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We are told that nobody escaped from the Tower of London. With a strong central keep and protected by two concentric defensive walls and a moat, the Tower was built in such a way that prisoners, even if they managed to break out of their cells, were unable to make their way to freedom.
But this is not true. Over the centuries several people did escape.
1101 Ranulf Flambard Bishop of Durham made his escape by slipping down a rope smuggled in to him in a wine casket.
1323 Roger Mortimer, Lord of Wigmore, made a daring escape. The deputy constable Gerard d'Alspaye arranged for the garrison to be given drugged wine and while the guards slept, used a crowbar to prise stones from the cell wall enabling Mortimer to scramble out. Together with Mortimer's squire, Richard de Monmouth, they climbed up a wide chimney, across rooftops and down walls using rope ladders, until they reached the marshy banks of the Thames. From there they fled first downriver to Greenwich, then to Porchester and then to France.
1597 The convicted Jesuits John Gerard and John Arden escaped along a rope stretched out across the moat towards the Thames. This was despite their hands having been mangled in the torture chamber.
1660 John Lambert, a Parliamentary general and politician was sent to the Tower on 3rd March 1660 but escaped a month later by climbing down a silk rope. He was assisted by six men and taken away in a barge. He tried to rekindle the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth but was recaptured on 22nd April at Daventry by Colonel Richard Ingoldsby, a regicide, who hoped to win a pardon by handing Lambert over to the new regime. This time he was sent to the Tower, then to Guernsey and finally to Drake's Island in Plymouth Sound.
1671 One of the few people who broke in rather than made an escape, Colonel Thomas Blood and his gang, entered the Tower, somehow talked their way into the treasure room, roughed up the jewel master and made off with a golden orb, sceptre and St Edward's Crown. Fortunately for the guards, Blood and co were captured before they could flee. Oddly, the gang were later given a Royal Pardon by King Charles II and Blood himself was even granted some land in Ireland.
1716 The Earl of Nithsdale was awaiting execution for his part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715 when he managed a daring escape from right under the noses of his guards. Lady Nithsdale paid a visit to her husband together with two friends a Mrs Mills and a Mrs Morgan. The three dressed the earl in women's clothes, topped his head with an artificial headdress and plastered his face with so much makeup it somehow disguised his long beard. The ladies confused the guards with their comings and goings, hiding their faces in handkerchiefs, so the earl was able to walk out of his cell without anyone suspecting this woman was actually a man.
1942 Two Scots Guardsmen called Fleming and Colvin made their escape by picking a lock with a fork and then lowering themselves into the moat with a rope made from blankets. They crossed the barbed wire barricade by laying down mattresses. Unfortunately for them, they were soon recaptured.
Sources: the londonist.com
The Greatest Traitor by Ian Mortimer | <urn:uuid:7427b6b3-c9aa-493f-a182-c4d2c4d94e77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.carolinenewark.com/blog/booze--silk-ropes-and-cross-dressing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.982367 | 715 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.18230310... | 10 | We are told that nobody escaped from the Tower of London. With a strong central keep and protected by two concentric defensive walls and a moat, the Tower was built in such a way that prisoners, even if they managed to break out of their cells, were unable to make their way to freedom.
But this is not true. Over the centuries several people did escape.
1101 Ranulf Flambard Bishop of Durham made his escape by slipping down a rope smuggled in to him in a wine casket.
1323 Roger Mortimer, Lord of Wigmore, made a daring escape. The deputy constable Gerard d'Alspaye arranged for the garrison to be given drugged wine and while the guards slept, used a crowbar to prise stones from the cell wall enabling Mortimer to scramble out. Together with Mortimer's squire, Richard de Monmouth, they climbed up a wide chimney, across rooftops and down walls using rope ladders, until they reached the marshy banks of the Thames. From there they fled first downriver to Greenwich, then to Porchester and then to France.
1597 The convicted Jesuits John Gerard and John Arden escaped along a rope stretched out across the moat towards the Thames. This was despite their hands having been mangled in the torture chamber.
1660 John Lambert, a Parliamentary general and politician was sent to the Tower on 3rd March 1660 but escaped a month later by climbing down a silk rope. He was assisted by six men and taken away in a barge. He tried to rekindle the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth but was recaptured on 22nd April at Daventry by Colonel Richard Ingoldsby, a regicide, who hoped to win a pardon by handing Lambert over to the new regime. This time he was sent to the Tower, then to Guernsey and finally to Drake's Island in Plymouth Sound.
1671 One of the few people who broke in rather than made an escape, Colonel Thomas Blood and his gang, entered the Tower, somehow talked their way into the treasure room, roughed up the jewel master and made off with a golden orb, sceptre and St Edward's Crown. Fortunately for the guards, Blood and co were captured before they could flee. Oddly, the gang were later given a Royal Pardon by King Charles II and Blood himself was even granted some land in Ireland.
1716 The Earl of Nithsdale was awaiting execution for his part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715 when he managed a daring escape from right under the noses of his guards. Lady Nithsdale paid a visit to her husband together with two friends a Mrs Mills and a Mrs Morgan. The three dressed the earl in women's clothes, topped his head with an artificial headdress and plastered his face with so much makeup it somehow disguised his long beard. The ladies confused the guards with their comings and goings, hiding their faces in handkerchiefs, so the earl was able to walk out of his cell without anyone suspecting this woman was actually a man.
1942 Two Scots Guardsmen called Fleming and Colvin made their escape by picking a lock with a fork and then lowering themselves into the moat with a rope made from blankets. They crossed the barbed wire barricade by laying down mattresses. Unfortunately for them, they were soon recaptured.
Sources: the londonist.com
The Greatest Traitor by Ian Mortimer | 724 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were always two types of slaves. There were the house slaves and the filed slaves. The house slaves were treated differently than the field slaves. The house slaves lived in their master's attic or basement. They ate the food that their master ate, and wore the clothes that their master wore. They were more loyal to their master than they were to their fellow slaves.
They ate ham, bacon, eggs, shoulder, sausage.etc. The field slaves ate what was left. They ate what we now call chitlins. They were then, what they really are now: Hog guts. Although the master decided what both the house slaves and the field slaves ate and wore, he gave the house slaves hand-me-downs, he gave the field slaves the clothes that the house slaves no longer wore..The house slaves thought they were better than the field slaves. When the master got sick the house slaves said, "What's wrong master, we sick? If the master's house caught on fire, the house slaves would be the first to try to put out the fire. However, the house slaves and the field slaves were freed by the same act on the same day.
The master knew that the house slaves and the field slaves were no different. They were all slaves with different assignments.When Harriet Tubman went into the south to free the slaves, she realized that the slaves who lived in the big house and those who lived in the huts on the side of the hill were all slaves, and the big house and the hut were owned by the same master. When the freedom in Harriet connected to the freedom in the slaves,they followed a woman that they did not know through a river that they could not cross to a land that they could not see.
When Martin Luther King, Jr. arrived in Montgomery, Alabama in the early 50's, he was just 26 years old, but he realized that whether blacks got their degree from Yale or got it in the mail, whether they went to Morehouse or no house, whether they were high yellow, or blue black, they were all segregated, and had to ride on the back of the bus. The freedom in King connected to the freedom in the 50,000 blacks and they stayed off the city buses, and walked for 381 days until the walls in segregation in public transportation came tumbling down.
When Jesus said to the Jews, "You shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free, " " they said we are the sons of Abraham and we have never been slaves. But Jesus said to them, "I don't care who your father was, those who commit sin are the slaves of sin."
He that hath eyes to see, let him see. | <urn:uuid:b3b4dae2-e775-4d0f-a92f-cc83ddd8878a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.interfaithgazette.com/single-post/2017/12/20/He-That-Hath-Eyes-To-See-SEE | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00306.warc.gz | en | 0.990444 | 555 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.078208819... | 3 | There were always two types of slaves. There were the house slaves and the filed slaves. The house slaves were treated differently than the field slaves. The house slaves lived in their master's attic or basement. They ate the food that their master ate, and wore the clothes that their master wore. They were more loyal to their master than they were to their fellow slaves.
They ate ham, bacon, eggs, shoulder, sausage.etc. The field slaves ate what was left. They ate what we now call chitlins. They were then, what they really are now: Hog guts. Although the master decided what both the house slaves and the field slaves ate and wore, he gave the house slaves hand-me-downs, he gave the field slaves the clothes that the house slaves no longer wore..The house slaves thought they were better than the field slaves. When the master got sick the house slaves said, "What's wrong master, we sick? If the master's house caught on fire, the house slaves would be the first to try to put out the fire. However, the house slaves and the field slaves were freed by the same act on the same day.
The master knew that the house slaves and the field slaves were no different. They were all slaves with different assignments.When Harriet Tubman went into the south to free the slaves, she realized that the slaves who lived in the big house and those who lived in the huts on the side of the hill were all slaves, and the big house and the hut were owned by the same master. When the freedom in Harriet connected to the freedom in the slaves,they followed a woman that they did not know through a river that they could not cross to a land that they could not see.
When Martin Luther King, Jr. arrived in Montgomery, Alabama in the early 50's, he was just 26 years old, but he realized that whether blacks got their degree from Yale or got it in the mail, whether they went to Morehouse or no house, whether they were high yellow, or blue black, they were all segregated, and had to ride on the back of the bus. The freedom in King connected to the freedom in the 50,000 blacks and they stayed off the city buses, and walked for 381 days until the walls in segregation in public transportation came tumbling down.
When Jesus said to the Jews, "You shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free, " " they said we are the sons of Abraham and we have never been slaves. But Jesus said to them, "I don't care who your father was, those who commit sin are the slaves of sin."
He that hath eyes to see, let him see. | 561 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Joe Ravi [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
The reason that the Speaker of the House would take over today is because of the Succession Act of 1947. In 1947, when Democrats controlled both the House and the Senate, the Succession Act was passed that made it so the Speaker of the House would become President in the event that the President and Vice President were removed from office.
What made this act interesting was that it replaced an older act, the Succession Act of 1886. This act in 1886 made it official that the cabinet officials were to take over in the event of the President and Vice President's removal from office. This was passed shortly after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln and the rapid impeachment fo Andrew Johnson. At the time of Johnson’s impeachment it was made apparent a constitutional crisis would arrive if he was removed, many cite this as the reason the Senate didn't get the vote to remove him passed.
To make things more interesting the Succession Act of 1886 was actually a reversal of the Presidential Succession Act of 1792. That's right, the Succession Act of 1947 was actually a reversion to the 1792 act.
Click Here To Continue
Source: TTN staff | <urn:uuid:87ef6e98-d5eb-4a53-bc58-19b5ca13ad46> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://trumptrainnews.com/articles/pelosi-will-never-be-president-because-the-line-of-succession-is-snafmfnnknmfk | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.980746 | 271 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.5357452034950256... | 2 | Joe Ravi [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
The reason that the Speaker of the House would take over today is because of the Succession Act of 1947. In 1947, when Democrats controlled both the House and the Senate, the Succession Act was passed that made it so the Speaker of the House would become President in the event that the President and Vice President were removed from office.
What made this act interesting was that it replaced an older act, the Succession Act of 1886. This act in 1886 made it official that the cabinet officials were to take over in the event of the President and Vice President's removal from office. This was passed shortly after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln and the rapid impeachment fo Andrew Johnson. At the time of Johnson’s impeachment it was made apparent a constitutional crisis would arrive if he was removed, many cite this as the reason the Senate didn't get the vote to remove him passed.
To make things more interesting the Succession Act of 1886 was actually a reversal of the Presidential Succession Act of 1792. That's right, the Succession Act of 1947 was actually a reversion to the 1792 act.
Click Here To Continue
Source: TTN staff | 288 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Barry Powell should have listened to his grammar school teacher. It was the Phoenicians who invented the alphabet.
The Phoenician script was strictly consonantal. Vowels were not represented, and the reader was required to supply them from his or her knowledge of the language. This system worked reasonably well for Phoenician, since in that language there are no words that begin with vowels. But in Greek many words do begin with vowels. So when the Greeks adopted—and adapted—the Phoenician script, they needed to add new signs to represent vowels. The result was a significant advance in sophistication and precision—a giant step forward in the evolution of the alphabet.
Powell doesn’t agree. He considers this step the creation, rather than simply an improvement, of the alphabet. In his view, the Phoenicians had no alphabet. Here he follows I.J. Gelb’s old notion that the so-called Phoenician alphabet was not an alphabet at all but a syllabary, in which each sign represented a consonant followed by any vowel (or no vowel)—thus the b-sign could be read as ba, bi, bu, and so on (or simply as b). | <urn:uuid:2386405a-c4ac-4aab-91ed-af852a1727ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.baslibrary.org/archaeology-odyssey/1/1/17 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00311.warc.gz | en | 0.980011 | 256 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.044424388557672... | 3 | Barry Powell should have listened to his grammar school teacher. It was the Phoenicians who invented the alphabet.
The Phoenician script was strictly consonantal. Vowels were not represented, and the reader was required to supply them from his or her knowledge of the language. This system worked reasonably well for Phoenician, since in that language there are no words that begin with vowels. But in Greek many words do begin with vowels. So when the Greeks adopted—and adapted—the Phoenician script, they needed to add new signs to represent vowels. The result was a significant advance in sophistication and precision—a giant step forward in the evolution of the alphabet.
Powell doesn’t agree. He considers this step the creation, rather than simply an improvement, of the alphabet. In his view, the Phoenicians had no alphabet. Here he follows I.J. Gelb’s old notion that the so-called Phoenician alphabet was not an alphabet at all but a syllabary, in which each sign represented a consonant followed by any vowel (or no vowel)—thus the b-sign could be read as ba, bi, bu, and so on (or simply as b). | 240 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the early phases of the Roman state, moreover, the plebeians were not only excluded from public office, but from intermarriage with the patrician class. The administration was evidently primarily a patrician affair.
The early phase of Roman affairs was therefore an aristocracy of a very pronounced type, and the internal history of Rome for the two centuries and a half between the expulsion of the last Etruscan king, Tarquin the Proud, and the beginning of the first Punic War (264 B.C.), was very largely a struggle for mastery between those two orders, the patricians and the plebeians. It was, in fact, closely parallel with the struggle of aristocracy and democracy in the city states of Greece, and, as in the case of Greece, there were whole classes in the community, slaves, freed slaves, unpropertied free men, outlanders, and the like, who were entirely outside and beneath the struggle. We have already noted the essential difference of Greek democracy and what is called democracy in the world to-day. Another misused word is the Roman term proletariat, which in modern jargon means all the unpropertied people in a modern state. In Rome the proletarii were a voting division of fully qualified citizens whose property was less than 10,000 copper asses (= £275). They were an enrolled class; their value to the state consisted in their raising families of citizens (proles = offspring), and from their ranks were drawn the colonists who went to form new Latin cities or to garrison important points. But the proletarii were quite distinct in origin from slaves or freedmen or the miscellaneous driftage of a town slum, and it is a great pity that modern political discussion should be confused by an inaccurate use of a term which has no exact modern equivalent and which expresses nothing real in modern social classification.
The mass of the details of this struggle between patricians and plebeians we can afford to ignore in this outline. It was a struggle which showed the Romans to be a people of a curiously shrewd character, never forcing things to a destructive crisis, but being within the limits of their discretion grasping hard dealers. The patricians made a mean use of their political advantages to grow rich through the national conquests at the expense not only of the defeated enemy, but of the poorer plebeian, whose farm had | <urn:uuid:ca4145a1-e63b-4548-96ff-72fb198e0ddb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/480 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.980553 | 487 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.42110645771... | 1 | In the early phases of the Roman state, moreover, the plebeians were not only excluded from public office, but from intermarriage with the patrician class. The administration was evidently primarily a patrician affair.
The early phase of Roman affairs was therefore an aristocracy of a very pronounced type, and the internal history of Rome for the two centuries and a half between the expulsion of the last Etruscan king, Tarquin the Proud, and the beginning of the first Punic War (264 B.C.), was very largely a struggle for mastery between those two orders, the patricians and the plebeians. It was, in fact, closely parallel with the struggle of aristocracy and democracy in the city states of Greece, and, as in the case of Greece, there were whole classes in the community, slaves, freed slaves, unpropertied free men, outlanders, and the like, who were entirely outside and beneath the struggle. We have already noted the essential difference of Greek democracy and what is called democracy in the world to-day. Another misused word is the Roman term proletariat, which in modern jargon means all the unpropertied people in a modern state. In Rome the proletarii were a voting division of fully qualified citizens whose property was less than 10,000 copper asses (= £275). They were an enrolled class; their value to the state consisted in their raising families of citizens (proles = offspring), and from their ranks were drawn the colonists who went to form new Latin cities or to garrison important points. But the proletarii were quite distinct in origin from slaves or freedmen or the miscellaneous driftage of a town slum, and it is a great pity that modern political discussion should be confused by an inaccurate use of a term which has no exact modern equivalent and which expresses nothing real in modern social classification.
The mass of the details of this struggle between patricians and plebeians we can afford to ignore in this outline. It was a struggle which showed the Romans to be a people of a curiously shrewd character, never forcing things to a destructive crisis, but being within the limits of their discretion grasping hard dealers. The patricians made a mean use of their political advantages to grow rich through the national conquests at the expense not only of the defeated enemy, but of the poorer plebeian, whose farm had | 499 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The following is an analysis of Eavan Boland’s poem ‘Quarantine’. This is a non-traditional love poem about a husband and wife who are forced to move north during the Irish Potato Famine in 1847. The poem was published in Boland’s New Collected Poems in 2008. Boland was born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1944, but she spent most of her childhood in both London and New York, due to her father’s career as a diplomat. The family returned to Ireland when Boland was fourteen, and she went on to attend Trinity College in Dublin. Much of Boland’s poetry is based around Irish history, and this poem is no exception. She is currently the director of Stanford University’s creative writing program.
In short, Quarantine is a poem about a man and his wife who are forced to leave their home because his wife has become ill with famine fever. The couple leaves on a wintry night, walking in the frigid temperatures. The next morning, the husband and wife are found dead, of cold and hunger. From the way the couple was positioned, it was obvious that the man had succumbed first, dying with his wife’s feet in his hands. He had perished trying to provide heat to his sick and suffering wife. This poem is not only a documentation of the horrors of the Irish Potato Famine, but it is also a love poem, showcasing that love is not always proven by what are considered to be traditional, romantic gestures.
Breakdown Analysis of Quarantine
Eavan Boland’s poem consists of five stanzas, each containing four lines. Instead of using any sort of rhyme scheme, Boland instead writes the poem using free verse. The first half of the poem reads almost as a police report would: it is written matter-of-factly and details the whereabouts and last hours of the couple’s life. It is written in the past tense—this is not currently what is happening to the characters in the poem; the events have already occurred, giving a sense of finality to the reader. The second half of the poem becomes more personal, with the speaker, possibly Boland, inserting her opinion on what the death of the couple actually signifies. To the speaker, the story of the husband giving the last of his body warmth to his wife by holding her feet to his chest is the ultimate romantic gesture.
Boland uses repetition of the word worst in the first stanza of Quarantine. The first stanza is used to set up the scenario for the reader: In the worst hour of the worst season/Of the worst year of a whole people. By using repetition, Boland is emphasizing the harsh conditions in which the couple sets out. Not only is it the worst season of the year, but it is also the worst year in Ireland’s history. The couple sets out walking north, away from their home, which hints to the reader as to why the poem is titled Quarantine.
In the second stanza, the reader learns why the couple is leaving their home: they are seeking isolation from others because the wife is sick with famine fever. She almost immediately falls behind as they are walking, and her husband lifts her and carries her until night falls. The last sentence of the stanza reads, “Until at nightfall under freezing stars they arrived.” Where they have arrived, though, is a mystery to the reader. In this sentence, Boland also uses hyperbole: stars are usually considered to be hot, burning things in the sky. By describing them as freezing, Boland is conveying to the reader just how dangerously cold it is outside as the couple is traveling.
The reader discovers in the third stanza of Quarantine that the couple died during the night. The next morning, they were found by someone, dead “Of cold. Of hunger. Of the toxins of a whole history.” The speaker is quick to inform the reader that it was not just the cold and hunger that killed them—it was the indifference and heartlessness of the British government overseeing Ireland that also led to their deaths. Boland again uses repetition when revealing the final gift the man gave to his wife. She writes But her feet were held against his breastbone./The last heat of his flesh was his last gift to her. The man knew the situation was grave and futile for them both, yet he still attempted to save his wife’s life by trying to keep her warm. Boland uses last twice, which emphasizes the husband’s unsuccessful attempt. The poet also uses interesting diction with her choice of the word flesh. Quite often, this word is used in a sensuous manner, but here, the man’s flesh is being used as a weapon to ward off his wife’s death.
In the fourth stanza, Boland seems to be speaking directly to her readers, pleading with them to never allow such a love poem to exist again. She writes:
Let no love poem ever come to this threshold.
There is no place here for the inexact
praise of the easy graces and sensuality of the body.
Yes, Quarantine is a poem about the love a man has for his wife, but the love found within the confines of the poem is atypical: instead of extolling the ideals of passion and love, this poem is forced to tell the story of the sacrifices one man makes in the name of love. She ends the stanza with “There is only time for this merciless inventory,” which gives an almost scientific feel to the poem.
In the final stanza, the “inventory” is taken: the couple died in the winter of 1847. They suffered from famine, and they froze to death trying to leave their home. But what is also included in this inventory is the depth of love between a man and a woman, which is sometimes never seen until under the most dire of circumstances. The final two lines of Quarantine read “And what there is between a man and woman. And in which darkness it can best be proved.” While it is very easy to write about the romantic, sensual side of love, it is harder to write about the darker sacrifices that are sometimes necessary. This is not a poem to be read to one’s lover to commemorate a special occasion; however, this still showcases the love a man and woman can share, and how that love defies everything else.
Boland, an Irishwoman, often writes about Ireland and the history of its people, and this poem is a testament to that fact. In 1845, a great and horrible period in Irish history took place. Also called the Potato Famine, many people died of hunger and illness after a disease nearly killed all of the potatoes. Since the vegetables are a cheap and hearty crop, they were the main staple of the majority of the people in Ireland. When the potatoes died, people were forced to emigrate from their lands, and it is thought that over a million people perished in the famine, and a million more left Ireland. The famine finally came to an end in 1852, with many blaming the British Crown, who did nothing to help the situation. This terrible tragedy was one of the major reasons the Irish sought out independence from British rule. | <urn:uuid:5cf72016-9846-442a-bd2e-7a9154089e84> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://poemanalysis.com/eavan-boland/quarantine | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00054.warc.gz | en | 0.983641 | 1,519 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.111856468... | 5 | The following is an analysis of Eavan Boland’s poem ‘Quarantine’. This is a non-traditional love poem about a husband and wife who are forced to move north during the Irish Potato Famine in 1847. The poem was published in Boland’s New Collected Poems in 2008. Boland was born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1944, but she spent most of her childhood in both London and New York, due to her father’s career as a diplomat. The family returned to Ireland when Boland was fourteen, and she went on to attend Trinity College in Dublin. Much of Boland’s poetry is based around Irish history, and this poem is no exception. She is currently the director of Stanford University’s creative writing program.
In short, Quarantine is a poem about a man and his wife who are forced to leave their home because his wife has become ill with famine fever. The couple leaves on a wintry night, walking in the frigid temperatures. The next morning, the husband and wife are found dead, of cold and hunger. From the way the couple was positioned, it was obvious that the man had succumbed first, dying with his wife’s feet in his hands. He had perished trying to provide heat to his sick and suffering wife. This poem is not only a documentation of the horrors of the Irish Potato Famine, but it is also a love poem, showcasing that love is not always proven by what are considered to be traditional, romantic gestures.
Breakdown Analysis of Quarantine
Eavan Boland’s poem consists of five stanzas, each containing four lines. Instead of using any sort of rhyme scheme, Boland instead writes the poem using free verse. The first half of the poem reads almost as a police report would: it is written matter-of-factly and details the whereabouts and last hours of the couple’s life. It is written in the past tense—this is not currently what is happening to the characters in the poem; the events have already occurred, giving a sense of finality to the reader. The second half of the poem becomes more personal, with the speaker, possibly Boland, inserting her opinion on what the death of the couple actually signifies. To the speaker, the story of the husband giving the last of his body warmth to his wife by holding her feet to his chest is the ultimate romantic gesture.
Boland uses repetition of the word worst in the first stanza of Quarantine. The first stanza is used to set up the scenario for the reader: In the worst hour of the worst season/Of the worst year of a whole people. By using repetition, Boland is emphasizing the harsh conditions in which the couple sets out. Not only is it the worst season of the year, but it is also the worst year in Ireland’s history. The couple sets out walking north, away from their home, which hints to the reader as to why the poem is titled Quarantine.
In the second stanza, the reader learns why the couple is leaving their home: they are seeking isolation from others because the wife is sick with famine fever. She almost immediately falls behind as they are walking, and her husband lifts her and carries her until night falls. The last sentence of the stanza reads, “Until at nightfall under freezing stars they arrived.” Where they have arrived, though, is a mystery to the reader. In this sentence, Boland also uses hyperbole: stars are usually considered to be hot, burning things in the sky. By describing them as freezing, Boland is conveying to the reader just how dangerously cold it is outside as the couple is traveling.
The reader discovers in the third stanza of Quarantine that the couple died during the night. The next morning, they were found by someone, dead “Of cold. Of hunger. Of the toxins of a whole history.” The speaker is quick to inform the reader that it was not just the cold and hunger that killed them—it was the indifference and heartlessness of the British government overseeing Ireland that also led to their deaths. Boland again uses repetition when revealing the final gift the man gave to his wife. She writes But her feet were held against his breastbone./The last heat of his flesh was his last gift to her. The man knew the situation was grave and futile for them both, yet he still attempted to save his wife’s life by trying to keep her warm. Boland uses last twice, which emphasizes the husband’s unsuccessful attempt. The poet also uses interesting diction with her choice of the word flesh. Quite often, this word is used in a sensuous manner, but here, the man’s flesh is being used as a weapon to ward off his wife’s death.
In the fourth stanza, Boland seems to be speaking directly to her readers, pleading with them to never allow such a love poem to exist again. She writes:
Let no love poem ever come to this threshold.
There is no place here for the inexact
praise of the easy graces and sensuality of the body.
Yes, Quarantine is a poem about the love a man has for his wife, but the love found within the confines of the poem is atypical: instead of extolling the ideals of passion and love, this poem is forced to tell the story of the sacrifices one man makes in the name of love. She ends the stanza with “There is only time for this merciless inventory,” which gives an almost scientific feel to the poem.
In the final stanza, the “inventory” is taken: the couple died in the winter of 1847. They suffered from famine, and they froze to death trying to leave their home. But what is also included in this inventory is the depth of love between a man and a woman, which is sometimes never seen until under the most dire of circumstances. The final two lines of Quarantine read “And what there is between a man and woman. And in which darkness it can best be proved.” While it is very easy to write about the romantic, sensual side of love, it is harder to write about the darker sacrifices that are sometimes necessary. This is not a poem to be read to one’s lover to commemorate a special occasion; however, this still showcases the love a man and woman can share, and how that love defies everything else.
Boland, an Irishwoman, often writes about Ireland and the history of its people, and this poem is a testament to that fact. In 1845, a great and horrible period in Irish history took place. Also called the Potato Famine, many people died of hunger and illness after a disease nearly killed all of the potatoes. Since the vegetables are a cheap and hearty crop, they were the main staple of the majority of the people in Ireland. When the potatoes died, people were forced to emigrate from their lands, and it is thought that over a million people perished in the famine, and a million more left Ireland. The famine finally came to an end in 1852, with many blaming the British Crown, who did nothing to help the situation. This terrible tragedy was one of the major reasons the Irish sought out independence from British rule. | 1,473 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Financial crisis of 2007–2008 facts for kids(Redirected from Late-2000s financial crisis)
The financial crisis of 2007–2008 was a major financial crisis, the worst of its kind since the Great Depression. It became prominently visible in September 2008 with the failure, merger, or conservatorship of several large United States-based financial firms. The underlying causes leading to the crisis had been reported in business journals for many months before September, with commentary about the financial stability of leading U.S. and European investment banks, insurance firms, and mortgage banks consequent to the subprime mortgage crisis.
Background and causes
There are many reasons why economists think the crisis happened. Most economists believe that it started in the United States. From 1997 until 2006, people bought expensive houses, even though they did not have enough money for it. Since the money had come from other countries, it was easy to have good credit. People used this credit for expensive home loans. This created an economic bubble which caused the houses' prices to raise. Because they had a lot of money, the loaning companies made it easier to get a loan, even if the borrower didn't have a good credit history. These loans are known as subprime loans.
During this time, many homeowners refinanced their homes. This caused their mortgage to change, giving them lower interest. After they refinanced, homeowners could take out another mortgage to use as spending money. The loaning companies changed their loans so that they had low interest at first, which would increase later. This is known as adjustable rate mortgage. The companies did this to try to convince more people to take loans. Many people with subprime loans also took these adjustable rate mortgages, hoping that the good price of housing would help them refinance later.
While the housing prices were still high, many American and European companies, including banks, invested in subprime loans. These investments gave more money to the loaning companies, who used it to give out more subprime loans. These investments would make a lot of money as long as the prices of housing was high.
However, the housing companies built too many houses. This caused the price of housing to decrease beginning in the summer of 2006. The value of many homes dropped below the value of the remaining mortgage debt, so the owners were unable to sell and move away. This is called negative equity. About 8.8 million homeowners in the U.S. had zero or negative equity by March 2008. This caused the number of foreclosures on homes to increase, meaning that many people lost their homes. During 2007, almost 1.3 million U.S. homes could be foreclosed on. The number of houses for sale continued to increase, which made the prices decrease. The homeowners with subprime loans left their houses with less value than they had when they were bought, which meant that the loans were worth more money than the house. The loaning companies were not able to make money from these houses.
The collapse of the housing bubble caused the value of investments to fall. The companies that had invested in subprime loans lost a total of about $512 billion. Citigroup and Merrill Lynch were two of the companies which lost the most money. More than half of the money lost, $260 billion, was lost by American firms.
Images for kids
Financial crisis of 2007–2008 Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:668384a6-5d9d-4e97-a896-9d748648f6f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Late-2000s_financial_crisis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00205.warc.gz | en | 0.988813 | 695 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.107123181223... | 1 | Financial crisis of 2007–2008 facts for kids(Redirected from Late-2000s financial crisis)
The financial crisis of 2007–2008 was a major financial crisis, the worst of its kind since the Great Depression. It became prominently visible in September 2008 with the failure, merger, or conservatorship of several large United States-based financial firms. The underlying causes leading to the crisis had been reported in business journals for many months before September, with commentary about the financial stability of leading U.S. and European investment banks, insurance firms, and mortgage banks consequent to the subprime mortgage crisis.
Background and causes
There are many reasons why economists think the crisis happened. Most economists believe that it started in the United States. From 1997 until 2006, people bought expensive houses, even though they did not have enough money for it. Since the money had come from other countries, it was easy to have good credit. People used this credit for expensive home loans. This created an economic bubble which caused the houses' prices to raise. Because they had a lot of money, the loaning companies made it easier to get a loan, even if the borrower didn't have a good credit history. These loans are known as subprime loans.
During this time, many homeowners refinanced their homes. This caused their mortgage to change, giving them lower interest. After they refinanced, homeowners could take out another mortgage to use as spending money. The loaning companies changed their loans so that they had low interest at first, which would increase later. This is known as adjustable rate mortgage. The companies did this to try to convince more people to take loans. Many people with subprime loans also took these adjustable rate mortgages, hoping that the good price of housing would help them refinance later.
While the housing prices were still high, many American and European companies, including banks, invested in subprime loans. These investments gave more money to the loaning companies, who used it to give out more subprime loans. These investments would make a lot of money as long as the prices of housing was high.
However, the housing companies built too many houses. This caused the price of housing to decrease beginning in the summer of 2006. The value of many homes dropped below the value of the remaining mortgage debt, so the owners were unable to sell and move away. This is called negative equity. About 8.8 million homeowners in the U.S. had zero or negative equity by March 2008. This caused the number of foreclosures on homes to increase, meaning that many people lost their homes. During 2007, almost 1.3 million U.S. homes could be foreclosed on. The number of houses for sale continued to increase, which made the prices decrease. The homeowners with subprime loans left their houses with less value than they had when they were bought, which meant that the loans were worth more money than the house. The loaning companies were not able to make money from these houses.
The collapse of the housing bubble caused the value of investments to fall. The companies that had invested in subprime loans lost a total of about $512 billion. Citigroup and Merrill Lynch were two of the companies which lost the most money. More than half of the money lost, $260 billion, was lost by American firms.
Images for kids
Financial crisis of 2007–2008 Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 737 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Henry Newman, perhaps the most prominent churchman of nineteenth-century England, was born in the City of London to a Huguenot mother and a father of religiously broadminded sentiments. While a member of the Church of England, his views began to move gradually from low-church evangelical to high-church catholic until his conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1845; soon after, he was ordained a Catholic priest, and was made a cardinal by Pope Leo XIII in 1879.
While an Anglican priest, he spent much of his time, both on and off the Oxford University campus, fighting a form of liberalism he called the “anti-dogmatic principle”: “Liberalism in religion is the doctrine that there is no positive truth in religion....” A Fellow at Oriel College (Oxford) and Vicar of University Church of St. Mary, he was a liberal for his era in ways that did not contradict his Christian orthodoxy. During his Anglican days, he supported Catholic Emancipation of 1829, and as the leader of the Oxford Movement, he sought to sever the tie between the Church of England and the crown, believing that state control of the Church could never serve the interests of religion. Following his conversion, he took up a defense of lay rights against clericalism and defended the liberal arts against fellow clergy who desired to restrict student access to new knowledge for fear these ideas would undermine their faith.
In his classic autobiography, Apologia Pro Vita Sua, he contrasted theological liberalism with the sort of church reform he supported by naming liberal Catholics Lacordaire and Montalembert as individuals he admired. He was never active in politics, though he held opinions and expressed them privately. His support for Gladstone's Liberal Party strengthened toward the end of his life. Newman's close collaboration with Lord Acton and his publication The Rambler, further indicated his liberal sympathies on church matters. He was an early opponent of Church involvement in temporal affairs and was greatly responsible for convincing young Acton of the correctness of this position.
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0.121423356235... | 5 | John Henry Newman, perhaps the most prominent churchman of nineteenth-century England, was born in the City of London to a Huguenot mother and a father of religiously broadminded sentiments. While a member of the Church of England, his views began to move gradually from low-church evangelical to high-church catholic until his conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1845; soon after, he was ordained a Catholic priest, and was made a cardinal by Pope Leo XIII in 1879.
While an Anglican priest, he spent much of his time, both on and off the Oxford University campus, fighting a form of liberalism he called the “anti-dogmatic principle”: “Liberalism in religion is the doctrine that there is no positive truth in religion....” A Fellow at Oriel College (Oxford) and Vicar of University Church of St. Mary, he was a liberal for his era in ways that did not contradict his Christian orthodoxy. During his Anglican days, he supported Catholic Emancipation of 1829, and as the leader of the Oxford Movement, he sought to sever the tie between the Church of England and the crown, believing that state control of the Church could never serve the interests of religion. Following his conversion, he took up a defense of lay rights against clericalism and defended the liberal arts against fellow clergy who desired to restrict student access to new knowledge for fear these ideas would undermine their faith.
In his classic autobiography, Apologia Pro Vita Sua, he contrasted theological liberalism with the sort of church reform he supported by naming liberal Catholics Lacordaire and Montalembert as individuals he admired. He was never active in politics, though he held opinions and expressed them privately. His support for Gladstone's Liberal Party strengthened toward the end of his life. Newman's close collaboration with Lord Acton and his publication The Rambler, further indicated his liberal sympathies on church matters. He was an early opponent of Church involvement in temporal affairs and was greatly responsible for convincing young Acton of the correctness of this position.
Hero of Liberty image attribution: John Everett Millais [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons | 444 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Brief History of the Buffalo Soldiers
It was during the summer of 1787 that delegates representing most of the thirteen states of the United States wrote the first official constitution this nation has known. The new document - now the oldest written constitution in the world - underlines the idea that governmental power must be limited if the liberty of the citizen is to be guaranteed. It clearly provides that the basic rights of men and women be protected.
A system of checks and balances based on a two-house legislature, a separate executive branch, an autonomous judiciary, and also provisions for amendment are the greatest strengths of the document. It is the last provision - the ability to amend - that has had the most far-reaching effect on safeguarding the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It is this last provision that has greatly affected the lives of descendants of nearly three million slaves brought to America in the 1600s.
During the Civil War, President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation freed only those slaves in areas "in rebellion against the United States." Since the Union did not control the southern states that seceded, the Proclamation did not immediately free any slaves. It did, however, capture public attention and made all aware that the abolition of slavery was an aim of the war.
The 13th Amendment to the Constitution, passed in 1865, was responsible for abolishing slavery in all parts of the United States. In 1866, the 14th Amendment made citizens of all American-born blacks. Four years later, the 15th Amendment gave blacks the right to vote. Passed as a direct consequence of the military victory of the North over the South, it took over one hundred years before the provisions of these amendments became realities for all. Yet the seeds were planted, and former slaves emerged with a new pride in their country and a new sense of personal responsibility.
It was this new sense of patriotism, linked with optimism for social and economic betterment, that led many blacks to enlist in the post-Civil War Army. Black troops had served in every war including the American Revolution. However, it was not until July of 1866 that blacks were permitted to enlist in the Regular Army. The new legislation provided for the creation of two cavalry and four infantry regiments which "shall be composed of colored men." In 1869, the four infantry units were consolidated into two.
(NOTE: The units formed as a result of the 1866 legislation were the 9th and 10th Cavalry Regiments; the 38th, 39th, 40th, and 41st Infantry Regiments. In the spring of 1869 the 38th and 41st Infantry Regiments were consolidated into the newly designated 24th Infantry Regiment, and the 39th and 40th Infantry Regiments were consolidated to form the 25th Infantry Regiment.) Nicknamed Buffalo Soldiers supposedly by the Indians because of the similarity between their hair and the coat of the buffalo, many soldiers of the black regiments were recruited from the United States Colored Troops which served in the Civil War. Other enlistees came from the New Orleans area, the fringes of the southern states and from large northern cities. They were former slaves as well as freemen.
Units of the black regiments were stationed all over the West. In the battles and countless skirmishes that marked the Indian Wars, the black soldiers played a significant role. Commanded by white officers, who at times resented their duty with the black regiments, the Buffalo Soldiers endured and overcame tremendous social and environmental obstacles. They were sometimes received inferior supplies and equipment. Yet, the men of the black regiments, often finding themselves in the forefront of action, never shirked their responsibilities. For more than twenty-five years they not only engaged in battles with Indians, but they built forts and escorted wagon trains, mail stages and railroad crews. They mapped and charted areas and located sources of water. Black soldiers were responsible for opening millions of square miles of western lands to peaceful settlement and development.
The Buffalo Soldiers received little recognition for their years of service on the frontier. Between 1865 and 1899, the Medal of Honor was awarded to 417 men who served in the Indian Wars. However, only 18 of the medals were presented to black enlisted men.
The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution were responsible for the extension and protection of the civil rights of black Americans. These amendments also encouraged blacks to enlist in the military. The Regular Army of the 1870s and 1880s did not afford total equality or democracy for the black man. However, it did offer social and economic opportunities that had not existed before. The record of meritorious service and notable accomplishments amassed by the Buffalo Soldier regiments remain a symbol of hope and pride for all Americans. The achievements serve as a reminder of the contributions they made to American life and culture.
The thirty-ninth Congress on July 28, 1866 passed an Act to adjust the military peacetime establishment of the United States military. Senator Henry Wilson, Massachusetts Republican, sought the inclusion of six African-American regiments in the post Civil War army.
Senator Benjamin F. Wade of Ohio proposed that two of the cavalry regiments should be composed of black enlisted personnel. After strong opposition, mostly from Democrats, the legislation was passed which provided for the first black contingent in the regular army consisting of six regiments - the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 38th, 39th, 40th, and 41st Infantry Regiments.
The 9th Cavalry Regiment was organized on September 21, 1866 at Greenville, Louisiana under the command of Colonel Edward Hatch, and was assigned to the Division of the Gulf under the command of General Phillip Sheridan.
The 10th Cavalry Regiment was organized on September 21, 1866 at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas under the command of Colonel Benjamin H. Grierson, and assigned to the Military Division of Missouri under the command of General William T. Sherman.
The 38th Infantry Regiment, Colonel William, Commander, and the 41st Infantry Regiment , Colonel Ranald S. MacKenzie, Commander, were organized in 1866 and combined to form the 24th Infantry Regiment in 1869.
The 39th Infantry Regiment and the 40th Infantry Regiments were organized in 1866 and combined to form the 25th Infantry Regiment in 1869.
NOTE: These units made up of black enlisted personnel and white officers were not the first of such units to serve on the Western Frontier. During late 1865 or early 1866 companies from the 57th United States Colored Infantry Regiment (Arkansas) and the 125th United States Colored Infantry Regiment (Kentucky) were assigned to posts in New Mexico to provide protection for white settlers in the area, and escort those going further west. Some of the companies served as mounted infantry. | <urn:uuid:e7bc903c-4907-4a12-af04-9b760dc6a862> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nashbuffalosoldiers.com/buffalo-soldier-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.980446 | 1,396 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.198629677295... | 17 | A Brief History of the Buffalo Soldiers
It was during the summer of 1787 that delegates representing most of the thirteen states of the United States wrote the first official constitution this nation has known. The new document - now the oldest written constitution in the world - underlines the idea that governmental power must be limited if the liberty of the citizen is to be guaranteed. It clearly provides that the basic rights of men and women be protected.
A system of checks and balances based on a two-house legislature, a separate executive branch, an autonomous judiciary, and also provisions for amendment are the greatest strengths of the document. It is the last provision - the ability to amend - that has had the most far-reaching effect on safeguarding the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It is this last provision that has greatly affected the lives of descendants of nearly three million slaves brought to America in the 1600s.
During the Civil War, President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation freed only those slaves in areas "in rebellion against the United States." Since the Union did not control the southern states that seceded, the Proclamation did not immediately free any slaves. It did, however, capture public attention and made all aware that the abolition of slavery was an aim of the war.
The 13th Amendment to the Constitution, passed in 1865, was responsible for abolishing slavery in all parts of the United States. In 1866, the 14th Amendment made citizens of all American-born blacks. Four years later, the 15th Amendment gave blacks the right to vote. Passed as a direct consequence of the military victory of the North over the South, it took over one hundred years before the provisions of these amendments became realities for all. Yet the seeds were planted, and former slaves emerged with a new pride in their country and a new sense of personal responsibility.
It was this new sense of patriotism, linked with optimism for social and economic betterment, that led many blacks to enlist in the post-Civil War Army. Black troops had served in every war including the American Revolution. However, it was not until July of 1866 that blacks were permitted to enlist in the Regular Army. The new legislation provided for the creation of two cavalry and four infantry regiments which "shall be composed of colored men." In 1869, the four infantry units were consolidated into two.
(NOTE: The units formed as a result of the 1866 legislation were the 9th and 10th Cavalry Regiments; the 38th, 39th, 40th, and 41st Infantry Regiments. In the spring of 1869 the 38th and 41st Infantry Regiments were consolidated into the newly designated 24th Infantry Regiment, and the 39th and 40th Infantry Regiments were consolidated to form the 25th Infantry Regiment.) Nicknamed Buffalo Soldiers supposedly by the Indians because of the similarity between their hair and the coat of the buffalo, many soldiers of the black regiments were recruited from the United States Colored Troops which served in the Civil War. Other enlistees came from the New Orleans area, the fringes of the southern states and from large northern cities. They were former slaves as well as freemen.
Units of the black regiments were stationed all over the West. In the battles and countless skirmishes that marked the Indian Wars, the black soldiers played a significant role. Commanded by white officers, who at times resented their duty with the black regiments, the Buffalo Soldiers endured and overcame tremendous social and environmental obstacles. They were sometimes received inferior supplies and equipment. Yet, the men of the black regiments, often finding themselves in the forefront of action, never shirked their responsibilities. For more than twenty-five years they not only engaged in battles with Indians, but they built forts and escorted wagon trains, mail stages and railroad crews. They mapped and charted areas and located sources of water. Black soldiers were responsible for opening millions of square miles of western lands to peaceful settlement and development.
The Buffalo Soldiers received little recognition for their years of service on the frontier. Between 1865 and 1899, the Medal of Honor was awarded to 417 men who served in the Indian Wars. However, only 18 of the medals were presented to black enlisted men.
The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution were responsible for the extension and protection of the civil rights of black Americans. These amendments also encouraged blacks to enlist in the military. The Regular Army of the 1870s and 1880s did not afford total equality or democracy for the black man. However, it did offer social and economic opportunities that had not existed before. The record of meritorious service and notable accomplishments amassed by the Buffalo Soldier regiments remain a symbol of hope and pride for all Americans. The achievements serve as a reminder of the contributions they made to American life and culture.
The thirty-ninth Congress on July 28, 1866 passed an Act to adjust the military peacetime establishment of the United States military. Senator Henry Wilson, Massachusetts Republican, sought the inclusion of six African-American regiments in the post Civil War army.
Senator Benjamin F. Wade of Ohio proposed that two of the cavalry regiments should be composed of black enlisted personnel. After strong opposition, mostly from Democrats, the legislation was passed which provided for the first black contingent in the regular army consisting of six regiments - the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 38th, 39th, 40th, and 41st Infantry Regiments.
The 9th Cavalry Regiment was organized on September 21, 1866 at Greenville, Louisiana under the command of Colonel Edward Hatch, and was assigned to the Division of the Gulf under the command of General Phillip Sheridan.
The 10th Cavalry Regiment was organized on September 21, 1866 at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas under the command of Colonel Benjamin H. Grierson, and assigned to the Military Division of Missouri under the command of General William T. Sherman.
The 38th Infantry Regiment, Colonel William, Commander, and the 41st Infantry Regiment , Colonel Ranald S. MacKenzie, Commander, were organized in 1866 and combined to form the 24th Infantry Regiment in 1869.
The 39th Infantry Regiment and the 40th Infantry Regiments were organized in 1866 and combined to form the 25th Infantry Regiment in 1869.
NOTE: These units made up of black enlisted personnel and white officers were not the first of such units to serve on the Western Frontier. During late 1865 or early 1866 companies from the 57th United States Colored Infantry Regiment (Arkansas) and the 125th United States Colored Infantry Regiment (Kentucky) were assigned to posts in New Mexico to provide protection for white settlers in the area, and escort those going further west. Some of the companies served as mounted infantry. | 1,520 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Old Melbourne Gaol facts for kids
|Location||Melbourne, Victoria, Australia|
|Opened||1 Jan 1845|
|Managed by||National Trust of Australia|
The Old Melbourne Gaol is a large, historic prison in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. The bluestone building was the first large prison built in Victoria. It was the location of many executions, including Ned Kelly who was hanged at the prison in 1880. It closed in 1929 and is now a museum.
Melbourne was first settled in 1835 and its first small gaol was built in 1839. A second gaol was built in 1841 next to the Supreme Court buildings. In 1852 work started on a new gaol based on the Pentonville Model Prison design. This had its own outside wall of solid bluestone. A second stage started in 1857, and the wall was extended in 1859. In 1860 the north wing, chapel, central hall and entrance was built. A western wing for female prisoners was started in 1862, and the outside wall was finished in 1864. There were also 17 jailer's houses, a chief warden's house and a hospital. It was built on a high point at the edge of the city. However a report in 1870 said the gaol should be closed and the prisoners moved to a more suitable location. The prison finally closed in 1929.
During World War II, the gaol was used as a military prison for Australian soldiers. After the war it became a storage building for the Victoria Police. Some of the buildings were pulled down to allow for the building of the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, now Victoria University. In 1972 the buildings were taken over by the National Trust as a museum.
Images for kids
Old Melbourne Gaol Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:92a3760c-5ea6-4ad8-b55f-30a057b9a982> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Old_Melbourne_Gaol | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00518.warc.gz | en | 0.985581 | 372 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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|Location||Melbourne, Victoria, Australia|
|Opened||1 Jan 1845|
|Managed by||National Trust of Australia|
The Old Melbourne Gaol is a large, historic prison in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. The bluestone building was the first large prison built in Victoria. It was the location of many executions, including Ned Kelly who was hanged at the prison in 1880. It closed in 1929 and is now a museum.
Melbourne was first settled in 1835 and its first small gaol was built in 1839. A second gaol was built in 1841 next to the Supreme Court buildings. In 1852 work started on a new gaol based on the Pentonville Model Prison design. This had its own outside wall of solid bluestone. A second stage started in 1857, and the wall was extended in 1859. In 1860 the north wing, chapel, central hall and entrance was built. A western wing for female prisoners was started in 1862, and the outside wall was finished in 1864. There were also 17 jailer's houses, a chief warden's house and a hospital. It was built on a high point at the edge of the city. However a report in 1870 said the gaol should be closed and the prisoners moved to a more suitable location. The prison finally closed in 1929.
During World War II, the gaol was used as a military prison for Australian soldiers. After the war it became a storage building for the Victoria Police. Some of the buildings were pulled down to allow for the building of the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, now Victoria University. In 1972 the buildings were taken over by the National Trust as a museum.
Images for kids
Old Melbourne Gaol Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 421 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Cavalieri Addobbati, also known as Cavalieri di Corredo, were the elite among Italian knights in the Middle Ages. The two names are derived from addobbo, the old name for decoration, and corredo, meaning equipment. These were knights who could afford elaborate clothes, armor and equipment for themselves, their charger and their palfrey.
The term "cavaliere", or knight, applied to anyone who fought on horseback, from nobles to peasants. According to Franco Sacchetti (c. 1335 – c. 1400), there were three other types of Italian knight in his day. The cavalieri bagnati, or knights of the bath, were invested with elaborate ceremonies in which they were washed of all impurities. The cavalieri di scudo, or knights of the shield, were men who had been made knights by princes or states. The cavalieri d'arme, or knights of arms, were soldiers who were created knights before or after a battle. These distinctions do not seem to have been particularly rigid. However, the cavalieri addobbati were the elite, roughly corresponding to the nobility.
In Italy in the fourteenth century, the cost of a knight's full equipment would have cost as much as a laborer could earn in several years, and in addition the knight would have to dress their squire and servants. The son of a noble family might gain some rudimentary education in the trivium of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic, and then the quadrivium of arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy. However, many never learned to read or write. Much more important was learning to ride, to handle the bow, shield, sword and javelin and to fence. By the age of fifteen, the young man would be ready to be knighted in an elaborate ceremony that began in church and ended at the banquet table.
The title of "dominus" was usually reserved for priests and Cavalieri Addobbati. In 1182 we hear that the feudal investiture of Bishop Gaimaro of Ivrea was undertaken in the presence and with the consent of ten vassals, five of whom were cavalieri addobbati from the leading families of Ivria, Vercelli and Canavese. | <urn:uuid:298c47dc-9b83-42eb-8643-ccdacde5d624> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Cavalieri-Addobbati | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00087.warc.gz | en | 0.986932 | 461 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.3320319950580597... | 2 | The Cavalieri Addobbati, also known as Cavalieri di Corredo, were the elite among Italian knights in the Middle Ages. The two names are derived from addobbo, the old name for decoration, and corredo, meaning equipment. These were knights who could afford elaborate clothes, armor and equipment for themselves, their charger and their palfrey.
The term "cavaliere", or knight, applied to anyone who fought on horseback, from nobles to peasants. According to Franco Sacchetti (c. 1335 – c. 1400), there were three other types of Italian knight in his day. The cavalieri bagnati, or knights of the bath, were invested with elaborate ceremonies in which they were washed of all impurities. The cavalieri di scudo, or knights of the shield, were men who had been made knights by princes or states. The cavalieri d'arme, or knights of arms, were soldiers who were created knights before or after a battle. These distinctions do not seem to have been particularly rigid. However, the cavalieri addobbati were the elite, roughly corresponding to the nobility.
In Italy in the fourteenth century, the cost of a knight's full equipment would have cost as much as a laborer could earn in several years, and in addition the knight would have to dress their squire and servants. The son of a noble family might gain some rudimentary education in the trivium of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic, and then the quadrivium of arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy. However, many never learned to read or write. Much more important was learning to ride, to handle the bow, shield, sword and javelin and to fence. By the age of fifteen, the young man would be ready to be knighted in an elaborate ceremony that began in church and ended at the banquet table.
The title of "dominus" was usually reserved for priests and Cavalieri Addobbati. In 1182 we hear that the feudal investiture of Bishop Gaimaro of Ivrea was undertaken in the presence and with the consent of ten vassals, five of whom were cavalieri addobbati from the leading families of Ivria, Vercelli and Canavese. | 471 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Research by Andrew K Fletcher
Ancient Egyptian Neurological Treatments Using Bricks To Incline a Patient
What does this important translation of a 3000 years BC Papyrus tell us about inclining a patient with traumatic neurological injury?
1. The treatment is to avoid laying a patient with a fractured skull down flat and references to a bed being used as a treatment to produce a sitting posture is clear, and given that beds were made purposely to be inclined and are exhibited in museums around the world, it is difficult to imagine that a bed would be sawn in half with only the upper body elevated into a sitting posture.
2. Two bricks were made into supports and presumably used by placing them under the head end of his bed to affect an inclined sleeping posture. There is no other logical explanation.
3. It was not sitting but resting on an incline that would determine whether the patient lived or died.
We know from ancient Egyptian inclined beds found in tombs, that these advanced people understood the importance of gravity in driving circulation and I suspect that they understood how nerves can only grow and repair in the direction of gravity.
Practices for a gaping wound in his head, which has penetrated to the bone and split his skull.
Examination and Prognosis
if you treat a man for a gaping wound in his. head, which has penetrated to the bone and split his skull, you have to probe his wound. Should you find something there uneven under your fingers, should he be very much in pain at it. and should the swelling that is on it be high, while he bleeds from his nostrils and his ears, suffers stiffness in his neck, and is unable to look at his arms and his chest, then you say about him;
One who has a gaping wound in his head, which has penetrated to the bone and split his skull, while he bleeds from his nostrils and his ears and suffers stiffness in his neck; an ailment I will fight with.”
Since you find that man with his skull split, you should not bandage him. He is to be put down on his bed until the time of his injury passes. Sitting is his treatment, with two supports of brick made for him. until you learn that he arrives at a turning point. You have to put oil on his head and soften his neck and shoulders with it. You should do likewise for any man you find with his skull split.
As for “which has split his skull," it is the pushing away of one plate of his skull from another, while the pieces stay in the flesh of his head and do not fall down. As for "the swelling on it is high." it means that the bloating that is on that split is great and lifted upward.
A Flash presentation of the entire scroll with English Translations. https://ceb.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/flash/smith/smith.html
N.B. Ancient medical texts are easily mistranslated and misinterpreted.
Early translation does not mention bed as part of treatment protocol.
Neurosurgical Classic-XVII Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus
Robert H. Wilkins, MD
Division of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical Center,
Durham, North Carolina
* Reprinted in part from The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. By James H. Breasted. Chicago: Univ.Chicago Press, 1930, 2 vols. With the kind permission of the University of Chicago Press.
Title: Instructions concerning a gaping wound in his head, penetrating to the bone, (and) splitting his skull.
