city, being used as a theater, residence, synagogue, post office, cellar and for various other purposes. On June 28, 1763, a huge earthquake struck Komarno. As a result of the earthquake, 63 people died, there were 102 injured people, 7 churches and 279 buildings collapsed. Part of the buildings collapsed, the city buildings were seriously damaged, and only 9% of the buildings remained intact. Zichy's palace was also damaged by the earthquake. According to the sources, today's building was rebuilt in 1775 by Ferenc Zichy in a classicist style. The building was built in a very good location and was always at the center of events. The building served as a theater until 1827, then served as a Jewish temple, which was rebuilt into a German house after the construction of the Europe Place. Today, the palace is used by the Danube museum, where visitors can find an exhibition about the local history and the memorial rooms of the natives of Komarno, Jókai Mór and Franz Lehar.	<urn:uuid:287c185f-6480-4631-a995-d5be3d83bc73>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.visitdanube.eu/en/details/palace-zichy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00167.warc.gz	en	0.986721	254	3.3125	3	[ -0.13244566321372986, 0.5802962183952332, 0.21297147870063782, 0.16690699756145477, -0.18805024027824402, 0.31070733070373535, 0.006918989587575197, 0.3789866864681244, -0.5294167399406433, -0.04185914993286133, 0.14495189487934113, -0.29412344098091125, -0.2437085062265396, 0.787065088748...	4	The building of the Zichy palace was built on the main square of Komárno, and for centuries it played an important role in the history of the city, being used as a theater, residence, synagogue, post office, cellar and for various other purposes. On June 28, 1763, a huge earthquake struck Komarno. As a result of the earthquake, 63 people died, there were 102 injured people, 7 churches and 279 buildings collapsed. Part of the buildings collapsed, the city buildings were seriously damaged, and only 9% of the buildings remained intact. Zichy's palace was also damaged by the earthquake. According to the sources, today's building was rebuilt in 1775 by Ferenc Zichy in a classicist style. The building was built in a very good location and was always at the center of events. The building served as a theater until 1827, then served as a Jewish temple, which was rebuilt into a German house after the construction of the Europe Place. Today, the palace is used by the Danube museum, where visitors can find an exhibition about the local history and the memorial rooms of the natives of Komarno, Jókai Mór and Franz Lehar.	269	ENGLISH	1
From Ohio History Central no edit summary <p>Cleveland was the first settlement founded in the Connecticut Western Reserve by the Connecticut Land Company. It was named after General Moses Cleaveland, an investor in the company who led the survey of its land within the Western Reserve. The town was located along the eastern bank of the Cuyahoga River. Because of a spelling error on the original map, the community has always been spelled Cleveland instead of Cleaveland. The first survey of Cleveland was completed in 1796, and it included 220 lots. The company originally charged fifty dollars for lots in the settlement and found that few people were willing to pay that much to live there. As late as 1800, a company representative reported that only three men lived in Cleveland. Ten years later, there were only fifty-seven residents. Despite its small population, Cleveland became the Cuyahoga County seat in 1807.</p> <p>Although the settlement was located near Lake Erie, the population did not grow significantly until after the War of 1812. By this time, the threat of American Indian attacks had ended and money was invested in road improvements and a harbor for the community. Cleveland became known as a market town where farmers brought crops to sell and merchants offered goods from the East. Even so, the settlement grew slowly because of the lack of adequate roads connecting it to other parts of the state. By 1820, only 606 people lived in Cleveland.</p> <p>During the 1820s, the city experienced some growth due to the arrival of new forms of transportation. The Erie Canal connected the city with the Atlantic Ocean during the 1820s. The first steamboat on Lake Erie, the <em>Walk-In-The-Water</em>,<em> </em>allowed for quicker trade between Cleveland and other localities along the lake. During the 1820s and the 1830s, construction of the Ohio and Erie Canal connected Lake Erie with the Ohio River. In the 1850s, railroads came to Cleveland. In forty years, Cleveland's population increased from under one thousand to more than forty thousand people.</p>	<urn:uuid:b09023ef-e418-4517-9a3c-64a2655f3d9b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Special:MobileDiff/36775	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00380.warc.gz	en	0.982331	441	3.9375	4	[ -0.1271314173936844, -0.2236802577972412, 0.04826230928301811, 0.19103729724884033, -0.4303041398525238, 0.14065858721733093, 0.20314337313175201, -0.1366853266954422, -0.23339645564556122, -0.1619710773229599, 0.07935836166143417, -0.4210394024848938, 0.05221923440694809, 0.02467520534992...	2	From Ohio History Central no edit summary <p>Cleveland was the first settlement founded in the Connecticut Western Reserve by the Connecticut Land Company. It was named after General Moses Cleaveland, an investor in the company who led the survey of its land within the Western Reserve. The town was located along the eastern bank of the Cuyahoga River. Because of a spelling error on the original map, the community has always been spelled Cleveland instead of Cleaveland. The first survey of Cleveland was completed in 1796, and it included 220 lots. The company originally charged fifty dollars for lots in the settlement and found that few people were willing to pay that much to live there. As late as 1800, a company representative reported that only three men lived in Cleveland. Ten years later, there were only fifty-seven residents. Despite its small population, Cleveland became the Cuyahoga County seat in 1807.</p> <p>Although the settlement was located near Lake Erie, the population did not grow significantly until after the War of 1812. By this time, the threat of American Indian attacks had ended and money was invested in road improvements and a harbor for the community. Cleveland became known as a market town where farmers brought crops to sell and merchants offered goods from the East. Even so, the settlement grew slowly because of the lack of adequate roads connecting it to other parts of the state. By 1820, only 606 people lived in Cleveland.</p> <p>During the 1820s, the city experienced some growth due to the arrival of new forms of transportation. The Erie Canal connected the city with the Atlantic Ocean during the 1820s. The first steamboat on Lake Erie, the <em>Walk-In-The-Water</em>,<em> </em>allowed for quicker trade between Cleveland and other localities along the lake. During the 1820s and the 1830s, construction of the Ohio and Erie Canal connected Lake Erie with the Ohio River. In the 1850s, railroads came to Cleveland. In forty years, Cleveland's population increased from under one thousand to more than forty thousand people.</p>	468	ENGLISH	1
Samuel Taylor Coleridge facts for kids \|Samuel Taylor Coleridge\| Coleridge in 1795 21 October 1772\| Ottery St Mary, Devon, Great Britain \|Died\|\|25 July 1834 Highgate, Middlesex, United Kingdom \|Occupation\|\|Poet, critic, philosopher\| \|Alma mater\|\|Jesus College, Cambridge\| \|Notable work(s)\|\|The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Kubla Khan, Christabel, Conversation poems, Biographia Literaria\| Samuel Taylor Coleridge (21 October 1772 – 25 July 1834) was an English poet. Together with his friend William Wordsworth, Coleridge is often said to have started the Romantic movement in English literature. Coleridge was born in Ottery St Mary, Devon. He was the son of a minister, and the youngest of ten children. He attended the University of Cambridge, Jesus College, though he never earned his degree. He met Wordsworth, another young poet, in 1795. They became close friends, and in 1798 they published their poems in a book called Lyrical Ballads, which many critics consider a key event in English Romanticism. Most of the poems in the book were written by Wordsworth, though it also contained Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which many people call his masterpiece and one of the great poems in English. (In it, Coleridge used old-fashioned spellings, like "rime" for "rhyme," to give the poem an antique feeling.) In 1796, Coleridge wrote his poem Kubla Khan — along with the Ancient Mariner, it is his best-known work. At about the same time, in the later 1790s, Coleridge became addicted to opium. At that time the drug was legal, and was widely used as a painkiller. Coleridge's addiction to opium marked the rest of his life. His health suffered, and he had trouble supporting his wife and children. He also had a hard time finishing the writing projects he started. Coleridge had a reputation as a great talker, and people often invited him to their dinner parties to hear him speak. He was a successful lecturer at times in his later life. He gained a reputation as a thinker and philosopher as well as a poet. He died in Highgate, Middlesex. Scholars and critics of English literature have regarded Coleridge as a major figure. In his 1927 book The Road to Xanadu, John Livingston Lowes used Coleridge's poetry, especially Kubla Khan, to study the working of the human imagination. Critics have argued about the role that opium addiction played in the poet's life and work. In his 1971 book Coleridge, the Damaged Archangel, Norman Furman showed that Coleridge was guilty of plagiarism in many of his later works. His opium addiction may have left Coleridge unable to tell when he was repeating the work of other writers that he had read. Images for kids Samuel Taylor Coleridge Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	<urn:uuid:18392465-a645-4b8f-b868-8d478c0fe38d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.kiddle.co/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00495.warc.gz	en	0.982023	657	3.40625	3	[ 0.1508253514766693, -0.5017688274383545, 0.30729201436042786, -0.09110657870769501, -0.29506152868270874, -0.05470631271600723, -0.15588712692260742, -0.11780019104480743, -0.14750462770462036, -0.5118958950042725, 0.06256391108036041, -0.2959706783294678, 0.3712136149406433, -0.0806878432...	1	Samuel Taylor Coleridge facts for kids \|Samuel Taylor Coleridge\| Coleridge in 1795 21 October 1772\| Ottery St Mary, Devon, Great Britain \|Died\|\|25 July 1834 Highgate, Middlesex, United Kingdom \|Occupation\|\|Poet, critic, philosopher\| \|Alma mater\|\|Jesus College, Cambridge\| \|Notable work(s)\|\|The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Kubla Khan, Christabel, Conversation poems, Biographia Literaria\| Samuel Taylor Coleridge (21 October 1772 – 25 July 1834) was an English poet. Together with his friend William Wordsworth, Coleridge is often said to have started the Romantic movement in English literature. Coleridge was born in Ottery St Mary, Devon. He was the son of a minister, and the youngest of ten children. He attended the University of Cambridge, Jesus College, though he never earned his degree. He met Wordsworth, another young poet, in 1795. They became close friends, and in 1798 they published their poems in a book called Lyrical Ballads, which many critics consider a key event in English Romanticism. Most of the poems in the book were written by Wordsworth, though it also contained Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which many people call his masterpiece and one of the great poems in English. (In it, Coleridge used old-fashioned spellings, like "rime" for "rhyme," to give the poem an antique feeling.) In 1796, Coleridge wrote his poem Kubla Khan — along with the Ancient Mariner, it is his best-known work. At about the same time, in the later 1790s, Coleridge became addicted to opium. At that time the drug was legal, and was widely used as a painkiller. Coleridge's addiction to opium marked the rest of his life. His health suffered, and he had trouble supporting his wife and children. He also had a hard time finishing the writing projects he started. Coleridge had a reputation as a great talker, and people often invited him to their dinner parties to hear him speak. He was a successful lecturer at times in his later life. He gained a reputation as a thinker and philosopher as well as a poet. He died in Highgate, Middlesex. Scholars and critics of English literature have regarded Coleridge as a major figure. In his 1927 book The Road to Xanadu, John Livingston Lowes used Coleridge's poetry, especially Kubla Khan, to study the working of the human imagination. Critics have argued about the role that opium addiction played in the poet's life and work. In his 1971 book Coleridge, the Damaged Archangel, Norman Furman showed that Coleridge was guilty of plagiarism in many of his later works. His opium addiction may have left Coleridge unable to tell when he was repeating the work of other writers that he had read. Images for kids Samuel Taylor Coleridge Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	687	ENGLISH	1
Escaped Slave, Leading Abolitionist 1817(?) – 1895 The struggle to abolish slavery depended on the cooperation of thousands. Politicians and clergymen, men and women, whites and blacks all worked together in the cause of freedom. By the beginning of the Civil War in 1861, entire armies were dedicating their lives to the cause. But among these champions of liberty, Frederick Douglass, who escaped slavery to become one of the nation’s most eloquent writers, editors, and speakers, was perhaps the most influential. The most important African American writer and political figure of the nineteenth century, he proved the equality of the races at a time when even antislavery activists treated African American as inferiors. Born Frederick Augustus Bailey, Douglass never knew his father; barely knew his mother, a slave from Talbot Country, Maryland; and never knew his own birthday. Initially raised by relatives on a plantation, he was sent to Baltimore before he was nine years old to serve the family of master. As a slave growing up in a big city, Douglass enjoyed an unusual amount of freedom. He did not participate in the backbreaking labor that characterized plantation life, he was not confined to the poverty of plantation slave quarters, he was seldom whipped, and most remarkably, he learned to read and write. As a teenager, against his master’s orders, Douglass educated himself by reading books and newspapers he found in the course of his workday. Armed with the knowledge he gathered from books, he dreamed of an escape to the free North. In 1838, while working in Baltimore shipyard, Douglass obtained fake documents claiming that he was a free man and used them to escape to New England. A fugitive slave in an unfamiliar region, he lived in constant fear of being captured and sent back to his masters. He assumed the name Frederick Johnson, and later Frederick Douglass, to confuse slave catchers. Settling in New Bedford, Massachusetts, Douglass continued to confront racial prejudice; no one would hire him to work as a caulker in the local shipyard. He therefore work as an unskilled laborer until he could find some other means of supporting himself and his growing family. (Douglass and his wife would ultimately raise five children).His break came in 1841, when he was asked to speak at an antislavery meeting in Nantucket, Massachusetts. Douglass astounded his white audience with his passion and eloquence. The American Anti-Slavery Society immediately hired him to travel the country as its spokesman. As a public speaker, he faced two dilemmas. First, he put himself in plain view of the slave catchers who were still trying to bring him back to Baltimore. Second, he had difficulty earning credibility; unable to believe that a slave could speak so brilliantly and intelligently, white audiences often doubted the truth of his story. In response to the first dilemma, Douglass kept moving for three years and occasionally fled to Europe to avoid capture. In response to the second dilemma, he wrote Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave in 1845 to prove that he had indeed been a slave. Unusual among slave narratives of the era, Douglass’s Narrative includes the actual names of owners and plantations. In this way, it ensures skeptical readers that it is a true account of a slave’s life. The Douglass who emerges from Narrative is a resourceful, self-educated man who refuses to submit to his masters. Strong in a body, mind, and spirit, he serves as a model of determination and persistence. In later autobiographies, including My Bondage and My Freedom (1855) and Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (1881), Douglass would expand his account and shift its emphasis to meet the changing political needs of the African American community. But the short, powerful Narrative of 1845, with its emphasis on personal strength and resistance, remains the classic account of slavery in American literature. In 1847, Douglass’s European friends purchased his freedom, allowing him to return to the United States without fear of capture. He settled in Rochester, New York, and founded The North Star, an antislavery newspaper. In The North Star as well as in his later journals, Frederick Douglass’s Weekly and Douglass’s Monthly, he began to criticize the pacifist abolitionist movement and, as he had in Narrative, call for a more active and occasionally violent resistance to slavery. For a short time, he supported radicals such as John Brown, who led bloody antislavery attacks in Kansas and at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, in the 1850s. Douglass also supported slavery’s political opponents, such as the Liberty Party and the newly formed Republican Party. And he offered his house as a stop on the Underground Railroad, a secret network of people who helped slaves escape to the North and to Canada. By the beginning of the Civil War, he had earned the confidence of President Lincoln and helped recruit soldiers – including two of his sons – to fight in the Union’s first black regiments. After the war, Douglass returned to the podium to rally support for the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery; the Fourteenth Amendment, which expanded citizenship privileges to include any person born in the United States; And the Fifteenth Amendment, which granted all men the right to vote. He also championed women’s equality and was the vice-presidential candidate of the Equal Rights Party in 1872. In his later years, he even held several government positions, including an ambassadorship to the Republic Haiti. Thus Douglass remained a powerful figure in the nation for more than fifty years, assembling a record of service that would have been remarkable in any context but was particularly remarkable for a man born into slavery. And through his writings, especially his 1845 Narrative, he remains a central figure in American culture today. More detailed information can be found in the "Extraordinary American Writers" John Tessitore, and issued by The Scholastic Inc. in the USA.Information should be used just for educational purposes.	<urn:uuid:f41ea9d4-b266-4ec9-bb31-a5982b890ee2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://for.lib.kherson.ua/en-frederickdouglass.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00089.warc.gz	en	0.981713	1,268	4.46875	4	[ 0.01734774187207222, 0.46037063002586365, 0.0846419632434845, 0.12343622744083405, -0.053645163774490356, -0.3607821464538574, 0.23128336668014526, -0.5323879718780518, -0.13451862335205078, 0.03042297437787056, 0.36429452896118164, 0.06115476414561272, -0.20712342858314514, -0.03277911245...	5	Escaped Slave, Leading Abolitionist 1817(?) – 1895 The struggle to abolish slavery depended on the cooperation of thousands. Politicians and clergymen, men and women, whites and blacks all worked together in the cause of freedom. By the beginning of the Civil War in 1861, entire armies were dedicating their lives to the cause. But among these champions of liberty, Frederick Douglass, who escaped slavery to become one of the nation’s most eloquent writers, editors, and speakers, was perhaps the most influential. The most important African American writer and political figure of the nineteenth century, he proved the equality of the races at a time when even antislavery activists treated African American as inferiors. Born Frederick Augustus Bailey, Douglass never knew his father; barely knew his mother, a slave from Talbot Country, Maryland; and never knew his own birthday. Initially raised by relatives on a plantation, he was sent to Baltimore before he was nine years old to serve the family of master. As a slave growing up in a big city, Douglass enjoyed an unusual amount of freedom. He did not participate in the backbreaking labor that characterized plantation life, he was not confined to the poverty of plantation slave quarters, he was seldom whipped, and most remarkably, he learned to read and write. As a teenager, against his master’s orders, Douglass educated himself by reading books and newspapers he found in the course of his workday. Armed with the knowledge he gathered from books, he dreamed of an escape to the free North. In 1838, while working in Baltimore shipyard, Douglass obtained fake documents claiming that he was a free man and used them to escape to New England. A fugitive slave in an unfamiliar region, he lived in constant fear of being captured and sent back to his masters. He assumed the name Frederick Johnson, and later Frederick Douglass, to confuse slave catchers. Settling in New Bedford, Massachusetts, Douglass continued to confront racial prejudice; no one would hire him to work as a caulker in the local shipyard. He therefore work as an unskilled laborer until he could find some other means of supporting himself and his growing family. (Douglass and his wife would ultimately raise five children).His break came in 1841, when he was asked to speak at an antislavery meeting in Nantucket, Massachusetts. Douglass astounded his white audience with his passion and eloquence. The American Anti-Slavery Society immediately hired him to travel the country as its spokesman. As a public speaker, he faced two dilemmas. First, he put himself in plain view of the slave catchers who were still trying to bring him back to Baltimore. Second, he had difficulty earning credibility; unable to believe that a slave could speak so brilliantly and intelligently, white audiences often doubted the truth of his story. In response to the first dilemma, Douglass kept moving for three years and occasionally fled to Europe to avoid capture. In response to the second dilemma, he wrote Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave in 1845 to prove that he had indeed been a slave. Unusual among slave narratives of the era, Douglass’s Narrative includes the actual names of owners and plantations. In this way, it ensures skeptical readers that it is a true account of a slave’s life. The Douglass who emerges from Narrative is a resourceful, self-educated man who refuses to submit to his masters. Strong in a body, mind, and spirit, he serves as a model of determination and persistence. In later autobiographies, including My Bondage and My Freedom (1855) and Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (1881), Douglass would expand his account and shift its emphasis to meet the changing political needs of the African American community. But the short, powerful Narrative of 1845, with its emphasis on personal strength and resistance, remains the classic account of slavery in American literature. In 1847, Douglass’s European friends purchased his freedom, allowing him to return to the United States without fear of capture. He settled in Rochester, New York, and founded The North Star, an antislavery newspaper. In The North Star as well as in his later journals, Frederick Douglass’s Weekly and Douglass’s Monthly, he began to criticize the pacifist abolitionist movement and, as he had in Narrative, call for a more active and occasionally violent resistance to slavery. For a short time, he supported radicals such as John Brown, who led bloody antislavery attacks in Kansas and at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, in the 1850s. Douglass also supported slavery’s political opponents, such as the Liberty Party and the newly formed Republican Party. And he offered his house as a stop on the Underground Railroad, a secret network of people who helped slaves escape to the North and to Canada. By the beginning of the Civil War, he had earned the confidence of President Lincoln and helped recruit soldiers – including two of his sons – to fight in the Union’s first black regiments. After the war, Douglass returned to the podium to rally support for the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery; the Fourteenth Amendment, which expanded citizenship privileges to include any person born in the United States; And the Fifteenth Amendment, which granted all men the right to vote. He also championed women’s equality and was the vice-presidential candidate of the Equal Rights Party in 1872. In his later years, he even held several government positions, including an ambassadorship to the Republic Haiti. Thus Douglass remained a powerful figure in the nation for more than fifty years, assembling a record of service that would have been remarkable in any context but was particularly remarkable for a man born into slavery. And through his writings, especially his 1845 Narrative, he remains a central figure in American culture today. More detailed information can be found in the "Extraordinary American Writers" John Tessitore, and issued by The Scholastic Inc. in the USA.Information should be used just for educational purposes.	1,274	ENGLISH	1
The Schlieffen Plan was an attack plan. It was formulated Germany, but it wasn’t put into action until troops from Russia were mobilized along the border of Germany, attacking Germany. The attack was meant to put France on the spot and take down the country that top lieutenants had identified as Germany’s biggest threat in Europe. The idea was to go through Belgium, a country that Britain had promised to support in neutrality. The entire plan hinged on two things: Russia attacking Germany with less superior weapons, and Britain not supporting Belgium’s decision to stay neutral. Needless to say, that didn’t happen. As tensions continued to increase due to Germany’s expanding power, the Schlieffen Plan almost worked. However, a single battle with poor communication - the first Battle of the Marne - took Germany’s plan and crumbled it to pieces.	<urn:uuid:2f5e9f2d-c8e5-4245-a1c9-6335240e9eef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.proprofs.com/discuss/q/138377/what-was-the-schliefen-plan	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00323.warc.gz	en	0.985514	185	3.671875	4	[ -0.25084131956100464, 0.1013149693608284, -0.02557891048491001, -0.08577054738998413, 0.02483324706554413, -0.06713756173849106, -0.148245170712471, 0.6061031222343445, -0.0869937390089035, 0.014308230020105839, 0.1507565975189209, -0.09125696122646332, 0.3133801221847534, 0.35550764203071...	4	The Schlieffen Plan was an attack plan. It was formulated Germany, but it wasn’t put into action until troops from Russia were mobilized along the border of Germany, attacking Germany. The attack was meant to put France on the spot and take down the country that top lieutenants had identified as Germany’s biggest threat in Europe. The idea was to go through Belgium, a country that Britain had promised to support in neutrality. The entire plan hinged on two things: Russia attacking Germany with less superior weapons, and Britain not supporting Belgium’s decision to stay neutral. Needless to say, that didn’t happen. As tensions continued to increase due to Germany’s expanding power, the Schlieffen Plan almost worked. However, a single battle with poor communication - the first Battle of the Marne - took Germany’s plan and crumbled it to pieces.	173	ENGLISH	1
Pierre Curie Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Pierre Curie was a French scientist who is best known for his research with his wife Marie which earned them a Nobel Prize. Pierre Curie was born in Paris, France on 15 May 1859. His father, Eugene Curie homeschooled curie. His father worked as a doctor and was married to Sophie-Claire Curie, Curie’s mother. Curie was awarded a maths degree when he was sixteen years old and received an honours degree by eighteen. Pierre Curie met Maria Sklodowska, a Polish student in the 1890s. Maria worked under Curie in his laboratory and the two married in 1895. Together they had two daughters, Irene and Eve. Irene became a Nobel Prize-winning physicist and Eve became a journalist and the author of Marie Curie’s biography. Pierre Curie's early work in physics was done with his older brother Jacques. The two were pioneers in the field of piezoelectricity. Piezoelectricity deals with the electrical charge that develops in a physical matter under pressure. Curie and his brother’s research focussed on the creation of an electric charge by compressing crystals. Together they developed a scale for measuring the currents and also invented the Piezoelectric Quartz Electrometer to aid in measurement. Their work was profoundly influential, and today the vast majority of modern digital electrical circuits use crystals. For his doctorate, Pierre Curie undertook a study on magnetism. His research outlined the effect of temperature on magnetism, and his findings are described in Curie’s Law. His discoveries were influential on research on plate tectonics and study of magnetic fields in space. Pierre Curie's most famous work was completed with his wife. The pair worked on discovering and isolating the elements radium and polonium. Polonium was named after Marie’s home country of Poland. The couple was pioneers in the field of radiation. Curie was also the first person to discover nuclear energy. Curie observed that radium particles emitted heat. These emissions were identified by Curie to fall into three categories, negative, positive and neutral. These were later named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. A unit of radiation was named a curie in honor of Pierre and Marie’s work. The Curie’s were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Curie also became genuinely interested in spiritualism. Curie was an atheist and did not believe that the supernatural existed. However, he did feel that magnetism caused the events linked to mysticism and he wished to study this theory. Pierre Curie died on 19 April 1906 in Paris. While crossing the road in the rain, Curie slipped and fell. He was killed instantly when a horse-drawn cart fractured his skull. Curie’s wife would later die from the effects of working with radiation. It is likely that had Curie lived he would have suffered a similar fate given his work with the radioactive material and the number of radiation burns he had suffered. In 1995, the Curies were honoured with a crypt in the Pantheon in Paris. They were moved from their original resting place from to the Pantheon in April of that year. Gerard ’t Hooft Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov Robert Andrews Millikan More People From Île-de-France Savinien Cyrano de Bergerac Edward Samuel Behr	<urn:uuid:3737062c-e514-483e-b830-12a3b8422c3f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/pierre-curie/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00037.warc.gz	en	0.981544	740	3.5625	4	[ 0.3562425374984741, 0.39650776982307434, 0.18363764882087708, -0.3069612979888916, -0.2150307297706604, -0.19861556589603424, 0.3315011262893677, -0.002564240712672472, 0.018055381253361702, -0.2910032868385315, 0.03462706878781319, -0.3814046382904053, 0.4920210540294647, 0.59442627429962...	1	Pierre Curie Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Pierre Curie was a French scientist who is best known for his research with his wife Marie which earned them a Nobel Prize. Pierre Curie was born in Paris, France on 15 May 1859. His father, Eugene Curie homeschooled curie. His father worked as a doctor and was married to Sophie-Claire Curie, Curie’s mother. Curie was awarded a maths degree when he was sixteen years old and received an honours degree by eighteen. Pierre Curie met Maria Sklodowska, a Polish student in the 1890s. Maria worked under Curie in his laboratory and the two married in 1895. Together they had two daughters, Irene and Eve. Irene became a Nobel Prize-winning physicist and Eve became a journalist and the author of Marie Curie’s biography. Pierre Curie's early work in physics was done with his older brother Jacques. The two were pioneers in the field of piezoelectricity. Piezoelectricity deals with the electrical charge that develops in a physical matter under pressure. Curie and his brother’s research focussed on the creation of an electric charge by compressing crystals. Together they developed a scale for measuring the currents and also invented the Piezoelectric Quartz Electrometer to aid in measurement. Their work was profoundly influential, and today the vast majority of modern digital electrical circuits use crystals. For his doctorate, Pierre Curie undertook a study on magnetism. His research outlined the effect of temperature on magnetism, and his findings are described in Curie’s Law. His discoveries were influential on research on plate tectonics and study of magnetic fields in space. Pierre Curie's most famous work was completed with his wife. The pair worked on discovering and isolating the elements radium and polonium. Polonium was named after Marie’s home country of Poland. The couple was pioneers in the field of radiation. Curie was also the first person to discover nuclear energy. Curie observed that radium particles emitted heat. These emissions were identified by Curie to fall into three categories, negative, positive and neutral. These were later named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. A unit of radiation was named a curie in honor of Pierre and Marie’s work. The Curie’s were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Curie also became genuinely interested in spiritualism. Curie was an atheist and did not believe that the supernatural existed. However, he did feel that magnetism caused the events linked to mysticism and he wished to study this theory. Pierre Curie died on 19 April 1906 in Paris. While crossing the road in the rain, Curie slipped and fell. He was killed instantly when a horse-drawn cart fractured his skull. Curie’s wife would later die from the effects of working with radiation. It is likely that had Curie lived he would have suffered a similar fate given his work with the radioactive material and the number of radiation burns he had suffered. In 1995, the Curies were honoured with a crypt in the Pantheon in Paris. They were moved from their original resting place from to the Pantheon in April of that year. Gerard ’t Hooft Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov Robert Andrews Millikan More People From Île-de-France Savinien Cyrano de Bergerac Edward Samuel Behr	736	ENGLISH	1
In the development of the ancient catapults, a process that went through several phases with each phase having a slight improvement over the previous one; was based on a theoretical framework that all the parts constituting the catapults including the weight as well as the length of the projectile had to be proportional to the torsion springs. The development of the catapult refutes the widely held misconception that theory and practice were on different sides of an unbridgeable divide during antiquity. The engineers of the days applied the theoretical frameworks as well as principles of mathematics and physics to come up with the catapult, which became one of the most powerful weapons in the ancient society. Looking at the progress of development of war machinery like the catapult, it is worth noting that the progress was hit by an ‘insufficient density’ problem so that there was a shortage of tinkerers who could embrace the metal age to come up with fine metal pieces of weapons. The engineers of the day were more into applying the theoretical frameworks than seeking innovations for the same. That is why it took for instance a lot of time to come up with gunpowder and eventually make a switch to more powerful weapons like the guns. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! Among the early Greeks society, the catapult was made using a belly bow mounted on a case. Later on when they wanted to develop a much faster weapon, it was enlarged and a winch pullback system adopted. The later engineers working for Philip II of Macedonia modified it a little bit. The bow was replaced with springs made up of tight bundles of sinews/ropes all wrapped up around the two frames. They also fixed the sinews on a base and fitted it with a release mechanism. The use of the proportionality aspect and hence mathematics made it possible to standardize the construction of catapults and even the compilation of table of specifications to aid in referencing. Ancient Greeks were not failures in technological developments. The society constituted genius individuals. If the Greek had reached a point where they could apply scientific principles of proportionality as well as mathematical principles to come up with specifically designed war tools like the catapult, they has in many ways succeeded. It is therefore worth noting that in terms of technology, they were not inferior at all. The stone throwers, which were used by the ancient Romans, as well as the legendary engines that were made by Archimedes stand in this text as evidence of their superiority in technology. This therefore formed the basis for other projectiles used later like missiles. Historical knowledge is not common to all, not even among scholars themselves. The problem with historical literature is that the actual knowledge is not in the hands of a specific person or entities, they are scattered and in possession of different persons. Because of these reasons, historical documents, records and history always exhibit a ‘missing link’ trait. Relics only appear in the form of human artifacts. It indicates that history has continued to be represented physically but not in the form of deeds or ideas. This has also resulted in inability to link some of the historical relics to past events because there is an information gap. The presence of the physical representations of history without information putting them in the right context has ensured that different version emerge over and over again. This outcome of events has been explained in a theoretical framework that most of the past is only yet to be revealed to man and that what is already visible is almost ubiquitous so everybody knows about it. This explains the unnecessary repetition done by historians. Attrition of meaning has also hit historical things like relics. The present generation continues to find little significance in the past and continue to look ahead into the future they expect to live. The historic artifacts for instance are more likely to be perceived in the light of the context within which the person can place it or even depending on one’s mood at the time of coming into contact with the materials. One other thing is that while the historical artifacts remain as they were before, man lives in a very dynamic world and situations keep changing everyday. There is also a theoretical framework upon which many people have always operated especially in regards to history. People continue to believe that everything that looks a little backwards or out of place should be linked to history. The major setback therefore that history based on physical aspects has is that it restricts the scope of history and locks out important ingredients of history like feelings, actions and thoughts. Among the few merits hat come with them is that they are accessible since they are available in tangible forms. One therefore doesn’t have to keep imagining what really happened or what a certain available artifact looked like since it can just be seen locally. To bring out the real historical contexts, there is need to fuse or create an interconnection where the physical aspects of history like pictures or relics are used together with descriptive texts which put them into perspective. The gap that exists in history has create an open window for people to bring forth very many versions about the same things to an extent that whenever two scholars are talking about the same events, the look and sound even more different. This weakness is also based on the fact that when representing history, many scholars tend to build on other people’s work before adding something controversial as their contribution. The result is a history in disarray. The Victorian Age history is one that everyone thinks he/she fully understands. One thing about those who claim to comprehend the Victorian age history, are characterized with conspicuous elements of ignorance and a sense of placid perfection which in real sense is unattainable. The Victorian age is amassed with volumes upon volumes of history which would surpass even the perspicacity of even a Gibbon. All this cannot just be narrated through scrupulous methods but through more subtle strategies which seek to depict the singular epoch in question in palatable light. While looking at the Victorian age history, it is important not to veer into the absurd of looking at human beings in the context of simply being symptoms of the past. This is particularly because they have value attached to their actions which while studying historical events. The times when people started writing biographies are believed to have fallen in the wrong and evil times in England. This piece holds that while a few master pieces have been produced in terms of biographies England during the initial days, it is nothing compared to what the French did at the same time. The difference is that the English biographies had absolutely no fontenelles nor did it have the Condorcets. They also had fairly incomparable eloges which beautifully compressed just into a few shining pages, the evidence of manifold existence of man. In Victorian era, the English relegated this delicate and very humane art of writing to the journeymen of letters. It therefore appeared that at this time, people really never realized that it could just be as difficult to write about a good life as it is to live one. Fat volumes of literature have been written about dead historical figures which exhibit slipshod style and have tones of very tedious panegyric. The contents of such volumes in most cases would remain unknown even to the persons themselves if they had the ability to know the contents of the literature. The literature has continued to show lack of design selection and even a sense of attachment. Over the years they have remained the same as they change and as a result have become so familiar as the undertaker’s ‘cortege’. They all have the same sluggish tempo with a characteristic funereal barbarism. This piece holds that most of the Victorian era literatures were written in such a way that the audience would be tempted to imagine that they were composed with the functionary of being the last pieces on the same. They create the impression that they were the final items on the person in question’s job. While these pieces of writings exhibit immense levels of discrepancies and missing links, they still offer incredible and vital lessons and insights into standard versions of biographies. They have formed a part of examples that even present biography writers can borrow from. Their use in literature therefore helps a biographer to preserve some element of becoming brevity to exclude all that is redundant and never to exclude anything that is of significance. The other vita lesson that comes with these pieces of writing during the Victorian era is that as much as they exhibit missing links, they are a testimony of a biographer’s freedom of spirit. They indicate that a biographer is supposed to simply lay the ‘facts’ bare without necessarily seeking to comply to certain codes or set parameters, so he/she writes things the way he understands them. In “The end of generation Gordon”, an English gentleman was more concerned about identifying where the ark first touched ground according to biblical records, the site of crucifixion, the lines of division that existed between the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, the position of the garden of Eden and to identify the Gibeon. For this purpose he walked around with a thick book. This person turned out to be General Gordon and the thick book he carried along was actually a bible. His quest and obsessions led him to die in both ruin and horror. Thee happenings became source of historical materials but surprisingly, they more these literature spurned out, the more they became different since each had its own version. Gordon was a man who was not new to controversy at all. While in the army academy, Gordon was so mischievous and ended up bullying so many newcomers, an act which saw him suspended from the cadet for some time. During this time, he became involved in religious activities and he reflected upon his sins and hoped for salvation. However, even while in search of the religious questions which disturbed his mind, he was not devoid of controversy because he took sacrament every Sunday despite the fact that he was not confirmed. He eventually went back to the forces and managed to execute his duties in different wars and peace keeeping missions. While still in China, as a general, he contracted Small pox and he claimed that at long last the disease was taking him back to his Christian roots and that he hoped he would be a better Christian next time. He played a significant role among the Chinese in the battle front and later as a revered religious leader. The sad part of it is that while this looks like an important historical event there have been different versions of the same events that took place hence bringing into sharp focus the quality of the English scholars who wrote bibliographies at the time. When the British went into war with the Germans, several fatalities occurred. This was mainly due to the fact that there was a misconception in the attack plan. The British soldiers thought that they had destroyed the German dug-outs but no! The enthusiastic soldiers who had just joined the British army had all of a sudden been brutally killed at the battle front simply for being misled. ‘No man’s land’ which was established by the Germans became a field of doom for the British troops as they were constantly wiped out in a rain of bullets from machine guns. They were pushed out of the German frontlines not only in the south but also in the north. The British only managed to capture three of the thirteen villages which had been integrated within the German line and which they were supposed to bring under their control. Rawlins on made a number of misjudgments. He failed to take opportunities when the windows of opportunity to go across the battle lines and concur opened. While the British had about 57,000 casualties, the Germans had a relatively smaller number of just 8,000 people. The casualty stations overflowed and the British soldiers were lying out in the sun unattended to. At the end of it all, they had not managed to capture ‘no man’s land’ and were the repercussions were even more severe. Later on when Tawney who had been assisting the wounded soldier’s came to the battle front, he imagined that things would be easier. He suffered the same fate only that he didn’t die and lived to tell his story. It is obvious that Tawney didn’t accept that as massive as the British soldiers were, they could be out maneuvered the way they were done. He received news of what happened, didn’t believe it, set out to find the truth and suffered the same fate only that he lived to tell the story. The difficult memory brought about by the Vietnam War is one that the US popular culture has tried to handle in numerous ways. Through an analysis brought forth through after press coverage of the 25th anniversary of the ‘Fall of Saigon’, it is evident that the Us was neither the victor nor was it the Liberator as has been perpetuated in different theoretical points of view. The happenings during this war have been anchored on the theory of ‘rescue and liberation’. It has since become a morally controversial as well as unsuccessful issue of war. During this 25th anniversary, instead of the US press seeking to explain to the public the reasons why the US had to go into the war and the consequences for going into the war, they took a completely different platform and sought to depict the US as the liberator who was keen on bringing out how the US played an important role in rescuing as well as taking care of the Vietnamese ‘runaways’ due to the war. It therefore sought to erase the significant role which the US interventionist foreign policy could have played in the induced migrations. Several myths and theories have been fused to bring out the narrative that the very fact that there are several Vietnamese War veterans recuperating is a significant indication of America’s mythical innocence. In most of the US commemorations and public discussions like the 25th anniversary of the fall of the Saigon, Vietnamese refugees have always been at the center and featured as evidence that the US world hegemony was a justifiable experience especially in the Vietnam War. They have struggled to paint a picture that the war in Vietnam was an absolutely necessary involvement by the US no matter the costs attached to it. They also assert that it was as necessary as it was moral and successful intervention. The underlying conclusion is that he notion of ‘We win-even-when-we-lose” syndrome has energized and even emboldened the actual perpetuation of American militarism in the entire world and more so in the post cold-war era. In all the passages, there is an element of history being misinterpreted, put in the wrong context or simply being a source of controversy. It is evident in both that due to the fact that very little is known about history, and therefore the unknown has made people to create several versions of the same history. The little that is known has been repeated severally to an extent that it has become ubiquitous. When added to the fact that there is always a deliberate attempt to twist history to fit the authors and that the only available evidence in terms of relics say nothing much without the literature putting them into perspective, has made history even more difficult to portray as it was. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:155694f6-2c6d-4c47-8b6d-6b962821fd25>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/history-2.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00539.warc.gz	en	0.983423	3,111	3.921875	4	[ -0.3820483684539795, 0.12061994522809982, 0.28811800479888916, -0.2506217062473297, -0.36520448327064514, -0.43767446279525757, -0.3692764937877655, 0.5897455215454102, -0.3583339750766754, -0.04029935598373413, -0.058412499725818634, -0.4333445429801941, 0.1213126927614212, 0.451695233583...	