Examination: If thou examinest a man having a gaping wound in his head, penetrating to the bone, (and) splitting his skull, thou shouldst palpate his wound. Shouldst thou find something disturbing therein under thy fingers, (and) he shudders exceedingly, while the swelling which is over it protrudes, he discharges blood from both his nostrils (and) from both his ears, he suffers with stiffness in his neck, so that he is unable to look at his two shoulders and his breast...
Diagnosis: Thou shouldst say regarding him: "One having a gaping wound in his head, penetrating to the bone, (and) splitting his skull; while he discharges blood from both his nostrils (and) from both his ears, (and) he suffers with stiffness in his neck. An ailment with which I will contend."
Treatment: Now when thou findest that the skull of that man is split, thou shouldst not bind him, (but) moor (him) at his mooring stakes until the period of his injury passes by. His treatment is sitting. Make for him two supports of brick, until thou knowest he has reached a decisive point. Thou shouldst apply grease to his head, (and) soften his neck therewith and both his shoulders. Thou shouldst do likewise for every man whom thou findest having a split skull...
Gloss: As for "(Until) thou knowest he has reached a decisive point," it means (until thou knowest whether he will die or he will live; for he is (a case of) "an ailment with which I will contend."
Full translation: http://www.neurosurgery.org/cybermuseum/pre20th/epapyrus.html
The Edwin Smith Papyrus dates to Dynasties 16–17 of the Second Intermediate Period. Egypt was ruled from Thebes during this time and the papyrus is likely to have originated from there Edwin Smith, an American Egyptologist, was born in Connecticut in 1822 – the same year Egyptian hieroglyphic writing was decoded. Smith purchased it in Luxor, Egypt in 1862, from an Egyptian dealer named Mustafa AghaThe papyrus was in the possession of Smith until his death, when his daughter donated the papyrus to New York Historical Society. There its importance was recognized by Caroline Ransom Williams, who wrote to James Henry Breasted in 1920 about “the medical papyrus of the Smith collection” in hopes that he could work on it. He completed the first translation of the papyrus in 1930, with the medical advice of Dr. Arno B Luckhardt.:26 Breasted’s translation changed the understanding of the history of medicine. It demonstrates that Egyptian medical care was not limited to the magical modes of healing demonstrated in other Egyptian medical sources. Rational, scientific practices were used, constructed through observation and examination.
A Note on the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus by John A. Wilson | <urn:uuid:20129adf-7fe0-4a0f-aec8-792bc8f43ce1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://inclinedbedtherapy.com/research/187-ancient-egyptian-neurological-treatments-using-bricks-to-incline-a-patient | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00317.warc.gz | en | 0.981819 | 1,369 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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Ancient Egyptian Neurological Treatments Using Bricks To Incline a Patient
What does this important translation of a 3000 years BC Papyrus tell us about inclining a patient with traumatic neurological injury?
1. The treatment is to avoid laying a patient with a fractured skull down flat and references to a bed being used as a treatment to produce a sitting posture is clear, and given that beds were made purposely to be inclined and are exhibited in museums around the world, it is difficult to imagine that a bed would be sawn in half with only the upper body elevated into a sitting posture.
2. Two bricks were made into supports and presumably used by placing them under the head end of his bed to affect an inclined sleeping posture. There is no other logical explanation.
3. It was not sitting but resting on an incline that would determine whether the patient lived or died.
We know from ancient Egyptian inclined beds found in tombs, that these advanced people understood the importance of gravity in driving circulation and I suspect that they understood how nerves can only grow and repair in the direction of gravity.
Practices for a gaping wound in his head, which has penetrated to the bone and split his skull.
Examination and Prognosis
if you treat a man for a gaping wound in his. head, which has penetrated to the bone and split his skull, you have to probe his wound. Should you find something there uneven under your fingers, should he be very much in pain at it. and should the swelling that is on it be high, while he bleeds from his nostrils and his ears, suffers stiffness in his neck, and is unable to look at his arms and his chest, then you say about him;
One who has a gaping wound in his head, which has penetrated to the bone and split his skull, while he bleeds from his nostrils and his ears and suffers stiffness in his neck; an ailment I will fight with.”
Since you find that man with his skull split, you should not bandage him. He is to be put down on his bed until the time of his injury passes. Sitting is his treatment, with two supports of brick made for him. until you learn that he arrives at a turning point. You have to put oil on his head and soften his neck and shoulders with it. You should do likewise for any man you find with his skull split.
As for “which has split his skull," it is the pushing away of one plate of his skull from another, while the pieces stay in the flesh of his head and do not fall down. As for "the swelling on it is high." it means that the bloating that is on that split is great and lifted upward.
A Flash presentation of the entire scroll with English Translations. https://ceb.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/flash/smith/smith.html
N.B. Ancient medical texts are easily mistranslated and misinterpreted.
Early translation does not mention bed as part of treatment protocol.
Neurosurgical Classic-XVII Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus
Robert H. Wilkins, MD
Division of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical Center,
Durham, North Carolina
* Reprinted in part from The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. By James H. Breasted. Chicago: Univ.Chicago Press, 1930, 2 vols. With the kind permission of the University of Chicago Press.
Title: Instructions concerning a gaping wound in his head, penetrating to the bone, (and) splitting his skull.
Examination: If thou examinest a man having a gaping wound in his head, penetrating to the bone, (and) splitting his skull, thou shouldst palpate his wound. Shouldst thou find something disturbing therein under thy fingers, (and) he shudders exceedingly, while the swelling which is over it protrudes, he discharges blood from both his nostrils (and) from both his ears, he suffers with stiffness in his neck, so that he is unable to look at his two shoulders and his breast...
Diagnosis: Thou shouldst say regarding him: "One having a gaping wound in his head, penetrating to the bone, (and) splitting his skull; while he discharges blood from both his nostrils (and) from both his ears, (and) he suffers with stiffness in his neck. An ailment with which I will contend."
Treatment: Now when thou findest that the skull of that man is split, thou shouldst not bind him, (but) moor (him) at his mooring stakes until the period of his injury passes by. His treatment is sitting. Make for him two supports of brick, until thou knowest he has reached a decisive point. Thou shouldst apply grease to his head, (and) soften his neck therewith and both his shoulders. Thou shouldst do likewise for every man whom thou findest having a split skull...
Gloss: As for "(Until) thou knowest he has reached a decisive point," it means (until thou knowest whether he will die or he will live; for he is (a case of) "an ailment with which I will contend."
Full translation: http://www.neurosurgery.org/cybermuseum/pre20th/epapyrus.html
The Edwin Smith Papyrus dates to Dynasties 16–17 of the Second Intermediate Period. Egypt was ruled from Thebes during this time and the papyrus is likely to have originated from there Edwin Smith, an American Egyptologist, was born in Connecticut in 1822 – the same year Egyptian hieroglyphic writing was decoded. Smith purchased it in Luxor, Egypt in 1862, from an Egyptian dealer named Mustafa AghaThe papyrus was in the possession of Smith until his death, when his daughter donated the papyrus to New York Historical Society. There its importance was recognized by Caroline Ransom Williams, who wrote to James Henry Breasted in 1920 about “the medical papyrus of the Smith collection” in hopes that he could work on it. He completed the first translation of the papyrus in 1930, with the medical advice of Dr. Arno B Luckhardt.:26 Breasted’s translation changed the understanding of the history of medicine. It demonstrates that Egyptian medical care was not limited to the magical modes of healing demonstrated in other Egyptian medical sources. Rational, scientific practices were used, constructed through observation and examination.
A Note on the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus by John A. Wilson | 1,348 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dogs pay much closer attention to what humans say than we realised, even to words that are probably meaningless to them.
Holly Root-Gutteridge at the University of Sussex, UK, and her colleagues played audio recordings of people saying six words to 70 pet dogs of various breeds. The dogs had never heard these voices before and the words only differed by their vowels, such as “had”, “hid” and “who’d”.
Each recording was altered so the voices were at the same pitch, ensuring that the only cue the dogs had was the difference between vowels, rather than how people said the words.
The team based its assessment of the dogs’ reactions on how long they paid attention when the voice or word changed – if the dogs moved their ears or shifted eye contact, for example, it showed that they noticed the change. In contrast, when the dogs heard the same word repeated several times, their attention waned.
Until now, it was thought that only humans could detect vowels in words and realise that these sounds stay the same across different speakers. But the dogs could do both spontaneously without any previous training.
Read full, original post: Dogs have a better ear for language than we thought | <urn:uuid:e3c0b5c1-0751-48a7-b5a3-15fc8f49ab45> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2019/12/11/your-dog-may-be-paying-closer-attention-to-your-words-than-you-realize/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.984398 | 260 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.061237968504... | 4 | Dogs pay much closer attention to what humans say than we realised, even to words that are probably meaningless to them.
Holly Root-Gutteridge at the University of Sussex, UK, and her colleagues played audio recordings of people saying six words to 70 pet dogs of various breeds. The dogs had never heard these voices before and the words only differed by their vowels, such as “had”, “hid” and “who’d”.
Each recording was altered so the voices were at the same pitch, ensuring that the only cue the dogs had was the difference between vowels, rather than how people said the words.
The team based its assessment of the dogs’ reactions on how long they paid attention when the voice or word changed – if the dogs moved their ears or shifted eye contact, for example, it showed that they noticed the change. In contrast, when the dogs heard the same word repeated several times, their attention waned.
Until now, it was thought that only humans could detect vowels in words and realise that these sounds stay the same across different speakers. But the dogs could do both spontaneously without any previous training.
Read full, original post: Dogs have a better ear for language than we thought | 243 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Land surveying is a precise business, at least most of the time. The goal of the surveyor is to show as accurately as possible the boundary lines of a person’s property, usually in relation to a written legal description. Surveyors will readily tell you that is both a science and an art, but there’s one Florida surveyor who took that idea to a whole new level. Take a look at this survey plat drawn by Robert McHardy in 1818:
If you’ve seen a modern survey plat, you’ll recognize that this goes above and beyond showing someone where the boundaries and corners of their property are. That begs the question, who was Robert McHardy, and why did he take such an elaborate, colorful approach to land surveying?
Robert McHardy was born in Montrose, Scotland in 1776. As young adults, he and his brother James worked for a mercantile business, sailing back and forth between Scotland and Charleston, South Carolina and the West Indies. In the late 1700s, the two brothers decided to strike out on their own. They moved to Nassau in the Bahamas and set up their own firm. Business was good for the McHardys until around 1800 when a family friend failed to repay a fairly large loan. Robert, having just married and looking to get his finances back in order, decided to take advantage of a trend that was taking place just across the water in Spanish Florida.
Since taking Florida back from the British in 1783, Spanish authorities had been trying to convince settlers to move into the province and make it profitable. They offered to let the people who moved in during the period of British ownership keep their land, but they had to take an oath of fidelity to the Spanish Crown, which at the time also meant converting to Catholicism. Many of the British settlers chose not to accept these terms, and instead moved north into Georgia or to British islands in the Caribbean, especially the Bahamas.
Seeing that the religious requirement was the main stumbling block, the Spanish tried offering Florida land to Irish Catholics, but only a few families took advantage of the program. In 1790, the King issued an order inviting non-Spanish individuals to settle in Florida regardless of their religion. New immigrants would be offered “head rights,” meaning they would receive free land based on the number of persons–slave or free–that they brought into the province to establish a plantation. That offer was awfully tempting for British nationals like Robert McHardy in Nassau. In 1802, he and his wife Mary and their young family moved to Spanish Florida with their nine slaves, which entitled them to a sizable chunk of land to begin farming. The McHardys initially settled with a cluster of other Bahama transfers near New Smyrna, but they later acquired property near Mary’s father around present-day Tomoka, where they set up their main planting operation.
McHardy’s luck was hard in the decade that followed. Five of his six children died, as did his wife Mary. The one child who survived, John Bunch Bonnemaison McHardy, was sent to live with his mother’s relatives in Nassau. In 1812, McHardy became embroiled in the disturbance that came to be known as the “Patriot War.” A group of Georgians, with the tacit approval of the United States government, invaded Spanish Florida aiming to seize it and transfer it to United States control. The effort failed, but not before the so-called Patriots caused plenty of damage to the plantations of settlers who didn’t join their cause. McHardy was British and had a lot in common with the Americans, but he chose to support the Spanish administration in St. Augustine rather than endorsing the rebels’ plan to annex Florida to the United States at that time. In return, the Patriots ransacked his plantation at Tomoka, knocking down his fences and destroying his crops. They also took McHardy prisoner, although he was later released. McHardy would later be awarded damages from the United States government for his trouble, although he had been dead for years by the time the litigation was complete.
Things began looking up for Robert McHardy after these trying years. In 1816, he remarried to Caroline Williams, one of his neighbors in the Tomoka area. He also began surveying for the Spanish government, who by this time was giving away land grants for a variety of reasons. The old head rights system was still in play, but a person could also obtain land grants for government or military service, or for starting a mill or cattle ranch. Once a person had applied for one of these kinds of grants, they had to present their paperwork to the public surveyor, who would then lay out the boundaries and corners of the land. George J.F. Clarke was the public surveyor at St. Augustine from 1811 until the end of Spanish rule in Florida, but he had a number of surveyors working under him at his direction. McHardy was one of them.
McHardy’s survey plats are the most colorful and detailed maps found in the Spanish land grant records at the State Archives. Surveyors were given a detailed set of instructions explaining exactly what was supposed to be included in the plats, but McHardy went beyond just showing the compass bearings and distances that defined a piece of land. He used color and illustrations to convey the shape of the terrain, marking out forests, swamps, pine uplands, buildings, roads and canals.
Marking the location of corners was particularly important. Today’s surveyors use metal rods or concrete monuments to mark corners, but this system was impractical in the 1810s, long before modern metal detectors and measuring devices were available. Instead, surveyors like McHardy used trees for property corners. They would shave the bark off one or more sides of the tree and carve letters into it. On the excerpt from the survey plat below, for example, you can see the phrase Pino Marcado B, meaning “pine marked B.” This enabled the landowner (John Bolton in this case) and his neighbors to know exactly where the corner of the property was located. Pine trees appear to have been the most common boundary marker, but in looking through the records you also see oak trees and even royal palm trees on occasion.
The level of detail in Robert McHardy’s survey plats was especially helpful because in those days there was no reliable grid system to use to describe the exact location of land. Latitude and longitude could be calculated, but not with anywhere near the kind of precision needed for land surveying. The land measurement system we use today–the Public Land Survey System–was only established after the United States acquired Florida, so that wasn’t available either. In the absence of anything better, McHardy’s careful representation of the physical appearance of a piece of property helped the government, the owner and his neighbors understand where the property was in real space.
All that being said, McHardy’s plats are far from perfect. Since his time, the terrain has changed considerably and many of the parcels of land shown on his maps have been transferred many times and divided into pieces. So if you’re a genealogist, a local historian or just plain curious, how can you tell where a former Spanish land grant was located? The State Archives is working to make it easier to do just that!
When the United States acquired Florida, one of the first priorities was to start selling land to settlers so they could move in and develop the territory. That meant measuring the land into some kind of system so pieces of it could be accurately described. The government had a system in mind already, but there was a problem. In acquiring Florida from Spain, the Americans had promised the Spanish that they would respect any legitimate land titles granted to individuals during the time the Spanish owned the territory. Those grants came in all kinds of crazy shapes and sizes–nothing like the grid-based parcels the Americans planned to sell. To avoid accidentally selling off land that rightfully belonged to landowners left over from the Spanish period, the American government surveyors had to show exactly where those Spanish land grants were in relation to the new grid system. Accordingly, many of the township plats around Pensacola and northeastern Florida look like this:
Many records relating to the Spanish land grants have been available on FloridaMemory.com for years, but up to this point they have only been searchable by the name of the person claiming to own the land as of the 1820s, plus geographic terms typical for that time period. We’re now in the process of cross-referencing between the Spanish land grant records, township plats like the one above and a variety of other documents to pinpoint exactly where each of the 1,000-plus Spanish land grants were located. Soon, you’ll be able to browse a modern map of Florida, zoom in on whichever area you like and see the Spanish land grants located there. You’ll also be able to search for grants by county, the nearest town and other criteria. These changes will make it easier to use the collection for family and community history research. We hope you’ll also take some time to simply enjoy the colorful maps in the records, like those drawn by Robert McHardy. | <urn:uuid:6bec0ba8-b780-4e5d-8f5e-1f2711418cf7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.floridamemory.com/blog/category/history-brief/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00136.warc.gz | en | 0.980255 | 1,942 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.542648... | 2 | Land surveying is a precise business, at least most of the time. The goal of the surveyor is to show as accurately as possible the boundary lines of a person’s property, usually in relation to a written legal description. Surveyors will readily tell you that is both a science and an art, but there’s one Florida surveyor who took that idea to a whole new level. Take a look at this survey plat drawn by Robert McHardy in 1818:
If you’ve seen a modern survey plat, you’ll recognize that this goes above and beyond showing someone where the boundaries and corners of their property are. That begs the question, who was Robert McHardy, and why did he take such an elaborate, colorful approach to land surveying?
Robert McHardy was born in Montrose, Scotland in 1776. As young adults, he and his brother James worked for a mercantile business, sailing back and forth between Scotland and Charleston, South Carolina and the West Indies. In the late 1700s, the two brothers decided to strike out on their own. They moved to Nassau in the Bahamas and set up their own firm. Business was good for the McHardys until around 1800 when a family friend failed to repay a fairly large loan. Robert, having just married and looking to get his finances back in order, decided to take advantage of a trend that was taking place just across the water in Spanish Florida.
Since taking Florida back from the British in 1783, Spanish authorities had been trying to convince settlers to move into the province and make it profitable. They offered to let the people who moved in during the period of British ownership keep their land, but they had to take an oath of fidelity to the Spanish Crown, which at the time also meant converting to Catholicism. Many of the British settlers chose not to accept these terms, and instead moved north into Georgia or to British islands in the Caribbean, especially the Bahamas.
Seeing that the religious requirement was the main stumbling block, the Spanish tried offering Florida land to Irish Catholics, but only a few families took advantage of the program. In 1790, the King issued an order inviting non-Spanish individuals to settle in Florida regardless of their religion. New immigrants would be offered “head rights,” meaning they would receive free land based on the number of persons–slave or free–that they brought into the province to establish a plantation. That offer was awfully tempting for British nationals like Robert McHardy in Nassau. In 1802, he and his wife Mary and their young family moved to Spanish Florida with their nine slaves, which entitled them to a sizable chunk of land to begin farming. The McHardys initially settled with a cluster of other Bahama transfers near New Smyrna, but they later acquired property near Mary’s father around present-day Tomoka, where they set up their main planting operation.
McHardy’s luck was hard in the decade that followed. Five of his six children died, as did his wife Mary. The one child who survived, John Bunch Bonnemaison McHardy, was sent to live with his mother’s relatives in Nassau. In 1812, McHardy became embroiled in the disturbance that came to be known as the “Patriot War.” A group of Georgians, with the tacit approval of the United States government, invaded Spanish Florida aiming to seize it and transfer it to United States control. The effort failed, but not before the so-called Patriots caused plenty of damage to the plantations of settlers who didn’t join their cause. McHardy was British and had a lot in common with the Americans, but he chose to support the Spanish administration in St. Augustine rather than endorsing the rebels’ plan to annex Florida to the United States at that time. In return, the Patriots ransacked his plantation at Tomoka, knocking down his fences and destroying his crops. They also took McHardy prisoner, although he was later released. McHardy would later be awarded damages from the United States government for his trouble, although he had been dead for years by the time the litigation was complete.
Things began looking up for Robert McHardy after these trying years. In 1816, he remarried to Caroline Williams, one of his neighbors in the Tomoka area. He also began surveying for the Spanish government, who by this time was giving away land grants for a variety of reasons. The old head rights system was still in play, but a person could also obtain land grants for government or military service, or for starting a mill or cattle ranch. Once a person had applied for one of these kinds of grants, they had to present their paperwork to the public surveyor, who would then lay out the boundaries and corners of the land. George J.F. Clarke was the public surveyor at St. Augustine from 1811 until the end of Spanish rule in Florida, but he had a number of surveyors working under him at his direction. McHardy was one of them.
McHardy’s survey plats are the most colorful and detailed maps found in the Spanish land grant records at the State Archives. Surveyors were given a detailed set of instructions explaining exactly what was supposed to be included in the plats, but McHardy went beyond just showing the compass bearings and distances that defined a piece of land. He used color and illustrations to convey the shape of the terrain, marking out forests, swamps, pine uplands, buildings, roads and canals.
Marking the location of corners was particularly important. Today’s surveyors use metal rods or concrete monuments to mark corners, but this system was impractical in the 1810s, long before modern metal detectors and measuring devices were available. Instead, surveyors like McHardy used trees for property corners. They would shave the bark off one or more sides of the tree and carve letters into it. On the excerpt from the survey plat below, for example, you can see the phrase Pino Marcado B, meaning “pine marked B.” This enabled the landowner (John Bolton in this case) and his neighbors to know exactly where the corner of the property was located. Pine trees appear to have been the most common boundary marker, but in looking through the records you also see oak trees and even royal palm trees on occasion.
The level of detail in Robert McHardy’s survey plats was especially helpful because in those days there was no reliable grid system to use to describe the exact location of land. Latitude and longitude could be calculated, but not with anywhere near the kind of precision needed for land surveying. The land measurement system we use today–the Public Land Survey System–was only established after the United States acquired Florida, so that wasn’t available either. In the absence of anything better, McHardy’s careful representation of the physical appearance of a piece of property helped the government, the owner and his neighbors understand where the property was in real space.
All that being said, McHardy’s plats are far from perfect. Since his time, the terrain has changed considerably and many of the parcels of land shown on his maps have been transferred many times and divided into pieces. So if you’re a genealogist, a local historian or just plain curious, how can you tell where a former Spanish land grant was located? The State Archives is working to make it easier to do just that!
When the United States acquired Florida, one of the first priorities was to start selling land to settlers so they could move in and develop the territory. That meant measuring the land into some kind of system so pieces of it could be accurately described. The government had a system in mind already, but there was a problem. In acquiring Florida from Spain, the Americans had promised the Spanish that they would respect any legitimate land titles granted to individuals during the time the Spanish owned the territory. Those grants came in all kinds of crazy shapes and sizes–nothing like the grid-based parcels the Americans planned to sell. To avoid accidentally selling off land that rightfully belonged to landowners left over from the Spanish period, the American government surveyors had to show exactly where those Spanish land grants were in relation to the new grid system. Accordingly, many of the township plats around Pensacola and northeastern Florida look like this:
Many records relating to the Spanish land grants have been available on FloridaMemory.com for years, but up to this point they have only been searchable by the name of the person claiming to own the land as of the 1820s, plus geographic terms typical for that time period. We’re now in the process of cross-referencing between the Spanish land grant records, township plats like the one above and a variety of other documents to pinpoint exactly where each of the 1,000-plus Spanish land grants were located. Soon, you’ll be able to browse a modern map of Florida, zoom in on whichever area you like and see the Spanish land grants located there. You’ll also be able to search for grants by county, the nearest town and other criteria. These changes will make it easier to use the collection for family and community history research. We hope you’ll also take some time to simply enjoy the colorful maps in the records, like those drawn by Robert McHardy. | 1,921 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The tipping system in the U.S. has been the subject of hot debate in recent years, with increased media coverage of generous tipping stories melding with discussions about the morality and financial payoffs of paying workers less than minimum wage. There are some myths around how this tradition got started, but the truth is much darker than most people know.
One myth is that the custom of tipping got started in Europe, where small ceramic dishes made for coins printed with the words “To Insure Prompt Service” (the acronym being T.I.P.S.) were set out for customers to fill. While the tray part might be a legend, the custom of tipping did actually originate in Europe.
Under the serf systems in most parts of Europe, poor farmers and tradesmen were expected to work for wealthy landowners. They were supplied with the bare essentials and got to keep a portion of what they produced.
Much like sharecropping in the American South, this system often kept families in poverty for generations. On the other hand, those who performed beyond expectations would sometimes receive a small additional compensation from their lord (and Boxing Day is linked to the custom of distributing goods to serfs as well).
In attempting to seem aristocratic, American tourists brought back this custom to the U.S. in the mid-1800s when tours of Europe were en vogue for the well-to-do.
However, only the very wealthiest could afford to pay a tip in addition to paying the menu prices back then and this left a bitter taste in the mouths of average Americans who could not participate in this ritual. The backlash from tipping traveled all the way back to Europe and was so strong that it’s the reason why tipping is not customary in many parts of the continent today.
Coming back to the tradition in the U.S., the practice of tipping took an even darker turn during the Reconstruction Era. Despite the fact that the formal institution of slavery was abolished with the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 and the addition of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution in 1865, many former enslaved people were not paid for their work once they were free.
It was an unofficial continuation of the practice of slavery. White patrons at restaurants and on trains might leave an additional small sum of money for the services they received, but the service staff was often paid nothing due to their race.
This system was so engrained in American commerce that even well into the 20th century, advertisements for train travel often pictured African American men as the train porters, as had been the case since the end of the Civil War. In most areas, jobs like serving food, serving as a train porter, or bussing tables were the only jobs that African Americans could get.
Dining out in the 1800s had been seen as somewhat unnecessary by many average folks, who felt that dining at home reflected a happy family with a well-stocked larder. Many people even came home from work or school to eat lunch with the family.
But, by the early 20th century eating out and riding in trains had become far more common and so the practice of tipping low-paid workers, like waitresses and porters, became a part of everyday life.
Tipping has been a controversial topic for hundreds of years, but some experts think that we will never be able to shake the practice completely here in the U.S. Right or wrong, it looks like we are stuck with the system of tipping for the foreseeable future. | <urn:uuid:440df25a-725f-4eff-8d26-5f6f9868490c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dustyoldthing.com/sordid-tipping-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00145.warc.gz | en | 0.985008 | 719 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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-0.0910866... | 10 | The tipping system in the U.S. has been the subject of hot debate in recent years, with increased media coverage of generous tipping stories melding with discussions about the morality and financial payoffs of paying workers less than minimum wage. There are some myths around how this tradition got started, but the truth is much darker than most people know.
One myth is that the custom of tipping got started in Europe, where small ceramic dishes made for coins printed with the words “To Insure Prompt Service” (the acronym being T.I.P.S.) were set out for customers to fill. While the tray part might be a legend, the custom of tipping did actually originate in Europe.
Under the serf systems in most parts of Europe, poor farmers and tradesmen were expected to work for wealthy landowners. They were supplied with the bare essentials and got to keep a portion of what they produced.
Much like sharecropping in the American South, this system often kept families in poverty for generations. On the other hand, those who performed beyond expectations would sometimes receive a small additional compensation from their lord (and Boxing Day is linked to the custom of distributing goods to serfs as well).
In attempting to seem aristocratic, American tourists brought back this custom to the U.S. in the mid-1800s when tours of Europe were en vogue for the well-to-do.
However, only the very wealthiest could afford to pay a tip in addition to paying the menu prices back then and this left a bitter taste in the mouths of average Americans who could not participate in this ritual. The backlash from tipping traveled all the way back to Europe and was so strong that it’s the reason why tipping is not customary in many parts of the continent today.
Coming back to the tradition in the U.S., the practice of tipping took an even darker turn during the Reconstruction Era. Despite the fact that the formal institution of slavery was abolished with the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 and the addition of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution in 1865, many former enslaved people were not paid for their work once they were free.
It was an unofficial continuation of the practice of slavery. White patrons at restaurants and on trains might leave an additional small sum of money for the services they received, but the service staff was often paid nothing due to their race.
This system was so engrained in American commerce that even well into the 20th century, advertisements for train travel often pictured African American men as the train porters, as had been the case since the end of the Civil War. In most areas, jobs like serving food, serving as a train porter, or bussing tables were the only jobs that African Americans could get.
Dining out in the 1800s had been seen as somewhat unnecessary by many average folks, who felt that dining at home reflected a happy family with a well-stocked larder. Many people even came home from work or school to eat lunch with the family.
But, by the early 20th century eating out and riding in trains had become far more common and so the practice of tipping low-paid workers, like waitresses and porters, became a part of everyday life.
Tipping has been a controversial topic for hundreds of years, but some experts think that we will never be able to shake the practice completely here in the U.S. Right or wrong, it looks like we are stuck with the system of tipping for the foreseeable future. | 712 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Language and Communication Lesson Plan a.One simple content objective I could focus on for a lesson would be an oral recitation of the basic rules of soccer. Because most of the students in my class come from families hailing from countries where soccer is the main sport, my students have a fairly good knowledge of how to play the game. By allowing them the opportunity to speak more on the subject, it could reinforce their English skills. I would just have them recite five basic rules orally and then we would compile a comprehensive list we all shout out as a class. b.The content standard utilized would be “Comprehension and Organization and Delivery of Oral Communication.” The specific component of this standard for grades 9-12 I would...The end:
.....olars having to pine on every word a professor is uttering. In fact, writing the objectives for them and then explaining the instructions on how to achieve these objectives was a vital combination of techniques necessary to hammer home what it takes to get these exercises completed. Without this comprehensive approach, the students were unlikely to learn as much. Actually, even during the process where I would write the objectives, the questions would start from the students. This was my proof that the theories we have studied in this course, particularly those elucidated in SIOP, were holding true. The students’ questions were signs that they were involved in the objectives already and that they were highly concerned with doing a good job. | <urn:uuid:9fe5b339-018e-45bb-931c-903a76ac1f88> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.essayexpress.com/essay/language-and-communication-lesson-plan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00480.warc.gz | en | 0.983332 | 294 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.2193320691585... | 2 | Language and Communication Lesson Plan a.One simple content objective I could focus on for a lesson would be an oral recitation of the basic rules of soccer. Because most of the students in my class come from families hailing from countries where soccer is the main sport, my students have a fairly good knowledge of how to play the game. By allowing them the opportunity to speak more on the subject, it could reinforce their English skills. I would just have them recite five basic rules orally and then we would compile a comprehensive list we all shout out as a class. b.The content standard utilized would be “Comprehension and Organization and Delivery of Oral Communication.” The specific component of this standard for grades 9-12 I would...The end:
.....olars having to pine on every word a professor is uttering. In fact, writing the objectives for them and then explaining the instructions on how to achieve these objectives was a vital combination of techniques necessary to hammer home what it takes to get these exercises completed. Without this comprehensive approach, the students were unlikely to learn as much. Actually, even during the process where I would write the objectives, the questions would start from the students. This was my proof that the theories we have studied in this course, particularly those elucidated in SIOP, were holding true. The students’ questions were signs that they were involved in the objectives already and that they were highly concerned with doing a good job. | 289 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Evelino Leonardi (1871-1939) was a Roman doctor and amateur archaeologist who was convinced that Atlantis had been located in Italy with their cyclopean remnants visible on Monte Circeo on the west coast of Italy, south of Rome.
He published his ideas in 1937, among which he claimed that Lake Tritonis had been situated in Italy adjacent to the Tyrrhenian Sea and that the mythical Tirrenide was also situated there. . To say the least this was an innovative idea, as it was generally accepted that Lake Tritonis had been located in North Africa. Leonardi also contended that the survivors of the demise of Atlantis migrated to Egypt.
However, in recent years interest in Leonardi’s work has been revived. The late Gianluigi Proia has written a number of articles on the circei.it website in support of Leonardi’s theories. One of the most comprehensive of these(a), although published in Italian, translates adequately with Google.
See Also: Ponza | <urn:uuid:4bd80ced-80c7-426d-81d4-7073a266d337> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://atlantipedia.ie/samples/tag/tyrhennian-sea/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00100.warc.gz | en | 0.988795 | 214 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.648234069347381... | 3 | Evelino Leonardi (1871-1939) was a Roman doctor and amateur archaeologist who was convinced that Atlantis had been located in Italy with their cyclopean remnants visible on Monte Circeo on the west coast of Italy, south of Rome.
He published his ideas in 1937, among which he claimed that Lake Tritonis had been situated in Italy adjacent to the Tyrrhenian Sea and that the mythical Tirrenide was also situated there. . To say the least this was an innovative idea, as it was generally accepted that Lake Tritonis had been located in North Africa. Leonardi also contended that the survivors of the demise of Atlantis migrated to Egypt.
However, in recent years interest in Leonardi’s work has been revived. The late Gianluigi Proia has written a number of articles on the circei.it website in support of Leonardi’s theories. One of the most comprehensive of these(a), although published in Italian, translates adequately with Google.
See Also: Ponza | 212 | ENGLISH | 1 |
First War Dog to Carry Messages in World War I
The French military began working with Belgian Sheepdogs to train them as messengers for the war. Taki, the youngest of the dogs to be enlisted into the French military, was born in the spring of 1913.
War Dog Under Fire
As the German military began steamrolling across Belgium and into north central France in 1914, a unit of the French Army was trapped between the river and the oncoming Germans. The stranded troops needed to get a message out, but transmission wires in the area were nonexistent and no human messenger was going to be able to get out without being fired upon.
As yet, the use of messenger dogs to cross battlefields was untried in this war, but it seemed the only option. The dogs had been trained, and a planned-for method had been tested. Taki, the youngest of the trained dogs was the one selected for what would be a run through an active battlefield.
The message she was to carry was written in code. It was then inserted into a waterproof capsule that Taki was trained to carry in her mouth. Her master sent her off with instructions and reportedly, a prayer. To everyone’s great relief, Taki got the message through, and the French military commanders were able to send relief to help the unit.
War Dog Worked Tirelessly
For the next four years, Taki worked tirelessly for the Allies. She made her way across shell-torn fields and under clouds of poison gas and through the smoke and shrapnel from bombs. Taki always made it through without serious injury.
At the end of the war she was decorated by two nations for gallant service. In December of 1918, the king of Belgium provided her with an honorable discharge.
Taki began her off-duty life by accompanying the officer who had taken primary charge of her to his new post in southern France. However, when the officer was ordered to a base in Russia, he needed to find a home for Taki. He gave the war dog to a niece, and the niece, who could not keep Taki, made arrangements to send Taki to other relatives in America who were eager to take the messenger dog.
The family of Edward Newbegin lived in Redlands, California, so an orderly who was on his way to America took charge of taking Taki with him. They traveled across the Atlantic on board an American transport, landing in Norfolk Virginia. From there they likely traveled by train to California to meet up with the Newbegins, a Belgian-American family.
Must Have Encountered Bad Luck
In the summer of 1929, some family or personal occurrence must have happened that left Edward J. Newbegin feeling as though he had no options. One day he walked up the path with Taki, en route to the Long Beach Animal Shelter, the dog pound. By then Taki was 16 years old.
At the pound that day was shelter manager G.D. Olden. Newbegin explained that the dog was very old and probably wouldn’t live much longer. Newbegin was unable to keep her, and since he couldn’t imagine anyone taking such an old dog, he requested that Taki be put to death by the shelter.
Taki was led to a stall to await her fate, but Newbegin followed Taki and Olden. He knelt in front of the cell and began crying, talking to Taki in French. Olden was puzzled by this turn of events, so he stayed with the man and asked about Taki’s story. Newbegin told him of Taki’s history.
Reporter Alerted to War Dog’s Fate
Olden must have contacted the newspaper because soon reporter Nan Blake, a known lover of animals, came out to the pound to write Taki’s story for the local Long Beach newspaper.
Surely someone would be willing to take an old war hero?
After the story appeared, the newspaper had many offers. A committee was formed to select the best home for Taki. One application was received from the National Guard Artillery Unit in the area. Given the dog’s comfort with men in uniform, this offered the best home in which to place her.
War Dog Mustered In
When Taki was delivered to the welcoming National Guard, she was mustered in with full formality. Reporter Blake was on hand to report the story. She wrote that when Taki’s story was told to the full group of men, there was not a dry eye among them.
Of course, Taki needed one handler who would take her home each night, and a fellow in the unit named Jack Pugh was the lucky fellow.
By day, Taki was in a kennel near the offices where Old Glory, and in Taki’s honor, the Tricolor flag of France, flew proudly. At formal retreat, when the Colors were lowered, Jack Pugh collected Taki and took her home with him. Taki lived out her final years with Pugh and the National Guard.
This story is based in a report by John Meteer that appeared in the American Kennel Gazette on January 1, 1930 and can be found at the American Kennel Club Library.
The dog Americans know as the Belgian Malinois, now frequently used for police work and for military assignments, is a variety of the Belgian Sheepdog. Taki was simply early in a long line of war dogs. Cairo, who was with Navy Seal Six for the successful attack on Osama bin Laden’s compound, is also a Belgian Mailnois.
Final Truth from Taki
In 2002 Annabelle Cambier and her husband, Jean-Luc Cambier, found the story of Taki in the AKC Gazette. They petitioned the Belgian Sheepdog Club of America to permit them to form a committee to create historic awareness of the Belgian Sheepdogs’ role in the war as Messenger Dogs. They have created an active group as well as a web page, and are the major forces working to remember these wonderful dogs. On the website, Annabelle Cambier sums up so well what happened for Taki:
“It only takes a moment to be a turning point in a dog’s life. Be in that moment.”
For another famous World War I dog see Stubby, who was smuggled to Europe by some American infantrymen, and the dog performed admirably. And for another story of a messenger dog, read World War I and a Remarkable Messenger Dog.
Yukon King, Dog Star of “Sgt. Preston of the Yukon”
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Collie Travels 2500 Miles to Return to Oregon Home
In the 1920s, a collie mix was separated from his family in Wolcott, Indiana, where the family vacationed the summer of 1923. Frank and Elizabeth... » | <urn:uuid:d74cb1cb-b02d-42c1-817e-8db5f2e0019a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://americacomesalive.com/2014/08/11/first-war-dog-carry-messages-world-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00088.warc.gz | en | 0.981178 | 1,533 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.5185073018074036,... | 3 | First War Dog to Carry Messages in World War I
The French military began working with Belgian Sheepdogs to train them as messengers for the war. Taki, the youngest of the dogs to be enlisted into the French military, was born in the spring of 1913.
War Dog Under Fire
As the German military began steamrolling across Belgium and into north central France in 1914, a unit of the French Army was trapped between the river and the oncoming Germans. The stranded troops needed to get a message out, but transmission wires in the area were nonexistent and no human messenger was going to be able to get out without being fired upon.
As yet, the use of messenger dogs to cross battlefields was untried in this war, but it seemed the only option. The dogs had been trained, and a planned-for method had been tested. Taki, the youngest of the trained dogs was the one selected for what would be a run through an active battlefield.
The message she was to carry was written in code. It was then inserted into a waterproof capsule that Taki was trained to carry in her mouth. Her master sent her off with instructions and reportedly, a prayer. To everyone’s great relief, Taki got the message through, and the French military commanders were able to send relief to help the unit.
War Dog Worked Tirelessly
For the next four years, Taki worked tirelessly for the Allies. She made her way across shell-torn fields and under clouds of poison gas and through the smoke and shrapnel from bombs. Taki always made it through without serious injury.
At the end of the war she was decorated by two nations for gallant service. In December of 1918, the king of Belgium provided her with an honorable discharge.
Taki began her off-duty life by accompanying the officer who had taken primary charge of her to his new post in southern France. However, when the officer was ordered to a base in Russia, he needed to find a home for Taki. He gave the war dog to a niece, and the niece, who could not keep Taki, made arrangements to send Taki to other relatives in America who were eager to take the messenger dog.
The family of Edward Newbegin lived in Redlands, California, so an orderly who was on his way to America took charge of taking Taki with him. They traveled across the Atlantic on board an American transport, landing in Norfolk Virginia. From there they likely traveled by train to California to meet up with the Newbegins, a Belgian-American family.
Must Have Encountered Bad Luck
In the summer of 1929, some family or personal occurrence must have happened that left Edward J. Newbegin feeling as though he had no options. One day he walked up the path with Taki, en route to the Long Beach Animal Shelter, the dog pound. By then Taki was 16 years old.
At the pound that day was shelter manager G.D. Olden. Newbegin explained that the dog was very old and probably wouldn’t live much longer. Newbegin was unable to keep her, and since he couldn’t imagine anyone taking such an old dog, he requested that Taki be put to death by the shelter.
Taki was led to a stall to await her fate, but Newbegin followed Taki and Olden. He knelt in front of the cell and began crying, talking to Taki in French. Olden was puzzled by this turn of events, so he stayed with the man and asked about Taki’s story. Newbegin told him of Taki’s history.
Reporter Alerted to War Dog’s Fate
Olden must have contacted the newspaper because soon reporter Nan Blake, a known lover of animals, came out to the pound to write Taki’s story for the local Long Beach newspaper.
Surely someone would be willing to take an old war hero?
After the story appeared, the newspaper had many offers. A committee was formed to select the best home for Taki. One application was received from the National Guard Artillery Unit in the area. Given the dog’s comfort with men in uniform, this offered the best home in which to place her.
War Dog Mustered In
When Taki was delivered to the welcoming National Guard, she was mustered in with full formality. Reporter Blake was on hand to report the story. She wrote that when Taki’s story was told to the full group of men, there was not a dry eye among them.
Of course, Taki needed one handler who would take her home each night, and a fellow in the unit named Jack Pugh was the lucky fellow.
By day, Taki was in a kennel near the offices where Old Glory, and in Taki’s honor, the Tricolor flag of France, flew proudly. At formal retreat, when the Colors were lowered, Jack Pugh collected Taki and took her home with him. Taki lived out her final years with Pugh and the National Guard.
This story is based in a report by John Meteer that appeared in the American Kennel Gazette on January 1, 1930 and can be found at the American Kennel Club Library.
The dog Americans know as the Belgian Malinois, now frequently used for police work and for military assignments, is a variety of the Belgian Sheepdog. Taki was simply early in a long line of war dogs. Cairo, who was with Navy Seal Six for the successful attack on Osama bin Laden’s compound, is also a Belgian Mailnois.
Final Truth from Taki
In 2002 Annabelle Cambier and her husband, Jean-Luc Cambier, found the story of Taki in the AKC Gazette. They petitioned the Belgian Sheepdog Club of America to permit them to form a committee to create historic awareness of the Belgian Sheepdogs’ role in the war as Messenger Dogs. They have created an active group as well as a web page, and are the major forces working to remember these wonderful dogs. On the website, Annabelle Cambier sums up so well what happened for Taki:
“It only takes a moment to be a turning point in a dog’s life. Be in that moment.”
For another famous World War I dog see Stubby, who was smuggled to Europe by some American infantrymen, and the dog performed admirably. And for another story of a messenger dog, read World War I and a Remarkable Messenger Dog.
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Themes and Meanings
The repeated association of instrument and weapon gives the reader a hint as to the predominant theme of the poem. As the pen is overtly named a weapon, so the spade can by implication also be understood as a weapon. Many of the images then take on a double meaning: Rooting “out tall tops” could be mowing down men, and burying “the bright edge deep” could connote a blade cutting into flesh. “Lug,” “shaft,” and “levered” are all words that could be associated with weapons, and even the beloved “cool hardness in our hands” could mean grenades, not merely potatoes. “By God, the old man could handle a spade” might be said as admiringly by one rebel of another as by farmers of one another: “Nicking and slicing neatly” could apply to blade work as well as to spade work, and “heaving sods,” in slang, could refer to bodies as well as dirt.
This very wordplay on bodies and dirt, sods and clods, also maintains the association of living and dead that the mixed images of the poem have produced. Not only did the sound of digging begin a recollection of the father’s life, but it also was a reminder of his death as well. The potato crop grows in “mould,” in decomposition, and turf is itself concentrated decomposition. All digging, then, is in among dead things, graves, “mould,” “turf.”
The mention of these two products and the hard labor necessary to obtain them establishes the context in which Heaney is writing: He comes from a family—and, on a larger scale, a culture—that has struggled for survival. That the bog on which his grandfather cut turf was “Toner’s” implies further that the fruits of their labor may not even have been their own.
These were necessary commodities—potatoes were the staple crop, and turf was the primary source of fuel—so necessary that their failure meant the end of the community. Yet, while the father’s and the grandfather’s digging was for the purpose of providing sustenance, it has...
(The entire section is 511 words.) | <urn:uuid:452d1a86-f87b-44b9-9aeb-472d86d78178> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/topics/digging | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00395.warc.gz | en | 0.983092 | 494 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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... | 3 | Themes and Meanings
The repeated association of instrument and weapon gives the reader a hint as to the predominant theme of the poem. As the pen is overtly named a weapon, so the spade can by implication also be understood as a weapon. Many of the images then take on a double meaning: Rooting “out tall tops” could be mowing down men, and burying “the bright edge deep” could connote a blade cutting into flesh. “Lug,” “shaft,” and “levered” are all words that could be associated with weapons, and even the beloved “cool hardness in our hands” could mean grenades, not merely potatoes. “By God, the old man could handle a spade” might be said as admiringly by one rebel of another as by farmers of one another: “Nicking and slicing neatly” could apply to blade work as well as to spade work, and “heaving sods,” in slang, could refer to bodies as well as dirt.
This very wordplay on bodies and dirt, sods and clods, also maintains the association of living and dead that the mixed images of the poem have produced. Not only did the sound of digging begin a recollection of the father’s life, but it also was a reminder of his death as well. The potato crop grows in “mould,” in decomposition, and turf is itself concentrated decomposition. All digging, then, is in among dead things, graves, “mould,” “turf.”
The mention of these two products and the hard labor necessary to obtain them establishes the context in which Heaney is writing: He comes from a family—and, on a larger scale, a culture—that has struggled for survival. That the bog on which his grandfather cut turf was “Toner’s” implies further that the fruits of their labor may not even have been their own.
These were necessary commodities—potatoes were the staple crop, and turf was the primary source of fuel—so necessary that their failure meant the end of the community. Yet, while the father’s and the grandfather’s digging was for the purpose of providing sustenance, it has...
(The entire section is 511 words.) | 448 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Zoroastrian History History of Chinese Religion China is one of the most ancient civilizations on earth, and Chinese religion is one of the oldest forms of religion. Evidence of burial practices has been dated to as early as BCE. Today, Chinese religion is a complex mix of Chinese folk religion, Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism and Communist anti-religious sentiment.
Chinese Games Ancient China Religion History has witnessed that Ancient China Religion has always evolved with the evolution of different civilizations and various beliefs have come and disappeared along with the disappearance of a particular civilization. Ancient China has also witnessed many religious practices.
In the Bronze Age, the Chinese believed in worshipping spirits. In many ancient civilizations spirits were worshipped in different forms.
Ancient Chinese forms of worship have many similarities to Hinduism as Anceint chinese religions in Ancient China spirit gods were worshipped according to different things present in nature for example fire, soil, water.
The Chinese also believed in worshipping their ancestors.
Emperors have been known to have had courtrooms in the memory of their ancestors. People in Ancient China believed in a celestial life after death and therefore sometimes courtiers, servants were sacrificed in the funeral of emperors, nobles etc such that they have a luxurious life after death.
Ancient China Religion Priests were highly specialized and were treated as mediators between God and human beings. The concept of priesthood was very well developed in Ancient China. The Concepts of Taoism and Confucianism developed in China and spread all over. These concepts are highly philosophical and intellectual in nature though they also have spiritual shades in them.
Buddhism which had originated in India had gradually spread all over China. Confucius was a politician and a philosopher and had studied the culture and government in Ancient China very well.
Though he had no intention to establish an Ancient China Religion, however the guidelines he framed came to be followed by people from a religious perspective. Taoism developed in the initial stages of development of religion in China and it used to be considered a source of all things.
In literary meaning Tao means Path. Lao-tzu was the one who composed Taoism which talks of force in nature.
The good nature of humanity should not be denied. Lao-tzu was asked to frame his wisdom when he entered the Chinese territory. Later original form of Taoism was changed by those who started practicing it and was turned more into magic and alchemy.
Buddhism which originated in India spread widely in China and today is the major religion in China. Buddhism came to China along with the Silk Route and was during the Hans dynasty. It was earlier considered a part of Taoism, however, the Buddhist monks were successful in propagating it as a separate concept.
Nirvana of Buddhism became very popular in the later stages. All the three religions had an equal amount of influencing power and people many times followed all three, however, each of them had its own unique value and importance.Ancient Chinese Religion. China is one of the ancient civilizations on earth.
China is a country with diverse religious beliefs. Three main religions . Chinese culture and religious practices flourished during the Western Zhou period but began to break apart during the Eastern Zhou. Religious practices of divination, ancestor worship, and veneration for the gods continued, but during the Spring and Autumn Period ( BCE) philosophical ideas began to challenge the ancient beliefs.
Ancient Origins articles related to Religions, we investigate the creation beliefs of the major world religions and then address the controversies surrounding the account. A ritual based religion, Shintoism is defined as "the way of the gods" in Japan, from the Chinese Shendao.
It is the indigenous religion of the country, and survives. History >> Ancient China Three major religions or philosophies shaped many of the ideas and history of Ancient China. They are called the three ways and include Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism.
Taoism Taoism was founded during the Zhou Dynasty in the 6th century by Lao-Tzu. Oct 04, · The ancient world was home to a huge variety of religions and belief systems. Most have faded away, their temples and statues vanished or half-sunk in the desert sand, their gods barely remembered.
The religions on this list were all founded before most of the main religions of today (Christianity. Three major religions or philosophies shaped many of the ideas and history of Ancient China. They are called the three ways and include Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism.
Taoism was founded during the Zhou Dynasty in the 6th century by Lao-Tzu. Lao-Tzu wrote down his beliefs and philosophy in a. | <urn:uuid:7c8e364b-d998-4113-a221-ac33b8e8f6d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://baberuganabomewej.lausannecongress2018.com/anceint-chinese-religions-47332rk.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00120.warc.gz | en | 0.980078 | 961 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.369915276... | 2 | Zoroastrian History History of Chinese Religion China is one of the most ancient civilizations on earth, and Chinese religion is one of the oldest forms of religion. Evidence of burial practices has been dated to as early as BCE. Today, Chinese religion is a complex mix of Chinese folk religion, Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism and Communist anti-religious sentiment.
Chinese Games Ancient China Religion History has witnessed that Ancient China Religion has always evolved with the evolution of different civilizations and various beliefs have come and disappeared along with the disappearance of a particular civilization. Ancient China has also witnessed many religious practices.
In the Bronze Age, the Chinese believed in worshipping spirits. In many ancient civilizations spirits were worshipped in different forms.
Ancient Chinese forms of worship have many similarities to Hinduism as Anceint chinese religions in Ancient China spirit gods were worshipped according to different things present in nature for example fire, soil, water.
The Chinese also believed in worshipping their ancestors.
Emperors have been known to have had courtrooms in the memory of their ancestors. People in Ancient China believed in a celestial life after death and therefore sometimes courtiers, servants were sacrificed in the funeral of emperors, nobles etc such that they have a luxurious life after death.
Ancient China Religion Priests were highly specialized and were treated as mediators between God and human beings. The concept of priesthood was very well developed in Ancient China. The Concepts of Taoism and Confucianism developed in China and spread all over. These concepts are highly philosophical and intellectual in nature though they also have spiritual shades in them.
Buddhism which had originated in India had gradually spread all over China. Confucius was a politician and a philosopher and had studied the culture and government in Ancient China very well.
Though he had no intention to establish an Ancient China Religion, however the guidelines he framed came to be followed by people from a religious perspective. Taoism developed in the initial stages of development of religion in China and it used to be considered a source of all things.
In literary meaning Tao means Path. Lao-tzu was the one who composed Taoism which talks of force in nature.
The good nature of humanity should not be denied. Lao-tzu was asked to frame his wisdom when he entered the Chinese territory. Later original form of Taoism was changed by those who started practicing it and was turned more into magic and alchemy.
Buddhism which originated in India spread widely in China and today is the major religion in China. Buddhism came to China along with the Silk Route and was during the Hans dynasty. It was earlier considered a part of Taoism, however, the Buddhist monks were successful in propagating it as a separate concept.
Nirvana of Buddhism became very popular in the later stages. All the three religions had an equal amount of influencing power and people many times followed all three, however, each of them had its own unique value and importance.Ancient Chinese Religion. China is one of the ancient civilizations on earth.
China is a country with diverse religious beliefs. Three main religions . Chinese culture and religious practices flourished during the Western Zhou period but began to break apart during the Eastern Zhou. Religious practices of divination, ancestor worship, and veneration for the gods continued, but during the Spring and Autumn Period ( BCE) philosophical ideas began to challenge the ancient beliefs.
Ancient Origins articles related to Religions, we investigate the creation beliefs of the major world religions and then address the controversies surrounding the account. A ritual based religion, Shintoism is defined as "the way of the gods" in Japan, from the Chinese Shendao.
It is the indigenous religion of the country, and survives. History >> Ancient China Three major religions or philosophies shaped many of the ideas and history of Ancient China. They are called the three ways and include Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism.
Taoism Taoism was founded during the Zhou Dynasty in the 6th century by Lao-Tzu. Oct 04, · The ancient world was home to a huge variety of religions and belief systems. Most have faded away, their temples and statues vanished or half-sunk in the desert sand, their gods barely remembered.
The religions on this list were all founded before most of the main religions of today (Christianity. Three major religions or philosophies shaped many of the ideas and history of Ancient China. They are called the three ways and include Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism.
Taoism was founded during the Zhou Dynasty in the 6th century by Lao-Tzu. Lao-Tzu wrote down his beliefs and philosophy in a. | 952 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Orozco wrote a well written, informational book about the rise of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement. The book is full of facts about Mexican American hardships and their battle to become equal. There were many racist Americans who disliked Mexican Americans. Despite the hate, Mexican Americans came together as one to make a positive change for their families and themselves. There are three crucial topics "No Mexicans Women or Dogs Allowed", covered that need to be discussed and those are the League of United Latin American Citizens, the women's role and lastly racism, inequality & segregation, .
The League of United Latin American Citizens was founded in 1929. Orozco states, "In February 1929 the four groups would finally unite in an association that would eventually be known as the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC)." It is the oldest and most widely respected Hispanic civil rights organization in the United States of America. The organization involves and serves all Hispanic nationality groups. The League of United Latin American Citizens had focused heavily on education, civil rights, health, and employment for Hispanics. Ultimately, the League of United Latin American Citizens educated middle-class founders, who included some of the first Mexican American lawyers and teachers in Texas and they felt that they were in the best position to lead the movement. .
Racism, segregation, and inequality were the kind of negativities Mexican Americans faced on a daily basis. Whites always thought poorly of them despite their effort to move to the United States for a better life and job. Many white people believed that they stole jobs from Americans and didn't deserve to be in the country and wanted them all deported. Mexican Americans were often segregated from the whites because "they weren't superior enough". White supremacy played a big role in this era, and the Mexicans weren't going to have it and fought back for a civil rights change. | <urn:uuid:aeb7f6f7-beef-44ce-b3ad-2f61ec744af9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/218731.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.98245 | 375 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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-0.216... | 8 | Orozco wrote a well written, informational book about the rise of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement. The book is full of facts about Mexican American hardships and their battle to become equal. There were many racist Americans who disliked Mexican Americans. Despite the hate, Mexican Americans came together as one to make a positive change for their families and themselves. There are three crucial topics "No Mexicans Women or Dogs Allowed", covered that need to be discussed and those are the League of United Latin American Citizens, the women's role and lastly racism, inequality & segregation, .