1	In the development of the ancient catapults, a process that went through several phases with each phase having a slight improvement over the previous one; was based on a theoretical framework that all the parts constituting the catapults including the weight as well as the length of the projectile had to be proportional to the torsion springs. The development of the catapult refutes the widely held misconception that theory and practice were on different sides of an unbridgeable divide during antiquity. The engineers of the days applied the theoretical frameworks as well as principles of mathematics and physics to come up with the catapult, which became one of the most powerful weapons in the ancient society. Looking at the progress of development of war machinery like the catapult, it is worth noting that the progress was hit by an ‘insufficient density’ problem so that there was a shortage of tinkerers who could embrace the metal age to come up with fine metal pieces of weapons. The engineers of the day were more into applying the theoretical frameworks than seeking innovations for the same. That is why it took for instance a lot of time to come up with gunpowder and eventually make a switch to more powerful weapons like the guns. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! Among the early Greeks society, the catapult was made using a belly bow mounted on a case. Later on when they wanted to develop a much faster weapon, it was enlarged and a winch pullback system adopted. The later engineers working for Philip II of Macedonia modified it a little bit. The bow was replaced with springs made up of tight bundles of sinews/ropes all wrapped up around the two frames. They also fixed the sinews on a base and fitted it with a release mechanism. The use of the proportionality aspect and hence mathematics made it possible to standardize the construction of catapults and even the compilation of table of specifications to aid in referencing. Ancient Greeks were not failures in technological developments. The society constituted genius individuals. If the Greek had reached a point where they could apply scientific principles of proportionality as well as mathematical principles to come up with specifically designed war tools like the catapult, they has in many ways succeeded. It is therefore worth noting that in terms of technology, they were not inferior at all. The stone throwers, which were used by the ancient Romans, as well as the legendary engines that were made by Archimedes stand in this text as evidence of their superiority in technology. This therefore formed the basis for other projectiles used later like missiles. Historical knowledge is not common to all, not even among scholars themselves. The problem with historical literature is that the actual knowledge is not in the hands of a specific person or entities, they are scattered and in possession of different persons. Because of these reasons, historical documents, records and history always exhibit a ‘missing link’ trait. Relics only appear in the form of human artifacts. It indicates that history has continued to be represented physically but not in the form of deeds or ideas. This has also resulted in inability to link some of the historical relics to past events because there is an information gap. The presence of the physical representations of history without information putting them in the right context has ensured that different version emerge over and over again. This outcome of events has been explained in a theoretical framework that most of the past is only yet to be revealed to man and that what is already visible is almost ubiquitous so everybody knows about it. This explains the unnecessary repetition done by historians. Attrition of meaning has also hit historical things like relics. The present generation continues to find little significance in the past and continue to look ahead into the future they expect to live. The historic artifacts for instance are more likely to be perceived in the light of the context within which the person can place it or even depending on one’s mood at the time of coming into contact with the materials. One other thing is that while the historical artifacts remain as they were before, man lives in a very dynamic world and situations keep changing everyday. There is also a theoretical framework upon which many people have always operated especially in regards to history. People continue to believe that everything that looks a little backwards or out of place should be linked to history. The major setback therefore that history based on physical aspects has is that it restricts the scope of history and locks out important ingredients of history like feelings, actions and thoughts. Among the few merits hat come with them is that they are accessible since they are available in tangible forms. One therefore doesn’t have to keep imagining what really happened or what a certain available artifact looked like since it can just be seen locally. To bring out the real historical contexts, there is need to fuse or create an interconnection where the physical aspects of history like pictures or relics are used together with descriptive texts which put them into perspective. The gap that exists in history has create an open window for people to bring forth very many versions about the same things to an extent that whenever two scholars are talking about the same events, the look and sound even more different. This weakness is also based on the fact that when representing history, many scholars tend to build on other people’s work before adding something controversial as their contribution. The result is a history in disarray. The Victorian Age history is one that everyone thinks he/she fully understands. One thing about those who claim to comprehend the Victorian age history, are characterized with conspicuous elements of ignorance and a sense of placid perfection which in real sense is unattainable. The Victorian age is amassed with volumes upon volumes of history which would surpass even the perspicacity of even a Gibbon. All this cannot just be narrated through scrupulous methods but through more subtle strategies which seek to depict the singular epoch in question in palatable light. While looking at the Victorian age history, it is important not to veer into the absurd of looking at human beings in the context of simply being symptoms of the past. This is particularly because they have value attached to their actions which while studying historical events. The times when people started writing biographies are believed to have fallen in the wrong and evil times in England. This piece holds that while a few master pieces have been produced in terms of biographies England during the initial days, it is nothing compared to what the French did at the same time. The difference is that the English biographies had absolutely no fontenelles nor did it have the Condorcets. They also had fairly incomparable eloges which beautifully compressed just into a few shining pages, the evidence of manifold existence of man. In Victorian era, the English relegated this delicate and very humane art of writing to the journeymen of letters. It therefore appeared that at this time, people really never realized that it could just be as difficult to write about a good life as it is to live one. Fat volumes of literature have been written about dead historical figures which exhibit slipshod style and have tones of very tedious panegyric. The contents of such volumes in most cases would remain unknown even to the persons themselves if they had the ability to know the contents of the literature. The literature has continued to show lack of design selection and even a sense of attachment. Over the years they have remained the same as they change and as a result have become so familiar as the undertaker’s ‘cortege’. They all have the same sluggish tempo with a characteristic funereal barbarism. This piece holds that most of the Victorian era literatures were written in such a way that the audience would be tempted to imagine that they were composed with the functionary of being the last pieces on the same. They create the impression that they were the final items on the person in question’s job. While these pieces of writings exhibit immense levels of discrepancies and missing links, they still offer incredible and vital lessons and insights into standard versions of biographies. They have formed a part of examples that even present biography writers can borrow from. Their use in literature therefore helps a biographer to preserve some element of becoming brevity to exclude all that is redundant and never to exclude anything that is of significance. The other vita lesson that comes with these pieces of writing during the Victorian era is that as much as they exhibit missing links, they are a testimony of a biographer’s freedom of spirit. They indicate that a biographer is supposed to simply lay the ‘facts’ bare without necessarily seeking to comply to certain codes or set parameters, so he/she writes things the way he understands them. In “The end of generation Gordon”, an English gentleman was more concerned about identifying where the ark first touched ground according to biblical records, the site of crucifixion, the lines of division that existed between the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, the position of the garden of Eden and to identify the Gibeon. For this purpose he walked around with a thick book. This person turned out to be General Gordon and the thick book he carried along was actually a bible. His quest and obsessions led him to die in both ruin and horror. Thee happenings became source of historical materials but surprisingly, they more these literature spurned out, the more they became different since each had its own version. Gordon was a man who was not new to controversy at all. While in the army academy, Gordon was so mischievous and ended up bullying so many newcomers, an act which saw him suspended from the cadet for some time. During this time, he became involved in religious activities and he reflected upon his sins and hoped for salvation. However, even while in search of the religious questions which disturbed his mind, he was not devoid of controversy because he took sacrament every Sunday despite the fact that he was not confirmed. He eventually went back to the forces and managed to execute his duties in different wars and peace keeeping missions. While still in China, as a general, he contracted Small pox and he claimed that at long last the disease was taking him back to his Christian roots and that he hoped he would be a better Christian next time. He played a significant role among the Chinese in the battle front and later as a revered religious leader. The sad part of it is that while this looks like an important historical event there have been different versions of the same events that took place hence bringing into sharp focus the quality of the English scholars who wrote bibliographies at the time. When the British went into war with the Germans, several fatalities occurred. This was mainly due to the fact that there was a misconception in the attack plan. The British soldiers thought that they had destroyed the German dug-outs but no! The enthusiastic soldiers who had just joined the British army had all of a sudden been brutally killed at the battle front simply for being misled. ‘No man’s land’ which was established by the Germans became a field of doom for the British troops as they were constantly wiped out in a rain of bullets from machine guns. They were pushed out of the German frontlines not only in the south but also in the north. The British only managed to capture three of the thirteen villages which had been integrated within the German line and which they were supposed to bring under their control. Rawlins on made a number of misjudgments. He failed to take opportunities when the windows of opportunity to go across the battle lines and concur opened. While the British had about 57,000 casualties, the Germans had a relatively smaller number of just 8,000 people. The casualty stations overflowed and the British soldiers were lying out in the sun unattended to. At the end of it all, they had not managed to capture ‘no man’s land’ and were the repercussions were even more severe. Later on when Tawney who had been assisting the wounded soldier’s came to the battle front, he imagined that things would be easier. He suffered the same fate only that he didn’t die and lived to tell his story. It is obvious that Tawney didn’t accept that as massive as the British soldiers were, they could be out maneuvered the way they were done. He received news of what happened, didn’t believe it, set out to find the truth and suffered the same fate only that he lived to tell the story. The difficult memory brought about by the Vietnam War is one that the US popular culture has tried to handle in numerous ways. Through an analysis brought forth through after press coverage of the 25th anniversary of the ‘Fall of Saigon’, it is evident that the Us was neither the victor nor was it the Liberator as has been perpetuated in different theoretical points of view. The happenings during this war have been anchored on the theory of ‘rescue and liberation’. It has since become a morally controversial as well as unsuccessful issue of war. During this 25th anniversary, instead of the US press seeking to explain to the public the reasons why the US had to go into the war and the consequences for going into the war, they took a completely different platform and sought to depict the US as the liberator who was keen on bringing out how the US played an important role in rescuing as well as taking care of the Vietnamese ‘runaways’ due to the war. It therefore sought to erase the significant role which the US interventionist foreign policy could have played in the induced migrations. Several myths and theories have been fused to bring out the narrative that the very fact that there are several Vietnamese War veterans recuperating is a significant indication of America’s mythical innocence. In most of the US commemorations and public discussions like the 25th anniversary of the fall of the Saigon, Vietnamese refugees have always been at the center and featured as evidence that the US world hegemony was a justifiable experience especially in the Vietnam War. They have struggled to paint a picture that the war in Vietnam was an absolutely necessary involvement by the US no matter the costs attached to it. They also assert that it was as necessary as it was moral and successful intervention. The underlying conclusion is that he notion of ‘We win-even-when-we-lose” syndrome has energized and even emboldened the actual perpetuation of American militarism in the entire world and more so in the post cold-war era. In all the passages, there is an element of history being misinterpreted, put in the wrong context or simply being a source of controversy. It is evident in both that due to the fact that very little is known about history, and therefore the unknown has made people to create several versions of the same history. The little that is known has been repeated severally to an extent that it has become ubiquitous. When added to the fact that there is always a deliberate attempt to twist history to fit the authors and that the only available evidence in terms of relics say nothing much without the literature putting them into perspective, has made history even more difficult to portray as it was. Most popular orders	3,053	ENGLISH	1
Religion forms a fundamental part of a community. One of the major religions in China is Confucianism founded by Kung Fu-tse, a Chinese sage. The name ‘Confucius’ is the Latin name for Kung Fu-tse. Confucianism not only exists in China but has also in Korea and Japan. Additionally, nearly 26,000 people in North America strongly belief in Confucianism. Research has shown that the religion has more than six million followers around the globe. Unlike other World religions, followers of Confucianism believe neither in the existence of a supreme being nor in life after death. Owing to this, many people argue that it is not a religion since the two are the main characteristics of most of the other religions. This paper seeks to give a detailed account of the religion with specific interest on its founder as well as its other significant aspects. The founder of Confucianism Historians believe that Confucius (Kung Fu-tse) was the founder of Confucianism. They gave them the credit because he gave Confucianism beliefs a concrete structure. Most of the Confucianism beliefs and principles existed in even before the rise of the Zhou dynasty in 1122 BC long before Confucius was born (Yung, 1961, p.82). Although he met many challenges during his lifetime, he became an icon in the religious as well as philosophical history of China. Confucius was born around 551 BC in Luyhan village, which is part of Qufu city currently known as the Shadong province. To his parents, Confucius was an answer to prayers they had made at the sacred hill known as Ni. He came from a humble background. From his childhood, he knew that he needed to learn a lot to acquire the knowledge essential for bringing change in his community. At the age of fifteen, he started learning the Way. At the age of twenty-two Confucius began his own school. His students were a major part of his life as he would impart the knowledge that he acquired to them. According to Weiming, he taught six disciplines namely history, government, music, poetry, propriety and divination (1985, p. 40). Importantly, he did not have any form of discrimination against his students as he treated all of them equally despite of their varying social status. At the age of nineteen, he married and fathered a son. However, he divorced at the age of twenty-three. Besides teaching, Confucius pursued a political career, which he intended to use as a platform for imparting morality in the society. Historians believe that at the age of fifty Confucius had already joined politics. He held a ministerial position in the Ministry of Public Works. He also served as a minister of Justice under the office of the Prime Minister (Yu, 2005, p. 63). However, his political ambitions were shuttered when he was forced to leave the public office at the age of fifty-five. Scholars argue that the contemporary leaders were afraid of Confucius’ integrity as well as candor to allow him to hold any position that involved exercise of power. Following his resignation, in the company of his disciples, he spent the next twelve years wandering in other parts of the world searching for a political position to no avail. During this period, he faced many hardships including being jailed at some point. Eventually, he went back home. Upon his return, he got a position as the legal advisor to the Duke of Ai. Besides being an advisor, he continued teaching his students whose numbers were growing from one year to the other. Confucius’ major contribution to the religion As aforementioned, Confucius played a pivotal role in the establishment as well as the continuity of Confucianism. He purposed to bring a solution to the many problems that he saw in the world that he lived. He emphasized on the political theory. This theory states that a legitimate ruler derives his/her authority from the heaven’s command and he is solely responsible for his subject’s well being. It also holds that the ruler is responsible for the peace and order in the empire. Owing to the fact that this theory was in line with the feudal ruling in Ancient China, the rulers embraced Confucianism as a major school of thought. He was also instrumental in the propagation of the Confucianism philosophy. He pursued perfection, truth, kindness as well as an ideal society throughout his life. By so doing, he portrayed a good example to most of his followers as far as Confucianism philosophy is concerned. The philosophy seeks a peaceful or rather harmonious society, which is not dependent on financial or feudal merit (Weiming, 1985, p. 75). A society based on not only ultimate goodness but also moral equality of all humanity. His teachings were also fundamental to the existence of the religion. Concerning human behavior, he taught his followers the five basics that he believed were the core aspects for a harmonious society. He taught them to be always considerate to other people irrespective of their social status. He also taught them to uphold respect for their ancestors and to strive for harmony besides balancing all things in life. His students were to avoid extremes in not only behavior but also in emotions. Additionally, he taught them if anyone wanted to live in peace and harmony then they had to be in contact with the spiritual forces of the universe inclusive of nature. Among his teachings were also five basic virtues, which are sobriety, trustworthiness, righteousness, wisdom and kindness. Besides his teachings, he also dedicated some of his time in editing some of the Confucian books. He edited the Book of History, Book of Songs, Book of Rites as well as the Spring and Autumn Annals. Additionally, he wrote the preface for the Book of Changes. He also reinforced the golden and silver rules, which emphasize on humaneness in the society. By the time he died, at the age of 73, he had 3,000 followers and 72 disciples. The main features of Confucianism The followers of Confucius do not believe in the existence of god. Owing to this fact, many people dismiss its religiosity and regard it as a way of thinking. However, Confucius perceived heaven as a kind of a god, which shows that there is more to Confucianism than just a code of behavior. Before his death, Confucius’ followers did not worship him in any way but after his death, they built temples in his owner. They also worship him in the temple. Unlike other religions, Confucianism does not have any special days but have rituals. The sole purpose of the rituals is to honor their ancestors. The rituals can take place at any time of the year. However, the Confucius day, September 23-Confucius birthday is an important day in Confucianism. The followers of Confucianism celebrate this day to honor their leader besides offering tribute to their teachers. In Confucianism, there is no special clothing (Yu, 2005, p. 53). However, during special events they might wear robes, which resemble Buddhist robes. There are nine important texts in Confucianism, which include four books and five classics. One of the books is the Analects of Confucius ( Lun Yu) which comprises of the sayings and teachings of Confucius. His students compiled it after his death. The others include Doctrine of the Mean (Chung Yung), The Great Learning (Ta Hsueh) and the Meng Tzu. The Meng Tzu comprises of writings of one of Confucius disciples. Among the classics is the Classic of History (Shu Ching) which comprises of speeches and writings of ancient Chinese rulers and the Classic of Odes (Shi Ching) which has three hundred songs and poems. The Classic of Changes (I Ching) contains a description of the Confucianism divinatory system including the sixty-four hexagrams. The Spring and Autumn Annals (Ch’un Ch’iu) form part of the classics and gives a history of Lu from 722-484 BC. The Classic of Rites (Li Ching) is the fifth classic, which comprises of a group of three books centering on the rites of propriety. Confucianism was named after the name of its founder, Confucius. He was one of the Chinese sages and played a major role in structuring the religion’s belief system. He had political ambitions, which he hoped to use as the platform for bringing change regarding morality in the society. However, his political career was not successful. However, his passion for teaching played a pivotal role in bringing up a group of people who believed in his approach to life-his students. They helped him establish as well as propagate the religion in China and other countries such as Korea, Japan and the Northern part of America. For instance, in strengthening their faith, his students built temples after his death that became their place of worship. Weiming, T. (1985). Confucian Thought : Selfhood as Creative Transformation. Albang: Sunn Yu, A.C. (2005). State of Religion in China: Historical and Textural Perceptions. Chicago: Open Yung, C.K. (1961). Religion in Chinese Society: A Study of Contemporary Social Functions of Religion and Some of their Historical Factors. Berkeley: University of California Press.	<urn:uuid:728f5ba2-be23-4da2-a806-6624591f4db6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/confucianism-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00295.warc.gz	en	0.983868	1,975	3.8125	4	[ -0.14499135315418243, 0.15350881218910217, 0.18146373331546783, -0.10788354277610779, -0.22078455984592438, 0.37224310636520386, 0.47123751044273376, -0.07311603426933289, 0.11269941926002502, -0.2977142930030823, 0.17230826616287231, -0.526708722114563, 0.3036310374736786, 0.0664298161864...	2	Religion forms a fundamental part of a community. One of the major religions in China is Confucianism founded by Kung Fu-tse, a Chinese sage. The name ‘Confucius’ is the Latin name for Kung Fu-tse. Confucianism not only exists in China but has also in Korea and Japan. Additionally, nearly 26,000 people in North America strongly belief in Confucianism. Research has shown that the religion has more than six million followers around the globe. Unlike other World religions, followers of Confucianism believe neither in the existence of a supreme being nor in life after death. Owing to this, many people argue that it is not a religion since the two are the main characteristics of most of the other religions. This paper seeks to give a detailed account of the religion with specific interest on its founder as well as its other significant aspects. The founder of Confucianism Historians believe that Confucius (Kung Fu-tse) was the founder of Confucianism. They gave them the credit because he gave Confucianism beliefs a concrete structure. Most of the Confucianism beliefs and principles existed in even before the rise of the Zhou dynasty in 1122 BC long before Confucius was born (Yung, 1961, p.82). Although he met many challenges during his lifetime, he became an icon in the religious as well as philosophical history of China. Confucius was born around 551 BC in Luyhan village, which is part of Qufu city currently known as the Shadong province. To his parents, Confucius was an answer to prayers they had made at the sacred hill known as Ni. He came from a humble background. From his childhood, he knew that he needed to learn a lot to acquire the knowledge essential for bringing change in his community. At the age of fifteen, he started learning the Way. At the age of twenty-two Confucius began his own school. His students were a major part of his life as he would impart the knowledge that he acquired to them. According to Weiming, he taught six disciplines namely history, government, music, poetry, propriety and divination (1985, p. 40). Importantly, he did not have any form of discrimination against his students as he treated all of them equally despite of their varying social status. At the age of nineteen, he married and fathered a son. However, he divorced at the age of twenty-three. Besides teaching, Confucius pursued a political career, which he intended to use as a platform for imparting morality in the society. Historians believe that at the age of fifty Confucius had already joined politics. He held a ministerial position in the Ministry of Public Works. He also served as a minister of Justice under the office of the Prime Minister (Yu, 2005, p. 63). However, his political ambitions were shuttered when he was forced to leave the public office at the age of fifty-five. Scholars argue that the contemporary leaders were afraid of Confucius’ integrity as well as candor to allow him to hold any position that involved exercise of power. Following his resignation, in the company of his disciples, he spent the next twelve years wandering in other parts of the world searching for a political position to no avail. During this period, he faced many hardships including being jailed at some point. Eventually, he went back home. Upon his return, he got a position as the legal advisor to the Duke of Ai. Besides being an advisor, he continued teaching his students whose numbers were growing from one year to the other. Confucius’ major contribution to the religion As aforementioned, Confucius played a pivotal role in the establishment as well as the continuity of Confucianism. He purposed to bring a solution to the many problems that he saw in the world that he lived. He emphasized on the political theory. This theory states that a legitimate ruler derives his/her authority from the heaven’s command and he is solely responsible for his subject’s well being. It also holds that the ruler is responsible for the peace and order in the empire. Owing to the fact that this theory was in line with the feudal ruling in Ancient China, the rulers embraced Confucianism as a major school of thought. He was also instrumental in the propagation of the Confucianism philosophy. He pursued perfection, truth, kindness as well as an ideal society throughout his life. By so doing, he portrayed a good example to most of his followers as far as Confucianism philosophy is concerned. The philosophy seeks a peaceful or rather harmonious society, which is not dependent on financial or feudal merit (Weiming, 1985, p. 75). A society based on not only ultimate goodness but also moral equality of all humanity. His teachings were also fundamental to the existence of the religion. Concerning human behavior, he taught his followers the five basics that he believed were the core aspects for a harmonious society. He taught them to be always considerate to other people irrespective of their social status. He also taught them to uphold respect for their ancestors and to strive for harmony besides balancing all things in life. His students were to avoid extremes in not only behavior but also in emotions. Additionally, he taught them if anyone wanted to live in peace and harmony then they had to be in contact with the spiritual forces of the universe inclusive of nature. Among his teachings were also five basic virtues, which are sobriety, trustworthiness, righteousness, wisdom and kindness. Besides his teachings, he also dedicated some of his time in editing some of the Confucian books. He edited the Book of History, Book of Songs, Book of Rites as well as the Spring and Autumn Annals. Additionally, he wrote the preface for the Book of Changes. He also reinforced the golden and silver rules, which emphasize on humaneness in the society. By the time he died, at the age of 73, he had 3,000 followers and 72 disciples. The main features of Confucianism The followers of Confucius do not believe in the existence of god. Owing to this fact, many people dismiss its religiosity and regard it as a way of thinking. However, Confucius perceived heaven as a kind of a god, which shows that there is more to Confucianism than just a code of behavior. Before his death, Confucius’ followers did not worship him in any way but after his death, they built temples in his owner. They also worship him in the temple. Unlike other religions, Confucianism does not have any special days but have rituals. The sole purpose of the rituals is to honor their ancestors. The rituals can take place at any time of the year. However, the Confucius day, September 23-Confucius birthday is an important day in Confucianism. The followers of Confucianism celebrate this day to honor their leader besides offering tribute to their teachers. In Confucianism, there is no special clothing (Yu, 2005, p. 53). However, during special events they might wear robes, which resemble Buddhist robes. There are nine important texts in Confucianism, which include four books and five classics. One of the books is the Analects of Confucius ( Lun Yu) which comprises of the sayings and teachings of Confucius. His students compiled it after his death. The others include Doctrine of the Mean (Chung Yung), The Great Learning (Ta Hsueh) and the Meng Tzu. The Meng Tzu comprises of writings of one of Confucius disciples. Among the classics is the Classic of History (Shu Ching) which comprises of speeches and writings of ancient Chinese rulers and the Classic of Odes (Shi Ching) which has three hundred songs and poems. The Classic of Changes (I Ching) contains a description of the Confucianism divinatory system including the sixty-four hexagrams. The Spring and Autumn Annals (Ch’un Ch’iu) form part of the classics and gives a history of Lu from 722-484 BC. The Classic of Rites (Li Ching) is the fifth classic, which comprises of a group of three books centering on the rites of propriety. Confucianism was named after the name of its founder, Confucius. He was one of the Chinese sages and played a major role in structuring the religion’s belief system. He had political ambitions, which he hoped to use as the platform for bringing change regarding morality in the society. However, his political career was not successful. However, his passion for teaching played a pivotal role in bringing up a group of people who believed in his approach to life-his students. They helped him establish as well as propagate the religion in China and other countries such as Korea, Japan and the Northern part of America. For instance, in strengthening their faith, his students built temples after his death that became their place of worship. Weiming, T. (1985). Confucian Thought : Selfhood as Creative Transformation. Albang: Sunn Yu, A.C. (2005). State of Religion in China: Historical and Textural Perceptions. Chicago: Open Yung, C.K. (1961). Religion in Chinese Society: A Study of Contemporary Social Functions of Religion and Some of their Historical Factors. Berkeley: University of California Press.	2,000	ENGLISH	1
Why was Martin Luther, an obscure friar/monk in a small German town, able to make such an impact that he is widely seen as launching the Reformation? Others across Europe had challenged the Roman Catholic Church on indulgences and other corrupt practices that emerged as a consequence of the cash flow demand that emerged from the papal need to build large cathedrals in the late 14th and 15th centuries. Why did Luther rise to the top? Why was he so successful? Why do historians claim he and not the others launched the Reformation? Like others, I believe it was the use by Luther and his supporters of the printing press. When Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses on the church door at Wittenberg on the 31st of October 1517, it's possible that no one would have noticed if not for the press. He used the press so well because he knew his audience and used the language of the people. Prior to his excommunication, Luther was a member of an Augustinian order of friars that went out into the community and preached the church’s theology in the vernacular. Latin was the language of the church and of law (and that would continue years after the Reformation), but most people of the time spoke the language not only of their country but of their local community. Luther’s religious order understood this and used the vernacular to evangelize and educate the “lower” classes -- at the time a rising middle class in Germany. It was the vernacular and not Latin that Martin learned to use in his street orations, and he naturally turned to the vernacular for his message to his German colleagues as he sought a way to embody his new theology. And it was his use of the printing press to get that vernacular message out quickly and effectively that made the difference: he would have loved our current social media and given President Trump a run for his money on Twitter. For also in Germany, a little over 50 years earlier, Johann Gutenberg, a goldsmith with an engineer/inventor’s eye, pushed the printing press from a random series of parts into an extremely efficient engine of publication. While some form of a printing press, including movable type, was created around 1000 CE in China and Korea, the version in Europe by that time was not that sophisticated. Gutenberg used his goldsmith skills to create a more easily manipulated type made with lead and an oil-based ink as well as a stable frame with screw-down plates. Unfortunately after producing 180 copies of the world’s most famous copy of the bible (48 of which still remain; one of which is here in Austin at UT’s Harry Ransom Center), he was pushed out by his partners and died in relative obscurity in 1468. The press was enhanced by new and cheaper forms of paper made possible by also innovations of the Chinese and the Muslims, the latter who brought the processes with them to Spain in the 13th and 14th centuries. So despite his short time on the stage of history, Gutenberg and his invention transformed the production of scholarly and political discourse for the next 500 years. The stableness of the press made authorship more reliable, and Luther and his followers understood well how to use the “power of the press” to distribute Luther’s ideas. It was also amazingly efficient: before Gutenberg, there were less than 30,000 books in all of Europe; because of his invention, by 1500 there were anywhere from 9-20 million books; by 1600 historians estimate something between 150-200 million. Printing presses could print broadsides (what we might view as posters, mostly images with some text), pamphlets, and books. While Luther was proficient in utilizing all three to get his message out, it was the pamphlets that he primarily employed to share his theses and theology. Between 1518-1520, most historians believe that Luther was able to distribute across Germany (and quickly as far as Italy and England) 300,000 printed copies of his tracks. Luther never slowed down, in fact he produced publications each year from 1517 until his death in 1546, including a translation into the vernacular (German) of the Bible. Luther and the printing press didn’t just change religion, it changed history: his translation influenced other vernacular translations -- most notably for Americans the King James Bible (KJV). When the common folk could read a book as rich as the bible for themselves, they didn’t just embrace a more democratic theology (“a priesthood of all believers”), they had the tools to educate themselves in all ways. For Martin Luther a good and effective education led to right action and life-long learning: “the earnest desire to educate the young [will] benefit and serve the world with able men and women…. [N]o effort or expense should be spared to provide good libraries” LW46, 370-373. For Luther libraries provided that life-long learning support. With the right resources [a good library], the right education, and the right vehicle to get your message out, you too could “take the world by storm” just like Luther. Edgar Rodriguez ('19, '21) was recently hired by a multinational corporation. Learn more about his amazing story! Concordia’s location in Austin, Texas, offers students access to abundant job opportunities with major organizations headquartered in the capital city. Learn more about nine surprising career paths that are ideal for English majors.	<urn:uuid:4a329d67-628a-4b8b-84a0-3978233a58cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.concordia.edu/blog/luther-and-the-printing-press-mcintosh-doty.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00523.warc.gz	en	0.981198	1,152	3.5625	4	[ -0.31027451157569885, 0.1365334391593933, -0.12757468223571777, 0.12743310630321503, 0.13569442927837372, -0.09351044148206711, -0.5680902004241943, 0.36635005474090576, 0.020841989666223526, 0.15553322434425354, -0.12427230924367905, 0.07390125095844269, -0.05745586007833481, -0.129968941...	1	Why was Martin Luther, an obscure friar/monk in a small German town, able to make such an impact that he is widely seen as launching the Reformation? Others across Europe had challenged the Roman Catholic Church on indulgences and other corrupt practices that emerged as a consequence of the cash flow demand that emerged from the papal need to build large cathedrals in the late 14th and 15th centuries. Why did Luther rise to the top? Why was he so successful? Why do historians claim he and not the others launched the Reformation? Like others, I believe it was the use by Luther and his supporters of the printing press. When Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses on the church door at Wittenberg on the 31st of October 1517, it's possible that no one would have noticed if not for the press. He used the press so well because he knew his audience and used the language of the people. Prior to his excommunication, Luther was a member of an Augustinian order of friars that went out into the community and preached the church’s theology in the vernacular. Latin was the language of the church and of law (and that would continue years after the Reformation), but most people of the time spoke the language not only of their country but of their local community. Luther’s religious order understood this and used the vernacular to evangelize and educate the “lower” classes -- at the time a rising middle class in Germany. It was the vernacular and not Latin that Martin learned to use in his street orations, and he naturally turned to the vernacular for his message to his German colleagues as he sought a way to embody his new theology. And it was his use of the printing press to get that vernacular message out quickly and effectively that made the difference: he would have loved our current social media and given President Trump a run for his money on Twitter. For also in Germany, a little over 50 years earlier, Johann Gutenberg, a goldsmith with an engineer/inventor’s eye, pushed the printing press from a random series of parts into an extremely efficient engine of publication. While some form of a printing press, including movable type, was created around 1000 CE in China and Korea, the version in Europe by that time was not that sophisticated. Gutenberg used his goldsmith skills to create a more easily manipulated type made with lead and an oil-based ink as well as a stable frame with screw-down plates. Unfortunately after producing 180 copies of the world’s most famous copy of the bible (48 of which still remain; one of which is here in Austin at UT’s Harry Ransom Center), he was pushed out by his partners and died in relative obscurity in 1468. The press was enhanced by new and cheaper forms of paper made possible by also innovations of the Chinese and the Muslims, the latter who brought the processes with them to Spain in the 13th and 14th centuries. So despite his short time on the stage of history, Gutenberg and his invention transformed the production of scholarly and political discourse for the next 500 years. The stableness of the press made authorship more reliable, and Luther and his followers understood well how to use the “power of the press” to distribute Luther’s ideas. It was also amazingly efficient: before Gutenberg, there were less than 30,000 books in all of Europe; because of his invention, by 1500 there were anywhere from 9-20 million books; by 1600 historians estimate something between 150-200 million. Printing presses could print broadsides (what we might view as posters, mostly images with some text), pamphlets, and books. While Luther was proficient in utilizing all three to get his message out, it was the pamphlets that he primarily employed to share his theses and theology. Between 1518-1520, most historians believe that Luther was able to distribute across Germany (and quickly as far as Italy and England) 300,000 printed copies of his tracks. Luther never slowed down, in fact he produced publications each year from 1517 until his death in 1546, including a translation into the vernacular (German) of the Bible. Luther and the printing press didn’t just change religion, it changed history: his translation influenced other vernacular translations -- most notably for Americans the King James Bible (KJV). When the common folk could read a book as rich as the bible for themselves, they didn’t just embrace a more democratic theology (“a priesthood of all believers”), they had the tools to educate themselves in all ways. For Martin Luther a good and effective education led to right action and life-long learning: “the earnest desire to educate the young [will] benefit and serve the world with able men and women…. [N]o effort or expense should be spared to provide good libraries” LW46, 370-373. For Luther libraries provided that life-long learning support. With the right resources [a good library], the right education, and the right vehicle to get your message out, you too could “take the world by storm” just like Luther. Edgar Rodriguez ('19, '21) was recently hired by a multinational corporation. Learn more about his amazing story! Concordia’s location in Austin, Texas, offers students access to abundant job opportunities with major organizations headquartered in the capital city. Learn more about nine surprising career paths that are ideal for English majors.	1,169	ENGLISH	1
Little is actually known about England’s patron Saint George, whose feast day falls today. What we do know is that he was born circa 280 in Cappadocia, an area that is now part of Turkey and that Emperor Diocletian executed St. George on April 23, 303, in Palestine, for protesting Diocletian’s persecution of Christians. this is a man who was willing to go to his death for love of Christ. George was written about by Eusebius of Caesarea and made known to England by Arculphus and Adamnan in the early 700s. He was made patron saint of England in 1098, after appearing to soldiers at the Battle of Antioch. And he will be forever linked with the great legend of his defeating a dragon which was terrorising a community and holding it to ransom. Some historians have suggested the dragon may have been a crocodile. Others think George might have slain one of the last living dinosaurs. Others believe there never was a dangerous beast and that the story is fable. Whatever the truth the story is powerful and works effectively as allegory. You can use the story to speak of St. George as the symbol of good overcoming the dragon which is the symbol of evil. Or you can see the captured princess as a symbol of purity which is under threat from the dragon as a symbol of lust, conquered by the Christian virtue of St. George. Or George can represent Christianity overcoming paganism which is the dragon. What a great tale it is! Today the last word simply must go to Shakespeare.	<urn:uuid:c8f7a03b-d228-4ec3-a3e1-0912be3195fd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.tunbridgewells-ordinariate.com/blog/?p=1395	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00239.warc.gz	en	0.981332	325	3.28125	3	[ 0.2165994942188263, 0.07541198283433914, 0.44739386439323425, -0.10632260143756866, -0.29914590716362, -0.3455336093902588, 0.3001263737678528, 0.394115686416626, -0.012511535547673702, 0.13187894225120544, 0.11361173540353775, -0.06575392186641693, 0.3294735848903656, 0.08840105682611465,...	1	Little is actually known about England’s patron Saint George, whose feast day falls today. What we do know is that he was born circa 280 in Cappadocia, an area that is now part of Turkey and that Emperor Diocletian executed St. George on April 23, 303, in Palestine, for protesting Diocletian’s persecution of Christians. this is a man who was willing to go to his death for love of Christ. George was written about by Eusebius of Caesarea and made known to England by Arculphus and Adamnan in the early 700s. He was made patron saint of England in 1098, after appearing to soldiers at the Battle of Antioch. And he will be forever linked with the great legend of his defeating a dragon which was terrorising a community and holding it to ransom. Some historians have suggested the dragon may have been a crocodile. Others think George might have slain one of the last living dinosaurs. Others believe there never was a dangerous beast and that the story is fable. Whatever the truth the story is powerful and works effectively as allegory. You can use the story to speak of St. George as the symbol of good overcoming the dragon which is the symbol of evil. Or you can see the captured princess as a symbol of purity which is under threat from the dragon as a symbol of lust, conquered by the Christian virtue of St. George. Or George can represent Christianity overcoming paganism which is the dragon. What a great tale it is! Today the last word simply must go to Shakespeare.	334	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Essay Pages: 3 (553 words) By the end of Act II, of Hamlet, the power struggle between Hamlet and Claudius has heightened. Claudius, the current king of Denmark is constantly on edge. The question comes into play, does Hamlet know of his uncle’s actions prior to taking the throne and his intentions for Hamlet. Hamlet however, is deeply despaired by the sudden death of his father and the incestuous marriage of his mother. The ghost of his father appears to Hamlet, telling him to avenge a murder. With Hamlet’s negative view of his uncle it is plausible that this “ghost” is just a figment of his imagination, an excuse for Hamlet’s hatred toward his uncle. So, who has the upper hand at this point? Claudius who has just murdered his brother, is a coward in confrontation, and is insecure with Hamlet being out of his sight, or Hamlet who, in grieving, is approached by a ghost, possibly goes insane, but is still able to carefully plot against the king. Hamlet is depressed over his father’s death. Throughout the beginning of the play he wears nothing but black. His mother also marries shortly after his father’s death. This changes his outlook on woman. In his soliloquy, “Frailty, thy name is woman,” he contests his mother for being weak. Hamlet sees the ghost of his deceased father dressed in armor. His father wants Hamlet to avenge the serpent that poisoned him. Hamlet sees the ghost dressed in armor as an omen; even a spirit doesn’t feel safe in Denmark. Hamlet is aware that Claudius is using Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to spy on him. He devises a plot where he is to act mad so that those around him might reveal information about his father’s death. He also, plans to prove Claudius’ guilt through a play in which a nephew kills his uncle. Hamlet views himself as a coward because of his inability to act, but he must way out the consequences if Claudius is truly innocent Hamlet will be persecuted for treason. Claudius has murdered his brother and married his “sister”. As king he has proved to be a coward in times of war. Claudius chose to write letters to Norway begging the king to halt further action by Fortinbras. Claudius has asked Hamlet to stay in Denmark, so that he could watch over him. He is insecure with his reign; Claudius is fearful that Hamlet could seize the crown from him. He has asked Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to pretend to be friendly to Hamlet to find the source of his madness. By the end of Act II, Hamlet has the upper hand in the power struggle between him and the king. Claudius is fearful of Hamlet even before Hamlet devises his plan, he will soon be sent over the edge. Hamlet has the most to lose; he cannot approach the kind without evidence because he will be tried for treason. Also, Hamlet is aware of his flaws. He says that the ghost could’ve have been contracted in his mind. Also, by calling himself a coward he is aware that he is procrastinating. Hamlet shows evidence as a leader in his cunning ability to gather information before he acts. He is aware that he is going through hardships and wishes to have concrete evidence, instead of acting out of instinct. Cite this page Power Struggle Between Hamlet and Claudius. (2017, Jan 10). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/power-struggle-between-hamlet-and-claudius-essay	<urn:uuid:95c3f0c7-c1da-49c6-abbd-afb314283392>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/power-struggle-between-hamlet-and-claudius-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00005.warc.gz	en	0.987217	794	3.484375	3	[ 0.1068325862288475, 0.21153035759925842, 0.20398008823394775, -0.10357511043548584, -0.17389646172523499, 0.267270565032959, 0.4426601529121399, 0.34489601850509644, 0.05753931775689125, -0.4352511167526245, 0.2581581771373749, -0.16278982162475586, -0.13593247532844543, 0.2020899951457977...	1	Paper type: Essay Pages: 3 (553 words) By the end of Act II, of Hamlet, the power struggle between Hamlet and Claudius has heightened. Claudius, the current king of Denmark is constantly on edge. The question comes into play, does Hamlet know of his uncle’s actions prior to taking the throne and his intentions for Hamlet. Hamlet however, is deeply despaired by the sudden death of his father and the incestuous marriage of his mother. The ghost of his father appears to Hamlet, telling him to avenge a murder. With Hamlet’s negative view of his uncle it is plausible that this “ghost” is just a figment of his imagination, an excuse for Hamlet’s hatred toward his uncle. So, who has the upper hand at this point? Claudius who has just murdered his brother, is a coward in confrontation, and is insecure with Hamlet being out of his sight, or Hamlet who, in grieving, is approached by a ghost, possibly goes insane, but is still able to carefully plot against the king. Hamlet is depressed over his father’s death. Throughout the beginning of the play he wears nothing but black. His mother also marries shortly after his father’s death. This changes his outlook on woman. In his soliloquy, “Frailty, thy name is woman,” he contests his mother for being weak. Hamlet sees the ghost of his deceased father dressed in armor. His father wants Hamlet to avenge the serpent that poisoned him. Hamlet sees the ghost dressed in armor as an omen; even a spirit doesn’t feel safe in Denmark. Hamlet is aware that Claudius is using Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to spy on him. He devises a plot where he is to act mad so that those around him might reveal information about his father’s death. He also, plans to prove Claudius’ guilt through a play in which a nephew kills his uncle. Hamlet views himself as a coward because of his inability to act, but he must way out the consequences if Claudius is truly innocent Hamlet will be persecuted for treason. Claudius has murdered his brother and married his “sister”. As king he has proved to be a coward in times of war. Claudius chose to write letters to Norway begging the king to halt further action by Fortinbras. Claudius has asked Hamlet to stay in Denmark, so that he could watch over him. He is insecure with his reign; Claudius is fearful that Hamlet could seize the crown from him. He has asked Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to pretend to be friendly to Hamlet to find the source of his madness. By the end of Act II, Hamlet has the upper hand in the power struggle between him and the king. Claudius is fearful of Hamlet even before Hamlet devises his plan, he will soon be sent over the edge. Hamlet has the most to lose; he cannot approach the kind without evidence because he will be tried for treason. Also, Hamlet is aware of his flaws. He says that the ghost could’ve have been contracted in his mind. Also, by calling himself a coward he is aware that he is procrastinating. Hamlet shows evidence as a leader in his cunning ability to gather information before he acts. He is aware that he is going through hardships and wishes to have concrete evidence, instead of acting out of instinct. Cite this page Power Struggle Between Hamlet and Claudius. (2017, Jan 10). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/power-struggle-between-hamlet-and-claudius-essay	759	ENGLISH	1
Genesis 1:14-18: “And God said, “Let there be lights in the vault of the sky to separate the day from the night, and let them serve as signs to mark sacred times, and days and years, and let them be lights in the vault of the sky to give light on the earth.” And it was so. God made two great lights—the greater light to govern the day and the lesser light to govern the night. He also made the stars. God set them in the vault of the sky to give light on the earth, to govern the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw that it was good.” At the end of each day of the creation, we read the phrase “evening and morning, the first/second/third/fourth/fifth/or sixth day.” Today we think of day as being the full rotation of the earth. We measure it by the rising and setting of the sun. We know, of course, that the sun does not rise or set, but it appears to be doing so based on our view here from the earth. If there was no sun, we would still have the earth’s rotation. Rotation, not daylight, is the measure of a day. Moreover, before the sun was created on the 4th day, there was still a source of light. In Genesis 1:3, God said “Let there be light.” This was a physical light, not something metaphorical. There are many other forms of light such as ultraviolet and infrared, among others. We do not fully know where this source of light came from, but we do know light was there. Some say the source of light was from God himself because God is light (1 John 1:5). We do not need light to define the length of a day; we only need the earth’s rotation. More information can be found here.	<urn:uuid:3bc312d3-7b6d-408f-bd90-13da3a595fec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.rtgmin.org/tag/sun/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00396.warc.gz	en	0.9804	407	3.40625	3	[ 0.05753569304943085, 0.113185815513134, -0.2707101106643677, -0.36042216420173645, 0.17438265681266785, 0.08708356320858002, 0.10056813806295395, -0.056074079126119614, 0.28418484330177307, 0.5866753458976746, -0.1233692392706871, -0.04125164449214935, -0.17707043886184692, 0.3077463805675...	1	Genesis 1:14-18: “And God said, “Let there be lights in the vault of the sky to separate the day from the night, and let them serve as signs to mark sacred times, and days and years, and let them be lights in the vault of the sky to give light on the earth.” And it was so. God made two great lights—the greater light to govern the day and the lesser light to govern the night. He also made the stars. God set them in the vault of the sky to give light on the earth, to govern the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw that it was good.” At the end of each day of the creation, we read the phrase “evening and morning, the first/second/third/fourth/fifth/or sixth day.” Today we think of day as being the full rotation of the earth. We measure it by the rising and setting of the sun. We know, of course, that the sun does not rise or set, but it appears to be doing so based on our view here from the earth. If there was no sun, we would still have the earth’s rotation. Rotation, not daylight, is the measure of a day. Moreover, before the sun was created on the 4th day, there was still a source of light. In Genesis 1:3, God said “Let there be light.” This was a physical light, not something metaphorical. There are many other forms of light such as ultraviolet and infrared, among others. We do not fully know where this source of light came from, but we do know light was there. Some say the source of light was from God himself because God is light (1 John 1:5). We do not need light to define the length of a day; we only need the earth’s rotation. More information can be found here.	394	ENGLISH	1
On this day in 1864, a visitor from Seattle held a meeting in Lowell. Asa Mercer explained to his largely female audience that there was a great scarcity of teachers in the Washington Territory. Jobs — and single men — were plentiful. Both were in short supply in Massachusetts. Any woman who could raise the money for her passage would readily find a teaching position — and soon a husband. Mercer also appealed to the women's sense of duty: "their presence and influence were so much needed" in the West, he told them. In spite of the opportunities Seattle offered, it was unimaginably far away. Only 11 women chose to accompany Mercer on his journey home. These brave teacher-pioneers were long known as the "Mercer Girls."	<urn:uuid:f21e3abe-97a4-4880-905c-91725b6599fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.massmoments.org/index/lists/186/themes/firsts.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00377.warc.gz	en	0.989788	151	4.03125	4	[ -0.057852160185575485, 0.17319859564304352, 0.1314544379711151, 0.09976864606142044, -0.24920472502708435, 0.2833245098590851, 0.05304046720266342, 0.18079951405525208, -0.24497491121292114, -0.2809924781322479, 0.21455515921115875, 0.013894394971430302, 0.004932845011353493, 0.09738550335...	3	On this day in 1864, a visitor from Seattle held a meeting in Lowell. Asa Mercer explained to his largely female audience that there was a great scarcity of teachers in the Washington Territory. Jobs — and single men — were plentiful. Both were in short supply in Massachusetts. Any woman who could raise the money for her passage would readily find a teaching position — and soon a husband. Mercer also appealed to the women's sense of duty: "their presence and influence were so much needed" in the West, he told them. In spite of the opportunities Seattle offered, it was unimaginably far away. Only 11 women chose to accompany Mercer on his journey home. These brave teacher-pioneers were long known as the "Mercer Girls."	155	ENGLISH	1
The following is a list of very well-known Americans, organized by how they contributed to the United States. The following people all held high public office in the government of the United States, especially President. - George Washington (1732-1799) was America’s first President. Before becoming President, he was a soldier, serving as a colonel in the French and Indian War and as the leader of the Continental Army during the American Revolution. He was also head of the Constitutional Convention, when the United States wrote the basic laws that govern our country. He is called the “Father of Our Country” because without him, many believe that the United States would not have existed, at least as we know it. - Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) was President of the United States during the American Civil War, during which he tried to save the Union. He is known as the “Great Emancipator” because he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which eventually freed millions of slaves. He is also known for being born in a log cabin and giving a speech called the Gettysburg Address. He was the first President to be assassinated (he was shot and killed). - Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was President of the United States from 1801-1809. During his presidency, the United States purchased a large area of land known as the Louisiana Purchase. Before he was President, he wrote most of the Declaration of Independence. He is also known for being a political thinker, founding the University of Virginia, and for bringing several innovations to America. - Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) was President from 1901-1909. Before being President, he fought in the Spanish-American War and was Governor of New York. He advocated a strong foreign policy known as the “Big Stick”, started building the Panama Canal, and broke up several monopolies (companies that control all of an industry). Thanks to his presidency, the United States became one of the most powerful countries in the world. - Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) was President from 1933-1945. He took office during the Great Depression, a period when a quarter of the country had no jobs. He responded by creating a series of programs known as the New Deal, which created jobs and started federal welfare (giving money to people who don’t have much). He was also President during the Second World War. He suffered from a disease called polio and could not use his legs very well. - James Madison (1751-1836) was President from 1809-1817, during the War of 1812. He is known as the “Father of the Constitution” because many of the basic laws that govern our country were his idea. He wrote some of The Federalist Papers, which convinced people that the Constitution was a good idea. - John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) was President from 1961-1963. He was popular among many Americans because he looked like a movie star. Kennedy was President during the Cold War, which was a struggle between the US and the Soviet Union to see who was more powerful. He was assassinated, meaning that somebody shot him and he died. He had brothers, Robert Kennedy and Ted Kennedy, who were also in politics. - Barack Obama (born 1961) was President of the United States from 2009-2017 and the first African-American President. Before being President, he gave a famous speech in 2004 and served as a Senator. He was elected President because many Americans thought he could bring hope and change to America. As President, he had to deal with the worst economy since the Great Depression. - Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was active in the movement to achieve independence from England. He helped write the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation (the laws that the United States had before the Constitution). He lived much of his life in Philadelphia, but also went to England and France to represent America. Besides being a politician, he is credited with inventing the lightning rod and founded several institutions, including the first public library in the United States. He was a printer and an author of a yearly book called Poor Richard’s Almanack. - Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804) was active in the American government at its founding. He helped get the Constitution ratified, meaning he found support for it among the American people. He is credited for establishing American monetary policy, which is the way the United States and its government deal with money. He wanted the United States government to be very, very powerful, perhaps even more powerful than it is today. - John Marshall (1755-1835) was the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1801-1835. He started judicial review, meaning that the Supreme Court could undo a law if they thought it didn’t fit with the U.S. Constitution. Many of his rulings influence what the U.S. government is able to do to this day. - Henry Clay (1777-1852, near right) and Daniel Webster (1782-1852, far right) both served as Congressmen, Senators and Secretary of State (the person who is in charge of dealing with how the U.S. relates to other countries) during the early and mid-19th century. Though neither was elected President, both are thought to be two of America’s greatest statesmen. Clay was known as the “Great Compromiser” because he made agreements that stopped states from leaving the Union until after his death. Webster was a great speaker and argued many important cases before the Supreme Court. The following people served as high-ranking officers in the U.S. Army. - Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) was a general in the American Civil War on the side of the Union (North). He is responsible for several victories, such as Vicksburg and Petersburg, that helped the North win the war. He eventually was in charge of all Union armies and forced the surrender of Robert E. Lee. He became President in 1869. - Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969) was a general in World War II. He was placed in charge of all the Allied forces in Europe. He organized the troops that invaded Normandy on D-Day and helped the Soviets win the war in Europe. After the war, he was in charge of all the troops in NATO (a group of countries including the U.S., Canada, and most of Europe) and became President. - Robert E. Lee (1807-1870) was an officer in the U.S. Army who left to become a general in the Confederacy (the South, the states that were trying to leave the U.S.). Despite not having as many men, he won many battles because he was very smart. He eventually lost to Grant. Pioneers of EqualityEdit - Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968) was a Baptist minister and a leader in the fight for equality for African-Americans in the 1950s and 1960s. Before King, the South had a policy of discrimination, meaning blacks and whites in many areas had to go to different schools, sit in different places on the bus, and even use different drinking fountains. King led non-violent protests that led to laws that ended discrimination. In 1963, he led a March on Washington and gave the “I Have a Dream” speech. - Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906, standing) and Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902, sitting) were leaders of the women’s suffrage movement, meaning that they fought for women’s right to vote (before 1920, women could not vote in elections for President). In 1848, Stanton organized the Seneca Falls Convention, which was a meeting of people who thought women should get rights equal to men. In 1872, Anthony attempted to vote for President to call attention to the fact that women were not allowed to vote. - Frederick Douglass (1818-1895) was an African-American and a leader in the Abolitionist movement, meaning that he wanted to end slavery. Douglass was born a slave, but escaped from slavery. He gave many speeches and wrote a newspaper and a book, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. He encouraged thousands of blacks to join the Union Army during the American Civil War. After the Civil War, he was the U.S.’ man in Haiti. - Harriet Tubman (1820-1913) was an African-American and a leader of the Underground Railroad, a secret effort to free slaves. She reportedly freed hundreds of slaves. She was a spy during the Civil War. After the Civil War, she was active in fighting for women to have the right to vote. - Rosa Parks (1913-2005) was an African-American and a leader in the Civil Rights movement. She was told by a white man to give up her seat on a bus in Birmingham, Alabama, but refused. This led to a boycott by blacks of Birmingham buses and ultimately to anti-discrimination laws. She was a symbol of the Civil Rights Movement. - Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962) was the wife of Franklin D. Roosevelt. During his term as President, she was one of the most active First Ladies ever, interacting with many everyday citizens. After FDR died, she was a delegate to the brand-new United Nations, where she helped write and pass the Declaration of Human Rights (a statement of rights that everybody everywhere should have). This earned her the nickname “First Lady of the World.” - Cesar Chavez (1927-1993) was a Hispanic farm worker. He started the United Farm Workers, a labor union for people working on farms to get paid and treated better. Inventors and InnovatorsEdit - Thomas Edison (1847-1931) is most famous for inventing the first practical light bulb in 1879. He also invented many other things, including the phonograph (an old way of listening to recorded sound) and the movie camera. He built the world’s first electrical power plant. - Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) is most famous for inventing a telephone in 1876. He also invented the gramophone, which was similar to Edison’s phonograph. He was one of the founders of the National Geographic Society, which makes National Geographic magazine. He was also a teacher for the deaf. - The Wright Brothers, Orville (1871-1948, near right) and Wilbur (1867-1912, far right), are credited with the first practical, sustained, controlled, powered flight, which was at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903. This leads many to credit them with the invention of the airplane. They also invented the wind tunnel. - Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a German-American physicist. While still in Europe, he developed the theory of relativity and the equation e=mc2. He later moved to United States and helped design the atomic bomb. - Henry Ford (1863-1947) was a businessman and pioneer in the auto industry. His company, Ford Motor Company, was the first to use moving assembly lines. to build cars, and the first to sell cars that most people could afford to buy. - Marie Curie (1867-1934) was a Polish-American physicist and chemist that conducted research on radioactivity. Other Famous AmericansEdit - Mark Twain (1835-1910), whose real name was Samuel Clemens, was a famous American author. Many of his books, such as Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn, focus on the Mississippi River, where he once served as a steamboat pilot. He was also a humorist (a person who tells jokes and funny stories). - Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809, near right) and William Clark (1770-1838, far right) were chosen by Thomas Jefferson to explore the Louisiana Purchase, a large land area which today is much of the Central and Western United States. They left St. Louis in 1804, and reached the Pacific in 1806, viewing much of the West on the way and writing down what they saw. After their exploration, Lewis became Governor of Louisiana and Clark became Governor of Missouri. - Sacagawea (1788?-1812?) was an interpreter and alleged guide to Lewis and Clark in their travels in the American West. She was the wife of a French fur trader who was a member of Lewis and Clark’s Expedition. Very little is known about her life. She appears on one version of the dollar coin. - Clara Barton (1821-1912) founded the American Red Cross, which is one of the world’s largest relief organizations. She was inspired to do so by the death and injury she witnessed in the American Civil War, when she was in charge of finding missing men. - Elvis Presley (1935-1977) was a popular American singer. He is one of the most famous singers of the Rock and Roll genre. He was from Memphis, TN. - Morgan Freeman (1964–present) An African American actor known for his powerful voice. Articles regarding these people can also be found both at the Simple English Wikipedia and at the English Wikipedia. Many of these people also have articles in other languages, such as Spanish.	<urn:uuid:72550441-f81f-4893-a84d-cbaec9425350>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:Famous_Americans	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00038.warc.gz	en	0.986576	2,811	3.421875	3	[ -0.16233058273792267, 0.3609413504600525, 0.41397637128829956, -0.15548650920391083, -0.11336374282836914, 0.3503009080886841, 0.40962621569633484, -0.055966734886169434, 0.15277564525604248, 0.10611288994550705, 0.47031018137931824, 0.49233320355415344, -0.04889417439699173, 0.49892285466...	6	The following is a list of very well-known Americans, organized by how they contributed to the United States. The following people all held high public office in the government of the United States, especially President. - George Washington (1732-1799) was America’s first President. Before becoming President, he was a soldier, serving as a colonel in the French and Indian War and as the leader of the Continental Army during the American Revolution. He was also head of the Constitutional Convention, when the United States wrote the basic laws that govern our country. He is called the “Father of Our Country” because without him, many believe that the United States would not have existed, at least as we know it. - Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) was President of the United States during the American Civil War, during which he tried to save the Union. He is known as the “Great Emancipator” because he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which eventually freed millions of slaves. He is also known for being born in a log cabin and giving a speech called the Gettysburg Address. He was the first President to be assassinated (he was shot and killed). - Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was President of the United States from 1801-1809. During his presidency, the United States purchased a large area of land known as the Louisiana Purchase. Before he was President, he wrote most of the Declaration of Independence. He is also known for being a political thinker, founding the University of Virginia, and for bringing several innovations to America. - Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) was President from 1901-1909. Before being President, he fought in the Spanish-American War and was Governor of New York. He advocated a strong foreign policy known as the “Big Stick”, started building the Panama Canal, and broke up several monopolies (companies that control all of an industry). Thanks to his presidency, the United States became one of the most powerful countries in the world. - Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) was President from 1933-1945. He took office during the Great Depression, a period when a quarter of the country had no jobs. He responded by creating a series of programs known as the New Deal, which created jobs and started federal welfare (giving money to people who don’t have much). He was also President during the Second World War. He suffered from a disease called polio and could not use his legs very well. - James Madison (1751-1836) was President from 1809-1817, during the War of 1812. He is known as the “Father of the Constitution” because many of the basic laws that govern our country were his idea. He wrote some of The Federalist Papers, which convinced people that the Constitution was a good idea. - John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) was President from 1961-1963. He was popular among many Americans because he looked like a movie star. Kennedy was President during the Cold War, which was a struggle between the US and the Soviet Union to see who was more powerful. He was assassinated, meaning that somebody shot him and he died. He had brothers, Robert Kennedy and Ted Kennedy, who were also in politics. - Barack Obama (born 1961) was President of the United States from 2009-2017 and the first African-American President. Before being President, he gave a famous speech in 2004 and served as a Senator. He was elected President because many Americans thought he could bring hope and change to America. As President, he had to deal with the worst economy since the Great Depression. - Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was active in the movement to achieve independence from England. He helped write the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation (the laws that the United States had before the Constitution). He lived much of his life in Philadelphia, but also went to England and France to represent America. Besides being a politician, he is credited with inventing the lightning rod and founded several institutions, including the first public library in the United States. He was a printer and an author of a yearly book called Poor Richard’s Almanack. - Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804) was active in the American government at its founding. He helped get the Constitution ratified, meaning he found support for it among the American people. He is credited for establishing American monetary policy, which is the way the United States and its government deal with money. He wanted the United States government to be very, very powerful, perhaps even more powerful than it is today. - John Marshall (1755-1835) was the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1801-1835. He started judicial review, meaning that the Supreme Court could undo a law if they thought it didn’t fit with the U.S. Constitution. Many of his rulings influence what the U.S. government is able to do to this day. - Henry Clay (1777-1852, near right) and Daniel Webster (1782-1852, far right) both served as Congressmen, Senators and Secretary of State (the person who is in charge of dealing with how the U.S. relates to other countries) during the early and mid-19th century. Though neither was elected President, both are thought to be two of America’s greatest statesmen. Clay was known as the “Great Compromiser” because he made agreements that stopped states from leaving the Union until after his death. Webster was a great speaker and argued many important cases before the Supreme Court. The following people served as high-ranking officers in the U.S. Army. - Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) was a general in the American Civil War on the side of the Union (North). He is responsible for several victories, such as Vicksburg and Petersburg, that helped the North win the war. He eventually was in charge of all Union armies and forced the surrender of Robert E. Lee. He became President in 1869. - Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969) was a general in World War II. He was placed in charge of all the Allied forces in Europe. He organized the troops that invaded Normandy on D-Day and helped the Soviets win the war in Europe. After the war, he was in charge of all the troops in NATO (a group of countries including the U.S., Canada, and most of Europe) and became President. - Robert E. Lee (1807-1870) was an officer in the U.S. Army who left to become a general in the Confederacy (the South, the states that were trying to leave the U.S.). Despite not having as many men, he won many battles because he was very smart. He eventually lost to Grant. Pioneers of EqualityEdit - Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968) was a Baptist minister and a leader in the fight for equality for African-Americans in the 1950s and 1960s. Before King, the South had a policy of discrimination, meaning blacks and whites in many areas had to go to different schools, sit in different places on the bus, and even use different drinking fountains. King led non-violent protests that led to laws that ended discrimination. In 1963, he led a March on Washington and gave the “I Have a Dream” speech. - Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906, standing) and Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902, sitting) were leaders of the women’s suffrage movement, meaning that they fought for women’s right to vote (before 1920, women could not vote in elections for President). In 1848, Stanton organized the Seneca Falls Convention, which was a meeting of people who thought women should get rights equal to men. In 1872, Anthony attempted to vote for President to call attention to the fact that women were not allowed to vote. - Frederick Douglass (1818-1895) was an African-American and a leader in the Abolitionist movement, meaning that he wanted to end slavery. Douglass was born a slave, but escaped from slavery. He gave many speeches and wrote a newspaper and a book, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. He encouraged thousands of blacks to join the Union Army during the American Civil War. After the Civil War, he was the U.S.’ man in Haiti. - Harriet Tubman (1820-1913) was an African-American and a leader of the Underground Railroad, a secret effort to free slaves. She reportedly freed hundreds of slaves. She was a spy during the Civil War. After the Civil War, she was active in fighting for women to have the right to vote. - Rosa Parks (1913-2005) was an African-American and a leader in the Civil Rights movement. She was told by a white man to give up her seat on a bus in Birmingham, Alabama, but refused. This led to a boycott by blacks of Birmingham buses and ultimately to anti-discrimination laws. She was a symbol of the Civil Rights Movement. - Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962) was the wife of Franklin D. Roosevelt. During his term as President, she was one of the most active First Ladies ever, interacting with many everyday citizens. After FDR died, she was a delegate to the brand-new United Nations, where she helped write and pass the Declaration of Human Rights (a statement of rights that everybody everywhere should have). This earned her the nickname “First Lady of the World.” - Cesar Chavez (1927-1993) was a Hispanic farm worker. He started the United Farm Workers, a labor union for people working on farms to get paid and treated better. Inventors and InnovatorsEdit - Thomas Edison (1847-1931) is most famous for inventing the first practical light bulb in 1879. He also invented many other things, including the phonograph (an old way of listening to recorded sound) and the movie camera. He built the world’s first electrical power plant. - Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) is most famous for inventing a telephone in 1876. He also invented the gramophone, which was similar to Edison’s phonograph. He was one of the founders of the National Geographic Society, which makes National Geographic magazine. He was also a teacher for the deaf. - The Wright Brothers, Orville (1871-1948, near right) and Wilbur (1867-1912, far right), are credited with the first practical, sustained, controlled, powered flight, which was at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903. This leads many to credit them with the invention of the airplane. They also invented the wind tunnel. - Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a German-American physicist. While still in Europe, he developed the theory of relativity and the equation e=mc2. He later moved to United States and helped design the atomic bomb. - Henry Ford (1863-1947) was a businessman and pioneer in the auto industry. His company, Ford Motor Company, was the first to use moving assembly lines. to build cars, and the first to sell cars that most people could afford to buy. - Marie Curie (1867-1934) was a Polish-American physicist and chemist that conducted research on radioactivity. Other Famous AmericansEdit - Mark Twain (1835-1910), whose real name was Samuel Clemens, was a famous American author. Many of his books, such as Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn, focus on the Mississippi River, where he once served as a steamboat pilot. He was also a humorist (a person who tells jokes and funny stories). - Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809, near right) and William Clark (1770-1838, far right) were chosen by Thomas Jefferson to explore the Louisiana Purchase, a large land area which today is much of the Central and Western United States. They left St. Louis in 1804, and reached the Pacific in 1806, viewing much of the West on the way and writing down what they saw. After their exploration, Lewis became Governor of Louisiana and Clark became Governor of Missouri. - Sacagawea (1788?-1812?) was an interpreter and alleged guide to Lewis and Clark in their travels in the American West. She was the wife of a French fur trader who was a member of Lewis and Clark’s Expedition. Very little is known about her life. She appears on one version of the dollar coin. - Clara Barton (1821-1912) founded the American Red Cross, which is one of the world’s largest relief organizations. She was inspired to do so by the death and injury she witnessed in the American Civil War, when she was in charge of finding missing men. - Elvis Presley (1935-1977) was a popular American singer. He is one of the most famous singers of the Rock and Roll genre. He was from Memphis, TN. - Morgan Freeman (1964–present) An African American actor known for his powerful voice. Articles regarding these people can also be found both at the Simple English Wikipedia and at the English Wikipedia. Many of these people also have articles in other languages, such as Spanish.	2,973	ENGLISH	1
War of 1812 The Principles of War can be illustrated by small campaigns as well as great, and by old campaigns as well as those of our own times. It would be difficult to find a series of operations providing a much better object lesson than those of 1812 in which Major-General Sir Isaac Brock defeated the attempt of superior United States forces to conquer the Province of Upper Canada. This campaign, fought nearly a century and a half ago against an adversary who is now the fast friend and essential ally or Canada, will repay study by anyone seeking enlightenment as to the qualities that make a great commander. The Situation at the Outbreak of fighting When the United States declared war in June 1812, General Brock was in command of the forces in Upper Canada and was also temporarily administering the civil government of the province. The military problem that faced him was one of extreme difficulty, for the force at his disposal was very small and the boundary line to be defended was very long. There was only one British regiment of the line in Upper Canada. This was the 41st (which is now the Welch Regiment). There was also a considerable detachment of the 10th Royal Veteran Battalion, another of the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles (chiefly used as marines on the Lakes) and one artillery company. Behind these regular forces stood the provincial Militia, which was simply the men of military age organized in paper battalions on a basis of universal service, and at the outbreak of war virtually without training. A considerably larger British force, including five battalions of the line, was stationed in Lower Canada. All told, the two Canada’s (now Ontario and Quebec) were defended by roughly 7000 troops fit to be considered regulars; of these, only a little over 1600 were in the upper province. The United States Government had of course a relatively tremendous reservoir of manpower to draw upon, but its regular army was small. Though the establishment when war broke out was more than 35,000 all ranks, the actual strength was much less. The total number of regulars serving may have been in the vicinity of 13,000. Moreover, a large proportion of these were very recent recruits, and the effective force was certainly not superior to the British regulars in the Canadas alone. During the war, the United States called into service over 450,000 militiamen; but the average efficiency of these citizen soldiers, as events on the battlefield amply showed, was decidedly low. The greater part of the British force had, however, to be retained in Lower Canada, for strategically this was the most important part of the country. Had the Americans followed a sound line of operations, they would have concentrated against Montreal, using the excellent communications available by Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River. The capture of Montreal would have severed the essential line of communication that by the St. Lawrence-on which the defence of Upper Canada entirely depended, and the whole of that province would have fallen into their hands at an early date. The Americans, however, instead of acting in this manner, operated mainly against the frontier of Upper Canada, chopping at the upper branches of the tree rather than the trunk or the roots. In a long view this was fortunate, but it meant that the first shock of their attack had to be met by very inadequate British forces. In the first months of the war, however, the defenders had one decided advantage: they possessed a distinct naval superiority on the Great Lakes. This was due to the existence of the force known as the Provincial Marine of Upper Canada. In a naval sense this force was very inefficient (it was primarily a transport service and was administered by the Quartermaster-General's Department of the Army); but its armed vessels were superior to anything possessed by the Americans on the Lakes in the beginning, and it was in great part responsible for the preservation of Upper Canada in the first campaign. It must be noted that at this time the land communications of the province were extremely primitive, the roads being very few and very bad. Only by water could troops be moved with any speed. Against this advantage we must balance a disadvantage. A large proportion of the population of Upper Canada were recent immigrants from the United States, people who could not be expected to come forward to repel an American invasion. Many other Upper Canadians, though loyal enough in a passive way, considered that the Americans' superiority in physical strength made defence useless. In view of the Canadian schoolbook legend of 1812, it may come as a surprise to some people to know that in July Brock wrote to the Adjutant General at Headquarters in Lower Canada as follows: My situation is most critical, not from any, thing the enemy can do, but from the disposition of the people - The population, believe me is essentially bad - A full belief possesses them all that this Province must inevitably succumb - This prepossession is fatal to every exertion - Legislators, Magistrates, Militia Officers, all, have imbibed the idea, and are so sluggish and indifferent in all their respective offices that the artful and active scoundrel is allowed to parade the Country without interruption, and commit all imaginable mischief . . What a change an additional regiment would make in this part of the Province! Most of the people have lost all confidence I however speak loud and look big. No commentary upon the campaign of 1812 should overlook this element in the situation. With greatly superior forces assembling on the frontier, and with the morale of the population (which was largely identical with the Militia) at such a low ebb, many a commander would have adopted a supine defensive attitude. It was the greatness of Brock that, far from allowing these circumstances to discourage him, he realized that the best hope of carrying out his task successfully lay in assuming a vigorous local offensive.	<urn:uuid:87df38ca-1609-45b9-b431-7349d9c503ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.canadahistory.ca/sections/war/War%20of%201812/War_of_1812.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00492.warc.gz	en	0.983248	1,174	3.765625	4	[ -0.3218485713005066, 0.10591070353984833, 0.7627781629562378, -0.40099644660949707, -0.19576503336429596, 0.030523547902703285, -0.2619946599006653, 0.31517350673675537, -0.3037056028842926, -0.08739100396633148, 0.1434967964887619, -0.18454104661941528, 0.18974637985229492, 0.247600555419...	4	War of 1812 The Principles of War can be illustrated by small campaigns as well as great, and by old campaigns as well as those of our own times. It would be difficult to find a series of operations providing a much better object lesson than those of 1812 in which Major-General Sir Isaac Brock defeated the attempt of superior United States forces to conquer the Province of Upper Canada. This campaign, fought nearly a century and a half ago against an adversary who is now the fast friend and essential ally or Canada, will repay study by anyone seeking enlightenment as to the qualities that make a great commander. The Situation at the Outbreak of fighting When the United States declared war in June 1812, General Brock was in command of the forces in Upper Canada and was also temporarily administering the civil government of the province. The military problem that faced him was one of extreme difficulty, for the force at his disposal was very small and the boundary line to be defended was very long. There was only one British regiment of the line in Upper Canada. This was the 41st (which is now the Welch Regiment). There was also a considerable detachment of the 10th Royal Veteran Battalion, another of the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles (chiefly used as marines on the Lakes) and one artillery company. Behind these regular forces stood the provincial Militia, which was simply the men of military age organized in paper battalions on a basis of universal service, and at the outbreak of war virtually without training. A considerably larger British force, including five battalions of the line, was stationed in Lower Canada. All told, the two Canada’s (now Ontario and Quebec) were defended by roughly 7000 troops fit to be considered regulars; of these, only a little over 1600 were in the upper province. The United States Government had of course a relatively tremendous reservoir of manpower to draw upon, but its regular army was small. Though the establishment when war broke out was more than 35,000 all ranks, the actual strength was much less. The total number of regulars serving may have been in the vicinity of 13,000. Moreover, a large proportion of these were very recent recruits, and the effective force was certainly not superior to the British regulars in the Canadas alone. During the war, the United States called into service over 450,000 militiamen; but the average efficiency of these citizen soldiers, as events on the battlefield amply showed, was decidedly low. The greater part of the British force had, however, to be retained in Lower Canada, for strategically this was the most important part of the country. Had the Americans followed a sound line of operations, they would have concentrated against Montreal, using the excellent communications available by Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River. The capture of Montreal would have severed the essential line of communication that by the St. Lawrence-on which the defence of Upper Canada entirely depended, and the whole of that province would have fallen into their hands at an early date. The Americans, however, instead of acting in this manner, operated mainly against the frontier of Upper Canada, chopping at the upper branches of the tree rather than the trunk or the roots. In a long view this was fortunate, but it meant that the first shock of their attack had to be met by very inadequate British forces. In the first months of the war, however, the defenders had one decided advantage: they possessed a distinct naval superiority on the Great Lakes. This was due to the existence of the force known as the Provincial Marine of Upper Canada. In a naval sense this force was very inefficient (it was primarily a transport service and was administered by the Quartermaster-General's Department of the Army); but its armed vessels were superior to anything possessed by the Americans on the Lakes in the beginning, and it was in great part responsible for the preservation of Upper Canada in the first campaign. It must be noted that at this time the land communications of the province were extremely primitive, the roads being very few and very bad. Only by water could troops be moved with any speed. Against this advantage we must balance a disadvantage. A large proportion of the population of Upper Canada were recent immigrants from the United States, people who could not be expected to come forward to repel an American invasion. Many other Upper Canadians, though loyal enough in a passive way, considered that the Americans' superiority in physical strength made defence useless. In view of the Canadian schoolbook legend of 1812, it may come as a surprise to some people to know that in July Brock wrote to the Adjutant General at Headquarters in Lower Canada as follows: My situation is most critical, not from any, thing the enemy can do, but from the disposition of the people - The population, believe me is essentially bad - A full belief possesses them all that this Province must inevitably succumb - This prepossession is fatal to every exertion - Legislators, Magistrates, Militia Officers, all, have imbibed the idea, and are so sluggish and indifferent in all their respective offices that the artful and active scoundrel is allowed to parade the Country without interruption, and commit all imaginable mischief . . What a change an additional regiment would make in this part of the Province! Most of the people have lost all confidence I however speak loud and look big. No commentary upon the campaign of 1812 should overlook this element in the situation. With greatly superior forces assembling on the frontier, and with the morale of the population (which was largely identical with the Militia) at such a low ebb, many a commander would have adopted a supine defensive attitude. It was the greatness of Brock that, far from allowing these circumstances to discourage him, he realized that the best hope of carrying out his task successfully lay in assuming a vigorous local offensive.	1,214	ENGLISH	1