The League of United Latin American Citizens was founded in 1929. Orozco states, "In February 1929 the four groups would finally unite in an association that would eventually be known as the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC)." It is the oldest and most widely respected Hispanic civil rights organization in the United States of America. The organization involves and serves all Hispanic nationality groups. The League of United Latin American Citizens had focused heavily on education, civil rights, health, and employment for Hispanics. Ultimately, the League of United Latin American Citizens educated middle-class founders, who included some of the first Mexican American lawyers and teachers in Texas and they felt that they were in the best position to lead the movement. .
Racism, segregation, and inequality were the kind of negativities Mexican Americans faced on a daily basis. Whites always thought poorly of them despite their effort to move to the United States for a better life and job. Many white people believed that they stole jobs from Americans and didn't deserve to be in the country and wanted them all deported. Mexican Americans were often segregated from the whites because "they weren't superior enough". White supremacy played a big role in this era, and the Mexicans weren't going to have it and fought back for a civil rights change. | 378 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Several factors delayed and greatly hampered the development of an Italian medium tank during World War II.
The first was the strategic stance of the country, focussed on a war against neighbouring countries such as France and Yugoslavia, and ill-prepared for a war in the Western Desert.
Since these European countries bordered with Italy in mountainous areas, light tanks were preferred as these were deemed much more suitable for the narrow roads and bridges of the Alps.
Furthermore, development was hampered by the limited number of Italian industries, whose production was also heavily fragmented.
All these factors delayed the development of the first prototype of an Italian medium tank the M 11 which would only appear in 1937 and did not enter production until 1939.
Although technically inferior to their German and Allied counterparts in 1941 43, the Italian M tanks proved to be quite effective when used by experienced crews with adequate combat tactics.
In fact, their major shortcoming actually proved to be their limited production figures.
While production was limited, innovation was not and, between 1941 and 1943, several experiments were carried out on the Italian tanks that produced interesting prototypes such as the anti-aircraft semovente. | <urn:uuid:607e4882-ab3e-4dd6-9e66-15d859244c42> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.telegraph.co.uk/Product/Cappellano-Filippo-Cappellano/Italian-Medium-Tanks--1939-45/14678468 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.984298 | 234 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.43626484274864197... | 2 | Several factors delayed and greatly hampered the development of an Italian medium tank during World War II.
The first was the strategic stance of the country, focussed on a war against neighbouring countries such as France and Yugoslavia, and ill-prepared for a war in the Western Desert.
Since these European countries bordered with Italy in mountainous areas, light tanks were preferred as these were deemed much more suitable for the narrow roads and bridges of the Alps.
Furthermore, development was hampered by the limited number of Italian industries, whose production was also heavily fragmented.
All these factors delayed the development of the first prototype of an Italian medium tank the M 11 which would only appear in 1937 and did not enter production until 1939.
Although technically inferior to their German and Allied counterparts in 1941 43, the Italian M tanks proved to be quite effective when used by experienced crews with adequate combat tactics.
In fact, their major shortcoming actually proved to be their limited production figures.
While production was limited, innovation was not and, between 1941 and 1943, several experiments were carried out on the Italian tanks that produced interesting prototypes such as the anti-aircraft semovente. | 252 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Drake made his first voyage to the New World at the age of around twenty-three, with Hawkins, whose family owned a fleet of ships based in Plymouth. Another voyage saw the fleet trapped by Spaniards in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulua in 1568. Fortunately, the two men managed to escape, but they lost all but two of their fleet. In 1570 and 1571, Drake undertook two trading voyages to the West Indies, and in 1572 took two ships on a marauding campaign against the Caribbean's Spanish ports. Drake was able to capture the port of Nombre de Dios and return to England, his ships laden with Spanish booty. In 1573 Drake attacked a mule train with the help of Guillaume Le Testu, the French buccaneer, capturing around 20 tons of gold and silver.
In 1577, Elizabeth I secretly commissioned Drake to lead an expedition to the American Pacific coast where there were Spanish colonies. Drake left Plymouth on the 15th November 1577, but only one of his fleet made it to the Pacific Ocean, his flagship the Pelican, which arrived there in October 1578. The ship was renamed the Golden Hind (after Sir Christopher Hatton's coat of arms), and Drake became the first English sailor to navigate his way through the Straits of Magellan. The Golden Hind made its way north, along South America’s Pacific coast, plundering towns and Spanish ports as it went, and capturing Spanish ships laden with gold, silver and jewels. In June 1579, Drake landed just north of Point Loma (present day San Diego, California), which was Spain's northernmost holding in the Americas. He claimed it for England in the name of the Holy Trinity and called it Nova Albion, “New Britain”. He then turned south and made his way back home, arriving in England in September 1580. He was the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe.
His achievements and his rich cargo of treasure and spices led to Elizabeth I knighting him on board his flagship on 4th April 1581. Drake presented Elizabeth with a jewel to commemorate his successful circumnavigation. It was from Mexico and was made of enamelled gold decorated with an African diamond, and a ship with an ebony hull. In return, Elizabeth presented Drake with a jewel and a portrait of herself.
In 1585, Drake set sail for the West Indies and the Florida coastline where he did what came naturally to him - plundering. He captured the Spanish port of San Augustín and returned home with some unsuccessful English colonists from Roanoke Island. His actions made Philip of Spain furious and war was imminent, but worse was to come for the Spanish king: in 1587, Drake sailed to Cadiz and Corunna, in Spain, where he destroyed 37 ships with which Spain was preparing to attack England.
In 1588, Drake was Vice Admiral of the English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham, the fleet which defeated the Spanish Armada. On 29th July 1588, Drake and Howard organised fire ships to send into the Spanish fleet at Calais to break their formation and to force them out to sea. The next day, Drake was present at the famous Battle of Gravelines.
In 1589, Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norreys were given orders to 1) Seek out and destroy any remaining Spanish ships, 2) Help the rebels in Lisbon, Portugal and 3) Take the Azores for England. Unfortunately, 12,000 lives and 20 ships were lost off the Spanish coast.
Drake's final voyage to the West Indies and South America was a bit of a disaster. He failed to take the port of Las Palmas, and also San Juan in Puerto Rico. He managed to survive a Spanish attack which saw a cannonball shot through the cabin of his ship, but he died of dysentery in 1596.
Click here to find out more about Drake's circumnavigation of the globe.
Tudor Society members can read a bio of Sir Francis Drake - click here.
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0.2896659672260... | 9 | Drake made his first voyage to the New World at the age of around twenty-three, with Hawkins, whose family owned a fleet of ships based in Plymouth. Another voyage saw the fleet trapped by Spaniards in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulua in 1568. Fortunately, the two men managed to escape, but they lost all but two of their fleet. In 1570 and 1571, Drake undertook two trading voyages to the West Indies, and in 1572 took two ships on a marauding campaign against the Caribbean's Spanish ports. Drake was able to capture the port of Nombre de Dios and return to England, his ships laden with Spanish booty. In 1573 Drake attacked a mule train with the help of Guillaume Le Testu, the French buccaneer, capturing around 20 tons of gold and silver.
In 1577, Elizabeth I secretly commissioned Drake to lead an expedition to the American Pacific coast where there were Spanish colonies. Drake left Plymouth on the 15th November 1577, but only one of his fleet made it to the Pacific Ocean, his flagship the Pelican, which arrived there in October 1578. The ship was renamed the Golden Hind (after Sir Christopher Hatton's coat of arms), and Drake became the first English sailor to navigate his way through the Straits of Magellan. The Golden Hind made its way north, along South America’s Pacific coast, plundering towns and Spanish ports as it went, and capturing Spanish ships laden with gold, silver and jewels. In June 1579, Drake landed just north of Point Loma (present day San Diego, California), which was Spain's northernmost holding in the Americas. He claimed it for England in the name of the Holy Trinity and called it Nova Albion, “New Britain”. He then turned south and made his way back home, arriving in England in September 1580. He was the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe.
His achievements and his rich cargo of treasure and spices led to Elizabeth I knighting him on board his flagship on 4th April 1581. Drake presented Elizabeth with a jewel to commemorate his successful circumnavigation. It was from Mexico and was made of enamelled gold decorated with an African diamond, and a ship with an ebony hull. In return, Elizabeth presented Drake with a jewel and a portrait of herself.
In 1585, Drake set sail for the West Indies and the Florida coastline where he did what came naturally to him - plundering. He captured the Spanish port of San Augustín and returned home with some unsuccessful English colonists from Roanoke Island. His actions made Philip of Spain furious and war was imminent, but worse was to come for the Spanish king: in 1587, Drake sailed to Cadiz and Corunna, in Spain, where he destroyed 37 ships with which Spain was preparing to attack England.
In 1588, Drake was Vice Admiral of the English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham, the fleet which defeated the Spanish Armada. On 29th July 1588, Drake and Howard organised fire ships to send into the Spanish fleet at Calais to break their formation and to force them out to sea. The next day, Drake was present at the famous Battle of Gravelines.
In 1589, Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norreys were given orders to 1) Seek out and destroy any remaining Spanish ships, 2) Help the rebels in Lisbon, Portugal and 3) Take the Azores for England. Unfortunately, 12,000 lives and 20 ships were lost off the Spanish coast.
Drake's final voyage to the West Indies and South America was a bit of a disaster. He failed to take the port of Las Palmas, and also San Juan in Puerto Rico. He managed to survive a Spanish attack which saw a cannonball shot through the cabin of his ship, but he died of dysentery in 1596.
Click here to find out more about Drake's circumnavigation of the globe.
Tudor Society members can read a bio of Sir Francis Drake - click here.
(Taken from On This Day in Tudor History by Claire Ridgway) | 905 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Have you ever wondered what happens to pirates’ prisoners? Were they killed? Tortured? Made to walk the plank? Sold into slavery? Although every pirate ship had its own policy about what would happed to its prisoners, mostly pirates tended to follow the same guidelines and procedures.
What Happened to Pirates’ Prisoners?
As a rule, pirates would leave the crew members alive if they surrendered immediately, and there was no need to waste ammunition and no pirate had been injured or killed. In the case of an easy surrender, the pirates would go aboard the enemy ship, steal all the goods they could carry, and leave the crew alive and leave. This tactic was to make it easy for pirates to operate in the future, sending out a message, that if you cooperate, you will remain alive.
However, if there was any type of fighting against the pirates, the chances of the pirates leaving any crew member alive if they are success at boarding the ship and defeating the crew was very slim. After the pirates had started a battle, there was little chance they would then accept a surrender, leaving the captain and crew alive. If pirates had to shoot away the ship’s sails and rigging, then the pirates would be frustrated and most likely not to accept a surrender. The captain would surely die.
Once the pirates board the ship of an enemy under battle terms, they would give no mercy to anyone on board, because the pirates had already gave the ship and its crew plenty of time and warning to surrender. If individual crew members surrender, there is a chance that the pirates may accept him as a prisoner or welcome him to their crew. Depending on how vicious the battle was, some crewmembers would be taken as slaves to work on the ship. This was beneficial to pirates, because having a large crew would help in the future.
The captain, however, would not be so lucky. The pirates would be very angry with the captain, because the captain was the one who told his crew to fight the pirates. In many of the pirate’s policies they would shoot the captain on sight. This would set an example to any other ship that tries to resist pirates. Sometimes the pirates would take the captain and kill him in front of his crew or leave his marooned somewhere. This was a way the pirates would use the captain for an example for all.
On some occasions, selected crewmembers would be left free to tell the tale of what happened. Usually after bearing witness to some terrible deaths. This was one way to spread the word about how terrible the pirates were, to make their jobs easier in the future.
What Pirates would do to prisoners:
There are a variety of reasons that pirates would take prisoners. They would want other ships to know that it was okay to just surrender, and also to get volunteers from other ships to join their crew. In general, pirates thought it was a good idea to keep passengers alive, especially if they were important people, so they could be used as ransom. They would want to recruit carpenters, surgeons and other skilled crew, so they could use them on their own ship, and the rest they would just sell off as slaves. | <urn:uuid:463f9fc2-2f7b-4358-a29e-6995a3f0704f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pirateshipvallarta.com/blog/fun-facts/what-happened-to-pirates-prisoners | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.988115 | 651 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.149418786168098... | 4 | Have you ever wondered what happens to pirates’ prisoners? Were they killed? Tortured? Made to walk the plank? Sold into slavery? Although every pirate ship had its own policy about what would happed to its prisoners, mostly pirates tended to follow the same guidelines and procedures.
What Happened to Pirates’ Prisoners?
As a rule, pirates would leave the crew members alive if they surrendered immediately, and there was no need to waste ammunition and no pirate had been injured or killed. In the case of an easy surrender, the pirates would go aboard the enemy ship, steal all the goods they could carry, and leave the crew alive and leave. This tactic was to make it easy for pirates to operate in the future, sending out a message, that if you cooperate, you will remain alive.
However, if there was any type of fighting against the pirates, the chances of the pirates leaving any crew member alive if they are success at boarding the ship and defeating the crew was very slim. After the pirates had started a battle, there was little chance they would then accept a surrender, leaving the captain and crew alive. If pirates had to shoot away the ship’s sails and rigging, then the pirates would be frustrated and most likely not to accept a surrender. The captain would surely die.
Once the pirates board the ship of an enemy under battle terms, they would give no mercy to anyone on board, because the pirates had already gave the ship and its crew plenty of time and warning to surrender. If individual crew members surrender, there is a chance that the pirates may accept him as a prisoner or welcome him to their crew. Depending on how vicious the battle was, some crewmembers would be taken as slaves to work on the ship. This was beneficial to pirates, because having a large crew would help in the future.
The captain, however, would not be so lucky. The pirates would be very angry with the captain, because the captain was the one who told his crew to fight the pirates. In many of the pirate’s policies they would shoot the captain on sight. This would set an example to any other ship that tries to resist pirates. Sometimes the pirates would take the captain and kill him in front of his crew or leave his marooned somewhere. This was a way the pirates would use the captain for an example for all.
On some occasions, selected crewmembers would be left free to tell the tale of what happened. Usually after bearing witness to some terrible deaths. This was one way to spread the word about how terrible the pirates were, to make their jobs easier in the future.
What Pirates would do to prisoners:
There are a variety of reasons that pirates would take prisoners. They would want other ships to know that it was okay to just surrender, and also to get volunteers from other ships to join their crew. In general, pirates thought it was a good idea to keep passengers alive, especially if they were important people, so they could be used as ransom. They would want to recruit carpenters, surgeons and other skilled crew, so they could use them on their own ship, and the rest they would just sell off as slaves. | 638 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Web was not an overnight success. In fact, it took nearly two years before Berners-Lee —with help from CERN computer scientist Robert Cailliau and others—on Christmas Day set up the first successful communication between a Web browser and server via the Internet. This demonstration was followed by several more years of tireless lobbying by Berners-Lee, now 53, to convince professors, students, programmers and Internet enthusiasts to create more Web browsers and servers that would soon forever change the world of human communication.
Her mother Eleanor was born in London aroundand was the daughter of John Whitethe governor of the ill-fated Roanoke Colony. Eleanor married Ananias Dare born c.
Virginia Dare was one of two infants born to the colonists in and the only female child born to the settlers. Nothing else is known of Virginia Dare's life, as the Roanoke Colony did not endure. Virginia's grandfather John White sailed for England for fresh supplies at the end ofhaving established his colony.
He was unable to return to Roanoke until August 18, due to England's war with Spain and the pressing need for ships to defend against the Spanish Armada —by which time he found that the settlement had been long deserted.
The buildings had collapsed and "the houses [were] taken down". Worse, White was unable to find any trace of his daughter or granddaughter, or indeed any of the 80 men, 17 women, and 11 children who made up the "Lost Colony".
Governor White found no sign of a struggle or battle. The only clue to the colonists' fate was the word "Croatoan" carved into a post of the fort, and the letters "Cro" carved into a nearby tree.
All the houses and fortifications had been dismantled, suggesting that their departure had not been hurried. Before he had left the colony, White had instructed them that, if anything happened to them, they should carve a Maltese cross on a tree nearby, indicating that their disappearance had been forced.
There was no cross, and White took this to mean that they had moved to Croatoan Island now known as Hatteras Islandbut he was unable to conduct a search.
There are a number of theories regarding the fate of the colonists, the most widely accepted one being that they sought shelter with local Indian tribes, and either intermarried with the natives or were killed. InJohn Smith and other members of the successful Jamestown Colony sought information about the fate of the Roanoke colonists.
One report indicated that the survivors had taken refuge with friendly Chesapeake Indiansbut Chief Powhatan claimed that his tribe had attacked the group and killed most of the colonists.
Powhatan showed Smith certain artifacts that he said had belonged to the colonists, including a musket barrel and a brass mortar and pestle. However, no archaeological evidence exists to support this claim.
The Jamestown Colony received reports of some survivors of the Lost Colony and sent out search parties, but none were successful. Eventually they determined that they were all dead.
The Indians supposedly learned how to build them from the Roanoke settlers. The captives were forced to beat copper. The captives, he reported, had escaped the attack on the other colonists and fled up the Chaonoke river, the present-day Chowan River in Bertie County, North Carolina. A article in the Piedmont North Carolina Triad News and Record noted that she symbolizes innocence and purity for many Americans particularly Southerners"new beginnings, promise, and hope " as well as "adventure and bravery " in a new land.
She also symbolizes mystery because of her mysterious fate. In the s, a group that opposed suffrage for women feared that black women would get the vote.
A Historical Encyclopedia describes VDARE as "one of the most prolific anti-immigration media outlets in the United States" and states that it is "broadly concerned with race issues in the United States".
Dare Stones Virginia's death and the fate of the other colonists were purportedly described in a series of inscribed stones written by Eleanor Dare and others. These were later revealed to be forgeries.
This was also the first time that a child was depicted on United States currency. A Romance of the Sixteenth Century, 19th century novel by Mrs. Shackelford loosely based on the life of Virginia Dare Virginia Dare quickly entered into folklore as the first white child born in British America.
The fate of Virginia Dare and the Lost Colony has been the subject of many literary, film, and television adaptations, all of which have added to her myth: Virginia Dare met the Indian princess Pocahontas in E.
Shackleford's novel Virginia Dare: A Romance of the Sixteenth Century. The Fate of Virginia Dare. In the book, she is turned into a white doe by an Indian witch doctor after she rejects his advances.
When her true love, an Indian warriorshoots her with a silver arrowshe turns back into a woman just before she dies in his arms. Cotten has asserted, however, that the tale of Dare as the White Doe had survived for some three centuries as part of colonial folklore.
Neil Gaiman has extended this story in his comic book serieswhere a Native American named Rojhaz meets Virginia Dare when she is about twelve, and an artifact of his travels causes her to transform into a series of white creatures whenever she is in danger.
The storyline ends when Peter Parquagh and Virginia Dare head home to her father to plot the rescue of those left in England. In later stories in the universe much like the figure of legendwhen attempting to flee in the form of a white doe, she is shot by Master Norman Osborne and reverts to human form in front of Peter before dying.
Other authors have given the myth a fantasy twist.Sep 17, · A prominent American-born Israeli settler was stabbed to death by a Palestinian teenager outside a shopping mall in the occupied West Bank on Sunday.
The . The eighth president of the United States, Martin Van Buren, was the first president to be born a citizen of the United States. Unlike his seven predecessors, Martin Van Buren was born after the American Revolution when the country had . Virginia Dare was born in the Roanoke Colony in what is now North Carolina in August , the first child of English parents born in the New World.
"Elenora, daughter to the governor of the city and wife to Ananias Dare, one of the assistants, was delivered of a daughter in Roanoke". The United States of America Was Born in the Year of the Fire Monkey.
Posted on February 17, Only through a 2nd American Revolution will the world be spared the Second Great Depression and subsequent World War III which have been planned by TPTB over many decades.
American recycling was born during World War II. When Japan invaded Southeast Asia, it quickly cut off supplies of tin and rubber. These were the very materials that often ended up in the trash can or languishing unused in American homes or on farms.
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0.126522481441... | 1 | The Web was not an overnight success. In fact, it took nearly two years before Berners-Lee —with help from CERN computer scientist Robert Cailliau and others—on Christmas Day set up the first successful communication between a Web browser and server via the Internet. This demonstration was followed by several more years of tireless lobbying by Berners-Lee, now 53, to convince professors, students, programmers and Internet enthusiasts to create more Web browsers and servers that would soon forever change the world of human communication.
Her mother Eleanor was born in London aroundand was the daughter of John Whitethe governor of the ill-fated Roanoke Colony. Eleanor married Ananias Dare born c.
Virginia Dare was one of two infants born to the colonists in and the only female child born to the settlers. Nothing else is known of Virginia Dare's life, as the Roanoke Colony did not endure. Virginia's grandfather John White sailed for England for fresh supplies at the end ofhaving established his colony.
He was unable to return to Roanoke until August 18, due to England's war with Spain and the pressing need for ships to defend against the Spanish Armada —by which time he found that the settlement had been long deserted.
The buildings had collapsed and "the houses [were] taken down". Worse, White was unable to find any trace of his daughter or granddaughter, or indeed any of the 80 men, 17 women, and 11 children who made up the "Lost Colony".
Governor White found no sign of a struggle or battle. The only clue to the colonists' fate was the word "Croatoan" carved into a post of the fort, and the letters "Cro" carved into a nearby tree.
All the houses and fortifications had been dismantled, suggesting that their departure had not been hurried. Before he had left the colony, White had instructed them that, if anything happened to them, they should carve a Maltese cross on a tree nearby, indicating that their disappearance had been forced.
There was no cross, and White took this to mean that they had moved to Croatoan Island now known as Hatteras Islandbut he was unable to conduct a search.
There are a number of theories regarding the fate of the colonists, the most widely accepted one being that they sought shelter with local Indian tribes, and either intermarried with the natives or were killed. InJohn Smith and other members of the successful Jamestown Colony sought information about the fate of the Roanoke colonists.
One report indicated that the survivors had taken refuge with friendly Chesapeake Indiansbut Chief Powhatan claimed that his tribe had attacked the group and killed most of the colonists.
Powhatan showed Smith certain artifacts that he said had belonged to the colonists, including a musket barrel and a brass mortar and pestle. However, no archaeological evidence exists to support this claim.
The Jamestown Colony received reports of some survivors of the Lost Colony and sent out search parties, but none were successful. Eventually they determined that they were all dead.
The Indians supposedly learned how to build them from the Roanoke settlers. The captives were forced to beat copper. The captives, he reported, had escaped the attack on the other colonists and fled up the Chaonoke river, the present-day Chowan River in Bertie County, North Carolina. A article in the Piedmont North Carolina Triad News and Record noted that she symbolizes innocence and purity for many Americans particularly Southerners"new beginnings, promise, and hope " as well as "adventure and bravery " in a new land.
She also symbolizes mystery because of her mysterious fate. In the s, a group that opposed suffrage for women feared that black women would get the vote.
A Historical Encyclopedia describes VDARE as "one of the most prolific anti-immigration media outlets in the United States" and states that it is "broadly concerned with race issues in the United States".
Dare Stones Virginia's death and the fate of the other colonists were purportedly described in a series of inscribed stones written by Eleanor Dare and others. These were later revealed to be forgeries.
This was also the first time that a child was depicted on United States currency. A Romance of the Sixteenth Century, 19th century novel by Mrs. Shackelford loosely based on the life of Virginia Dare Virginia Dare quickly entered into folklore as the first white child born in British America.
The fate of Virginia Dare and the Lost Colony has been the subject of many literary, film, and television adaptations, all of which have added to her myth: Virginia Dare met the Indian princess Pocahontas in E.
Shackleford's novel Virginia Dare: A Romance of the Sixteenth Century. The Fate of Virginia Dare. In the book, she is turned into a white doe by an Indian witch doctor after she rejects his advances.
When her true love, an Indian warriorshoots her with a silver arrowshe turns back into a woman just before she dies in his arms. Cotten has asserted, however, that the tale of Dare as the White Doe had survived for some three centuries as part of colonial folklore.
Neil Gaiman has extended this story in his comic book serieswhere a Native American named Rojhaz meets Virginia Dare when she is about twelve, and an artifact of his travels causes her to transform into a series of white creatures whenever she is in danger.
The storyline ends when Peter Parquagh and Virginia Dare head home to her father to plot the rescue of those left in England. In later stories in the universe much like the figure of legendwhen attempting to flee in the form of a white doe, she is shot by Master Norman Osborne and reverts to human form in front of Peter before dying.
Other authors have given the myth a fantasy twist.Sep 17, · A prominent American-born Israeli settler was stabbed to death by a Palestinian teenager outside a shopping mall in the occupied West Bank on Sunday.
The . The eighth president of the United States, Martin Van Buren, was the first president to be born a citizen of the United States. Unlike his seven predecessors, Martin Van Buren was born after the American Revolution when the country had . Virginia Dare was born in the Roanoke Colony in what is now North Carolina in August , the first child of English parents born in the New World.
"Elenora, daughter to the governor of the city and wife to Ananias Dare, one of the assistants, was delivered of a daughter in Roanoke". The United States of America Was Born in the Year of the Fire Monkey.
Posted on February 17, Only through a 2nd American Revolution will the world be spared the Second Great Depression and subsequent World War III which have been planned by TPTB over many decades.
American recycling was born during World War II. When Japan invaded Southeast Asia, it quickly cut off supplies of tin and rubber. These were the very materials that often ended up in the trash can or languishing unused in American homes or on farms.
In the American Community Survey, German Americans (%), Irish Americans (%), English Americans (%) and Italian Americans (%) were the four largest self-reported European ancestry groups in the United States forming % of . | 1,489 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The fate of him becoming king leads to his downfall; losing all faith in himself. Achilles and King Arthur were both very, very ambitious men. In the end, their ambition catches up with them leading to the downfall of two great leaders. Achilles wanted to be the best, leading to him being quite hubris.
According to Encyclopedia Mythica, one of his greatest achievements was when he defeated Hector, who was one of the greatest warriors among the Trojans - A Comparison between Achilles and Abraham Essay introduction.
He was also well known for his participation numerous conquests of other countries under King Agamemnon. However, while Achilles skills in battle were unmatched, he did not consider Agamemnon to be his king as the latter refused to recognize his contributions in the many wars that have been won by the Greeks.
However, Thetis failed to immerse the heel of Achilles which she held as she dipped him, leaving this part vulnerable. On the other hand, the rest of Achilles body that was dipped in the river Styx was believed to be indestructible and impenetrable.
On the other hand, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Abraham is considered to be father of all nations, according to Genesis He is the recognized as the father of Israel and an important figure in Jewish Christian, and Muslim religions.
However, before God fulfills his promise, Abraham must first recognize God as his one and only guardian and lord.
Based on the Bible, one of the most well-known covenants made by God and Abraham is the covenant of circumcision. According to the covenant, if Abraham and his descendants fulfilled their part an agreed to be circumcised, God would reward them with a rich land of their own.
Differences and Similarities The most noticeable similarity between the two is the inspiration that they gave to their respective people.
Acilles led the Greeks to numerous victories and was believed to be the source of the strength of the army. Also based on historical accounts, even though Agamemnon was a fierce and ruthless king, he feared Achilles and was not fully comfortable when he fought wars without him.
Similarly, Abraham inspired people, in particular, his offspring, to follow his example of obedience to God. He led to the establishment of many nations and several religions.
In addition, both Achilles and Abraham had several women, although the latter served a purpose for God, which is to bring glory to the nations through his offspring. However, unlike Achilles, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Abraham was not a true warrior, save for the fact that he was involved in the war with the King of Elam.
In addition, Abraham was obedient to his ruler, who was God, while Achilles was not. There main point of difference was basically their allegiance to their respective kings or rulers.
Abraham feared God and obeyed whatever He commanded him to do. The best example of his obedience was when God ordered him to offer his son, Isaac, as a sacrifice. As a result of his obedience, God prevented Abraham from sacrificing Isaac and showered him with blessings.Achilles and King Arthur were both very, very ambitious men.
In the end, their ambition catches up with them leading to the downfall of two great leaders. Achilles wanted to .
King Arthur’s Quest In this classic tale that is most known for it’s strength and heroism, King Arthur And His Knights Of The Round Table is an epic adventure that is told to individuals of all ages.
Mar 09, · An Achilles' heel is a weakness in spite of overall strength, which can lead to downfall. Who was Achilles and what was the story with his heel? check out our clip and find out. Category. Odysessus & Achilles, King Arthur & Beowulf In sense, it is Arthur’s very simplicity and earnestness that enables the downfall of his reign.
He is powerful warrior, who is able to personally slay men in one charge. BEOWULF Beowulf is a Geatic warrior from Geatland (modern southern Sweden) and Hrothgar, a Danish king, has built a big.
King Arthur’s court is the primary setting in a variety of tales in literature. This particular setting is portrayed in various different ways. For example, King Arthur’s court in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight depicts the king and his court is all pleasant ways. In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, every one of the characters in Camelot is happy and full of joy.
Priam, King of Troy, travelled in secret to his enemy’s camp in order to plead with Achilles to return the body of his son so that he might receive a proper burial.
After a long and moving appeal and with a little extra counsel from Athena, Achilles finally agreed to the old king’s request. | <urn:uuid:87b946f3-dd26-476f-9fa7-ca6de07c5fea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://moratedogyjyje.caninariojana.com/achilles-and-king-arthur-s-downfall-12850tx.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00045.warc.gz | en | 0.984098 | 997 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.20321121811... | 2 | The fate of him becoming king leads to his downfall; losing all faith in himself. Achilles and King Arthur were both very, very ambitious men. In the end, their ambition catches up with them leading to the downfall of two great leaders. Achilles wanted to be the best, leading to him being quite hubris.
According to Encyclopedia Mythica, one of his greatest achievements was when he defeated Hector, who was one of the greatest warriors among the Trojans - A Comparison between Achilles and Abraham Essay introduction.
He was also well known for his participation numerous conquests of other countries under King Agamemnon. However, while Achilles skills in battle were unmatched, he did not consider Agamemnon to be his king as the latter refused to recognize his contributions in the many wars that have been won by the Greeks.
However, Thetis failed to immerse the heel of Achilles which she held as she dipped him, leaving this part vulnerable. On the other hand, the rest of Achilles body that was dipped in the river Styx was believed to be indestructible and impenetrable.
On the other hand, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Abraham is considered to be father of all nations, according to Genesis He is the recognized as the father of Israel and an important figure in Jewish Christian, and Muslim religions.
However, before God fulfills his promise, Abraham must first recognize God as his one and only guardian and lord.
Based on the Bible, one of the most well-known covenants made by God and Abraham is the covenant of circumcision. According to the covenant, if Abraham and his descendants fulfilled their part an agreed to be circumcised, God would reward them with a rich land of their own.
Differences and Similarities The most noticeable similarity between the two is the inspiration that they gave to their respective people.
Acilles led the Greeks to numerous victories and was believed to be the source of the strength of the army. Also based on historical accounts, even though Agamemnon was a fierce and ruthless king, he feared Achilles and was not fully comfortable when he fought wars without him.
Similarly, Abraham inspired people, in particular, his offspring, to follow his example of obedience to God. He led to the establishment of many nations and several religions.
In addition, both Achilles and Abraham had several women, although the latter served a purpose for God, which is to bring glory to the nations through his offspring. However, unlike Achilles, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Abraham was not a true warrior, save for the fact that he was involved in the war with the King of Elam.
In addition, Abraham was obedient to his ruler, who was God, while Achilles was not. There main point of difference was basically their allegiance to their respective kings or rulers.
Abraham feared God and obeyed whatever He commanded him to do. The best example of his obedience was when God ordered him to offer his son, Isaac, as a sacrifice. As a result of his obedience, God prevented Abraham from sacrificing Isaac and showered him with blessings.Achilles and King Arthur were both very, very ambitious men.
In the end, their ambition catches up with them leading to the downfall of two great leaders. Achilles wanted to .
King Arthur’s Quest In this classic tale that is most known for it’s strength and heroism, King Arthur And His Knights Of The Round Table is an epic adventure that is told to individuals of all ages.
Mar 09, · An Achilles' heel is a weakness in spite of overall strength, which can lead to downfall. Who was Achilles and what was the story with his heel? check out our clip and find out. Category. Odysessus & Achilles, King Arthur & Beowulf In sense, it is Arthur’s very simplicity and earnestness that enables the downfall of his reign.
He is powerful warrior, who is able to personally slay men in one charge. BEOWULF Beowulf is a Geatic warrior from Geatland (modern southern Sweden) and Hrothgar, a Danish king, has built a big.
King Arthur’s court is the primary setting in a variety of tales in literature. This particular setting is portrayed in various different ways. For example, King Arthur’s court in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight depicts the king and his court is all pleasant ways. In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, every one of the characters in Camelot is happy and full of joy.
Priam, King of Troy, travelled in secret to his enemy’s camp in order to plead with Achilles to return the body of his son so that he might receive a proper burial.
After a long and moving appeal and with a little extra counsel from Athena, Achilles finally agreed to the old king’s request. | 968 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The image, from the Minnesota Historical Society (cropped for size), shows a man in Waconia, Minnesota in 1885, standing in front of his original log cabin (probably dating from the 1850s, with his newer home in the background). The article discussed how early settlers survived the cold winter temperatures, but what interested me was how he had assembled his roof.
I'm quite familiar with Scandinavian sod roofs, but this is different - those large transverse logs are not features of sod roofs I've seen. So I first looked at A Woodsrunner's Diary, my favorite "living history" blog, but couldn't find anything there. My next stop was Google Images, where various combinations of key words finally yielded this (image cropped for style) -
"The roof employs a “weight pole” system consisting of split oaken clapboards held down by the weight of heavy poles laid upon them. Nails, which were scarce and expensive in the late 18th century, were not employed in such a roof."- which gave me a new search term, which led me to another living history site depicting weight poles being applied to a roof -
I found a closer view at a stock photo site which I can't afford to purchase for embedding, with the weight poles secured in place with large rocks.
Logs on the roof explained - but what's the deal with the saplings on the side of the house? I'm guessing it all comes down to nails, which were a precious commodity for early settlers. I have read that when pioneers or homesteaders upgraded from their intial hovels to better houses, they would burn the log shanty in order to extract the nails for reuse.
Mr. Peterson in the top photo covered his roof with shingles or shakes (or maybe slabs of tree bark?). He didn't have the necessary nails to secure each of those, so he placed the logs transversely. But then you need something to secure the logs. In the stock image linked above, the logs are secured in place with what look like railroad spikes. Probably Mr. Peterson didn't have those (or didn't have an underlying beam to drive the spikes into), so he used the saplings at the sides of the house. But I'm not sure how the saplings are secured in place; they could be tied to the logs with ligatures (leather, root) through the chinks, but I can't see that in the photo. Perhaps some reader can finish solving the puzzle.
Interesting. You learn something every day. | <urn:uuid:1e5efb40-c71b-4f1e-adb7-97f471a99c24> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tywkiwdbi.blogspot.com/2020/01/this-is-most-interesting-roof.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.980081 | 526 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.4066689312458... | 9 | The image, from the Minnesota Historical Society (cropped for size), shows a man in Waconia, Minnesota in 1885, standing in front of his original log cabin (probably dating from the 1850s, with his newer home in the background). The article discussed how early settlers survived the cold winter temperatures, but what interested me was how he had assembled his roof.
I'm quite familiar with Scandinavian sod roofs, but this is different - those large transverse logs are not features of sod roofs I've seen. So I first looked at A Woodsrunner's Diary, my favorite "living history" blog, but couldn't find anything there. My next stop was Google Images, where various combinations of key words finally yielded this (image cropped for style) -
"The roof employs a “weight pole” system consisting of split oaken clapboards held down by the weight of heavy poles laid upon them. Nails, which were scarce and expensive in the late 18th century, were not employed in such a roof."- which gave me a new search term, which led me to another living history site depicting weight poles being applied to a roof -
I found a closer view at a stock photo site which I can't afford to purchase for embedding, with the weight poles secured in place with large rocks.
Logs on the roof explained - but what's the deal with the saplings on the side of the house? I'm guessing it all comes down to nails, which were a precious commodity for early settlers. I have read that when pioneers or homesteaders upgraded from their intial hovels to better houses, they would burn the log shanty in order to extract the nails for reuse.
Mr. Peterson in the top photo covered his roof with shingles or shakes (or maybe slabs of tree bark?). He didn't have the necessary nails to secure each of those, so he placed the logs transversely. But then you need something to secure the logs. In the stock image linked above, the logs are secured in place with what look like railroad spikes. Probably Mr. Peterson didn't have those (or didn't have an underlying beam to drive the spikes into), so he used the saplings at the sides of the house. But I'm not sure how the saplings are secured in place; they could be tied to the logs with ligatures (leather, root) through the chinks, but I can't see that in the photo. Perhaps some reader can finish solving the puzzle.
Interesting. You learn something every day. | 523 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This biography illuminates the life of Henry VII himself, how he ran his government, how his authority was maintained, and the nature of the country over which he ruled since he first claimed the throne in 1485.
Sean Cunningham explores how Henry's reign was vitally important in stabilizing the English monarchy and providing the sound financial and institutional basis for later developments in government, and tackles key questions in the debate:
Was Henry VII a conventional late medieval nobleman?
How did his upbringing affect his later kingship?
What was the nature of Henry's marriage to Elizabeth of York?
How and why did he become the main rival to Richard III following the disappearance of Edward V and his brother in July 1483?
Up until now the details of Henry as a person and as a king, his court and household, his subjects, and his country have remained little known. This book fills that gap, bringing to the forefront the life and times of the very first Tudor king. 2 Line drawings, black and white; 9 Halftones, black and white; 9 Illustrations, black and white | <urn:uuid:82427f36-e056-484f-9bd6-b76d85372921> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.whsmith.co.uk/products/henry-vii/sean-cunningham/paperback/9780415266215.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.982845 | 225 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.44087287783... | 1 | This biography illuminates the life of Henry VII himself, how he ran his government, how his authority was maintained, and the nature of the country over which he ruled since he first claimed the throne in 1485.
Sean Cunningham explores how Henry's reign was vitally important in stabilizing the English monarchy and providing the sound financial and institutional basis for later developments in government, and tackles key questions in the debate:
Was Henry VII a conventional late medieval nobleman?
How did his upbringing affect his later kingship?
What was the nature of Henry's marriage to Elizabeth of York?
How and why did he become the main rival to Richard III following the disappearance of Edward V and his brother in July 1483?
Up until now the details of Henry as a person and as a king, his court and household, his subjects, and his country have remained little known. This book fills that gap, bringing to the forefront the life and times of the very first Tudor king. 2 Line drawings, black and white; 9 Halftones, black and white; 9 Illustrations, black and white | 227 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the lab, “Develop an Activity Series,” numerous metals were put into different aqueous solutions to see how these metals would react with each aqueous solution. The main objective of the experiment was for the students to develop an “activity series” that reflected the observations of each metal/solution reaction. After comparing the observations made about the reactions and putting them all in order from most to least reactive, an activity series was finally able to be made, which then reflected the outcome of the experiment. In this lab activity, four main solutions including aluminum nitrate, zinc nitrate, magnesium nitrate, and copper(II) nitrate) had to be placed into four separate wells in a tray. This was done by using a pipette. After this, a small sample of metals including zinc, aluminum, copper, and magnesium was also placed in one well of each of the solutions listed above. The reactions that occurred were then observed and recorded, and used to develop the activity series.Even though there was no direct hypothesis for the lab itself, it was assumed that the final activity series developed would reflect the activity series given in the chemistry textbook within Figure 13. However this did not happen, the orders of the two activity series ended up being different. From the textbooks example, the metals from the lab had been arranged from most to least reactive as Mg, Al, Zn, Cu. The activity series from the lab resulted in the metals being ordered from Zn, Mg, Cu, Al. Out of all of the metals Zinc was first due to the fact it reacted with three solutions, these reactions were shown through gas release, tarnishing, and color change. Next was Magnesium. Magnesium placed second due to its reaction with one of the substances and also showed apparent color change. Copper which was third, seemed to react with the copper(III) nitrate, then also tarnished. Due to those two observations the Copper was labeled before aluminum. The aluminum did not react with any of the solutions. After review however, discovered was that the reaction was not the possible anyway. Copper had been decided to be left as the third most reactive even though copper and aluminum did not show any signs of being more reactive than one another. The differences in results from the reactivity series developed and the textbook version of the activity series could have been due to errors that took place during the lab experiment. First off, one of the substances used had been put into multiple wells even though it only belonged in one. Cleanup action was taken to correct the mistake, but still could have possibly affected the lab results. Second, there had been many errors in the observations made, where people observed something that had looked like a chemical reaction so it was taken note of, although it could have not been a reaction at all. Lastly, there was a possibility that the metals could have entirely been mixed up and misplaced, This could be the reason why the metal Zinc was put as the most reactive, but the metal actually being observed could have been copper, aluminum, or magnesium. To reduce error in a secondary trial of this activity series lab, wells could be separated entirely to insure that solutions are not mixed. Also running multiple trials for extensive observations and being very observant of labels on the metals could help insure and or obtain results that are more accurate. | <urn:uuid:c8f73d92-f7e2-47af-b4bd-acd378102d42> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://walktocurecancer.org/during-and-putting-them-all-in-order-from-most/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00469.warc.gz | en | 0.987881 | 682 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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-0.02950383163988... | 2 | During the lab, “Develop an Activity Series,” numerous metals were put into different aqueous solutions to see how these metals would react with each aqueous solution. The main objective of the experiment was for the students to develop an “activity series” that reflected the observations of each metal/solution reaction. After comparing the observations made about the reactions and putting them all in order from most to least reactive, an activity series was finally able to be made, which then reflected the outcome of the experiment. In this lab activity, four main solutions including aluminum nitrate, zinc nitrate, magnesium nitrate, and copper(II) nitrate) had to be placed into four separate wells in a tray. This was done by using a pipette. After this, a small sample of metals including zinc, aluminum, copper, and magnesium was also placed in one well of each of the solutions listed above. The reactions that occurred were then observed and recorded, and used to develop the activity series.Even though there was no direct hypothesis for the lab itself, it was assumed that the final activity series developed would reflect the activity series given in the chemistry textbook within Figure 13. However this did not happen, the orders of the two activity series ended up being different. From the textbooks example, the metals from the lab had been arranged from most to least reactive as Mg, Al, Zn, Cu. The activity series from the lab resulted in the metals being ordered from Zn, Mg, Cu, Al. Out of all of the metals Zinc was first due to the fact it reacted with three solutions, these reactions were shown through gas release, tarnishing, and color change. Next was Magnesium. Magnesium placed second due to its reaction with one of the substances and also showed apparent color change. Copper which was third, seemed to react with the copper(III) nitrate, then also tarnished. Due to those two observations the Copper was labeled before aluminum. The aluminum did not react with any of the solutions. After review however, discovered was that the reaction was not the possible anyway. Copper had been decided to be left as the third most reactive even though copper and aluminum did not show any signs of being more reactive than one another. The differences in results from the reactivity series developed and the textbook version of the activity series could have been due to errors that took place during the lab experiment. First off, one of the substances used had been put into multiple wells even though it only belonged in one. Cleanup action was taken to correct the mistake, but still could have possibly affected the lab results. Second, there had been many errors in the observations made, where people observed something that had looked like a chemical reaction so it was taken note of, although it could have not been a reaction at all. Lastly, there was a possibility that the metals could have entirely been mixed up and misplaced, This could be the reason why the metal Zinc was put as the most reactive, but the metal actually being observed could have been copper, aluminum, or magnesium. To reduce error in a secondary trial of this activity series lab, wells could be separated entirely to insure that solutions are not mixed. Also running multiple trials for extensive observations and being very observant of labels on the metals could help insure and or obtain results that are more accurate. | 671 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Battles of Liegnitz & Mohi
Mongols in Europe
After the great kuriltai in 1235, the Mongol army under Batu and Subodai advanced into Eastern Europe. By 1241 all major settlements except Novgorod in Northern Russia was either completely destroyed or under Mongol control. Their next target was Hungary, which with its' wide, grassy plains protected by the Carpathian Mountains to the North offered a perfect base for any future attacks on Western Europe. On top of this several Russian princes, who had fled the Mongols from Kiev were also given safe haven by King Bela of Hungary.
The attack was planned with meticulous precision, impressive even for a Mongol army. The main target was Pest but to cover the vulnerable right flank a smaller contingent was sent north into Poland which almost amounted to an invasion. Kaidan was in charge of the Northern expedition which turned out to be almost equally as devastating as the main vanguard's assault into Hungary. Kaidan's first target was the ancient city of Krakow. After retiring from Sandomir, Boleslav ruler of Krakow was forced to abandon Krakow which was then burnt to the ground. Kaidan then split his forces into two - one would ravage Northern Poland whilst Kaidan himself would advance on Breslau. Believing the citadel at Breslau to be impregnable Kaidan decided instead to attack the army of Silesia under King Henry II "the Pious".
The battle of Liegnitz
King Henry marched out to meet the Mongol army near Liegnitz but as he rode out he was almost struck by a stone that fell from the roof of Saint Mary's Church. This was considered a bad omen. King Henry had numerous allies divided into four armies. The first was Henry's own hand picked army made up of Silesians, Lithuanians, and Poles, the second was a contingent of heavily armoured Teutonic knights under their grand master, the third was a Polish army, whilst the fourth was made up of Silesian peasants. A number of Templar knights were also reported to be present amongst Henry's allies.
Despite the Mongols having an elite army they also had another important factor on their side, the divisions amongst their enemies. The Europeans were divided and had different things at stake whereas the Mongols had one united goal.
The Mongols began by burning reeds which gave off a thick, foul smelling smoke which acted as a smoke screen concealing the Mongols movements. Then the Mongol light cavalry rode out firing arrows at the Polish army then withdrawing. The Poles and Teutonic knights charged the Mongol light cavalry brushing them aside. Intoxicated by their success, they chased the fleeing Mongols into the smoke. They had been led into an ambush. From all sides the Mongol heavy cavalry charged into the Teutonic knights and soon they enveloped the Poles also. Few emerged from the smoke and the Teutonic grand master lay dead.
The rest of Henry's army fell into panic and soon after Henry was surrounded by all sides. He was captured, stripped, decapitated then had his head paraded on a spear. By the end of the battle almost 40 000 lay dead including over 500 Templars. Still a day away, King Wenceslas Czech force of 50 000 which had come to aid Henry fled into the Carpathians. The defeat struck fear into the very soul of Europe. Henry's body was later identified by his wife, Jadwiga who recognised the six toes on his left foot.
As decisive as Liegnitz was it was not the Mongol's real target. As Kaidan was invading Poland, four separate Mongol contingents were crossing the Carpathians heading for the Hungarian city of Pest. Baidar led the North-most, Batu headed through Galacia, Guyuk through Moldavia and Transylvania and Subodai swept through the South via the Mehedia pass. The army assembled at Pest and offered King Bela a chance to submit, which was refused.
With no word yet from Poland and the possibility of reinforcements for Bela from the Danube, Subodai, the mastermind of the invasion, ordered the army to withdraw and lure Henry away from reinforcements. Next was a slow, skirmishing retreat eastwards over six days until the Mongols set up camp on the Eastern bank of the Sajo River. The position was a good one, elevated on rising ground and the river was split by swamplands. King Bela set up camp on the opposite side of the river. Batu noticed how closely together the Hungarian tents were and encouraged his men by pointing out the Hungarian's strategic flaws.
This was just a day after Liegnitz, which was hardly a coincidence. The Mongol communication line was swift and reliable. It had sent a message from Liegitz to the Sajo River (450 km) in 36 hours.
The battle of Mohi
The Mongols would attack the Hungarian camp at night. They fired firebombs from catapults into the camp and arrows rained down upon the defenders. Batu led his troops across the bridge which was defended by only 1000 Hungarians led by King Kolomon, Duke of Slavonika. Despite brave and stubborn resistance including a Hungarian soldier throwing a Mongol officer from his horse into the river, the Hungarians were soon forced to fall back by the Mongol archers and artillery.
Subodai himself led a surprise attack into the Hungarian flanks. The Mongols had crossed the river 10 km down by making log rafts that had been concealed in the swamp. As the Mongols reached the Hungarian camp panic set in and many tripped over tent ropes. Noticing a gap in the Mongol line the Hungarians took their chance and retreated but it was a trap. It would take far less effort and less casualties to allow the Mongol light cavalry to hunt down the fleeing enemy. The trail of bodies would be spread out over a two day journey but Bela himself escaped. 65 000 were slain in total including 3 arch-bishops, 4 bishops and 2 arch-deacons, which was basically all men of religious power in the region.
The Mongols had inflicted two major defeats on the joint European powers less than two days apart. After the victory at Mohi, Pest was relatively defenceless and much of the city was burnt to the ground. 10 000 were killed, many of whom were seeking refuge in the Dominican monastery. Bela fled North into the mountains before moving South into Croatia where he found sanctuary on the off shore islands. Kaidan followed him as far as the Adriatic before moving into Albania.
In less than 4 months Central Europe had been brought to its' knees. Europe was living in fear of the Mongols. In winter they crossed the frozen Danube and began raiding in Austria. They were within striking distance of Vienna until in February 1242 news arrived of Ogedai Khan's death. The bulk of the Mongol army headed eastwards towards Mongolia. They would never return this far West again.
Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire by Jean-Paul Roux
The Mongols by Stephen Turnbull
Genghis Khan - Life, death and resurrection by John Man
Various internet sources
MEDIEVAL II: TOTAL WAR HEAVEN Copyright © 2006-2020 HeavenGames LLC. All Rights Reserved. The graphical images and content enclosed with this document are viewable for private use only. All other rights - including, but not limited to, distribution, duplication, and publish by any means - are retained by HeavenGames LLC. Federal law provides criminal and civil penalties for those found to be in violation. In addition, please read our Disclaimer and Privacy Statement. MEDIEVAL II: TOTAL WAR © 2006 Creative Assembly. All rights reserved. THIS SITE IS NOT ENDORSED BY THE CREATIVE ASSEMBLY OR SEGA , PLEASE READ... | <urn:uuid:87e6a271-fe68-40c7-92df-60a6d65675aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://medieval2.heavengames.com/m2tw/history/historical_battles_folder/liegnitz_mohi_folder/index.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00348.warc.gz | en | 0.980182 | 1,637 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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Mongols in Europe
After the great kuriltai in 1235, the Mongol army under Batu and Subodai advanced into Eastern Europe. By 1241 all major settlements except Novgorod in Northern Russia was either completely destroyed or under Mongol control. Their next target was Hungary, which with its' wide, grassy plains protected by the Carpathian Mountains to the North offered a perfect base for any future attacks on Western Europe. On top of this several Russian princes, who had fled the Mongols from Kiev were also given safe haven by King Bela of Hungary.
The attack was planned with meticulous precision, impressive even for a Mongol army. The main target was Pest but to cover the vulnerable right flank a smaller contingent was sent north into Poland which almost amounted to an invasion. Kaidan was in charge of the Northern expedition which turned out to be almost equally as devastating as the main vanguard's assault into Hungary. Kaidan's first target was the ancient city of Krakow. After retiring from Sandomir, Boleslav ruler of Krakow was forced to abandon Krakow which was then burnt to the ground. Kaidan then split his forces into two - one would ravage Northern Poland whilst Kaidan himself would advance on Breslau. Believing the citadel at Breslau to be impregnable Kaidan decided instead to attack the army of Silesia under King Henry II "the Pious".
The battle of Liegnitz
King Henry marched out to meet the Mongol army near Liegnitz but as he rode out he was almost struck by a stone that fell from the roof of Saint Mary's Church. This was considered a bad omen. King Henry had numerous allies divided into four armies. The first was Henry's own hand picked army made up of Silesians, Lithuanians, and Poles, the second was a contingent of heavily armoured Teutonic knights under their grand master, the third was a Polish army, whilst the fourth was made up of Silesian peasants. A number of Templar knights were also reported to be present amongst Henry's allies.
Despite the Mongols having an elite army they also had another important factor on their side, the divisions amongst their enemies. The Europeans were divided and had different things at stake whereas the Mongols had one united goal.
The Mongols began by burning reeds which gave off a thick, foul smelling smoke which acted as a smoke screen concealing the Mongols movements. Then the Mongol light cavalry rode out firing arrows at the Polish army then withdrawing. The Poles and Teutonic knights charged the Mongol light cavalry brushing them aside. Intoxicated by their success, they chased the fleeing Mongols into the smoke. They had been led into an ambush. From all sides the Mongol heavy cavalry charged into the Teutonic knights and soon they enveloped the Poles also. Few emerged from the smoke and the Teutonic grand master lay dead.
The rest of Henry's army fell into panic and soon after Henry was surrounded by all sides. He was captured, stripped, decapitated then had his head paraded on a spear. By the end of the battle almost 40 000 lay dead including over 500 Templars. Still a day away, King Wenceslas Czech force of 50 000 which had come to aid Henry fled into the Carpathians. The defeat struck fear into the very soul of Europe. Henry's body was later identified by his wife, Jadwiga who recognised the six toes on his left foot.
As decisive as Liegnitz was it was not the Mongol's real target. As Kaidan was invading Poland, four separate Mongol contingents were crossing the Carpathians heading for the Hungarian city of Pest. Baidar led the North-most, Batu headed through Galacia, Guyuk through Moldavia and Transylvania and Subodai swept through the South via the Mehedia pass. The army assembled at Pest and offered King Bela a chance to submit, which was refused.
With no word yet from Poland and the possibility of reinforcements for Bela from the Danube, Subodai, the mastermind of the invasion, ordered the army to withdraw and lure Henry away from reinforcements. Next was a slow, skirmishing retreat eastwards over six days until the Mongols set up camp on the Eastern bank of the Sajo River. The position was a good one, elevated on rising ground and the river was split by swamplands. King Bela set up camp on the opposite side of the river. Batu noticed how closely together the Hungarian tents were and encouraged his men by pointing out the Hungarian's strategic flaws.
This was just a day after Liegnitz, which was hardly a coincidence. The Mongol communication line was swift and reliable. It had sent a message from Liegitz to the Sajo River (450 km) in 36 hours.
The battle of Mohi
The Mongols would attack the Hungarian camp at night. They fired firebombs from catapults into the camp and arrows rained down upon the defenders. Batu led his troops across the bridge which was defended by only 1000 Hungarians led by King Kolomon, Duke of Slavonika. Despite brave and stubborn resistance including a Hungarian soldier throwing a Mongol officer from his horse into the river, the Hungarians were soon forced to fall back by the Mongol archers and artillery.
Subodai himself led a surprise attack into the Hungarian flanks. The Mongols had crossed the river 10 km down by making log rafts that had been concealed in the swamp. As the Mongols reached the Hungarian camp panic set in and many tripped over tent ropes. Noticing a gap in the Mongol line the Hungarians took their chance and retreated but it was a trap. It would take far less effort and less casualties to allow the Mongol light cavalry to hunt down the fleeing enemy. The trail of bodies would be spread out over a two day journey but Bela himself escaped. 65 000 were slain in total including 3 arch-bishops, 4 bishops and 2 arch-deacons, which was basically all men of religious power in the region.
The Mongols had inflicted two major defeats on the joint European powers less than two days apart. After the victory at Mohi, Pest was relatively defenceless and much of the city was burnt to the ground. 10 000 were killed, many of whom were seeking refuge in the Dominican monastery. Bela fled North into the mountains before moving South into Croatia where he found sanctuary on the off shore islands. Kaidan followed him as far as the Adriatic before moving into Albania.
In less than 4 months Central Europe had been brought to its' knees. Europe was living in fear of the Mongols. In winter they crossed the frozen Danube and began raiding in Austria. They were within striking distance of Vienna until in February 1242 news arrived of Ogedai Khan's death. The bulk of the Mongol army headed eastwards towards Mongolia. They would never return this far West again.
Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire by Jean-Paul Roux
The Mongols by Stephen Turnbull
Genghis Khan - Life, death and resurrection by John Man
Various internet sources
MEDIEVAL II: TOTAL WAR HEAVEN Copyright © 2006-2020 HeavenGames LLC. All Rights Reserved. The graphical images and content enclosed with this document are viewable for private use only. All other rights - including, but not limited to, distribution, duplication, and publish by any means - are retained by HeavenGames LLC. Federal law provides criminal and civil penalties for those found to be in violation. In addition, please read our Disclaimer and Privacy Statement. MEDIEVAL II: TOTAL WAR © 2006 Creative Assembly. All rights reserved. THIS SITE IS NOT ENDORSED BY THE CREATIVE ASSEMBLY OR SEGA , PLEASE READ... | 1,686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
All about Lapland’s past from SNO®
It’s widely believed that Lapland was first inhabited after the Scandinavian ice caps began to melt around 7000 years ago. The Sami people were among the first natives of the region and rock carvings from thousands of years ago show age old practices like reindeer herding which continue today.
Like many parts of the world, wars and disputes have had massive impact on the land and its people. When it comes to actual historical sites, there isn’t too much to actually see – the events below will explain why…
With its natives making use of natural resources from fish to fur, Lapland began to fruitfully develop over the middle ages, catching the eye of the more powerful countries as it overlapped several borders. Already there were stirrings of rivalry between Denmark-Norway and Sweden-Finland. In the 16th century, when trade and progress began to slow, Sweden tried to up its control over the northern areas. This, combined with further skirmishes with Denmark, resulted in the Knared peace agreement of 1613 where Sweden actually lost its control over Lapland.
Skip forward to 1808 when Sweden had political influence over Finland. Tsar Alexander I sent troops to challenge Swiss points in Finland, pushing them back. The Fredrikshamn was soon signed in 1809, giving Swedish control of Finland over to the Tsar and detailing a new border between Sweden and Finland that still exists today. The economic conditions continued to decline and the Sami people experienced quite a bit of collateral damage after this. As the Finns moved to more prosperous places, they started clearing large areas of forest, destroying the land the Sami used for their reindeer.
Then came the Crimean war in the 1850s. The Swedish King became worried that Russia was brewing up plans to invade more of Sweden, having already taken its control of Finland away. His concern extended to Norway too due to their union of 1814. As a precaution, Russia was refused the right to fish or graze on Swedish territory. Russia didn’t take this too well and in 1855, Norwegian Sami were no longer allowed to move reindeer over the border into Finland; a massive blow for their migration patterns.
On 30th November 1939, Finland was attacked by soviet troops as Helsinki refused Stalin’s demands. The Soviet’s believed Germany was going to try and attack them via Finland as it was only 32km from Leningrad. The Finns - on skis and dressed head to foot in white camouflage - held their ground until March 1940. Finland lost 10% of its land in the Moscow Peace Treaty. It wasn’t until 1941 that the Finns decided to join the war - they didn’t support Germany’s reasons for war but it was in their own interest to regain what they had lost in the treaty. By 1941, they’d had enough and the Moscow Armistice of 1944 required them to act against the Germans; driving the 200,000 troops from Finnish Lapland.
With Soviet soldiers to the west and Finnish troops to the south, Germany had no choice. They retreated but not without making a point, burning everything in their wake. Bridges, buildings and land were destroyed causing 100 000 Finnish Laplanders to flee to Norway – which is why you can’t see much evidence of the history around the area today. The state of agriculture and economy were left in such a way that the next 30 years would see more thousands of Laplanders emigrating.
As the 20th century rounded the corner, Lapland was not in the best of shape with poverty, food shortages and harsh winters resulting in poor harvests. By 1905, Sweden and Norway had broken-off their union and around a decade later, Europe found itself at the brink of WWI. As refugees and goods began to move to and from Russia and Finnish Lapland there was a slight upturn in its fortune. On 6th December 1917, the whole of Finland was able to affirm total independence from Russia with new control coming directly from Helsinki. Pretty soon Finland was at war with itself as opposing political sides were attempting to gain the upper hand.
Today, Lapland has regained much of its pre-war innocence. The Sami people have stayed true to their homeland and stood their ground and ideologies to the point they now have three Sami parliaments across Norway, Sweden and Finland. The Sami culture is thriving and with it comes legacy and heritage for the rest of Europe to wonder at.
Images © Arto Liiti & Visit Finland | <urn:uuid:14ac6e80-1d18-4198-a50e-a106da8054d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sno.co.uk/lapland-holidays/history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00112.warc.gz | en | 0.982573 | 958 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.30925196... | 8 | All about Lapland’s past from SNO®
It’s widely believed that Lapland was first inhabited after the Scandinavian ice caps began to melt around 7000 years ago. The Sami people were among the first natives of the region and rock carvings from thousands of years ago show age old practices like reindeer herding which continue today.
Like many parts of the world, wars and disputes have had massive impact on the land and its people. When it comes to actual historical sites, there isn’t too much to actually see – the events below will explain why…
With its natives making use of natural resources from fish to fur, Lapland began to fruitfully develop over the middle ages, catching the eye of the more powerful countries as it overlapped several borders. Already there were stirrings of rivalry between Denmark-Norway and Sweden-Finland. In the 16th century, when trade and progress began to slow, Sweden tried to up its control over the northern areas. This, combined with further skirmishes with Denmark, resulted in the Knared peace agreement of 1613 where Sweden actually lost its control over Lapland.
Skip forward to 1808 when Sweden had political influence over Finland. Tsar Alexander I sent troops to challenge Swiss points in Finland, pushing them back. The Fredrikshamn was soon signed in 1809, giving Swedish control of Finland over to the Tsar and detailing a new border between Sweden and Finland that still exists today. The economic conditions continued to decline and the Sami people experienced quite a bit of collateral damage after this. As the Finns moved to more prosperous places, they started clearing large areas of forest, destroying the land the Sami used for their reindeer.
Then came the Crimean war in the 1850s. The Swedish King became worried that Russia was brewing up plans to invade more of Sweden, having already taken its control of Finland away. His concern extended to Norway too due to their union of 1814. As a precaution, Russia was refused the right to fish or graze on Swedish territory. Russia didn’t take this too well and in 1855, Norwegian Sami were no longer allowed to move reindeer over the border into Finland; a massive blow for their migration patterns.
On 30th November 1939, Finland was attacked by soviet troops as Helsinki refused Stalin’s demands. The Soviet’s believed Germany was going to try and attack them via Finland as it was only 32km from Leningrad. The Finns - on skis and dressed head to foot in white camouflage - held their ground until March 1940. Finland lost 10% of its land in the Moscow Peace Treaty. It wasn’t until 1941 that the Finns decided to join the war - they didn’t support Germany’s reasons for war but it was in their own interest to regain what they had lost in the treaty. By 1941, they’d had enough and the Moscow Armistice of 1944 required them to act against the Germans; driving the 200,000 troops from Finnish Lapland.
With Soviet soldiers to the west and Finnish troops to the south, Germany had no choice. They retreated but not without making a point, burning everything in their wake. Bridges, buildings and land were destroyed causing 100 000 Finnish Laplanders to flee to Norway – which is why you can’t see much evidence of the history around the area today. The state of agriculture and economy were left in such a way that the next 30 years would see more thousands of Laplanders emigrating.
As the 20th century rounded the corner, Lapland was not in the best of shape with poverty, food shortages and harsh winters resulting in poor harvests. By 1905, Sweden and Norway had broken-off their union and around a decade later, Europe found itself at the brink of WWI. As refugees and goods began to move to and from Russia and Finnish Lapland there was a slight upturn in its fortune. On 6th December 1917, the whole of Finland was able to affirm total independence from Russia with new control coming directly from Helsinki. Pretty soon Finland was at war with itself as opposing political sides were attempting to gain the upper hand.
Today, Lapland has regained much of its pre-war innocence. The Sami people have stayed true to their homeland and stood their ground and ideologies to the point they now have three Sami parliaments across Norway, Sweden and Finland. The Sami culture is thriving and with it comes legacy and heritage for the rest of Europe to wonder at.
Images © Arto Liiti & Visit Finland | 989 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ephialtes (Greek: , Ephialt?s) was an ancient Athenian politician and an early leader of the democratic movement there. In the late 460s BC, he oversaw reforms that diminished the power of the Areopagus, a traditional bastion of conservatism, and which are considered by many modern historians to mark the beginning of the "radical democracy" for which Athens would become famous. These powers included the scrutiny and control of office holders, and the judicial functions in state trials. He introduced pay for public officeholders, reduced the property qualifications for holding a public office, and created a new definition of citizenship. Ephialtes, however, would not live to participate in this new form of government for long. In 461 BC, he was assassinated, probably at the instigation of resentful oligarchs, and the political leadership of Athens passed to his deputy, Pericles.
Ephialtes first appears in the historical record as the strategos commanding an Athenian fleet in the Aegean sea in 465 BC. Then, in 464 BC, an earthquake hit Sparta, causing a great deal of damage and indirectly resulting in the revolt of the helots. When the Spartans failed to remove the rebels from their base on Mount Ithome, in Messenia, they called for help from cities that were still part of the Hellenic League, an alliance formed in 481 BC against the Persians. The Spartans asked the Athenians for help due to the fact that Athenians had a reputation for being good at siege warfare. This spurred much debate among the Athenians as to how to respond. In August 463 BC, Ephialtes represented those who wished to refuse Sparta's request for military assistance in putting down a helot revolt.Cimon, the most influential Athenian politician and general of the time, was strongly pro-Spartan and advocated sending assistance, arguing that Athenians "ought not to suffer Greece to be lamed, nor their own city to be deprived of her yoke-fellow." Ephialtes, meanwhile, argued that Sparta and Athens were natural rivals, and that Athens should rejoice at Sparta's misfortune rather than help the other city recover. Cimon, however, was victorious in the debate, and set out for Sparta with 4,000 hoplites. However, shortly after the Athenians arrived to help the "conservative and fundamentally xenophobic" Spartans, their assistance was turned down. Subsequently, harmony between Sparta and Athens was broken and Cimon was ostracized for his misjudgment. The end of Cimon's ascendancy resulted in the emergence of a more radical democratic movement led by Ephialtes
At about this time, Ephialtes and his political allies began attacking the Areopagus, a council composed of former archons which was a traditionally conservative force. According to Aristotle and some modern historians, Athens had, since about 470 BC, been governed under an informal "Areopagite constitution", under the leadership of Cimon. The Areopagus had already been losing prestige ever since 486 BC, since when archons were selected by lot. Ephialtes accelerated this process by prosecuting certain members for maladministration. Having thus weakened the prestige of the council, Ephialtes proposed and had passed in the popular assembly, a sweeping series of reforms which divided up the powers traditionally wielded by the Areopagus among the democratic council of the Boule, the ekklesia itself, and the popular courts. Ephialtes took away from the Areopagus their "additional powers, through which it had guardianship of the constitution." The Areopagus merely remained a high court, in control of judging charges of murder and some religious matters. Some historians have argued that Cimon and his hoplites were still in the Peloponnese at the time of this proposal, while others have argued that the proposal followed his return. Those who place the proposals during Cimon's absence suggest that he attempted to overturn them on his return, while those who believe he was present at the proposal believe that he opposed them in the initial debate. All agree that his resistance was doomed to failure by the fact that his hoplite force had just been rudely dismissed by the Spartans, an action which demolished the political standing of Cimon and other pro-Spartan Athenians.
The success of Ephialtes' reforms was rapidly followed by the ostracism of Cimon, which left Ephialtes and his faction firmly in control of the state, although the fully fledged Athenian democracy of later years was not yet fully established; Ephialtes' reforms appear to have been only the first step in the democratic party's programme. Ephialtes, however, would not live to see the further development of this new form of government; In 461 BC, he was assassinated. The details of his assassination are unknown. However, there are several different theories to explain this event. The first source we have on Ephialtes himself and his death is Antiphon (5.68) written in 420 BC, which states that the identity of the murderer was unknown. "Thus those who murdered Ephialtes, one of your citizens, have never been discovered to this day, and if someone expected his associates to conjecture who were his [Ephialtes'] murderers, and if not, to be implicated in the murder, it would not have been fair to the associates. In addition, the murderers of Ephialtes did not desire to hide the body so there would be no danger of betraying the deed." However 90 years later, Aristotle, in his Constitution of Athens 25.4, states that Aristodikos of Tanagra was the culprit. As the years progressed, more theories were established. A third idea is that Aristodikos of Tanagra was part of an oligarchic plot; his political ally Pericles would go on to complete the governmental transformation and lead Athens for several decades. Had Ephialtes been murdered by somebody outside the radical faction, scholar Robert W. Wallace reasons, the radicals would have made him a martyr and led a crusade to find the perpetrator. This didn't happen, so the murderer likely came from within Ephialtes' own faction.
The assassination of Ephialtes, and a subsequent murder investigation to find the men behind the plot, is the subject of an historical mystery novel, The Pericles Commission, by Gary Corby. | <urn:uuid:77af3fe9-a002-489a-995b-8d8441dc929d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Ephialtes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00043.warc.gz | en | 0.981533 | 1,338 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.11521468311548... | 1 | Ephialtes (Greek: , Ephialt?s) was an ancient Athenian politician and an early leader of the democratic movement there. In the late 460s BC, he oversaw reforms that diminished the power of the Areopagus, a traditional bastion of conservatism, and which are considered by many modern historians to mark the beginning of the "radical democracy" for which Athens would become famous. These powers included the scrutiny and control of office holders, and the judicial functions in state trials. He introduced pay for public officeholders, reduced the property qualifications for holding a public office, and created a new definition of citizenship. Ephialtes, however, would not live to participate in this new form of government for long. In 461 BC, he was assassinated, probably at the instigation of resentful oligarchs, and the political leadership of Athens passed to his deputy, Pericles.
Ephialtes first appears in the historical record as the strategos commanding an Athenian fleet in the Aegean sea in 465 BC. Then, in 464 BC, an earthquake hit Sparta, causing a great deal of damage and indirectly resulting in the revolt of the helots. When the Spartans failed to remove the rebels from their base on Mount Ithome, in Messenia, they called for help from cities that were still part of the Hellenic League, an alliance formed in 481 BC against the Persians. The Spartans asked the Athenians for help due to the fact that Athenians had a reputation for being good at siege warfare. This spurred much debate among the Athenians as to how to respond. In August 463 BC, Ephialtes represented those who wished to refuse Sparta's request for military assistance in putting down a helot revolt.Cimon, the most influential Athenian politician and general of the time, was strongly pro-Spartan and advocated sending assistance, arguing that Athenians "ought not to suffer Greece to be lamed, nor their own city to be deprived of her yoke-fellow." Ephialtes, meanwhile, argued that Sparta and Athens were natural rivals, and that Athens should rejoice at Sparta's misfortune rather than help the other city recover. Cimon, however, was victorious in the debate, and set out for Sparta with 4,000 hoplites. However, shortly after the Athenians arrived to help the "conservative and fundamentally xenophobic" Spartans, their assistance was turned down. Subsequently, harmony between Sparta and Athens was broken and Cimon was ostracized for his misjudgment. The end of Cimon's ascendancy resulted in the emergence of a more radical democratic movement led by Ephialtes
At about this time, Ephialtes and his political allies began attacking the Areopagus, a council composed of former archons which was a traditionally conservative force. According to Aristotle and some modern historians, Athens had, since about 470 BC, been governed under an informal "Areopagite constitution", under the leadership of Cimon. The Areopagus had already been losing prestige ever since 486 BC, since when archons were selected by lot. Ephialtes accelerated this process by prosecuting certain members for maladministration. Having thus weakened the prestige of the council, Ephialtes proposed and had passed in the popular assembly, a sweeping series of reforms which divided up the powers traditionally wielded by the Areopagus among the democratic council of the Boule, the ekklesia itself, and the popular courts. Ephialtes took away from the Areopagus their "additional powers, through which it had guardianship of the constitution." The Areopagus merely remained a high court, in control of judging charges of murder and some religious matters. Some historians have argued that Cimon and his hoplites were still in the Peloponnese at the time of this proposal, while others have argued that the proposal followed his return. Those who place the proposals during Cimon's absence suggest that he attempted to overturn them on his return, while those who believe he was present at the proposal believe that he opposed them in the initial debate. All agree that his resistance was doomed to failure by the fact that his hoplite force had just been rudely dismissed by the Spartans, an action which demolished the political standing of Cimon and other pro-Spartan Athenians.
The success of Ephialtes' reforms was rapidly followed by the ostracism of Cimon, which left Ephialtes and his faction firmly in control of the state, although the fully fledged Athenian democracy of later years was not yet fully established; Ephialtes' reforms appear to have been only the first step in the democratic party's programme. Ephialtes, however, would not live to see the further development of this new form of government; In 461 BC, he was assassinated. The details of his assassination are unknown. However, there are several different theories to explain this event. The first source we have on Ephialtes himself and his death is Antiphon (5.68) written in 420 BC, which states that the identity of the murderer was unknown. "Thus those who murdered Ephialtes, one of your citizens, have never been discovered to this day, and if someone expected his associates to conjecture who were his [Ephialtes'] murderers, and if not, to be implicated in the murder, it would not have been fair to the associates. In addition, the murderers of Ephialtes did not desire to hide the body so there would be no danger of betraying the deed." However 90 years later, Aristotle, in his Constitution of Athens 25.4, states that Aristodikos of Tanagra was the culprit. As the years progressed, more theories were established. A third idea is that Aristodikos of Tanagra was part of an oligarchic plot; his political ally Pericles would go on to complete the governmental transformation and lead Athens for several decades. Had Ephialtes been murdered by somebody outside the radical faction, scholar Robert W. Wallace reasons, the radicals would have made him a martyr and led a crusade to find the perpetrator. This didn't happen, so the murderer likely came from within Ephialtes' own faction.
The assassination of Ephialtes, and a subsequent murder investigation to find the men behind the plot, is the subject of an historical mystery novel, The Pericles Commission, by Gary Corby. | 1,352 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the south-eastern area, for example, the reservoir covered about 5 ha (hectare), the largest within the walled area. The walls acted as effective bunds. Both faces of the wall were plastered with fairly water-repelling sticky clay.
Special and vulnerable areas, mostly on the exterior face, were vencesed with hammer-dressed stones. Keeping in mind the general slope of the city, several bunds were constructed across the width of the tanks to reduce the pressure of the stored water body on the city walls.
The bunds also served as causeways for easier movement. In times of scanty rainfall, they enabled the water to get stored in selected tanks instead of being spread out over a large area and reduced quickly by evaporation and seepage. In the area designated as the citadel, an interesting networks of drains, both small and large, was discovered.
Most of the drains intersect each other and ultimately link up with an arterial drain. The entire drainage system could have been set up to assiduously conserve every drop of rainwater that fell in the city.
The water must have been a treasured commodity in an area lacking in perennial source of surface water and where the ground-water, largely brackish and saline, tends to dry up during droughts”.
The importance of water for agricultural societies during the Vedic period must have increased. Flow of water in channels for irrigation purpose was practiced. There are references to artificial waterways kulya and khanitrima apah in Rig Veda. These perhaps refer to irrigation channels. The other expressions used for the same device are Sushira and Soormi. Wells avat were dug up.
Lifting devices to draw water from the wells were also in use, called ansatrakosh and ashmchakra. These were probably composed of a leather bucket drawn over a pulley for lifting water from the wells. Mauryans, as the founder of one of the earliest empires, gave special importance to water resources.
On the authority of Kautilya we know that the building of reservoirs by damming streams was an important public work the king was encouraged to construct. Similarly, Ashoka refers in his edicts to the construction of wells and watering-places along the major routes.
The epigraphic evidence testifies to the construction of a big reservoir of water by damming a stream in the Junagarh district of Gujarat by Pushyagupta, the governor of the region during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign. The reservoir was named as Sudarshan. Under Ashoka his Greek governor Tushasf maintained the dam and the reservoir.
In AD 150 there occurred a breach in the dam which was repaired by Rudradaman. The dam seems to have been maintained till the fifth century AD when the last known repairs were carried out by Parndatt during the reign of Skandagupta, in AD 457-8.
Since medieval India was also a largely agricultural society, the resource-use practice with regard to water was basically geared at providing irrigation to the fields. Besides using most of the prevalent methods, a few new techniques were introduced during this period. The prominent among them were arghatta and arhat (Persian wheel), which improved irrigation significantly. In the 14th century a very elaborate network of canals was constructed by Firuz Tughlaq.
The rivers from which the canals were cut were Yamuna, Sutlej and Ghagghar. An additional water tax was levied on the farmers of the irrigated areas. Due to greater and more secure availability of water, production of cash crops had increased.
The same concern for the use of water resources was shown by the Mughals. They also promoted irrigation facilities by providing loans to farmers to install irrigational devices. There was a general concern for better use and regulation of water resources. | <urn:uuid:9b1b3c3f-e26d-49d6-81e0-38222f4bdab0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://houghtonlakeboard.org/essay-on-the-importance-of-water-as-a-natural-resource/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.983284 | 810 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.217463448... | 3 | In the south-eastern area, for example, the reservoir covered about 5 ha (hectare), the largest within the walled area. The walls acted as effective bunds. Both faces of the wall were plastered with fairly water-repelling sticky clay.
Special and vulnerable areas, mostly on the exterior face, were vencesed with hammer-dressed stones. Keeping in mind the general slope of the city, several bunds were constructed across the width of the tanks to reduce the pressure of the stored water body on the city walls.
The bunds also served as causeways for easier movement. In times of scanty rainfall, they enabled the water to get stored in selected tanks instead of being spread out over a large area and reduced quickly by evaporation and seepage. In the area designated as the citadel, an interesting networks of drains, both small and large, was discovered.
Most of the drains intersect each other and ultimately link up with an arterial drain. The entire drainage system could have been set up to assiduously conserve every drop of rainwater that fell in the city.
The water must have been a treasured commodity in an area lacking in perennial source of surface water and where the ground-water, largely brackish and saline, tends to dry up during droughts”.
The importance of water for agricultural societies during the Vedic period must have increased. Flow of water in channels for irrigation purpose was practiced. There are references to artificial waterways kulya and khanitrima apah in Rig Veda. These perhaps refer to irrigation channels. The other expressions used for the same device are Sushira and Soormi. Wells avat were dug up.
Lifting devices to draw water from the wells were also in use, called ansatrakosh and ashmchakra. These were probably composed of a leather bucket drawn over a pulley for lifting water from the wells. Mauryans, as the founder of one of the earliest empires, gave special importance to water resources.
On the authority of Kautilya we know that the building of reservoirs by damming streams was an important public work the king was encouraged to construct. Similarly, Ashoka refers in his edicts to the construction of wells and watering-places along the major routes.
The epigraphic evidence testifies to the construction of a big reservoir of water by damming a stream in the Junagarh district of Gujarat by Pushyagupta, the governor of the region during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign. The reservoir was named as Sudarshan. Under Ashoka his Greek governor Tushasf maintained the dam and the reservoir.
In AD 150 there occurred a breach in the dam which was repaired by Rudradaman. The dam seems to have been maintained till the fifth century AD when the last known repairs were carried out by Parndatt during the reign of Skandagupta, in AD 457-8.
Since medieval India was also a largely agricultural society, the resource-use practice with regard to water was basically geared at providing irrigation to the fields. Besides using most of the prevalent methods, a few new techniques were introduced during this period. The prominent among them were arghatta and arhat (Persian wheel), which improved irrigation significantly. In the 14th century a very elaborate network of canals was constructed by Firuz Tughlaq.
The rivers from which the canals were cut were Yamuna, Sutlej and Ghagghar. An additional water tax was levied on the farmers of the irrigated areas. Due to greater and more secure availability of water, production of cash crops had increased.
The same concern for the use of water resources was shown by the Mughals. They also promoted irrigation facilities by providing loans to farmers to install irrigational devices. There was a general concern for better use and regulation of water resources. | 803 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Quartering Act refers to a series of laws which allowed for people to be drawn and/or quartered, as needed.
The Quartering Act of 1765
In 1765 the Quartering Act was passed.
Public response was mixed, with those who were doing the drawing and quartering generally being in favour, while those who were being drawn and quartered tended to be less enthusiastic.
The Act is Repealed
The Quartering Reenactment of 1774
The Reenactment is Rerepealed
The show ran for less than a week, before being closed.
The Patriotic Quartering Act
The measure was narrowly defeated in the House, and the Senate launched an immediate investigation, claiming that those who voted against it were giving aid and comfort to the enemy, and were just the sort of people that the bill was needed for in the 12th place. | <urn:uuid:c7dcb342-75ba-4581-b58f-3163a2526c2b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mirror.uncyc.org/wiki/The_Quartering_Act | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00242.warc.gz | en | 0.990482 | 183 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.158192366361... | 2 | The Quartering Act refers to a series of laws which allowed for people to be drawn and/or quartered, as needed.
The Quartering Act of 1765
In 1765 the Quartering Act was passed.
Public response was mixed, with those who were doing the drawing and quartering generally being in favour, while those who were being drawn and quartered tended to be less enthusiastic.
The Act is Repealed
The Quartering Reenactment of 1774
The Reenactment is Rerepealed
The show ran for less than a week, before being closed.
The Patriotic Quartering Act
The measure was narrowly defeated in the House, and the Senate launched an immediate investigation, claiming that those who voted against it were giving aid and comfort to the enemy, and were just the sort of people that the bill was needed for in the 12th place. | 190 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Consequences of Puritan Depravity and Distrust
as Historical Context for Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown"
Puritan doctrine taught that all men are totally depraved and require constant self-examination to see that they are sinners and unworthy of God's Grace. Because man had broken the Covenant of Works when Adam had eaten from the Tree of Knowledge, God offered a new covenant to Abraham's people which held that election to Heaven was merely a possibility. In the Puritan religion, believers dutifully recognized the negative aspects of their humanity rather than the gifts they possessed. This shadow of distrust would have a direct influence on early American New England and on many of its historians and writers, one of which was Nathaniel Hawthorne. The influence of Puritan religion, culture and education along with the setting of his hometown of Salem, Massachusetts, is a common topic in Nathaniel Hawthorne's works. In particular, Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown" allows the writer to examine and perhaps provide commentary on not only the Salem of his own time but also the Salem of his ancestors. Growing up Hawthorne could not escape the influence of Puritan society, not only from residing with his father's devout Puritan family as a child but also due to Hawthorne's study of his own family history. The first of his ancestors, William Hathorne, is described in Hawthorne's "The Custom House" as arriving with the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 "with his Bible and his sword" (26). A further connection can also be seen in his more notable ancestor John Hathorne, who exemplified the level of zealousness in Puritanism with his role as persecutor in the Salem Witch Trials. The study of his own family from the establishment of the Bay Colony to the Second Great Awakening of his own time parallels the issues... .of faith in God, in mankind, and in ourselves, guide us along our path. In life our faith is what keeps us going. A person's faith is not...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:a5173858-72db-441d-a1ce-fe7f02ecf3c7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Young-Goodman-Brown-19-63629983.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00302.warc.gz | en | 0.980453 | 417 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.161218911... | 1 | The Consequences of Puritan Depravity and Distrust
as Historical Context for Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown"
Puritan doctrine taught that all men are totally depraved and require constant self-examination to see that they are sinners and unworthy of God's Grace. Because man had broken the Covenant of Works when Adam had eaten from the Tree of Knowledge, God offered a new covenant to Abraham's people which held that election to Heaven was merely a possibility. In the Puritan religion, believers dutifully recognized the negative aspects of their humanity rather than the gifts they possessed. This shadow of distrust would have a direct influence on early American New England and on many of its historians and writers, one of which was Nathaniel Hawthorne. The influence of Puritan religion, culture and education along with the setting of his hometown of Salem, Massachusetts, is a common topic in Nathaniel Hawthorne's works. In particular, Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown" allows the writer to examine and perhaps provide commentary on not only the Salem of his own time but also the Salem of his ancestors. Growing up Hawthorne could not escape the influence of Puritan society, not only from residing with his father's devout Puritan family as a child but also due to Hawthorne's study of his own family history. The first of his ancestors, William Hathorne, is described in Hawthorne's "The Custom House" as arriving with the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 "with his Bible and his sword" (26). A further connection can also be seen in his more notable ancestor John Hathorne, who exemplified the level of zealousness in Puritanism with his role as persecutor in the Salem Witch Trials. The study of his own family from the establishment of the Bay Colony to the Second Great Awakening of his own time parallels the issues... .of faith in God, in mankind, and in ourselves, guide us along our path. In life our faith is what keeps us going. A person's faith is not...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 425 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The old world either gave absolutely no inheritance to women or, when it was given, the woman was treated as a minor, which meant that she was not given independence and the status of a person having rights. Under the old laws of the world, if inheritance was occasionally given to daughters, it was never given to the daughter’s children, while a son could inherit himself, and his children could grow up as the successor to their father’s property as well. In some other laws of the world which gave an equal inheritance to women and men alike but not in the shape of a specified share, it was what the Qur’an mentions as
(i.e. a fixed share to which she was entitled), but it took this form: a person was entitled, if he so liked, to make a will in favour of his daughter as well.
The history of women’s inheritance is long. Scholars and learned persons have extensively examined it, and have left behind a vast body of investigations and writings on this subject which can be studied. I do not think it necessary to quote from their writings and their observations. The summary of their writings is as we have mentioned above.
The cause of a woman’s being deprived of inheritance was to prevent the transfer of family property to another family. According to the old idea, the role of the mother in the birth of a child was considered to be insignificant. Mothers were considered were considered as mere containers in which the man’s sperm developed, and out of which a child came into existence. For that reason they believed that the children of someone’s son were the issue of a man, and thus they were a part and parcel of his family.
On the other hand, the children of his daughters were not his children, but the children of the husband of the daughter, and they belonged to the family of the husband of the daughter. Consequently, if a daughter inherited, and afterwards her children succeeded her, that. would cause situation where the wealth of one family would pass on to a different family.
In the book, Irth dar huquq-e madani-e Iran (Inheritance in the Civil Laws of Iran) written by the late Dr. Musa ‘Amid, on page 8, after his remark that ‘in ancient times it was religion which laid the foundations for the formation of families and not natural ties,’ he says:
“The religious spokesmanship of the family (under the patriarchal system) was with the grandfather of the family, and after him, the religious rites and rituals of the family were performed only by the male children, generation after generation. The ancients considered that the male children were the only source of continuation of their lineage. The father of the family, life-giver to his son as he was, also transferred his religious beliefs and the religious rituals, the right to keep the Fire alive, and the right to recite special prayers also.1
As is mentioned in the Hindu Vedas and in the laws of Greece and Rome, the power of generation is confined to men, and the result of this antiquated belief was that the family regions were the special concern of men. Women had no business and concern with religion except through their fathers and husbands….. and because they had no hand in religious rituals, they were naturally deprived of all family privileges. Afterwards, when with the improvement of the economic situation an occasion for inheritance arose, women were deprived of that right.”
There were other reasons also for woman’s being deprived of inheritance. One of them was their weakness in combat. In societies where preferences and prerogatives were based on heroism and valor and one war-faring person was preferred to a hundred thousand non-war like persons, woman was naturally deprived of inheritance because of her weakness in the performance of acts of defense and bravery.
Arabs of the pre-Islamic age were against were against woman’s receiving inheritance for this very reason, and when there was a male member of a family however distant in the ranks of inheritance he may have been, they never gave inheritance to a woman. So, when the verse of inheritance was revealed and it distinctly stated:
لِلرِّجَالِ نَصِيبٌ مِمَّا تَرَكَ الْوَالِدَانِ وَالْأَقْرَبُونَ وَلِلنِّسَاءِ نَصِيبٌ مِمَّا تَرَكَ الْوَالِدَانِ وَالْأَقْرَبُونَ مِمَّا قَلَّ مِنْهُ أَوْ كَثُرَ ۚ نَصِيبًا مَفْرُوضًا
To the men a share of what parents and kinsmen leave, and to the women a share of what parents and kinsmen leave, whether it be little or much, a share apportioned. (4:7)
It was rather a shock for the Arabs. Incidentally in those days the brother of Hasan ibn Thabit, the well-known poet of the Arabs, died and left behind him a wife, and a few daughters. The sons of his uncle seized all his property, and spared nothing for his wife and daughters. The wife of the dead man brought a complaint against them before the Holy Prophet. The Prophet called them before him. They submitted that woman is not in a position to arm her and fight against an enemy. “It is we who have to take the sword in our hands and defend ourselves and these women.” So wealth should also belong to man. Nevertheless, the Holy Prophet then recited to them the commandment of God.
In pre-Islamic days, the Arabs sometimes adopted someone their son, and, as a result, that adopted son was considered to be a successor when the man died, like a real son. The custom of adoption existed in other communities among which were ancient Iran and Rome. According to this custom, the adopted son, because he was exactly like a son, was entitled to all the privileges to which the real daughters of the deceased were not entitled.
One of these privileges was that the adopted son was to inherit from the deceased. There was another similar privilege and consequence which was that it was considered forbidden to marry the woman to whom the adopted son had been married. The Qur’an disposed of this custom also.
The Arabs had another custom regarding inheritance which was also abolished by the Holy Qur’an. That custom was of ‘confederation’. This meant that two strangers would enter into a pact that the blood of one was the blood of the other, and attack on one was the attack on the other, and each one was entitled to inherit from the other. According to this pact, the two non-kindred persons defended each other from attacks during their lifetime, and whoever died earlier left his property to the other.
Arabs sometimes counted the wife of the deceased as part of his property and holdings and took possession of her as a share in the inheritance. If a man had a son by some other wife, that son could, in token of his possession, threw a cloth on the face of that woman and count her as a part or his share. It depended upon his inclination whether he entered into wedlock with her or whether he gave her in wedlock to another person and received her dower for himself. This custom was not confined to Arabs only, and the Qur’an abolished it.
In old Hindu, Japanese, Roman, Greek and Iranian laws, very many unjust discriminations are to be found. If we were to quote the observations of those persons who have made a thorough study of the subject, we would require a great deal of space.
The late Sa’id Nafisi writes on p 42 of his book Tarikh-e ijtima’i-e Iran az zaman-e sasaniyan ta inqirad-e Umawiyan (The Social History of Iran from the Sassanid Period till the Overthrow of the Umayyids):
“In connection with the establishment of a family, another notable point in the Sassanid civilization was that when a son reached the age of puberty, his father would give one of his several wives to him in marriage. Another mentionable fact is that in Sassanid civilization, woman had no individuality and thus no rights, and a father and a husband had immense authority to keep a hold over them. When a girl reached the age of fifteen, and reached full maturity, the father, or the head of the family, was required to give her in marriage, but the marriageable age for a son was considered to be twenty years. In the matter of marriage the consent of the father was a necessary condition. The girl who went over to her husband without such consent did not inherit from her father or guardian, and in the selection of a husband for herself she was not considered to have any right. However, if after reaching puberty, her father neglected to give her in marriage, she had a right to have recourse to an illegal marriage, and in these circumstances she was not entitled to inherit from her father.
“The number of women that a man could keep had no limit. From Greek document, it transpires that a man sometimes had several hundred women with him in his house. The principle of marriage in the Samanian period, as recorded in the religious books of the Zoroastrians, is very complex and confusing, but there were five customary kinds of marriage.
1. A wife who was married with the consent of her parents, and who gave birth to children who were hers in this world and hereafter, was called “padishah-e zan” (queen of the wives).
2. A wife who was the only child of her father and mother was called “ug zan” (unique wife). The first child she gave birth to was given over to her parents so that the child could fill the place of his or her mother who had gone from the house and had married. Thereafter she too was spoken of as “padishah-e zan”.
3. If a man died in his youth without marrying, the members of his family used to give a dower to a woman from another family, and take her to the house of a man not of their family, and that woman was called “sidhar zan” (adopted wife). Any child that she gave birth to was to be considered in the next world as one half or the young man who had died and the other half of the man still alive.
4. A widow who married for the second time was called “chigar zan” (servant wife). If she had no issue by her first husband she was given the status of “sidhar zan”.
5. A woman who went to a husband without the consent of her father and mother was considered to be of the lowest status, and she was called “khud saray-e zan” (willful wife), and did not inherit from her father or mother. Nevertheless, when her son reached the age of puberty and accepted her as his “ug zan”, her status changed.”
In Islamic laws, none of the incongruities of the past are found in the question of inheritance. The matter regarding which those who claim equality of rights raise objections is that the share of a woman in inheritance according to Islam is half the share of a man. In Islam, a son inherits twice as much as a daughter, a brother twice as much as a sister, and a husband twice as much as a wife. It is only in the case of the father and mother that, if the deceased has children and his father and mother are also alive, both the father and the mother will inherit one sixth of the property of the deceased.
The fact that a woman inherits one half of the share of a man is due to a special state of affairs. Because a woman is entitled to a dower and maintenance, and because she is incapable of taking an equal part in the defense of the community, the fact that her share is one half of her brother’s is, to some extent, the result of a law of recompense. In other words, the special inheritance position of woman is founded upon the special place she occupies as regards dower and maintenance and so forth.
In accordance with the arguments which we have put forward in the previous chapters, Islam has acknowledged dower and maintenance as a necessary and effective factor in strengthening the mutual relationship between husband and wife, safe guarding the tranquility of the household, and establishing unity between husband and wife. In the eyes of Islam, the abolishing of dower and maintenance, but especially maintenance, would cause a shaking in the foundations of the household and the wife being drawn towards promiscuity.
As Islam considers dower and maintenance to be obligatory, the wife is automatically exempted from providing for the family budget, and that responsibility has been laid upon the husband. Islam seeks that this responsibility should be recompensed by inheritance, and so twice as much of the share or inheritance has been allocated to man as to woman. In short, it is dower and maintenance which has decreased the woman’s share in inheritance.
When a group of worshippers of the west give vent to their utterances concerning this problem, and make an issue of a woman’s share being less than a man’s in their propaganda against Islam, they start on the subject of dower and maintenance. They say: “Why should we proceed in a circuitous and a round-about way? Why should we not give equal shares to man and to woman, so that we should not be obliged to compensate the deficit by way of dower and maintenance?”
Firstly, these busybodies have mistaken the cause for the effect and vice versa. They consider that dower and maintenance is the effect of the situation that holds as regards a woman’s share in inheritance, whereas in fact, that special situation is the effect of dower and maintenance.
Secondly, they think that what really matters is the financial and economic aspect of the question. Obviously, if only the financial and economic aspects were in view, there would have been no justification for dower and maintenance or for the share in inheritance being unequal. As we pointed out in the preceding article, Islam has kept in view many aspects of the question some of which are based on nature and some psychological. On the one side there are the excessive requirements and problems of woman in connection with childbirth, while man is free from all this. On the other side there is her lesser ability to produce and earn wealth.
Thirdly, there is the fact that her consumption of wealth is more than of man. Moreover, the special psychological and intellectual considerations regarding men and women, in other words, the characteristic psychology of men and women and the fact that a man should always be there as the person responsible for the expenses of women, and, lastly, the subtle psychological and social considerations which are the source of strength in family ties—all these aspects have been kept in view by Islam. It has considered dower and maintenance positively necessary.
These necessary and unavoidable matters are an indirect cause of the burden on the man’s expenses. This is the reason that Islam has ordained that in recompense for the responsibilities that have been laid upon man’s shoulders; he should have twice as much share in inheritance as a woman. Any how, the financial and economic aspect is not the only one and it is not the only goal aimed at in Islamic law, so the question proposed: “Why, in one place, is the share of woman cut to half, and in another place recompensed? does not arise.
We pointed out that, in the view of Islam, dower and maintenance are the cause, and the situation regarding a woman’s share in inheritance is the effect. It is not only recently that questions regarding this part of the law have been raised, for it has been under discussion from the early days of Islam.
There was a man called Ibn Abi’l-‘Awja’, who lived in the second century of the Hejra, and had no belief in God or religion. This man took advantage of the freedom of that period and propagated his atheistic beliefs everywhere. Not only that, but he sometimes went to the Holy Mosque (Masjidu’l-Haram) in Mecca, or the Holy Mosque of the Prophet (Masjidu n-Nabi) in Medina, and there he debated the subjects of the Unity of God, life after death, and other cardinal principles of Islam. One of his objections against Islam was the very same one about inheritance. He would say:
ما بالُ المرأة المِسكينة الضَّعيفة تأخُذ سهماً ويأخذ سهمين.
“Why should a poor woman, who is weaker than man, gets only one share, while a man, who is stronger, gets two? This is contrary to justice.” Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq (a.s.) replied that it was because Islam had exempted woman from armed combat, and moreover that dower and maintenance had been imposed upon man for her benefit. What is more, in certain cases of doubt, in which blood relatives had to pay ransom money, woman has been exempted from sharing with others in the payment. These are the causes why the share of woman is lees than the share of man. Imam as-Sadiq (a.s.) said distinctly that the special situation of woman in inheritance is the effect of dower and maintenance is the effect of dower and maintenance and exemption from armed combat and paying ransom money.
Such questions were put to all the Imams of our faith, and all of them replied in the same way.
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0.26747134... | 5 | The old world either gave absolutely no inheritance to women or, when it was given, the woman was treated as a minor, which meant that she was not given independence and the status of a person having rights. Under the old laws of the world, if inheritance was occasionally given to daughters, it was never given to the daughter’s children, while a son could inherit himself, and his children could grow up as the successor to their father’s property as well. In some other laws of the world which gave an equal inheritance to women and men alike but not in the shape of a specified share, it was what the Qur’an mentions as
(i.e. a fixed share to which she was entitled), but it took this form: a person was entitled, if he so liked, to make a will in favour of his daughter as well.
The history of women’s inheritance is long. Scholars and learned persons have extensively examined it, and have left behind a vast body of investigations and writings on this subject which can be studied. I do not think it necessary to quote from their writings and their observations. The summary of their writings is as we have mentioned above.
The cause of a woman’s being deprived of inheritance was to prevent the transfer of family property to another family. According to the old idea, the role of the mother in the birth of a child was considered to be insignificant. Mothers were considered were considered as mere containers in which the man’s sperm developed, and out of which a child came into existence. For that reason they believed that the children of someone’s son were the issue of a man, and thus they were a part and parcel of his family.
On the other hand, the children of his daughters were not his children, but the children of the husband of the daughter, and they belonged to the family of the husband of the daughter. Consequently, if a daughter inherited, and afterwards her children succeeded her, that. would cause situation where the wealth of one family would pass on to a different family.
In the book, Irth dar huquq-e madani-e Iran (Inheritance in the Civil Laws of Iran) written by the late Dr. Musa ‘Amid, on page 8, after his remark that ‘in ancient times it was religion which laid the foundations for the formation of families and not natural ties,’ he says:
“The religious spokesmanship of the family (under the patriarchal system) was with the grandfather of the family, and after him, the religious rites and rituals of the family were performed only by the male children, generation after generation. The ancients considered that the male children were the only source of continuation of their lineage. The father of the family, life-giver to his son as he was, also transferred his religious beliefs and the religious rituals, the right to keep the Fire alive, and the right to recite special prayers also.1
As is mentioned in the Hindu Vedas and in the laws of Greece and Rome, the power of generation is confined to men, and the result of this antiquated belief was that the family regions were the special concern of men. Women had no business and concern with religion except through their fathers and husbands….. and because they had no hand in religious rituals, they were naturally deprived of all family privileges. Afterwards, when with the improvement of the economic situation an occasion for inheritance arose, women were deprived of that right.”
There were other reasons also for woman’s being deprived of inheritance. One of them was their weakness in combat. In societies where preferences and prerogatives were based on heroism and valor and one war-faring person was preferred to a hundred thousand non-war like persons, woman was naturally deprived of inheritance because of her weakness in the performance of acts of defense and bravery.
Arabs of the pre-Islamic age were against were against woman’s receiving inheritance for this very reason, and when there was a male member of a family however distant in the ranks of inheritance he may have been, they never gave inheritance to a woman. So, when the verse of inheritance was revealed and it distinctly stated:
لِلرِّجَالِ نَصِيبٌ مِمَّا تَرَكَ الْوَالِدَانِ وَالْأَقْرَبُونَ وَلِلنِّسَاءِ نَصِيبٌ مِمَّا تَرَكَ الْوَالِدَانِ وَالْأَقْرَبُونَ مِمَّا قَلَّ مِنْهُ أَوْ كَثُرَ ۚ نَصِيبًا مَفْرُوضًا
To the men a share of what parents and kinsmen leave, and to the women a share of what parents and kinsmen leave, whether it be little or much, a share apportioned. (4:7)
It was rather a shock for the Arabs. Incidentally in those days the brother of Hasan ibn Thabit, the well-known poet of the Arabs, died and left behind him a wife, and a few daughters. The sons of his uncle seized all his property, and spared nothing for his wife and daughters. The wife of the dead man brought a complaint against them before the Holy Prophet. The Prophet called them before him. They submitted that woman is not in a position to arm her and fight against an enemy. “It is we who have to take the sword in our hands and defend ourselves and these women.” So wealth should also belong to man. Nevertheless, the Holy Prophet then recited to them the commandment of God.
In pre-Islamic days, the Arabs sometimes adopted someone their son, and, as a result, that adopted son was considered to be a successor when the man died, like a real son. The custom of adoption existed in other communities among which were ancient Iran and Rome. According to this custom, the adopted son, because he was exactly like a son, was entitled to all the privileges to which the real daughters of the deceased were not entitled.
One of these privileges was that the adopted son was to inherit from the deceased. There was another similar privilege and consequence which was that it was considered forbidden to marry the woman to whom the adopted son had been married. The Qur’an disposed of this custom also.
The Arabs had another custom regarding inheritance which was also abolished by the Holy Qur’an. That custom was of ‘confederation’. This meant that two strangers would enter into a pact that the blood of one was the blood of the other, and attack on one was the attack on the other, and each one was entitled to inherit from the other. According to this pact, the two non-kindred persons defended each other from attacks during their lifetime, and whoever died earlier left his property to the other.
Arabs sometimes counted the wife of the deceased as part of his property and holdings and took possession of her as a share in the inheritance. If a man had a son by some other wife, that son could, in token of his possession, threw a cloth on the face of that woman and count her as a part or his share. It depended upon his inclination whether he entered into wedlock with her or whether he gave her in wedlock to another person and received her dower for himself. This custom was not confined to Arabs only, and the Qur’an abolished it.
In old Hindu, Japanese, Roman, Greek and Iranian laws, very many unjust discriminations are to be found. If we were to quote the observations of those persons who have made a thorough study of the subject, we would require a great deal of space.
The late Sa’id Nafisi writes on p 42 of his book Tarikh-e ijtima’i-e Iran az zaman-e sasaniyan ta inqirad-e Umawiyan (The Social History of Iran from the Sassanid Period till the Overthrow of the Umayyids):
“In connection with the establishment of a family, another notable point in the Sassanid civilization was that when a son reached the age of puberty, his father would give one of his several wives to him in marriage. Another mentionable fact is that in Sassanid civilization, woman had no individuality and thus no rights, and a father and a husband had immense authority to keep a hold over them. When a girl reached the age of fifteen, and reached full maturity, the father, or the head of the family, was required to give her in marriage, but the marriageable age for a son was considered to be twenty years. In the matter of marriage the consent of the father was a necessary condition. The girl who went over to her husband without such consent did not inherit from her father or guardian, and in the selection of a husband for herself she was not considered to have any right. However, if after reaching puberty, her father neglected to give her in marriage, she had a right to have recourse to an illegal marriage, and in these circumstances she was not entitled to inherit from her father.
“The number of women that a man could keep had no limit. From Greek document, it transpires that a man sometimes had several hundred women with him in his house. The principle of marriage in the Samanian period, as recorded in the religious books of the Zoroastrians, is very complex and confusing, but there were five customary kinds of marriage.
1. A wife who was married with the consent of her parents, and who gave birth to children who were hers in this world and hereafter, was called “padishah-e zan” (queen of the wives).
2. A wife who was the only child of her father and mother was called “ug zan” (unique wife). The first child she gave birth to was given over to her parents so that the child could fill the place of his or her mother who had gone from the house and had married. Thereafter she too was spoken of as “padishah-e zan”.
3. If a man died in his youth without marrying, the members of his family used to give a dower to a woman from another family, and take her to the house of a man not of their family, and that woman was called “sidhar zan” (adopted wife). Any child that she gave birth to was to be considered in the next world as one half or the young man who had died and the other half of the man still alive.
4. A widow who married for the second time was called “chigar zan” (servant wife). If she had no issue by her first husband she was given the status of “sidhar zan”.
5. A woman who went to a husband without the consent of her father and mother was considered to be of the lowest status, and she was called “khud saray-e zan” (willful wife), and did not inherit from her father or mother. Nevertheless, when her son reached the age of puberty and accepted her as his “ug zan”, her status changed.”
In Islamic laws, none of the incongruities of the past are found in the question of inheritance. The matter regarding which those who claim equality of rights raise objections is that the share of a woman in inheritance according to Islam is half the share of a man. In Islam, a son inherits twice as much as a daughter, a brother twice as much as a sister, and a husband twice as much as a wife. It is only in the case of the father and mother that, if the deceased has children and his father and mother are also alive, both the father and the mother will inherit one sixth of the property of the deceased.
The fact that a woman inherits one half of the share of a man is due to a special state of affairs. Because a woman is entitled to a dower and maintenance, and because she is incapable of taking an equal part in the defense of the community, the fact that her share is one half of her brother’s is, to some extent, the result of a law of recompense. In other words, the special inheritance position of woman is founded upon the special place she occupies as regards dower and maintenance and so forth.
In accordance with the arguments which we have put forward in the previous chapters, Islam has acknowledged dower and maintenance as a necessary and effective factor in strengthening the mutual relationship between husband and wife, safe guarding the tranquility of the household, and establishing unity between husband and wife. In the eyes of Islam, the abolishing of dower and maintenance, but especially maintenance, would cause a shaking in the foundations of the household and the wife being drawn towards promiscuity.
As Islam considers dower and maintenance to be obligatory, the wife is automatically exempted from providing for the family budget, and that responsibility has been laid upon the husband. Islam seeks that this responsibility should be recompensed by inheritance, and so twice as much of the share or inheritance has been allocated to man as to woman. In short, it is dower and maintenance which has decreased the woman’s share in inheritance.
When a group of worshippers of the west give vent to their utterances concerning this problem, and make an issue of a woman’s share being less than a man’s in their propaganda against Islam, they start on the subject of dower and maintenance. They say: “Why should we proceed in a circuitous and a round-about way? Why should we not give equal shares to man and to woman, so that we should not be obliged to compensate the deficit by way of dower and maintenance?”
Firstly, these busybodies have mistaken the cause for the effect and vice versa. They consider that dower and maintenance is the effect of the situation that holds as regards a woman’s share in inheritance, whereas in fact, that special situation is the effect of dower and maintenance.
Secondly, they think that what really matters is the financial and economic aspect of the question. Obviously, if only the financial and economic aspects were in view, there would have been no justification for dower and maintenance or for the share in inheritance being unequal. As we pointed out in the preceding article, Islam has kept in view many aspects of the question some of which are based on nature and some psychological. On the one side there are the excessive requirements and problems of woman in connection with childbirth, while man is free from all this. On the other side there is her lesser ability to produce and earn wealth.
Thirdly, there is the fact that her consumption of wealth is more than of man. Moreover, the special psychological and intellectual considerations regarding men and women, in other words, the characteristic psychology of men and women and the fact that a man should always be there as the person responsible for the expenses of women, and, lastly, the subtle psychological and social considerations which are the source of strength in family ties—all these aspects have been kept in view by Islam. It has considered dower and maintenance positively necessary.
These necessary and unavoidable matters are an indirect cause of the burden on the man’s expenses. This is the reason that Islam has ordained that in recompense for the responsibilities that have been laid upon man’s shoulders; he should have twice as much share in inheritance as a woman. Any how, the financial and economic aspect is not the only one and it is not the only goal aimed at in Islamic law, so the question proposed: “Why, in one place, is the share of woman cut to half, and in another place recompensed? does not arise.
We pointed out that, in the view of Islam, dower and maintenance are the cause, and the situation regarding a woman’s share in inheritance is the effect. It is not only recently that questions regarding this part of the law have been raised, for it has been under discussion from the early days of Islam.
There was a man called Ibn Abi’l-‘Awja’, who lived in the second century of the Hejra, and had no belief in God or religion. This man took advantage of the freedom of that period and propagated his atheistic beliefs everywhere. Not only that, but he sometimes went to the Holy Mosque (Masjidu’l-Haram) in Mecca, or the Holy Mosque of the Prophet (Masjidu n-Nabi) in Medina, and there he debated the subjects of the Unity of God, life after death, and other cardinal principles of Islam. One of his objections against Islam was the very same one about inheritance. He would say:
ما بالُ المرأة المِسكينة الضَّعيفة تأخُذ سهماً ويأخذ سهمين.
“Why should a poor woman, who is weaker than man, gets only one share, while a man, who is stronger, gets two? This is contrary to justice.” Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq (a.s.) replied that it was because Islam had exempted woman from armed combat, and moreover that dower and maintenance had been imposed upon man for her benefit. What is more, in certain cases of doubt, in which blood relatives had to pay ransom money, woman has been exempted from sharing with others in the payment. These are the causes why the share of woman is lees than the share of man. Imam as-Sadiq (a.s.) said distinctly that the special situation of woman in inheritance is the effect of dower and maintenance is the effect of dower and maintenance and exemption from armed combat and paying ransom money.
Such questions were put to all the Imams of our faith, and all of them replied in the same way.
- 1. This describes the situation in Ancient Iran (Tr.) | 3,642 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A statue of Stephen the Great
King Stephen the Great or St. Stephen of Hungary (Szent István király in Hungarian, Štefan in Slovak) (about 975 – August 15, 1038), was the first king of Hungary. His father was the Magyar chieftain Géza: his mother was named Sarolt, and Stephen was given the name Vajk (meaning hero) at birth. Born a pagan in the village of Esztergom, Vajk was baptized, as a precondition of accepting the crown from Rome, at age 10 by Saint Adalbert of Prague, and given the baptismal name Stephen (in honor of the original early Christian Saint Stephen), protector of the church at Passau).
He was married in 995 to Gizella of Bavaria, the daughter of Henry II the Wrangler, and his wife Gisela of Burgundy. Stephen and Gizella had at least three children; we know the names of the sons Imre (Henry or Emeric) and Ottó (Otto) and the daughter Hedvig (Hedwig). All of Stephen's children apparently predeceased him and left no descendants to claim the throne upon his death, so that the crown had to be contended for by his nephews and cousins.
After battling and defeating the pagan nobles who opposed him (including his uncle, a powerful warlord named Koppány), Stephen successfully united all the Magyar clans in the year 997. The victory was achieved also thanks to the substantial material and military assistance from Slovak Christian noblemen Poznan and Hunt. According to Hungarian tradition, Pope Silvester II sent a magnificent jeweled gold crown to Stephen (which became the symbol of Hungary under the name of the Holy Crown) along with an apostolic cross and a letter of blessing in the beginning of January, 1001 to officially recognize him as a Christian king of Europe.