Donatello carried on the tradition of portraying Mary Magdalene as a figure from history that was perceived to have had long flowing hair. Although there were other images of the cave-dwelling saint in the 13th and 14th century depicting her as being attractive, Donatello decided to carve and mould the saint in a punitive state; ravaged and emaciated from living a life of fasting and solitude. The Penitent Magdalene by Donatello is thought to have ended depictions of Mary Magdalene as being attractive and influenced other artists to render her in a more unfavourable tone for decades later. In the early 15th century, when Donatello sculpted this figure, there was a push by the Roman Catholic Church to promote penitence amongst the faithful. This influence can be clearly seen by the posture of the Penitent Magdalene, her hands nearly joining, as if in prayer, her open mouth like she is begging for forgiveness. Previous depictions of Mary Magdalene’s long flowing hair were a sign of her beauty, but Donatello decided to give her hair a matted and unkempt look thus taking beauty from her and keeping her more in line with the churches change of opinion of her. The hair on the sculpture doesn’t fall smoothly but more in matted ropes, sticking to her face and clinging to her wasted body and the absence of feminine features highlighted by the belt around her thin waist. To construct life-sized figures, Donatello and other artists from that time used one solid piece of wood to start with. These life-sized figures were usually hollowed out but not in Donatello's carvings, which pointed to the fact that Donatello had not been trained in woodworking techniques, so was free from restrictions that more classically trained artists found themselves bound by. What is evident though, is the fact that Donatello grasped and understood the problems that came with working with wood on this sort of scale. The position of the figure in the trunk of wood was done in such an ingenious way, it brought the chance of the wood cracking down to a minimum. Previously artists had shaped the figure then hollowed out the pith at the centre to minimise cracking but since Donatello had not been trained in such techniques, he solved the problem in his own unique way. He shaped the main body of the work from white poplar wood and the finer points were then finished with gesso (stucco). What is striking about the Penitent Magdalene by Donatello is the height of the carving (188cm) and that some of the strands of hair are either individually or partially modelled. This came to light after the carving was damaged in the Florentine flood of 1966. During the restoration of the flood-damaged carving, it was discovered that the Penitent Magdalene is essentially a nude figure with strands of hair nailed or pinned to the main body of the carving. Sometime between 1400 and 1410, before he created the Penitent Magdalene, Donatello created a Crucifix for the Franciscan basilica of Sante Croce. It is regarded as his first masterpiece as a truly independent artist and was completely carved from a solid piece of pear wood. The work that he executed on that piece may have influenced how he proceeded with the work that he carried out on the Penitent Magdalene. There is no doubt that some artists of the Renaissance at the time were eager to emulate Donatello and it was rumoured that both he and the artist Filippo Brunelleschi were in a contest to produce the best Crucifix. Brunelleschi did carve a crucifix from pear wood as well, but this was done later to Donatello’s, between 1410 and 1415. The use of pear wood was an uncommon wood to be used in Tuscany at the time and the fact that his crucifix was also not hollowed out does leave credence to the fact he may have been trying to better Donatello using the same techniques. The Penitent Magdalene by Donatello can be said to have influenced how artists carved and modelled for decades after. The complete crucifix carvings from solid wood by Donatello and Brunelleschi show that both had the capabilities to complete carvings without hollowing out wood. The fact that Donatello used both carving and modelling showed to other artists that the experimentation of the Florence Renaissance and some independent thinking could indeed produce astounding works of art.	<urn:uuid:4cbc270b-5bb0-4f64-bcc3-47f5d1d9e72a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.donatellosculptures.com/penitent-magdalene/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00535.warc.gz	en	0.98069	948	3.46875	3	[ 0.006107022520154715, 0.08338022232055664, 0.5678423643112183, -0.05865656957030296, -0.3248688578605652, 0.4478265643119812, -0.2611778676509857, -0.028928281739354134, 0.21193872392177582, 0.07508578896522522, -0.1791447103023529, -0.6699833869934082, -0.1755412220954895, 0.2294392585754...	4	Donatello carried on the tradition of portraying Mary Magdalene as a figure from history that was perceived to have had long flowing hair. Although there were other images of the cave-dwelling saint in the 13th and 14th century depicting her as being attractive, Donatello decided to carve and mould the saint in a punitive state; ravaged and emaciated from living a life of fasting and solitude. The Penitent Magdalene by Donatello is thought to have ended depictions of Mary Magdalene as being attractive and influenced other artists to render her in a more unfavourable tone for decades later. In the early 15th century, when Donatello sculpted this figure, there was a push by the Roman Catholic Church to promote penitence amongst the faithful. This influence can be clearly seen by the posture of the Penitent Magdalene, her hands nearly joining, as if in prayer, her open mouth like she is begging for forgiveness. Previous depictions of Mary Magdalene’s long flowing hair were a sign of her beauty, but Donatello decided to give her hair a matted and unkempt look thus taking beauty from her and keeping her more in line with the churches change of opinion of her. The hair on the sculpture doesn’t fall smoothly but more in matted ropes, sticking to her face and clinging to her wasted body and the absence of feminine features highlighted by the belt around her thin waist. To construct life-sized figures, Donatello and other artists from that time used one solid piece of wood to start with. These life-sized figures were usually hollowed out but not in Donatello's carvings, which pointed to the fact that Donatello had not been trained in woodworking techniques, so was free from restrictions that more classically trained artists found themselves bound by. What is evident though, is the fact that Donatello grasped and understood the problems that came with working with wood on this sort of scale. The position of the figure in the trunk of wood was done in such an ingenious way, it brought the chance of the wood cracking down to a minimum. Previously artists had shaped the figure then hollowed out the pith at the centre to minimise cracking but since Donatello had not been trained in such techniques, he solved the problem in his own unique way. He shaped the main body of the work from white poplar wood and the finer points were then finished with gesso (stucco). What is striking about the Penitent Magdalene by Donatello is the height of the carving (188cm) and that some of the strands of hair are either individually or partially modelled. This came to light after the carving was damaged in the Florentine flood of 1966. During the restoration of the flood-damaged carving, it was discovered that the Penitent Magdalene is essentially a nude figure with strands of hair nailed or pinned to the main body of the carving. Sometime between 1400 and 1410, before he created the Penitent Magdalene, Donatello created a Crucifix for the Franciscan basilica of Sante Croce. It is regarded as his first masterpiece as a truly independent artist and was completely carved from a solid piece of pear wood. The work that he executed on that piece may have influenced how he proceeded with the work that he carried out on the Penitent Magdalene. There is no doubt that some artists of the Renaissance at the time were eager to emulate Donatello and it was rumoured that both he and the artist Filippo Brunelleschi were in a contest to produce the best Crucifix. Brunelleschi did carve a crucifix from pear wood as well, but this was done later to Donatello’s, between 1410 and 1415. The use of pear wood was an uncommon wood to be used in Tuscany at the time and the fact that his crucifix was also not hollowed out does leave credence to the fact he may have been trying to better Donatello using the same techniques. The Penitent Magdalene by Donatello can be said to have influenced how artists carved and modelled for decades after. The complete crucifix carvings from solid wood by Donatello and Brunelleschi show that both had the capabilities to complete carvings without hollowing out wood. The fact that Donatello used both carving and modelling showed to other artists that the experimentation of the Florence Renaissance and some independent thinking could indeed produce astounding works of art.	952	ENGLISH	1
I always get confused at the usage of these 2 words: what’s the difference between them? " How will I recognise you?" “You will easily recognise my car, as it has no doors.” " I recognised you at once." " Do you realise what you have just said?" " You must realise that not everyone thinks you are great." " I now realise my mistake." ‘Recognise’ means know by looking at someone/something. You can use this as: I recognised you in the school photograph because you haven’t changed a bit in 20 years. ‘Realise’ means understand after consideration as in: I realise now that I made a mistake when I invested that money. Put the two verbs together as in: I see now why you were being so polite to her because at the time I didn’t recognise her and then I realised she was your boss. In my experience (with German learners of English), it is “realise” in the sense of “to be/become aware of sth.” and “recognise” in the sense of “identify, acknowledge or admit that sth. is true” that get confused, and indeed there are situations in which the meaning is close: e.g., back in the 1940s, few people realised (i.e., they were not aware) how dangerous smoking was. back in the 1940s, the government had not yet recognised that smoking posed a health risk. (in other words, the government had failed to identify the danger for the good of others) The government has realised that it has to clamp down on teenage drinking. (i.e., in its own mind, it has become aware) The government has recognised that it has to clamp down on teenage drinking. (i.e., it has acknowledged - perhaps publicly - the need to get tougher) The example I tend to use for a more basic distinction is: I realised that a woman was sitting behind me. She was about about my age, but I didn’t recognise her.	<urn:uuid:2d8b56f1-e908-4f8c-b8f6-844037414b2f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://forum.english.best/t/realize-or-recognize/20081	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00514.warc.gz	en	0.984316	449	3.375	3	[ 0.20146732032299042, 0.04699832201004028, 0.2651907503604889, -0.04947993531823158, -0.0066542914137244225, 0.09895972162485123, 1.3928931951522827, -0.023542111739516258, 0.24972017109394073, -0.4667263925075531, 0.29014453291893005, -0.5086509585380554, -0.10559607297182083, 0.2041417211...	1	I always get confused at the usage of these 2 words: what’s the difference between them? " How will I recognise you?" “You will easily recognise my car, as it has no doors.” " I recognised you at once." " Do you realise what you have just said?" " You must realise that not everyone thinks you are great." " I now realise my mistake." ‘Recognise’ means know by looking at someone/something. You can use this as: I recognised you in the school photograph because you haven’t changed a bit in 20 years. ‘Realise’ means understand after consideration as in: I realise now that I made a mistake when I invested that money. Put the two verbs together as in: I see now why you were being so polite to her because at the time I didn’t recognise her and then I realised she was your boss. In my experience (with German learners of English), it is “realise” in the sense of “to be/become aware of sth.” and “recognise” in the sense of “identify, acknowledge or admit that sth. is true” that get confused, and indeed there are situations in which the meaning is close: e.g., back in the 1940s, few people realised (i.e., they were not aware) how dangerous smoking was. back in the 1940s, the government had not yet recognised that smoking posed a health risk. (in other words, the government had failed to identify the danger for the good of others) The government has realised that it has to clamp down on teenage drinking. (i.e., in its own mind, it has become aware) The government has recognised that it has to clamp down on teenage drinking. (i.e., it has acknowledged - perhaps publicly - the need to get tougher) The example I tend to use for a more basic distinction is: I realised that a woman was sitting behind me. She was about about my age, but I didn’t recognise her.	413	ENGLISH	1
By Corey Jett What it is • Mostly know as mental retardation neurodevelopmental disorder that causes impaired intellectual and adaptive functioning determined by an IQ score under 70 and also includes delay in basic day-to-day living skills. • It is usually caused by an abnormal gene inherited from either parent, error in gene coding, or other reasons. Treatment before mental institutes • Most mentally handicapped people were treated as outsiders, a burden to society. At the time most people thought that they were just really stupid. • In most cases their families were shunned and treated as outsiders as well. How they were treated • In the 1930s mentally retarded people were treated very badly and considered a disgrace to society. • Many were locked up in mental hospitals also known as asylums or insane asylums. They would take them and turn them into prisoners doing experiments and other things on them. • A favorite treatment called electroshock was used to try to zap the disability out of them. They used a headband with conductors on both sides and shocked them repeatedly with upwards of 50 volts of electricity. • Another more gentle approach was hydrotherapy which was exposing patients to baths or showers of warm water for an extended period of time often had a calming effect on them. For this reason, mental hospitals used hydrotherapy as a tool for treating mental illness. • The introduction of thorazine, the first psychotropic drug, was a huge discovery in treatment therapy, making it possible to calm bad behavior, anxiety, agitation, and confusion without using physical restraints. • A more disturbing one is a procedure called lobotomy which is a procedure which the brain's frontal lobe nerves are severed by inserting tools through the eye socket. This process…	<urn:uuid:88eeb8fc-1120-40dd-94f2-ec0b9b49fc89>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Mentally-Handicapped-Pwp-613465.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00140.warc.gz	en	0.981666	361	3.40625	3	[ -0.26679152250289917, 0.13651464879512787, 0.12635552883148193, -0.04758552461862564, -0.2934340238571167, 0.400068461894989, 0.5255944728851318, 0.2109898328781128, -0.18531228601932526, -0.3520534038543701, 0.4923423230648041, 0.04378678277134895, -0.10771775990724564, 0.2732577621936798...	1	By Corey Jett What it is • Mostly know as mental retardation neurodevelopmental disorder that causes impaired intellectual and adaptive functioning determined by an IQ score under 70 and also includes delay in basic day-to-day living skills. • It is usually caused by an abnormal gene inherited from either parent, error in gene coding, or other reasons. Treatment before mental institutes • Most mentally handicapped people were treated as outsiders, a burden to society. At the time most people thought that they were just really stupid. • In most cases their families were shunned and treated as outsiders as well. How they were treated • In the 1930s mentally retarded people were treated very badly and considered a disgrace to society. • Many were locked up in mental hospitals also known as asylums or insane asylums. They would take them and turn them into prisoners doing experiments and other things on them. • A favorite treatment called electroshock was used to try to zap the disability out of them. They used a headband with conductors on both sides and shocked them repeatedly with upwards of 50 volts of electricity. • Another more gentle approach was hydrotherapy which was exposing patients to baths or showers of warm water for an extended period of time often had a calming effect on them. For this reason, mental hospitals used hydrotherapy as a tool for treating mental illness. • The introduction of thorazine, the first psychotropic drug, was a huge discovery in treatment therapy, making it possible to calm bad behavior, anxiety, agitation, and confusion without using physical restraints. • A more disturbing one is a procedure called lobotomy which is a procedure which the brain's frontal lobe nerves are severed by inserting tools through the eye socket. This process…	358	ENGLISH	1
Medieval stained glass is, first of ancient, and identified by its unique use color. It is sometimes painted glass and gets its name from the medieval period in Europe which went from about the 10th century to the 16th century. Much of the stained glass during this period was made up of picture representation: saints, biblical scenes and iconography were are richly displayed. While the reason for this shift to depictions is not exactly clear, it is often thought it was due to the emerging color technology, which gave artists the ability to better use fine detail. One of the first examples of colored window glass is from 800–820 from excavations at the Abbey of San Vincenzo in Volturno, Italy. The medieval period, rich in colored stained glass, started less than 200 years later–meaning it could have been the invention of color that inspired the next 500-600 years of works. The Colors of Medieval Stained Glass As you now know it is the colors that set medieval stained glass apart. So, what type of color was used that so distinguishes this period of stained glass history? Quite a few actually. Impurities in the silica used to make the glass are the reason for most of the colors and this was as often a mistake or experiment as it was intentional. However, some colors were fully developed and dialed in during this span of the Medieval period. Medieval Blue Soda Glass One of the most gorgeous colors in Medieval stained glass is the blue soda glass. The early medieval glass was chemically soda-based. While this blue is stunning, for reasons unknown blue soda glass was quickly replaced with Forest glass. But in its short time, this use of blue was prolific. There has been blue soda stained glass found in UK excavations at Old Sarum, Winchester and even some in France. Red and Green Medieval Stained Glass Green and red stained glass occurred naturally in many cases because of the aforementioned impurities in the silica. However, as the medieval time progressed the colors were likely made by adding copper– in the form of ore or copper filing. Silver Stain Medieval Stained Glass In the early Medieval period, unique colors could be brought forth by carefully controlling the furnace conditions (heat and length of fire). What really was happening was an increase or decrease in oxidizing. But, later in the Medieval period (the 14th century) silver stain was introduced which made it possible to create a wider variety of glass hues by painting on this chemical mixture. The Importance of Medieval Stained Glass As you well know, Medieval stained glass windows were a very long time ago. Be that as it may, they have had a huge impact on the modern glass we see today. Primarily because this was the first era that not only introduced color into stained glass but led to the development of many of the same colors we use today. Furthermore, with the use of color, this period of time started an era of life-like representations of people, places, and things–not unlike much of what we see in stained glass today. For more information on stained glass or to get a stain glass windows designed for your Houston home, contact us here at Custom Stained Glass Houston today!	<urn:uuid:77613c77-61a3-497f-a899-9a59b6d7dae6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.customstainedglasshouston.com/ag/medieval-stained-glass/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00277.warc.gz	en	0.980194	656	3.359375	3	[ -0.30354148149490356, 0.23699477314949036, 0.09105716645717621, -0.4192615747451782, -0.0759902149438858, -0.12336559593677521, 0.020320847630500793, -0.05695436894893646, 0.08552203327417374, -0.09950455278158188, -0.346846342086792, -0.13128936290740967, -0.3774561285972595, 0.3627229928...	1	Medieval stained glass is, first of ancient, and identified by its unique use color. It is sometimes painted glass and gets its name from the medieval period in Europe which went from about the 10th century to the 16th century. Much of the stained glass during this period was made up of picture representation: saints, biblical scenes and iconography were are richly displayed. While the reason for this shift to depictions is not exactly clear, it is often thought it was due to the emerging color technology, which gave artists the ability to better use fine detail. One of the first examples of colored window glass is from 800–820 from excavations at the Abbey of San Vincenzo in Volturno, Italy. The medieval period, rich in colored stained glass, started less than 200 years later–meaning it could have been the invention of color that inspired the next 500-600 years of works. The Colors of Medieval Stained Glass As you now know it is the colors that set medieval stained glass apart. So, what type of color was used that so distinguishes this period of stained glass history? Quite a few actually. Impurities in the silica used to make the glass are the reason for most of the colors and this was as often a mistake or experiment as it was intentional. However, some colors were fully developed and dialed in during this span of the Medieval period. Medieval Blue Soda Glass One of the most gorgeous colors in Medieval stained glass is the blue soda glass. The early medieval glass was chemically soda-based. While this blue is stunning, for reasons unknown blue soda glass was quickly replaced with Forest glass. But in its short time, this use of blue was prolific. There has been blue soda stained glass found in UK excavations at Old Sarum, Winchester and even some in France. Red and Green Medieval Stained Glass Green and red stained glass occurred naturally in many cases because of the aforementioned impurities in the silica. However, as the medieval time progressed the colors were likely made by adding copper– in the form of ore or copper filing. Silver Stain Medieval Stained Glass In the early Medieval period, unique colors could be brought forth by carefully controlling the furnace conditions (heat and length of fire). What really was happening was an increase or decrease in oxidizing. But, later in the Medieval period (the 14th century) silver stain was introduced which made it possible to create a wider variety of glass hues by painting on this chemical mixture. The Importance of Medieval Stained Glass As you well know, Medieval stained glass windows were a very long time ago. Be that as it may, they have had a huge impact on the modern glass we see today. Primarily because this was the first era that not only introduced color into stained glass but led to the development of many of the same colors we use today. Furthermore, with the use of color, this period of time started an era of life-like representations of people, places, and things–not unlike much of what we see in stained glass today. For more information on stained glass or to get a stain glass windows designed for your Houston home, contact us here at Custom Stained Glass Houston today!	667	ENGLISH	1
Bagnell, Missouri facts for kids Location of Bagnell, Missouri \|• Total\|\|0.60 sq mi (1.55 km2)\| \|• Land\|\|0.47 sq mi (1.22 km2)\| \|• Water\|\|0.13 sq mi (0.34 km2)\| \|Elevation\|\|577 ft (176 m)\| \|• Estimate (2012)\|\|93\| \|• Density\|\|197.9/sq mi (76.4/km2)\| \|Time zone\|\|Central (CST) (UTC-6)\| \|• Summer (DST)\|\|CDT (UTC-5)\| \|GNIS feature ID\|\|0713534\| Bagnell was platted in 1882 when the railrad was extended through the area. The city was named for William Bagnell of St. Louis County, who operated a tie business along the Osage River. A post office called Bagnell was established in 1884, and remained in operation until 1942. Bagnell is located at(38.229284, -92.605967). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.60 square miles (1.55 km2), of which, 0.47 square miles (1.22 km2) is land and 0.13 square miles (0.34 km2) is water. As of the census of 2010, there were 93 people, 43 households, and 24 families residing in the city. The population density was 197.9 inhabitants per square mile (76.4/km2). There were 60 housing units at an average density of 127.7 per square mile (49.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 94.6% White and 5.4% from two or more races. There were 43 households of which 32.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.9% were married couples living together, 16.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44.2% were non-families. 32.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 4.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 2.71. The median age in the city was 42.3 years. 23.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27% were from 25 to 44; 34.4% were from 45 to 64; and 6.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.5% male and 50.5% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 86 people, 36 households, and 20 families residing in the town. The population density was 183.3 people per square mile (70.6/km²). There were 37 housing units at an average density of 78.9 per square mile (30.4/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 96.51% White and 3.49% Native American. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.16% of the population. There were 36 households out of which 30.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.9% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.7% were non-families. 38.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 22.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.00. In the town the population was spread out with 27.9% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 29.1% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 95.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.0 males. The median income for a household in the town was $25,313, and the median income for a family was $27,857. Males had a median income of $22,083 versus $16,563 for females. The per capita income for the town was $14,633. There were no families and 2.2% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 11.1% of those over 64. Bagnell, Missouri Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	<urn:uuid:12e8a300-3876-4bd9-8c42-2ee58a70801d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.kiddle.co/Bagnell,_Missouri	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00558.warc.gz	en	0.981723	1,010	3.359375	3	[ 0.5168185234069824, 0.0012449291534721851, 0.3761863708496094, -0.49556225538253784, 0.06215253844857216, -0.418607622385025, -0.11939479410648346, -0.05439792200922966, -0.3913578987121582, 0.02544315904378891, 0.692209005355835, -0.70089191198349, 0.2793903350830078, -0.05633214116096496...	2	Bagnell, Missouri facts for kids Location of Bagnell, Missouri \|• Total\|\|0.60 sq mi (1.55 km2)\| \|• Land\|\|0.47 sq mi (1.22 km2)\| \|• Water\|\|0.13 sq mi (0.34 km2)\| \|Elevation\|\|577 ft (176 m)\| \|• Estimate (2012)\|\|93\| \|• Density\|\|197.9/sq mi (76.4/km2)\| \|Time zone\|\|Central (CST) (UTC-6)\| \|• Summer (DST)\|\|CDT (UTC-5)\| \|GNIS feature ID\|\|0713534\| Bagnell was platted in 1882 when the railrad was extended through the area. The city was named for William Bagnell of St. Louis County, who operated a tie business along the Osage River. A post office called Bagnell was established in 1884, and remained in operation until 1942. Bagnell is located at(38.229284, -92.605967). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.60 square miles (1.55 km2), of which, 0.47 square miles (1.22 km2) is land and 0.13 square miles (0.34 km2) is water. As of the census of 2010, there were 93 people, 43 households, and 24 families residing in the city. The population density was 197.9 inhabitants per square mile (76.4/km2). There were 60 housing units at an average density of 127.7 per square mile (49.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 94.6% White and 5.4% from two or more races. There were 43 households of which 32.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.9% were married couples living together, 16.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44.2% were non-families. 32.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 4.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 2.71. The median age in the city was 42.3 years. 23.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27% were from 25 to 44; 34.4% were from 45 to 64; and 6.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.5% male and 50.5% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 86 people, 36 households, and 20 families residing in the town. The population density was 183.3 people per square mile (70.6/km²). There were 37 housing units at an average density of 78.9 per square mile (30.4/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 96.51% White and 3.49% Native American. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.16% of the population. There were 36 households out of which 30.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.9% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.7% were non-families. 38.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 22.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.00. In the town the population was spread out with 27.9% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 29.1% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 95.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.0 males. The median income for a household in the town was $25,313, and the median income for a family was $27,857. Males had a median income of $22,083 versus $16,563 for females. The per capita income for the town was $14,633. There were no families and 2.2% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 11.1% of those over 64. Bagnell, Missouri Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	1,222	ENGLISH	1
NASA Claimed DNA Ingredients Came from Space Scientists are brilliant people who have a lot of power in their hands because they can create incredible things that we can ever imagine. And this time wasn’t the exception. According to several reports, the scientists have carried out an experiment with DNA exactly with important components of its creation and are similar to those that have meteorites in space. The Double-Helix Code All of this was achieved with the creation of 2-deoxyribose, a compound that works as a double helix code on earth. And in addition, everything was subjected to tests and comparisons with real meteorites that confirmed the invention of the scientists. Even real meteorites were created to see how accurate their discovery and creation of the compound had been. Also using sugars derived from DNA as such. NASA Did Its Own Investigation Everything was carried out by the scientists of the NASA. They first started working with ice created with water and methanol, which were then bombarded with radiation to check their resistance. And also, they verify that some components of the earth were created by things that are in space, such as comets, meteorites and many other things. The most surprising of all is that this was an investigation that took more than 25 years, where various experiments were carried out to recreate the functioning and condition of how things in space have been of great importance in biology. Everything Was Published The magazine Nature Communications, specialized in publications of scientists, was the means of communication that was used to publish this arduous research that took so many years to yield the component results. In the same investigation, some other substances in space were also used as an experiment form, which is located in the molecules. But undoubtedly the ideal result was what they could obtain by producing sugars and components of space that function as the genetic code of life. The meteorites were a key to the discovered result, especially the carbonaceous chondrites that make up the meteorite as such. And between one of the assumptions to which the researchers came, was that possibly components of life reached other planets in the same way. Possibly many seem crazy or believe that it goes against any theory that’s in books and more. But it really is a great discovery that should be given great importance.	<urn:uuid:3949b3da-8f18-48bc-b728-cccc31836b92>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://polonator.org/dna/nasa-claimed-dna-ingredients-came-from-space	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00523.warc.gz	en	0.986573	473	3.703125	4	[ -0.3936264216899872, 0.22129081189632416, -0.06576857715845108, -0.11018366366624832, -0.007455931976437569, -0.09527617692947388, 0.278058260679245, 0.3770860433578491, -0.40541309118270874, -0.06985029578208923, 0.1310652196407318, -0.36211714148521423, 0.2476532757282257, 0.082356289029...	3	NASA Claimed DNA Ingredients Came from Space Scientists are brilliant people who have a lot of power in their hands because they can create incredible things that we can ever imagine. And this time wasn’t the exception. According to several reports, the scientists have carried out an experiment with DNA exactly with important components of its creation and are similar to those that have meteorites in space. The Double-Helix Code All of this was achieved with the creation of 2-deoxyribose, a compound that works as a double helix code on earth. And in addition, everything was subjected to tests and comparisons with real meteorites that confirmed the invention of the scientists. Even real meteorites were created to see how accurate their discovery and creation of the compound had been. Also using sugars derived from DNA as such. NASA Did Its Own Investigation Everything was carried out by the scientists of the NASA. They first started working with ice created with water and methanol, which were then bombarded with radiation to check their resistance. And also, they verify that some components of the earth were created by things that are in space, such as comets, meteorites and many other things. The most surprising of all is that this was an investigation that took more than 25 years, where various experiments were carried out to recreate the functioning and condition of how things in space have been of great importance in biology. Everything Was Published The magazine Nature Communications, specialized in publications of scientists, was the means of communication that was used to publish this arduous research that took so many years to yield the component results. In the same investigation, some other substances in space were also used as an experiment form, which is located in the molecules. But undoubtedly the ideal result was what they could obtain by producing sugars and components of space that function as the genetic code of life. The meteorites were a key to the discovered result, especially the carbonaceous chondrites that make up the meteorite as such. And between one of the assumptions to which the researchers came, was that possibly components of life reached other planets in the same way. Possibly many seem crazy or believe that it goes against any theory that’s in books and more. But it really is a great discovery that should be given great importance.	460	ENGLISH	1
Mary took the English throne following the death of her brother Edward. Her brother had named his cousin Lady Jane Grey as his successor, hoping that this way the religious reforms which had been begun by his father Henry VIII would remain in place. He knew that if his sister Mary was allowed to become queen that she, as a devout Catholic would revert the county back to the old religion, setting the process of reformation back years. Queen Bloody Mary Upon hearing of the death of her brother she was quick to gather together as many of her supporters as she could, and with them she marched into London. Once there she was soon proclaimed to be the rightful queen. Lady Jane Grey, still uncrowned had had the English throne for only nine days. Mary imprisoned Jane and her husband in the Tower of London. They were both charged with high treason which was punishable by death. The execution of Jane was the first to take place at the hands of Mary, but it was by no means going to be the last. Mary remained on the throne for five years, and during that time is believed to be responsible for the deaths of around three hundred people. All of the people that she executed were Protestants who refused to revert to the old religion. Those who refused to revert were burned at the stake, so naturally the majority of people did what they were told to whether they were of the faith or not. A total of 227 men and 56 women were killed on her orders, including many bishops that had been appointed by her father. Why is Mary Tudor Known as Bloody Mary? It is a common belief that she was given the name due to the number of executions that she ordered, but when you consider that her father was responsible for in the region of 50,000 executions during his reign the name hardly seems fair. Actually the name was given to her by Protestants and used in their propaganda during the time her sister Elizabeth was on the throne and it a name that has been attached to her for centuries. Why did People Dislike Bloody Mary? In order to strengthen her ties with the Catholic Church in Rome, Mary married fellow Catholic Philip II of Spain. The English were not happy with her choice of husband, he was a known tyrant and the English did not want to be ruled by a foreign king. Philip assisted her in her attempts to revert the country back to the old religion. She was also encouraged by Philip to got to war against France which resulted in the loss of Calais, which had been England’s Sast French stronghold. She was regarded by the Protestants as evil, she had married a loathed Spaniard, she had blood on her hands and the name Bloody Mary was to them a just one for this much hated Catholic Queen.	<urn:uuid:20dd859d-6774-459c-92c8-94d86c915d0d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://elizabethanenglandlife.com/thetudorsfacts/why-was-queen-mary-tudor-known-as-bloody-mary.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00455.warc.gz	en	0.997171	558	3.546875	4	[ -0.09693927317857742, 0.16995996236801147, 0.38367825746536255, -0.4572335481643677, -0.005640774965286255, 0.10366010665893555, 0.09060816466808319, -0.12511712312698364, 0.7149525880813599, 0.03738607093691826, -0.299460768699646, -0.25789403915405273, -0.2130274474620819, 0.027314703911...	6	Mary took the English throne following the death of her brother Edward. Her brother had named his cousin Lady Jane Grey as his successor, hoping that this way the religious reforms which had been begun by his father Henry VIII would remain in place. He knew that if his sister Mary was allowed to become queen that she, as a devout Catholic would revert the county back to the old religion, setting the process of reformation back years. Queen Bloody Mary Upon hearing of the death of her brother she was quick to gather together as many of her supporters as she could, and with them she marched into London. Once there she was soon proclaimed to be the rightful queen. Lady Jane Grey, still uncrowned had had the English throne for only nine days. Mary imprisoned Jane and her husband in the Tower of London. They were both charged with high treason which was punishable by death. The execution of Jane was the first to take place at the hands of Mary, but it was by no means going to be the last. Mary remained on the throne for five years, and during that time is believed to be responsible for the deaths of around three hundred people. All of the people that she executed were Protestants who refused to revert to the old religion. Those who refused to revert were burned at the stake, so naturally the majority of people did what they were told to whether they were of the faith or not. A total of 227 men and 56 women were killed on her orders, including many bishops that had been appointed by her father. Why is Mary Tudor Known as Bloody Mary? It is a common belief that she was given the name due to the number of executions that she ordered, but when you consider that her father was responsible for in the region of 50,000 executions during his reign the name hardly seems fair. Actually the name was given to her by Protestants and used in their propaganda during the time her sister Elizabeth was on the throne and it a name that has been attached to her for centuries. Why did People Dislike Bloody Mary? In order to strengthen her ties with the Catholic Church in Rome, Mary married fellow Catholic Philip II of Spain. The English were not happy with her choice of husband, he was a known tyrant and the English did not want to be ruled by a foreign king. Philip assisted her in her attempts to revert the country back to the old religion. She was also encouraged by Philip to got to war against France which resulted in the loss of Calais, which had been England’s Sast French stronghold. She was regarded by the Protestants as evil, she had married a loathed Spaniard, she had blood on her hands and the name Bloody Mary was to them a just one for this much hated Catholic Queen.	561	ENGLISH	1
Harlem Renaissance is a movement that involved diverse cultural practices between the 20’s and 30’s. During the elapse between the two decades, Harlem Renaissance was technically referred to as the New Negro Movement (NNM). NNM concept was based on an Anthology introduced by Alain Locke in 1925. Even though it was focused to cater for the Harlem community in New York, Harlem Renaissance influenced French African and Caribbean writers found in Paris. Many ideologies of Harlem Renaissance lived to be influential for a very long time after its inception. Majority of the people who formed part of the initial Harlem Renaissance movement were south immigrants. This group of aliens settled in the North which offered better living standards. On the contrary, the south was characterized by racism. In order to derive peace, the immigrants opted to settle in Harlem. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! Harlem renaissance resulted to a community made up of people drawn from various backgrounds. During the early twentieth century, the Harlem district was inhabited by the middle class Americans. Later the middle class Americans migrated and left the richly constructed amenities, houses, and world class grand avenues. Invasion of Europeans, who settled in the developed district constructed by middle class Americans, turned the city a community. Negro movement was founded on intellectual and cultural associations based in New York immediately after the First World War. The NNM mainly raised up various contentious issues in regard to the African Americans in various ways. The styles used include movies, music, sculpture, painting as well as protests. The entire idea later ended during the great melancholy in 1935. Even though Harlem Renaissance ideology started in Harlem, the impacts were felt far beyond the nation. Amongst the major people who were affected by the movement included writers, sculptors, artists and musicians. Harlem renaissance resulted to a community that was best defined by smooth integration. With time, the interactions occurred between people from various lingual affiliations which led to the rebirth of a new culture. A major concept in the new culture was art displayed in diverse forms. The art from different artists flourished and its effects were globally felt. Major artistic designs were literature, songs, paintings, acting, dancing as well as stone carving. As a result, the people became one in a peaceful community that consisted of several ethnic families. Impacts of the Harlem on Housing Just before formation of the New Negro Movement, there used to be vast competition for the few housing facilities that could be found. This was as a result of civil uprisings and racial rates observed during Red summer period. Based on the initial inhabitation of the Harlem city by the whites, suspicion for increased population led to the construction of more housing facilities. In Harlem community, people lived in houses which were initially built by the middle class Europeans. After establishing settlements in Harlem, various houses were later renovated and became accommodative to all kinds of people. As a result of good will, Payton Philip encouraged the African Americans to consider staying in Harlem. The first attraction rang to these desirable housing facilities that had been put up. Currently the houses in Harlem are rented at high prices and for accommodation they are competitively booked in advance. However the population in Harlem city increased and with time the crowds were unmanageable. The town was so small to accommodate the swollen populations. Additionally, the neighboring whites dejected the black Americans. They resisted and never gave a hand of help to construct more houses in harem. Thus housing became a great challenge among many families and Harlem was turned to ghetto. Impacts of Harlem on Education There were various effects that were realized in Harlem in regard to education. The education sector had a lot of impacts on the African Americans. In the1920’s all the African Americans showed deeper interest in schooling. In response to this educational zeal, Harlem attracted a greater number of the blacks from the West Indies and the south. New York completely prohibited the discrimination of African Americans on academic grounds. The sole result of this legal frame work led to the increase in educational opportunities in Harlem. The vast group that was attracted towards academic goal achievement in New York later joined the Harlem Renaissance. Nonetheless the people in Harlem were able to access basic education without much struggle. Most of the black Americans migrated to Harlem in order to access good education. Parents and children were very interested in acquiring knowledge and eliminate ignorance. However, the Supreme Court was initially reluctant to offer equal chances to the African and white Americans. The court suggested that the Africans attend school at their own segregated places. On the other hand the white Americans took their children to their schools of choice in order to get the best education. Plight to education discrimination led the New York to pass a law that outlawed segregate school. In return the education stakeholders Harlem changed their perspective about Africans. The education standards improved since all children were allowed equal education opportunities. Consequently the whole population became a part of the great cultural movement known as the Harlem renaissance. Impacts of Harlem on the Types of Jobs The Harlem city attracted African Americans to the North. The sole drive for employment was as a result of better job opportunities realized. Initially, the blacks suffered as a result of forced labor in the south which denied them opportunities to enjoy their rights. Before they came to Harlem, Africans suffered heavy depts. Harlem offered booming employment opportunities enough to attract the blacks from the South. Most employment opportunities that attracted the blacks included numerous industrial jobs realized in the city. As a result, the sole factory owners sought for the employees who could help serve in their industries. In addition, Harlem offered variety of job opportunities in music and art industries. These in addition to literature participation in acting boosted the job sector of the entire Harlem. The major activities which captured the fun moments in Harlem included both active and passive activities. Professionally, a lot of Africans realized a great potential in music and literature arts. Whenever they performed, a lot of fun would be derived from their involvement. In addition, the presence of quality class of social amenities facilitated steady rise in the fun industry. Employment was abundant in the North during the Harlem renaissance. People who once lived in the south as slaves were attracted to the north by the booming employment opportunities. It became evident that as numerous as they were employment was still available for the black Americans. In the north, the commonly available jobs were in the industries. People flock the industries and were offered jobs at the appropriate wage dependent on their education qualification. The whites however complained that the African’s huge population led to reduction of wages. Additionally, the remaining population of the black Americans participated in artistic work while the top elite were taken in management positions. Some of the artistic jobs the people did were fun moments. Some of the activities the people did for fun include taking out the whole family the swimming pool. Another is watching a movie at the social halls and public places. The people also participated in passive listening of music and reading of influuential books from prominent writers. Art of the Renaissance The major categories of art classification in the Harlem constituted Writers, Artist and Musicians. Based on the performances, there are various influences that they had on the people. A case in point cited involves Claude McKay who stood steadily in his Jazz music to inform the Africans about their rights. Jean Toomer on the other hand used his short stories, poems and plays to expound on his times spirits. Another musician who electrified his audiences was Armstrong and Langston Hughes. In their stage performances, Africans and white Americans were caught in a jazz fever. The Harlem community was filled up with highly gifted people major areas of the artistic operations were writing skills, composition of songs, singing and dancing as well as acting. Poets were also very important in Harlem renaissance. The government was noted to take very strong stands in protecting the artists. “The brains in Harlem were to be protected since they carried wealth and knowledge” said a government official. He asserted that the artists highly influenced the general public. Claude McKay is a true example of musician in the Harlem renaissance. Claude is noted of making tireless public and private effort in singing jazz music. Most of his compositions are very informative. For instance the most recent one he sang was informing the Africans on their rights. Notably, only few people who know their basic rights regardless of their age, social class as well as the education status. On the other hand, Jean Toomer used short stories, poems as well as dramas. He tactfully uses them to communicate to the people the need to change from one era to another. Other outstanding musicians are Langston Hughes as well as Armstrong. They stand out as unique because their stage performances always captivate the audience and cause them to be left longing for more. The performers were African however, the crowds attracted comprised of Americans and blacks as well. Challenges Faced by African Americans. The first problem that was faced by the African American included initial discriminations in the education sector. In addition, most African Americans were not offered free job opportunities. This was as a result of fear by some Americans that the blacks were interested in taking away their wages. As the population increased, the Americans did not help them to expand their accommodation facilities to cater for the growth. Life after Renaissance The peasants became more influential to the entire movement granting them more freedom. In every aspect of living, the blacks were at a position to bring about incorporation of religious growth. The white Americans in turn changed to respect the blacks leading to cultural integration. Harlem renaissance originated from the zeal in the 1920’s to movement that would help bring consolation after the American Civil Wars. Harlem renaissance forms a significant turning point for many black Americans. The Harlem community consisted of many black Americans who were migrating from the south to the north and west. The conditions in the north were more favorable and people’s lives got transformed drastically. Eventually the hardships they experienced in housing, education, workplaces and career were all elevated. Therefore the result is a new city with diverse but peaceful cultural integration. After successfully escaping the oppression in the southern America they settled into a haven of peace in the north. The Harlem district became favorable for settlement since it had been left empty by the rich white Europeans. Critically speaking the township was referred to as to capital of the world. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:8c07930e-bb4a-412a-9080-9d090108b58f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaysexperts.com/essays/world-literature/harlem-renaissance.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00406.warc.gz	en	0.983667	2,138	4.25	4	[ -0.10089297592639923, -0.10618136823177338, 0.30891600251197815, 0.07856087386608124, -0.5733492374420166, 0.4159069061279297, -0.27196937799453735, 0.242706760764122, -0.2884438633918762, 0.22775444388389587, 0.30181336402893066, 0.15849386155605316, 0.006210708990693092, -0.0620140507817...	1	Harlem Renaissance is a movement that involved diverse cultural practices between the 20’s and 30’s. During the elapse between the two decades, Harlem Renaissance was technically referred to as the New Negro Movement (NNM). NNM concept was based on an Anthology introduced by Alain Locke in 1925. Even though it was focused to cater for the Harlem community in New York, Harlem Renaissance influenced French African and Caribbean writers found in Paris. Many ideologies of Harlem Renaissance lived to be influential for a very long time after its inception. Majority of the people who formed part of the initial Harlem Renaissance movement were south immigrants. This group of aliens settled in the North which offered better living standards. On the contrary, the south was characterized by racism. In order to derive peace, the immigrants opted to settle in Harlem. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! Harlem renaissance resulted to a community made up of people drawn from various backgrounds. During the early twentieth century, the Harlem district was inhabited by the middle class Americans. Later the middle class Americans migrated and left the richly constructed amenities, houses, and world class grand avenues. Invasion of Europeans, who settled in the developed district constructed by middle class Americans, turned the city a community. Negro movement was founded on intellectual and cultural associations based in New York immediately after the First World War. The NNM mainly raised up various contentious issues in regard to the African Americans in various ways. The styles used include movies, music, sculpture, painting as well as protests. The entire idea later ended during the great melancholy in 1935. Even though Harlem Renaissance ideology started in Harlem, the impacts were felt far beyond the nation. Amongst the major people who were affected by the movement included writers, sculptors, artists and musicians. Harlem renaissance resulted to a community that was best defined by smooth integration. With time, the interactions occurred between people from various lingual affiliations which led to the rebirth of a new culture. A major concept in the new culture was art displayed in diverse forms. The art from different artists flourished and its effects were globally felt. Major artistic designs were literature, songs, paintings, acting, dancing as well as stone carving. As a result, the people became one in a peaceful community that consisted of several ethnic families. Impacts of the Harlem on Housing Just before formation of the New Negro Movement, there used to be vast competition for the few housing facilities that could be found. This was as a result of civil uprisings and racial rates observed during Red summer period. Based on the initial inhabitation of the Harlem city by the whites, suspicion for increased population led to the construction of more housing facilities. In Harlem community, people lived in houses which were initially built by the middle class Europeans. After establishing settlements in Harlem, various houses were later renovated and became accommodative to all kinds of people. As a result of good will, Payton Philip encouraged the African Americans to consider staying in Harlem. The first attraction rang to these desirable housing facilities that had been put up. Currently the houses in Harlem are rented at high prices and for accommodation they are competitively booked in advance. However the population in Harlem city increased and with time the crowds were unmanageable. The town was so small to accommodate the swollen populations. Additionally, the neighboring whites dejected the black Americans. They resisted and never gave a hand of help to construct more houses in harem. Thus housing became a great challenge among many families and Harlem was turned to ghetto. Impacts of Harlem on Education There were various effects that were realized in Harlem in regard to education. The education sector had a lot of impacts on the African Americans. In the1920’s all the African Americans showed deeper interest in schooling. In response to this educational zeal, Harlem attracted a greater number of the blacks from the West Indies and the south. New York completely prohibited the discrimination of African Americans on academic grounds. The sole result of this legal frame work led to the increase in educational opportunities in Harlem. The vast group that was attracted towards academic goal achievement in New York later joined the Harlem Renaissance. Nonetheless the people in Harlem were able to access basic education without much struggle. Most of the black Americans migrated to Harlem in order to access good education. Parents and children were very interested in acquiring knowledge and eliminate ignorance. However, the Supreme Court was initially reluctant to offer equal chances to the African and white Americans. The court suggested that the Africans attend school at their own segregated places. On the other hand the white Americans took their children to their schools of choice in order to get the best education. Plight to education discrimination led the New York to pass a law that outlawed segregate school. In return the education stakeholders Harlem changed their perspective about Africans. The education standards improved since all children were allowed equal education opportunities. Consequently the whole population became a part of the great cultural movement known as the Harlem renaissance. Impacts of Harlem on the Types of Jobs The Harlem city attracted African Americans to the North. The sole drive for employment was as a result of better job opportunities realized. Initially, the blacks suffered as a result of forced labor in the south which denied them opportunities to enjoy their rights. Before they came to Harlem, Africans suffered heavy depts. Harlem offered booming employment opportunities enough to attract the blacks from the South. Most employment opportunities that attracted the blacks included numerous industrial jobs realized in the city. As a result, the sole factory owners sought for the employees who could help serve in their industries. In addition, Harlem offered variety of job opportunities in music and art industries. These in addition to literature participation in acting boosted the job sector of the entire Harlem. The major activities which captured the fun moments in Harlem included both active and passive activities. Professionally, a lot of Africans realized a great potential in music and literature arts. Whenever they performed, a lot of fun would be derived from their involvement. In addition, the presence of quality class of social amenities facilitated steady rise in the fun industry. Employment was abundant in the North during the Harlem renaissance. People who once lived in the south as slaves were attracted to the north by the booming employment opportunities. It became evident that as numerous as they were employment was still available for the black Americans. In the north, the commonly available jobs were in the industries. People flock the industries and were offered jobs at the appropriate wage dependent on their education qualification. The whites however complained that the African’s huge population led to reduction of wages. Additionally, the remaining population of the black Americans participated in artistic work while the top elite were taken in management positions. Some of the artistic jobs the people did were fun moments. Some of the activities the people did for fun include taking out the whole family the swimming pool. Another is watching a movie at the social halls and public places. The people also participated in passive listening of music and reading of influuential books from prominent writers. Art of the Renaissance The major categories of art classification in the Harlem constituted Writers, Artist and Musicians. Based on the performances, there are various influences that they had on the people. A case in point cited involves Claude McKay who stood steadily in his Jazz music to inform the Africans about their rights. Jean Toomer on the other hand used his short stories, poems and plays to expound on his times spirits. Another musician who electrified his audiences was Armstrong and Langston Hughes. In their stage performances, Africans and white Americans were caught in a jazz fever. The Harlem community was filled up with highly gifted people major areas of the artistic operations were writing skills, composition of songs, singing and dancing as well as acting. Poets were also very important in Harlem renaissance. The government was noted to take very strong stands in protecting the artists. “The brains in Harlem were to be protected since they carried wealth and knowledge” said a government official. He asserted that the artists highly influenced the general public. Claude McKay is a true example of musician in the Harlem renaissance. Claude is noted of making tireless public and private effort in singing jazz music. Most of his compositions are very informative. For instance the most recent one he sang was informing the Africans on their rights. Notably, only few people who know their basic rights regardless of their age, social class as well as the education status. On the other hand, Jean Toomer used short stories, poems as well as dramas. He tactfully uses them to communicate to the people the need to change from one era to another. Other outstanding musicians are Langston Hughes as well as Armstrong. They stand out as unique because their stage performances always captivate the audience and cause them to be left longing for more. The performers were African however, the crowds attracted comprised of Americans and blacks as well. Challenges Faced by African Americans. The first problem that was faced by the African American included initial discriminations in the education sector. In addition, most African Americans were not offered free job opportunities. This was as a result of fear by some Americans that the blacks were interested in taking away their wages. As the population increased, the Americans did not help them to expand their accommodation facilities to cater for the growth. Life after Renaissance The peasants became more influential to the entire movement granting them more freedom. In every aspect of living, the blacks were at a position to bring about incorporation of religious growth. The white Americans in turn changed to respect the blacks leading to cultural integration. Harlem renaissance originated from the zeal in the 1920’s to movement that would help bring consolation after the American Civil Wars. Harlem renaissance forms a significant turning point for many black Americans. The Harlem community consisted of many black Americans who were migrating from the south to the north and west. The conditions in the north were more favorable and people’s lives got transformed drastically. Eventually the hardships they experienced in housing, education, workplaces and career were all elevated. Therefore the result is a new city with diverse but peaceful cultural integration. After successfully escaping the oppression in the southern America they settled into a haven of peace in the north. The Harlem district became favorable for settlement since it had been left empty by the rich white Europeans. Critically speaking the township was referred to as to capital of the world. Most popular orders	2,133	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Essay Pages: 2 (317 words) Han China and Imperial Rome were amazing empires in their own way. Both of these civilizations had ways of maintaining the political control over their people. Han China and Imperial Rome’s method in political control has many differences and similarities, but I believe there are more similarities than differences. Han China’s political control was large. This empire developed a political philosophy called legalism. Legalism advocated clear rules and harsh punishments as means of enforcing the authority of the state. With this new philosophy, Shihuangdi decided to launch a military campaign to reunify China. This empire also believed military force was very important. Han China’s leading figure was an emperor. In their government, religion often took the major role in their society. Han China also had more equality in political control than Imperial Rome. Imperial Rome’s political control was mainly based on social status. For instance wealthy men dominated over women, and poor men. They had a written code of law that offered plebeians (poorer class) protection from abuse. This gave the plebeians an opportunity to shape public policy. Romans took great pride in this, and believed they enjoyed greater freedom than most of their neighbors. They had a rule of law, the rights of citizens, the absences of pretension, upright moral behavior, and keeping ones word. This was later recognized as “the way of the ancestors.” Once these empires political control were established, they shared many similarities. Both of them worked to unite the empires and create peace among them. They also both believed the gods helped them rule and succeed as an empire. Both of these civilizations also had a custom religion, Christianity in Imperial Rome, and Buddhism in China. Roman and Chinese authorities both had supernatural sanctions to support their rule. Romans began to regard their deceased emperors as gods and made a religious cult. Roman authorities persecuted the refusing Christians that didn’t take part. Cite this page Political Control In Han China And Imperial Rome. (2016, Sep 16). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/political-control-in-han-china-and-imperial-rome-essay	<urn:uuid:12389a30-490e-427d-be01-a5521029ca14>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/political-control-in-han-china-and-imperial-rome-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00081.warc.gz	en	0.980032	460	3.484375	3	[ -0.4401403069496155, 0.3071717321872711, 0.31666746735572815, -0.1315874308347702, -0.22228601574897766, 0.2130904644727707, 0.1364709883928299, 0.3552466630935669, 0.035110387951135635, -0.023226939141750336, -0.0755988135933876, -0.0791938379406929, -0.04690750688314438, 0.19541662931442...	1	Paper type: Essay Pages: 2 (317 words) Han China and Imperial Rome were amazing empires in their own way. Both of these civilizations had ways of maintaining the political control over their people. Han China and Imperial Rome’s method in political control has many differences and similarities, but I believe there are more similarities than differences. Han China’s political control was large. This empire developed a political philosophy called legalism. Legalism advocated clear rules and harsh punishments as means of enforcing the authority of the state. With this new philosophy, Shihuangdi decided to launch a military campaign to reunify China. This empire also believed military force was very important. Han China’s leading figure was an emperor. In their government, religion often took the major role in their society. Han China also had more equality in political control than Imperial Rome. Imperial Rome’s political control was mainly based on social status. For instance wealthy men dominated over women, and poor men. They had a written code of law that offered plebeians (poorer class) protection from abuse. This gave the plebeians an opportunity to shape public policy. Romans took great pride in this, and believed they enjoyed greater freedom than most of their neighbors. They had a rule of law, the rights of citizens, the absences of pretension, upright moral behavior, and keeping ones word. This was later recognized as “the way of the ancestors.” Once these empires political control were established, they shared many similarities. Both of them worked to unite the empires and create peace among them. They also both believed the gods helped them rule and succeed as an empire. Both of these civilizations also had a custom religion, Christianity in Imperial Rome, and Buddhism in China. Roman and Chinese authorities both had supernatural sanctions to support their rule. Romans began to regard their deceased emperors as gods and made a religious cult. Roman authorities persecuted the refusing Christians that didn’t take part. Cite this page Political Control In Han China And Imperial Rome. (2016, Sep 16). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/political-control-in-han-china-and-imperial-rome-essay	443	ENGLISH	1
What We Can Learn from St. Stephen’s Imitation of Christ December 26 finds the Church celebrating the feast day of St. Stephen, the first martyr for the Christian faith. Stephen was one of the seven men chosen by the apostles to be a deacon so that they might be able to carry on with their ministry of prayer. The deacons (the Greek word diakonos meaning ‘servant’) were men “of good repute, full of the Spirit and of wisdom” (Acts 6:3) chosen to help serve the material needs of the faithful. St. Stephen, in particular, continues to serve the Church as a model of what it means to follow Christ to the end. It might seem strange to have the joyful, long-anticipated celebration of Christ’s birth immediately followed by the memorial of the death of the first martyr, but the Church, in her wisdom, has something to teach us through this placement of St. Stephen’s feast day. The wisdom is this: Christ came into the world to reunite weary, weak mankind to the Father. This was accomplished by his death on the cross. The infant God-man in the manger came to die for us. St. Stephen, following on the heels of his Master, died for the sake of the Gospel. He died for the sake of being true to Christ. He died in imitation of the Lord. The account of the accusation against St. Stephen, his trial, and his death in Acts of the Apostles closely mirrors the death of Christ from the Gospel of St. Luke. Acts of the Apostles was also penned by Luke and he uses similar language to describe Jesus and Stephen and thus to make the similarities between their lives and their deaths apparent to the faithful. Stephen is held up by Luke as an example of what it means to follow Christ – it is to imitate him and become like him. First, Luke emphasizes the wisdom of Jesus and Stephen. When describing the child Jesus in the early acts of his life, St. Luke describes Jesus as growing in wisdom. Stephen is also described several times in a short space as full of wisdom, but what is it to be wise? The Psalms, book of Wisdom, book of Sirach, and the book of Ecclesiastes all discuss at length what wisdom is and what the wise do and do not do. Psalm 1 distills all of this teaching into the essential contrast between the good man of wisdom and the wicked fool. The wise man knows law of the Lord in his heart. He knows the ways of the Lord not only in his head, but in his heart, and he lives his life according to that knowledge rather than living contrary to it. Jesus and Stephen had God’s law written on their hearts and conformed themselves completely to the way of the Lord. It is necessary for us likewise to not only read the Word of God, but to allow the Lord to engrave it on our hearts that we might truly abide in his truth. Stephen shows us that the way of wisdom is rooted in head and heart knowledge of the one who came to save us. Full of the Holy Spirit Stephen also imitates Christ by being “full of the Holy Spirit.” In fact, Luke explicitly mentions Stephen as full of the Spirit four times in the two chapters in which he appears in the Acts of the Apostles. Luke also describes Jesus as being full of the Holy Spirit after his baptism as he enters the desert where he goes to meet his greatest opponent and the king of the way of the wicked – the devil. The Holy Spirit indicates God’s presence with both men as they engage in what the Lord has called them to do. They are not on their own, but have the strength of the Holy Spirit abiding in them. The Lord abides with those whom he loves, and does not leave them to face things on their own power. The wicked do not have God’s abiding presence among them, and thus are left to their own devices and they ultimately fail. Stephen is set up in direct opposition to his opponents as one who is full of the Holy Spirit. It is with the power of the Spirit, he accomplishes signs and wonders among the people as Christ did. It is “full of grace and power” that these signs and wonders are done and, like Jesus, this is what initially catches the attention of Stephen’s opponents, the Freedmen. They engage Stephen in a dispute and realize that he follows the one who was crucified. This is what instigates the false accusations and arrest of the good deacon. Stephen is described as having a “face like an angel.” His goodness, his holiness, his intimacy with the Holy Spirit shines forth not only in the acts he performs and the words that he utters, but in his very body as well. These two holy ones, full of the Holy Spirit, stand in opposition to their accusers, who resist and ultimately reject the works of God. Stephen, loving the living truly according to the law of the Lord in wisdom, is close to the Holy Spirit. One who is full of the Holy Spirit is not filled with fear, and thus he fearlessly engages with his interlocutors. Stephen shows us that those who truly follow Christ will be given, each in their own measure, wisdom and the abiding presence of the Holy Spirit. These gifts enable us to do as God has called us to do. The rest of Stephen’s story shows what Christians can expect from the world, and even from fellow followers who know the truth only in part, but his story also tells us how we can respond like Stephen, who has ultimately conformed himself to Christ. Do Not Fear Persecution Stephen is correctly accused of following the Christ, but he is falsely accused of preaching that Jesus would destroy the Temple and taught against the law of Moses. His accusers twist the teachings of Christ for their own benefit. These men claim to be close followers of the law, are meant to be on the lookout for the Messiah, and yet in their ignorance and stubbornness rejected the Christ and his teaching. Consequently, they also reject Stephen, his works in Christ, and his teaching. There are those who reject Christ and his teaching. There are those who reject the Catholic Church’s teaching on Christ. There are those who twist what the Catholic Church teaches about Christ and his life. Christ was misunderstood and falsely accused. Stephen was misunderstood and falsely accused. We might also be misunderstood and falsely accused, or we might experience other difficulties and hardships as we strive to follow Christ. Stephen demonstrates how we can continue to imitate Christ even in the midst of strife. Stephen who has the law of God in his heart and the power of the Holy Spirit with him tells an abbreviated version of the story of salvation history. In so doing, he flips the false accusations on their heads and reveals God’s work particularly in Joseph and Moses. He compares Jesus to both of these patriarchs, who were also rejected by their families, falsely accused, had God’s presence with them, and ultimately led the people of Israel to redemption. Stephen likens his accusers to those who rejected God’s plan. He calls them “stiff-necked” – an accusation that God also launched against those in Israel who remained stubborn during the Exodus and Exile. Stephen calls out his accusers for resisting the Holy Spirit. He is not afraid to speak boldly about salvation history or the law. He is not shy to accuse his accusers. The truth is bold, and it is on the side of those who follow the way of the Lord. We may not be called to accuse others as starkly and publicly as Stephen did (and Christ, for that matter!), but we are called to continue proclaiming the truth, to proclaim the Gospel, even when it is uncomfortable to do so. We live in a time when popular culture and politics are often against the Church and Christ’s teachings, but we must be ready and willing to speak and live the truth anyway. Pray for Those Who Persecute You The goal of speaking the truth and proclaiming the Gospel is not to be right. The end is to draw all people to Christ. Even if we go about preaching the Gospel in a meek and mild way, there might be resistance and persecution. There are some people who will persist in their ridicule. We must love them anyway. As Christ hung from the cross and as Stephen reeled from blows of rocks to his head, both prayed for those who were responsible for their deaths. We too must pray for those who humiliate us, those who accuse us, those who might attempt to strip us of our livelihood and lives. We must pray that God have mercy on them, and that they might cooperate with his grace. Surrender to God In Luke’s Gospel Christ’s last words are, “Father, into your hands I commend my spirit.” Stephen’s last words are actually to pray for his persecutors, but just before that he says, “Lord Jesus, receive my spirit.” He recognizes Jesus as Lord and surrenders himself into the merciful hands of God. Stephen was granted a vision of Jesus standing at the right hand of the Father, ready to welcome him into the Kingdom, just before his death and Stephen stood ready to meet him as the accusers gathered the stones. We, too, must be ready and willing to surrender ourselves to the Lord. Not only when trials, difficulties, and death come, but in everyday life. Stephen shows us that the true measure of discipleship comes at the cost of our lives: not in other people taking our lives, but in our own self-entrustment into the hands of the Father. May we strive to become more like St. Stephen, the unabashed imitator of Christ and the first martyr for the faith.	<urn:uuid:75b201e4-d199-484a-9dda-b1ad754d393d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.coraevans.com/blog/article/what-we-can-learn-from-st-stephens-imitation-of-christ	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00223.warc.gz	en	0.982839	2,050	3.5	4	[ -0.0746559426188469, 0.37159690260887146, -0.039134785532951355, -0.43332651257514954, -0.16954776644706726, -0.20444945991039276, 0.431973934173584, 0.13479343056678772, 0.0952167883515358, 0.2725788354873657, -0.05608528479933739, 0.1755693256855011, 0.1265832781791687, -0.01352667249739...	6	What We Can Learn from St. Stephen’s Imitation of Christ December 26 finds the Church celebrating the feast day of St. Stephen, the first martyr for the Christian faith. Stephen was one of the seven men chosen by the apostles to be a deacon so that they might be able to carry on with their ministry of prayer. The deacons (the Greek word diakonos meaning ‘servant’) were men “of good repute, full of the Spirit and of wisdom” (Acts 6:3) chosen to help serve the material needs of the faithful. St. Stephen, in particular, continues to serve the Church as a model of what it means to follow Christ to the end. It might seem strange to have the joyful, long-anticipated celebration of Christ’s birth immediately followed by the memorial of the death of the first martyr, but the Church, in her wisdom, has something to teach us through this placement of St. Stephen’s feast day. The wisdom is this: Christ came into the world to reunite weary, weak mankind to the Father. This was accomplished by his death on the cross. The infant God-man in the manger came to die for us. St. Stephen, following on the heels of his Master, died for the sake of the Gospel. He died for the sake of being true to Christ. He died in imitation of the Lord. The account of the accusation against St. Stephen, his trial, and his death in Acts of the Apostles closely mirrors the death of Christ from the Gospel of St. Luke. Acts of the Apostles was also penned by Luke and he uses similar language to describe Jesus and Stephen and thus to make the similarities between their lives and their deaths apparent to the faithful. Stephen is held up by Luke as an example of what it means to follow Christ – it is to imitate him and become like him. First, Luke emphasizes the wisdom of Jesus and Stephen. When describing the child Jesus in the early acts of his life, St. Luke describes Jesus as growing in wisdom. Stephen is also described several times in a short space as full of wisdom, but what is it to be wise? The Psalms, book of Wisdom, book of Sirach, and the book of Ecclesiastes all discuss at length what wisdom is and what the wise do and do not do. Psalm 1 distills all of this teaching into the essential contrast between the good man of wisdom and the wicked fool. The wise man knows law of the Lord in his heart. He knows the ways of the Lord not only in his head, but in his heart, and he lives his life according to that knowledge rather than living contrary to it. Jesus and Stephen had God’s law written on their hearts and conformed themselves completely to the way of the Lord. It is necessary for us likewise to not only read the Word of God, but to allow the Lord to engrave it on our hearts that we might truly abide in his truth. Stephen shows us that the way of wisdom is rooted in head and heart knowledge of the one who came to save us. Full of the Holy Spirit Stephen also imitates Christ by being “full of the Holy Spirit.” In fact, Luke explicitly mentions Stephen as full of the Spirit four times in the two chapters in which he appears in the Acts of the Apostles. Luke also describes Jesus as being full of the Holy Spirit after his baptism as he enters the desert where he goes to meet his greatest opponent and the king of the way of the wicked – the devil. The Holy Spirit indicates God’s presence with both men as they engage in what the Lord has called them to do. They are not on their own, but have the strength of the Holy Spirit abiding in them. The Lord abides with those whom he loves, and does not leave them to face things on their own power. The wicked do not have God’s abiding presence among them, and thus are left to their own devices and they ultimately fail. Stephen is set up in direct opposition to his opponents as one who is full of the Holy Spirit. It is with the power of the Spirit, he accomplishes signs and wonders among the people as Christ did. It is “full of grace and power” that these signs and wonders are done and, like Jesus, this is what initially catches the attention of Stephen’s opponents, the Freedmen. They engage Stephen in a dispute and realize that he follows the one who was crucified. This is what instigates the false accusations and arrest of the good deacon. Stephen is described as having a “face like an angel.” His goodness, his holiness, his intimacy with the Holy Spirit shines forth not only in the acts he performs and the words that he utters, but in his very body as well. These two holy ones, full of the Holy Spirit, stand in opposition to their accusers, who resist and ultimately reject the works of God. Stephen, loving the living truly according to the law of the Lord in wisdom, is close to the Holy Spirit. One who is full of the Holy Spirit is not filled with fear, and thus he fearlessly engages with his interlocutors. Stephen shows us that those who truly follow Christ will be given, each in their own measure, wisdom and the abiding presence of the Holy Spirit. These gifts enable us to do as God has called us to do. The rest of Stephen’s story shows what Christians can expect from the world, and even from fellow followers who know the truth only in part, but his story also tells us how we can respond like Stephen, who has ultimately conformed himself to Christ. Do Not Fear Persecution Stephen is correctly accused of following the Christ, but he is falsely accused of preaching that Jesus would destroy the Temple and taught against the law of Moses. His accusers twist the teachings of Christ for their own benefit. These men claim to be close followers of the law, are meant to be on the lookout for the Messiah, and yet in their ignorance and stubbornness rejected the Christ and his teaching. Consequently, they also reject Stephen, his works in Christ, and his teaching. There are those who reject Christ and his teaching. There are those who reject the Catholic Church’s teaching on Christ. There are those who twist what the Catholic Church teaches about Christ and his life. Christ was misunderstood and falsely accused. Stephen was misunderstood and falsely accused. We might also be misunderstood and falsely accused, or we might experience other difficulties and hardships as we strive to follow Christ. Stephen demonstrates how we can continue to imitate Christ even in the midst of strife. Stephen who has the law of God in his heart and the power of the Holy Spirit with him tells an abbreviated version of the story of salvation history. In so doing, he flips the false accusations on their heads and reveals God’s work particularly in Joseph and Moses. He compares Jesus to both of these patriarchs, who were also rejected by their families, falsely accused, had God’s presence with them, and ultimately led the people of Israel to redemption. Stephen likens his accusers to those who rejected God’s plan. He calls them “stiff-necked” – an accusation that God also launched against those in Israel who remained stubborn during the Exodus and Exile. Stephen calls out his accusers for resisting the Holy Spirit. He is not afraid to speak boldly about salvation history or the law. He is not shy to accuse his accusers. The truth is bold, and it is on the side of those who follow the way of the Lord. We may not be called to accuse others as starkly and publicly as Stephen did (and Christ, for that matter!), but we are called to continue proclaiming the truth, to proclaim the Gospel, even when it is uncomfortable to do so. We live in a time when popular culture and politics are often against the Church and Christ’s teachings, but we must be ready and willing to speak and live the truth anyway. Pray for Those Who Persecute You The goal of speaking the truth and proclaiming the Gospel is not to be right. The end is to draw all people to Christ. Even if we go about preaching the Gospel in a meek and mild way, there might be resistance and persecution. There are some people who will persist in their ridicule. We must love them anyway. As Christ hung from the cross and as Stephen reeled from blows of rocks to his head, both prayed for those who were responsible for their deaths. We too must pray for those who humiliate us, those who accuse us, those who might attempt to strip us of our livelihood and lives. We must pray that God have mercy on them, and that they might cooperate with his grace. Surrender to God In Luke’s Gospel Christ’s last words are, “Father, into your hands I commend my spirit.” Stephen’s last words are actually to pray for his persecutors, but just before that he says, “Lord Jesus, receive my spirit.” He recognizes Jesus as Lord and surrenders himself into the merciful hands of God. Stephen was granted a vision of Jesus standing at the right hand of the Father, ready to welcome him into the Kingdom, just before his death and Stephen stood ready to meet him as the accusers gathered the stones. We, too, must be ready and willing to surrender ourselves to the Lord. Not only when trials, difficulties, and death come, but in everyday life. Stephen shows us that the true measure of discipleship comes at the cost of our lives: not in other people taking our lives, but in our own self-entrustment into the hands of the Father. May we strive to become more like St. Stephen, the unabashed imitator of Christ and the first martyr for the faith.	1,997	ENGLISH	1
Charles Dickens, one of the most eminent and distinguished writers of the Victorian era, was born in Landport, Portsmouth, on 7 February 1812. He was not from an affluent background; in fact, from the days of his childhood, his family was shrouded in poverty. His family lived in Kent during the early years of his life. Later, they settled in Camden Town, a poor neighbourhood in London, due to financial difficulties. The defining moment of Dickens’ life occurred when he was 12 years old. His father was a clerk by profession in the Navy Pay Office; however, he spent his days in extravagance. Since he had a difficult time with money and was constantly in debt, he was imprisoned in the Marshalsea debtor’s prison in 1824. As a result, Dickens had to leave school and was compelled to work in a warehouse, where he polished shoes in order to sustain his family. This experience left a profound psychological impact on young Dickens and gave him a firsthand account of poverty. This was the beginning of his journey to become the most vigorous and influential voice among the working classes during that time. Having spent a part of his life amidst impoverishment, Dickens grew sympathetic and compassionate towards the poor, wretched and oppressed people of society. Thus, the pain of the downtrodden became the subject of almost all his novels. After a few months, his father was released from prison, and Dickens could finally resume his schooling. At age 15, his formal education came to an end and he found employment as an office boy at an attorney’s office. While he worked there, he also studied shorthand typing at night. He went on to work as a shorthand reporter in courts, and then as a newspaper reporter. As he passed his years working as a journalist, many influential events occurred in his life, including a couple of matrimonial proposals for him which he declined. His literary career began in 1833, when Dickens began to contribute short stories and essays to periodicals. His first published story, called A Dinner at Popular Walk, appeared in a monthly magazine. Dickens’s first book, a collection of stories titled Sketches by Boz, was published in 1836. In the same year, he got married to Catherine Hogarth, daughter of the editor of Evening Chronicle. At the same time, he continued his life as a journalist and he editing some wonderful magazines and newspapers, like The Daily News, Household Words, and All the Year Round. Even though he began his literary career a long time ago, he was proclaimed a literary genius and a writer of repute only after his first fiction book, called The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, was published in 1837. After achieving success as a novelist, he embarked on a journey of producing works of immense proficiency, like Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby, The Old Curiosity Shop and Barnaby Rudge, as part of the Master Humphreys Clock. All of these were published in monthly installments before being turned into books. His writing style was marked by profuse linguistic creativity. Dickens worked extensively on developing interesting names for his characters that would reverberate with associations for his readers. His literary style was also a mixture of fantasy and realism. In fact, his talent was so profound that he became a literary celebrity within just a few years of starting to write. His works were also renowned for their humourous and satiric tones. More than anything else, his ability to reflect a mirror to the society of that time is unparalleled. Within the next two decades, his most famous novels included David Copperfield, A Christmas Carol, Hard Times, Great Expectations, A Tale of Two Cities and Bleak House. All of these gained him immense popularity and prominence in the 19th century. Dickens was also well-known for the relevant themes that he used in his novels. Some of his main themes included the exploitation of children in the form of child labour, the awful conditions of workers in factories, the alienation of industrial cities, the injustice of the penal code and the selfishness and greed of the upper middle class. He was conscious of the wickedness and injustice that faced society, and chose to portray these pertinent aspects in his novels. However, he always had an optimistic view of life and hope in a good future. Even though the protagonists of his stories are children who are victims of an unjust society, they always find happiness in the end. Some of Dickens’ novels also include mystifying backdrops: for example, the backdrop of the French Revolution in A Tale of Two Cities. His novels are often set in cities, because his aim was to highlight the problems related to industrialisation and pollution. The descriptions in his novels of industrial cities and towns are vivid and fascinating. In the last few years of his life, Dickens’ health started to worsen. During his readings in 1869, he had a mild stroke and collapsed as a result. To recover, he retreated to his estate in Gad’s Hill and began working on The Mystery of Edwin Drood, which he couldn’t finish. Dickens died in his house on 9 June 1870 after suffering another stroke. Contrary to his wish to be buried in Rochester Cathedral, he was buried in the Poets’ Corner of Westminster Abbey. On the day of his death, the world suffered the fatal loss of a literary genius. (Class IX, Don Bosco School, Park Circus)	<urn:uuid:d395a40c-e804-45f0-b5e8-3e843240ba80>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thestatesman.com/supplements/voices/the-literary-genius-1502830900.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00139.warc.gz	en	0.991419	1,112	3.53125	4	[ 0.12064571678638458, 0.052497297525405884, 0.3720620274543762, 0.09958511590957642, 0.1766158640384674, -0.3512793183326721, -0.0826704204082489, 0.029851093888282776, -0.25522807240486145, 0.07224322855472565, -0.04746179282665253, 0.11850623786449432, 0.22321727871894836, 0.2314140498638...	4	Charles Dickens, one of the most eminent and distinguished writers of the Victorian era, was born in Landport, Portsmouth, on 7 February 1812. He was not from an affluent background; in fact, from the days of his childhood, his family was shrouded in poverty. His family lived in Kent during the early years of his life. Later, they settled in Camden Town, a poor neighbourhood in London, due to financial difficulties. The defining moment of Dickens’ life occurred when he was 12 years old. His father was a clerk by profession in the Navy Pay Office; however, he spent his days in extravagance. Since he had a difficult time with money and was constantly in debt, he was imprisoned in the Marshalsea debtor’s prison in 1824. As a result, Dickens had to leave school and was compelled to work in a warehouse, where he polished shoes in order to sustain his family. This experience left a profound psychological impact on young Dickens and gave him a firsthand account of poverty. This was the beginning of his journey to become the most vigorous and influential voice among the working classes during that time. Having spent a part of his life amidst impoverishment, Dickens grew sympathetic and compassionate towards the poor, wretched and oppressed people of society. Thus, the pain of the downtrodden became the subject of almost all his novels. After a few months, his father was released from prison, and Dickens could finally resume his schooling. At age 15, his formal education came to an end and he found employment as an office boy at an attorney’s office. While he worked there, he also studied shorthand typing at night. He went on to work as a shorthand reporter in courts, and then as a newspaper reporter. As he passed his years working as a journalist, many influential events occurred in his life, including a couple of matrimonial proposals for him which he declined. His literary career began in 1833, when Dickens began to contribute short stories and essays to periodicals. His first published story, called A Dinner at Popular Walk, appeared in a monthly magazine. Dickens’s first book, a collection of stories titled Sketches by Boz, was published in 1836. In the same year, he got married to Catherine Hogarth, daughter of the editor of Evening Chronicle. At the same time, he continued his life as a journalist and he editing some wonderful magazines and newspapers, like The Daily News, Household Words, and All the Year Round. Even though he began his literary career a long time ago, he was proclaimed a literary genius and a writer of repute only after his first fiction book, called The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, was published in 1837. After achieving success as a novelist, he embarked on a journey of producing works of immense proficiency, like Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby, The Old Curiosity Shop and Barnaby Rudge, as part of the Master Humphreys Clock. All of these were published in monthly installments before being turned into books. His writing style was marked by profuse linguistic creativity. Dickens worked extensively on developing interesting names for his characters that would reverberate with associations for his readers. His literary style was also a mixture of fantasy and realism. In fact, his talent was so profound that he became a literary celebrity within just a few years of starting to write. His works were also renowned for their humourous and satiric tones. More than anything else, his ability to reflect a mirror to the society of that time is unparalleled. Within the next two decades, his most famous novels included David Copperfield, A Christmas Carol, Hard Times, Great Expectations, A Tale of Two Cities and Bleak House. All of these gained him immense popularity and prominence in the 19th century. Dickens was also well-known for the relevant themes that he used in his novels. Some of his main themes included the exploitation of children in the form of child labour, the awful conditions of workers in factories, the alienation of industrial cities, the injustice of the penal code and the selfishness and greed of the upper middle class. He was conscious of the wickedness and injustice that faced society, and chose to portray these pertinent aspects in his novels. However, he always had an optimistic view of life and hope in a good future. Even though the protagonists of his stories are children who are victims of an unjust society, they always find happiness in the end. Some of Dickens’ novels also include mystifying backdrops: for example, the backdrop of the French Revolution in A Tale of Two Cities. His novels are often set in cities, because his aim was to highlight the problems related to industrialisation and pollution. The descriptions in his novels of industrial cities and towns are vivid and fascinating. In the last few years of his life, Dickens’ health started to worsen. During his readings in 1869, he had a mild stroke and collapsed as a result. To recover, he retreated to his estate in Gad’s Hill and began working on The Mystery of Edwin Drood, which he couldn’t finish. Dickens died in his house on 9 June 1870 after suffering another stroke. Contrary to his wish to be buried in Rochester Cathedral, he was buried in the Poets’ Corner of Westminster Abbey. On the day of his death, the world suffered the fatal loss of a literary genius. (Class IX, Don Bosco School, Park Circus)	1,125	ENGLISH	1
Before there was Usain Bolt, there was Jesse Owens. Back in the 1930s, Owens was one of the best athletes in the world, and he managed to completely ruin Hitler’s and Nazi propaganda during the 1936 Olympics. How everything happened? The International Olympic Committee awarded the 1936 Summer Olympics to Berlin in 1931. At the moment, the choice was seen as a way to signal Germany’s return to the world community after the defeat in World War I. However, two years later, Adolf Hitler came to power, and instead of bringing Germany back to the world community, Hitler wanted to make Germany the most powerful country in the world. He transformed the democratic German government into a one-party dictatorship. When Hitler came to power, he thought nothing of the Olympics. He even held them in low regard. However, propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels convinced him of the propaganda value. Hitler saw the Olympics as a way to advance Nazi ideology. He provided extensive funding for the Berlin Games, and promised to make them the largest modern Olympics to date. Hitler used the event to strengthen his “Aryan race” ideology, and systematically excluded Jewish and Gypsy athletes from Nazi sponsored sports facilities. In 1935, many athletic groups from the United States pushed for a boycott. However, the government made a decision to participate in the games. However, some Jewish athletes independently boycotted the games. Under international pressure, the Nazis agreed to allow one part-Jewish athlete on its Olympic team, and that was fencer Helene Mayer. And while Germany was the largest national team during the games with 348 athletes, and captured the most medals overall, Jesse Owens win at the 100m, 200m sprint, 4x100 relay, and the long jump, was the biggest loss Hitler suffered prior to World War II. Not only was he non-German, but Jesse Owens was also an African-American, a race hated by Hitler. The rumor was that Hitler snubbed Owens and did not shake his hand, or even receive him privately. Jesse’s feat of winning four gold medals at a single Olympic event in 100m, 200m, 4x100m relay, and long jump was not matched until Carl Lewis did the same at the 1984 Los Angeles Games. Usain Bolt wanted to try to replicate the feat, but he never trained or tried the long jump. However, Bolt did win the 100m, 200m, and 4x100 at three consecutive Olympics (he lost his 2008 medal at the 4x100 relay after teammate failed substance abuse test). Four Jesse Owens Fun Facts - After he won four gold medals, Owens raced against horses for money. He raced also against dogs and motorcycles during halftime of soccer matches and between doubleheaders of Negro League baseball games. He often said “I have four gold medals, but you cannot eat four gold medals - During his college days, he set three world records and tied a fourth one within the span of 45 minutes. That happened at the Big Ten Championship in 1935. As a sophomore, the speedster started the day by tying the 100m record, then broke the long jump record by six inches 15 minutes later, and capped off by setting world best in the 220-yard dash and 220-yard low hurdles - During the 1936 Olympics, Owens ran in German-made track shoes handcrafted by the founder of Adidas. Adolf Adi Dassler viewed the Games as a chance to launch his humble athletic shoe business. And while many German athletes wore his shoes, Owens chose to wear them as well. He received personally handcrafted shoes with extra long spikes - President Franklin D. Roosevelt snubbed Owens, as the athlete said that the president didn’t even send him a telegram. Much was made of the myth that Hitler refused to congratulate Owens on his victories. However, Jesse said that the two exchanged congratulatory waves, and he felt snubbed by the White House and Roosevelt Nadia Comaneci was born in Romania. She became the first woman to score a perfect 10 in an Olympic gymnastics event. She was only 14 years old when she scored several 10s at ...	<urn:uuid:8474ca5d-8d9c-4b9e-8564-86bcbf5c31c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.documentarytube.com/articles/jesse-owens-the-athlete-who-beat-the-nazi-in-berlin	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00092.warc.gz	en	0.983132	856	3.3125	3	[ -0.3341802954673767, 0.494814395904541, -0.09761670231819153, 0.026633339002728462, 0.004196533467620611, 0.40198051929473877, 0.19198372960090637, 0.19468216598033905, 0.16467483341693878, -0.1516408920288086, 0.2854611277580261, -0.22867071628570557, 0.19528129696846008, 0.23513734340667...	1	Before there was Usain Bolt, there was Jesse Owens. Back in the 1930s, Owens was one of the best athletes in the world, and he managed to completely ruin Hitler’s and Nazi propaganda during the 1936 Olympics. How everything happened? The International Olympic Committee awarded the 1936 Summer Olympics to Berlin in 1931. At the moment, the choice was seen as a way to signal Germany’s return to the world community after the defeat in World War I. However, two years later, Adolf Hitler came to power, and instead of bringing Germany back to the world community, Hitler wanted to make Germany the most powerful country in the world. He transformed the democratic German government into a one-party dictatorship. When Hitler came to power, he thought nothing of the Olympics. He even held them in low regard. However, propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels convinced him of the propaganda value. Hitler saw the Olympics as a way to advance Nazi ideology. He provided extensive funding for the Berlin Games, and promised to make them the largest modern Olympics to date. Hitler used the event to strengthen his “Aryan race” ideology, and systematically excluded Jewish and Gypsy athletes from Nazi sponsored sports facilities. In 1935, many athletic groups from the United States pushed for a boycott. However, the government made a decision to participate in the games. However, some Jewish athletes independently boycotted the games. Under international pressure, the Nazis agreed to allow one part-Jewish athlete on its Olympic team, and that was fencer Helene Mayer. And while Germany was the largest national team during the games with 348 athletes, and captured the most medals overall, Jesse Owens win at the 100m, 200m sprint, 4x100 relay, and the long jump, was the biggest loss Hitler suffered prior to World War II. Not only was he non-German, but Jesse Owens was also an African-American, a race hated by Hitler. The rumor was that Hitler snubbed Owens and did not shake his hand, or even receive him privately. Jesse’s feat of winning four gold medals at a single Olympic event in 100m, 200m, 4x100m relay, and long jump was not matched until Carl Lewis did the same at the 1984 Los Angeles Games. Usain Bolt wanted to try to replicate the feat, but he never trained or tried the long jump. However, Bolt did win the 100m, 200m, and 4x100 at three consecutive Olympics (he lost his 2008 medal at the 4x100 relay after teammate failed substance abuse test). Four Jesse Owens Fun Facts - After he won four gold medals, Owens raced against horses for money. He raced also against dogs and motorcycles during halftime of soccer matches and between doubleheaders of Negro League baseball games. He often said “I have four gold medals, but you cannot eat four gold medals - During his college days, he set three world records and tied a fourth one within the span of 45 minutes. That happened at the Big Ten Championship in 1935. As a sophomore, the speedster started the day by tying the 100m record, then broke the long jump record by six inches 15 minutes later, and capped off by setting world best in the 220-yard dash and 220-yard low hurdles - During the 1936 Olympics, Owens ran in German-made track shoes handcrafted by the founder of Adidas. Adolf Adi Dassler viewed the Games as a chance to launch his humble athletic shoe business. And while many German athletes wore his shoes, Owens chose to wear them as well. He received personally handcrafted shoes with extra long spikes - President Franklin D. Roosevelt snubbed Owens, as the athlete said that the president didn’t even send him a telegram. Much was made of the myth that Hitler refused to congratulate Owens on his victories. However, Jesse said that the two exchanged congratulatory waves, and he felt snubbed by the White House and Roosevelt Nadia Comaneci was born in Romania. She became the first woman to score a perfect 10 in an Olympic gymnastics event. She was only 14 years old when she scored several 10s at ...	917	ENGLISH	1
The still-vexed Bermudas. —Ariel, The Tempest On the morning of July 29, 1609, sunrise awoke William Strachey to the saturated colors of leaves waving in the fresh breeze of a departed hurricane. What he noticed immediately was the hot and humid air. Sand stuck to his damp face and hands as he raised himself from his sleeping place on the ground. All around him men, women, and children slumbered. The relief of being on land struck him anew as he rediscovered that he was safe after four terror-filled days. Strachey stood up and walked to a small water barrel at the edge of the campsite and dipped a drink. Being able to quench his thirst was another refreshing change. Soon after arriving on the previous afternoon the first people in camp had dug a shallow well. Heavy rains had soaked the island and it was not necessary to dig deep to find what Strachey called “gushings and soft bubblings.” Everyone in camp had quenched their thirst, and buckets and the barrel had been filled for the next day. Strachey noticed that the water in the well had already drained away during the night. The hole would have to be deepened or an alternative water source found. After taking a moment in the woods Strachey walked down to the beach. A heavy surf broke on the sand and the sky was clear. He walked on to the point of rocks just north of the camp. From there he could see that the shore formed almost a square corner just north of the camp. The crescent beach where the boats were pulled up extended about eight hundred feet to the south before merging with a rocky shoreline. To the west the northern coast of the island ran as far as he could see. With the exception of the pinkish sand of the beach, the shoreline was sharp black rock. Foam covered the water as waves crashed down. Palms and cedars lined the shore in both directions. The beach in front of the camp faced northeast toward England, three thousand miles across the Atlantic, while Virginia lay six hundred miles to the west. Bermuda is an archipelago consisting of one main island and many small ones. The castaways had come to rest at the extreme northeastern point of the archipelago, on the medium-sized island that would later become known as St. George’s. The main land mass lay beyond the castaways’ isle, beginning on the other side of a sheltered bay and extending ten miles to the west in the shape of a giant hook. Strachey had read about Bermuda in his travel books. The castaways were the only humans there, as the island had never been reached by people from the New World. Europeans had known of Bermuda since 1505, but its dangerous shallows had kept ships at a distance, and it was never occupied. A few had shipwrecked and left their marks, but all had departed after brief stays. What was notable was Bermuda’s reputation as a bewitched place. During the last minutes before the wreck, the sailors of the Sea Venture had lamented their fate even as they bailed and pumped to get the ship close to the island. The island, they said, was a place of strange nighttime noises and supernatural storms. “We found it to be the dangerous and dreaded island, or rather islands, of the Bermuda,” Strachey wrote. “Because they be so terrible to all that ever touched on them, and such tempests, thunders, and other fearful objects are seen and heard about them, that they be called commonly the Devil’s Islands, and are feared and avoided of all sea travelers alive above any other place in the world. Yet it pleased our merciful God to make even this hideous and hated place both the place of our safety and the means of our deliverance.” Fellow Sea Venture passenger Silvester Jourdain would also write of the apprehension of the castaways. Seafarers avoided Bermuda “as they would shun the Devil himself,” Jourdain wrote. “The islands of the Bermudas, as every man knows that has heard or read of them, were never inhabited by any Christian or heathen people, but ever esteemed and reputed a most prodigious and enchanted place, affording nothing but gusts, storms, and foul weather, which made every navigator and mariner to avoid them.” A call to gather brought Strachey back to camp. All were now awake, and the Sea Venture cook, Thomas Powell, was preparing what little food had been brought from the ship. The castaways had been told to prepare for a meeting with Governor Thomas Gates. Presently the castaways formed a half circle around Gates as he addressed the crowd. The mariners would row back to the ship and retrieve everything they could. As they did that, the passengers would form teams and spread out from the camp in search of food and water. Several leaders were chosen and the voyagers broke into groups and prepared to go in assigned directions. Strachey joined a team of gentlemen who left the camp and pushed through the underbrush. In his speech Gates had not mentioned the sailors’ stories of enchantment that virtually all the castaways had now heard, but his manner, the bright sunshine, and focused activity had dispelled the apprehensions of most for the moment. The sun rose higher and the day grew even hotter as the moist tropical air the hurricane pulled behind it settled over the island. While the searchers found no brooks or springs, they soon discovered a pond. They waded in and tasted the water and detected no salt. A lack of running water put the body of water in a category Strachey described as “fens, marshes, ditches, muddy pools.” The water tasted good, though, and there was no hint of contamination. As a later settler would note, rainwater percolated through Bermuda’s limestone to produce pond water that “drinks always sweet like milk.” Strachey and his fellows headed back to camp to tell of their find and retrieve buckets to fill. The sailors had already returned in the longboat and skiff with useful salvage. Live hogs and the few remaining undamaged containers of food and drink were the first things brought to shore. On the first run of the day the mariners had collected equipment that would be of immediate use—guns for hunting, line and nets for fishing, and containers for water. The remainder of the space in the boats was filled with chests, chairs, cooking utensils, rope, and tools. “We saved all our lives and afterwards saved much of our goods, but all our bread was wet and lost,” George Somers said. As the Virginia Company would later report, the salvage crews would eventually strip the ship and leave behind “nothing but bared ribs as a prey unto the ocean.” Fishing equipment from the Sea Venture was immediately prepared for use. A team headed by George Somers waded into the waters off the beach and found them filled with life. Within minutes of dropping lines they were pulling in fish by the dozen. Silvester Jourdain said the castaways found “many kind of fishes and so plentiful thereof that in half an hour he took so many great fishes with hooks as did suffice the whole company one day. And fish is there so abundant that if a man step into the water they will come round about him so that men were fain to get out for fear of biting. These fishes are very fat and sweet.” By midafternoon teams had beaten a path to the pond and filled every available container. Somers’s men were bringing in scores of fish. The campsite, too, was taking form. The sailors brought in rope and canvas and the voyagers strung sails between trees to serve as awnings. Under one canvas roof near the fire a rude kitchen was set up. The well was dug deeper and was again supplying limited water. Separate privies for men and women were dug and equipped with benches at secluded spots out of sight of the camp. Toward the end of the day a great fish feast commenced in the camp of the voyagers. Among the species eaten were many of those listed by early settlers as teeming in the island’s waters—rockfish, hogfish, amber-fish, hedgehogfish, cunnyfish, old wives, snappers, groupers, cavallyes, mullets, mackerels, pilchers, and breams. Thomas Powell oversaw the cleaning of the exotic fish and the roasting of them on the campfire. As each came crackling from the flames it was laid on a plate or leaf and passed through the crowd. Deep draughts of fresh water followed. In a few hours the stomachs of the castaways were full. Surveying the camp during the banquet of strange fish, the survivors of the Sea Venture looked around at a tiny village that was well appointed beyond all expectation. The sailors had already brought ashore all manner of goods from the ship, including mattresses and blankets, furniture, and chests filled with personal goods. To have these precious items at hand rather than at the bottom of the sea made their situation relatively comfortable. The castaways marveled at their good luck. Despite the desperate times of the hurricane, the Sea Venture’s passengers were indeed fortunate. The history of the island as a supernatural land was always at the back of the castaways’ minds, so much so that when they heard rustling in the brush during dinner some surely thought they were hearing one of Bermuda’s fabled devils. The commotion in the underbrush did indeed turn out to be a monster, but a monstrous hog rather than a savage and deformed being. The famished domestic swine from the ship had been allowed to root about loose for food, and their presence had not gone unnoticed. “We had knowledge that there were wild hogs upon the island at first by our own swine preserved from the wreck and brought to shore, for they straying into the woods, a huge wild boar followed down to our quarter,” Strachey said. The presence of hogs on Bermuda was not a surprise to some among the shipwreck survivors. One of the books Strachey brought on the voyage included an account by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo of an unsuccessful attempt by Juan Bermúdez in 1511 to stock his namesake island with hogs as a mid-Atlantic larder for passing ships. Another Spaniard, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, was apparently successful in a similar attempt in 1563. A Spanish captain who landed on the island in 1603 reported that hogs left by Avilés had prospered. Diego Ramirez found large herds when he paused to repair a damaged ship six years before the Sea Venture wreck. The hogs had trod out wide paths to watering holes, and trees along the trails were worn where the animals rubbed their backs against the bark. After dinner around the campfire the sailors devised a plan to capture the boar. The animal turned out to be remarkably unafraid of humans, Strachey said, and “at night was watched and taken in this sort. One of Sir George Somers’s men went and lay among the swine, when the boar being come and groveled by the sows he put over his hand and rubbed the side gently of the boar, which then lay still, by which means he fastened a rope with a sliding knot to the hind leg and so took him and after him in this sort two or three more.” During the next two weeks many more hogs were taken and penned in enclosures at the camp. The Bermuda hogs were descendants of wild boars from the forests of Europe, a fierce breed that lacked the docility modern pigs have acquired through selective breeding. Living for generations on an island without predators had dulled their sense of danger, however, and the Sea Venture dog proved an efficient hunter. “Our people would go a-hunting with our ship dog,” Strachey said, “and sometimes bring home thirty, sometimes fifty, boars, sows, and pigs in a week alive.” The fauna of Bermuda was proving useful, as was the flora. The leaves of the palmetto trees around the camp were the first plants used by the voyagers. The fan leaves spanned up to ten feet in width and breadth. Within two weeks of landing several castaways had constructed huts of wood frames covered with leaves. The individual structures provided privacy at family campsites around the main camp. “With these leaves we thatched our cabins,” Strachey said. “So broad are the leaves, as an Italian umbrello, a man may well defend his whole body under one of them from the greatest storm rain that falls. For they being stiff and smooth as if so many flags were knit together the rain easily slideth off.” The palmetto palm tree also provided food. The castaways noticed that the wild hogs ate the berries that grew in clumps below the sprays of leaves. They tried them themselves and found them palatable. The base from which the leaves sprouted was found to be edible as well. Each tree yielded a twenty-pound head that could be eaten raw, grilled, or boiled. “Roasting the palmetto or soft top thereof, they had a taste like fried melons, and being sod they eat like cabbages,” Strachey said. Palmetto berries were not the only succulent treats awaiting the castaways. On exposed parts of the island the castaways found growing among the limestone boulders a cactus with an edible pear. Though one had to be careful getting past the spines of the hull, Strachey said, the reward was a center filled with maroon juice. “A kind of peas of the bigness and shape of a Katherine pear we found growing upon the rocks, full of many sharp subtle pricks (as a thistle) which we therefore called the prickle pear, the outside green but being opened of a deep murrey, full of juice like a mulberry and just of the same substance and taste. We both eat them raw and baked.” As the voyagers gathered food, they also explored the islands. What they found was a natural fortress that was as easy to defend as it was difficult to approach. Accompanying the discovery that Bermuda was a secure sanctuary, Strachey said, was the confirmation that it was “desolate and not inhabited.” This was not a real surprise, either, given its distance from inhabited lands and its dangerous reputation. Still, in their first weeks after the shipwreck it dawned on the voyagers that they had discovered a well-stocked mid-Atlantic bastion that was theirs for the taking. An historian who wrote about the Sea Venture wreck in 1705 bluntly stated the main attraction of the place: “The best of it was, they found plenty of provisions in that island and no Indians to annoy them.” Yet for all its good points, Bermuda was not quite a paradise. While there were no rival humans to compete with the Sea Venture castaways, there were inhabitants of another kind to annoy them. “They were long and slender-leg spiders,” Strachey said, “and whether venomous or no I know not, I believe not, since we should still find them amongst our linen in our chests and drinking cans but we never received any danger from them.” Nathaniel Butler, who would come to Bermuda a few years later, would note that the spiders were so big that they would occasionally catch sparrows in their webs. “They are here of a most pleasing and beautiful aspect, all over as it were decked with silver, gold, and pearl,” Butler said, “and their webs (woven in the summer upon trees) are found to be perfect silk.” Within days of the wreck the voyagers planted a garden near the camp using English seeds brought in from the Sea Venture. Sprouts appeared, Strachey said, but the plants grew no further. “Sir George Somers in the beginning of August squared out a garden by the quarter and sowed muskmelons, peas, onions, radishes, lettuce, and many English seeds and kitchen herbs. All which in some ten days did appear above-ground.” Grubs killed the plants, he said. Butler later reported other pests. “The mosquitoes and flies also are somewhat over-busy, with a certain Indian bug called by a Spanish appellation a caca-roach, the which creeping into chests and boxes eat and defile with their dung (and hence their Spanish name) all they meet with.” Summer flies were the closest things to devils on Bermuda, according to an anonymous account by another colonist of a few years later. “Whereas it is reported that this land of the Bermudas with the islands about it (which are many, at the least a hundred) are enchanted and kept with evil and wicked spirits, it is a most idle and false report. God grant that we have brought no wicked spirits with us or that there comes none after us, for we found none so ill as ourselves,” he said. “No, nor any noisome thing or hurtful, more than a poor fly which tarries not above two or three months.” Even with spiders, cockroaches, mosquitoes, and flies, Bermuda was turning out to be as fine a refuge as anyone on the Sea Venture could have imagined. What was thought to be a land of devils and brimstone turned out to be a temperate and angelic place. “My opinion sincerely of this island is,” Jourdain said, “that whereas it hath been and is still accounted the most dangerous, unfortunate, and most forlorn place of the world, it is in truth the richest, healthfulest, and pleasing land (the quantity and bigness thereof considered) and merely natural as ever man set foot upon.” “I hope to deliver the world from a foul and general error,” Strachey wrote. “It being counted of most that they can be no habitation for men but rather given over to devils and wicked spirits, whereas indeed we find them now by experience to be as habitable and commodious as most countries of the same climate and situation, insomuch as if the entrance into them were as easy as the place itself is contenting it had long ere this been inhabited.” Discord among the castaways also made it clear that despite their good fortune the castaways’ situation was less than perfect. On a hot summer day in August a grudge between two sailors flared into a wrestling match in the sand and fellow sailors formed a circle around the fighters. Before Governor Gates or his lieutenants arrived to stop the fight, Robert Waters picked up a shovel and struck his opponent Edward Samuel in the head, instantly killing him. When Gates determined that Samuel was dead, he ordered Waters held and Samuel’s body buried some distance from the camp. Later in the day he held a tribunal before the assembled voyagers, and after hearing testimony he condemned Waters to be hanged the next morning. The prisoner was tied to a tree under guard within sight of the camp. Waters’s death sentence caused dissension within the Sea Venture company for the first time since it had formed in London twelve weeks earlier. Relations had been good during the sail, the fight with the hurricane, and the building of the Bermuda camp. Gates’s decision to condemn Waters to death, however, immediately set him at odds with the mariners of the shipwrecked company. The Sea Venture sailors had never expected to be subjected to military control, even the mix of civilian and military authority afforded the governor of the Virginia colony. Their anticipated role had been solely as transport specialists who served at the pleasure of the highest-ranking marine officer. Now unexpectedly marooned in a foreign land they were begrudgingly subject to Gates’s rule. That had been fine during the first two weeks, but now one of their own was condemned to die as the result of a fair fight. They couldn’t watch their shipmate hanged. In the night while Waters’s sentries slept they cut his bonds and took him to a hiding place in the forest. Strachey learned of the escape with the rest of the camp when a sentry awoke and sounded the alarm. His loyalties and those of the other gentlemen of the company were fully with the governor. To Strachey, Waters’s flight was a grave affront to authority. The conspirators who had cut him free, he said, demonstrated “disdain that justice should be showed upon a sailor, that one of their crew should be an example to others, not taking into consideration the unmanliness of the murder nor the horror of the sin.” Gates now faced the first open challenge to his authority as leader of the expedition. The split in the company displeased him and he knew that a killer lurking in the woods would have a corrosive effect on morale and discipline. The only way to bring the fugitive in, it seemed, was a major concession to the sailors. Certainly he wanted the matter resolved soon and in a definitive way. Gates sought the counsel of George Somers, who was well positioned to assist. As an educated and wealthy man, the gray-haired admiral had the trust of Gates despite his ties to the sailors. The two men met in a palmetto hut, and after a long talk emerged to announce a solution. Strachey alone describes the final disposition of the case, and he does so in few words, perhaps because he was a consistent apologist for Gates and thought the outcome did not reflect well on the governor. Waters, Strachey said, “afterward by the mediation of Sir George Somers, upon many conditions, had his trial respited by our governor.” Intervention by the admiral won a sentence reduction that was startling in its leniency—clemency with the only condition being a requirement of good behavior. When Waters returned to the camp to slaps on the back from his compatriots and wary looks from the gentlemen, it was clear to all that Gates had literally allowed a man to get away with murder. Either Somers was a master defender or Gates was an unusually malleable judge. The prevailing opinion of the castaways tended to the latter view. Gates had resolved the murder case, but it came at a high cost to his reputation. In addition to exposing the leader of the Sea Venture company as a vacillating commander, the Waters case served to expose a division within the ranks of the castaways. Governor Gates and Admiral Somers were forced into adversarial roles neither wanted, and the effect of that split would persist. While the negotiation over Waters’s fate was carried out in decorous terms, the talks placed the two leaders and their constituencies in blocs that cut along traditional lines of soldiers and sailors. The fistfight had pitted mariner against mariner, but its resolution had pitted Waters the sailor against Gates the soldier. Despite the outcome in the sailor’s favor, under the leadership of Gates the mariners would continue to perceive themselves as an aggrieved party and would nurse that sense of grievance as time went on.	<urn:uuid:1f7eefd5-de4b-4467-8c5b-e5303bb70719>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://erenow.net/common/a-brave-vessel-the-true-tale/6.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00542.warc.gz	en	0.983823	4,915	3.390625	3	[ -0.343828022480011, 0.07314437627792358, 0.14361046254634857, 0.3465576767921448, 0.10274579375982285, 0.1298809051513672, -0.16665315628051758, -0.11148342490196228, -0.2795773148536682, 0.23409461975097656, 0.08106710016727448, -0.2167176902294159, -0.05878140777349472, 0.316263198852539...	2	The still-vexed Bermudas. —Ariel, The Tempest On the morning of July 29, 1609, sunrise awoke William Strachey to the saturated colors of leaves waving in the fresh breeze of a departed hurricane. What he noticed immediately was the hot and humid air. Sand stuck to his damp face and hands as he raised himself from his sleeping place on the ground. All around him men, women, and children slumbered. The relief of being on land struck him anew as he rediscovered that he was safe after four terror-filled days. Strachey stood up and walked to a small water barrel at the edge of the campsite and dipped a drink. Being able to quench his thirst was another refreshing change. Soon after arriving on the previous afternoon the first people in camp had dug a shallow well. Heavy rains had soaked the island and it was not necessary to dig deep to find what Strachey called “gushings and soft bubblings.” Everyone in camp had quenched their thirst, and buckets and the barrel had been filled for the next day. Strachey noticed that the water in the well had already drained away during the night. The hole would have to be deepened or an alternative water source found. After taking a moment in the woods Strachey walked down to the beach. A heavy surf broke on the sand and the sky was clear. He walked on to the point of rocks just north of the camp. From there he could see that the shore formed almost a square corner just north of the camp. The crescent beach where the boats were pulled up extended about eight hundred feet to the south before merging with a rocky shoreline. To the west the northern coast of the island ran as far as he could see. With the exception of the pinkish sand of the beach, the shoreline was sharp black rock. Foam covered the water as waves crashed down. Palms and cedars lined the shore in both directions. The beach in front of the camp faced northeast toward England, three thousand miles across the Atlantic, while Virginia lay six hundred miles to the west. Bermuda is an archipelago consisting of one main island and many small ones. The castaways had come to rest at the extreme northeastern point of the archipelago, on the medium-sized island that would later become known as St. George’s. The main land mass lay beyond the castaways’ isle, beginning on the other side of a sheltered bay and extending ten miles to the west in the shape of a giant hook. Strachey had read about Bermuda in his travel books. The castaways were the only humans there, as the island had never been reached by people from the New World. Europeans had known of Bermuda since 1505, but its dangerous shallows had kept ships at a distance, and it was never occupied. A few had shipwrecked and left their marks, but all had departed after brief stays. What was notable was Bermuda’s reputation as a bewitched place. During the last minutes before the wreck, the sailors of the Sea Venture had lamented their fate even as they bailed and pumped to get the ship close to the island. The island, they said, was a place of strange nighttime noises and supernatural storms. “We found it to be the dangerous and dreaded island, or rather islands, of the Bermuda,” Strachey wrote. “Because they be so terrible to all that ever touched on them, and such tempests, thunders, and other fearful objects are seen and heard about them, that they be called commonly the Devil’s Islands, and are feared and avoided of all sea travelers alive above any other place in the world. Yet it pleased our merciful God to make even this hideous and hated place both the place of our safety and the means of our deliverance.” Fellow Sea Venture passenger Silvester Jourdain would also write of the apprehension of the castaways. Seafarers avoided Bermuda “as they would shun the Devil himself,” Jourdain wrote. “The islands of the Bermudas, as every man knows that has heard or read of them, were never inhabited by any Christian or heathen people, but ever esteemed and reputed a most prodigious and enchanted place, affording nothing but gusts, storms, and foul weather, which made every navigator and mariner to avoid them.” A call to gather brought Strachey back to camp. All were now awake, and the Sea Venture cook, Thomas Powell, was preparing what little food had been brought from the ship. The castaways had been told to prepare for a meeting with Governor Thomas Gates. Presently the castaways formed a half circle around Gates as he addressed the crowd. The mariners would row back to the ship and retrieve everything they could. As they did that, the passengers would form teams and spread out from the camp in search of food and water. Several leaders were chosen and the voyagers broke into groups and prepared to go in assigned directions. Strachey joined a team of gentlemen who left the camp and pushed through the underbrush. In his speech Gates had not mentioned the sailors’ stories of enchantment that virtually all the castaways had now heard, but his manner, the bright sunshine, and focused activity had dispelled the apprehensions of most for the moment. The sun rose higher and the day grew even hotter as the moist tropical air the hurricane pulled behind it settled over the island. While the searchers found no brooks or springs, they soon discovered a pond. They waded in and tasted the water and detected no salt. A lack of running water put the body of water in a category Strachey described as “fens, marshes, ditches, muddy pools.” The water tasted good, though, and there was no hint of contamination. As a later settler would note, rainwater percolated through Bermuda’s limestone to produce pond water that “drinks always sweet like milk.” Strachey and his fellows headed back to camp to tell of their find and retrieve buckets to fill. The sailors had already returned in the longboat and skiff with useful salvage. Live hogs and the few remaining undamaged containers of food and drink were the first things brought to shore. On the first run of the day the mariners had collected equipment that would be of immediate use—guns for hunting, line and nets for fishing, and containers for water. The remainder of the space in the boats was filled with chests, chairs, cooking utensils, rope, and tools. “We saved all our lives and afterwards saved much of our goods, but all our bread was wet and lost,” George Somers said. As the Virginia Company would later report, the salvage crews would eventually strip the ship and leave behind “nothing but bared ribs as a prey unto the ocean.” Fishing equipment from the Sea Venture was immediately prepared for use. A team headed by George Somers waded into the waters off the beach and found them filled with life. Within minutes of dropping lines they were pulling in fish by the dozen. Silvester Jourdain said the castaways found “many kind of fishes and so plentiful thereof that in half an hour he took so many great fishes with hooks as did suffice the whole company one day. And fish is there so abundant that if a man step into the water they will come round about him so that men were fain to get out for fear of biting. These fishes are very fat and sweet.” By midafternoon teams had beaten a path to the pond and filled every available container. Somers’s men were bringing in scores of fish. The campsite, too, was taking form. The sailors brought in rope and canvas and the voyagers strung sails between trees to serve as awnings. Under one canvas roof near the fire a rude kitchen was set up. The well was dug deeper and was again supplying limited water. Separate privies for men and women were dug and equipped with benches at secluded spots out of sight of the camp. Toward the end of the day a great fish feast commenced in the camp of the voyagers. Among the species eaten were many of those listed by early settlers as teeming in the island’s waters—rockfish, hogfish, amber-fish, hedgehogfish, cunnyfish, old wives, snappers, groupers, cavallyes, mullets, mackerels, pilchers, and breams. Thomas Powell oversaw the cleaning of the exotic fish and the roasting of them on the campfire. As each came crackling from the flames it was laid on a plate or leaf and passed through the crowd. Deep draughts of fresh water followed. In a few hours the stomachs of the castaways were full. Surveying the camp during the banquet of strange fish, the survivors of the Sea Venture looked around at a tiny village that was well appointed beyond all expectation. The sailors had already brought ashore all manner of goods from the ship, including mattresses and blankets, furniture, and chests filled with personal goods. To have these precious items at hand rather than at the bottom of the sea made their situation relatively comfortable. The castaways marveled at their good luck. Despite the desperate times of the hurricane, the Sea Venture’s passengers were indeed fortunate. The history of the island as a supernatural land was always at the back of the castaways’ minds, so much so that when they heard rustling in the brush during dinner some surely thought they were hearing one of Bermuda’s fabled devils. The commotion in the underbrush did indeed turn out to be a monster, but a monstrous hog rather than a savage and deformed being. The famished domestic swine from the ship had been allowed to root about loose for food, and their presence had not gone unnoticed. “We had knowledge that there were wild hogs upon the island at first by our own swine preserved from the wreck and brought to shore, for they straying into the woods, a huge wild boar followed down to our quarter,” Strachey said. The presence of hogs on Bermuda was not a surprise to some among the shipwreck survivors. One of the books Strachey brought on the voyage included an account by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo of an unsuccessful attempt by Juan Bermúdez in 1511 to stock his namesake island with hogs as a mid-Atlantic larder for passing ships. Another Spaniard, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, was apparently successful in a similar attempt in 1563. A Spanish captain who landed on the island in 1603 reported that hogs left by Avilés had prospered. Diego Ramirez found large herds when he paused to repair a damaged ship six years before the Sea Venture wreck. The hogs had trod out wide paths to watering holes, and trees along the trails were worn where the animals rubbed their backs against the bark. After dinner around the campfire the sailors devised a plan to capture the boar. The animal turned out to be remarkably unafraid of humans, Strachey said, and “at night was watched and taken in this sort. One of Sir George Somers’s men went and lay among the swine, when the boar being come and groveled by the sows he put over his hand and rubbed the side gently of the boar, which then lay still, by which means he fastened a rope with a sliding knot to the hind leg and so took him and after him in this sort two or three more.” During the next two weeks many more hogs were taken and penned in enclosures at the camp. The Bermuda hogs were descendants of wild boars from the forests of Europe, a fierce breed that lacked the docility modern pigs have acquired through selective breeding. Living for generations on an island without predators had dulled their sense of danger, however, and the Sea Venture dog proved an efficient hunter. “Our people would go a-hunting with our ship dog,” Strachey said, “and sometimes bring home thirty, sometimes fifty, boars, sows, and pigs in a week alive.” The fauna of Bermuda was proving useful, as was the flora. The leaves of the palmetto trees around the camp were the first plants used by the voyagers. The fan leaves spanned up to ten feet in width and breadth. Within two weeks of landing several castaways had constructed huts of wood frames covered with leaves. The individual structures provided privacy at family campsites around the main camp. “With these leaves we thatched our cabins,” Strachey said. “So broad are the leaves, as an Italian umbrello, a man may well defend his whole body under one of them from the greatest storm rain that falls. For they being stiff and smooth as if so many flags were knit together the rain easily slideth off.” The palmetto palm tree also provided food. The castaways noticed that the wild hogs ate the berries that grew in clumps below the sprays of leaves. They tried them themselves and found them palatable. The base from which the leaves sprouted was found to be edible as well. Each tree yielded a twenty-pound head that could be eaten raw, grilled, or boiled. “Roasting the palmetto or soft top thereof, they had a taste like fried melons, and being sod they eat like cabbages,” Strachey said. Palmetto berries were not the only succulent treats awaiting the castaways. On exposed parts of the island the castaways found growing among the limestone boulders a cactus with an edible pear. Though one had to be careful getting past the spines of the hull, Strachey said, the reward was a center filled with maroon juice. “A kind of peas of the bigness and shape of a Katherine pear we found growing upon the rocks, full of many sharp subtle pricks (as a thistle) which we therefore called the prickle pear, the outside green but being opened of a deep murrey, full of juice like a mulberry and just of the same substance and taste. We both eat them raw and baked.” As the voyagers gathered food, they also explored the islands. What they found was a natural fortress that was as easy to defend as it was difficult to approach. Accompanying the discovery that Bermuda was a secure sanctuary, Strachey said, was the confirmation that it was “desolate and not inhabited.” This was not a real surprise, either, given its distance from inhabited lands and its dangerous reputation. Still, in their first weeks after the shipwreck it dawned on the voyagers that they had discovered a well-stocked mid-Atlantic bastion that was theirs for the taking. An historian who wrote about the Sea Venture wreck in 1705 bluntly stated the main attraction of the place: “The best of it was, they found plenty of provisions in that island and no Indians to annoy them.” Yet for all its good points, Bermuda was not quite a paradise. While there were no rival humans to compete with the Sea Venture castaways, there were inhabitants of another kind to annoy them. “They were long and slender-leg spiders,” Strachey said, “and whether venomous or no I know not, I believe not, since we should still find them amongst our linen in our chests and drinking cans but we never received any danger from them.” Nathaniel Butler, who would come to Bermuda a few years later, would note that the spiders were so big that they would occasionally catch sparrows in their webs. “They are here of a most pleasing and beautiful aspect, all over as it were decked with silver, gold, and pearl,” Butler said, “and their webs (woven in the summer upon trees) are found to be perfect silk.” Within days of the wreck the voyagers planted a garden near the camp using English seeds brought in from the Sea Venture. Sprouts appeared, Strachey said, but the plants grew no further. “Sir George Somers in the beginning of August squared out a garden by the quarter and sowed muskmelons, peas, onions, radishes, lettuce, and many English seeds and kitchen herbs. All which in some ten days did appear above-ground.” Grubs killed the plants, he said. Butler later reported other pests. “The mosquitoes and flies also are somewhat over-busy, with a certain Indian bug called by a Spanish appellation a caca-roach, the which creeping into chests and boxes eat and defile with their dung (and hence their Spanish name) all they meet with.” Summer flies were the closest things to devils on Bermuda, according to an anonymous account by another colonist of a few years later. “Whereas it is reported that this land of the Bermudas with the islands about it (which are many, at the least a hundred) are enchanted and kept with evil and wicked spirits, it is a most idle and false report. God grant that we have brought no wicked spirits with us or that there comes none after us, for we found none so ill as ourselves,” he said. “No, nor any noisome thing or hurtful, more than a poor fly which tarries not above two or three months.” Even with spiders, cockroaches, mosquitoes, and flies, Bermuda was turning out to be as fine a refuge as anyone on the Sea Venture could have imagined. What was thought to be a land of devils and brimstone turned out to be a temperate and angelic place. “My opinion sincerely of this island is,” Jourdain said, “that whereas it hath been and is still accounted the most dangerous, unfortunate, and most forlorn place of the world, it is in truth the richest, healthfulest, and pleasing land (the quantity and bigness thereof considered) and merely natural as ever man set foot upon.” “I hope to deliver the world from a foul and general error,” Strachey wrote. “It being counted of most that they can be no habitation for men but rather given over to devils and wicked spirits, whereas indeed we find them now by experience to be as habitable and commodious as most countries of the same climate and situation, insomuch as if the entrance into them were as easy as the place itself is contenting it had long ere this been inhabited.” Discord among the castaways also made it clear that despite their good fortune the castaways’ situation was less than perfect. On a hot summer day in August a grudge between two sailors flared into a wrestling match in the sand and fellow sailors formed a circle around the fighters. Before Governor Gates or his lieutenants arrived to stop the fight, Robert Waters picked up a shovel and struck his opponent Edward Samuel in the head, instantly killing him. When Gates determined that Samuel was dead, he ordered Waters held and Samuel’s body buried some distance from the camp. Later in the day he held a tribunal before the assembled voyagers, and after hearing testimony he condemned Waters to be hanged the next morning. The prisoner was tied to a tree under guard within sight of the camp. Waters’s death sentence caused dissension within the Sea Venture company for the first time since it had formed in London twelve weeks earlier. Relations had been good during the sail, the fight with the hurricane, and the building of the Bermuda camp. Gates’s decision to condemn Waters to death, however, immediately set him at odds with the mariners of the shipwrecked company. The Sea Venture sailors had never expected to be subjected to military control, even the mix of civilian and military authority afforded the governor of the Virginia colony. Their anticipated role had been solely as transport specialists who served at the pleasure of the highest-ranking marine officer. Now unexpectedly marooned in a foreign land they were begrudgingly subject to Gates’s rule. That had been fine during the first two weeks, but now one of their own was condemned to die as the result of a fair fight. They couldn’t watch their shipmate hanged. In the night while Waters’s sentries slept they cut his bonds and took him to a hiding place in the forest. Strachey learned of the escape with the rest of the camp when a sentry awoke and sounded the alarm. His loyalties and those of the other gentlemen of the company were fully with the governor. To Strachey, Waters’s flight was a grave affront to authority. The conspirators who had cut him free, he said, demonstrated “disdain that justice should be showed upon a sailor, that one of their crew should be an example to others, not taking into consideration the unmanliness of the murder nor the horror of the sin.” Gates now faced the first open challenge to his authority as leader of the expedition. The split in the company displeased him and he knew that a killer lurking in the woods would have a corrosive effect on morale and discipline. The only way to bring the fugitive in, it seemed, was a major concession to the sailors. Certainly he wanted the matter resolved soon and in a definitive way. Gates sought the counsel of George Somers, who was well positioned to assist. As an educated and wealthy man, the gray-haired admiral had the trust of Gates despite his ties to the sailors. The two men met in a palmetto hut, and after a long talk emerged to announce a solution. Strachey alone describes the final disposition of the case, and he does so in few words, perhaps because he was a consistent apologist for Gates and thought the outcome did not reflect well on the governor. Waters, Strachey said, “afterward by the mediation of Sir George Somers, upon many conditions, had his trial respited by our governor.” Intervention by the admiral won a sentence reduction that was startling in its leniency—clemency with the only condition being a requirement of good behavior. When Waters returned to the camp to slaps on the back from his compatriots and wary looks from the gentlemen, it was clear to all that Gates had literally allowed a man to get away with murder. Either Somers was a master defender or Gates was an unusually malleable judge. The prevailing opinion of the castaways tended to the latter view. Gates had resolved the murder case, but it came at a high cost to his reputation. In addition to exposing the leader of the Sea Venture company as a vacillating commander, the Waters case served to expose a division within the ranks of the castaways. Governor Gates and Admiral Somers were forced into adversarial roles neither wanted, and the effect of that split would persist. While the negotiation over Waters’s fate was carried out in decorous terms, the talks placed the two leaders and their constituencies in blocs that cut along traditional lines of soldiers and sailors. The fistfight had pitted mariner against mariner, but its resolution had pitted Waters the sailor against Gates the soldier. Despite the outcome in the sailor’s favor, under the leadership of Gates the mariners would continue to perceive themselves as an aggrieved party and would nurse that sense of grievance as time went on.	4,773	ENGLISH	1
In 1984 a series of gravel pits were excavated which were subsequently flooded and became fishing lakes. During their excavation a digger driver who was working around 5 - 6 metres below the surface and beneath the gravels, unearthed the skeletal remains of a mammoth that had died some 125,00 years ago. The bones found included a shoulder blade, ribs, various limb bones and one spectacular tusk bearing its characteristic double curving twist. It appeared that the animal, which was about the size of a modern day Indian elephant, had probably become stuck in the mud and had died a lingering death. It's bones had then been scattered by predators and water currents. are deposited at Norwich Castle Museum in the care of the older deposits below the gravels were laid down during a warmer period in the Ice Age around 125,000 years ago. Temperatures then were around 2 to 3 degrees warmer than present. The area was covered in oak and pine forest, with hornbeam and yew. A river flowed through the area as it does today and the fossil remains of a wide variety of animals were incorporated into its sediments. Many of the species are only found on the Continent today and some are extinct. \|If you have any memories, anecdotes or photos please let us know and we may be able to use them to update the site. By all means telephone 07836 675369 or\| Top of Page	<urn:uuid:00583c56-90fa-495a-8b64-05bff8a5ce49>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.itteringham.com/history/gravel-pits.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00434.warc.gz	en	0.985742	293	3.5	4	[ -0.31579098105430603, -0.08924664556980133, 0.7699845433235168, 0.14242465794086456, 0.03884182125329971, 0.18624848127365112, 0.17213498055934906, -0.06392014026641846, -0.24846258759498596, 0.09782744944095612, 0.30268314480781555, -0.6069208383560181, 0.26830950379371643, 0.221817389130...	5	In 1984 a series of gravel pits were excavated which were subsequently flooded and became fishing lakes. During their excavation a digger driver who was working around 5 - 6 metres below the surface and beneath the gravels, unearthed the skeletal remains of a mammoth that had died some 125,00 years ago. The bones found included a shoulder blade, ribs, various limb bones and one spectacular tusk bearing its characteristic double curving twist. It appeared that the animal, which was about the size of a modern day Indian elephant, had probably become stuck in the mud and had died a lingering death. It's bones had then been scattered by predators and water currents. are deposited at Norwich Castle Museum in the care of the older deposits below the gravels were laid down during a warmer period in the Ice Age around 125,000 years ago. Temperatures then were around 2 to 3 degrees warmer than present. The area was covered in oak and pine forest, with hornbeam and yew. A river flowed through the area as it does today and the fossil remains of a wide variety of animals were incorporated into its sediments. Many of the species are only found on the Continent today and some are extinct. \|If you have any memories, anecdotes or photos please let us know and we may be able to use them to update the site. By all means telephone 07836 675369 or\| Top of Page	313	ENGLISH	1