Stephen divided Hungary into 50 counties, and continued the work of his father Geza by applying the decimal organizational system of his ancestors and setting up ten dioceses in Hungary, ordering every ten villages to erect one church and maintain a priest. He founded the cathedrals of Székesfehérvár and Esztergom, the Nunnery of Veszprém, the Benedictine Abbey of Pannonhalma, and the Monastery of Saint Peter and Paul in Óbuda. Inside the abbeys and monasteries, schools were established and they became important centers of culture. Saint Astricus served as Stephen's advisor, and Stephen also had Saint Gerard Sagredo as the tutor for his son Saint Emeric (Imre).
Stephen discouraged pagan customs and strengthened Christianity with various laws, including ending the use of the old Hun-Magyar runic alphabet and making Latin the official language of the royal court. Stephen gave generously to the churches, personally visited them often, and supervised their construction. He often disguised himself as a peasant whenever he traveled, and freely gave money to any poor people he met (in one account, Stephen was beaten and robbed by a group of beggars to whom he was giving alms, but he forgave them and spared their lives).
He intended to retire to a life of holy contemplation and hand the kingdom over to his only surviving son Imre, but in 1031 Imre was wounded in a hunting accident and died. In Stephen's words of mourning:
By God's secret decision death took him, so that wickedness would not change his soul and false imaginations would not deceive his mind — as the Book of Wisdom teaches about early death.
Stephen mourned a very long time over the loss of his favorite son Imre, which took a great toll on his health. He eventually recovered, but he never regained his original vitality. Having no children left, he could not find anyone among his remaining relatives who was able to rule the country competently and willing to maintain the Christian faith of the nation. Unable to choose an heir, King Stephen died at Székesfehérvár (a city he built in central Hungary) on the Feast of the Assumption, and was buried there. Both his nobles and his subjects were said to have mourned for 3 straight years afterwards.
Shortly after his death, healing miracles were known to have occurred at his tomb. Stephen was canonized by the Vatican as Saint Stephen of Hungary in 1083. Catholics venerate him as the patron saint of: Hungary, kings, the death of children, masons, stonecutters, and bricklayers. His feast is on September 2, but in Hungary his chief festival is observed on August 20, the day on which his sacred relics were transferred to the city of Buda. His crown is currently enshrined in the National Museum of Budapest.
Excerpt from Saint Stephen's admonitions to his son Imre:
My beloved son, delight of my heart, hope of your posterity, I pray, I command, that at every time and in everything, strengthened by your devotion to me, you may show favor not only to relations and kin, or to the most eminent, be they leaders or rich men or neighbors or fellow countrymen, but also to foreigners and to all who come to you. By fulfilling your duty in this way you will reach the highest state of happiness. Be merciful to all who are suffering violence, keeping always in your heart the example of the Lord who said, "I desire mercy and not sacrifice." Be patient with everyone, not only with the powerful, but also with the weak. Finally be strong lest prosperity lift you up too much or adversity cast you down. Be humble in this life, that God may raise you up in the next. Be truly moderate and do not punish or condemn anyone immoderately. Be gentle so that you may never oppose justice. Be honorable so that you may never voluntarily bring disgrace upon anyone. Be chaste so that you may avoid all the foulness of lust like the pangs of death. All these virtues I have noted above make up the royal crown, and without them no one is fit to rule here on earth or attain to the heavenly kingdom. | <urn:uuid:705975e0-859c-43f0-a5d6-0ab9f312f1e3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Stephen-of-Hungary | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.981071 | 1,285 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.5677365660667... | 1 | A statue of Stephen the Great
King Stephen the Great or St. Stephen of Hungary (Szent István király in Hungarian, Štefan in Slovak) (about 975 – August 15, 1038), was the first king of Hungary. His father was the Magyar chieftain Géza: his mother was named Sarolt, and Stephen was given the name Vajk (meaning hero) at birth. Born a pagan in the village of Esztergom, Vajk was baptized, as a precondition of accepting the crown from Rome, at age 10 by Saint Adalbert of Prague, and given the baptismal name Stephen (in honor of the original early Christian Saint Stephen), protector of the church at Passau).
He was married in 995 to Gizella of Bavaria, the daughter of Henry II the Wrangler, and his wife Gisela of Burgundy. Stephen and Gizella had at least three children; we know the names of the sons Imre (Henry or Emeric) and Ottó (Otto) and the daughter Hedvig (Hedwig). All of Stephen's children apparently predeceased him and left no descendants to claim the throne upon his death, so that the crown had to be contended for by his nephews and cousins.
After battling and defeating the pagan nobles who opposed him (including his uncle, a powerful warlord named Koppány), Stephen successfully united all the Magyar clans in the year 997. The victory was achieved also thanks to the substantial material and military assistance from Slovak Christian noblemen Poznan and Hunt. According to Hungarian tradition, Pope Silvester II sent a magnificent jeweled gold crown to Stephen (which became the symbol of Hungary under the name of the Holy Crown) along with an apostolic cross and a letter of blessing in the beginning of January, 1001 to officially recognize him as a Christian king of Europe.
Stephen divided Hungary into 50 counties, and continued the work of his father Geza by applying the decimal organizational system of his ancestors and setting up ten dioceses in Hungary, ordering every ten villages to erect one church and maintain a priest. He founded the cathedrals of Székesfehérvár and Esztergom, the Nunnery of Veszprém, the Benedictine Abbey of Pannonhalma, and the Monastery of Saint Peter and Paul in Óbuda. Inside the abbeys and monasteries, schools were established and they became important centers of culture. Saint Astricus served as Stephen's advisor, and Stephen also had Saint Gerard Sagredo as the tutor for his son Saint Emeric (Imre).
Stephen discouraged pagan customs and strengthened Christianity with various laws, including ending the use of the old Hun-Magyar runic alphabet and making Latin the official language of the royal court. Stephen gave generously to the churches, personally visited them often, and supervised their construction. He often disguised himself as a peasant whenever he traveled, and freely gave money to any poor people he met (in one account, Stephen was beaten and robbed by a group of beggars to whom he was giving alms, but he forgave them and spared their lives).
He intended to retire to a life of holy contemplation and hand the kingdom over to his only surviving son Imre, but in 1031 Imre was wounded in a hunting accident and died. In Stephen's words of mourning:
By God's secret decision death took him, so that wickedness would not change his soul and false imaginations would not deceive his mind — as the Book of Wisdom teaches about early death.
Stephen mourned a very long time over the loss of his favorite son Imre, which took a great toll on his health. He eventually recovered, but he never regained his original vitality. Having no children left, he could not find anyone among his remaining relatives who was able to rule the country competently and willing to maintain the Christian faith of the nation. Unable to choose an heir, King Stephen died at Székesfehérvár (a city he built in central Hungary) on the Feast of the Assumption, and was buried there. Both his nobles and his subjects were said to have mourned for 3 straight years afterwards.
Shortly after his death, healing miracles were known to have occurred at his tomb. Stephen was canonized by the Vatican as Saint Stephen of Hungary in 1083. Catholics venerate him as the patron saint of: Hungary, kings, the death of children, masons, stonecutters, and bricklayers. His feast is on September 2, but in Hungary his chief festival is observed on August 20, the day on which his sacred relics were transferred to the city of Buda. His crown is currently enshrined in the National Museum of Budapest.
Excerpt from Saint Stephen's admonitions to his son Imre:
My beloved son, delight of my heart, hope of your posterity, I pray, I command, that at every time and in everything, strengthened by your devotion to me, you may show favor not only to relations and kin, or to the most eminent, be they leaders or rich men or neighbors or fellow countrymen, but also to foreigners and to all who come to you. By fulfilling your duty in this way you will reach the highest state of happiness. Be merciful to all who are suffering violence, keeping always in your heart the example of the Lord who said, "I desire mercy and not sacrifice." Be patient with everyone, not only with the powerful, but also with the weak. Finally be strong lest prosperity lift you up too much or adversity cast you down. Be humble in this life, that God may raise you up in the next. Be truly moderate and do not punish or condemn anyone immoderately. Be gentle so that you may never oppose justice. Be honorable so that you may never voluntarily bring disgrace upon anyone. Be chaste so that you may avoid all the foulness of lust like the pangs of death. All these virtues I have noted above make up the royal crown, and without them no one is fit to rule here on earth or attain to the heavenly kingdom. | 1,289 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On June 15, 1775, George Washington, who would one day become the first American president, accepts an assignment to lead the Continental Army.
Washington had been managing his family’s plantation and serving in the Virginia House of Burgesses when the second Continental Congress unanimously voted to have him lead the revolutionary army. He had earlier distinguished himself, in the eyes of his contemporaries, as a commander for the British army in the French and Indian War of 1754.
Born a British citizen and a former Redcoat, Washington had, by the 1770s, joined the growing ranks of colonists who were dismayed by what they considered to be Britain’s exploitative policies in North America. In 1774, Washington joined the Continental Congress as a delegate from Virginia. The next year, the Congress offered Washington the role of commander in chief of the Continental Army.
After accepting the position, Washington sat down and wrote a letter to his wife, Martha, in which he revealed his concerns about his new role. He expressed uneasiness at leaving her alone, told her he had updated his will and hoped that he would be home by the fall. He closed the letter with a postscript, saying he had found some of “the prettiest muslin” but did not indicate whether it was intended for her or for himself.
On July 3, 1775, Washington officially took command of the poorly trained and under-supplied Continental Army. After six years of struggle and despite frequent setbacks, Washington managed to lead the army to key victories and Great Britain eventually surrendered in 1781. Due largely to his military fame and humble personality, Americans overwhelmingly elected Washington their first president in 1789. | <urn:uuid:338c423d-3d8b-4ca7-8d39-9da59a712c9f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/george-washington-assigned-to-lead-the-continental-army | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.987398 | 344 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.3422289490699768... | 4 | On June 15, 1775, George Washington, who would one day become the first American president, accepts an assignment to lead the Continental Army.
Washington had been managing his family’s plantation and serving in the Virginia House of Burgesses when the second Continental Congress unanimously voted to have him lead the revolutionary army. He had earlier distinguished himself, in the eyes of his contemporaries, as a commander for the British army in the French and Indian War of 1754.
Born a British citizen and a former Redcoat, Washington had, by the 1770s, joined the growing ranks of colonists who were dismayed by what they considered to be Britain’s exploitative policies in North America. In 1774, Washington joined the Continental Congress as a delegate from Virginia. The next year, the Congress offered Washington the role of commander in chief of the Continental Army.
After accepting the position, Washington sat down and wrote a letter to his wife, Martha, in which he revealed his concerns about his new role. He expressed uneasiness at leaving her alone, told her he had updated his will and hoped that he would be home by the fall. He closed the letter with a postscript, saying he had found some of “the prettiest muslin” but did not indicate whether it was intended for her or for himself.
On July 3, 1775, Washington officially took command of the poorly trained and under-supplied Continental Army. After six years of struggle and despite frequent setbacks, Washington managed to lead the army to key victories and Great Britain eventually surrendered in 1781. Due largely to his military fame and humble personality, Americans overwhelmingly elected Washington their first president in 1789. | 360 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Custom Southern Women versus Northern Women Essay Paper Sample
Since very few black women knew how or had an opportunity to read or write before the civil war, there is very little documentation that exists about them compared to white women. Plantation records, slave letters and the diaries and letters of white women can be used to explore various aspects of African American women's lives during the civil war period. During and especially after the civil war, household slavery based on the race dominated in the south. Before the American civil war in south, there were few opportunities available for either black or white people. Women were expected to be submissive at their homes and were also involved in field work and management of plantations. White women lived and existed in isolation due to the rural setups of the south before the civil war begun. Women slaves had some advantages, but their stability and personal safety was not promising because of the conditions that involved slavery. These southern women lived in harsh conditions that trained them to live a harder way of life.
The south adjusted to a new social order following the defeat of the confederacy. In the nineteenth century, several changes took place in social order, courtships and marriages, family life and travels, religion and education and the life-and-death matters that made up the ordinary and extra ordinary world in the past. Being a woman from the north, Tryphena a diary writer of 'A northern woman on plantation,' remained silent and adopted regional customs as she wrote about the social, political and economic conditions that prevailed in the nineteenth century south. Racial prejudices and class biases did not exist with her as there were numerous interactions with domestic servants, black or white, neighbors who were either rich or poor.
Women who came into intimate contact with white men experienced class, racial and sexual identification that haunted them. The number of free-born black population is difficult to determine yet their influence in the lives of their fellow freemen, newly freed slaves in the North and later for enslaved blacks, extended beyond what numbers can imply. If ones identity as American citizen means 'free,' then free-born blacks hold a unique position among black abolitionists.
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Southern women versus Northern women in the civil war
In the early south, once a woman was married their role was to bear and raise children. These women were married at an early age and continued bearing children even until their death. The urge to increase population that could help in farm work added to these early marriages. Black slave women encountered several diseases and bore several children than white slave women. Education was reserved for free white and black women and was meant to increase the feminine character. Both white and black women observed their religion.
Reviewers and historians have been examining the fundamental relations of generous women involved in the civil war while emphasizing on their good and bad side, difference in class and gender roles. According to Rable, there were divided loyalties that were so pronounced at the time and adverse daily effects of the war on civilians. Referring to herself as a 'very violent rebel,' Rable joined her family and adapted to their way of life. Black and white men in the south were entrusted to be soldiers and women were assigned home front chores, while northern women played roles as nurses and spies. Slavery in the south was considered to be a foundation of liberty to whites.
Diaries that were written during the civil war reveal people's attitudes, values, motives and their actions. Most of the diaries written by women writers revealed women's feelings toward family and friends, their everyday activities, and the impact of the civil war on their lives and attitudes. Women expressed themselves in terms of love and marriage ranging from war to slavery and through their writings, the values of middle class women living in the mid-nineteenth century is taken into consideration. Home and family issues constituted the central part of a woman's life in which she should devote herself to the nurturance of her loved ones as domesticity was an integral part of their personalities.
The civil war while challenging women's minds and expanding their range of activities, did not lead these women to abandon their responsibilities. However, they ventured into activities that were necessary to protect themselves and their families. These women revealed another side of women who balanced the demands of wartime life against their values of traditional life. The women who are diary writers expressed their thoughts and opinions about the civil war - its tragedies, its personalities, frustration, politis and direct impact of the war on their lives. Most of the southern women who expressed themselves on institution opposed slavery and celebrated when it ended. The easy availability of black slave women caused much resentment among white women, who by nineteenth-century were supposed to remain faithful even if their husbands where unfaithful in the marriage.
Women of southern plantations are not written about in many ways. Many southern women are mentioned in many books only as part of the males. Rich white women of the south spent their time at home raising children and many acted as teachers who taught how to read, write and study religion. White women in the south suffered under heavier burdens than northern women. White women of the south engaged in fewer charitable organizations or reform movements than northern women (Jeannie, 1998). In order to carry on their managerial skills well, southern women are supposed to be humble and submissive. They didn't have the authority, but were expected to do all the work. A southern white woman had many responsibilities even before the war broke out. These women lived on plantations with their husbands and families and the livelihood of these plantations revolved around the upkeep of the grounds and the way the household and household staff was run.
Slavery brought in divisions that split America, but it was not slavery alone that caused war. The civil war history questions the degree to which southern elite women supported the confederacy believing that it will bring changes in gender inequality. As a result, southern women who were forced to new and not always comfortable roles became disillusioned and disappointed. Their men did not support them to the extent that they hoped for. White southern women did not support the confederacy and demanded attention from their men. The war served as a source of change to white women who were forced to develop new skills, accept new responsibilities and at long last redefine their traditional gender roles. As a result of the experience southern women acquired, these women, "sought to invent new foundations for self definition and self worth". Northern women were not treated with much attention as southern women because the war brought in fewer challenges to them than to women in the south. Many struggles were in the south, and white southern women suffered from trauma of defeat, emancipation and reconstruction.
There is an unexplored interior cultural conflict that emerged from the civil war within southern white women. These conflicts affected women's views of themselves, their social identity and their world. Issues of slavery like racial conflict, gender relations, religion and state formation were at the heart of civil war. Blacks aimed at destroying slavery and they immensely participated in the civil war leading to the forthcoming of several consequences.
The war stimulated many women to question their traditional domestic, sexual and social roles. The inborn characteristics of southern women in resisting change were based more on habit and lack of need to change than conviction that proceeded. These confederate women were slow to challenge the class and gender roles of their society, even though the civil war exposed them to hardships that required them to temporarily take on the roles of men. Plantation women stood up and managed the plantation in the absence of men who went out to the war. Confederate women suffered a lot as a result of the thieving and looting carried out by union soldiers; these caused women to desire their traditional and familiar lifestyles even if it meant going back to submissive status.
Slavery was considered to be like sin and thus had to be attacked as sin and society had to break all the ties with slaveholders who required to be saved and be converted to avoid slavery. The people who struggled for control of society and were antislavery believed that slaves have to be convicted to do missionary work. Christian slaveholders were required to be engaged to a great extend in these work in the south. An abolitionist view came to prevail in America as it reflected the one said statement from the northern view of a dangerous "Slave Power Conspiracy" that eventually lead to republican victory during the consequent elections. According to Rable, "The action of abolitionists in criticizing the northern church was less effective in purifying the moral outlook of the northern church than it was in strengthening the proslavery stance of the southern church." True Christians were expected to resolve the problem of slavery. There are views on the ways in which warfare transformed the lives of southern white women who both supported slavery and at the end undermined southern nationalism and war effort against slavery. Whilee generally quoting southern women of all classes, Rable intensely dramatizes the heroism and heartache faced during the civil war by southern women.
Though historians continue to disagree about how deeply the negative attitudes of northern whites toward blacks influenced politics during the civil war, studies have shown that powerful prejudices against blacks prevailed among white northerners of foreign and southern birth ancestry. It is also evident that these feelings reinforced wartime support for black colonization in America and delayed President Lincoln's embrace of emancipation. Relatives and friends would write diaries describing various parts of the south, especially eastern Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia. They commented on the Negroes condition in the contraband camps, and officers and men of the Union army, and the attitudes of white southerners. They endured hardships of being determined teachers and missionaries.
The economic and ideological conflicts surrounding women army in the labor is all attributed to the impact of the civil war on gender structure in America. This war was a testing ground in generating political and social differences between men and women. The support that was given by southern women to patriotic soldiers during the struggles of civil war was immense. It appears then that in America alone, women are raised to equality with the other sex and that both in theory and practice, their interests are regarded as of equal value. They are made subordinate in station, only where a regard to their best interests demands it, while they are being treated as superiors according to custom and courtesy. During the civil war, the United States sanitary commission attempted to replace female charity networks and traditions of voluntarily with a centralized organization that would ensure women's effort against war was considered. Soldier relief work enabled women to demonstrate their patriotism and rights.
The Southern relied on the union states for essential food stuffs as they lacked good storage for their agricultural products. Pro-union guerillas in the south did not support the war but dissented into confederate government policy. They had endured slavery by union troops and sought their freedom and the confederate ordeal therefore started before the war and ended after civil war.
The American Revolution affected the colonial women's life. Through the industrial revolution in the north, the cotton economy in the south changed and the adoption of new lifestyles changed the lives of women. A rise of the middle class helped in enforcing an ideology of segregation of the male and female sphere at home. Women adopted several ways to exercise autonomy in religious revivals, female higher education, missionary work and home arts such as embroidery. Women would form voluntary associations that aided the poor and reformed social status.
More slave women endured the hardship of family separations as they served as labourers in plantations while their men were engaged in confederate service. Slave women and children from the south who escaped to union lines expecting freedom were relocated to the North and were assigned roles. The northern women's political identities were affected by the conflicts that were brought in by the civil war. On the other hand, the civil war created opportunities for change and a new civic identity for northern women. Northern women were considered to be less patriotic than southern women. Northern women faced hindrances from gendered division of labor that could enable them find economic strategies to survive the war and gain political skills.
Southern women were married earlier, bore many children, and were likely to die while young, especially during child birth. Like southern women, northern women were assigned new wartime roles that emerged them to be leaders and managers of newly empowered heads of households. The uniqueness of northern women was in their participations as business people, managers, organizers and leaders. France describes union women as being caring to the confederate soldiers in local hospitals and also solving problems that divided their families. There is a critical accounting of the collision of loyalty and disloyalty, slavery and freedom, and all these make it difficult to examine the war along the border. It is clearly shown that white women of the south did not receive adequate protection and food from the confederate government and as a result, some women withdrew their support and stood up for themselves in different ways depending on their class. The effect of the civil war was to free black women and men who had been slaves, but the granting of suffrage to ex-slaves after the war did not include black women.
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Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:6f840559-0985-4df6-9b4b-03918e621ce3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primewritings.com/essays/comparison-essay/southern-women-versus-northern-women.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00193.warc.gz | en | 0.981637 | 2,687 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.21081730723... | 1 | Custom Southern Women versus Northern Women Essay Paper Sample
Since very few black women knew how or had an opportunity to read or write before the civil war, there is very little documentation that exists about them compared to white women. Plantation records, slave letters and the diaries and letters of white women can be used to explore various aspects of African American women's lives during the civil war period. During and especially after the civil war, household slavery based on the race dominated in the south. Before the American civil war in south, there were few opportunities available for either black or white people. Women were expected to be submissive at their homes and were also involved in field work and management of plantations. White women lived and existed in isolation due to the rural setups of the south before the civil war begun. Women slaves had some advantages, but their stability and personal safety was not promising because of the conditions that involved slavery. These southern women lived in harsh conditions that trained them to live a harder way of life.
The south adjusted to a new social order following the defeat of the confederacy. In the nineteenth century, several changes took place in social order, courtships and marriages, family life and travels, religion and education and the life-and-death matters that made up the ordinary and extra ordinary world in the past. Being a woman from the north, Tryphena a diary writer of 'A northern woman on plantation,' remained silent and adopted regional customs as she wrote about the social, political and economic conditions that prevailed in the nineteenth century south. Racial prejudices and class biases did not exist with her as there were numerous interactions with domestic servants, black or white, neighbors who were either rich or poor.
Women who came into intimate contact with white men experienced class, racial and sexual identification that haunted them. The number of free-born black population is difficult to determine yet their influence in the lives of their fellow freemen, newly freed slaves in the North and later for enslaved blacks, extended beyond what numbers can imply. If ones identity as American citizen means 'free,' then free-born blacks hold a unique position among black abolitionists.
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Southern women versus Northern women in the civil war
In the early south, once a woman was married their role was to bear and raise children. These women were married at an early age and continued bearing children even until their death. The urge to increase population that could help in farm work added to these early marriages. Black slave women encountered several diseases and bore several children than white slave women. Education was reserved for free white and black women and was meant to increase the feminine character. Both white and black women observed their religion.
Reviewers and historians have been examining the fundamental relations of generous women involved in the civil war while emphasizing on their good and bad side, difference in class and gender roles. According to Rable, there were divided loyalties that were so pronounced at the time and adverse daily effects of the war on civilians. Referring to herself as a 'very violent rebel,' Rable joined her family and adapted to their way of life. Black and white men in the south were entrusted to be soldiers and women were assigned home front chores, while northern women played roles as nurses and spies. Slavery in the south was considered to be a foundation of liberty to whites.
Diaries that were written during the civil war reveal people's attitudes, values, motives and their actions. Most of the diaries written by women writers revealed women's feelings toward family and friends, their everyday activities, and the impact of the civil war on their lives and attitudes. Women expressed themselves in terms of love and marriage ranging from war to slavery and through their writings, the values of middle class women living in the mid-nineteenth century is taken into consideration. Home and family issues constituted the central part of a woman's life in which she should devote herself to the nurturance of her loved ones as domesticity was an integral part of their personalities.
The civil war while challenging women's minds and expanding their range of activities, did not lead these women to abandon their responsibilities. However, they ventured into activities that were necessary to protect themselves and their families. These women revealed another side of women who balanced the demands of wartime life against their values of traditional life. The women who are diary writers expressed their thoughts and opinions about the civil war - its tragedies, its personalities, frustration, politis and direct impact of the war on their lives. Most of the southern women who expressed themselves on institution opposed slavery and celebrated when it ended. The easy availability of black slave women caused much resentment among white women, who by nineteenth-century were supposed to remain faithful even if their husbands where unfaithful in the marriage.
Women of southern plantations are not written about in many ways. Many southern women are mentioned in many books only as part of the males. Rich white women of the south spent their time at home raising children and many acted as teachers who taught how to read, write and study religion. White women in the south suffered under heavier burdens than northern women. White women of the south engaged in fewer charitable organizations or reform movements than northern women (Jeannie, 1998). In order to carry on their managerial skills well, southern women are supposed to be humble and submissive. They didn't have the authority, but were expected to do all the work. A southern white woman had many responsibilities even before the war broke out. These women lived on plantations with their husbands and families and the livelihood of these plantations revolved around the upkeep of the grounds and the way the household and household staff was run.
Slavery brought in divisions that split America, but it was not slavery alone that caused war. The civil war history questions the degree to which southern elite women supported the confederacy believing that it will bring changes in gender inequality. As a result, southern women who were forced to new and not always comfortable roles became disillusioned and disappointed. Their men did not support them to the extent that they hoped for. White southern women did not support the confederacy and demanded attention from their men. The war served as a source of change to white women who were forced to develop new skills, accept new responsibilities and at long last redefine their traditional gender roles. As a result of the experience southern women acquired, these women, "sought to invent new foundations for self definition and self worth". Northern women were not treated with much attention as southern women because the war brought in fewer challenges to them than to women in the south. Many struggles were in the south, and white southern women suffered from trauma of defeat, emancipation and reconstruction.
There is an unexplored interior cultural conflict that emerged from the civil war within southern white women. These conflicts affected women's views of themselves, their social identity and their world. Issues of slavery like racial conflict, gender relations, religion and state formation were at the heart of civil war. Blacks aimed at destroying slavery and they immensely participated in the civil war leading to the forthcoming of several consequences.
The war stimulated many women to question their traditional domestic, sexual and social roles. The inborn characteristics of southern women in resisting change were based more on habit and lack of need to change than conviction that proceeded. These confederate women were slow to challenge the class and gender roles of their society, even though the civil war exposed them to hardships that required them to temporarily take on the roles of men. Plantation women stood up and managed the plantation in the absence of men who went out to the war. Confederate women suffered a lot as a result of the thieving and looting carried out by union soldiers; these caused women to desire their traditional and familiar lifestyles even if it meant going back to submissive status.
Slavery was considered to be like sin and thus had to be attacked as sin and society had to break all the ties with slaveholders who required to be saved and be converted to avoid slavery. The people who struggled for control of society and were antislavery believed that slaves have to be convicted to do missionary work. Christian slaveholders were required to be engaged to a great extend in these work in the south. An abolitionist view came to prevail in America as it reflected the one said statement from the northern view of a dangerous "Slave Power Conspiracy" that eventually lead to republican victory during the consequent elections. According to Rable, "The action of abolitionists in criticizing the northern church was less effective in purifying the moral outlook of the northern church than it was in strengthening the proslavery stance of the southern church." True Christians were expected to resolve the problem of slavery. There are views on the ways in which warfare transformed the lives of southern white women who both supported slavery and at the end undermined southern nationalism and war effort against slavery. Whilee generally quoting southern women of all classes, Rable intensely dramatizes the heroism and heartache faced during the civil war by southern women.
Though historians continue to disagree about how deeply the negative attitudes of northern whites toward blacks influenced politics during the civil war, studies have shown that powerful prejudices against blacks prevailed among white northerners of foreign and southern birth ancestry. It is also evident that these feelings reinforced wartime support for black colonization in America and delayed President Lincoln's embrace of emancipation. Relatives and friends would write diaries describing various parts of the south, especially eastern Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia. They commented on the Negroes condition in the contraband camps, and officers and men of the Union army, and the attitudes of white southerners. They endured hardships of being determined teachers and missionaries.
The economic and ideological conflicts surrounding women army in the labor is all attributed to the impact of the civil war on gender structure in America. This war was a testing ground in generating political and social differences between men and women. The support that was given by southern women to patriotic soldiers during the struggles of civil war was immense. It appears then that in America alone, women are raised to equality with the other sex and that both in theory and practice, their interests are regarded as of equal value. They are made subordinate in station, only where a regard to their best interests demands it, while they are being treated as superiors according to custom and courtesy. During the civil war, the United States sanitary commission attempted to replace female charity networks and traditions of voluntarily with a centralized organization that would ensure women's effort against war was considered. Soldier relief work enabled women to demonstrate their patriotism and rights.
The Southern relied on the union states for essential food stuffs as they lacked good storage for their agricultural products. Pro-union guerillas in the south did not support the war but dissented into confederate government policy. They had endured slavery by union troops and sought their freedom and the confederate ordeal therefore started before the war and ended after civil war.
The American Revolution affected the colonial women's life. Through the industrial revolution in the north, the cotton economy in the south changed and the adoption of new lifestyles changed the lives of women. A rise of the middle class helped in enforcing an ideology of segregation of the male and female sphere at home. Women adopted several ways to exercise autonomy in religious revivals, female higher education, missionary work and home arts such as embroidery. Women would form voluntary associations that aided the poor and reformed social status.
More slave women endured the hardship of family separations as they served as labourers in plantations while their men were engaged in confederate service. Slave women and children from the south who escaped to union lines expecting freedom were relocated to the North and were assigned roles. The northern women's political identities were affected by the conflicts that were brought in by the civil war. On the other hand, the civil war created opportunities for change and a new civic identity for northern women. Northern women were considered to be less patriotic than southern women. Northern women faced hindrances from gendered division of labor that could enable them find economic strategies to survive the war and gain political skills.
Southern women were married earlier, bore many children, and were likely to die while young, especially during child birth. Like southern women, northern women were assigned new wartime roles that emerged them to be leaders and managers of newly empowered heads of households. The uniqueness of northern women was in their participations as business people, managers, organizers and leaders. France describes union women as being caring to the confederate soldiers in local hospitals and also solving problems that divided their families. There is a critical accounting of the collision of loyalty and disloyalty, slavery and freedom, and all these make it difficult to examine the war along the border. It is clearly shown that white women of the south did not receive adequate protection and food from the confederate government and as a result, some women withdrew their support and stood up for themselves in different ways depending on their class. The effect of the civil war was to free black women and men who had been slaves, but the granting of suffrage to ex-slaves after the war did not include black women.
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Most popular orders | 2,667 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Harriet Beecher Stowe
Harriet Elisabeth Beecher Stowe (; June 14, 1811 – July 1, 1896) was an American abolitionist and author. She came from the Beecher family, a famous religious family, and is best known for her novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852), which depicts the harsh conditions for enslaved African Americans. The book reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and Great Britain, energizing anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South. Stowe wrote 30 books, including novels, three travel memoirs, and collections of articles and letters. She was influential for both her writings and her public stances and debates on social issues of the day. | <urn:uuid:2e7fb85a-9623-4697-8938-17f3e89cdaa7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://goodquotes.me/authors/harriet-beecher-stowe/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00222.warc.gz | en | 0.980318 | 163 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.201830402016639... | 2 | Harriet Beecher Stowe
Harriet Elisabeth Beecher Stowe (; June 14, 1811 – July 1, 1896) was an American abolitionist and author. She came from the Beecher family, a famous religious family, and is best known for her novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852), which depicts the harsh conditions for enslaved African Americans. The book reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and Great Britain, energizing anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South. Stowe wrote 30 books, including novels, three travel memoirs, and collections of articles and letters. She was influential for both her writings and her public stances and debates on social issues of the day. | 170 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Out, out–” by Robert Frost is a sorrowful and interesting poem. It is about a young boy working on a farm who has a tragic accident and loses his hand and dies. The doctor tries to save him but fails and the family appear to simply go back to work. This essay will discuss how Robert Frost uses word choice, imagery and theme to make this poem interesting.
Robert Frost uses specific word choice that helps to make this poem interesting. One example of this is, “Leaped out at the boys hand,”. This makes the poem interesting as it describes how the saw met the boys hand and makes the saw seem like an animal. “The boys first outcry was a rueful laugh” catches our attention as the boy is seemingly laughing after he has put his hand into the saw.
We realise a “rueful laugh”, means the boy is in shock and is sorry about what happened. When the boy is waiting he tells his sister not to let the doctor his hand off, “Don’t let him sister!” The boy is afraid about losing the hand, even though it is already gone. This is interesting as we know he hasn’t accepted the seriousness of his situation. “Little–less–nothing!” shows how slowly the boy is losing his life and the exclamation mark shows that everyone is shocked at is death. “And they, since they were not the ones dead, turned to their affairs”, shocks us as we expect his family to be grieving instead of going back to work. This makes you think that they didn’t really care about the boy.
Robert Frost’s use of imagery helps us imagine the story and scene as he tells it through this poem. One example of this is “the buzz saw snarled and rattled.” This is an example of an onomatopeia and helps us imagine what the saw would sound like and how loud it would be. Another effective phrase is “sweet scented stuff,” as it appeals to our sense of smell. By using alliteration, Frost helps us to imagine the smell of the wood as it came out of the saw. It helps us to paint a picture of the farm and imagine ourselves there. “The life from spilling,” is a metaphor for the blood spilling from the boys hand and Frost uses it to show how quickly the boy was losing his life. This piece of imagery appeals to our sense of sight as it helps us to imagine the scene as it happens, both gruesome and shocking.
The theme of “Out, out–“, is Robert Frost’s belief that children were being made to work at too young an age. There is evidence of this in the poem, “…big boy, Doing a man’s work.” Frost believed that children were being made to do dangerous jobs, that children were being made to work too much. We see this when he writes, “To please the boy by giving him the half hour that a boy counts so much when saved from work.” He clearly thought that children should be allowed to play more and work less. “Doing a man’s work, though a child at heart,” shows that Frost saw work as a ‘man’s’ job and “child at heart” suggests that he thought children had been made too mature too early in order to help out the family by working. All these quotes show that Frost didn’t believe in children working.
In conclusion, “Out, out–” by Robert Frost has written an interesting and sorrowful poem which expresses his views on child labour. His use of word choice, imagery and theme make for a great poem as they all work well together and clearly show his views on child labour. They also describe what happened to the boy well so the reader can imagine what it would have been like. When we read this poem we think of how children are forced into dangerous work and I think that this is what Frost intended. He expresses his opinion well and the reader can see how he thinks. I think that it is this and the fact that it is based on a real story that make the poem interesting. | <urn:uuid:5a392a14-36e2-4884-8e35-53f07d60bdf9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wallaceandjames.com/out-out-by-robert-frost/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00276.warc.gz | en | 0.987425 | 889 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.3477112650... | 3 | “Out, out–” by Robert Frost is a sorrowful and interesting poem. It is about a young boy working on a farm who has a tragic accident and loses his hand and dies. The doctor tries to save him but fails and the family appear to simply go back to work. This essay will discuss how Robert Frost uses word choice, imagery and theme to make this poem interesting.
Robert Frost uses specific word choice that helps to make this poem interesting. One example of this is, “Leaped out at the boys hand,”. This makes the poem interesting as it describes how the saw met the boys hand and makes the saw seem like an animal. “The boys first outcry was a rueful laugh” catches our attention as the boy is seemingly laughing after he has put his hand into the saw.
We realise a “rueful laugh”, means the boy is in shock and is sorry about what happened. When the boy is waiting he tells his sister not to let the doctor his hand off, “Don’t let him sister!” The boy is afraid about losing the hand, even though it is already gone. This is interesting as we know he hasn’t accepted the seriousness of his situation. “Little–less–nothing!” shows how slowly the boy is losing his life and the exclamation mark shows that everyone is shocked at is death. “And they, since they were not the ones dead, turned to their affairs”, shocks us as we expect his family to be grieving instead of going back to work. This makes you think that they didn’t really care about the boy.
Robert Frost’s use of imagery helps us imagine the story and scene as he tells it through this poem. One example of this is “the buzz saw snarled and rattled.” This is an example of an onomatopeia and helps us imagine what the saw would sound like and how loud it would be. Another effective phrase is “sweet scented stuff,” as it appeals to our sense of smell. By using alliteration, Frost helps us to imagine the smell of the wood as it came out of the saw. It helps us to paint a picture of the farm and imagine ourselves there. “The life from spilling,” is a metaphor for the blood spilling from the boys hand and Frost uses it to show how quickly the boy was losing his life. This piece of imagery appeals to our sense of sight as it helps us to imagine the scene as it happens, both gruesome and shocking.
The theme of “Out, out–“, is Robert Frost’s belief that children were being made to work at too young an age. There is evidence of this in the poem, “…big boy, Doing a man’s work.” Frost believed that children were being made to do dangerous jobs, that children were being made to work too much. We see this when he writes, “To please the boy by giving him the half hour that a boy counts so much when saved from work.” He clearly thought that children should be allowed to play more and work less. “Doing a man’s work, though a child at heart,” shows that Frost saw work as a ‘man’s’ job and “child at heart” suggests that he thought children had been made too mature too early in order to help out the family by working. All these quotes show that Frost didn’t believe in children working.
In conclusion, “Out, out–” by Robert Frost has written an interesting and sorrowful poem which expresses his views on child labour. His use of word choice, imagery and theme make for a great poem as they all work well together and clearly show his views on child labour. They also describe what happened to the boy well so the reader can imagine what it would have been like. When we read this poem we think of how children are forced into dangerous work and I think that this is what Frost intended. He expresses his opinion well and the reader can see how he thinks. I think that it is this and the fact that it is based on a real story that make the poem interesting. | 819 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1918 by the end of World War I, Harlem in New York City had become the largest black community in the United States. An African American movement was on its way. Many blacks from the south migrated to the north to find better opportunities. Music with different beats was being played like jazz, spirituals, and hymns. During the 1920's Harlem was filled with black intellectuals, and artists from all over the world came to make a new beginning in Harlem. Black literature, art, music, and theater were recognized and very popular. The African Americans were being recognized in the American society. The black artists and writers started to be creative and reflect from their culture into their work. The African American literature brought a lot of attention to itself. The poets, novelists, political essayists, and dramatists were the central groups who defined the Harlem renaissance. They gave expression and meaning to the African American experience. It was the first time that African American literature was taken seriously and attracted so many people. They did what they can to give themselves and other blacks the pride to be a Negro. While trying to give themselves pride they were also trying to improve their social and economic standing in America. Writers with the artists, singers, and politicians .
played important part in making the Harlem Renaissance stand out to the public. Writers reflected from their past or what they wish for the future. In the 1920's African Americans were free under the constitution but they were not free from racism and their past was not far gone. Their writing brought their expression and feelings of themselves and sometimes as the African Americans as a whole. .
Literature I believe goes beyond words on a paper but they are feelings from the heart, they bring out the persons personality and characteristics. The words themselves could have different or even hidden meanings, which make the reader go further than just reading them but actually feeling them. | <urn:uuid:f384972a-ffe2-4be4-b706-093f0672d145> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/18369.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00405.warc.gz | en | 0.988185 | 379 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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0.1582032591104507... | 6 | In 1918 by the end of World War I, Harlem in New York City had become the largest black community in the United States. An African American movement was on its way. Many blacks from the south migrated to the north to find better opportunities. Music with different beats was being played like jazz, spirituals, and hymns. During the 1920's Harlem was filled with black intellectuals, and artists from all over the world came to make a new beginning in Harlem. Black literature, art, music, and theater were recognized and very popular. The African Americans were being recognized in the American society. The black artists and writers started to be creative and reflect from their culture into their work. The African American literature brought a lot of attention to itself. The poets, novelists, political essayists, and dramatists were the central groups who defined the Harlem renaissance. They gave expression and meaning to the African American experience. It was the first time that African American literature was taken seriously and attracted so many people. They did what they can to give themselves and other blacks the pride to be a Negro. While trying to give themselves pride they were also trying to improve their social and economic standing in America. Writers with the artists, singers, and politicians .
played important part in making the Harlem Renaissance stand out to the public. Writers reflected from their past or what they wish for the future. In the 1920's African Americans were free under the constitution but they were not free from racism and their past was not far gone. Their writing brought their expression and feelings of themselves and sometimes as the African Americans as a whole. .
Literature I believe goes beyond words on a paper but they are feelings from the heart, they bring out the persons personality and characteristics. The words themselves could have different or even hidden meanings, which make the reader go further than just reading them but actually feeling them. | 389 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An ear dagger is a relatively rare and exotic form of dagger that was used during the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. It is so named because the pommel of the dagger has a very distinctive shape, somewhat resembling a human ear. Ear daggers frequently have a single sharpened edge that ends in an acute point.
It is thought that the ear dagger was introduced to Europe from Spain, where it presumably originated from the Moors.
Ear dagger Wikipedia
"In the 14th century an interesting version of the rondel appeared. This was the eared dagger, which shares its heritage with the blade known to the Turks as the yataghan and to the Cossacks as the shashqa. The pommel of eared daggers was split in two to allow the thumb to be hooked over the pommel to impart greater force to the stabbing blow. Curiously, despite its (odd) appearance, the eared dagger became widely associated with royalty and was also a favorite weapon of assassins in Italy during the 15th and 16th centuries." | <urn:uuid:6270056e-8d50-4832-b859-7df6afcdc10c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Ear-dagger | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.982751 | 213 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.23147121071... | 2 | An ear dagger is a relatively rare and exotic form of dagger that was used during the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. It is so named because the pommel of the dagger has a very distinctive shape, somewhat resembling a human ear. Ear daggers frequently have a single sharpened edge that ends in an acute point.
It is thought that the ear dagger was introduced to Europe from Spain, where it presumably originated from the Moors.
Ear dagger Wikipedia
"In the 14th century an interesting version of the rondel appeared. This was the eared dagger, which shares its heritage with the blade known to the Turks as the yataghan and to the Cossacks as the shashqa. The pommel of eared daggers was split in two to allow the thumb to be hooked over the pommel to impart greater force to the stabbing blow. Curiously, despite its (odd) appearance, the eared dagger became widely associated with royalty and was also a favorite weapon of assassins in Italy during the 15th and 16th centuries." | 218 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Roman Empire lasted for over a thousand years; from 756BC to 476AD. There are many, many reasons that it decreased. At one point it was said that Rome was "more respected than feared." That was said only 42 years before Rome began to decrease .How did this world domination go from being the most powerful empire in the world to completely nonexistent? That is what I"ll be answering in this essay. The last emperor before the decline of Rome began was Marcus Aurelius. He was the third best emperor in Rome's history. He was kind, benevolent, and humane. But during his reign the Pax Romana ended. The Pax Romana is the 200-year period of peace in Ancient Rome. It was said to be "the greatest gift Rome gave to the ancient world." This was one of the first events that started the chain of events that made Rome disapear. One of the most important reasons for the fall of Rome was the economy. There were many economic problems in Rome. I"ll first start with the prisoners of war or the lack there of. When Emperor Hadrian drew the boundaries and said Rome could grow no more in 121 AD, the empire lost one of the three largest sources of income, prisoners of war. Another major source of income was trade. Rome acted like the middleman in trade between the provinces. The provinces were told what to produce, and they produced it, sold it to Rome, who would then sell it to the other provinces for a higher price. But when the provinces became more and more independent, they cut out the middleman all together. So in that action the provinces were taking one of Rome's largest sources of income. The third economic source for Rome was taxes. As the two other sources of income began to disappear, the Rome government raised the taxes for the people of Rome. The taxes skyrocketed and the plebeians, Rome's everyday average poor people who made up almost all of Rome, started to revolt. The next reason for the decline of Rome was that the people neighboring Rome like Germany and Persia grew increasingly hostile toward the Romans. | <urn:uuid:69424738-ad97-4207-9524-ae5d03005083> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/94901.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.984159 | 430 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.462800711393356... | 6 | The Roman Empire lasted for over a thousand years; from 756BC to 476AD. There are many, many reasons that it decreased. At one point it was said that Rome was "more respected than feared." That was said only 42 years before Rome began to decrease .How did this world domination go from being the most powerful empire in the world to completely nonexistent? That is what I"ll be answering in this essay. The last emperor before the decline of Rome began was Marcus Aurelius. He was the third best emperor in Rome's history. He was kind, benevolent, and humane. But during his reign the Pax Romana ended. The Pax Romana is the 200-year period of peace in Ancient Rome. It was said to be "the greatest gift Rome gave to the ancient world." This was one of the first events that started the chain of events that made Rome disapear. One of the most important reasons for the fall of Rome was the economy. There were many economic problems in Rome. I"ll first start with the prisoners of war or the lack there of. When Emperor Hadrian drew the boundaries and said Rome could grow no more in 121 AD, the empire lost one of the three largest sources of income, prisoners of war. Another major source of income was trade. Rome acted like the middleman in trade between the provinces. The provinces were told what to produce, and they produced it, sold it to Rome, who would then sell it to the other provinces for a higher price. But when the provinces became more and more independent, they cut out the middleman all together. So in that action the provinces were taking one of Rome's largest sources of income. The third economic source for Rome was taxes. As the two other sources of income began to disappear, the Rome government raised the taxes for the people of Rome. The taxes skyrocketed and the plebeians, Rome's everyday average poor people who made up almost all of Rome, started to revolt. The next reason for the decline of Rome was that the people neighboring Rome like Germany and Persia grew increasingly hostile toward the Romans. | 442 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
The last travels
On his return from Prague in mid-November 1787, Mozart was at last appointed to a court post, as Kammermusicus, in place of Gluck, who had died. It was largely a sinecure, the only requirement being that he should supply dance music for court balls, which he did, in abundance and with some distinction, over his remaining years. The salary of 800 gulden seems to have done little to relieve the Mozarts’ chronic financial troubles. Their debts, however, were never large, and they were always able to continue employing servants and owning a carriage; their anxieties were more a matter of whether they could live as they wished than whether they would starve. In 1788 a series of letters begging loans from a fellow Freemason, Michael Puchberg, began; Puchberg usually obliged, and Mozart seems generally to have repaid him promptly. He was deeply depressed during the summer, writing of “black thoughts”; it has been suggested that he may have had a cyclothymic personality, linked with manic-depressive tendencies, which could explain not only his depression but also other aspects of his behaviour, including his spells of hectic creativity.
During the time of this depression Mozart was working on a series of three symphonies, in E-flat Major (K 543), G Minor (K 550), and C Major (the Jupiter, K 551), usually numbered 39, 40, and 41; these, with the work written for Prague (K 504), represent the summa of his orchestral output. It is not known why they were composed; possibly Mozart had a summer concert season in mind. The Prague work was a climax to his long series of brilliant D Major orchestral pieces, but the closely worked, even motivic form gives it a new power and unity, adding particular force to its frequently dark tone. The E-flat Major work, scored with clarinets and more lyrical in temper, makes fewer departures, except in the intensity of its slow movement, where Mozart used a new palette of darker orchestral colours, and the epigrammatic wit of its finale. In the G Minor work the tone of passion and perhaps of pathos, in its constant falling figures, is still more pronounced. The Jupiter (the name dates from the early 19th century) summarized the series of C Major symphonies, with their atmosphere of military pomp and ceremony, but it went far beyond them in its assimilation of opera buffa style, profundity of expression (in its andante), and richness of working—especially in the finale, which incorporates fugal procedures and ends with a grand apotheosis in five-voice fugal counterpoint.
Early in 1789 Mozart accepted an invitation to travel to Berlin with Prince Karl Lichnowsky; they paused in Prague, Dresden (where he played at court), and Leipzig (where he improvised on the Thomaskirche organ). He appeared at the Prussian court and probably was invited to compose piano sonatas for the princess and string quartets with a prominent cello part for King Friedrich Wilhelm II. He did in fact write three quartets, in parts of which he allowed the individual instruments (including the royal cello) special prominence, and there is one sonata (his last, K 576) that may have been intended for the Prussian princess. But it is unlikely that Mozart ever sent this music or was paid for it.
The summer saw the composition of the clarinet quintet, in which a true chamber style is warmly and gracefully reconciled with the solo writing. Thereafter Mozart concentrated on completing his next opera commission, the third of his Da Ponte operas, Così fan tutte, which was given on January 26, 1790; its run was interrupted after five performances when theatres closed because of the death of Joseph II, but a further five were given in the summer. This opera, the subtlest, most consistent, and most symmetrical of the three, was long reviled (from Beethoven onward) on account of its subject, female fickleness; but a more careful reading of it, especially in light of the emotional texture of the music, which gains complexity as the plot progresses, makes it clear that it is no frivolous piece but a penetrating essay on human feelings and their mature recognition. The music of Act 1 is essentially conventional in expression, and conventional feeling is tellingly parodied in certain of the arias; but the arias of Act 2 are on a deeper and more personal level. Features of the music of Così fan tutte—serenity, restraint, poise, irony—may be noted as markers of Mozart’s late style, which had developed since 1787 and may be linked with his personal development and the circumstances of his life, including his Masonic associations, his professional and financial situation, and his marriage.
The year 1790 was difficult and unproductive: besides Così fan tutte, Mozart completed two of the “Prussian” quartets, arranged works by Handel for performance at van Swieten’s house (he had similarly arranged Messiah in 1789), and wrote the first of his two fantasy-like pieces, in a variety of prelude-and-fugue form, for a mechanical organ (this imposing work, in F Minor [K 594], is now generally played on a normal organ). In the autumn, anxious to be noticed in court circles, he went to Frankfurt for the imperial coronation of Leopold II, but as an individual rather than a court musician. His concert, which included two piano concertos and possibly one of the new symphonies, was ill timed, poorly attended, and a financial failure. Anxieties about money were a recurrent theme in his letters home. | <urn:uuid:ff683394-f5c4-48c5-aa7c-50c1608a5978> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wolfgang-Amadeus-Mozart/The-last-travels | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00241.warc.gz | en | 0.980163 | 1,265 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.132238671183... | 1 | Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
The last travels
On his return from Prague in mid-November 1787, Mozart was at last appointed to a court post, as Kammermusicus, in place of Gluck, who had died. It was largely a sinecure, the only requirement being that he should supply dance music for court balls, which he did, in abundance and with some distinction, over his remaining years. The salary of 800 gulden seems to have done little to relieve the Mozarts’ chronic financial troubles. Their debts, however, were never large, and they were always able to continue employing servants and owning a carriage; their anxieties were more a matter of whether they could live as they wished than whether they would starve. In 1788 a series of letters begging loans from a fellow Freemason, Michael Puchberg, began; Puchberg usually obliged, and Mozart seems generally to have repaid him promptly. He was deeply depressed during the summer, writing of “black thoughts”; it has been suggested that he may have had a cyclothymic personality, linked with manic-depressive tendencies, which could explain not only his depression but also other aspects of his behaviour, including his spells of hectic creativity.
During the time of this depression Mozart was working on a series of three symphonies, in E-flat Major (K 543), G Minor (K 550), and C Major (the Jupiter, K 551), usually numbered 39, 40, and 41; these, with the work written for Prague (K 504), represent the summa of his orchestral output. It is not known why they were composed; possibly Mozart had a summer concert season in mind. The Prague work was a climax to his long series of brilliant D Major orchestral pieces, but the closely worked, even motivic form gives it a new power and unity, adding particular force to its frequently dark tone. The E-flat Major work, scored with clarinets and more lyrical in temper, makes fewer departures, except in the intensity of its slow movement, where Mozart used a new palette of darker orchestral colours, and the epigrammatic wit of its finale. In the G Minor work the tone of passion and perhaps of pathos, in its constant falling figures, is still more pronounced. The Jupiter (the name dates from the early 19th century) summarized the series of C Major symphonies, with their atmosphere of military pomp and ceremony, but it went far beyond them in its assimilation of opera buffa style, profundity of expression (in its andante), and richness of working—especially in the finale, which incorporates fugal procedures and ends with a grand apotheosis in five-voice fugal counterpoint.
Early in 1789 Mozart accepted an invitation to travel to Berlin with Prince Karl Lichnowsky; they paused in Prague, Dresden (where he played at court), and Leipzig (where he improvised on the Thomaskirche organ). He appeared at the Prussian court and probably was invited to compose piano sonatas for the princess and string quartets with a prominent cello part for King Friedrich Wilhelm II. He did in fact write three quartets, in parts of which he allowed the individual instruments (including the royal cello) special prominence, and there is one sonata (his last, K 576) that may have been intended for the Prussian princess. But it is unlikely that Mozart ever sent this music or was paid for it.
The summer saw the composition of the clarinet quintet, in which a true chamber style is warmly and gracefully reconciled with the solo writing. Thereafter Mozart concentrated on completing his next opera commission, the third of his Da Ponte operas, Così fan tutte, which was given on January 26, 1790; its run was interrupted after five performances when theatres closed because of the death of Joseph II, but a further five were given in the summer. This opera, the subtlest, most consistent, and most symmetrical of the three, was long reviled (from Beethoven onward) on account of its subject, female fickleness; but a more careful reading of it, especially in light of the emotional texture of the music, which gains complexity as the plot progresses, makes it clear that it is no frivolous piece but a penetrating essay on human feelings and their mature recognition. The music of Act 1 is essentially conventional in expression, and conventional feeling is tellingly parodied in certain of the arias; but the arias of Act 2 are on a deeper and more personal level. Features of the music of Così fan tutte—serenity, restraint, poise, irony—may be noted as markers of Mozart’s late style, which had developed since 1787 and may be linked with his personal development and the circumstances of his life, including his Masonic associations, his professional and financial situation, and his marriage.
The year 1790 was difficult and unproductive: besides Così fan tutte, Mozart completed two of the “Prussian” quartets, arranged works by Handel for performance at van Swieten’s house (he had similarly arranged Messiah in 1789), and wrote the first of his two fantasy-like pieces, in a variety of prelude-and-fugue form, for a mechanical organ (this imposing work, in F Minor [K 594], is now generally played on a normal organ). In the autumn, anxious to be noticed in court circles, he went to Frankfurt for the imperial coronation of Leopold II, but as an individual rather than a court musician. His concert, which included two piano concertos and possibly one of the new symphonies, was ill timed, poorly attended, and a financial failure. Anxieties about money were a recurrent theme in his letters home. | 1,262 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Three of the 45 US presidents died on 4th of July. Thomas Jefferson and John Adam died on July 4, 1826, and John Monroe died on July 4, 1831.
The American Civil War was fought, essentially to abolish slavery, between 1861 and 1865 when the United States and eleven southern states left the union and formed the Confederate States of America. The war was during the presidency of Abraham Lincoln (the 16th president of the US) Lincoln was the candidate of the explicitly antislavery Republican Party. Soon after his election as the president of the nation, seven Southern states organized as the Confederate States of America. More than three million Union and Confederate soldiers fought during the Civil War.
John and Abigail Adams his wife were the first occupants of the White House in Washington, DC. George Washington did oversee the construction of the house, but he never lived in it. It began being built in 1792 and wasn’t inhabited until 1800.
July 2nd was the day that Congress voted to free the US from British rule. July 4th is when John Hancock wrote the first signature on the Declaration of Independence in order to spread the word of the vote. Fifty-six men (including two were from England, one from Wales, two from Scotland, two from Ireland, and one from Northern Ireland) signed the document that announced intended independence.
Measure from the sea bed and not sea level and the tallest mountain in the world would be Mauna Kea in Hawaii. It is 13,796 feet in altitude above sea level, but when measured from the seafloor it is over 32,000 feet high, while Mount Everest is 29,028 feet high.
The Liberty Bell was last rung on George Washington’s Birthday in 1846. It received its famous crack a few hours later. The bell was made in the same factory as Big Ben in London at The Whitechapel Bell Foundry. You can see the word “Pennsylvania” is misspelled as “Pensylvania” on the bell. The bell was first rung on July 8, 1776 for the first public reading of The Declaration of Independence. It is said to have cost $225.50.