Epilepsy is the most common neurological condition (affecting the brain), in the world. It is defined as a tendency to have recurrent seizures. In this section we'll only talk about epileptic seizures, although other types of seizures, not caused by epilepsy, also exist. An epileptic seizure (sometimes called a fit, an attack, turn or blackout) happens when ordinary brain activity is suddenly disrupted. There are many different types of seizures, and a person with epilepsy can experience more than one type. Seizures can occur when you are awake or asleep. Doctors classify seizures by how much of the brain is affected. There are: - focal (or partial) seizures – where only a small part of the brain is affected - generalised seizures – where most or all of the brain is affected - unknown onset - some seizures do not fit into these categories and are known as unclassified seizures. During focal (partial) seizures the disturbance in brain activity begins in or involves one part of the brain. Focal seizures can be either 'simple', when consciousness is not affected, or 'complex', when consciousness is affected to some degree. While people might have similar types of seizures, everyone has their own experiences of them. Many of those interviewed described their experiences of simple focal seizures. Sometimes simple focal seizures develop into other sorts of seizures and so are often referred to as a 'warning' or 'aura'. Describes his experience of simple partial seizures. Explains that an aura might develop into a tonic-clonic seizure. This is when I'm having these auras, I'm describing my auras. Then I get pins and needles. My arms and legs they start getting numb and I can't feel anything. And I think I start, try to shake my arms and my legs but I can't move them. And I can't speak either 'cause its like I don't know any language, I can't remember any word 'cause my mind doesn't work at all. And I'm just aware that I'm conscious that's all, I can look around. I don't know how long this lasts for but it lasts for a couple of minutes. And when I do, when I do have a fit, its like the sensation of these auras, it gets more and more intense and finally it gets to my head and I just black out. My relatives and people who've seen me have these attacks say I shake tremendously, my arms and legs shake. And I stretch my arms and legs out really, really hard. And they have to hold me back and I move my, I think they say I move my head and I move my eyes, roll my eyes around and do weird things. People who see me have an attack for the first time, they get really scared. And when I have a fit I just have it and I don't know, so when I have these auras I don't know whether this aura's gonna pass by or whether I'm gonna have a fit. In complex focal seizures, consciousness is affected and so the person might have limited or no memory of the seizure. The seizures might be characterised by a change in awareness as well as automatic movements such as fiddling with clothes or objects, mumbling or making chewing movements, or wandering about and general confusion. One woman described her experiences of having complex focal (partial) seizures and what happens during these attacks. Explains what happens during her complex partial seizures. Yes I mean the majority of them are complex partial seizures where I will cut out for a moment or two, come round maybe with a bit of a sore head and feeling tired and think 'oh did I have another seizure?' And sometimes again according to my tiredness, my level of down at the time it can be two maybe three minutes even in which case I will come round with quite a sore head, feeling a bit dizzy. And then I know I've had a seizure. Describes her experiences of having complex partial seizures. It varied, I can remember ever since I was little having this sort of feeling in my stomach of having to run, you know. I remember that. And then in school I think I know I used to find it hard to sort of, I don't know what the word is, not interact with people, hard to um, I don't know, whereas people would react sort of normally to arguments as it were, I'd blow up out of nowhere and really lose the plot. So you would shout? Yeah and then it would go from there and it was also the more stress I had, then I'd start seeing things. And I'd think people were coming for me you know, and they were just getting closer. So I used to lash out. It varies to be honest. I usually, it feels like my tongue is ten times the size that it is and my speech becomes really slurred. And I feel, I feel like I've gone 'thick' because I'm thinking the words in my head but they're not coming out of my mouth the way that they should be. And last time I had a seizure it was quite bad and I ended up in hospital. But my feet had gone so that I was walking on the sides of my feet, but I didn't have any control over that. I couldn't get my legs straight. And I was seeing things coming in through the windows and walls and things. I know they're not there and I know I'm hallucinating, but there's nothing I can do about it. And its really quite scary, its weird. In generalised seizures the whole of the brain is involved and consciousness is lost. These often occur with no warning and the person will have no memory of the event. Tonic-clonic convulsive seizures are the most easily recognised type of seizure. They are sometimes called a 'grand mal' seizure, although this term is no longer used by doctors. Several people described their experiences of tonic-clonic seizures. One woman explained how she felt before having a tonic-clonic seizure. Another discussed some of the difficulties with incontinence following her seizures. Describes what happens before she has a tonic-clonic seizure. Oh no I've got to be awkward, they do vary quite a bit. When I was younger they used to be, or the ones that were immediately recognised were the major type, tonic-clonic seizures, again I get plenty of warning for those. I've always had this opportunity to be able to say 'Oh Mummy I've got my lights,' which always meant I was going to have a seizure, because I had a sort of prismatic perception in front of me and I was never able to describe that to a doctor until somebody flicked a bit of light under a television screen and I realised then it sort of clicked in my head that's what I've been seeing all these years. And the idea as well about a dying man seeing his life flashing before him is something I can conceive. I can understand that idea because when you're going through that sensation its like having a lot of memories running past your mind really quickly and you get the feeling, and if you could just freeze-frame that you could identify with something that's going through your mind. But it's going through your mind too quickly for you to stop it and recognise anything and that can be frustrating but exciting at the same time, it's a funny sensation. And how long does this warning last? Well to me it seems like a couple of minutes but people observing me say it's more like one minute than two. And again the length of the warning will determine or not determine, that will depend upon I suppose the type of severity of the seizure I'm going to have at that moment in time. If I'm under a lot of stress it could be a very, very long seizure in which case the warning will be long. Discusses some of the difficulties with having tonic clonic seizures. One woman explained that she occasionally had atonic seizures or drop attacks. These involve a sudden loss of muscle tone, causing the person to fall. Other people discussed having absence seizures. These are sometimes called 'petit mal' by some people. They involve a brief interruption of consciousness during which the person becomes unresponsive. Explains that she occasionally has atonic seizures. What's your warning? It's just a feeling, its funny, it's a peculiar feeling, it's very hard to describe. Its um, its like a nervous thing that comes up, you don't sort of panic but it sort of comes up from your stomach and your heart floods a bit sort of thing - oh no not this thing again. Usually if I'm in an area, if there's a few people and I don't want to make a fool of myself' 'Sorry, I'm just going to the loo,' and I pop to the loo and sit on the loo for a minute and it passes over. And you become a little bit vacant for a while after, someone's talking to you and you say 'Sorry, what was that again?' You'll ask what they're saying but it's only for a matter of minutes, and a lot of time people don't know. But there are some like if I'm out, like yesterday I was out with my husband, I was in a shop, Ikea actually, with my husband and my son. And I could feel it happening and I thought, oh it'll pass off because some days you feel it come on but it passes off. It just goes away some days. It come on and plonk, I went bang down on the floor and I got up straight away again. You know I think the people in the shop thought I'd tripped over or something. You know my husband's very good at camouflaging' 'Come on, get up.' And my son and that, he's very good and says 'Are you all right?' But he doesn't make a thing of it, none of them make a big thing over it so. Gemma describes what happens when she has an absence in the middle of conversation and how... There were the petit-mals when my eyes flickered and sometimes they could do it really, really badly, so badly that I couldn't actually see anything. I had to close my eyes because it hurt and it was really strange because even then I would get this same feeling of helplessness and be really emotional and I'd burst into tears over anything. But I couldn't help it, it just came with it and it was so annoying. The grand-mals were the actual fits and so there were different types. So yeah, that was one of my bigger stresses, rather than the fits. The fits were annoying, the eye flickering was really, really annoying because I couldn't control it, never could I control it and it would happen sometimes and I wouldn't know it, but other people could see it. Some seizure patterns might not fit into any of the above categories or might include elements of different seizures. Some people experience seizures only during sleep. These are called nocturnal seizures and can be focal or generalised. One woman described how her night seizures changed after her drug treatment was altered. Discusses the different types of seizures that her son has. And how many seizures is he having now? Well he has seizures every day, in one shape or form. If it's, if it's not absences, it's myoclonic type. It, he can have partial complex and major seizures. Within a week he can have a, one or two or all of these. But I try to, I always have done and when he was very small I used to walk him down the street and he was having seizures as he was walking. Just to keep him occupied. I find if he's very bored he'll sit, have seizures, and very excited he'll have seizures. And so it's keeping his moods at a reasonable pace. Describes what happens when she has nocturnal seizures. It can't be that bad [now] at night because I'm not biting through my tongue, I don't get blood on the pillow, I don't see the blood running down my chin, I don't have that. Also I haven't woken my husband, but I have to say he does sleep like I log. But I think if I were to have grand mal in bed it would wake him up. So whilst I wake myself up and I'm thinking 'oh I think I've just had a very bad dream' and I'm not quite aware of where I am, it's only a few seconds to pass and I realise I'm at home. It's my bedroom and you've obviously just had a mild seizure. So it does take an awful long time to go back to sleep and yes I'm always left with an absolute thundering headache, but apart from that it's just fine. Most seizures last for the same length of time for each person and usually stop of their own accord. However, in some circumstances seizures are not self-limiting and do not stop or one seizure occurs after another with no recovery period in between. This situation is known as 'status epilepticus'. If it occurs with a tonic-clonic seizure it is a medical emergency. This woman recalled a status epilepticus episode she had on one occasion. Explains what happened when she had a status epilepticus episode. It was my birthday, and I'd been out with friends and drank much too much and I think that's probably what caused it. My mum was there luckily and if you want me to describe it, she's told me several times that she'll never forget me being in this horrendous sort of distortion. My whole body was twisted up you know, like in spasm, and she said I seemed to sort of, my eyes went back up in my head, made this horrible choking noise in my throat and then I appeared to sort of come out of it, went back into it. And she said this happened several times that she just thought right, although she'd done the St John's Ambulance course she was used to me and my fits and what to do, whether it was a complex or whatever, even grand mal, but this was pretty terrifying. So she got an ambulance and the next day I ached, I remember aching, my body had been in such spasm. Some people have to go through that every day you know or every other day, for me it was luckily just a one off. Many people also discussed their feelings of tiredness and confusion after a seizure. How long these feelings lasted often depended on the type and intensity of the seizure. Discusses recovering after a seizure. If you become aware of those things you have every right to be depressed. If you want to come out of it and because you've got to get on with life, but in many ways by accepting that, you appreciate it's your body telling you things. If you become aware of those things that's when you can talk to someone, or cry or whatever it is but those are the areas which now need to be emphasised because everything is about the instance of seizure, its not about that recovery process and that bits fascinating and that's where the overlap is. I'm now very aware of those things. Last reviewed May 2016. Last updated May 2016.	<urn:uuid:249f7fa4-401a-4386-b93e-4f4b4dd560c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://healthtalk.org/epilepsy/epileptic-seizures	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00165.warc.gz	en	0.983794	3,192	3.578125	4	[ 0.22440962493419647, -0.1352616548538208, -0.00647381879389286, 0.1335768699645996, -0.15882402658462524, 0.4890483021736145, 0.9569306373596191, -0.07050462812185287, 0.23840287327766418, -0.280350923538208, 0.11607347428798676, -0.09596608579158783, 0.0855708196759224, 0.0936503410339355...	1	Epilepsy is the most common neurological condition (affecting the brain), in the world. It is defined as a tendency to have recurrent seizures. In this section we'll only talk about epileptic seizures, although other types of seizures, not caused by epilepsy, also exist. An epileptic seizure (sometimes called a fit, an attack, turn or blackout) happens when ordinary brain activity is suddenly disrupted. There are many different types of seizures, and a person with epilepsy can experience more than one type. Seizures can occur when you are awake or asleep. Doctors classify seizures by how much of the brain is affected. There are: - focal (or partial) seizures – where only a small part of the brain is affected - generalised seizures – where most or all of the brain is affected - unknown onset - some seizures do not fit into these categories and are known as unclassified seizures. During focal (partial) seizures the disturbance in brain activity begins in or involves one part of the brain. Focal seizures can be either 'simple', when consciousness is not affected, or 'complex', when consciousness is affected to some degree. While people might have similar types of seizures, everyone has their own experiences of them. Many of those interviewed described their experiences of simple focal seizures. Sometimes simple focal seizures develop into other sorts of seizures and so are often referred to as a 'warning' or 'aura'. Describes his experience of simple partial seizures. Explains that an aura might develop into a tonic-clonic seizure. This is when I'm having these auras, I'm describing my auras. Then I get pins and needles. My arms and legs they start getting numb and I can't feel anything. And I think I start, try to shake my arms and my legs but I can't move them. And I can't speak either 'cause its like I don't know any language, I can't remember any word 'cause my mind doesn't work at all. And I'm just aware that I'm conscious that's all, I can look around. I don't know how long this lasts for but it lasts for a couple of minutes. And when I do, when I do have a fit, its like the sensation of these auras, it gets more and more intense and finally it gets to my head and I just black out. My relatives and people who've seen me have these attacks say I shake tremendously, my arms and legs shake. And I stretch my arms and legs out really, really hard. And they have to hold me back and I move my, I think they say I move my head and I move my eyes, roll my eyes around and do weird things. People who see me have an attack for the first time, they get really scared. And when I have a fit I just have it and I don't know, so when I have these auras I don't know whether this aura's gonna pass by or whether I'm gonna have a fit. In complex focal seizures, consciousness is affected and so the person might have limited or no memory of the seizure. The seizures might be characterised by a change in awareness as well as automatic movements such as fiddling with clothes or objects, mumbling or making chewing movements, or wandering about and general confusion. One woman described her experiences of having complex focal (partial) seizures and what happens during these attacks. Explains what happens during her complex partial seizures. Yes I mean the majority of them are complex partial seizures where I will cut out for a moment or two, come round maybe with a bit of a sore head and feeling tired and think 'oh did I have another seizure?' And sometimes again according to my tiredness, my level of down at the time it can be two maybe three minutes even in which case I will come round with quite a sore head, feeling a bit dizzy. And then I know I've had a seizure. Describes her experiences of having complex partial seizures. It varied, I can remember ever since I was little having this sort of feeling in my stomach of having to run, you know. I remember that. And then in school I think I know I used to find it hard to sort of, I don't know what the word is, not interact with people, hard to um, I don't know, whereas people would react sort of normally to arguments as it were, I'd blow up out of nowhere and really lose the plot. So you would shout? Yeah and then it would go from there and it was also the more stress I had, then I'd start seeing things. And I'd think people were coming for me you know, and they were just getting closer. So I used to lash out. It varies to be honest. I usually, it feels like my tongue is ten times the size that it is and my speech becomes really slurred. And I feel, I feel like I've gone 'thick' because I'm thinking the words in my head but they're not coming out of my mouth the way that they should be. And last time I had a seizure it was quite bad and I ended up in hospital. But my feet had gone so that I was walking on the sides of my feet, but I didn't have any control over that. I couldn't get my legs straight. And I was seeing things coming in through the windows and walls and things. I know they're not there and I know I'm hallucinating, but there's nothing I can do about it. And its really quite scary, its weird. In generalised seizures the whole of the brain is involved and consciousness is lost. These often occur with no warning and the person will have no memory of the event. Tonic-clonic convulsive seizures are the most easily recognised type of seizure. They are sometimes called a 'grand mal' seizure, although this term is no longer used by doctors. Several people described their experiences of tonic-clonic seizures. One woman explained how she felt before having a tonic-clonic seizure. Another discussed some of the difficulties with incontinence following her seizures. Describes what happens before she has a tonic-clonic seizure. Oh no I've got to be awkward, they do vary quite a bit. When I was younger they used to be, or the ones that were immediately recognised were the major type, tonic-clonic seizures, again I get plenty of warning for those. I've always had this opportunity to be able to say 'Oh Mummy I've got my lights,' which always meant I was going to have a seizure, because I had a sort of prismatic perception in front of me and I was never able to describe that to a doctor until somebody flicked a bit of light under a television screen and I realised then it sort of clicked in my head that's what I've been seeing all these years. And the idea as well about a dying man seeing his life flashing before him is something I can conceive. I can understand that idea because when you're going through that sensation its like having a lot of memories running past your mind really quickly and you get the feeling, and if you could just freeze-frame that you could identify with something that's going through your mind. But it's going through your mind too quickly for you to stop it and recognise anything and that can be frustrating but exciting at the same time, it's a funny sensation. And how long does this warning last? Well to me it seems like a couple of minutes but people observing me say it's more like one minute than two. And again the length of the warning will determine or not determine, that will depend upon I suppose the type of severity of the seizure I'm going to have at that moment in time. If I'm under a lot of stress it could be a very, very long seizure in which case the warning will be long. Discusses some of the difficulties with having tonic clonic seizures. One woman explained that she occasionally had atonic seizures or drop attacks. These involve a sudden loss of muscle tone, causing the person to fall. Other people discussed having absence seizures. These are sometimes called 'petit mal' by some people. They involve a brief interruption of consciousness during which the person becomes unresponsive. Explains that she occasionally has atonic seizures. What's your warning? It's just a feeling, its funny, it's a peculiar feeling, it's very hard to describe. Its um, its like a nervous thing that comes up, you don't sort of panic but it sort of comes up from your stomach and your heart floods a bit sort of thing - oh no not this thing again. Usually if I'm in an area, if there's a few people and I don't want to make a fool of myself' 'Sorry, I'm just going to the loo,' and I pop to the loo and sit on the loo for a minute and it passes over. And you become a little bit vacant for a while after, someone's talking to you and you say 'Sorry, what was that again?' You'll ask what they're saying but it's only for a matter of minutes, and a lot of time people don't know. But there are some like if I'm out, like yesterday I was out with my husband, I was in a shop, Ikea actually, with my husband and my son. And I could feel it happening and I thought, oh it'll pass off because some days you feel it come on but it passes off. It just goes away some days. It come on and plonk, I went bang down on the floor and I got up straight away again. You know I think the people in the shop thought I'd tripped over or something. You know my husband's very good at camouflaging' 'Come on, get up.' And my son and that, he's very good and says 'Are you all right?' But he doesn't make a thing of it, none of them make a big thing over it so. Gemma describes what happens when she has an absence in the middle of conversation and how... There were the petit-mals when my eyes flickered and sometimes they could do it really, really badly, so badly that I couldn't actually see anything. I had to close my eyes because it hurt and it was really strange because even then I would get this same feeling of helplessness and be really emotional and I'd burst into tears over anything. But I couldn't help it, it just came with it and it was so annoying. The grand-mals were the actual fits and so there were different types. So yeah, that was one of my bigger stresses, rather than the fits. The fits were annoying, the eye flickering was really, really annoying because I couldn't control it, never could I control it and it would happen sometimes and I wouldn't know it, but other people could see it. Some seizure patterns might not fit into any of the above categories or might include elements of different seizures. Some people experience seizures only during sleep. These are called nocturnal seizures and can be focal or generalised. One woman described how her night seizures changed after her drug treatment was altered. Discusses the different types of seizures that her son has. And how many seizures is he having now? Well he has seizures every day, in one shape or form. If it's, if it's not absences, it's myoclonic type. It, he can have partial complex and major seizures. Within a week he can have a, one or two or all of these. But I try to, I always have done and when he was very small I used to walk him down the street and he was having seizures as he was walking. Just to keep him occupied. I find if he's very bored he'll sit, have seizures, and very excited he'll have seizures. And so it's keeping his moods at a reasonable pace. Describes what happens when she has nocturnal seizures. It can't be that bad [now] at night because I'm not biting through my tongue, I don't get blood on the pillow, I don't see the blood running down my chin, I don't have that. Also I haven't woken my husband, but I have to say he does sleep like I log. But I think if I were to have grand mal in bed it would wake him up. So whilst I wake myself up and I'm thinking 'oh I think I've just had a very bad dream' and I'm not quite aware of where I am, it's only a few seconds to pass and I realise I'm at home. It's my bedroom and you've obviously just had a mild seizure. So it does take an awful long time to go back to sleep and yes I'm always left with an absolute thundering headache, but apart from that it's just fine. Most seizures last for the same length of time for each person and usually stop of their own accord. However, in some circumstances seizures are not self-limiting and do not stop or one seizure occurs after another with no recovery period in between. This situation is known as 'status epilepticus'. If it occurs with a tonic-clonic seizure it is a medical emergency. This woman recalled a status epilepticus episode she had on one occasion. Explains what happened when she had a status epilepticus episode. It was my birthday, and I'd been out with friends and drank much too much and I think that's probably what caused it. My mum was there luckily and if you want me to describe it, she's told me several times that she'll never forget me being in this horrendous sort of distortion. My whole body was twisted up you know, like in spasm, and she said I seemed to sort of, my eyes went back up in my head, made this horrible choking noise in my throat and then I appeared to sort of come out of it, went back into it. And she said this happened several times that she just thought right, although she'd done the St John's Ambulance course she was used to me and my fits and what to do, whether it was a complex or whatever, even grand mal, but this was pretty terrifying. So she got an ambulance and the next day I ached, I remember aching, my body had been in such spasm. Some people have to go through that every day you know or every other day, for me it was luckily just a one off. Many people also discussed their feelings of tiredness and confusion after a seizure. How long these feelings lasted often depended on the type and intensity of the seizure. Discusses recovering after a seizure. If you become aware of those things you have every right to be depressed. If you want to come out of it and because you've got to get on with life, but in many ways by accepting that, you appreciate it's your body telling you things. If you become aware of those things that's when you can talk to someone, or cry or whatever it is but those are the areas which now need to be emphasised because everything is about the instance of seizure, its not about that recovery process and that bits fascinating and that's where the overlap is. I'm now very aware of those things. Last reviewed May 2016. Last updated May 2016.	3,135	ENGLISH	1
History and traditions of the Maoris of the West Coast, North Island of New Zealand, prior to 1840 Massacre of Ngati-Kahu-Ngunu at Wai-Kanae Massacre of Ngati-Kahu-Ngunu at Wai-Kanae. The particulars of the above massacre are as follows, but I am unable to say exactly when it took place—probably before Ngati-Kahu-ngunu migrated to Naku-taurua, and indeed their losses at Wai-kanae may have been one of the causes inducing the migration. The following note is supplied by Mr. Shand: "Subsequent to the great defeat of Ati-Awa and Ngati-Tama at Te Tarata, and after they and Ngati-Toa had defeated Ngati-Kahu-ngunu at Pehi-katia, the two tribes were still pouri on account of their dead, as they did not consider they had had enough utu for them. Some time after, a peace was patched up with Ngati-Kahu-ngunu, and then an invitation was given to that tribe to cross the mountains and come over to Wai-nui and Wai-kanae to page 459partake of a feast. The invitation was accepted, and a considerable party came over. A large house had been specially built in which to receive the guests. With the treachery so common at this time—much of it learned from Te Rau-paraha, as the Maoris say—a decision had been arrived at to murder their guests. When the Ngati-Kahu-ngunu were assembled in the house, their suspicions of foul play were aroused; but too late. When they beheld their hosts assembling outside the house all armed, some said, 'We shall all be killed;' others replied, 'No, it is only the women bringing food.' Ati-Awa and Ngati-Toa now entered the house and gradually placed themselves in favourable positions amongst their guests. At a given signal they arose and commenced the massacre, and it was not long before nearly the whole of the Ngati-Kahu-ngunu party were dead or dying. One of the doomed men, casting off all his clothes, rushed outside, and would have effected his escape, but remembering that many of his younger relatives were still in the house, returned there to die with them. Te Aweawe of the Rangi-tane tribe, who was with Ngati-Kahu-ngunu, and who was the younger brother of Mahuri and a son of Tokipoto, was saved alive by Tungia of Ngati-Toa, because the latter had been preserved from death at the fight at Hotu-iti, Manawatu, by Te Aweawe (see page 394). This is the only redeeming feature about this dastardly affair, which is so much in keeping with other doings of Te Rau-paraha's that it is possible he was the author of it. He had, however, very apt pupils.	<urn:uuid:4cbc5962-ad8b-44a4-981d-a3527b4b9505>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-SmiHist-t1-body1-d18-d7.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00234.warc.gz	en	0.987843	658	3.625	4	[ -0.23115697503089905, 0.4385894238948822, 0.22270727157592773, 0.17201706767082214, -0.07584379613399506, -0.024028100073337555, 0.30670517683029175, -0.3357214629650116, -0.013287683017551899, 0.048415906727313995, 0.22315636277198792, -0.33094170689582825, 0.33155912160873413, 0.41823083...	3	History and traditions of the Maoris of the West Coast, North Island of New Zealand, prior to 1840 Massacre of Ngati-Kahu-Ngunu at Wai-Kanae Massacre of Ngati-Kahu-Ngunu at Wai-Kanae. The particulars of the above massacre are as follows, but I am unable to say exactly when it took place—probably before Ngati-Kahu-ngunu migrated to Naku-taurua, and indeed their losses at Wai-kanae may have been one of the causes inducing the migration. The following note is supplied by Mr. Shand: "Subsequent to the great defeat of Ati-Awa and Ngati-Tama at Te Tarata, and after they and Ngati-Toa had defeated Ngati-Kahu-ngunu at Pehi-katia, the two tribes were still pouri on account of their dead, as they did not consider they had had enough utu for them. Some time after, a peace was patched up with Ngati-Kahu-ngunu, and then an invitation was given to that tribe to cross the mountains and come over to Wai-nui and Wai-kanae to page 459partake of a feast. The invitation was accepted, and a considerable party came over. A large house had been specially built in which to receive the guests. With the treachery so common at this time—much of it learned from Te Rau-paraha, as the Maoris say—a decision had been arrived at to murder their guests. When the Ngati-Kahu-ngunu were assembled in the house, their suspicions of foul play were aroused; but too late. When they beheld their hosts assembling outside the house all armed, some said, 'We shall all be killed;' others replied, 'No, it is only the women bringing food.' Ati-Awa and Ngati-Toa now entered the house and gradually placed themselves in favourable positions amongst their guests. At a given signal they arose and commenced the massacre, and it was not long before nearly the whole of the Ngati-Kahu-ngunu party were dead or dying. One of the doomed men, casting off all his clothes, rushed outside, and would have effected his escape, but remembering that many of his younger relatives were still in the house, returned there to die with them. Te Aweawe of the Rangi-tane tribe, who was with Ngati-Kahu-ngunu, and who was the younger brother of Mahuri and a son of Tokipoto, was saved alive by Tungia of Ngati-Toa, because the latter had been preserved from death at the fight at Hotu-iti, Manawatu, by Te Aweawe (see page 394). This is the only redeeming feature about this dastardly affair, which is so much in keeping with other doings of Te Rau-paraha's that it is possible he was the author of it. He had, however, very apt pupils.	625	ENGLISH	1
The first mention of Tu b’Av (15th of the Hebrew month of Av) as a special day in Jewish sources is in the Mishnah (end of the 2nd century): Said Rabbi Shimon ben Gamliel: There were no greater celebrations for Israel than the 15th of Av and Yom Kippur. (Talmud, Taanit 26b). According to the Talmud, on the 15th of Av the daughters of ancient Israel would go out dressed in white and dance in the vineyards, saying young man, consider whom you choose (to be your wife)?”(Ta’anit, Chapter 4). In other words, in early generations this day was a day of marriage or that which would ultimately lead to marriage, and since, according to Jewish tradition, a groom is forgiven for his sins on his wedding day (similar to Yom Kippur), both of these days are a type of celebration. In addition, there were several more joyous events in Jewish history which this day commemorates, including: 1) Several months after the people of Israel were freed from Egyptian slavery, the sin of the spies lead to the decree that the entire generation would die in the desert, and that their children would enter the land instead (Numbers 13 and 14). After 40 years of wandering through the wilderness the decree was annulled and the next generation stood ready to enter the Holy Land. It was the 15th of Av of the year 1274 BCE. 2) On this day in history, the tribes of Israel were permitted to intermarry. In order to ensure the proper division of the Land of Israel between the twelve tribes, the generation that conquered and settled the Holy Land was restricted to marrying within their respective tribe, and preventing the transfer of lands between tribes. This restriction was lifted on the 15th of Av, which was considered a cause for celebration and festivity. 3) The fortress of Betar was the last holdout of the Bar Kochba rebellion. When Betar was captured on Av 9, 133 CE, thousands of Jews were killed and the Romans and they were forbidden to bury their dead. After they miraculously did not decompose, the dead of Betar were finally brought to burial on Av 15, 148 CE. In addition, according to Jewish tradition, the 15th of Av marks a preface to Elul, the month of preparation for judgment on Rosh Hashanah, and it is therefore proper for a person to begin to review his actions during the year.	<urn:uuid:b18684e9-696f-4e7b-a44f-0fab9db3e014>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.judaicawebstore.com/tu-b-av-the-jewish-holiday-of-love/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00030.warc.gz	en	0.981767	522	3.59375	4	[ -0.3615453839302063, 0.71119225025177, -0.15386903285980225, -0.23234550654888153, -0.3704274296760559, -0.024203095585107803, 0.16308775544166565, 0.27432990074157715, 0.15186423063278198, 0.28785276412963867, -0.23620009422302246, -0.29682794213294983, 0.0518248975276947, 0.2702838182449...	1	The first mention of Tu b’Av (15th of the Hebrew month of Av) as a special day in Jewish sources is in the Mishnah (end of the 2nd century): Said Rabbi Shimon ben Gamliel: There were no greater celebrations for Israel than the 15th of Av and Yom Kippur. (Talmud, Taanit 26b). According to the Talmud, on the 15th of Av the daughters of ancient Israel would go out dressed in white and dance in the vineyards, saying young man, consider whom you choose (to be your wife)?”(Ta’anit, Chapter 4). In other words, in early generations this day was a day of marriage or that which would ultimately lead to marriage, and since, according to Jewish tradition, a groom is forgiven for his sins on his wedding day (similar to Yom Kippur), both of these days are a type of celebration. In addition, there were several more joyous events in Jewish history which this day commemorates, including: 1) Several months after the people of Israel were freed from Egyptian slavery, the sin of the spies lead to the decree that the entire generation would die in the desert, and that their children would enter the land instead (Numbers 13 and 14). After 40 years of wandering through the wilderness the decree was annulled and the next generation stood ready to enter the Holy Land. It was the 15th of Av of the year 1274 BCE. 2) On this day in history, the tribes of Israel were permitted to intermarry. In order to ensure the proper division of the Land of Israel between the twelve tribes, the generation that conquered and settled the Holy Land was restricted to marrying within their respective tribe, and preventing the transfer of lands between tribes. This restriction was lifted on the 15th of Av, which was considered a cause for celebration and festivity. 3) The fortress of Betar was the last holdout of the Bar Kochba rebellion. When Betar was captured on Av 9, 133 CE, thousands of Jews were killed and the Romans and they were forbidden to bury their dead. After they miraculously did not decompose, the dead of Betar were finally brought to burial on Av 15, 148 CE. In addition, according to Jewish tradition, the 15th of Av marks a preface to Elul, the month of preparation for judgment on Rosh Hashanah, and it is therefore proper for a person to begin to review his actions during the year.	546	ENGLISH	1
Middle school instruction in a band classroom is unique in comparison to that of other subject areas. As a “related domain,” music—and specifically instrumental music—is a subject that provides middle school students with choices and opportunities to do things they would not in other classes. Though it certainly is not true for everyone, band is often a favorite class for many students. The classroom setting is a bit different, with arrangements of chairs and stands instead of tables or desks. Students are able to complete hands-on, artistic work, instead of the pencil-and-paper assignments they often work on in math or social studies. Finally, students partake in intensely individual work (no two flute players will progress at an identical pace or sound the same) that leads to improvement as a large group. Because music classes are so unique and because middle school students are so diverse, middle-level music teachers, like my cooperating teacher, face special challenges when planning what to teach, how to teach, and how to best manage their classroom. The band class in which I completed my clinical experience did not incorporate interdisciplinary curriculum. When students entered the room, they focused mostly on music, and the topics they worked on in their other classes were not referenced while they were in band. Generally, students just played their instruments during their sectional time, though sometimes they played music-related games or learned lessons about other music topics. For instance, one day was dubbed “Beethoven Day,” and instead of working on band music, the student saw a presentation about Ludwig Beethoven’s life and music. While the band director did not teach topics that related to what the students may have been learning in their other classes, he did attempt to integrate other academic skills. On “Beethoven Day,” the teacher encouraged students to calculate how old Beethoven would have been based on his date of birth and date of death. He also encouraged geography and vocabulary be asking students the capitol of Austria and the definition of “tyrannical.” The teacher was still having students apply other knowledge in his class, even if it wasn’t directly what they were working on in their core classes. Interdisciplinary curriculum also involves the collaboration of teachers from different subject areas. Just as I did not see an overlap in instructional material from other subjects, I did not see my cooperating teacher communicating with teachers from other subjects. I did, however see this teacher working with the other teachers in his department. The music program at this middle school had three different teachers who taught sectionals and two who directed the bands. The teachers worked collaboratively in choosing the music and then teaching it to students. This was effective because there were several adults available to the students to help them understand the music. Additionally, the teachers had...	<urn:uuid:dff951a5-569c-47a7-a22c-9d0f153e5bb2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/clinical-experience	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00135.warc.gz	en	0.984063	575	3.625	4	[ 0.2204679399728775, -0.41597020626068115, 0.37707504630088806, -0.6454192399978638, -0.5648297071456909, -0.001272451365366578, -0.29152828454971313, 0.12040235102176666, 0.11077568680047989, -0.3218576908111572, 0.39340367913246155, 0.4179653525352478, 0.06575575470924377, 0.3404807746410...	1	Middle school instruction in a band classroom is unique in comparison to that of other subject areas. As a “related domain,” music—and specifically instrumental music—is a subject that provides middle school students with choices and opportunities to do things they would not in other classes. Though it certainly is not true for everyone, band is often a favorite class for many students. The classroom setting is a bit different, with arrangements of chairs and stands instead of tables or desks. Students are able to complete hands-on, artistic work, instead of the pencil-and-paper assignments they often work on in math or social studies. Finally, students partake in intensely individual work (no two flute players will progress at an identical pace or sound the same) that leads to improvement as a large group. Because music classes are so unique and because middle school students are so diverse, middle-level music teachers, like my cooperating teacher, face special challenges when planning what to teach, how to teach, and how to best manage their classroom. The band class in which I completed my clinical experience did not incorporate interdisciplinary curriculum. When students entered the room, they focused mostly on music, and the topics they worked on in their other classes were not referenced while they were in band. Generally, students just played their instruments during their sectional time, though sometimes they played music-related games or learned lessons about other music topics. For instance, one day was dubbed “Beethoven Day,” and instead of working on band music, the student saw a presentation about Ludwig Beethoven’s life and music. While the band director did not teach topics that related to what the students may have been learning in their other classes, he did attempt to integrate other academic skills. On “Beethoven Day,” the teacher encouraged students to calculate how old Beethoven would have been based on his date of birth and date of death. He also encouraged geography and vocabulary be asking students the capitol of Austria and the definition of “tyrannical.” The teacher was still having students apply other knowledge in his class, even if it wasn’t directly what they were working on in their core classes. Interdisciplinary curriculum also involves the collaboration of teachers from different subject areas. Just as I did not see an overlap in instructional material from other subjects, I did not see my cooperating teacher communicating with teachers from other subjects. I did, however see this teacher working with the other teachers in his department. The music program at this middle school had three different teachers who taught sectionals and two who directed the bands. The teachers worked collaboratively in choosing the music and then teaching it to students. This was effective because there were several adults available to the students to help them understand the music. Additionally, the teachers had...	543	ENGLISH	1
The Industrial Revolution was dawning in the United States. At Lowell, Massachusetts, the construction of a big cotton mill began in 1821. It was the first of several that would be built there in the next 10 years. The machinery to spin and weave cotton into cloth would be driven by water power. All that the factory owners needed was a dependable supply of labor to tend the machines. As most jobs in cotton factories required neither great strength nor special skills, the owners thought women could do the work as well as or better than men. In addition, they were more compliant. The New England region was home to many young, single farm girls who might be recruited. But would stern New England farmers allow their daughters to work in factories? The great majority of them would not. They believed that sooner or later factory workers would be exploited and would sink into hopeless poverty. Economic “laws” would force them to work harder and harder for less and less pay. THE LOWELL EXPERIMENT How, then, were the factory owners able to recruit farm girls as laborers? They did it by building decent houses in which the girls could live. These houses were supervised by older women who made sure that the girls lived by strict moral standards. The girls were encouraged to go to church, to read, to write and to attend lectures. They saved part of their earnings to help their families at home or to use when they got married. The young factory workers did not earn high wages; the average pay was about $3.50 a week. But in those times, a half-dozen eggs cost five cents and a whole chicken cost 15 cents. The hours worked in the factories were long. Generally, the girls worked 11 to 13 hours a day, six days a week. But most people in the 1830s worked from dawn until dusk, and farm girls were used to getting up early and working until bedtime at nine o’clock. The factory owners at Lowell believed that machines would bring progress as well as profit. Workers and capitalists would both benefit from the wealth created by mass production. For a while, the factory system at Lowell worked very well. The population of the town grew from 200 in 1820 to 30,000 in 1845. But conditions in Lowell’s factories had already started to change. Faced with growing competition, factory owners began to decrease wages in order to lower the cost-and the price-of finished products. They increased the number of machines that each girl had to operate. In addition, they began to overcrowd the houses in which the girls lived. Sometimes eight girls had to share one room. In 1836, 1,500 factory girls went on strike to protest wage cuts. (The girls called their action a “turn out.”) But it was useless. Desperately poor immigrants were beginning to arrive in the United States from Europe. To earn a living, they were willing to accept low wages and poor working conditions. Before long, immigrant women replaced the “Yankee” (American) farm girls. To many people, it was apparent that justice for wage earners would not come easily. Labor in America faced a long, uphill struggle to win fair treatment. In that struggle, more and more workers would turn to labor unions to help their cause. They would endure violence, cruelty and bitter defeats. But eventually they would achieve a standard of living unknown to workers at any other time in history. GROWTH OF THE FACTORY In colonial America, most manufacturing was done by hand in the home. Some was done in workshops attached to the home. As towns grew into cities, the demand for manufactured goods increased. Some workshop owners began hiring helpers to increase production. Relations between the employer and helper were generally harmonious. They worked side by side, had the same interests and held similar political views. The factory system that began around 1800 brought great changes. The employer no longer worked beside his employees. He became an executive and a merchant who rarely saw his workers. He was concerned less with their welfare than with the cost of their labor. Many workers were angry about the changes brought by the factory system. In the past, they had taken great pride in their handicraft skills; now machines did practically all the work, and they were reduced to the status of common laborers. In bad times they could lose their jobs. Then they might be replaced by workers who would accept lower wages. To skilled craft workers, the Industrial Revolution meant degradation rather than progress. As the factory system grew, many workers began to form labor unions to protect their interests. The first union to hold regular meetings and collect dues was organized by Philadelphia shoemakers in 1792. Soon after, carpenters and leather workers in Boston and printers in New York also organized unions. Labor’s tactics in those early times were simple. Members of a union would agree on the wages they thought were fair. They pledged to stop working for employers who would not pay that amount. They also sought to compel employers to hire only union members. Employers found the courts to be an effective weapon to protect their interests. In 1806, eight Philadelphia shoemakers were brought to trial after leading an unsuccessful strike. The court ruled that any organizing of workers to raise wages was an illegal act. Unions were “conspiracies” against employers and the community. In later cases, courts ruled that almost any action taken by unions to increase wages might be criminal. These decisions destroyed the effectiveness of the nation’s early labor unions. Not until 1842 was the way opened again for workers to organize. That year several union shoemakers in Boston were brought to trial. They were charged with refusing to work with non-union shoemakers. A municipal court judge found the men guilty of conspiracy. But an appeal to a higher court resulted in a victory for labor unions generally. Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw ruled that it was not unlawful for workers to engage peacefully in union activity. It was their right to organize, he said. Shaw’s decision was widely accepted. For many years following this decision, unions did not have to fear conspiracy charges. In the next two decades, unions campaigned for a 10-hour working day and against child labor. A number of state legislatures responded favorably. In 1851, for example, New Jersey passed a law calling for a 10-hour working day in all factories. It also forbade the employment of children under 10 years old. Meanwhile trade unions were joining together in cities to form federations. A number of skilled trades organized national unions to try to improve their wages and working conditions. The effort to increase wages brought about hundreds of strikes during the 1850s. None was as extensive, however, as a strike of New England shoemakers in 1860. The strike started in Lynn, Massachusetts, when factory workers were refused a three-dollar increase in their weekly pay. It soon spread to Maine and New Hampshire. Altogether, about 20,000 workers took part in the strike. It ended in a victory for the shoemakers. Similar victories were soon won by other trade unions. These successes led to big increases in union membership. Yet most American workers were generally better off than workers in Europe and had more hope of improving their lives. For this reason, the majority did not join labor unions. In the years following the Civil War (1861-1865), the United States was transformed by the enormous growth of industry. Once the United States was mainly a nation of small farms. By 1900, it was a nation of growing cities, of coal and steel, of engines and fast communications. Though living standards generally rose, millions of industrial workers lived in crowded, unsanitary slums. Their conditions became desperate in times of business depressions. Then it was not unusual for workers to go on strike and battle their employers. Between 1865 and 1900, industrial violence occurred on numerous occasions. Probably the most violent confrontation between labor and employers was the Great Railway Strike of 1877. The nation had been in the grip of a severe depression for four years. During that time, the railroads had decreased the wages of railway workers by 20 percent. Many trainmen complained that they could not support their families adequately. There was little that the trainmen could do about the wage decreases. At that time, unions were weak and workers feared going on strike; there were too many unemployed men who might take their jobs. Yet some workers secretly formed a Trainmen’s Union to oppose the railroads. Then, in 1877, four big railroads announced that they were going to decrease wages another 10 percent. In addition, the Pennsylvania line ordered freight train conductors to handle twice as many cars as before. On July 16, a strike began on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in West Virginia. The strike quickly spread to other lines. On July 19, Pennsylvania Railroad workers at Pittsburgh refused to let freight trains move. (The strikers let passenger trains move freely because they carried United States mail.) The next day the governor sent statemilitiamen to oust the strikers from the freight yard. But these men were from Pittsburgh. They had many friends and relatives among the strikers. Soon they were mingling with the crowd of men, women and children at the freight yard. The next day 600 militiamen arrived from Philadelphia. They were ordered to clear the tracks at the freight yard. The soldiers advanced toward the crowd and shooting erupted. In the aftermath, 20 people in the crowd lay dead. Many more were wounded. News of the killings triggered rioting and fires in the Pittsburgh railyards. President Rutherford Hayes ordered federal troops to Pittsburgh to end mob violence. When they arrived, the fighting had already ended. In the smoking ruins, they found the wrecks of more than 2,000 railroad cars. Dozens of buildings lay in ashes. Many strikers were sent to jail and others lost their jobs. A large part of the public was shocked by the violence in Pittsburgh and other cities. Some people were convinced that miners, railroad workers and other laborers were common criminals. Legislatures in many states passed new conspiracy laws aimed at suppressing labor. But the Great Railway Strike of 1877 helped the workers in some ways. A few railroads took back the wage cuts they had ordered. More important was the support given to the strike by miners, iron workers and others. It gave labor an awareness of its strength and solidarity. KNIGHTS OF LABOR The Railway Strike led many workers to join a growing national labor organization. It had a grand name-the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor. It was founded in 1869 by a small group of Philadelphia clothing workers. Their union had been unable to organize effectively. The reason, they believed, was that its members were too well-known. Employers fired them and then put their names on a “blacklist.” Other employers would not hire anyone whose name appeared on the list. The garment workers came to two conclusions: Secrecy was needed to protect union members against employer spies. Labor organizations would fail if they were divided into separate craft unions. Instead, labor should be organized in one big union of both skilled and unskilled workers. Membership in the Knights of Labor was open to wage earners over 18 years of age regardless of race, sex or skill. New members had to take an oath of secrecy. They swore that they would never reveal the name of the order or the names of its members. The program of the Knights of Labor called for: an eight-hour working day, laws establishing a minimum weekly wage, the use of arbitration rather than strikes to settle disputes, laws to protect the health and safety of industrial workers, equal pay for equal work, an end to child labor under 14 years of age and government ownership of railroads, telegraphs and telephones. It was impossible for the Knights to operate in complete secrecy. Rumors of their activities reached the press. Newspaper stories usually exaggerated the strength of the order. Under pressure from public opinion, the Knights began to operate openly. But they were still forbidden to reveal the name of any member to an employer. Membership in the Knights increased slowly. By 1884, the order had only 52,000 members. But that year workers led by Knights of Labor organizers went on strike against two big railroad companies. Both strikes ended in complete victories for the Knights. Now workers everywhere rushed to join the order. Within two years membership in the Knights rose to 150,000. Newspapers warned their readers about the power of the Knights. One of them said, “Their leaders can shut most of the mills and factories, and disable the railroads.” Many people associated the order with dangerous radicals. Later railroad strikes by the Knights met with defeat. The order was not nearly as powerful as it had seemed. Workers began to leave it in great numbers. Within 10 years of its greatest victories, the Knights of Labor collapsed. “BREAD AND BUTTER” UNIONISM As the Knights declined, a new labor organization began to challenge it for supremacy. This was the American Federation of Labor (AFL). It was formed in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, a leader of the Cigarmakers’ Union. Gompers believed that craft unions of skilled workers were the best kind. Unskilled workers were easily replaced when they went on strike. Craft workers could not be replaced easily. Gompers had no use for the Knights of Labor, which combined all workers in one big union. The American Federation of Labor began with a core of six craft unions. They were cigarmakers, carpenters, printers, iron molders, steel molders and glassmakers. The new organization was not an immediate success. For 10 years, the AFL and the Knights battled each other. They invaded each other’s territory, encouraged revolts and welcomed each other’s members into their own ranks. They even supplied strikebreakers against each other. But the tide was running against the Knights. The AFL, led by Gompers, grew steadily in size and power. By 1904, it had 1.75 million members and was the nation’s dominant labor organization. At this time, many workers in Europe were joining revolutionary labor movements which advocated the abolition of capitalism and the establishment of a new socialist economic system. Most American workers, however, followed the lead of Gompers, with his highly pragmatic approach to problems of labor. They strove to organize strong unions so that they could demand a greater share in the wealth that they helped to produce. They were not interested in destroying the economic structure of the country but in making it work more effectively for their benefit. Gompers believed that unions should be primarily concerned with the day-to-day welfare of their members and should not become involved in politics. He also was convinced that socialism would not succeed in the United States but that practical demands for higher wages and fewer working hours could achieve the goal of a better life for working people. This was known as “bread and butter” unionism. There was one outstanding exception to the pragmatic “bread and butter” approach to unionism which characterized most of American labor. This was the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), a revolutionary labor union launched in Chicago in 1905 under the leadership of Eugene V. Debs. The IWW the overthrow of capitalism through strikes, boycotts and sabotage. Particularly strong among textile workers, dock workers, migratory farmers and lumberjacks, the union reached its peak membership of 100,000 in 1912. The IWW had practically disappeared by 1918, because of federal prosecutions and a national sentiment against radicalism which began in 1917. In the early years of the 20th century, a powerful reform movement called Progressivism swept the country. Its leaders were college professors, ministers, journalists, physicians and social workers. Their goal was to improve conditions for all Americans. They wanted to make the political system more egalitarian. They also wanted to make the nation’s economic system more democratic. Those who owned the nation’s resources, they said, should share some of their wealth with the less fortunate. The movement appealed to farmers, small businessmen, women and laborers. It cut across political party and regional lines. The Progressive Movement had the support of three United States presidents: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson. The Progressives were concerned about labor’s problems. They were alarmed by the growing use of court rulings to halt strikes. In 1890, for example, Congress passed the Sherman Anti-trust Act. Its purpose was to punish big business corporations that combined to prevent competition. Yet more and more it was being used as a weapon against unions. The Progressives were unhappy about the use of federal troops and state militia against strikers. They were outraged by inhuman conditions in factories and mines. The Progressives and the AFL pressured state governments for laws to protect wage earners. Almost all states passed laws forbidding the employment of children under 14 years old. Thirty-seven states forbade children under 16 years old to work between 7p.m. and 6a.m. Nineteen states established the eight-hour day for children under 16 in factories and stores. The Progressives were also concerned with the hours worked by women in industry. Forty-one states wrote new or improved laws to protect women workers. Most limited the work day to nine hours, or the work week to 54 hours. One of the greatest concerns of the Progressives was the problem of industrial accidents. They wanted workers to be paid for accidents regardless of cause. The cost of insurance to cover accidents, they said, should be paid by employers. By 1917, 13 states had passed workers’ compensation laws. Many states passed laws to improve safety regulations. The alliance of Progressives and the AFL also campaigned for federal laws to aid labor. In response, Congress passed laws to protect children, railroad workers and seamen. It established a Department of Labor in the president’s Cabinet. Most important of all, Congress passed the Clayton Act of 1914. Its purpose was to halt the use of antitrust laws and court injunctions against unions. During World War I, organized labor made great advances. The federal government created the War Labor Board to settle disputes by arbitration. Generally the Board was favorable to wage increases, the eight-hour day and collective bargaining. This led to a big increase in union membership. In January 1917, the AFL had 2,370,000 members. By January 1919, it had 3,260,000 members. RED SCARES AND DEPRESSION As the 1920s began, organized labor seemed stronger than ever. It was successful in getting Congress to pass laws that restricted immigration to the United States. Unions believed that a scarcity of labor would keep wages high. But events that took place in Europe were already threatening labor’s gains. In 1917, a communist revolution overthrew the government of Russia. Communists also attempted revolutions in Germany, Hungary and Finland. Immigrants entering the United States at this time were primarily from southern and eastern Europe. Many of them, in response to the economic hardship and social inequality which they found in America’s industrial cities, were attracted to the utopian promises of socialist, communist and other radical political groups which advocated a drastic change in American society. There was widespread fear-almost hysteria-among more established Americans that a revolution might break out in the United States. In response to this fear, the federal government launched a series of raids which resulted in the arrest and sometimes the deportation of aliens who were members of socialist, anarchist or communist organizations. About 500 aliens, including Russian-born anarchist “Red Emma” Goldman, were deported during this period. A number of them, like Goldman, rejected Bolshevism as they experienced it in the Soviet Union and later returned to the United States. Meanwhile, workers were striking for higher wages all over the United States. Many Americans believed that these strikes were led by communists and anarchists. During the Progressive era, the public had sympathized with labor. Now the public became hostile to it. Employers encouraged anti-union movements, or created company unions that they sought to control. Courts found legal openings in the Clayton Act and issued rulings against union activity. The courts also found ways to use the Sherman Anti-trust Act against unions. Opposed by public opinion, business and the courts, union membership fell. The number of AFL members dropped to 2,770,000 by 1929. This decline took place even though the number of workers in industry rose by almost seven million. For most Americans, the 1920s were prosperous years. But in October 1929, the New York stock market “crashed,” and the value of stocks went way down. The crash, part of a worldwide economic decline, led to the worst economic depression in the nation’s history. People lost their jobs, their farms and their businesses. By 1932, 13 million men and women were unemployed. This was one out of every four in the work force. Many more workers had only part-time jobs. In the cities, jobless men stood on long lines for a handout of bread and soup. Many of them lived in shanties near garbage dumps. Men and boys roamed the country, hoping to find work. In the past, depressions had usually hurt unions. Unemployment meant a sharp drop in workers’ dues. Then unions became almost powerless to prevent decreases in wages or long working hours. But in the Great Depression of the 1930s, unions actually benefited. In 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt, a Democrat, promised Americans a “New Deal.” He pledged to help the “forgotten man”-the worker who had lost his job, or the farmer who had lost his land. Under Roosevelt, Congress passed laws to revive business and create jobs. To help labor, Congress passed the Wagner Act. It guaranteed workers the right to join unions and bargain collectively. The law created a powerful National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). The Board could order elections in which workers voted for the union they wanted to represent them. (Workers could vote against joining any union, if they wished.) The NLRB could also order a stop to unfair practices used by employers against unions. Union leaders hailed the Wagner Act. It provided a great opportunity to increase union membership. But the drive was delayed at first by a dispute within the American Federation of Labor. The AFL was made up mainly of skilled workers organized into craft unions. But millions of unskilled workers were in giant industries like steel, autos, rubber and textiles. Some labor leaders believed that a single union should represent all the workers, skilled and unskilled. One big industrial union would be much stronger than a dozen different craft unions, they said. FROM THE CIO TO TAFT-HARTLEY Most leaders of the AFL were opposed to the idea of industrial unions. They made no effort to organize them. Finally Lewis and other union leaders broke away from the AFL. They formed a new labor organization that became the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). One of the first targets of the CIO was the auto industry. Workers at the General Motors factories in Flint, Michigan, eagerly joined the CIO’s United Automobile Workers (UAW) union. They demanded that the company recognize the UAW. But officers of General Motors refused to meet with union representatives. This was a violation of the Wagner Act. In January 1937, the UAW called a strike against the company. The tactics used by the auto workers took the company by surprise. The workers refused to leave the factories. Instead, they put away their tools and sat down. They did this to prevent strikebreakers from taking their jobs. At night the men slept on the seats of new cars. Food was passed to them through windows by their families. General Motors tried to force the workers out. The company shut off the heat in the factories. It was winter, but the workers stayed. Police tried to break into one of the factories. The strikers drove them back by throwing soda bottles, coffee mugs and iron bolts. Then the police charged with tear gas bombs. This time the workers drove them back by turning fire hoses on them. Finally General Motors went to court and got a ruling against the strikers. The workers were ordered to leave the GM factories by February 3. The National Guard (militiamen) was alerted to enforce the order. Everyone expected a big battle on February 3, but it didn’t happen. Governor Frank Murphy refused to order an attack on the strikers. Instead, he ordered General Motors officers to hold peace talks with the UAW. President Roosevelt also asked for a peaceful end to the strike. A week later General Motors recognized the union and agreed to bargain with it. The UAW and the CIO had won a major victory. Within two years, the CIO organized 3,750,000 industrial workers. The AFL met the challenge of the CIO with an organizing drive of its own. By the end of 1937, the AFL had 3,400,000 members. During the 1930s, Congress enacted other reforms that benefited labor: The Social Security Act of 1935 created a system of government-sponsored unemployment insurance and old-age pensions. The Fair Labor Standards Act regulated wages and hours. Minimum wages were established to help workers maintain a decent standard of living. Hours were shortened to give them more time for leisure. The law also forbade the labor of children under 16 in most occupations. Unemployment in the United States remained high until the United States entered World War II in 1941. Then, defense industries boomed, and millions of men entered the armed forces. By 1943, unemployment ended and industry was faced with a shortage of labor. During the Great Depression, women were urged not to take jobs. Now they were encouraged to go to work. Before long, one out of four workers in defense industries was a woman. During World War II, labor cooperated with government and industry. Its spirit was expressed by John L. Lewis, president of the CIO. “When the nation is attacked,” he said, “every American must rally to its defense.” When peace came, a wave of strikes for higher wages swept the nation. Employers became alarmed. They said that the Wagner Act had given labor too much power. A majority in the United States Congress agreed with them. In 1947, Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act. It contained a number of provisions to limit organized labor. One of them outlawed the “closed shop” agreement which required employers to hire only union members. It also permitted the states to pass “right to work” laws. These laws forbade agreements that required workers to join a union after they were hired. Labor leaders bitterly denounced the Taft-Hartley Act. They said it was meant to destroy unions. Despite their fears, membership in unions continued to grow. By 1952, it had increased to 17 million. Leaders of the AFL and the CIO merged their organizations in 1955. The combined organization became the AFL-CIO. In recent years there has been a steady decline in the percentage of workers who belong to labor unions. In 1945, 35 percent of the work force were union members. In 1988, less than 17 percent of the labor force-or 17 million workers-were unionized. There are several reasons for this, including: The decline of heavy industry (once a stronghold of unionism) and the increase of advanced-technology industries. Automation and other technological changes that have displaced many blue-collar workers. Foreign competition, which has depressed some United States industries and increased unemployment. The transition to a “post-industrial” economy in the United States. Ever increasing numbers of workers are employed in service-providing businesses, such as hotels, restaurants and retail stores. Despite the decline in members, organized labor in the United States remains strong and conditions of America’s labor force have steadily improved. The length of the work day has been shortened. Many agreements between employers and wage earners now call for less than 40 hours of work a week. Most agreements have generous “fringe” benefits. These include insurance, pensions and health care plans. As the number of union members has decreased as a percentage of the total work force, unions have responded by broadening their organizing efforts to include employees of federal, state and local governments as well as other professionals. Organizers have also waged long campaigns to unionize and win better conditions for such diverse groups as public school teachers and seasonal farm workers. By the early 1990s, the work force was changing. First. the pool of workers was no longer expanding as rapidly as in the past. And, second, the composition of the labor force was different, consisting of a larger percentage of minorities and women than before. Employers are adapting to this work force diversity in several ways. Some sponsor education and training programs for potential recruits. Many, in an attempt to attract and accommodate women workers, provide on-site child care, and flexible hours. Others make special arrangements so they can hire more handicapped workers. One hotel chain, for example, uses lighted telephones and vibrating beepers so they can hire more hearing-impaired people. As the work force has changed, so have some-but not all-labor-management issues. Unions now want laws to strengthen their right to strike by prohibiting companies from hiring permanent replacements for striking workers. Employers want the right to test workers for drug use. There is also growing sentiment that all employers should be required to provide adequate health insurance to their workers-which most, but not all, already do. Many workers are fighting for the right to take unpaid leave when they have babies or when a family member is ill and needs extensive care. And, as the unemployment rate has climbed (over 6 percent in 1990), there is growing sentiment that the government should help create jobs-through public works programs, job training programs and tax credits for employers in areas of high unemployment.	<urn:uuid:e7208e59-45cc-4ea2-8779-34eb6750c392>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://rogerstechservices.com/labor-and-unions-in-america/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00479.warc.gz	en	0.983779	6,198	3.984375	4	[ -0.298939049243927, -0.022289186716079712, -0.05650586262345314, 0.03748307749629021, 0.10462258756160736, 0.3931847810745239, -0.3448489308357239, 0.14323191344738007, -0.4451858103275299, -0.013840346597135067, 0.10525108873844147, 0.21809867024421692, 0.05061332881450653, -0.19268684089...	2	The Industrial Revolution was dawning in the United States. At Lowell, Massachusetts, the construction of a big cotton mill began in 1821. It was the first of several that would be built there in the next 10 years. The machinery to spin and weave cotton into cloth would be driven by water power. All that the factory owners needed was a dependable supply of labor to tend the machines. As most jobs in cotton factories required neither great strength nor special skills, the owners thought women could do the work as well as or better than men. In addition, they were more compliant. The New England region was home to many young, single farm girls who might be recruited. But would stern New England farmers allow their daughters to work in factories? The great majority of them would not. They believed that sooner or later factory workers would be exploited and would sink into hopeless poverty. Economic “laws” would force them to work harder and harder for less and less pay. THE LOWELL EXPERIMENT How, then, were the factory owners able to recruit farm girls as laborers? They did it by building decent houses in which the girls could live. These houses were supervised by older women who made sure that the girls lived by strict moral standards. The girls were encouraged to go to church, to read, to write and to attend lectures. They saved part of their earnings to help their families at home or to use when they got married. The young factory workers did not earn high wages; the average pay was about $3.50 a week. But in those times, a half-dozen eggs cost five cents and a whole chicken cost 15 cents. The hours worked in the factories were long. Generally, the girls worked 11 to 13 hours a day, six days a week. But most people in the 1830s worked from dawn until dusk, and farm girls were used to getting up early and working until bedtime at nine o’clock. The factory owners at Lowell believed that machines would bring progress as well as profit. Workers and capitalists would both benefit from the wealth created by mass production. For a while, the factory system at Lowell worked very well. The population of the town grew from 200 in 1820 to 30,000 in 1845. But conditions in Lowell’s factories had already started to change. Faced with growing competition, factory owners began to decrease wages in order to lower the cost-and the price-of finished products. They increased the number of machines that each girl had to operate. In addition, they began to overcrowd the houses in which the girls lived. Sometimes eight girls had to share one room. In 1836, 1,500 factory girls went on strike to protest wage cuts. (The girls called their action a “turn out.”) But it was useless. Desperately poor immigrants were beginning to arrive in the United States from Europe. To earn a living, they were willing to accept low wages and poor working conditions. Before long, immigrant women replaced the “Yankee” (American) farm girls. To many people, it was apparent that justice for wage earners would not come easily. Labor in America faced a long, uphill struggle to win fair treatment. In that struggle, more and more workers would turn to labor unions to help their cause. They would endure violence, cruelty and bitter defeats. But eventually they would achieve a standard of living unknown to workers at any other time in history. GROWTH OF THE FACTORY In colonial America, most manufacturing was done by hand in the home. Some was done in workshops attached to the home. As towns grew into cities, the demand for manufactured goods increased. Some workshop owners began hiring helpers to increase production. Relations between the employer and helper were generally harmonious. They worked side by side, had the same interests and held similar political views. The factory system that began around 1800 brought great changes. The employer no longer worked beside his employees. He became an executive and a merchant who rarely saw his workers. He was concerned less with their welfare than with the cost of their labor. Many workers were angry about the changes brought by the factory system. In the past, they had taken great pride in their handicraft skills; now machines did practically all the work, and they were reduced to the status of common laborers. In bad times they could lose their jobs. Then they might be replaced by workers who would accept lower wages. To skilled craft workers, the Industrial Revolution meant degradation rather than progress. As the factory system grew, many workers began to form labor unions to protect their interests. The first union to hold regular meetings and collect dues was organized by Philadelphia shoemakers in 1792. Soon after, carpenters and leather workers in Boston and printers in New York also organized unions. Labor’s tactics in those early times were simple. Members of a union would agree on the wages they thought were fair. They pledged to stop working for employers who would not pay that amount. They also sought to compel employers to hire only union members. Employers found the courts to be an effective weapon to protect their interests. In 1806, eight Philadelphia shoemakers were brought to trial after leading an unsuccessful strike. The court ruled that any organizing of workers to raise wages was an illegal act. Unions were “conspiracies” against employers and the community. In later cases, courts ruled that almost any action taken by unions to increase wages might be criminal. These decisions destroyed the effectiveness of the nation’s early labor unions. Not until 1842 was the way opened again for workers to organize. That year several union shoemakers in Boston were brought to trial. They were charged with refusing to work with non-union shoemakers. A municipal court judge found the men guilty of conspiracy. But an appeal to a higher court resulted in a victory for labor unions generally. Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw ruled that it was not unlawful for workers to engage peacefully in union activity. It was their right to organize, he said. Shaw’s decision was widely accepted. For many years following this decision, unions did not have to fear conspiracy charges. In the next two decades, unions campaigned for a 10-hour working day and against child labor. A number of state legislatures responded favorably. In 1851, for example, New Jersey passed a law calling for a 10-hour working day in all factories. It also forbade the employment of children under 10 years old. Meanwhile trade unions were joining together in cities to form federations. A number of skilled trades organized national unions to try to improve their wages and working conditions. The effort to increase wages brought about hundreds of strikes during the 1850s. None was as extensive, however, as a strike of New England shoemakers in 1860. The strike started in Lynn, Massachusetts, when factory workers were refused a three-dollar increase in their weekly pay. It soon spread to Maine and New Hampshire. Altogether, about 20,000 workers took part in the strike. It ended in a victory for the shoemakers. Similar victories were soon won by other trade unions. These successes led to big increases in union membership. Yet most American workers were generally better off than workers in Europe and had more hope of improving their lives. For this reason, the majority did not join labor unions. In the years following the Civil War (1861-1865), the United States was transformed by the enormous growth of industry. Once the United States was mainly a nation of small farms. By 1900, it was a nation of growing cities, of coal and steel, of engines and fast communications. Though living standards generally rose, millions of industrial workers lived in crowded, unsanitary slums. Their conditions became desperate in times of business depressions. Then it was not unusual for workers to go on strike and battle their employers. Between 1865 and 1900, industrial violence occurred on numerous occasions. Probably the most violent confrontation between labor and employers was the Great Railway Strike of 1877. The nation had been in the grip of a severe depression for four years. During that time, the railroads had decreased the wages of railway workers by 20 percent. Many trainmen complained that they could not support their families adequately. There was little that the trainmen could do about the wage decreases. At that time, unions were weak and workers feared going on strike; there were too many unemployed men who might take their jobs. Yet some workers secretly formed a Trainmen’s Union to oppose the railroads. Then, in 1877, four big railroads announced that they were going to decrease wages another 10 percent. In addition, the Pennsylvania line ordered freight train conductors to handle twice as many cars as before. On July 16, a strike began on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in West Virginia. The strike quickly spread to other lines. On July 19, Pennsylvania Railroad workers at Pittsburgh refused to let freight trains move. (The strikers let passenger trains move freely because they carried United States mail.) The next day the governor sent statemilitiamen to oust the strikers from the freight yard. But these men were from Pittsburgh. They had many friends and relatives among the strikers. Soon they were mingling with the crowd of men, women and children at the freight yard. The next day 600 militiamen arrived from Philadelphia. They were ordered to clear the tracks at the freight yard. The soldiers advanced toward the crowd and shooting erupted. In the aftermath, 20 people in the crowd lay dead. Many more were wounded. News of the killings triggered rioting and fires in the Pittsburgh railyards. President Rutherford Hayes ordered federal troops to Pittsburgh to end mob violence. When they arrived, the fighting had already ended. In the smoking ruins, they found the wrecks of more than 2,000 railroad cars. Dozens of buildings lay in ashes. Many strikers were sent to jail and others lost their jobs. A large part of the public was shocked by the violence in Pittsburgh and other cities. Some people were convinced that miners, railroad workers and other laborers were common criminals. Legislatures in many states passed new conspiracy laws aimed at suppressing labor. But the Great Railway Strike of 1877 helped the workers in some ways. A few railroads took back the wage cuts they had ordered. More important was the support given to the strike by miners, iron workers and others. It gave labor an awareness of its strength and solidarity. KNIGHTS OF LABOR The Railway Strike led many workers to join a growing national labor organization. It had a grand name-the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor. It was founded in 1869 by a small group of Philadelphia clothing workers. Their union had been unable to organize effectively. The reason, they believed, was that its members were too well-known. Employers fired them and then put their names on a “blacklist.” Other employers would not hire anyone whose name appeared on the list. The garment workers came to two conclusions: Secrecy was needed to protect union members against employer spies. Labor organizations would fail if they were divided into separate craft unions. Instead, labor should be organized in one big union of both skilled and unskilled workers. Membership in the Knights of Labor was open to wage earners over 18 years of age regardless of race, sex or skill. New members had to take an oath of secrecy. They swore that they would never reveal the name of the order or the names of its members. The program of the Knights of Labor called for: an eight-hour working day, laws establishing a minimum weekly wage, the use of arbitration rather than strikes to settle disputes, laws to protect the health and safety of industrial workers, equal pay for equal work, an end to child labor under 14 years of age and government ownership of railroads, telegraphs and telephones. It was impossible for the Knights to operate in complete secrecy. Rumors of their activities reached the press. Newspaper stories usually exaggerated the strength of the order. Under pressure from public opinion, the Knights began to operate openly. But they were still forbidden to reveal the name of any member to an employer. Membership in the Knights increased slowly. By 1884, the order had only 52,000 members. But that year workers led by Knights of Labor organizers went on strike against two big railroad companies. Both strikes ended in complete victories for the Knights. Now workers everywhere rushed to join the order. Within two years membership in the Knights rose to 150,000. Newspapers warned their readers about the power of the Knights. One of them said, “Their leaders can shut most of the mills and factories, and disable the railroads.” Many people associated the order with dangerous radicals. Later railroad strikes by the Knights met with defeat. The order was not nearly as powerful as it had seemed. Workers began to leave it in great numbers. Within 10 years of its greatest victories, the Knights of Labor collapsed. “BREAD AND BUTTER” UNIONISM As the Knights declined, a new labor organization began to challenge it for supremacy. This was the American Federation of Labor (AFL). It was formed in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, a leader of the Cigarmakers’ Union. Gompers believed that craft unions of skilled workers were the best kind. Unskilled workers were easily replaced when they went on strike. Craft workers could not be replaced easily. Gompers had no use for the Knights of Labor, which combined all workers in one big union. The American Federation of Labor began with a core of six craft unions. They were cigarmakers, carpenters, printers, iron molders, steel molders and glassmakers. The new organization was not an immediate success. For 10 years, the AFL and the Knights battled each other. They invaded each other’s territory, encouraged revolts and welcomed each other’s members into their own ranks. They even supplied strikebreakers against each other. But the tide was running against the Knights. The AFL, led by Gompers, grew steadily in size and power. By 1904, it had 1.75 million members and was the nation’s dominant labor organization. At this time, many workers in Europe were joining revolutionary labor movements which advocated the abolition of capitalism and the establishment of a new socialist economic system. Most American workers, however, followed the lead of Gompers, with his highly pragmatic approach to problems of labor. They strove to organize strong unions so that they could demand a greater share in the wealth that they helped to produce. They were not interested in destroying the economic structure of the country but in making it work more effectively for their benefit. Gompers believed that unions should be primarily concerned with the day-to-day welfare of their members and should not become involved in politics. He also was convinced that socialism would not succeed in the United States but that practical demands for higher wages and fewer working hours could achieve the goal of a better life for working people. This was known as “bread and butter” unionism. There was one outstanding exception to the pragmatic “bread and butter” approach to unionism which characterized most of American labor. This was the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), a revolutionary labor union launched in Chicago in 1905 under the leadership of Eugene V. Debs. The IWW the overthrow of capitalism through strikes, boycotts and sabotage. Particularly strong among textile workers, dock workers, migratory farmers and lumberjacks, the union reached its peak membership of 100,000 in 1912. The IWW had practically disappeared by 1918, because of federal prosecutions and a national sentiment against radicalism which began in 1917. In the early years of the 20th century, a powerful reform movement called Progressivism swept the country. Its leaders were college professors, ministers, journalists, physicians and social workers. Their goal was to improve conditions for all Americans. They wanted to make the political system more egalitarian. They also wanted to make the nation’s economic system more democratic. Those who owned the nation’s resources, they said, should share some of their wealth with the less fortunate. The movement appealed to farmers, small businessmen, women and laborers. It cut across political party and regional lines. The Progressive Movement had the support of three United States presidents: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson. The Progressives were concerned about labor’s problems. They were alarmed by the growing use of court rulings to halt strikes. In 1890, for example, Congress passed the Sherman Anti-trust Act. Its purpose was to punish big business corporations that combined to prevent competition. Yet more and more it was being used as a weapon against unions. The Progressives were unhappy about the use of federal troops and state militia against strikers. They were outraged by inhuman conditions in factories and mines. The Progressives and the AFL pressured state governments for laws to protect wage earners. Almost all states passed laws forbidding the employment of children under 14 years old. Thirty-seven states forbade children under 16 years old to work between 7p.m. and 6a.m. Nineteen states established the eight-hour day for children under 16 in factories and stores. The Progressives were also concerned with the hours worked by women in industry. Forty-one states wrote new or improved laws to protect women workers. Most limited the work day to nine hours, or the work week to 54 hours. One of the greatest concerns of the Progressives was the problem of industrial accidents. They wanted workers to be paid for accidents regardless of cause. The cost of insurance to cover accidents, they said, should be paid by employers. By 1917, 13 states had passed workers’ compensation laws. Many states passed laws to improve safety regulations. The alliance of Progressives and the AFL also campaigned for federal laws to aid labor. In response, Congress passed laws to protect children, railroad workers and seamen. It established a Department of Labor in the president’s Cabinet. Most important of all, Congress passed the Clayton Act of 1914. Its purpose was to halt the use of antitrust laws and court injunctions against unions. During World War I, organized labor made great advances. The federal government created the War Labor Board to settle disputes by arbitration. Generally the Board was favorable to wage increases, the eight-hour day and collective bargaining. This led to a big increase in union membership. In January 1917, the AFL had 2,370,000 members. By January 1919, it had 3,260,000 members. RED SCARES AND DEPRESSION As the 1920s began, organized labor seemed stronger than ever. It was successful in getting Congress to pass laws that restricted immigration to the United States. Unions believed that a scarcity of labor would keep wages high. But events that took place in Europe were already threatening labor’s gains. In 1917, a communist revolution overthrew the government of Russia. Communists also attempted revolutions in Germany, Hungary and Finland. Immigrants entering the United States at this time were primarily from southern and eastern Europe. Many of them, in response to the economic hardship and social inequality which they found in America’s industrial cities, were attracted to the utopian promises of socialist, communist and other radical political groups which advocated a drastic change in American society. There was widespread fear-almost hysteria-among more established Americans that a revolution might break out in the United States. In response to this fear, the federal government launched a series of raids which resulted in the arrest and sometimes the deportation of aliens who were members of socialist, anarchist or communist organizations. About 500 aliens, including Russian-born anarchist “Red Emma” Goldman, were deported during this period. A number of them, like Goldman, rejected Bolshevism as they experienced it in the Soviet Union and later returned to the United States. Meanwhile, workers were striking for higher wages all over the United States. Many Americans believed that these strikes were led by communists and anarchists. During the Progressive era, the public had sympathized with labor. Now the public became hostile to it. Employers encouraged anti-union movements, or created company unions that they sought to control. Courts found legal openings in the Clayton Act and issued rulings against union activity. The courts also found ways to use the Sherman Anti-trust Act against unions. Opposed by public opinion, business and the courts, union membership fell. The number of AFL members dropped to 2,770,000 by 1929. This decline took place even though the number of workers in industry rose by almost seven million. For most Americans, the 1920s were prosperous years. But in October 1929, the New York stock market “crashed,” and the value of stocks went way down. The crash, part of a worldwide economic decline, led to the worst economic depression in the nation’s history. People lost their jobs, their farms and their businesses. By 1932, 13 million men and women were unemployed. This was one out of every four in the work force. Many more workers had only part-time jobs. In the cities, jobless men stood on long lines for a handout of bread and soup. Many of them lived in shanties near garbage dumps. Men and boys roamed the country, hoping to find work. In the past, depressions had usually hurt unions. Unemployment meant a sharp drop in workers’ dues. Then unions became almost powerless to prevent decreases in wages or long working hours. But in the Great Depression of the 1930s, unions actually benefited. In 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt, a Democrat, promised Americans a “New Deal.” He pledged to help the “forgotten man”-the worker who had lost his job, or the farmer who had lost his land. Under Roosevelt, Congress passed laws to revive business and create jobs. To help labor, Congress passed the Wagner Act. It guaranteed workers the right to join unions and bargain collectively. The law created a powerful National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). The Board could order elections in which workers voted for the union they wanted to represent them. (Workers could vote against joining any union, if they wished.) The NLRB could also order a stop to unfair practices used by employers against unions. Union leaders hailed the Wagner Act. It provided a great opportunity to increase union membership. But the drive was delayed at first by a dispute within the American Federation of Labor. The AFL was made up mainly of skilled workers organized into craft unions. But millions of unskilled workers were in giant industries like steel, autos, rubber and textiles. Some labor leaders believed that a single union should represent all the workers, skilled and unskilled. One big industrial union would be much stronger than a dozen different craft unions, they said. FROM THE CIO TO TAFT-HARTLEY Most leaders of the AFL were opposed to the idea of industrial unions. They made no effort to organize them. Finally Lewis and other union leaders broke away from the AFL. They formed a new labor organization that became the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). One of the first targets of the CIO was the auto industry. Workers at the General Motors factories in Flint, Michigan, eagerly joined the CIO’s United Automobile Workers (UAW) union. They demanded that the company recognize the UAW. But officers of General Motors refused to meet with union representatives. This was a violation of the Wagner Act. In January 1937, the UAW called a strike against the company. The tactics used by the auto workers took the company by surprise. The workers refused to leave the factories. Instead, they put away their tools and sat down. They did this to prevent strikebreakers from taking their jobs. At night the men slept on the seats of new cars. Food was passed to them through windows by their families. General Motors tried to force the workers out. The company shut off the heat in the factories. It was winter, but the workers stayed. Police tried to break into one of the factories. The strikers drove them back by throwing soda bottles, coffee mugs and iron bolts. Then the police charged with tear gas bombs. This time the workers drove them back by turning fire hoses on them. Finally General Motors went to court and got a ruling against the strikers. The workers were ordered to leave the GM factories by February 3. The National Guard (militiamen) was alerted to enforce the order. Everyone expected a big battle on February 3, but it didn’t happen. Governor Frank Murphy refused to order an attack on the strikers. Instead, he ordered General Motors officers to hold peace talks with the UAW. President Roosevelt also asked for a peaceful end to the strike. A week later General Motors recognized the union and agreed to bargain with it. The UAW and the CIO had won a major victory. Within two years, the CIO organized 3,750,000 industrial workers. The AFL met the challenge of the CIO with an organizing drive of its own. By the end of 1937, the AFL had 3,400,000 members. During the 1930s, Congress enacted other reforms that benefited labor: The Social Security Act of 1935 created a system of government-sponsored unemployment insurance and old-age pensions. The Fair Labor Standards Act regulated wages and hours. Minimum wages were established to help workers maintain a decent standard of living. Hours were shortened to give them more time for leisure. The law also forbade the labor of children under 16 in most occupations. Unemployment in the United States remained high until the United States entered World War II in 1941. Then, defense industries boomed, and millions of men entered the armed forces. By 1943, unemployment ended and industry was faced with a shortage of labor. During the Great Depression, women were urged not to take jobs. Now they were encouraged to go to work. Before long, one out of four workers in defense industries was a woman. During World War II, labor cooperated with government and industry. Its spirit was expressed by John L. Lewis, president of the CIO. “When the nation is attacked,” he said, “every American must rally to its defense.” When peace came, a wave of strikes for higher wages swept the nation. Employers became alarmed. They said that the Wagner Act had given labor too much power. A majority in the United States Congress agreed with them. In 1947, Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act. It contained a number of provisions to limit organized labor. One of them outlawed the “closed shop” agreement which required employers to hire only union members. It also permitted the states to pass “right to work” laws. These laws forbade agreements that required workers to join a union after they were hired. Labor leaders bitterly denounced the Taft-Hartley Act. They said it was meant to destroy unions. Despite their fears, membership in unions continued to grow. By 1952, it had increased to 17 million. Leaders of the AFL and the CIO merged their organizations in 1955. The combined organization became the AFL-CIO. In recent years there has been a steady decline in the percentage of workers who belong to labor unions. In 1945, 35 percent of the work force were union members. In 1988, less than 17 percent of the labor force-or 17 million workers-were unionized. There are several reasons for this, including: The decline of heavy industry (once a stronghold of unionism) and the increase of advanced-technology industries. Automation and other technological changes that have displaced many blue-collar workers. Foreign competition, which has depressed some United States industries and increased unemployment. The transition to a “post-industrial” economy in the United States. Ever increasing numbers of workers are employed in service-providing businesses, such as hotels, restaurants and retail stores. Despite the decline in members, organized labor in the United States remains strong and conditions of America’s labor force have steadily improved. The length of the work day has been shortened. Many agreements between employers and wage earners now call for less than 40 hours of work a week. Most agreements have generous “fringe” benefits. These include insurance, pensions and health care plans. As the number of union members has decreased as a percentage of the total work force, unions have responded by broadening their organizing efforts to include employees of federal, state and local governments as well as other professionals. Organizers have also waged long campaigns to unionize and win better conditions for such diverse groups as public school teachers and seasonal farm workers. By the early 1990s, the work force was changing. First. the pool of workers was no longer expanding as rapidly as in the past. And, second, the composition of the labor force was different, consisting of a larger percentage of minorities and women than before. Employers are adapting to this work force diversity in several ways. Some sponsor education and training programs for potential recruits. Many, in an attempt to attract and accommodate women workers, provide on-site child care, and flexible hours. Others make special arrangements so they can hire more handicapped workers. One hotel chain, for example, uses lighted telephones and vibrating beepers so they can hire more hearing-impaired people. As the work force has changed, so have some-but not all-labor-management issues. Unions now want laws to strengthen their right to strike by prohibiting companies from hiring permanent replacements for striking workers. Employers want the right to test workers for drug use. There is also growing sentiment that all employers should be required to provide adequate health insurance to their workers-which most, but not all, already do. Many workers are fighting for the right to take unpaid leave when they have babies or when a family member is ill and needs extensive care. And, as the unemployment rate has climbed (over 6 percent in 1990), there is growing sentiment that the government should help create jobs-through public works programs, job training programs and tax credits for employers in areas of high unemployment.	6,369	ENGLISH	1

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.