There are 182 places in the US that have the word “Christmas” in their names. | <urn:uuid:e03cf9f8-1e19-4c6b-afdc-37399cefe537> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exportaction.com/category/us-market-news/page/4/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00320.warc.gz | en | 0.986059 | 476 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.158797651529312... | 1 | Three of the 45 US presidents died on 4th of July. Thomas Jefferson and John Adam died on July 4, 1826, and John Monroe died on July 4, 1831.
The American Civil War was fought, essentially to abolish slavery, between 1861 and 1865 when the United States and eleven southern states left the union and formed the Confederate States of America. The war was during the presidency of Abraham Lincoln (the 16th president of the US) Lincoln was the candidate of the explicitly antislavery Republican Party. Soon after his election as the president of the nation, seven Southern states organized as the Confederate States of America. More than three million Union and Confederate soldiers fought during the Civil War.
John and Abigail Adams his wife were the first occupants of the White House in Washington, DC. George Washington did oversee the construction of the house, but he never lived in it. It began being built in 1792 and wasn’t inhabited until 1800.
July 2nd was the day that Congress voted to free the US from British rule. July 4th is when John Hancock wrote the first signature on the Declaration of Independence in order to spread the word of the vote. Fifty-six men (including two were from England, one from Wales, two from Scotland, two from Ireland, and one from Northern Ireland) signed the document that announced intended independence.
Measure from the sea bed and not sea level and the tallest mountain in the world would be Mauna Kea in Hawaii. It is 13,796 feet in altitude above sea level, but when measured from the seafloor it is over 32,000 feet high, while Mount Everest is 29,028 feet high.
The Liberty Bell was last rung on George Washington’s Birthday in 1846. It received its famous crack a few hours later. The bell was made in the same factory as Big Ben in London at The Whitechapel Bell Foundry. You can see the word “Pennsylvania” is misspelled as “Pensylvania” on the bell. The bell was first rung on July 8, 1776 for the first public reading of The Declaration of Independence. It is said to have cost $225.50.
There are 182 places in the US that have the word “Christmas” in their names. | 511 | ENGLISH | 1 |
75 years ago today: July 25, 1944
On July 25, 1944, Marine war dogs helped Americans fight during a large Japanese counterattack on Guam.
Marine Capt. William W. Putney, a veterinarian, chronicled the role of war dogs in the Battle of Guam in his book "Always Faithful." Putney, who died in 2006, worked with the dogs and their handlers and was an advocate for the creation of the War Dog Monument here.
In his book, he described the events of July 25:
"That night, 7,500 Japanese attacked from atop Mt. Tenjo. Late in the afternoon, the Marines on Chonito Ridge had watched them gathering in large groups and getting drunk on sake. Although the Japanese troops were far away, the Marines could hear them screaming and yelling, tossing their finished sake bottles into the air, waving their bayonets and sabers, and rousing themselves to fury for the attack they had planned."
A 1954 Marine Corps history book, "The Recapture of Guam," said the weather was bad and the night was pitch black, factors which aided the Japanese as they prepared "for their supreme effort." The book gave a similar description of the clamor and confusion that preceded the attack, with Marines unsure if the assault had started.
Big Boy 'suddenly sprang up again'
The war dogs had been trained to alert to enemy troops, carry messages and detect mines and explosives. On Guam, they also proved useful in searching tunnels and caves. In Putney's account, when the Japanese approached a forward American outpost on July 25, a dog named Big Boy "suddenly sprang up again, his nose pointed directly toward Mt. Tenjo, his whole body straining at the leash." His handler "grabbed him and forced him back into the foxhole, then told the sergeant that the Japanese were almost there. The attack could come at any moment."
By the time the Japanese arrived, the Marines were ready.
"The night was broken with a shriek of 'Banzai' — then all hell broke loose," Putney wrote. He said warnings provided by dogs gave the Americans an advantage throughout the attack.
The dogs and their handlers continued their work throughout the war. Of the 60 dogs on Guam, 25 were killed and 20 were wounded. The war dogs were originally buried in Asan, but the cemetery fell into disrepair. Because of Putney's advocacy, the remains of the war dogs were moved to Naval Base, where the monument was dedicated on July 21, 1994, the 50th anniversary of the Liberation of Guam.
In other news
- Lawsuit: Guam secures water contamination litigation team
- Guam Homeland: No threat from reported North Korea missile tests
- Ex-professor marks first month in prison for sex crimes | <urn:uuid:22045f95-9021-4d17-a802-61d9d15a4395> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.guampdn.com/story/news/local/2019/07/25/75-years-ago-today-july-25-1944-war-dogs-guam-william-putney/1792385001/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00355.warc.gz | en | 0.985932 | 575 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.82233893871307... | 1 | 75 years ago today: July 25, 1944
On July 25, 1944, Marine war dogs helped Americans fight during a large Japanese counterattack on Guam.
Marine Capt. William W. Putney, a veterinarian, chronicled the role of war dogs in the Battle of Guam in his book "Always Faithful." Putney, who died in 2006, worked with the dogs and their handlers and was an advocate for the creation of the War Dog Monument here.
In his book, he described the events of July 25:
"That night, 7,500 Japanese attacked from atop Mt. Tenjo. Late in the afternoon, the Marines on Chonito Ridge had watched them gathering in large groups and getting drunk on sake. Although the Japanese troops were far away, the Marines could hear them screaming and yelling, tossing their finished sake bottles into the air, waving their bayonets and sabers, and rousing themselves to fury for the attack they had planned."
A 1954 Marine Corps history book, "The Recapture of Guam," said the weather was bad and the night was pitch black, factors which aided the Japanese as they prepared "for their supreme effort." The book gave a similar description of the clamor and confusion that preceded the attack, with Marines unsure if the assault had started.
Big Boy 'suddenly sprang up again'
The war dogs had been trained to alert to enemy troops, carry messages and detect mines and explosives. On Guam, they also proved useful in searching tunnels and caves. In Putney's account, when the Japanese approached a forward American outpost on July 25, a dog named Big Boy "suddenly sprang up again, his nose pointed directly toward Mt. Tenjo, his whole body straining at the leash." His handler "grabbed him and forced him back into the foxhole, then told the sergeant that the Japanese were almost there. The attack could come at any moment."
By the time the Japanese arrived, the Marines were ready.
"The night was broken with a shriek of 'Banzai' — then all hell broke loose," Putney wrote. He said warnings provided by dogs gave the Americans an advantage throughout the attack.
The dogs and their handlers continued their work throughout the war. Of the 60 dogs on Guam, 25 were killed and 20 were wounded. The war dogs were originally buried in Asan, but the cemetery fell into disrepair. Because of Putney's advocacy, the remains of the war dogs were moved to Naval Base, where the monument was dedicated on July 21, 1994, the 50th anniversary of the Liberation of Guam.
In other news
- Lawsuit: Guam secures water contamination litigation team
- Guam Homeland: No threat from reported North Korea missile tests
- Ex-professor marks first month in prison for sex crimes | 606 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From April of 1915 to 1917, the Ottoman empire began a process of eliminating its Armenian population by a mass genocide or "ethnic cleansing." At the time, the first World War was already occurring, which turned out to be the original spark that would cause the carnage to flare. Thomas de Waal states in his article The G-Word that "the Ottoman Empire began a brutal campaign of deporting and destroying its ethnic Armenian community, whom it accused of supporting Russia, a World War I enemy. More than a million Armenians died." (Waal, The G-Word). He goes on to talk about how recognizing it as a "genocide" comes with much tension and opposition today. As a whole, much went into the start of the Armenian Genocide along with the events that occurred during it, the actions that were taken to stop it, and the effects it has caused in the world up to today.
The Armenian Genocide was caused by a mixture of racism toward the Armenians, anger towards military losses, and the need for a scapegoat, or someone to blame. It started off in 1915, when The Ottoman Empire had a lot of internal struggles and issues and had no outlet to place blame onto. During the World War I years, when the Ottomans had much trouble with their numerous losses, they began to use the Armenian people as scapegoats to place blame on, similar to how hitler would do later with the Jews during the Holocaust. In her article on the Armenian Genocide, Alba Longoria is quoted saying, "The government of the Ottoman Empire confiscated Armenian property, deported Armenians to Syria and Anatolia, and massacred large numbers of Armenians, while many of those who were deported died of starvation, but those who survived the deportation witnessed unimaginable brutalities, like the systematic stabbing to death of numerous women and children." (Longoria, The Armenian Genocide). This exemplifies the horrors that had begun the carnage and that had eventually escalated to downright atrocities and purposeless murder. | <urn:uuid:d4e70620-4d4f-4c85-90fe-00f997f81aa3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/217670.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.98213 | 404 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.70241129398345... | 5 | From April of 1915 to 1917, the Ottoman empire began a process of eliminating its Armenian population by a mass genocide or "ethnic cleansing." At the time, the first World War was already occurring, which turned out to be the original spark that would cause the carnage to flare. Thomas de Waal states in his article The G-Word that "the Ottoman Empire began a brutal campaign of deporting and destroying its ethnic Armenian community, whom it accused of supporting Russia, a World War I enemy. More than a million Armenians died." (Waal, The G-Word). He goes on to talk about how recognizing it as a "genocide" comes with much tension and opposition today. As a whole, much went into the start of the Armenian Genocide along with the events that occurred during it, the actions that were taken to stop it, and the effects it has caused in the world up to today.
The Armenian Genocide was caused by a mixture of racism toward the Armenians, anger towards military losses, and the need for a scapegoat, or someone to blame. It started off in 1915, when The Ottoman Empire had a lot of internal struggles and issues and had no outlet to place blame onto. During the World War I years, when the Ottomans had much trouble with their numerous losses, they began to use the Armenian people as scapegoats to place blame on, similar to how hitler would do later with the Jews during the Holocaust. In her article on the Armenian Genocide, Alba Longoria is quoted saying, "The government of the Ottoman Empire confiscated Armenian property, deported Armenians to Syria and Anatolia, and massacred large numbers of Armenians, while many of those who were deported died of starvation, but those who survived the deportation witnessed unimaginable brutalities, like the systematic stabbing to death of numerous women and children." (Longoria, The Armenian Genocide). This exemplifies the horrors that had begun the carnage and that had eventually escalated to downright atrocities and purposeless murder. | 424 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This Travel Identity Card, was issued by The Passport Office, Liverpool. This had to be carried at all times and was a kind of internal passport, which permitted movement between the British Isles, Northern Ireland and Eire (Republic of Ireland).
Border controls were imposed on the northern side of the border in July 1940. The Northern Ireland government passed legislation requiring anyone in Northern Ireland, aged 14 and over, to hold an approved identity document.
Before this, the was an agreement that provided UK law to deem Irish Free State to be part of the UK for the purposes of immigration law. It was fully implemented in 1925 as in itself established a Common Travel Area (CTA). However, it was suspended on the outbreak of war in 1939 and travel restrictions were introduced between the islands of Great Britain and Ireland. Travel restrictions also applied to people travelling from Northern Ireland to elsewhere in the UK.
The immigration controls between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain lasted until 1952. | <urn:uuid:c4738054-cf9d-4ad0-acde-cb03f293fd97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.papertotravel.com/MP-221 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.981132 | 195 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.152252... | 4 | This Travel Identity Card, was issued by The Passport Office, Liverpool. This had to be carried at all times and was a kind of internal passport, which permitted movement between the British Isles, Northern Ireland and Eire (Republic of Ireland).
Border controls were imposed on the northern side of the border in July 1940. The Northern Ireland government passed legislation requiring anyone in Northern Ireland, aged 14 and over, to hold an approved identity document.
Before this, the was an agreement that provided UK law to deem Irish Free State to be part of the UK for the purposes of immigration law. It was fully implemented in 1925 as in itself established a Common Travel Area (CTA). However, it was suspended on the outbreak of war in 1939 and travel restrictions were introduced between the islands of Great Britain and Ireland. Travel restrictions also applied to people travelling from Northern Ireland to elsewhere in the UK.
The immigration controls between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain lasted until 1952. | 209 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Please explain "for half his flock were in their beds," in W.B.Yeats' poem "The Ballad of Father Gilligan."
What is referred to in this poem as the "flock" is the people who lived in Father Gilligan's area. They are the people for whom he, as a priest, is responsible. The idea is that he is their shepherd and they are his flock -- his group of sheep.
This metaphor comes from the Bible. Jesus is described as the "Good Shepherd." He is described as someone who comes and takes care of his sheep. Therefore, a priest can be described using the same metaphor since a priest is supposed to do Jesus's work as well.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:965faee8-c634-4afd-80a0-eddafde218f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/poem-ballad-father-gilligan-by-w-b-yeats-need-157967?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.995447 | 153 | 4 | 4 | [
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-0.291130453... | 1 | Please explain "for half his flock were in their beds," in W.B.Yeats' poem "The Ballad of Father Gilligan."
What is referred to in this poem as the "flock" is the people who lived in Father Gilligan's area. They are the people for whom he, as a priest, is responsible. The idea is that he is their shepherd and they are his flock -- his group of sheep.
This metaphor comes from the Bible. Jesus is described as the "Good Shepherd." He is described as someone who comes and takes care of his sheep. Therefore, a priest can be described using the same metaphor since a priest is supposed to do Jesus's work as well.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 148 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"No copyright infringement intended. All materials used are the property of their respective owners."
Latest Activity: Jan 16
In most cases, the women were actually in charge of gathering materials and then building the homes for everyone. They maintained their homes’ roof, and created new houses for tribes to live in. This is an astonishing achievement, particularly for the women of their time. The men knew that women were the source of life, and provided a feeling of strength and consistency to their lives. The women in Native American tribes often helped their men to hunt down buffalo. Then, when the buffalo were harvested, the women were responsible for skinning, cutting, and cooking the animal. They also gathered firewood, cooked, and repaired clothing and shoes.
But Native American women were not simply homemakers. In fact, they served a great deal of important purposes and were essential to the tribe in other ways as well. Women made tools and weapons out of animal bone, which were absolutely necessary for everyone’s’ survival. Not only was there medicine men in the tribes but there were medicine women as well. In fact, many Native American tribes believed that the women had more healing power and were able to soothe ill souls with their chants and connection to the spirit world. Medicine women gathered herbs to create healing medicines for those who fell sick within the tribe. Additionally, most Native American women were master craftsman who made beautiful blankets, baskets, and pottery. Jewelry was another favorite. There was a feeling of mutual respect between the men and women of the tribes. They cared for their children and husbands, just like the modern woman does today. Without their help, it would have been very difficult for the Native Americans to survive. | <urn:uuid:c2371aaf-cfb2-446e-97b2-94d2d06630d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://warriornation.ning.com/group/nativeamericanwoman | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00024.warc.gz | en | 0.990706 | 353 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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-0.0408043302... | 1 | "No copyright infringement intended. All materials used are the property of their respective owners."
Latest Activity: Jan 16
In most cases, the women were actually in charge of gathering materials and then building the homes for everyone. They maintained their homes’ roof, and created new houses for tribes to live in. This is an astonishing achievement, particularly for the women of their time. The men knew that women were the source of life, and provided a feeling of strength and consistency to their lives. The women in Native American tribes often helped their men to hunt down buffalo. Then, when the buffalo were harvested, the women were responsible for skinning, cutting, and cooking the animal. They also gathered firewood, cooked, and repaired clothing and shoes.
But Native American women were not simply homemakers. In fact, they served a great deal of important purposes and were essential to the tribe in other ways as well. Women made tools and weapons out of animal bone, which were absolutely necessary for everyone’s’ survival. Not only was there medicine men in the tribes but there were medicine women as well. In fact, many Native American tribes believed that the women had more healing power and were able to soothe ill souls with their chants and connection to the spirit world. Medicine women gathered herbs to create healing medicines for those who fell sick within the tribe. Additionally, most Native American women were master craftsman who made beautiful blankets, baskets, and pottery. Jewelry was another favorite. There was a feeling of mutual respect between the men and women of the tribes. They cared for their children and husbands, just like the modern woman does today. Without their help, it would have been very difficult for the Native Americans to survive. | 345 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bass and Flinders were explorers. They explored in a rowing boat called 'Tom Thumb' They proved that Tasmania was an island, separated from the mainland of Australia. Bass had bought out this tiny boat with him on the Reliance. At about 8 ft keel and 5 ft beam (around 2.5 m x 1.5 m), it was dubbed appropriately Tom Thumb. They were away nine days and traced George’s River about 32 km further inland than hither known. As soon as the Reliance returned from a voyage to Norfolk Island in March 1796, the two.
The Bass and Flinders Centre is centrally located in George Town on Tasmania’s Tamar River. A must see hands on display. In 1798, the explorers Bass and Flinders were dispatched to ‘Van Diemen’s Land’ to ascertain if Tasmania was an island or not. In 1796 Bass and Flinders explored the coastline south of Sydney using a tiny open boat about 2.5 metres long. It was called the Tom Thumb. As they were sailing along the southern coast of New South Wales, they were met by a party of fierce-looking aborigines. They decided to calm things down by trying to amuse the aborigines. | <urn:uuid:682d7369-48a6-473d-af5b-17d79d70ea11> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://danitsja.info/and/bass-and-flinders-tom-thumb.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00304.warc.gz | en | 0.986879 | 260 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.3077766001224... | 2 | Bass and Flinders were explorers. They explored in a rowing boat called 'Tom Thumb' They proved that Tasmania was an island, separated from the mainland of Australia. Bass had bought out this tiny boat with him on the Reliance. At about 8 ft keel and 5 ft beam (around 2.5 m x 1.5 m), it was dubbed appropriately Tom Thumb. They were away nine days and traced George’s River about 32 km further inland than hither known. As soon as the Reliance returned from a voyage to Norfolk Island in March 1796, the two.
The Bass and Flinders Centre is centrally located in George Town on Tasmania’s Tamar River. A must see hands on display. In 1798, the explorers Bass and Flinders were dispatched to ‘Van Diemen’s Land’ to ascertain if Tasmania was an island or not. In 1796 Bass and Flinders explored the coastline south of Sydney using a tiny open boat about 2.5 metres long. It was called the Tom Thumb. As they were sailing along the southern coast of New South Wales, they were met by a party of fierce-looking aborigines. They decided to calm things down by trying to amuse the aborigines. | 267 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get Full Essay Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues.
The Salem Witch Trials of By: Trials were held in Salem Village, Ipswich, Andover and Salem Town of Essex County of Massachusetts, but accusations of witchcraft occurred in surrounding counties as well.
Nineteen of the accused, fourteen women and five men, were hanged at Gallows Hill near Salem Village. Hysteria had swept through Puritan Massachusetts and hundreds of people were accused of witchcraft. Why these accusations came about might account for a combination of an ongoing frontier war, economic conditions, congregational strife, teenage boredom, and personal jealousy among neighbors.
She had suffered from fits of hysteria and delusions. The Reverend called upon the local physician, William Griggs, whom could find nothing physically wrong with her and ultimately concluded that she had been bewitched.
All three women were sent to a prison in Boston, where Osborne later died of natural causes.
Soon afterwards, mass hysteria ensued. There were many accusations from people across Essex County that they were suffering from witchcraft, despite the jailing of the three accused, claiming that they were being tortured by ghosts and other apparitions of witches and even accused their neighbors of the horrific acts.
Historians believe that social and economic factors were a cause of the anxiety most people inhibited. Other factors include teenage boredom, and old feuds between neighbors of disputes within congregations.
There was a strong belief by the Puritans that Satan was the cause and more and more people were being accused of working for the Devil. Soon there were so many accused of witchcraft that jails were approaching their capacity.
Many of the accused would confess for fear of being sent to the gallows. A new court was created to hear the witchcraft cases.
The judges and magistrates appointed allowed spectral evidence, or testimony of a person accusing another of witchcraft based on dreams and visions. There was little or no hard evidence against any of the accused. Hearsay, gossip, stories, unsupported assertions, surmises were generally admitted.
The accused did not have legal counsel, witnesses to testify for them under oath, or an opportunity for appeal if they were convicted.
They were allowed to represent themselves and produce evidence however.
Many were afraid to criticize the witch trials for fear of being accused themselves. Only nineteen of the accused witches were executed.
Five had died in prison from disease, and one man, Eighty year old Giles Corey, was pressed to death. Soon after the executions, people began to ignore the accusations against suspected witches.Salem Witch Trials - The year marked a major event in history in the town of Salem, Massachusetts.
The Salem Witchcraft Trials still leaves this country with so many questions as to what happened in that small town. An infamous episode in American history, the Salem witch trials of resulted in the execution by hanging of fourteen women and five men accused of being witches.
In addition, one man was. The Salem Witch Trials of In colonial Massachusetts between February of and May of over one hundred and fifty people were arrested and imprisoned for the capital felony of witchcraft.
the Salem Witch Trials The Salem Witch Trials of took place in the Puritan community of Salem, Massachusetts. Cotton Mather, a clergyman in Salem, emerged throughout the course of the trials as a pillar of support and, ultimately, as a witch-hunter.
What caused the Salem Witch Trial Hysteria of Essay What caused the Salem Witch Trial Hysteria of ? During the summer of , nineteen people were hung and one pressed to death, because they were accused of practicing or aiding the process of witchcraft - What caused the Salem Witch Trial Hysteria of Essay introduction?
The Salem witch trials of took place in Salem, Massachusetts. Overall, people were arrested as 19 were hanged and one person crushed to death.
Researchers describe the Salem witch trials as a series of court trials that were aimed at prosecuting persons who had been accused of witchcraft. | <urn:uuid:df379efb-fa97-4c51-af23-f2df295d2a0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://zyhyjoxunabonyhej.monstermanfilm.com/salem-witch-trial-of-1692-essay-2318gn.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.985642 | 811 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.324137628... | 1 | Get Full Essay Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues.
The Salem Witch Trials of By: Trials were held in Salem Village, Ipswich, Andover and Salem Town of Essex County of Massachusetts, but accusations of witchcraft occurred in surrounding counties as well.
Nineteen of the accused, fourteen women and five men, were hanged at Gallows Hill near Salem Village. Hysteria had swept through Puritan Massachusetts and hundreds of people were accused of witchcraft. Why these accusations came about might account for a combination of an ongoing frontier war, economic conditions, congregational strife, teenage boredom, and personal jealousy among neighbors.
She had suffered from fits of hysteria and delusions. The Reverend called upon the local physician, William Griggs, whom could find nothing physically wrong with her and ultimately concluded that she had been bewitched.
All three women were sent to a prison in Boston, where Osborne later died of natural causes.
Soon afterwards, mass hysteria ensued. There were many accusations from people across Essex County that they were suffering from witchcraft, despite the jailing of the three accused, claiming that they were being tortured by ghosts and other apparitions of witches and even accused their neighbors of the horrific acts.
Historians believe that social and economic factors were a cause of the anxiety most people inhibited. Other factors include teenage boredom, and old feuds between neighbors of disputes within congregations.
There was a strong belief by the Puritans that Satan was the cause and more and more people were being accused of working for the Devil. Soon there were so many accused of witchcraft that jails were approaching their capacity.
Many of the accused would confess for fear of being sent to the gallows. A new court was created to hear the witchcraft cases.
The judges and magistrates appointed allowed spectral evidence, or testimony of a person accusing another of witchcraft based on dreams and visions. There was little or no hard evidence against any of the accused. Hearsay, gossip, stories, unsupported assertions, surmises were generally admitted.
The accused did not have legal counsel, witnesses to testify for them under oath, or an opportunity for appeal if they were convicted.
They were allowed to represent themselves and produce evidence however.
Many were afraid to criticize the witch trials for fear of being accused themselves. Only nineteen of the accused witches were executed.
Five had died in prison from disease, and one man, Eighty year old Giles Corey, was pressed to death. Soon after the executions, people began to ignore the accusations against suspected witches.Salem Witch Trials - The year marked a major event in history in the town of Salem, Massachusetts.
The Salem Witchcraft Trials still leaves this country with so many questions as to what happened in that small town. An infamous episode in American history, the Salem witch trials of resulted in the execution by hanging of fourteen women and five men accused of being witches.
In addition, one man was. The Salem Witch Trials of In colonial Massachusetts between February of and May of over one hundred and fifty people were arrested and imprisoned for the capital felony of witchcraft.
the Salem Witch Trials The Salem Witch Trials of took place in the Puritan community of Salem, Massachusetts. Cotton Mather, a clergyman in Salem, emerged throughout the course of the trials as a pillar of support and, ultimately, as a witch-hunter.
What caused the Salem Witch Trial Hysteria of Essay What caused the Salem Witch Trial Hysteria of ? During the summer of , nineteen people were hung and one pressed to death, because they were accused of practicing or aiding the process of witchcraft - What caused the Salem Witch Trial Hysteria of Essay introduction?
The Salem witch trials of took place in Salem, Massachusetts. Overall, people were arrested as 19 were hanged and one person crushed to death.
Researchers describe the Salem witch trials as a series of court trials that were aimed at prosecuting persons who had been accused of witchcraft. | 805 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Further readings and sources:
- It was during the European Renaissance that the concept of childhood began to emerge. Rather than being seen as ‘incomplete’ or ‘unfinished’ adults as they had previously, children were viewed as individual beings in need of protection and nurturing, and their learning was the responsibility of the adults around them. During the Enlightenment in the 18th Century, the Swiss-born philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that children should be considered as autonomous beings, and at this time, artists began to treat boys and girls as individuals.
The dawn of the capitalist era generated a large moneymaking middle class, often in the Protestant sea-trading countries such as Britain and the Dutch Republic. These new family types had an ideology centered on bringing up their children well. They had knowledge and had gained wealth – two things their offspring could inherit. Along with this rise of the bourgeoisie it suddenly it became fashionable to commission group family portraits characterized by tender relationships between parents and children.
By the 19th Century, children were commonplace in art as reflected by a burgeoning interest within Western societies in children’s rights.
- How childhood came to fascinate artist, Alastair Sooke, April 1, 2016, bbc, http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20160315-how-childhood-came-to-fascinate-artists ↩
- Children in Art, National Galleries Scotland, https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/features/children-art ↩ | <urn:uuid:9824765a-51e1-4bf8-a42e-3f38bdf425eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gardencourtantiques.com/shop/portrait-of-a-boy-dutch-circa-1840-unsigned/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00057.warc.gz | en | 0.980354 | 326 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.36120638251304... | 5 | Further readings and sources:
- It was during the European Renaissance that the concept of childhood began to emerge. Rather than being seen as ‘incomplete’ or ‘unfinished’ adults as they had previously, children were viewed as individual beings in need of protection and nurturing, and their learning was the responsibility of the adults around them. During the Enlightenment in the 18th Century, the Swiss-born philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that children should be considered as autonomous beings, and at this time, artists began to treat boys and girls as individuals.
The dawn of the capitalist era generated a large moneymaking middle class, often in the Protestant sea-trading countries such as Britain and the Dutch Republic. These new family types had an ideology centered on bringing up their children well. They had knowledge and had gained wealth – two things their offspring could inherit. Along with this rise of the bourgeoisie it suddenly it became fashionable to commission group family portraits characterized by tender relationships between parents and children.
By the 19th Century, children were commonplace in art as reflected by a burgeoning interest within Western societies in children’s rights.
- How childhood came to fascinate artist, Alastair Sooke, April 1, 2016, bbc, http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20160315-how-childhood-came-to-fascinate-artists ↩
- Children in Art, National Galleries Scotland, https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/features/children-art ↩ | 313 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The expression “overturn the sky and the earth” first appeared in the poem “Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute” by Liu Shang during the Tang Dynasty (A.D. 618–907).
Liu Shang excelled at poetry and painting. However, he liked to drink and was often depressed. He would drink in the moonlight and write poetry about his deepest feelings.
In addition to writing poetry, he painted birds, fish, insects, and landscapes. He spent many years living in seclusion until one day he suddenly disappeared. No one knows what became of him.
The poem “Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute” was about Cai Wenji, a famous female poet and musician in the Eastern Han Dynasty (A.D. 25–220). Cai was captured by Xiongnu nomads (1) who invaded the capital of China around A.D. 194 and was taken as a prisoner to the northern lands.
During her captivity, Cai Wenji became the wife of one of the princes and bore him two sons. Cai spent 12 years as a prisoner of the Xiongnu until the warlord Cao Cao (2) paid a heavy ransom to get her back to China. Cai was released and returned to her homeland but left her children behind in Xiongnu territory.
In his poem, Liu Shang wrote in Song 6: “Blaming the shortened spring, find no flowers and willow trees in the nomadic land. Who knows to overturn the sky and the earth, to look for the North Star while facing the south? Name and language are strange, silencing the mouth oftentimes all year. Following everything by command, hand gestures seem better than words.” The passage accurately expressed feelings of loneliness and sadness.
Later the poetic expression “overturn the sky and the earth” became an idiom. In Chinese, it is 天翻地覆 (tiān fān dì fù) and is interpreted to mean a tremendous change.
- The Xiongnu (匈奴) were ancient nomadic people located north of China (present day Mongolia).
- Cao Cao (曹操) (A.D. 155–220) was the ultimate prime minister of the Eastern Han Dynasty. He became one the most important figures of the Three Kingdoms period and laid the foundation for what was to become the state of (Cao) Wei. | <urn:uuid:af6828ba-e62c-487b-b4db-70666a0fce8b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theepochtimes.com/chinese-idioms-overturn-the-sky-and-the-earth-%E5%A4%A9%E7%BF%BB%E5%9C%B0%E8%A6%86_897038.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00084.warc.gz | en | 0.981091 | 524 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.1419725418090820... | 3 | The expression “overturn the sky and the earth” first appeared in the poem “Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute” by Liu Shang during the Tang Dynasty (A.D. 618–907).
Liu Shang excelled at poetry and painting. However, he liked to drink and was often depressed. He would drink in the moonlight and write poetry about his deepest feelings.
In addition to writing poetry, he painted birds, fish, insects, and landscapes. He spent many years living in seclusion until one day he suddenly disappeared. No one knows what became of him.
The poem “Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute” was about Cai Wenji, a famous female poet and musician in the Eastern Han Dynasty (A.D. 25–220). Cai was captured by Xiongnu nomads (1) who invaded the capital of China around A.D. 194 and was taken as a prisoner to the northern lands.
During her captivity, Cai Wenji became the wife of one of the princes and bore him two sons. Cai spent 12 years as a prisoner of the Xiongnu until the warlord Cao Cao (2) paid a heavy ransom to get her back to China. Cai was released and returned to her homeland but left her children behind in Xiongnu territory.
In his poem, Liu Shang wrote in Song 6: “Blaming the shortened spring, find no flowers and willow trees in the nomadic land. Who knows to overturn the sky and the earth, to look for the North Star while facing the south? Name and language are strange, silencing the mouth oftentimes all year. Following everything by command, hand gestures seem better than words.” The passage accurately expressed feelings of loneliness and sadness.
Later the poetic expression “overturn the sky and the earth” became an idiom. In Chinese, it is 天翻地覆 (tiān fān dì fù) and is interpreted to mean a tremendous change.
- The Xiongnu (匈奴) were ancient nomadic people located north of China (present day Mongolia).
- Cao Cao (曹操) (A.D. 155–220) was the ultimate prime minister of the Eastern Han Dynasty. He became one the most important figures of the Three Kingdoms period and laid the foundation for what was to become the state of (Cao) Wei. | 510 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The way that immigrants were treated during the gold rush was terrible. Polish and Chinese
immigrants both had to go through hardships with getting to California to seek out a way of
finding instant wealth. The Polish had their challenges like having many labor jobs that didn’t
pay much, including the Chinese, but what was different from the Chinese was that they had a
Exclusion Act law placed against them due to discrimination that the polish didn’t have. Aside
from both differences, they both went through hardships to get to California.
The discovery of gold in California caught the attention of many people from all parts of the
Americas, Europe, and Asia. “individuals and newly formed associations of fortune hunters
began to make their way to California from elsewhere in the Americas, Europe and Asia.” 1
Across America, men made decisions to make their way to California. People from different
parts of the world were also interested in finding an easy way to gain wealth. Especially
immigrants from Europe, Asia, and South America came to California to follow the American
dream to get rich. I believe that people who came from other countries during the gold rush time
had an intention in their minds to try and make a better life for themselves and their families.
They wanted to escape the hardship that they encountered from their countries.
Moses Bruml was a hardworking shoemaker before he came to America. “I was thirteen
years of age, when in the same city I went to learn my trade, which took me two years to
complete in order to get my certificate. This showed that I could make any article of footwear
such as a shoe or boot.” Moses had to work hard since a young age. He came from a poor family 2
1 BITTERMANN, RUSTY. 2009. "THE PROMISE AND PERILS OF OUT-MIGRATION: THE WILLIAM
COOPER FAMILY IN CALIFORNIA." Island Magazine no. 66: 19-25. America: History and Life with Full
Text, EBSCOhost (accessed April 29, 2018).
2 Bruml, Moses. 1984. "FROM A POLISH TOWN TO GOLD RUSH CALIFORNIA." Western States
Jewish History 17, no. 1: 91-94. America: History and Life with Full Text, EBSCOhost (accessed April 29,
from a small town in Poland with three brothers and one sister. Five children including himself.
It seems like people during this time had very little resources to make money, which is why kids
had to work ever since they were young. Child labor was very common in the 1800s. “America
was much talked about at this time (1849), and the exciting adventures that formed in my lively
imagination could not be wiped out and even-grew bigger. So I purchased a ticket that was to get
me to New York. In 1849 I started on my journey to America.” Moses planned out his trip to 3
America because gold was talked about in 1849. People were learning about this new thing that
apparently had a huge value. Everyone who heard about this great thing that got discovered in
America, which was gold, could potentially turn their lives around and make them... | <urn:uuid:f4935763-03c7-4c62-b001-da1dbbeb3bde> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ostatic.com/essays/history-7a-united-states-pre-1877-history-7a-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00158.warc.gz | en | 0.984317 | 695 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.08907645940780... | 2 | The way that immigrants were treated during the gold rush was terrible. Polish and Chinese
immigrants both had to go through hardships with getting to California to seek out a way of
finding instant wealth. The Polish had their challenges like having many labor jobs that didn’t
pay much, including the Chinese, but what was different from the Chinese was that they had a
Exclusion Act law placed against them due to discrimination that the polish didn’t have. Aside
from both differences, they both went through hardships to get to California.
The discovery of gold in California caught the attention of many people from all parts of the
Americas, Europe, and Asia. “individuals and newly formed associations of fortune hunters
began to make their way to California from elsewhere in the Americas, Europe and Asia.” 1
Across America, men made decisions to make their way to California. People from different
parts of the world were also interested in finding an easy way to gain wealth. Especially
immigrants from Europe, Asia, and South America came to California to follow the American
dream to get rich. I believe that people who came from other countries during the gold rush time
had an intention in their minds to try and make a better life for themselves and their families.
They wanted to escape the hardship that they encountered from their countries.
Moses Bruml was a hardworking shoemaker before he came to America. “I was thirteen
years of age, when in the same city I went to learn my trade, which took me two years to
complete in order to get my certificate. This showed that I could make any article of footwear
such as a shoe or boot.” Moses had to work hard since a young age. He came from a poor family 2
1 BITTERMANN, RUSTY. 2009. "THE PROMISE AND PERILS OF OUT-MIGRATION: THE WILLIAM
COOPER FAMILY IN CALIFORNIA." Island Magazine no. 66: 19-25. America: History and Life with Full
Text, EBSCOhost (accessed April 29, 2018).
2 Bruml, Moses. 1984. "FROM A POLISH TOWN TO GOLD RUSH CALIFORNIA." Western States
Jewish History 17, no. 1: 91-94. America: History and Life with Full Text, EBSCOhost (accessed April 29,
from a small town in Poland with three brothers and one sister. Five children including himself.
It seems like people during this time had very little resources to make money, which is why kids
had to work ever since they were young. Child labor was very common in the 1800s. “America
was much talked about at this time (1849), and the exciting adventures that formed in my lively
imagination could not be wiped out and even-grew bigger. So I purchased a ticket that was to get
me to New York. In 1849 I started on my journey to America.” Moses planned out his trip to 3
America because gold was talked about in 1849. People were learning about this new thing that
apparently had a huge value. Everyone who heard about this great thing that got discovered in
America, which was gold, could potentially turn their lives around and make them... | 708 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Called "the father of black surgery,"' according to the Huffington Post, Daniel Hale Williams (1856-1931) was an early Black surgeon who rarely has shown up in textbooks.
Williams was born in Pennsylvania in 1856 to a free Black family; five years before the start of the Civil War and seven years before slaves were freed in the Emancipation Proclamation. He was the fifth of seven children. His father, a talented barber, moved his family from Pennsylvania to Maryland, but died soon after from tuberculosis. Daniel Williams' mother could not care for all seven children on her own, so she made the ripping decision to send some of her children to live with relatives—including Daniel—while she trekked on to the Forest City, Rockford, Illinois to find work.
Daniel was stuck in Baltimore apprenticing a shoemaker. Disliking his life in Maryland, Williams ran away to join his mother here in Rockford.
After living in Rockford for years, Williams stayed in the stateline by moving to Edgerton, WI and then Janesville, WI where he stepped into his father's footsteps as a barber. His early talents with a knife proved tantamount to his later successes. In his mid-20's Williams became fascinated with medicine and decided to study it.
According to the Huffington Post, "Williams studied medicine at Northwestern University's Chicago-based medical school..., becoming one of the first black physicians in the city when he earned his M.D. in 1883." Northwestern was one of only a few universities that would accept a Black man into their program. Over the next few years, Williams honed his craft—usually at people's homes; sometimes on their kitchen tables, but rarely if ever at a hospital. When discussing segregation in the United States, few tend to remember that hospitals, too, were segregated. Many people of color were denied access to hospital-care or, under 'Separate but Equal', withstood inadequate and substandard care.
By 1891, Williams had established himself as a stalwart supporter of equal rights (particularly equal medical rights) by founding Provident Hospital and Training School Association, the first non-segregated hospital in the country.
In 1893 he performed his most notable feat of being the first surgeon in the nation to perform a successful open heart surgery. Also, according to blackinventor.com, "It should be noted however that while he is known as the first person to perform an open heart surgery, it is actually more noteworthy that he was the first surgeon to open the chest cavity successfully without the patient dying of infection."
Williams passed away on August 4, 1931 from a stroke at the age of 75. He left behind a legacy of compassion and determination, successfully pioneering heart surgery while combating overt racism and overcoming incredible odds.
Learn more of this extraordinary man from the video below (though it skips over the time he lived in Rockford, sadly): | <urn:uuid:96c942c3-fa32-49f5-a6d1-ac30573a2b35> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rockfordproud.com/single-post/2017/02/06/Founder-of-first-non-segregated-hospital-grew-up-in-Rockford | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00480.warc.gz | en | 0.983272 | 606 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.480093926191329... | 5 | Called "the father of black surgery,"' according to the Huffington Post, Daniel Hale Williams (1856-1931) was an early Black surgeon who rarely has shown up in textbooks.
Williams was born in Pennsylvania in 1856 to a free Black family; five years before the start of the Civil War and seven years before slaves were freed in the Emancipation Proclamation. He was the fifth of seven children. His father, a talented barber, moved his family from Pennsylvania to Maryland, but died soon after from tuberculosis. Daniel Williams' mother could not care for all seven children on her own, so she made the ripping decision to send some of her children to live with relatives—including Daniel—while she trekked on to the Forest City, Rockford, Illinois to find work.
Daniel was stuck in Baltimore apprenticing a shoemaker. Disliking his life in Maryland, Williams ran away to join his mother here in Rockford.
After living in Rockford for years, Williams stayed in the stateline by moving to Edgerton, WI and then Janesville, WI where he stepped into his father's footsteps as a barber. His early talents with a knife proved tantamount to his later successes. In his mid-20's Williams became fascinated with medicine and decided to study it.
According to the Huffington Post, "Williams studied medicine at Northwestern University's Chicago-based medical school..., becoming one of the first black physicians in the city when he earned his M.D. in 1883." Northwestern was one of only a few universities that would accept a Black man into their program. Over the next few years, Williams honed his craft—usually at people's homes; sometimes on their kitchen tables, but rarely if ever at a hospital. When discussing segregation in the United States, few tend to remember that hospitals, too, were segregated. Many people of color were denied access to hospital-care or, under 'Separate but Equal', withstood inadequate and substandard care.
By 1891, Williams had established himself as a stalwart supporter of equal rights (particularly equal medical rights) by founding Provident Hospital and Training School Association, the first non-segregated hospital in the country.
In 1893 he performed his most notable feat of being the first surgeon in the nation to perform a successful open heart surgery. Also, according to blackinventor.com, "It should be noted however that while he is known as the first person to perform an open heart surgery, it is actually more noteworthy that he was the first surgeon to open the chest cavity successfully without the patient dying of infection."
Williams passed away on August 4, 1931 from a stroke at the age of 75. He left behind a legacy of compassion and determination, successfully pioneering heart surgery while combating overt racism and overcoming incredible odds.
Learn more of this extraordinary man from the video below (though it skips over the time he lived in Rockford, sadly): | 611 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Buy custom The Role which Railroads Played in the America's Industrial Revolution essay
Railroads played an important role in the American Industrial Revolution. Even though, there were other means of transport, railroads were more advantageous in that the costs of transport were less, and the large quantities of goods could be transported.
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In the first place, railroads encouraged huge transport of raw materials to the industries. Since the transport costs were low, industries bought the amount of raw materials they wanted, and this encouraged the increased production in the industries. Since the trains travelled for long distances and the railway lines were all over, cheap raw materials could be bought from the furthest part of the United States. Trains also facilitated delivey of more goods to the market. The train helped to supply the finished goods to various parts of the United States at very low costs. This means that industries increased their sales by reaching more customers. The increased revenues were reinvested, and hence, industrialization activities were facilitated.
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Railroads ensured that industries from various parts of the United States were supplied with the labor that they required. This is because laborers found it cheap to travel to the major towns in search for jobs. These workers could afford daily transport since the fare required in the trains was low compared to the fare required in other means of transport. The distance that one was required to travel did not prevent inddividuals from working.
Railroads created employment for many people in the United States. People also became employed since they could travel easily and cheaply using trains. The results were that the income earned by individuals increased. The demands for industrial goods increased; hence, industries were encouraged to produce more of the products than they had done before.
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Railroads opened up the United States for new immigrants. People settled in different parts of the United States. They were, therefore, able to produce the various raw materials that were needed in the industries. These new immigrants also brought new knowledge that was important for American Industrialization.
Want to know what your projected final grades might look like?
Check out our easy to use grade calculator! It can help you solve this question.Calculate now | <urn:uuid:f426e038-1e4a-42eb-981e-8e2a4b123787> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://marvelousessays.co.uk/essays/history/the-role-which-railroads-played-in-the-america-s.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00259.warc.gz | en | 0.981648 | 508 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.051809001... | 1 | Buy custom The Role which Railroads Played in the America's Industrial Revolution essay
Railroads played an important role in the American Industrial Revolution. Even though, there were other means of transport, railroads were more advantageous in that the costs of transport were less, and the large quantities of goods could be transported.
Buy The Role which Railroads Played in the America's Industrial Revolution essay paper onlineBecome our VIP client
* Final order price might be slightly different depending on
the current exchange rate of chosen payment system.
In the first place, railroads encouraged huge transport of raw materials to the industries. Since the transport costs were low, industries bought the amount of raw materials they wanted, and this encouraged the increased production in the industries. Since the trains travelled for long distances and the railway lines were all over, cheap raw materials could be bought from the furthest part of the United States. Trains also facilitated delivey of more goods to the market. The train helped to supply the finished goods to various parts of the United States at very low costs. This means that industries increased their sales by reaching more customers. The increased revenues were reinvested, and hence, industrialization activities were facilitated.
Limited Time offer!
Get 19% OFF
Railroads ensured that industries from various parts of the United States were supplied with the labor that they required. This is because laborers found it cheap to travel to the major towns in search for jobs. These workers could afford daily transport since the fare required in the trains was low compared to the fare required in other means of transport. The distance that one was required to travel did not prevent inddividuals from working.
Railroads created employment for many people in the United States. People also became employed since they could travel easily and cheaply using trains. The results were that the income earned by individuals increased. The demands for industrial goods increased; hence, industries were encouraged to produce more of the products than they had done before.
Let’s earn with us!
Get 10% from your friends orders!
Railroads opened up the United States for new immigrants. People settled in different parts of the United States. They were, therefore, able to produce the various raw materials that were needed in the industries. These new immigrants also brought new knowledge that was important for American Industrialization.
Want to know what your projected final grades might look like?
Check out our easy to use grade calculator! It can help you solve this question.Calculate now | 500 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Everywhere it was slavery, slaves and their masters, the civil war, the revolution and the union states and or the confederate. The confederate states of America were also known as the confederacy and these were the southern states which had seceded from the United States. Slaves worked for their masters and they were great contributors to the American economic prosperity during those times that is before the civil war slaves and they were working in cotton, sugar and tobacco plantations. To a greater extend slavery contributed to the civil and the formation of the confederacy. Union Soldier in the Civil War After independence, the Civil War knocked the door in 1860s. Slavery had been abolished some years later after independence and as it was declared that all human being are equal the Civil War set in and the northern states united to fight the southern states which were very reluctant to free their slaves.There were hidden talents in slaves that came into fore after the bondage of slavery. (Howitz 1999) notes that, “The war left a legacy that had ignited the fire for the Americans to unite and respect rights of all men for they were created equal”. States of Louisiana, South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Texas and Florida seceded before President Abraham Lincoln took office in 1861. The tug of war between the northern states and the southern ended up in an armed conflict which was the civil war that broke out in April 1861 because the northern states were not happy with what was going on in the southern states or the confederacy and they prepared their union troops to fight for the rights of black slaves and the black people or the slaves worked hand in hand with the union or northern states’ troops.
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This is the time president Lincoln was elected to office and many southerners were not happy because of the stand of the president on confederacy, president Lincoln was absolutely against slavery. The Civil war erupted because of the institution of slavery that was not ending in the south. The northern states had already abandoned the institution of slavery and for them it was easy because of their economical activities which were based on industries while in the south they solely depended on farming and they had vast plantations of cotton and tobacco. The suspension of the Habeas Corpus was intentional so that the president could exercise full powers. This also enabled the generals to arbitrarily arrest dissidents of the civil war and its course. The suspension of the Habeas Corpus permitted President Lincoln to even suspend newspapers and any publications that published any bit of opposition or opposing views to the war. The Civil war ended after the troops of the southern states or the confederacy were subdued by the northern or federal troops. All states, that is, the northern states and the southern states once again were united to make the United States of America. Then prosperity was realized because after the civil war the black people were enjoying many rights like voting, getting formal employment and going to schools.
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Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:35e5840a-ce88-4db6-b83e-dd2f533dca05> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/informal/union-soldier-in-the-civil-war.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00454.warc.gz | en | 0.987427 | 616 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.4066814184188... | 1 | Everywhere it was slavery, slaves and their masters, the civil war, the revolution and the union states and or the confederate. The confederate states of America were also known as the confederacy and these were the southern states which had seceded from the United States. Slaves worked for their masters and they were great contributors to the American economic prosperity during those times that is before the civil war slaves and they were working in cotton, sugar and tobacco plantations. To a greater extend slavery contributed to the civil and the formation of the confederacy. Union Soldier in the Civil War After independence, the Civil War knocked the door in 1860s. Slavery had been abolished some years later after independence and as it was declared that all human being are equal the Civil War set in and the northern states united to fight the southern states which were very reluctant to free their slaves.There were hidden talents in slaves that came into fore after the bondage of slavery. (Howitz 1999) notes that, “The war left a legacy that had ignited the fire for the Americans to unite and respect rights of all men for they were created equal”. States of Louisiana, South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Texas and Florida seceded before President Abraham Lincoln took office in 1861. The tug of war between the northern states and the southern ended up in an armed conflict which was the civil war that broke out in April 1861 because the northern states were not happy with what was going on in the southern states or the confederacy and they prepared their union troops to fight for the rights of black slaves and the black people or the slaves worked hand in hand with the union or northern states’ troops.
Special offer for new customers!
Get 15% OFF
your first order
This is the time president Lincoln was elected to office and many southerners were not happy because of the stand of the president on confederacy, president Lincoln was absolutely against slavery. The Civil war erupted because of the institution of slavery that was not ending in the south. The northern states had already abandoned the institution of slavery and for them it was easy because of their economical activities which were based on industries while in the south they solely depended on farming and they had vast plantations of cotton and tobacco. The suspension of the Habeas Corpus was intentional so that the president could exercise full powers. This also enabled the generals to arbitrarily arrest dissidents of the civil war and its course. The suspension of the Habeas Corpus permitted President Lincoln to even suspend newspapers and any publications that published any bit of opposition or opposing views to the war. The Civil war ended after the troops of the southern states or the confederacy were subdued by the northern or federal troops. All states, that is, the northern states and the southern states once again were united to make the United States of America. Then prosperity was realized because after the civil war the black people were enjoying many rights like voting, getting formal employment and going to schools.
Get 24/7 Free consulting
Most popular orders | 631 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thucydides was a 5th century BC Greek historian and a famous general who is often regarded as “the father of scientific history.” He wrote ‘History of the Peloponnesian War’ which recounts the struggles between Athens and Sparta in the 5th century BC. Even today, many experts believe that Thucydides' work was the first-ever recorded political and moral analysis of any nation’s war policies. He only gave accounts of wars that happened in his own time, unlike his predecessor Herodotus who also wrote about ancient Greek history. While writing about the wars, Thucydides had focused more on the testimonies of eyewitnesses. Being a general during the war also helped him write a first-person account of it, as he had been taking notes from the very beginning. Many historians have noted that although Thucydides tried to remain objective in his writing, he often wrote based on his personal judgment. For instance, in his work on the “Plague of Athens,” his account slowly develops into a story on moral corruption. According to modern historians, his writings on people like Pericles, Cleon and Nicias are hardly accurate. Nonetheless, his work ‘History of the Peloponnesian War’ is considered to be one of the greatest texts from antiquity.
- Thucydides was born in an Athenian suburb in circa 460 BC. His father Olorus is believed to be from the Athenian deme of Halimous. His family hailed from Thrace in northeastern Greece. The name of his father, “Olorus,” was connected to Thracian royalty. He was also related to the great Athenian General Miltiades.Thucydides owned gold mines in his hometown and that is how he managed to finance his historical works. When the plague of 430 BC struck, he was in Athens. This was just a year after the war had begun.Continue Reading BelowLater Years
- Thucydides wrote ‘History of the Peloponnesian War’ between 431-404 BC. During the Plague of Athens in 430 BC, Thucydides caught the disease himself but somehow survived.In 424 BC, he was elected to be one of the ten “stratēgoi” of the year. He was the leader of the fleet in the Thraceward region, based at Thasos. Spartan General Brasidas took complete control over Amphipolis after Thucydides failed. This eventually led to an attack and Thucydides was sentenced to exile.His exile eventually paved the way for him to focus more on his writings and travels, especially on the Peloponnesian side comprised of Sparta and its allies.As a historian, he broke down his work into three definable stages. First, he made “notes” of events as they occurred. This was followed by rewriting these notes into a consecutive narrative as a “chronicle." Finally, he would create an elaborate narrative of the preliminaries of the events.He was exiled for nearly 20 years and it ended only with the fall of Athens and the conclusion of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC.Death & Legacy
- It is believed that Thucydides died around 404 BC. Even until the 2nd century AD, his tomb and a monument were present in Athens. Thucydides' ‘History’ was later divided into eight books containing everything about the 27-year-long war between Athens and Sparta. The subdivision was created by librarians and archivists who worked in the Library of Alexandria.It took many centuries for Thucydides to be called one of the greatest historians of all time. Interestingly, Aristotle, who was born a few years after Thucydides’ death, also wrote about the same era.By the start of the first century BC, writers like Cicero recognized Thucydides as a great historian. Many copies of his works were created, ensuring its survival over the next centuries.Even political philosophers like Thomas Hobbes and Friedrich Nietzsche heaped praises on Thucydides’ vision and how he wrote about politics and warfare.
How To CiteArticle Title- Thucydides BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/thucydides-3039.phpLast Updated- November 15, 2019
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0.4625732302665... | 1 | Thucydides was a 5th century BC Greek historian and a famous general who is often regarded as “the father of scientific history.” He wrote ‘History of the Peloponnesian War’ which recounts the struggles between Athens and Sparta in the 5th century BC. Even today, many experts believe that Thucydides' work was the first-ever recorded political and moral analysis of any nation’s war policies. He only gave accounts of wars that happened in his own time, unlike his predecessor Herodotus who also wrote about ancient Greek history. While writing about the wars, Thucydides had focused more on the testimonies of eyewitnesses. Being a general during the war also helped him write a first-person account of it, as he had been taking notes from the very beginning. Many historians have noted that although Thucydides tried to remain objective in his writing, he often wrote based on his personal judgment. For instance, in his work on the “Plague of Athens,” his account slowly develops into a story on moral corruption. According to modern historians, his writings on people like Pericles, Cleon and Nicias are hardly accurate. Nonetheless, his work ‘History of the Peloponnesian War’ is considered to be one of the greatest texts from antiquity.
- Thucydides was born in an Athenian suburb in circa 460 BC. His father Olorus is believed to be from the Athenian deme of Halimous. His family hailed from Thrace in northeastern Greece. The name of his father, “Olorus,” was connected to Thracian royalty. He was also related to the great Athenian General Miltiades.Thucydides owned gold mines in his hometown and that is how he managed to finance his historical works. When the plague of 430 BC struck, he was in Athens. This was just a year after the war had begun.Continue Reading BelowLater Years
- Thucydides wrote ‘History of the Peloponnesian War’ between 431-404 BC. During the Plague of Athens in 430 BC, Thucydides caught the disease himself but somehow survived.In 424 BC, he was elected to be one of the ten “stratēgoi” of the year. He was the leader of the fleet in the Thraceward region, based at Thasos. Spartan General Brasidas took complete control over Amphipolis after Thucydides failed. This eventually led to an attack and Thucydides was sentenced to exile.His exile eventually paved the way for him to focus more on his writings and travels, especially on the Peloponnesian side comprised of Sparta and its allies.As a historian, he broke down his work into three definable stages. First, he made “notes” of events as they occurred. This was followed by rewriting these notes into a consecutive narrative as a “chronicle." Finally, he would create an elaborate narrative of the preliminaries of the events.He was exiled for nearly 20 years and it ended only with the fall of Athens and the conclusion of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC.Death & Legacy
- It is believed that Thucydides died around 404 BC. Even until the 2nd century AD, his tomb and a monument were present in Athens. Thucydides' ‘History’ was later divided into eight books containing everything about the 27-year-long war between Athens and Sparta. The subdivision was created by librarians and archivists who worked in the Library of Alexandria.It took many centuries for Thucydides to be called one of the greatest historians of all time. Interestingly, Aristotle, who was born a few years after Thucydides’ death, also wrote about the same era.By the start of the first century BC, writers like Cicero recognized Thucydides as a great historian. Many copies of his works were created, ensuring its survival over the next centuries.Even political philosophers like Thomas Hobbes and Friedrich Nietzsche heaped praises on Thucydides’ vision and how he wrote about politics and warfare.
How To CiteArticle Title- Thucydides BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/thucydides-3039.phpLast Updated- November 15, 2019
People Also Viewed | 938 | ENGLISH | 1 |
People - Ancient Greece: Demetrius Phalereus He was an Ancient Athenian orator.
Demetrius of Phalerum in Wikipedia
Demetrius of Phalerum (also Demetrius of Phaleron or Demetrius Phalereus, Greek: Δημήτριος Φαληρεύς; c. 350-c. 280 BC) was an Athenian orator originally from Phalerum, a student of Theophrastus and one of the first Peripatetics. Demetrius was a distinguished statesman who was appointed by Cassander to govern Athens, where he ruled as sole ruler for ten years, introducing important reforms of the legal system while maintaining pro-Cassander oligarchic rule. He was exiled by his enemies in 307 BC, and he went first to Thebes, and then, after 297 BC, to the court of Alexandria. He wrote extensively on the subjects of history, rhetoric, and literary criticism.
Demetrius was born in Phalerum, c. 350 BC. He was the son of Phanostratus, a man without rank or property. He was educated, together with the poet Menander, in the school of Theophrastus. He began his public career about 325 BC, at the time of the disputes concerning Harpalus, and soon acquired a great reputation by the talent he displayed in public speaking. He belonged to the pro-oligarchic party of Phocion; and he acted in the spirit of that statesman. When Xenocrates was unable to pay the new tax on metics (foreign residents) c. 322 BC, and the Athenians threatened him with slavery, he was only saved (according to one story) when Demetrius purchased his debt and paid his tax. After the death of Phocion in 317 BC, Cassander placed Demetrius at the head of the administration of Athens. He filled this office for ten years, instituting extensive legal reforms. The Athenians conferred upon him the most extraordinary distinctions (almost all of which were revoked after his later expulsion from Athens), and no less than 360 statues were erected to him. However, Demetrius was unpopular with the lower classes of Athenians and with pro-democratic political factions, who resented the limitations he placed on the democratic franchise and viewed him as little more than a pro-Macedonian puppet ruler.
He remained in power until 307 BC when Cassander's enemy, Demetrius Poliorcetes captured Athens, and Demetrius was obliged to take to flight. It was claimed that during the latter period of his administration he had abandoned himself to every kind of excess, and we are told he squandered 1200 talents a year on dinners, parties, and love affairs. Carystius of Pergamum mentions that he had a lover by the name of Diognis, of whom all the Athenian boys were jealous. After his exile, his enemies contrived to induce the people of Athens to pass the death sentence upon him, in consequence of which his friend Menander nearly fell a victim. All his statues, with the exception of one, were demolished.
Demetrius first went to Thebes, and then (after Cassander's death in 297 BC) to the court of Ptolemy I Soter at Alexandria, with whom he lived for many years on the best terms, and who is even said to have entrusted to him the revision of the laws of his kingdom. During his stay at Alexandria, he devoted himself mainly to literary pursuits, ever cherishing the recollection of his own country. On the accession of Ptolemy Philadelphus, Demetrius was sent into exile to Upper Egypt, where he is said to have died of the bite of a snake. His death appears to have taken place soon after the year 283 BC.
Demetrius was the last among the Attic orators worthy of the name, after which the activity went into a decline. His orations were characterised as being soft, graceful, and elegant, rather than sublime like those of Demosthenes. His numerous writings, the greater part of which he probably composed during his residence in Egypt, embraced a wide range of subjects, and the list of them given by Diogenes Laertius shows that he was a man of the most extensive acquirements. These works, which were partly historical, partly political, partly philosophical (e.g. Aisopeia, a collection of Aesopic Fables), and partly poetical, have all perished. The work On Style (Greek: περὶ ἑρμηνείας) which has come down under his name, is the work of a later writer, c. 2nd century AD.
His literary merits are not confined to what he wrote, for he was a man of a practical turn of mind, and not a merely a scholar. Whatever he learned or knew was applied to the practical business of life; for example, the performance of tragedy had fallen into disuse in Athens, on account of the great expense involved; and in order to afford the people less costly and yet intellectual amusement, he caused the Homeric and other poems to be recited on the stage by rhapsodists.
According to Strabo, Demetrius inspired the creation of the Mouseion, better known as the Library of Alexandria, which was modeled after the arrangement of Aristotle's school. The Mouseion contained a peripatos (covered walkway), a syssition (room for communal dining) and a categorized organization of scrolls. | <urn:uuid:4eacdcd2-dd60-45a9-bd93-6f03505d8838> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=48&sub=3953&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Greece&subcat_name=Demetrius+Phalereus+ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00419.warc.gz | en | 0.984073 | 1,170 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.207793369889259... | 1 | People - Ancient Greece: Demetrius Phalereus He was an Ancient Athenian orator.
Demetrius of Phalerum in Wikipedia
Demetrius of Phalerum (also Demetrius of Phaleron or Demetrius Phalereus, Greek: Δημήτριος Φαληρεύς; c. 350-c. 280 BC) was an Athenian orator originally from Phalerum, a student of Theophrastus and one of the first Peripatetics. Demetrius was a distinguished statesman who was appointed by Cassander to govern Athens, where he ruled as sole ruler for ten years, introducing important reforms of the legal system while maintaining pro-Cassander oligarchic rule. He was exiled by his enemies in 307 BC, and he went first to Thebes, and then, after 297 BC, to the court of Alexandria. He wrote extensively on the subjects of history, rhetoric, and literary criticism.
Demetrius was born in Phalerum, c. 350 BC. He was the son of Phanostratus, a man without rank or property. He was educated, together with the poet Menander, in the school of Theophrastus. He began his public career about 325 BC, at the time of the disputes concerning Harpalus, and soon acquired a great reputation by the talent he displayed in public speaking. He belonged to the pro-oligarchic party of Phocion; and he acted in the spirit of that statesman. When Xenocrates was unable to pay the new tax on metics (foreign residents) c. 322 BC, and the Athenians threatened him with slavery, he was only saved (according to one story) when Demetrius purchased his debt and paid his tax. After the death of Phocion in 317 BC, Cassander placed Demetrius at the head of the administration of Athens. He filled this office for ten years, instituting extensive legal reforms. The Athenians conferred upon him the most extraordinary distinctions (almost all of which were revoked after his later expulsion from Athens), and no less than 360 statues were erected to him. However, Demetrius was unpopular with the lower classes of Athenians and with pro-democratic political factions, who resented the limitations he placed on the democratic franchise and viewed him as little more than a pro-Macedonian puppet ruler.
He remained in power until 307 BC when Cassander's enemy, Demetrius Poliorcetes captured Athens, and Demetrius was obliged to take to flight. It was claimed that during the latter period of his administration he had abandoned himself to every kind of excess, and we are told he squandered 1200 talents a year on dinners, parties, and love affairs. Carystius of Pergamum mentions that he had a lover by the name of Diognis, of whom all the Athenian boys were jealous. After his exile, his enemies contrived to induce the people of Athens to pass the death sentence upon him, in consequence of which his friend Menander nearly fell a victim. All his statues, with the exception of one, were demolished.
Demetrius first went to Thebes, and then (after Cassander's death in 297 BC) to the court of Ptolemy I Soter at Alexandria, with whom he lived for many years on the best terms, and who is even said to have entrusted to him the revision of the laws of his kingdom. During his stay at Alexandria, he devoted himself mainly to literary pursuits, ever cherishing the recollection of his own country. On the accession of Ptolemy Philadelphus, Demetrius was sent into exile to Upper Egypt, where he is said to have died of the bite of a snake. His death appears to have taken place soon after the year 283 BC.
Demetrius was the last among the Attic orators worthy of the name, after which the activity went into a decline. His orations were characterised as being soft, graceful, and elegant, rather than sublime like those of Demosthenes. His numerous writings, the greater part of which he probably composed during his residence in Egypt, embraced a wide range of subjects, and the list of them given by Diogenes Laertius shows that he was a man of the most extensive acquirements. These works, which were partly historical, partly political, partly philosophical (e.g. Aisopeia, a collection of Aesopic Fables), and partly poetical, have all perished. The work On Style (Greek: περὶ ἑρμηνείας) which has come down under his name, is the work of a later writer, c. 2nd century AD.
His literary merits are not confined to what he wrote, for he was a man of a practical turn of mind, and not a merely a scholar. Whatever he learned or knew was applied to the practical business of life; for example, the performance of tragedy had fallen into disuse in Athens, on account of the great expense involved; and in order to afford the people less costly and yet intellectual amusement, he caused the Homeric and other poems to be recited on the stage by rhapsodists.
According to Strabo, Demetrius inspired the creation of the Mouseion, better known as the Library of Alexandria, which was modeled after the arrangement of Aristotle's school. The Mouseion contained a peripatos (covered walkway), a syssition (room for communal dining) and a categorized organization of scrolls. | 1,196 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Christmas Truce of 1914 is a strange yet heartwarming tale of humanity and the desire for peace regardless of belief.
Over a century ago, hostilities and violence stopped during World War I. On Christmas Eve of 1914, German and Allied troops put the war on pause and shared precious moments of singing, sharing stories, exchanging gifts, and enjoying a temporary camaraderie with the enemy.
Arms were put aside, defenses were down. Enemy soldiers emerged from the trenches singing Christmas carols and exchanging pleasantries with men they were trying to kill just hours before.
Europe went into war in the summer of 1914 believing that it will be over and done with come Christmas time of that year. Little did they know that the fighting would be fierce and that each side will not relinquish control of their respective territories.
The result was a bloody stalemate along the Western Front, where the fighting was the fiercest and heaviest.
A few weeks before Christmas Eve, Pope Benedict XV, who at the time just recently became pope, made a plea for a truce in light of the season. He was hoping that during the proposed ceasefire, the warring parties could work out their differences and put the war to an end. However, both sides declined and the war ensued.
When World War I Was Put on Pause
In the thick of war, on Christmas Eve of 1914, around 10:00 at night, the men of the British Expeditionary Force heard the German forces singing across the trenches. They listened a bit closer and noticed that the enemy was singing Christmas carols. They then started singing out loud and the two camps exchanged singing songs to each other.
At the break of Christmas dawn, both sides nervously climbed out of their trenches and met halfway on No Man’s Land. Typically, the only exchange between the two warring parties is with bullets and grenades.
What happened next would make history and stun the whole world. They then continued to sing and even gave each other “gifts” by exchanging goods. They all told stories of their lives, how they ended up in the war, and told each other about the families and loved ones they left behind.
Some soldiers told stories of courting and buying wedding rings for the nurses they are enamored with back home, about how they are looking forward to marrying them and spending a lifetime of peace and quiet, not one of war and chaos.
Although the unofficial truce was not fully observed on the entire Western Front, a good two-thirds of the line laid down their weapons and let their guns fall silent. They took pictures with each other, enjoying each other’s companies. Several written accounts even say that both sides enjoyed playing football (soccer) together.
One British machine gunner recounts that on that day, at that moment, “there was not an atom of hate on either side.” A British rifleman also told stories of how they exchanged bottles of drinks on Christmas morning. He goes on to say no shots were fired that day. It was like a dream. Another British soldier also said that they were laughing and drinking with the men whom they were trying to kill only a few hours before.
While the war resumed the day after, it was a truly surreal experience for those who lived through it and enjoyed that moment. It is a tale of man’s desire for peace, love, and unity. A tale that says even war cannot destroy the Christmas spirit. | <urn:uuid:b9384b0f-612f-4d0e-ae4b-76f25d5ac3f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.oryxinflightmagazine.com/the-christmas-truce-a-story-of-humanity-and-hope-in-dark-times/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.982664 | 709 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.572850525379180... | 6 | The Christmas Truce of 1914 is a strange yet heartwarming tale of humanity and the desire for peace regardless of belief.
Over a century ago, hostilities and violence stopped during World War I. On Christmas Eve of 1914, German and Allied troops put the war on pause and shared precious moments of singing, sharing stories, exchanging gifts, and enjoying a temporary camaraderie with the enemy.
Arms were put aside, defenses were down. Enemy soldiers emerged from the trenches singing Christmas carols and exchanging pleasantries with men they were trying to kill just hours before.
Europe went into war in the summer of 1914 believing that it will be over and done with come Christmas time of that year. Little did they know that the fighting would be fierce and that each side will not relinquish control of their respective territories.
The result was a bloody stalemate along the Western Front, where the fighting was the fiercest and heaviest.
A few weeks before Christmas Eve, Pope Benedict XV, who at the time just recently became pope, made a plea for a truce in light of the season. He was hoping that during the proposed ceasefire, the warring parties could work out their differences and put the war to an end. However, both sides declined and the war ensued.
When World War I Was Put on Pause
In the thick of war, on Christmas Eve of 1914, around 10:00 at night, the men of the British Expeditionary Force heard the German forces singing across the trenches. They listened a bit closer and noticed that the enemy was singing Christmas carols. They then started singing out loud and the two camps exchanged singing songs to each other.
At the break of Christmas dawn, both sides nervously climbed out of their trenches and met halfway on No Man’s Land. Typically, the only exchange between the two warring parties is with bullets and grenades.
What happened next would make history and stun the whole world. They then continued to sing and even gave each other “gifts” by exchanging goods. They all told stories of their lives, how they ended up in the war, and told each other about the families and loved ones they left behind.
Some soldiers told stories of courting and buying wedding rings for the nurses they are enamored with back home, about how they are looking forward to marrying them and spending a lifetime of peace and quiet, not one of war and chaos.
Although the unofficial truce was not fully observed on the entire Western Front, a good two-thirds of the line laid down their weapons and let their guns fall silent. They took pictures with each other, enjoying each other’s companies. Several written accounts even say that both sides enjoyed playing football (soccer) together.
One British machine gunner recounts that on that day, at that moment, “there was not an atom of hate on either side.” A British rifleman also told stories of how they exchanged bottles of drinks on Christmas morning. He goes on to say no shots were fired that day. It was like a dream. Another British soldier also said that they were laughing and drinking with the men whom they were trying to kill only a few hours before.
While the war resumed the day after, it was a truly surreal experience for those who lived through it and enjoyed that moment. It is a tale of man’s desire for peace, love, and unity. A tale that says even war cannot destroy the Christmas spirit. | 707 | ENGLISH | 1 |
You never stop to think about your mouth bacteria when you are working out. But interestingly enough, these two are correlated, proving there is a lot of information we do not know yet about our bodies.
When we exercise, our blood pressure is reduced. However, the state of the bacteria in your mouth can influence the effects of working out on your blood pressure.
When a group of scientists conducted research, they found that the blood pressure reduction, usually present after exercise was significantly reduced when people use an antibacterial mouthwash to rinse their mouths compared to people who rinse with just water. This shows that the state of bacteria in our mouths is essential and correlated with our cardiovascular health.
The study involved 23 adults who were asked to run on a treadmill for 30 minutes on two occasions. They were also monitored afterward for two hours to check the state of their blood pressure. Half of a group was asked to rinse their mouth with an antibacterial mouthwash, while the control group was asked to rinse their mouths with flavored water. Neither the people who participated in the study nor the scientists knew which mouthwash was real.
The results showed that the people who rinsed their mouths with the real mouthwash had a higher blood pressure than the individuals who used placebo mouthwash. This showed that the effects of reduced blood pressure caused by exercise were lowered by more than 60% when antibacterial mouthwash was used right after the workout. This indicated that oral bacteria are essential when it comes to circulation, at least for the period after the exercise.
The scientists concluded that oral bacteria is essential for how our bodies react to exercise, and it is crucial for the recovery process after the workout. Oral bacteria are critical for opening our blood vessels. If oral bacteria is removed, the vessels remain in their current state.
So what does this mean? This study has shown that bacteria in our bodies is essential to keep balanced even if we don’t understand what it is supposed to do. If you want to have the best effects after working out, it is best to avoid any antibacterial mouthwash, at least immediately before or after the workout. | <urn:uuid:31fe1d7b-bc64-4cf7-9c9a-c9b4a6f816e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.youbeauty.com/fitness/this-common-oral-hygiene-habit-can-reduce-the-benefits-of-exercise/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00438.warc.gz | en | 0.981979 | 430 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.00601244857... | 7 | You never stop to think about your mouth bacteria when you are working out. But interestingly enough, these two are correlated, proving there is a lot of information we do not know yet about our bodies.
When we exercise, our blood pressure is reduced. However, the state of the bacteria in your mouth can influence the effects of working out on your blood pressure.
When a group of scientists conducted research, they found that the blood pressure reduction, usually present after exercise was significantly reduced when people use an antibacterial mouthwash to rinse their mouths compared to people who rinse with just water. This shows that the state of bacteria in our mouths is essential and correlated with our cardiovascular health.
The study involved 23 adults who were asked to run on a treadmill for 30 minutes on two occasions. They were also monitored afterward for two hours to check the state of their blood pressure. Half of a group was asked to rinse their mouth with an antibacterial mouthwash, while the control group was asked to rinse their mouths with flavored water. Neither the people who participated in the study nor the scientists knew which mouthwash was real.
The results showed that the people who rinsed their mouths with the real mouthwash had a higher blood pressure than the individuals who used placebo mouthwash. This showed that the effects of reduced blood pressure caused by exercise were lowered by more than 60% when antibacterial mouthwash was used right after the workout. This indicated that oral bacteria are essential when it comes to circulation, at least for the period after the exercise.
The scientists concluded that oral bacteria is essential for how our bodies react to exercise, and it is crucial for the recovery process after the workout. Oral bacteria are critical for opening our blood vessels. If oral bacteria is removed, the vessels remain in their current state.
So what does this mean? This study has shown that bacteria in our bodies is essential to keep balanced even if we don’t understand what it is supposed to do. If you want to have the best effects after working out, it is best to avoid any antibacterial mouthwash, at least immediately before or after the workout. | 428 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although migrants have been awarded access to all the things Europeans would need to succeed, migrants are coming from completely different cultures with contrasting norms, values, systems, and ways of thinking.
In order to empower new citizens and allow them to take charge of their own integration, they need to be given cultural context. With knowledge of cultural expectations, values, and ways of navigating society, new citizens have the insight they need to thrive.
Culture can be explained to help minimize confusion, frustration, and misunderstandings, which can speed up the integration process, but cultural understanding needs to be practiced in society and ultimately takes time to achieve.
We bridge the gap between new citizens,employees and employers.
New citizens are empowered to take chargeof their own integration.
As the oldest son in his family, one young refugee assumed financial responsibility for his aging parents. With no income, he began skipping school and job training to make money any way he could. Through Bridging the Cultural Gap, he began to see the stark differences between Syrian and Danish culture. He learned how Danish culture is very independent; the opposite of his own culture, and how the Danes tend to be egalitarian; whereas he was raised not to question authority. He worked to develop the confidence to ask his parents to be relieved of his financial responsibility so he could make his education a top priority, setting him up to thrive in Denmark.
One refugee continually felt misunderstood in her interactions with Danes. However, through Bridging the Cultural Gap, she discovered her cultural profile was very different from the average Dane and she began to see how her behavior could be interpreted, which helped to explain why she was being misunderstood. At her job training, she observed the Danish working women as confident and independent. She began reflecting upon and adjusting her own behaviors, becoming a positive role model for her children.
One refugee had small children who would often mistakenly ring her edlery neighbor’s doorbell. The neighbor spoke to them very directly to stop, but she interpreted the neighbor’s response as unkind and intolerant. After learning about the Danes tendency to be direct, she began to see her neighbour’s behavior differently and the two neighbours developed a friendly relationship based on mutual curiosity. | <urn:uuid:09154735-8406-4185-a6a0-fde090d39113> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.aperianglobal.com/refugee-integration/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00281.warc.gz | en | 0.981438 | 457 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.08293910324573... | 2 | Although migrants have been awarded access to all the things Europeans would need to succeed, migrants are coming from completely different cultures with contrasting norms, values, systems, and ways of thinking.
In order to empower new citizens and allow them to take charge of their own integration, they need to be given cultural context. With knowledge of cultural expectations, values, and ways of navigating society, new citizens have the insight they need to thrive.
Culture can be explained to help minimize confusion, frustration, and misunderstandings, which can speed up the integration process, but cultural understanding needs to be practiced in society and ultimately takes time to achieve.
We bridge the gap between new citizens,employees and employers.
New citizens are empowered to take chargeof their own integration.
As the oldest son in his family, one young refugee assumed financial responsibility for his aging parents. With no income, he began skipping school and job training to make money any way he could. Through Bridging the Cultural Gap, he began to see the stark differences between Syrian and Danish culture. He learned how Danish culture is very independent; the opposite of his own culture, and how the Danes tend to be egalitarian; whereas he was raised not to question authority. He worked to develop the confidence to ask his parents to be relieved of his financial responsibility so he could make his education a top priority, setting him up to thrive in Denmark.
One refugee continually felt misunderstood in her interactions with Danes. However, through Bridging the Cultural Gap, she discovered her cultural profile was very different from the average Dane and she began to see how her behavior could be interpreted, which helped to explain why she was being misunderstood. At her job training, she observed the Danish working women as confident and independent. She began reflecting upon and adjusting her own behaviors, becoming a positive role model for her children.
One refugee had small children who would often mistakenly ring her edlery neighbor’s doorbell. The neighbor spoke to them very directly to stop, but she interpreted the neighbor’s response as unkind and intolerant. After learning about the Danes tendency to be direct, she began to see her neighbour’s behavior differently and the two neighbours developed a friendly relationship based on mutual curiosity. | 443 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In what ways do you think the qualities Henry shows in battle in The Red Badge of Courage would be useful in war today? Explain.
Most of Henry's qualities in The Red Badge of Courage would serve positively with soldiers today. In the early chapters, Henry suffered from a fear of the unknown: how he would react once he was under fire. His attitudes would not differ from untried soldiers facing their first combat today. After his initial flight, Henry managed to control most of his fears, determining to due his duty and honor not only his own character but his unit as well. His impetuous forward movement against the enemy which earned him so much praise from his fellow soldiers would not be a particularly beneficial quality today, but his heroism did inspire the other men. Perhaps his best attritbute was his clear thinking when he picked up the standard and maintained it in the forefront of the attack. It showed nerve and bravery, but it also was a needed action. This kind of positive, quick thinking under fire would be heralded today just as it was during the Civil War, and Henry's desire to work as a part of the larger unit is something that is instilled in all modern military participants.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:10d6b06e-be96-4b83-a8a2-5f1810259505> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-ways-do-you-think-qualities-henry-shows-271047 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00372.warc.gz | en | 0.992035 | 251 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.24310001730918884... | 2 | In what ways do you think the qualities Henry shows in battle in The Red Badge of Courage would be useful in war today? Explain.
Most of Henry's qualities in The Red Badge of Courage would serve positively with soldiers today. In the early chapters, Henry suffered from a fear of the unknown: how he would react once he was under fire. His attitudes would not differ from untried soldiers facing their first combat today. After his initial flight, Henry managed to control most of his fears, determining to due his duty and honor not only his own character but his unit as well. His impetuous forward movement against the enemy which earned him so much praise from his fellow soldiers would not be a particularly beneficial quality today, but his heroism did inspire the other men. Perhaps his best attritbute was his clear thinking when he picked up the standard and maintained it in the forefront of the attack. It showed nerve and bravery, but it also was a needed action. This kind of positive, quick thinking under fire would be heralded today just as it was during the Civil War, and Henry's desire to work as a part of the larger unit is something that is instilled in all modern military participants.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 250 | ENGLISH | 1 |
ca. 500 B.C.
Heraclitus, born in the city of Ephesus in Asia Minor, was a philosopher* who taught that everything was always changing. He explained his theories in a book, although only a few fragments of his writings survive. His work consisted of a series of short, riddlelike sayings. His lack of clarity in statements such as “the way up and down is one and the same” and “the connections between things are wholes and not wholes” earned Heraclitus the title “the obscure one.”
Heraclitus disagreed with previous thinkers who argued that there is a single, permanent, changeless reality underneath what can be seen. Instead, he claimed that everything in the world is constantly changing and that constant change is necessary to maintain the correct order of things. Like the earlier philosopher Anaximander, Heraclitus held that nature is in a state of never-ending conflict between opposites, such as hot and cold. All of this change and conflict is regulated by a natural law called Logos. Logos also directs the behavior of people.
Heraclitus taught that everything in the world is made up of three elements—fire, water, and air. These elements constantly change into one another. Everything, even the human soul, starts out as fire, which Heraclitus believed was related to the logos. He believed that a soul full of fire was the best, since more of the other elements in the soul meant that the person was closer to death. Heraclitus was unpopular in his day, particularly for his attacks on the religious practices of the Greeks. (See also Philosophy, Greek and Hellenistic.)
* philosopher scholar or thinker concerned with the study of ideas, including science | <urn:uuid:d52d5b32-bd8f-4150-b0a1-e512395ce605> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://erenow.net/ancient/ancient-greece-and-rome-an-encyclopedia-for-students-4-volume-set/211.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00489.warc.gz | en | 0.980305 | 363 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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Heraclitus, born in the city of Ephesus in Asia Minor, was a philosopher* who taught that everything was always changing. He explained his theories in a book, although only a few fragments of his writings survive. His work consisted of a series of short, riddlelike sayings. His lack of clarity in statements such as “the way up and down is one and the same” and “the connections between things are wholes and not wholes” earned Heraclitus the title “the obscure one.”
Heraclitus disagreed with previous thinkers who argued that there is a single, permanent, changeless reality underneath what can be seen. Instead, he claimed that everything in the world is constantly changing and that constant change is necessary to maintain the correct order of things. Like the earlier philosopher Anaximander, Heraclitus held that nature is in a state of never-ending conflict between opposites, such as hot and cold. All of this change and conflict is regulated by a natural law called Logos. Logos also directs the behavior of people.
Heraclitus taught that everything in the world is made up of three elements—fire, water, and air. These elements constantly change into one another. Everything, even the human soul, starts out as fire, which Heraclitus believed was related to the logos. He believed that a soul full of fire was the best, since more of the other elements in the soul meant that the person was closer to death. Heraclitus was unpopular in his day, particularly for his attacks on the religious practices of the Greeks. (See also Philosophy, Greek and Hellenistic.)
* philosopher scholar or thinker concerned with the study of ideas, including science | 355 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"Although Rome I s usually called the Successor to Hellenistic Greece, they actually over lapped in time. Chronologically, Rome emerged as a community during the same era a Athens and Sparta, but it did not become important until much later" (PA pg.110). This passage is referring to early Rome and the later Rome. The early Rome did take some of the culture from Greece but over time it developed into a more Roman type of culture it just was not recognized until later time.
The Romans began their conquest over the Greece in 282 B.C.E. after they defeated the Samnites. Defeating the Samnites allowed the Romans come in contact with a new rival the Greek city states of southern Italy. Although the Romans saw the Greeks as, people who were superior to them in ways such as, culture, imagination, and in commerce (buying and selling goods). They also admired the Greeks for their skills in organizing, and governing, and their experience in the world outside of Italy. The Romans still felt that they should Govern and not the Greeks. The Romans felt this way because they saw how the Greek states rise with greatness and later would fall, the Romans saw a cycle and thought the way the Greeks were Governing the state led them to fall ( PR pg. 139 ).
After the Romans defeated the Samnites they wanted to make their allies the Greeks their friends. They did not want to go about it being force full instead they tried to encourage the Greeks to go to Roman culture. They told Greeks that regardless of ethnic or historical affiliations they could still be a Roman Citizen. The Romans gave partial citizenship rights to the Greeks as long as they agreed to not to rebel and to give troops to Rome any time they were needed. Greeks were so eager to citizens that they would marry Romans, adopt the Latin language and accept the Roman custom and law. Going about ruling Italy this way gave Romans the opportunity to learn the Greek culture. | <urn:uuid:904ac22f-c933-4ead-a12b-d820b356ee72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/51259.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00218.warc.gz | en | 0.984783 | 400 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.36056530475616... | 3 | "Although Rome I s usually called the Successor to Hellenistic Greece, they actually over lapped in time. Chronologically, Rome emerged as a community during the same era a Athens and Sparta, but it did not become important until much later" (PA pg.110). This passage is referring to early Rome and the later Rome. The early Rome did take some of the culture from Greece but over time it developed into a more Roman type of culture it just was not recognized until later time.
The Romans began their conquest over the Greece in 282 B.C.E. after they defeated the Samnites. Defeating the Samnites allowed the Romans come in contact with a new rival the Greek city states of southern Italy. Although the Romans saw the Greeks as, people who were superior to them in ways such as, culture, imagination, and in commerce (buying and selling goods). They also admired the Greeks for their skills in organizing, and governing, and their experience in the world outside of Italy. The Romans still felt that they should Govern and not the Greeks. The Romans felt this way because they saw how the Greek states rise with greatness and later would fall, the Romans saw a cycle and thought the way the Greeks were Governing the state led them to fall ( PR pg. 139 ).
After the Romans defeated the Samnites they wanted to make their allies the Greeks their friends. They did not want to go about it being force full instead they tried to encourage the Greeks to go to Roman culture. They told Greeks that regardless of ethnic or historical affiliations they could still be a Roman Citizen. The Romans gave partial citizenship rights to the Greeks as long as they agreed to not to rebel and to give troops to Rome any time they were needed. Greeks were so eager to citizens that they would marry Romans, adopt the Latin language and accept the Roman custom and law. Going about ruling Italy this way gave Romans the opportunity to learn the Greek culture. | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Postcard from the 1800’s of Bad Man, a Crow warrior that accompanied General George Crook as a scout at the Battle of Little Rose Bud with Crook.
In 1876 General Crook became the military leader over Montana territory including overseeing the native tribes in that area. The Lakota Sioux were battling for the right to the Black Hills. General Crook, his army, and hist Crow and Shoshone scouts marched out on June 17, 1876 to what became known as the Battle of Rosebud Creek. This Crow warrior was along as one of his scouts. The Crows, the Shoshones, and Crook with his army fought Two Moon’s Cheyenne’s and Crazy Horse’s Sioux in what became a stale-mate. | <urn:uuid:87b5e15d-6145-42a9-bf40-88ccfcf36cfd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vintage-american.com/scene-type/native-american/bad-man-crow-warrior/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00025.warc.gz | en | 0.985751 | 161 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.1531155705451... | 5 | Postcard from the 1800’s of Bad Man, a Crow warrior that accompanied General George Crook as a scout at the Battle of Little Rose Bud with Crook.
In 1876 General Crook became the military leader over Montana territory including overseeing the native tribes in that area. The Lakota Sioux were battling for the right to the Black Hills. General Crook, his army, and hist Crow and Shoshone scouts marched out on June 17, 1876 to what became known as the Battle of Rosebud Creek. This Crow warrior was along as one of his scouts. The Crows, the Shoshones, and Crook with his army fought Two Moon’s Cheyenne’s and Crazy Horse’s Sioux in what became a stale-mate. | 163 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Assimilation has existed and was practiced since before the United States had even been established. At least it was until the 1600s, when accommodation was recognized to be the best solution for solving cultural and religious conflicts that could have been avoided in the past. In the stories " The World on the Turtle's Back" by Iroquois, "La Relacion" by Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, and "The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano" by Olaudah Equiano the authors describe encounters of both assimilation and accommodation that have affected their dilemmas. .
In the story "The World on the Turtle's Back", the author distinguishes the unpeopled world from the Sky-world and how coincidently the two assimilating worlds were introduced to one another through the curiosity of a hungry pregnant woman. Somehow the woman had fallen from the Sky-world toward he unpeopled world, where she was accommodated by the creatures of the ocean and the birds of the sea, safely onto a sea turtle's back. The creatures helped the woman and her unborn daughter survive, and create earth. Throughout this time the earth had grown, and so had the daughter. One day a man who placed two arrows, one sharp and one blunt across her body approached her. These arrows symbolized her two unborn twin sons; who were to make a balance and orderly world. Though both the sons were as different as night and day they accommodated one another and both remain in a somewhat peaceful manner.
In the story "La Relacion" by Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, he reports the disastrous experiences of the Narvaez expedition and how the indigenous people of Galveston Island accommodated him and his men. Though the indigenous people were unfamiliar with Cabeza de Vaca and his men they were hospitable and helped the men survive. The indigenous people provided food for them to eat such a fish, corn, squash, et cetera in exchange for little bells and beads. | <urn:uuid:6e0c09e7-4b73-4136-94fd-bafb3acb392a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/57978.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00060.warc.gz | en | 0.981705 | 419 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.284335374832... | 2 | Assimilation has existed and was practiced since before the United States had even been established. At least it was until the 1600s, when accommodation was recognized to be the best solution for solving cultural and religious conflicts that could have been avoided in the past. In the stories " The World on the Turtle's Back" by Iroquois, "La Relacion" by Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, and "The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano" by Olaudah Equiano the authors describe encounters of both assimilation and accommodation that have affected their dilemmas. .
In the story "The World on the Turtle's Back", the author distinguishes the unpeopled world from the Sky-world and how coincidently the two assimilating worlds were introduced to one another through the curiosity of a hungry pregnant woman. Somehow the woman had fallen from the Sky-world toward he unpeopled world, where she was accommodated by the creatures of the ocean and the birds of the sea, safely onto a sea turtle's back. The creatures helped the woman and her unborn daughter survive, and create earth. Throughout this time the earth had grown, and so had the daughter. One day a man who placed two arrows, one sharp and one blunt across her body approached her. These arrows symbolized her two unborn twin sons; who were to make a balance and orderly world. Though both the sons were as different as night and day they accommodated one another and both remain in a somewhat peaceful manner.
In the story "La Relacion" by Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, he reports the disastrous experiences of the Narvaez expedition and how the indigenous people of Galveston Island accommodated him and his men. Though the indigenous people were unfamiliar with Cabeza de Vaca and his men they were hospitable and helped the men survive. The indigenous people provided food for them to eat such a fish, corn, squash, et cetera in exchange for little bells and beads. | 424 | ENGLISH | 1 |
GATLINBURG, Tenn. (WKRN) – The history of the Great Smoky Mountains dates back thousands of years, “the Cherokee people have been here probably 25,000 years. And more than likely there were tribes before that that came in [the] area,” says Brad Free, Great Smoky Mountains National Park Historian.
European settlers entered the story of the Smokies in the 1700s. By the 1800s, whether by land purchase or a land grant, communities grew in the foothills of the mountains.
By the late 1890’s early 1900’s, residents started to sell their land. “They were selling mostly their mountain land,” says Free.
“It was areas they couldn’t clear and there were a lot of logging companies that were coming down from Pennsylvania, Illinois, and even up towards New York. They were coming down here and buying up land to start cutting down some of the last old-growth forests east of the Mississippi River.”
Huge trees were cut down during this time, drastically changing the landscape.
Creating a national park
While acres of forest were being decimated in the Smoky Mountains, Anne and Willis Davis went out west in 1923 and saw the national parks. It gave them an idea. They wanted to preserve something for future generations in the Eastern United States.
But Free says the dream would take some time to materialize, “They thought it’d be easier just to create a national forest here and do that. But, how do you start a national park out of private lands? Yellowstone, Grand Canyon. All those out west were federal lands already. President Grant in 1872, right off there’s a national park. Woodrow Wilson in 1960, national park. But President [Franklin D.] Roosevelt couldn’t do that until 1933. So they started petitioning. They started to work on how they could do this.”
Ten million dollars was needed to buy all 6,600 land tracts owned by individuals in the mountains.
They worked to raise money, “Everyone from school kids to some of the richest people in the world, at that time, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. gave $5 million to buy the land.”
With the caveat that Tennessee had to raise the other $5 million.
“The park commissions in Tennessee and North Carolina basically went door to door and they said, ‘Okay, we’re going to give you a choice. We’re going to give you a fair market value for your property or you can get a lifetime lease and stay here till you die.’ That was the agreement. Most people had lived on their land, or at least two or three generations had lived on their land since the 1840s.”
Many took the lifetime lease. The decision resulted in a new issue though for those who took the deal. They lost the rights to their land. “You could not go out and cut a tree down in your front yard for firewood. You could not shoot a squirrel off your front porch for food. You had all these restrictions that were put onto it and most of them couldn’t farm anymore, because their land belonged to the government then. It became a national park, so everything was protected.”
Some tried to make it work for a while, but they ultimately decided to take the fair market value. Free says many ended up getting paid far less than what their property was worth. “Logging companies, on the other hand, had lawyers. And a lot of them.”
Logging companies were selling clear-cut land $4.75 an acre and there were 18 logging companies who had major acreage.
The Great Depression
Some people were getting anywhere from $2,000 up to $10,000 for their property. Naturally, they put the money in the bank. Then the stock market crashed in 1929, kicking off the Great Depression.
“These folks not only lost their property that had been in their land or their families for generations, they lost every red cent as well. We would not be sitting in this beautiful park if it wouldn’t have been for the sacrifices of the people who sold their land for it,” says Free.
Civilian Conservation Corps
The Civilian Conservation Corps was a part of President Roosevelt’s New Deal program to get young men back to work in the 1930s. Four thousand young men worked in the park between 1933 and 1941 as part of the CCC.
“One of the park historians once said that if we had not had the CCC from 1933 to 1941, we would not have the park we had today. Because what those guys did between that time period would have taken our park employees today, 75 years to do what they did in just that short amount of time.”
They built the park’s headquarters and first visitor center, each stone hand carved.
“The forest [in the park] was devastated due to logging. They planted hundreds of thousands of trees here. They built trails. They built campgrounds, they built roads.”
On September 2nd, 1940, President Roosevelt dedicated the Great Smoky Mountains National Park “for the permanent enjoyment of the people.”
Unlike many other national parks, there is no admission fee to the Great Smoky Mountains. The aptly named Brad Free explains why “One reason is there’s a US highway going through the middle of the park.”
Free says it’s also due to a ‘gentleman’s agreement’, “It goes back to the way this park was created. It’s created out of private lands, and one of the theories behind this is that there was an agreement made between the people who lived here and the federal government never to charge a toll on the road going across the mountain. Because this road going across the mountain was a toll road from the 1830s up until the Civil War. A lot of folks felt like charging an entrance fee would be like charging a toll. So, it was kind of a gentleman’s agreement that they would never do that.”
News 2 is taking a deep look in the Smokies with the digital exclusive series “The Great Smoky Mountains: The Good, The Bad, The Future”. Click here to see more.
Janet Ivey is a special correspondent for News 2 on this report. Learn more about her here. | <urn:uuid:9062f82e-96bf-4567-b2cc-81bbf98da2c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wkrn.com/special-reports/great-smoky-mountains/the-history-of-the-great-smoky-mountains-national-park/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.983616 | 1,363 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.333802014589309... | 6 | GATLINBURG, Tenn. (WKRN) – The history of the Great Smoky Mountains dates back thousands of years, “the Cherokee people have been here probably 25,000 years. And more than likely there were tribes before that that came in [the] area,” says Brad Free, Great Smoky Mountains National Park Historian.
European settlers entered the story of the Smokies in the 1700s. By the 1800s, whether by land purchase or a land grant, communities grew in the foothills of the mountains.
By the late 1890’s early 1900’s, residents started to sell their land. “They were selling mostly their mountain land,” says Free.
“It was areas they couldn’t clear and there were a lot of logging companies that were coming down from Pennsylvania, Illinois, and even up towards New York. They were coming down here and buying up land to start cutting down some of the last old-growth forests east of the Mississippi River.”
Huge trees were cut down during this time, drastically changing the landscape.
Creating a national park
While acres of forest were being decimated in the Smoky Mountains, Anne and Willis Davis went out west in 1923 and saw the national parks. It gave them an idea. They wanted to preserve something for future generations in the Eastern United States.
But Free says the dream would take some time to materialize, “They thought it’d be easier just to create a national forest here and do that. But, how do you start a national park out of private lands? Yellowstone, Grand Canyon. All those out west were federal lands already. President Grant in 1872, right off there’s a national park. Woodrow Wilson in 1960, national park. But President [Franklin D.] Roosevelt couldn’t do that until 1933. So they started petitioning. They started to work on how they could do this.”
Ten million dollars was needed to buy all 6,600 land tracts owned by individuals in the mountains.
They worked to raise money, “Everyone from school kids to some of the richest people in the world, at that time, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. gave $5 million to buy the land.”
With the caveat that Tennessee had to raise the other $5 million.
“The park commissions in Tennessee and North Carolina basically went door to door and they said, ‘Okay, we’re going to give you a choice. We’re going to give you a fair market value for your property or you can get a lifetime lease and stay here till you die.’ That was the agreement. Most people had lived on their land, or at least two or three generations had lived on their land since the 1840s.”
Many took the lifetime lease. The decision resulted in a new issue though for those who took the deal. They lost the rights to their land. “You could not go out and cut a tree down in your front yard for firewood. You could not shoot a squirrel off your front porch for food. You had all these restrictions that were put onto it and most of them couldn’t farm anymore, because their land belonged to the government then. It became a national park, so everything was protected.”
Some tried to make it work for a while, but they ultimately decided to take the fair market value. Free says many ended up getting paid far less than what their property was worth. “Logging companies, on the other hand, had lawyers. And a lot of them.”
Logging companies were selling clear-cut land $4.75 an acre and there were 18 logging companies who had major acreage.
The Great Depression
Some people were getting anywhere from $2,000 up to $10,000 for their property. Naturally, they put the money in the bank. Then the stock market crashed in 1929, kicking off the Great Depression.
“These folks not only lost their property that had been in their land or their families for generations, they lost every red cent as well. We would not be sitting in this beautiful park if it wouldn’t have been for the sacrifices of the people who sold their land for it,” says Free.
Civilian Conservation Corps
The Civilian Conservation Corps was a part of President Roosevelt’s New Deal program to get young men back to work in the 1930s. Four thousand young men worked in the park between 1933 and 1941 as part of the CCC.
“One of the park historians once said that if we had not had the CCC from 1933 to 1941, we would not have the park we had today. Because what those guys did between that time period would have taken our park employees today, 75 years to do what they did in just that short amount of time.”
They built the park’s headquarters and first visitor center, each stone hand carved.
“The forest [in the park] was devastated due to logging. They planted hundreds of thousands of trees here. They built trails. They built campgrounds, they built roads.”
On September 2nd, 1940, President Roosevelt dedicated the Great Smoky Mountains National Park “for the permanent enjoyment of the people.”
Unlike many other national parks, there is no admission fee to the Great Smoky Mountains. The aptly named Brad Free explains why “One reason is there’s a US highway going through the middle of the park.”
Free says it’s also due to a ‘gentleman’s agreement’, “It goes back to the way this park was created. It’s created out of private lands, and one of the theories behind this is that there was an agreement made between the people who lived here and the federal government never to charge a toll on the road going across the mountain. Because this road going across the mountain was a toll road from the 1830s up until the Civil War. A lot of folks felt like charging an entrance fee would be like charging a toll. So, it was kind of a gentleman’s agreement that they would never do that.”
News 2 is taking a deep look in the Smokies with the digital exclusive series “The Great Smoky Mountains: The Good, The Bad, The Future”. Click here to see more.
Janet Ivey is a special correspondent for News 2 on this report. Learn more about her here. | 1,330 | ENGLISH | 1 |
György Szántó was a Szentendre merchant and in compliance with his testament, the prayer house and museum was created by his son in his parents’ house. The museum houses an exhibition of the life of the Jewish community before the second world war in Szentendre.
The Jewish community built a synagogue in 1850 and ten years later it already had a Jewish school. According to a 1929 survey, the sociological breakdown of the 100-200 strong Jewish community was in line with the national composition: middle-class citizens, intellectuals, mainly merchants, some farmers, craftsmen, doctors, lawyers, engineers and officials. These people were the backbone of the community, which over time became the centre of smaller neighbouring communities as well.
However, the Szentendre community also fell victim to the shoah during WW2 and the majority of the Jewish population in and around the town was deported on 30 June 1944. | <urn:uuid:fa42159c-5d03-4c96-b29c-88d13e11c213> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://iranyszentendre.hu/en/szanto-memorial-and-jewish-prayer-house/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.98477 | 191 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.4554762244224... | 8 | György Szántó was a Szentendre merchant and in compliance with his testament, the prayer house and museum was created by his son in his parents’ house. The museum houses an exhibition of the life of the Jewish community before the second world war in Szentendre.
The Jewish community built a synagogue in 1850 and ten years later it already had a Jewish school. According to a 1929 survey, the sociological breakdown of the 100-200 strong Jewish community was in line with the national composition: middle-class citizens, intellectuals, mainly merchants, some farmers, craftsmen, doctors, lawyers, engineers and officials. These people were the backbone of the community, which over time became the centre of smaller neighbouring communities as well.
However, the Szentendre community also fell victim to the shoah during WW2 and the majority of the Jewish population in and around the town was deported on 30 June 1944. | 207 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A gloomy winter slipped past, but gave way to a spring of 1858 that was not much brighter economically. The flowers bloomed, but too briefly to take most people’s minds off the trials of daily life. Still, for two groups of people, spring finally brought the chance to follow their cherished dreams of gold beyond the western horizon. Gold, they had every right to believe, was waiting out there.
One group, in Indian Territory, prepared to travel the relatively short distance to the foothills of the central Rockies, where some of them had found gold back in the California excitement of 1850. The other group, in Lawrence, Kansas, also knew that gold existed to the west, because the army scout Fall Leaf had brought some back from the military campaign there the year before. Unfortunately, he did not know its source, so they had to decide where to start searching.
As the two parties provisioned and prepared to travel, a betting person would have put money on the success of the Russell party out of Indian Territory. Its members had the most experience: Some had come from the Georgia gold fields, and others were from California—where, like many of their fellow rushers, they had met with little success. Their lack of success eventually forced them to return home, but gold fever still burned in them. | <urn:uuid:3698b664-ee51-49d1-8ddf-56195e3193d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.aurvistagold.com/about-us | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.985659 | 269 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.30553749203681... | 14 | A gloomy winter slipped past, but gave way to a spring of 1858 that was not much brighter economically. The flowers bloomed, but too briefly to take most people’s minds off the trials of daily life. Still, for two groups of people, spring finally brought the chance to follow their cherished dreams of gold beyond the western horizon. Gold, they had every right to believe, was waiting out there.
One group, in Indian Territory, prepared to travel the relatively short distance to the foothills of the central Rockies, where some of them had found gold back in the California excitement of 1850. The other group, in Lawrence, Kansas, also knew that gold existed to the west, because the army scout Fall Leaf had brought some back from the military campaign there the year before. Unfortunately, he did not know its source, so they had to decide where to start searching.
As the two parties provisioned and prepared to travel, a betting person would have put money on the success of the Russell party out of Indian Territory. Its members had the most experience: Some had come from the Georgia gold fields, and others were from California—where, like many of their fellow rushers, they had met with little success. Their lack of success eventually forced them to return home, but gold fever still burned in them. | 272 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Spanish culture includes many vibrant cultures, many of which are influenced by other countries. Traditional Spanish music has its roots in ancient Romans, bringing Greek music to Spain.
Other regions of Spain have developed their own separate music along with the instruments. Flamenco guitar, sometimes called “toque”, comes from Andalusia – a small area in southern Spain.
Flamenco is a way of playing the guitar that includes “cante”, the Spanish word for “song.” In playing flamenco guitar, the guitar is played in a way interwoven with melodies. The guitar playing style has been developed to accompany “cante.”
Small hand-held instruments have been used in Spanish music for centuries and have become Spanish’s traditional instruments. Traditionally, the Castanet is made of Castana wood.
Although it can also be made of metal, and consists of two cups with slightly curved heads to one side. Two cups were drilled to create separate sounds, one creating a higher pitch.
The style of playing Accordion in Basque music consists of fast melody and three-note group. Modern music of the Basque region is a combination of Trikitixa, Tambourine and vocal.
The Basque Country of Spain often uses Accordion in their music. The Accordion was introduced to the Basque Country from Italy in the 19th century
Bongo drums consist of two types of drum: Macho – bigger drum, and Hembra – smaller than Macho, they are connected by a connecting piece in the middle. Bong drum appeared in Cuba in the 1800s and was played by hand, without drumsticks.
Bongo is placed between the player’s feet while standing, allowing for more free movement. The traditional way of playing Bongo is “Marillo”, in Spanish it is “hammer”.
Spain is a country in which many neighborhoods, from Andalusia to Aragon. Each of those have their own unique culture. This is especially evident in music, with many genres ranging from flamenco to Jota. | <urn:uuid:c8631263-a8b8-4463-b40e-c78d034c663e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ibizavote.com/tag/spanish/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00155.warc.gz | en | 0.984115 | 443 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.2568140625953... | 9 | Spanish culture includes many vibrant cultures, many of which are influenced by other countries. Traditional Spanish music has its roots in ancient Romans, bringing Greek music to Spain.
Other regions of Spain have developed their own separate music along with the instruments. Flamenco guitar, sometimes called “toque”, comes from Andalusia – a small area in southern Spain.
Flamenco is a way of playing the guitar that includes “cante”, the Spanish word for “song.” In playing flamenco guitar, the guitar is played in a way interwoven with melodies. The guitar playing style has been developed to accompany “cante.”
Small hand-held instruments have been used in Spanish music for centuries and have become Spanish’s traditional instruments. Traditionally, the Castanet is made of Castana wood.
Although it can also be made of metal, and consists of two cups with slightly curved heads to one side. Two cups were drilled to create separate sounds, one creating a higher pitch.
The style of playing Accordion in Basque music consists of fast melody and three-note group. Modern music of the Basque region is a combination of Trikitixa, Tambourine and vocal.
The Basque Country of Spain often uses Accordion in their music. The Accordion was introduced to the Basque Country from Italy in the 19th century
Bongo drums consist of two types of drum: Macho – bigger drum, and Hembra – smaller than Macho, they are connected by a connecting piece in the middle. Bong drum appeared in Cuba in the 1800s and was played by hand, without drumsticks.
Bongo is placed between the player’s feet while standing, allowing for more free movement. The traditional way of playing Bongo is “Marillo”, in Spanish it is “hammer”.
Spain is a country in which many neighborhoods, from Andalusia to Aragon. Each of those have their own unique culture. This is especially evident in music, with many genres ranging from flamenco to Jota. | 413 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ancient Persian Empire was one of the kingdoms most recognized for its majestic and marvelous structures located in the desert, for its great wealth and for its perfect military skill; a place governed by kings who exercised great power and ambition, and who managed to conquer from North Africa to Asia. Immense and extraordinary advances were needed in the area of engineering, not only in the construction of its buildings, but also in the creation of roads, bridges and canals.
The Persian Empire were groups of different dynasties that inhabited a vast territory, where cultures were respected and who were responsible for governing Persia mainly during the Empire Achaemenid with Cyrus II the Great.
The Persian people is of Indo-European origin and was people subdued by the Medes, an Asian kingdom settled in the rivers of Mesopotamia and who could expand their territories thanks to King Cyrus II the Great, belonging to the Achaemenid dynasty, who also freed them from the Medes.
The Persians expanded their territories, thanks to King Cyrus II who helped them achieve independence from the Medes, who made the Persians their subordinates. The Persian forces went to Lydia and Ionia, conquering them; they attacked Babylon, and controlled Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine, liberating, in the same way, the Israelites in captivity. They also conquered Egypt and had the support of the Greeks.
Philip II, King of Macedonia, planned to seize the Persian Empire, but died. However, his son, Alexander, took the throne and completed his father’s mission. He achieved Greek dominion over Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Egypt, and then dominated Iran and Central Asia, marking the end of the Empire.
The origins of Persian Empire date back to 2000 B.C. when the region was occupied by a series of pastoral peoples and farmers, known at that time as Medes and Persians. These Medes invaded the Iranian plateau and the Persians settled south-east of the Iranian plateau closest to the Persian Gulf.
The stages of the Persian Empire were:
The beginning of the end of the Persians came with the defeat in the Medical Wars, when they failed to face the Greek army, and a series of social and cultural factors that brought down the essence of the empire’s unification. After the governments of the last Persian emperors, Artaxerxes I and Darius II, central and peripheral politics gradually degraded. There were many intrigues and conspiracies between families in search of power and the provinces, they gradually lost the bond that united them.
In 330 B.C., Alexander the Great found disarticulated and chaotic regions that he could easily conquer. His passage to the East is the end point of an empire in which values such as tolerance and respect for other cultures played a decisive role in good governance.
The main characteristics of the Persian Empire were:
Its founder was Cyrus the Great, who after defeating the Medes, Lydians and Babylonians, extended his dominions all over the place. However, its real organizer was Darius, who managed to expand the borders with the definitive incorporation of Egypt.
The Persians unified several peoples of the Fertile Crescent, and their borders stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean. They inhabited the Iranian Plateau, east of Mesopotamia, a semi-arid region, with mineral-rich mountains, deserts and few fertile valleys, a dry climate, with large temperature fluctuations.
The Persian Empire was the largest the ancient world had ever seen, extending from Anatolia and Egypt through western Asia to northern India and central Asia. The Persian Empire expanded under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, who used a strategy of religious and cultural tolerance to maintain order.
The society was formed by the king who was considered a god and lived in the capital, the royal family was quite extensive, and the king had a harem, so the monarchs had many children, there was the group of nobles who were the wealthiest families and were members of the court. Priests were a pillar within society and there were many temples. The soldiers were in charge of protecting the borders, the plebs were a class made up of peasants and artisans and the slaves who came from the wars, were property of the state and were small groups.
The kings of the Persian Empire were: Cyrus II, Cambyses II, Esmeridis, Gaumata, Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, Xerxes II, Sogdian, Darius II, Artaxerxes III, Artaxerxes IV, Darius III, Artaxerxes V. The kings of the Persian Empire were: Cyrus II, Cambyses II, Esmeridis, Gaumata, Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, Xerxes II, Sogdian, Darius II, Artaxerxes III, Artaxerxerxes IV, Darius III, Artaxerxerxes V.
It was based on agriculture, irrigating with water from the mountains, grazing and mineral extraction. They practiced a wide trade thanks to the creation of the coins, this coin was called Daric, and they were minted in gold which stimulated the internal and international trade.
Trade caravan routes passed through Iran from India and China to the Mediterranean Sea. Trade managed to give an important boost to the industry of luxury textiles, jewelry, mosaics and rugs and carpets.
They accepted foreign customs and for this reason they wore the Medes costume because they thought it was more distinguished and they also used Egyptian bibs for wars. They married several wives and had a higher number of concubines. They taught their children only to ride horses, shoot bows and tell the truth. They considered that lying was the greatest dishonor and contracting debts was shameful. People suffering from leprosy were considered impure for having committed a crime against the sun and if they were foreigners they were taken out of the country.
They had no temples or images of gods because for them they had no human nature. They made sacrifices and sang hymns to the gods. They celebrated their own birthdays, greeted each other with kisses on the mouth if they were of the same social class or on the cheek. Neither did they make funerals or burials because they considered that they soiled the earth for this reason they let the animals and vultures eat the bodies of the dead.
The religion of the Persian Empire came from sermons of the prophet Zoroaster, the Zoroastrianism. The sacred book of the Persian religion was known by the name of Avesta and focused on the existence of two spirits: one called Ahura-Mazda, which was the god that represented good, and Angra-Mainyu which represented evil.
They had concepts related to the final judgment in which the spirit of the dead was judged depending on what he had done in life and that would define his future in his new life after death.
The Persians fed mainly on bread, sesame oil, wine and fish. Their diet improved as time went by thanks to the defeated peoples, and they dedicated themselves to the cultivation of wheat, grapes, walnuts, rice, and so on. Meat was eaten by both the poor and the rich.
Perhaps the main contribution of the Persian Empire was the way in which they obtained their income and wealth. They made great inventions, banking systems and credits that were later put into practice by the Greeks and Romans. They left a system of weights and measures, irrigation systems and proper use of water, construction techniques and surveying, we inherited their algebra, geometry, chemistry and physics.
The capitals of the Persian Empire that were used to rule were:
Thanks to the Persians, the most important empires in the world were created, such as the Roman Empire, the Greek Empire, etc. They inherited great discoveries such as the existence of underground water, invented wells that are even the same one used to extract oil, invented canals and left ideas of freedom and respect for other cultures. | <urn:uuid:e89b6f64-daa3-494c-bdfd-b13f52a9753e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.euston96.com/en/persian-empire/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00240.warc.gz | en | 0.980991 | 1,654 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.233576297760... | 3 | The ancient Persian Empire was one of the kingdoms most recognized for its majestic and marvelous structures located in the desert, for its great wealth and for its perfect military skill; a place governed by kings who exercised great power and ambition, and who managed to conquer from North Africa to Asia. Immense and extraordinary advances were needed in the area of engineering, not only in the construction of its buildings, but also in the creation of roads, bridges and canals.
The Persian Empire were groups of different dynasties that inhabited a vast territory, where cultures were respected and who were responsible for governing Persia mainly during the Empire Achaemenid with Cyrus II the Great.
The Persian people is of Indo-European origin and was people subdued by the Medes, an Asian kingdom settled in the rivers of Mesopotamia and who could expand their territories thanks to King Cyrus II the Great, belonging to the Achaemenid dynasty, who also freed them from the Medes.
The Persians expanded their territories, thanks to King Cyrus II who helped them achieve independence from the Medes, who made the Persians their subordinates. The Persian forces went to Lydia and Ionia, conquering them; they attacked Babylon, and controlled Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine, liberating, in the same way, the Israelites in captivity. They also conquered Egypt and had the support of the Greeks.
Philip II, King of Macedonia, planned to seize the Persian Empire, but died. However, his son, Alexander, took the throne and completed his father’s mission. He achieved Greek dominion over Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Egypt, and then dominated Iran and Central Asia, marking the end of the Empire.
The origins of Persian Empire date back to 2000 B.C. when the region was occupied by a series of pastoral peoples and farmers, known at that time as Medes and Persians. These Medes invaded the Iranian plateau and the Persians settled south-east of the Iranian plateau closest to the Persian Gulf.
The stages of the Persian Empire were:
The beginning of the end of the Persians came with the defeat in the Medical Wars, when they failed to face the Greek army, and a series of social and cultural factors that brought down the essence of the empire’s unification. After the governments of the last Persian emperors, Artaxerxes I and Darius II, central and peripheral politics gradually degraded. There were many intrigues and conspiracies between families in search of power and the provinces, they gradually lost the bond that united them.
In 330 B.C., Alexander the Great found disarticulated and chaotic regions that he could easily conquer. His passage to the East is the end point of an empire in which values such as tolerance and respect for other cultures played a decisive role in good governance.
The main characteristics of the Persian Empire were:
Its founder was Cyrus the Great, who after defeating the Medes, Lydians and Babylonians, extended his dominions all over the place. However, its real organizer was Darius, who managed to expand the borders with the definitive incorporation of Egypt.
The Persians unified several peoples of the Fertile Crescent, and their borders stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean. They inhabited the Iranian Plateau, east of Mesopotamia, a semi-arid region, with mineral-rich mountains, deserts and few fertile valleys, a dry climate, with large temperature fluctuations.
The Persian Empire was the largest the ancient world had ever seen, extending from Anatolia and Egypt through western Asia to northern India and central Asia. The Persian Empire expanded under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, who used a strategy of religious and cultural tolerance to maintain order.
The society was formed by the king who was considered a god and lived in the capital, the royal family was quite extensive, and the king had a harem, so the monarchs had many children, there was the group of nobles who were the wealthiest families and were members of the court. Priests were a pillar within society and there were many temples. The soldiers were in charge of protecting the borders, the plebs were a class made up of peasants and artisans and the slaves who came from the wars, were property of the state and were small groups.
The kings of the Persian Empire were: Cyrus II, Cambyses II, Esmeridis, Gaumata, Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, Xerxes II, Sogdian, Darius II, Artaxerxes III, Artaxerxes IV, Darius III, Artaxerxes V. The kings of the Persian Empire were: Cyrus II, Cambyses II, Esmeridis, Gaumata, Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, Xerxes II, Sogdian, Darius II, Artaxerxes III, Artaxerxerxes IV, Darius III, Artaxerxerxes V.
It was based on agriculture, irrigating with water from the mountains, grazing and mineral extraction. They practiced a wide trade thanks to the creation of the coins, this coin was called Daric, and they were minted in gold which stimulated the internal and international trade.
Trade caravan routes passed through Iran from India and China to the Mediterranean Sea. Trade managed to give an important boost to the industry of luxury textiles, jewelry, mosaics and rugs and carpets.
They accepted foreign customs and for this reason they wore the Medes costume because they thought it was more distinguished and they also used Egyptian bibs for wars. They married several wives and had a higher number of concubines. They taught their children only to ride horses, shoot bows and tell the truth. They considered that lying was the greatest dishonor and contracting debts was shameful. People suffering from leprosy were considered impure for having committed a crime against the sun and if they were foreigners they were taken out of the country.
They had no temples or images of gods because for them they had no human nature. They made sacrifices and sang hymns to the gods. They celebrated their own birthdays, greeted each other with kisses on the mouth if they were of the same social class or on the cheek. Neither did they make funerals or burials because they considered that they soiled the earth for this reason they let the animals and vultures eat the bodies of the dead.
The religion of the Persian Empire came from sermons of the prophet Zoroaster, the Zoroastrianism. The sacred book of the Persian religion was known by the name of Avesta and focused on the existence of two spirits: one called Ahura-Mazda, which was the god that represented good, and Angra-Mainyu which represented evil.
They had concepts related to the final judgment in which the spirit of the dead was judged depending on what he had done in life and that would define his future in his new life after death.
The Persians fed mainly on bread, sesame oil, wine and fish. Their diet improved as time went by thanks to the defeated peoples, and they dedicated themselves to the cultivation of wheat, grapes, walnuts, rice, and so on. Meat was eaten by both the poor and the rich.
Perhaps the main contribution of the Persian Empire was the way in which they obtained their income and wealth. They made great inventions, banking systems and credits that were later put into practice by the Greeks and Romans. They left a system of weights and measures, irrigation systems and proper use of water, construction techniques and surveying, we inherited their algebra, geometry, chemistry and physics.
The capitals of the Persian Empire that were used to rule were:
Thanks to the Persians, the most important empires in the world were created, such as the Roman Empire, the Greek Empire, etc. They inherited great discoveries such as the existence of underground water, invented wells that are even the same one used to extract oil, invented canals and left ideas of freedom and respect for other cultures. | 1,643 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Enacted on November 29, 1990, the Immigration Act of 1990 was an amendment in United States immigration law that increased the number of legal immigrants that entered into the United States every year. In addition, the the amendment introduced a “lottery” system which assigned visas to immigrants randomly. The main reason for this was to change previous United States immigration law that prohibited the granting of visas to immigrants from certain countries. Other immigration law changes that were included in the act was a stipulation that prevented immigrants from entering the United States because of their homosexuality. Another restriction that was lifted as a result of the enacted United States immigration law was restrictions against immigrants that are HIV-positive.
The Immigration Act of 1990 is considered to be one of the most considerable changes to United States immigration law since 1965. The results of the act increased the number of legal immigrants from about 500,000 to about 700,000. Also, prior to the enforcement of the act, about 54,000 visas were available yearly to immigrants, but were limited to members of immediate families or people that were sponsored by their employers. The act raised the number of visas to 140,000 per year and each one of these visa claims were divided into separate categories.
The first group of legal immigrants that were selected for visas was “priority workers”. They were considered aliens that possessed extraordinary ability, such as highly-skilled professors, researchers, and certain top executives and company managers. In order for these groups of people to be considered to have “extraordinary ability”, they would require recorded and recognized acclaim within their field, such as sciences, arts, and even athletics.
The second category for visa grants was for aliens who were “advanced professionals and those of exceptional ability”. This group included individuals that have received advanced degrees in their field of study and are considered to have “exceptional ability” in the fields of science or business.
What defines exceptional ability? Exceptional ability is a vague term and is not clearly identified. The Immigration Act of 1990 does state, however, that a degree or certification does not automatically grant a visa to an alien for exceptional ability. Those wishing to participate in this second category are required to also seek certification from through the U.S. Labor Department.
The third category for aliens seeking visas are for those considered to be skilled workers. This term signifies that he or she is able to perform labor that requires more than two years of preparation and training. Other workers are included in this category but are for labor occupations that are considered “unskilled”. Before 1990, there were no restrictions placed on “unskilled workers”, but the ceiling was established as 10,000 in the new act.
All of these aliens receiving visas must also be in occupations that are considered to have a shortage of U.S. qualified workers and are needed to fill the positions.
In addition, immigration law changes included the reduction of certain immigration categories, such as unmarried children of U.S. citizens, and married children of U.S. citizens. | <urn:uuid:65f10c00-18c1-4bfb-9a75-86c6eb98bf80> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://immigration.laws.com/immigration-act-of-1990 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.985786 | 626 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.284552812576... | 10 | Enacted on November 29, 1990, the Immigration Act of 1990 was an amendment in United States immigration law that increased the number of legal immigrants that entered into the United States every year. In addition, the the amendment introduced a “lottery” system which assigned visas to immigrants randomly. The main reason for this was to change previous United States immigration law that prohibited the granting of visas to immigrants from certain countries. Other immigration law changes that were included in the act was a stipulation that prevented immigrants from entering the United States because of their homosexuality. Another restriction that was lifted as a result of the enacted United States immigration law was restrictions against immigrants that are HIV-positive.
The Immigration Act of 1990 is considered to be one of the most considerable changes to United States immigration law since 1965. The results of the act increased the number of legal immigrants from about 500,000 to about 700,000. Also, prior to the enforcement of the act, about 54,000 visas were available yearly to immigrants, but were limited to members of immediate families or people that were sponsored by their employers. The act raised the number of visas to 140,000 per year and each one of these visa claims were divided into separate categories.
The first group of legal immigrants that were selected for visas was “priority workers”. They were considered aliens that possessed extraordinary ability, such as highly-skilled professors, researchers, and certain top executives and company managers. In order for these groups of people to be considered to have “extraordinary ability”, they would require recorded and recognized acclaim within their field, such as sciences, arts, and even athletics.
The second category for visa grants was for aliens who were “advanced professionals and those of exceptional ability”. This group included individuals that have received advanced degrees in their field of study and are considered to have “exceptional ability” in the fields of science or business.
What defines exceptional ability? Exceptional ability is a vague term and is not clearly identified. The Immigration Act of 1990 does state, however, that a degree or certification does not automatically grant a visa to an alien for exceptional ability. Those wishing to participate in this second category are required to also seek certification from through the U.S. Labor Department.
The third category for aliens seeking visas are for those considered to be skilled workers. This term signifies that he or she is able to perform labor that requires more than two years of preparation and training. Other workers are included in this category but are for labor occupations that are considered “unskilled”. Before 1990, there were no restrictions placed on “unskilled workers”, but the ceiling was established as 10,000 in the new act.
All of these aliens receiving visas must also be in occupations that are considered to have a shortage of U.S. qualified workers and are needed to fill the positions.
In addition, immigration law changes included the reduction of certain immigration categories, such as unmarried children of U.S. citizens, and married children of U.S. citizens. | 645 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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IIn early August 1177, Count Philip of Flanders reached Acre with a large force of Western knights. On the advice of the High Court, Baldwin IV, who was already suffering from leprosy, offered Philip of Flanders the regency of his kingdom, whose armies were preparing yet another invasion of Egypt aided by a large Byzantine fleet. Flanders, however, insisted on being made king of any territories the joint Christian forces conquered. The idea did not sit well with either the King of Jerusalem or the Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, both of whom were footing the bill and providing the bulk of the troops for the expedition. The result was that the entire expedition was called off, the Byzantine fleet withdrew and Philip of Flanders took his knights and half the barons of Jerusalem north to attack the Seljuk strongholds of Hama and Harim instead.
Saladin, who had gathered his forces in Egypt to repel the impending attack from Jerusalem, rapidly learned that the invasion of Egypt been called off and that the bulk of Frankish fighting forces had moved north. It was a splendid opportunity to strike at his enemies and the Sultan seized the opportunity with a force estimated at 26,000 light horse — which leaves open the question of whether infantry was with him or not. The force also allegedly included some 1,000 mamluks of the Sultan’s personal bodyguard.
According to an anonymous Christian chronicler from northern Syria, the news of Saladin’s invasion plunged Jerusalem into despair. The king was just 16 years old, had no battle experience of his own, and his most experienced commanders (or many of them) were besieging Hama. The Constable of the Kingdom, the competent and wise Humphrey de Toron II, was gravely ill. But according to Archbishop William of Tyre, Baldwin’s former tutor now his chancellor and our best contemporary source, Baldwin rallied his forces and with just 376 knights made a dash to Ascalon, the southern-most stronghold of his kingdom.
Note: Baldwin personally led his knights to Ascalon and he did so on horseback — not in a litter as some novelists and hobby historians suggest. At this stage, Baldwin’s leprosy manifested itself only in an inability to use his right arm. Despite this handicap he had benefited from special riding instruction as a youth. His biography, Professor Bernard Hamilton writes:
Baldwin, who was effectively one-handed, needed to learn special skills if he intended to fight, because he would have to control his mount in battle with his knees alone. The training he received was clearly first-rate because he remained an excellent rider until he became too ill to mount.
William of Tyre, who had been Baldwin’s tutor before he became king and served him later as his chancellor writes even more compellingly:
He…was more skilled than men who were older than himself incontrolling horses and in riding them at a gallop.
Arriving there only shortly before Saladin himself on November 22, King Baldwin took control of the city, but then hesitated to risk open battle with the Saracens because of the imbalance of forces. Thus, while King Baldwin's dash to Ascalon had been heroic, it appeared to have been less than wise strategically. Saladin had effectively trapped the King and his knights inside Ascalon, and nothing lay between Saladin and Jerusalem except scattered garrisons.
Rather than wasting time besieging a fortified city with a strong defending force, Saladin left a enough of his army behind to maintain the siege of Ascalon and moved off with the bulk of his troops. Indeed, the Sultan and his emirs were so confident of victory that they took time to plunder the rich cities of the coastal plain, notably Ramla and Lydda. In Jerusalem, the terrified population sought refuge in the Citadel of David.
But Baldwin IV was not yet defeated. With the number of Saracen troops surrounding Ascalon dramatically reduced, he risked a sortie. He also got word to the Templars in the fortress of Gaza, and they sortied out to rendezvous with the King. Together this mounted force started to shadow Saladin’s now dispersed and no longer disciplined army. Frankish tactics, however, required a combination of cavalry and infantry, so King Baldwin could not engage the enemy until he had infantry as well. He therefore issued the arrière ban, a general call to arms that obligated every Christian to rally to the royal standard in defense of the realm. The burgesses started streaming to join him.
What happened next is usually depicted as a "miracle" or just "dumb luck." However, Michael Erhlich in a reassessment of the Battle of Montgisard published in Medieval Military History [Vol. XI, 2013, pp. 95-105] argues convincingly that the Franks, in fact, very cleverly lured Saladin into marshy ground, where his superiority of numbers could not come into play. He writes:
The Franks knew the terrain much better than Saladin. Fearing his numerical superiority, they certainly discarded the option to attack him in Ramla because in this case the topography of the area presented many difficulties for them. Their move towards Ibelin indicated that they wanted to fight the Muslim army. Otherwise, they could have taken the safe road to Jerusalem, such as the route via Hebron. Therefore, the fact that they followed Saladin clearly indicated that the Frankish king believed that he could win a battle.
He continues the story:
Baldwin passed near enough to Saladin’s camp in Ramla to persuade Saladin to follow him, but also very near to the mountains where he could escape in case he lost the day…An interesting maneuver was that the Frankish army … did not use the main road [to Jerusalem] but a parallel path which was barely known to strangers.
Baldwin…succeeded in maneuvering Saladin to the place he wanted: a marshy area…[where] numerical superiority became a burden rather than an advantage. It demanded additional efforts to maneuver the trapped army, which fell into total chaos. Led by a local lord, who certainly knew the terrain better than anybody else on the battlefield, the Frankish army managed to defeat the Muslim army, in spite of its initial superiority.
Although the battle was hard-fought and there were Christian casualties, the Sultan’s forces were routed. Not only that, Saladin himself came very close to being killed or captured and allegedly escaped on the back of a pack-camel. Yet for the bulk of his army there was no escape. Those who were not slaughtered immediately on the field, found themselves scattered and virtually defenseless in enemy territory. Although they abandoned their plunder, it was still a long way home — and the rains had set in. Cold, wet, slowed down by the mud, no longer benefiting from the strength of numbers, they were easy prey for the residents and settlers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The latter, after the sack of Lydda, Ramla and other lesser places, had good reason to crave revenge. Furthermore, even after escaping Christian territory, the Sultan’s troops still found no refuge because once in the desert the Bedouins took advantage of the situation to enslave as many men as they could catch in order to enrich themselves. Very few men of the Sultan’s army made it home to safety in Egypt.
But to what extend was this really King Baldwin’s victory?
A number of modern historians, basing their assessment on Arab sources, claim that the real commander at Montgisard was Reynald de Chatillon, the Lord of Transjordan. In fact, this is a red herring. Arab sources had absolutely no insight into the Frankish command structure. The most prominent fighter on the battlefield is not necessarily (indeed rarely) the actual commander. Furthermore, because Chatillon was a familiar figure to the Arabs, he was readily recognized; not so the other lords. Most important, Arab chroniclers were at pains to justify Saladin's summary execution of Chatillon ten years later after the Battle of Hattin by making Chatillon into a particularly dangerous enemy of Islam. Making him the mastermind of Montgisard fit this agenda, but it proves nothing about who actually devised the strategy and led the Frankish army to victory at Montgisard.
Ehrlick furthermore stresses that the victory depended on superior knowledge and effective use of the terrain. This, he rightly contends could only have come from local lord — someone who knew not just the main roads but the by-roads and all the little swamps, creeks, forests and hillocks along the way. That was most certainly not Reynald de Chatillon, a Frenchman who had been Prince of Antioch, a prisoner of the Saracens for 15 years, and then became Lord of Transjordan far from this little piece of the kingdom. It was also not King Baldwin. It was undoubtedly the Ibelin brothers. They were fighting near their birthplace and, in Baldwin’s case, within his lordship. In accordance with custom, Baldwin claimed — and received — the right to lead the vanguard in the battle.
Yet, in the end, that does not take away from Baldwin’s right to claim this victory as his own. It was King Baldwin who made the decision to ride to Ascalon with less than 400 knights. It was Baldwin who sortied out of Ascalon to start shadowing Saladin’s army. And it was Baldwin who agreed to the plan of attack proposed by the Lord of Ramla and/or his brother.
As Professor Hamilton stresses, given his incurable and debilitating disease, it would have been legitimate for Baldwin to abdicate all command to a constable, the royal official responsible for commanding the feudal army in the absence of the king. Instead, Baldwin “led his armies in person and took part in the fighting even though he was effectively one-handed, using the skills which his Arab riding-master had taught him.” [Bernard Hamilton, The Leper King and his Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, Cambridge University Press, 2000, 108.]
The Battle of Montgisard is a major episode, described in detail, in the first book of my Balian d'Ibelin biographical novel, Knight of Jerusalem. | <urn:uuid:6f3ce7f6-136d-48a3-a1ec-037cd370d551> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.defenderofjerusalem.com/montgisard.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.981252 | 2,170 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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IIn early August 1177, Count Philip of Flanders reached Acre with a large force of Western knights. On the advice of the High Court, Baldwin IV, who was already suffering from leprosy, offered Philip of Flanders the regency of his kingdom, whose armies were preparing yet another invasion of Egypt aided by a large Byzantine fleet. Flanders, however, insisted on being made king of any territories the joint Christian forces conquered. The idea did not sit well with either the King of Jerusalem or the Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, both of whom were footing the bill and providing the bulk of the troops for the expedition. The result was that the entire expedition was called off, the Byzantine fleet withdrew and Philip of Flanders took his knights and half the barons of Jerusalem north to attack the Seljuk strongholds of Hama and Harim instead.
Saladin, who had gathered his forces in Egypt to repel the impending attack from Jerusalem, rapidly learned that the invasion of Egypt been called off and that the bulk of Frankish fighting forces had moved north. It was a splendid opportunity to strike at his enemies and the Sultan seized the opportunity with a force estimated at 26,000 light horse — which leaves open the question of whether infantry was with him or not. The force also allegedly included some 1,000 mamluks of the Sultan’s personal bodyguard.
According to an anonymous Christian chronicler from northern Syria, the news of Saladin’s invasion plunged Jerusalem into despair. The king was just 16 years old, had no battle experience of his own, and his most experienced commanders (or many of them) were besieging Hama. The Constable of the Kingdom, the competent and wise Humphrey de Toron II, was gravely ill. But according to Archbishop William of Tyre, Baldwin’s former tutor now his chancellor and our best contemporary source, Baldwin rallied his forces and with just 376 knights made a dash to Ascalon, the southern-most stronghold of his kingdom.
Note: Baldwin personally led his knights to Ascalon and he did so on horseback — not in a litter as some novelists and hobby historians suggest. At this stage, Baldwin’s leprosy manifested itself only in an inability to use his right arm. Despite this handicap he had benefited from special riding instruction as a youth. His biography, Professor Bernard Hamilton writes:
Baldwin, who was effectively one-handed, needed to learn special skills if he intended to fight, because he would have to control his mount in battle with his knees alone. The training he received was clearly first-rate because he remained an excellent rider until he became too ill to mount.
William of Tyre, who had been Baldwin’s tutor before he became king and served him later as his chancellor writes even more compellingly:
He…was more skilled than men who were older than himself incontrolling horses and in riding them at a gallop.
Arriving there only shortly before Saladin himself on November 22, King Baldwin took control of the city, but then hesitated to risk open battle with the Saracens because of the imbalance of forces. Thus, while King Baldwin's dash to Ascalon had been heroic, it appeared to have been less than wise strategically. Saladin had effectively trapped the King and his knights inside Ascalon, and nothing lay between Saladin and Jerusalem except scattered garrisons.
Rather than wasting time besieging a fortified city with a strong defending force, Saladin left a enough of his army behind to maintain the siege of Ascalon and moved off with the bulk of his troops. Indeed, the Sultan and his emirs were so confident of victory that they took time to plunder the rich cities of the coastal plain, notably Ramla and Lydda. In Jerusalem, the terrified population sought refuge in the Citadel of David.
But Baldwin IV was not yet defeated. With the number of Saracen troops surrounding Ascalon dramatically reduced, he risked a sortie. He also got word to the Templars in the fortress of Gaza, and they sortied out to rendezvous with the King. Together this mounted force started to shadow Saladin’s now dispersed and no longer disciplined army. Frankish tactics, however, required a combination of cavalry and infantry, so King Baldwin could not engage the enemy until he had infantry as well. He therefore issued the arrière ban, a general call to arms that obligated every Christian to rally to the royal standard in defense of the realm. The burgesses started streaming to join him.
What happened next is usually depicted as a "miracle" or just "dumb luck." However, Michael Erhlich in a reassessment of the Battle of Montgisard published in Medieval Military History [Vol. XI, 2013, pp. 95-105] argues convincingly that the Franks, in fact, very cleverly lured Saladin into marshy ground, where his superiority of numbers could not come into play. He writes:
The Franks knew the terrain much better than Saladin. Fearing his numerical superiority, they certainly discarded the option to attack him in Ramla because in this case the topography of the area presented many difficulties for them. Their move towards Ibelin indicated that they wanted to fight the Muslim army. Otherwise, they could have taken the safe road to Jerusalem, such as the route via Hebron. Therefore, the fact that they followed Saladin clearly indicated that the Frankish king believed that he could win a battle.
He continues the story:
Baldwin passed near enough to Saladin’s camp in Ramla to persuade Saladin to follow him, but also very near to the mountains where he could escape in case he lost the day…An interesting maneuver was that the Frankish army … did not use the main road [to Jerusalem] but a parallel path which was barely known to strangers.
Baldwin…succeeded in maneuvering Saladin to the place he wanted: a marshy area…[where] numerical superiority became a burden rather than an advantage. It demanded additional efforts to maneuver the trapped army, which fell into total chaos. Led by a local lord, who certainly knew the terrain better than anybody else on the battlefield, the Frankish army managed to defeat the Muslim army, in spite of its initial superiority.
Although the battle was hard-fought and there were Christian casualties, the Sultan’s forces were routed. Not only that, Saladin himself came very close to being killed or captured and allegedly escaped on the back of a pack-camel. Yet for the bulk of his army there was no escape. Those who were not slaughtered immediately on the field, found themselves scattered and virtually defenseless in enemy territory. Although they abandoned their plunder, it was still a long way home — and the rains had set in. Cold, wet, slowed down by the mud, no longer benefiting from the strength of numbers, they were easy prey for the residents and settlers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The latter, after the sack of Lydda, Ramla and other lesser places, had good reason to crave revenge. Furthermore, even after escaping Christian territory, the Sultan’s troops still found no refuge because once in the desert the Bedouins took advantage of the situation to enslave as many men as they could catch in order to enrich themselves. Very few men of the Sultan’s army made it home to safety in Egypt.
But to what extend was this really King Baldwin’s victory?
A number of modern historians, basing their assessment on Arab sources, claim that the real commander at Montgisard was Reynald de Chatillon, the Lord of Transjordan. In fact, this is a red herring. Arab sources had absolutely no insight into the Frankish command structure. The most prominent fighter on the battlefield is not necessarily (indeed rarely) the actual commander. Furthermore, because Chatillon was a familiar figure to the Arabs, he was readily recognized; not so the other lords. Most important, Arab chroniclers were at pains to justify Saladin's summary execution of Chatillon ten years later after the Battle of Hattin by making Chatillon into a particularly dangerous enemy of Islam. Making him the mastermind of Montgisard fit this agenda, but it proves nothing about who actually devised the strategy and led the Frankish army to victory at Montgisard.
Ehrlick furthermore stresses that the victory depended on superior knowledge and effective use of the terrain. This, he rightly contends could only have come from local lord — someone who knew not just the main roads but the by-roads and all the little swamps, creeks, forests and hillocks along the way. That was most certainly not Reynald de Chatillon, a Frenchman who had been Prince of Antioch, a prisoner of the Saracens for 15 years, and then became Lord of Transjordan far from this little piece of the kingdom. It was also not King Baldwin. It was undoubtedly the Ibelin brothers. They were fighting near their birthplace and, in Baldwin’s case, within his lordship. In accordance with custom, Baldwin claimed — and received — the right to lead the vanguard in the battle.
Yet, in the end, that does not take away from Baldwin’s right to claim this victory as his own. It was King Baldwin who made the decision to ride to Ascalon with less than 400 knights. It was Baldwin who sortied out of Ascalon to start shadowing Saladin’s army. And it was Baldwin who agreed to the plan of attack proposed by the Lord of Ramla and/or his brother.
As Professor Hamilton stresses, given his incurable and debilitating disease, it would have been legitimate for Baldwin to abdicate all command to a constable, the royal official responsible for commanding the feudal army in the absence of the king. Instead, Baldwin “led his armies in person and took part in the fighting even though he was effectively one-handed, using the skills which his Arab riding-master had taught him.” [Bernard Hamilton, The Leper King and his Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, Cambridge University Press, 2000, 108.]
The Battle of Montgisard is a major episode, described in detail, in the first book of my Balian d'Ibelin biographical novel, Knight of Jerusalem. | 2,145 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Publish Date
- Monday, 25 December 2017, 12:10PM
Have you ever wondered why it's called Boxing Day?
Well wonder no more...
Contrary to popular belief, Boxing Day isn't named after the recycling process that occurs the day after Christmas, but instead comes from a more genuine source.
One theory was that the British upper class used to use the day to give back to their tradespeople and servants. They used to give them boxes of fruit and food as a seasonal tip.
The other theory is that boxes of food and other supplies were left in churches over the course of the month, and then on December the 26th, they could collect these items.
Whether it's either of the two, the day was first made to help the ones in need. | <urn:uuid:9713cd92-cb02-4c4d-ba8d-70960cf771a4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thehits.co.nz/random-stuff/this-is-why-its-called-boxing-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00279.warc.gz | en | 0.983127 | 163 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.371082603931427... | 3 | - Publish Date
- Monday, 25 December 2017, 12:10PM
Have you ever wondered why it's called Boxing Day?
Well wonder no more...
Contrary to popular belief, Boxing Day isn't named after the recycling process that occurs the day after Christmas, but instead comes from a more genuine source.
One theory was that the British upper class used to use the day to give back to their tradespeople and servants. They used to give them boxes of fruit and food as a seasonal tip.
The other theory is that boxes of food and other supplies were left in churches over the course of the month, and then on December the 26th, they could collect these items.
Whether it's either of the two, the day was first made to help the ones in need. | 168 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Though the beginning of the Royal New Zealand Air force (RNZAF) was traced to 1913, it was officially proclaimed an independent service within the defence forces of New Zealand on 1st April 1937. The Imperial fleet committee in London gave out a Bleriot monoplane to New Zealand that same year. After it was named Britannia, It was flown shortly in New Zealand and was finally placed under storage as against the wish of the officials who hoped the nucleus of the flying corps would be formed by it. It was sent back and received by the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) Of England during the outbreak of the 1914 war.
During the First World War, hundreds of ambitious young Kiwis joined Australian and British air services since there were no military flying corps in New Zealand. The Australian Flying Corps (AFC), The Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS), The Royal Air force (RAF) and The RFC had over 800 New Zealanders that served under them. Over 70 of them lost their lives while a massive half of them flew dangerous missions over the Middle East and European battlefields.
The first Airforce in New Zealand (NZPAF) was established in 1923, they were made up of 11 full time staff that carried out training and administrative duties. They had great support from a territorial unit of over a 100 part-time volunteers of which most were ex First World War Pilots. For over a decade, the activities of the NZPAF were restricted by minimal funding thus they struggled for recognition and ability to purchase new equipments. The increase for defence spending commenced in the mid 1930s due to war threats in Europe and improving economic position. New aircrafts and aerodromes were purchased and funds for personnel were also increased.
More concentration was laid on New Zealand’s defence by the Labour Government that was elected in 1935 and NZPAF was consequently renamed to Royal New Zealand Airforce (RNZAF). After RAF’s Wing Commander R.A Cochrane reviewed the requirements of the country’s air defence in 1936, the Airforce Act 1937 was passed by the Government which was based on Cochrane’s recommendation. The RNZAF was then established as an independent arm of the military services and was equaled with the status of the Navy and Army.
The outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 met an underprepared RNZAF despite the improvement it had achieved. A full scale recruitment drive was launched by the then 750 full time personnel and was backed by 404 territorials. New recruits in their thousands were redirected into the Empire Air Training Scheme (EATS), their training was completed in Canada before they were aligned with Europe’s RAF and the Mediterranean. South East Asia and the Pacific experienced RNZAF operations which were carried out against the Japanese forces. The disastrous Malayan Campaign involved about 400 RNZAF personnel and RAF Squadrons that flew in Burma also had New Zealand’s pilots as crew members.
If you want to attract customers to your website, do SEO. It helps you target those people searching for the product you’re selling, and it builds your brand, which helps in increasing customers’ trust. Contact PremiumSEOAuckland.co.nz today and learn how to optimize your website. | <urn:uuid:ac0313b3-a63c-454a-bdc6-b1baa609d75e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://afw.co.nz/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00526.warc.gz | en | 0.987321 | 667 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.72960430383682... | 2 | Though the beginning of the Royal New Zealand Air force (RNZAF) was traced to 1913, it was officially proclaimed an independent service within the defence forces of New Zealand on 1st April 1937. The Imperial fleet committee in London gave out a Bleriot monoplane to New Zealand that same year. After it was named Britannia, It was flown shortly in New Zealand and was finally placed under storage as against the wish of the officials who hoped the nucleus of the flying corps would be formed by it. It was sent back and received by the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) Of England during the outbreak of the 1914 war.
During the First World War, hundreds of ambitious young Kiwis joined Australian and British air services since there were no military flying corps in New Zealand. The Australian Flying Corps (AFC), The Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS), The Royal Air force (RAF) and The RFC had over 800 New Zealanders that served under them. Over 70 of them lost their lives while a massive half of them flew dangerous missions over the Middle East and European battlefields.
The first Airforce in New Zealand (NZPAF) was established in 1923, they were made up of 11 full time staff that carried out training and administrative duties. They had great support from a territorial unit of over a 100 part-time volunteers of which most were ex First World War Pilots. For over a decade, the activities of the NZPAF were restricted by minimal funding thus they struggled for recognition and ability to purchase new equipments. The increase for defence spending commenced in the mid 1930s due to war threats in Europe and improving economic position. New aircrafts and aerodromes were purchased and funds for personnel were also increased.
More concentration was laid on New Zealand’s defence by the Labour Government that was elected in 1935 and NZPAF was consequently renamed to Royal New Zealand Airforce (RNZAF). After RAF’s Wing Commander R.A Cochrane reviewed the requirements of the country’s air defence in 1936, the Airforce Act 1937 was passed by the Government which was based on Cochrane’s recommendation. The RNZAF was then established as an independent arm of the military services and was equaled with the status of the Navy and Army.
The outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 met an underprepared RNZAF despite the improvement it had achieved. A full scale recruitment drive was launched by the then 750 full time personnel and was backed by 404 territorials. New recruits in their thousands were redirected into the Empire Air Training Scheme (EATS), their training was completed in Canada before they were aligned with Europe’s RAF and the Mediterranean. South East Asia and the Pacific experienced RNZAF operations which were carried out against the Japanese forces. The disastrous Malayan Campaign involved about 400 RNZAF personnel and RAF Squadrons that flew in Burma also had New Zealand’s pilots as crew members.
If you want to attract customers to your website, do SEO. It helps you target those people searching for the product you’re selling, and it builds your brand, which helps in increasing customers’ trust. Contact PremiumSEOAuckland.co.nz today and learn how to optimize your website. | 699 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Significance: Cushing was the first appointee to the Supreme Court. Serving on the Court for almost twenty-one years, he was adept at disposing of cases quickly and tersely by focusing on one simple issue that could resolve each case.
After graduating from Harvard College in 1751, Cushing taught grammar school for one year in Roxbury, Massachusetts. Turning his interests to law, he began his own law practice in 1755. In 1760 he moved to Maine to become a probate judge and justice of the peace. Cushing returned to Massachusetts in 1771 and was subsequently chosen as a justice in the Massachusetts superior court. After the American Revolutionary War began, he was elected to the Massachusetts superior court of judicature, and in 1779 he was elevated to the position of chief justice to replace John Quincy Adams. In 1786 Cushing maintained order and respect for the law in western Massachusetts by handling the armed rebels in Shay's Rebellion. Cushing's experience with regional disorders made him a strong supporter of the Constitution. He served as the vice president of the Massachusetts state convention that ratified the Constitution in 1788, presiding over most of the proceedings because the president, John Hancock, was ill. On September 24, 1789, Cushing was nominated to the Supreme Court by President George Washington. He was confirmed by the Senate two days later. Serving more than twenty years on the Court, Cushing wrote only nineteen opinions. His opinions were brief, careful, and straightforward. Because of his previous experience with the early jurisprudence of the American states, Cushing was chosen to write the decisions on the property rights of colonists who had remained loyal to Great Britain during the Revolutionary War. In 1793 he concurred with the majority in the extremely unpopular decision of the Court in the Chisholm v. Georgia case, in which the Court upheld the rights of the citizens of one state to bring original suits in the Court against another state. Due to potential economic damage that might occur, this decision led to the adoption of the Eleventh Amendment in 1798. In 1796 Cushing demonstrated his support of the Federalist agenda in Ware v. Hylton. He voted with the majority in concluding that debts encumbered before the Revolutionary War were still valid and that treaties were the supreme law of the land. As a result, President Washington nominated Cushing as the successor to Chief Justice John Jay. Cushing was confirmed by the Senate but resigned after one week due to declining health. However, he kept his position on the bench as an associate justice. Cushing served on the Court the longest of any of the six original appointees, being the only one to serve under both Jay and Chief Justice John Marshall. | <urn:uuid:ef7a83cf-d7f0-423d-8620-3b1c2f948676> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.wikisummaries.org/wiki/Cushing,_William | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00071.warc.gz | en | 0.981939 | 553 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.4037242233... | 1 | Significance: Cushing was the first appointee to the Supreme Court. Serving on the Court for almost twenty-one years, he was adept at disposing of cases quickly and tersely by focusing on one simple issue that could resolve each case.
After graduating from Harvard College in 1751, Cushing taught grammar school for one year in Roxbury, Massachusetts. Turning his interests to law, he began his own law practice in 1755. In 1760 he moved to Maine to become a probate judge and justice of the peace. Cushing returned to Massachusetts in 1771 and was subsequently chosen as a justice in the Massachusetts superior court. After the American Revolutionary War began, he was elected to the Massachusetts superior court of judicature, and in 1779 he was elevated to the position of chief justice to replace John Quincy Adams. In 1786 Cushing maintained order and respect for the law in western Massachusetts by handling the armed rebels in Shay's Rebellion. Cushing's experience with regional disorders made him a strong supporter of the Constitution. He served as the vice president of the Massachusetts state convention that ratified the Constitution in 1788, presiding over most of the proceedings because the president, John Hancock, was ill. On September 24, 1789, Cushing was nominated to the Supreme Court by President George Washington. He was confirmed by the Senate two days later. Serving more than twenty years on the Court, Cushing wrote only nineteen opinions. His opinions were brief, careful, and straightforward. Because of his previous experience with the early jurisprudence of the American states, Cushing was chosen to write the decisions on the property rights of colonists who had remained loyal to Great Britain during the Revolutionary War. In 1793 he concurred with the majority in the extremely unpopular decision of the Court in the Chisholm v. Georgia case, in which the Court upheld the rights of the citizens of one state to bring original suits in the Court against another state. Due to potential economic damage that might occur, this decision led to the adoption of the Eleventh Amendment in 1798. In 1796 Cushing demonstrated his support of the Federalist agenda in Ware v. Hylton. He voted with the majority in concluding that debts encumbered before the Revolutionary War were still valid and that treaties were the supreme law of the land. As a result, President Washington nominated Cushing as the successor to Chief Justice John Jay. Cushing was confirmed by the Senate but resigned after one week due to declining health. However, he kept his position on the bench as an associate justice. Cushing served on the Court the longest of any of the six original appointees, being the only one to serve under both Jay and Chief Justice John Marshall. | 585 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It seems that John Park, the founder of Marion Center, has been lost to history or if not lost just temporarily forgotten by the hustle and bustle of modern life.
Park was born in 1776 in Ballywatter County Down, Ireland. The Park family came to America in 1794, landing in one of the main ports, Philadelphia. His father, Robert Park, taught mathematics, navigation and survey in Philadelphia; and the skill of surveying was passed on to John, who at the age of 19 came to Western Pennsylvania to survey the land that is now Marion Center for James Johnston.
A year after the arrival in Philadelphia, John Park’s father passed away, and his widow, Jane Bailey Park, married Colonel James Johnston, the same man for whom John was surveying land.
It is important to interject at this point to discuss some of the conflicting views between the settlers and the Native Americans. Before settlers arrived in Western Pennsylvania, the Native Americans roamed the lands freely, because they had a different view of ownership and the use of the land than the settlers. This conflict sparked many battles between the two, but much of this trouble had passed when John Park initially came into what is now Indiana County.
When John Park first arrived to survey the land in northern Indiana County, in 1795, it was described as “a trackless forest.”
In 1798, John’s stepfather received a patent for the land and John purchased a second, and it was there that they erected a log house near what is now the Marion Center Community Park. The home was completed in 1799. The cabin was 20 by 16 feet and was the first house north of the Purchase Line. Among those who helped to build the home was Fergus Moorhead, the first settler in the neighboring town of Indiana. One may wonder why this spot was chosen to construct a home and the reason was that it was the location of a spring, which still today provides water for the park.
Mr. Park purchased 408 acres of land in the area and called it “Greenland,” and reportedly camped at the site of his cabin while the Native Americans resided in their wigwams on the opposite side of the run.
On February 5, 1807, John married Mary Lang, and it was at this time that he took up permanent residence. The two had nine children: Margaret; Robert; Jane; Mary B.; James L; Ann Eliza; James Martin; John; Amanda; and Linton.
Mary Lang, John’s wife, was born April 15, 1783. Her father was a Presbyterian minister, who immigrated to the New World from Scotland and preached his first sermon in a saw mill, which was opened at both sides.
In the early days, travel was an issue, and only two trips a year were made to the post office in Greensburg. In 1808, a petition was presented to the Indiana County Court for the creation of a road from Brady’s Mill on Little Mahoning Creek to Sandy Lick Creek at Port Barnett east of Brookville. John Park was a proponent of the road, and it was probably constructed around 1810.
With the improved transportation routes, additional settlers made their way to Park’s settlement.
As the community grew, Mr. Park was constantly developing new services needed by the citizens of the town and the surrounding area. In 1810, he started a tannery, which was located on South Manor Street. Later he erected a small animal powered grist mill, which was followed by a water powered mill in 1834 on the rear of the tannery lot.
Education being important, led to the building of a school, although it was a crude school, it had a fireplace and oiled papered windows, and was built on North Manor Street.
It was in 1842, when Mr. Park devised a plan of lots and began to sell them, priced from $16 to $30, thus marking the beginning of the town he named Marion, in honor of General Marion of Revolutionary War Fame.
The community continued to grow and develop with the second generation of the Park family.
James began the first cabinet works and carpenter shop. He also started the first hotel in 1844 and along with his brother John they built the City Hotel in 1856.
James and Linton are credited with the first planning mill. Robert Park was a member of the first borough counsel.
The founder, John Park, only lived two years after the town was laid out, but his impetus and direction guided the community for many decades after his death on August 10, 1844.
The borough was officially incorporated on March 28, 1869. By the turn of the 20th Century, the leaders in the community had concern for community improvement and in 1904 the water system was installed, which included a fire protection system. It was around this time that the railroad arrived to Marion Center, which marked a turning point in the growth of the town. Since there was easy access by rail to more distant services, the factories and mills of Marion Center found it difficult to compete.
These industries of the little community slowly dropped by the wayside, falling victim to the steam locomotive, which opened new avenues of transportation and trade.
Both John and Mary are buried in the Gilgal Presbyterian Church Cemetery in a grave located at the top of the hill marked with a stone that identifies them as the founders of Marion Center. | <urn:uuid:bdcc37c6-e734-4d68-90c8-d47e0bb1e286> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hgsic.wordpress.com/2019/04/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00197.warc.gz | en | 0.986771 | 1,127 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.463107019662... | 4 | It seems that John Park, the founder of Marion Center, has been lost to history or if not lost just temporarily forgotten by the hustle and bustle of modern life.
Park was born in 1776 in Ballywatter County Down, Ireland. The Park family came to America in 1794, landing in one of the main ports, Philadelphia. His father, Robert Park, taught mathematics, navigation and survey in Philadelphia; and the skill of surveying was passed on to John, who at the age of 19 came to Western Pennsylvania to survey the land that is now Marion Center for James Johnston.
A year after the arrival in Philadelphia, John Park’s father passed away, and his widow, Jane Bailey Park, married Colonel James Johnston, the same man for whom John was surveying land.
It is important to interject at this point to discuss some of the conflicting views between the settlers and the Native Americans. Before settlers arrived in Western Pennsylvania, the Native Americans roamed the lands freely, because they had a different view of ownership and the use of the land than the settlers. This conflict sparked many battles between the two, but much of this trouble had passed when John Park initially came into what is now Indiana County.
When John Park first arrived to survey the land in northern Indiana County, in 1795, it was described as “a trackless forest.”
In 1798, John’s stepfather received a patent for the land and John purchased a second, and it was there that they erected a log house near what is now the Marion Center Community Park. The home was completed in 1799. The cabin was 20 by 16 feet and was the first house north of the Purchase Line. Among those who helped to build the home was Fergus Moorhead, the first settler in the neighboring town of Indiana. One may wonder why this spot was chosen to construct a home and the reason was that it was the location of a spring, which still today provides water for the park.
Mr. Park purchased 408 acres of land in the area and called it “Greenland,” and reportedly camped at the site of his cabin while the Native Americans resided in their wigwams on the opposite side of the run.
On February 5, 1807, John married Mary Lang, and it was at this time that he took up permanent residence. The two had nine children: Margaret; Robert; Jane; Mary B.; James L; Ann Eliza; James Martin; John; Amanda; and Linton.
Mary Lang, John’s wife, was born April 15, 1783. Her father was a Presbyterian minister, who immigrated to the New World from Scotland and preached his first sermon in a saw mill, which was opened at both sides.
In the early days, travel was an issue, and only two trips a year were made to the post office in Greensburg. In 1808, a petition was presented to the Indiana County Court for the creation of a road from Brady’s Mill on Little Mahoning Creek to Sandy Lick Creek at Port Barnett east of Brookville. John Park was a proponent of the road, and it was probably constructed around 1810.
With the improved transportation routes, additional settlers made their way to Park’s settlement.
As the community grew, Mr. Park was constantly developing new services needed by the citizens of the town and the surrounding area. In 1810, he started a tannery, which was located on South Manor Street. Later he erected a small animal powered grist mill, which was followed by a water powered mill in 1834 on the rear of the tannery lot.
Education being important, led to the building of a school, although it was a crude school, it had a fireplace and oiled papered windows, and was built on North Manor Street.
It was in 1842, when Mr. Park devised a plan of lots and began to sell them, priced from $16 to $30, thus marking the beginning of the town he named Marion, in honor of General Marion of Revolutionary War Fame.
The community continued to grow and develop with the second generation of the Park family.
James began the first cabinet works and carpenter shop. He also started the first hotel in 1844 and along with his brother John they built the City Hotel in 1856.
James and Linton are credited with the first planning mill. Robert Park was a member of the first borough counsel.
The founder, John Park, only lived two years after the town was laid out, but his impetus and direction guided the community for many decades after his death on August 10, 1844.
The borough was officially incorporated on March 28, 1869. By the turn of the 20th Century, the leaders in the community had concern for community improvement and in 1904 the water system was installed, which included a fire protection system. It was around this time that the railroad arrived to Marion Center, which marked a turning point in the growth of the town. Since there was easy access by rail to more distant services, the factories and mills of Marion Center found it difficult to compete.
These industries of the little community slowly dropped by the wayside, falling victim to the steam locomotive, which opened new avenues of transportation and trade.
Both John and Mary are buried in the Gilgal Presbyterian Church Cemetery in a grave located at the top of the hill marked with a stone that identifies them as the founders of Marion Center. | 1,166 | ENGLISH | 1 |
C APTAIN MILES STANDISH was an English soldier who, in his wanderings, came across the Pilgrim settlement in Holland. He liked the courage of these brave countrymen of his, and attached himself to their community, though he would not join their Church. When they began to discuss a plan for coming to America, he spoke up heartily in favor of it.
He was fond of adventure, and knew there were Indians and bears and wild creatures of all kinds in America to fight; and, since fighting was his main business and pleasure, he resolved to be among the very first to go over with the Puritans.
Accordingly, Miles Standish was among the colonial passengers on the Mayflower. For nine weeks, the little ship battled with wind and waves. It was a trying voyage, but Miles Standish was among those who did not lose courage. He strode the deck in the worst weather, and helped the sailors manage the ship. He had a cheerful voice and a kindly manner with his fear-smitten companions,—all of which aided many a discouraged soul in standing the long voyage.
When the ship reached Cape Cod, Standish, with a few followers, went on shore, looking for a place to establish a settlement. Such a. place was found almost at the very end of Cape Cod. The men went in single file for about a mile, when they saw five or six Indians, with a dog, coming towards them. When the savages caught sight of the white men, they ran into the wood and whistled for the dog to follow.
Standish and his men pursued the Indians, but could not overtake them. When night came, they built a fire, set three men to act as sentinels, and slept on the ground until morning. By daybreak they were up and after the Indians, but found no trace of them nor of any houses.
They next discovered some mounds of sand that looked like graves. These they dug into, and came upon bows and arrows. But they covered them over again, knowing the Indians did not like their dead to be disturbed. Other mounds contained baskets of corn, which the men very promptly carried away, since they were much in need of it for bread.
As they went through the woods, they came upon a deer-trap, which was such a curious contrivance that William Bradford examined it with much curiosity. Stepping upon the hidden spring, the trap closed on his leg so tightly that he called lustily for his companions to hasten and relieve him.
After wandering through the woods all day, they came to the shore, shot off their guns as a signal to the ship, and then were taken on board the vessel. This ended the first adventure of Miles Standish at Cape Cod.
After exploring the land several times for a place to found their colony, and locating none to suit them, the company spent about a month in the Mayflower, making the best of a very uncomfortable situation. At last, toward the end of December, they came to a place which John Smith, of Virginia, in one of his voyages along this coast, had named Plymouth. Here they landed and founded their colony.
An Indian tribe had lived among the Plymouth hills, but a plague had swept the entire tribe away. The stubble in the fields was several years old, and the rude shelters of the Indians were rotting. There was no one to dispute the rights of the settlers to claim the soil for their own.
Rough houses of logs were soon built, the spaces between the cracks of the logs being daubed with mud. Oiled paper was used instead of glass for the windows. The weather was now very cold, the snow covered the ground, and almost blocked the people in their homes. There was little fuel and scant food. The colonists suffered dreadfully.
Many of them died, including Rose Standish, the beautiful young wife of the brave Captain. But the Captain himself kept up staunchly, and went among the sick and dying, doing all he could to help them. At one time he and six others were the only well ones in the place. These well ones brought all the wood, made all the fires, cooked all the food, attended to all the beds, and even washed the clothes for the entire colony. When spring came, only fifty of the company were left alive. It was a dreadful winter, but the Pilgrims were not dismayed by this bad beginning.
For fear the Indians would discover the weakness of the whites, and attack them in their sick and helpless condition, the graves of those who had died were ploughed over and sown with seed.
During the spring they made friends with some of the Indians, particularly with Massasoit, an Indian Chief, and with Squanto, another chieftain who knew how to speak English. Squanto was very helpful to the colonists. He taught them how to catch fish and how to tread eels out of the mud. He told them to plant corn when the oak leaf was as big as a mouse's ear, and to drop a dead herring in each hill for fertilizer. He informed the unfriendly Indians that the white settlers kept the plague in their cellars, beside the black thunder powder, and could let it loose whenever they chose. In fact, he saved the little colony from utter destruction at the hands of the unfriendly savages.
At one time, Captain Standish had gone in a boat to buy corn from a tribe of Indians down the coast. When he arrived, the Indians formed a plot to kill him. One of them invited him to spend the night in his house. The wary Captain did not close his eyes. He could not understand what they said, but their actions were suspicious. Pacing to and fro, keeping his gun always ready, he watched through the long night for any sign of attack. "Why do you not sleep?" asked an Indian. "I have no desire to sleep in the house of a stranger," replied Standish. In the morning, Standish backed out of the house, making the Indian follow him to his boat, and even back to Plymouth.
The Massachusetts Indians formed a plot to destroy all the English at Plymouth. Massasoit sent word to the colonists that, if they would save their lives, they must kill the Massachusetts Chiefs. Standish, with eight men, undertook the mission. He went to their village, and pretended to trade for furs. The trade was very smooth, for smiling and fair words were spoken. But the Indians said, "The Captain's eyes are watchful, and there is anger in his heart."
Then came a Chief, whetting his knife. He said boastfully, "By and by it shall see, and by and by it shall eat, but not speak." Then, turning to Standish, he said, "You are a great Captain, if you are a little man. I am not a Chief, but I have great strength."
Then Standish gave a signal, and sprang upon the boasting Indian. Snatching the knife from the hands of the astonished savage, he drove it through his heart, laying him dead on the floor. The companions of the Captain made an onslaught on the other Indians, whereupon they all fled shrieking to the woods. This ended the combat and the conspiracy. From that time on the name of Standish was enough to make the Indians tremble with fear.
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0.353133827447891... | 1 | C APTAIN MILES STANDISH was an English soldier who, in his wanderings, came across the Pilgrim settlement in Holland. He liked the courage of these brave countrymen of his, and attached himself to their community, though he would not join their Church. When they began to discuss a plan for coming to America, he spoke up heartily in favor of it.
He was fond of adventure, and knew there were Indians and bears and wild creatures of all kinds in America to fight; and, since fighting was his main business and pleasure, he resolved to be among the very first to go over with the Puritans.
Accordingly, Miles Standish was among the colonial passengers on the Mayflower. For nine weeks, the little ship battled with wind and waves. It was a trying voyage, but Miles Standish was among those who did not lose courage. He strode the deck in the worst weather, and helped the sailors manage the ship. He had a cheerful voice and a kindly manner with his fear-smitten companions,—all of which aided many a discouraged soul in standing the long voyage.
When the ship reached Cape Cod, Standish, with a few followers, went on shore, looking for a place to establish a settlement. Such a. place was found almost at the very end of Cape Cod. The men went in single file for about a mile, when they saw five or six Indians, with a dog, coming towards them. When the savages caught sight of the white men, they ran into the wood and whistled for the dog to follow.
Standish and his men pursued the Indians, but could not overtake them. When night came, they built a fire, set three men to act as sentinels, and slept on the ground until morning. By daybreak they were up and after the Indians, but found no trace of them nor of any houses.
They next discovered some mounds of sand that looked like graves. These they dug into, and came upon bows and arrows. But they covered them over again, knowing the Indians did not like their dead to be disturbed. Other mounds contained baskets of corn, which the men very promptly carried away, since they were much in need of it for bread.
As they went through the woods, they came upon a deer-trap, which was such a curious contrivance that William Bradford examined it with much curiosity. Stepping upon the hidden spring, the trap closed on his leg so tightly that he called lustily for his companions to hasten and relieve him.
After wandering through the woods all day, they came to the shore, shot off their guns as a signal to the ship, and then were taken on board the vessel. This ended the first adventure of Miles Standish at Cape Cod.
After exploring the land several times for a place to found their colony, and locating none to suit them, the company spent about a month in the Mayflower, making the best of a very uncomfortable situation. At last, toward the end of December, they came to a place which John Smith, of Virginia, in one of his voyages along this coast, had named Plymouth. Here they landed and founded their colony.
An Indian tribe had lived among the Plymouth hills, but a plague had swept the entire tribe away. The stubble in the fields was several years old, and the rude shelters of the Indians were rotting. There was no one to dispute the rights of the settlers to claim the soil for their own.
Rough houses of logs were soon built, the spaces between the cracks of the logs being daubed with mud. Oiled paper was used instead of glass for the windows. The weather was now very cold, the snow covered the ground, and almost blocked the people in their homes. There was little fuel and scant food. The colonists suffered dreadfully.
Many of them died, including Rose Standish, the beautiful young wife of the brave Captain. But the Captain himself kept up staunchly, and went among the sick and dying, doing all he could to help them. At one time he and six others were the only well ones in the place. These well ones brought all the wood, made all the fires, cooked all the food, attended to all the beds, and even washed the clothes for the entire colony. When spring came, only fifty of the company were left alive. It was a dreadful winter, but the Pilgrims were not dismayed by this bad beginning.
For fear the Indians would discover the weakness of the whites, and attack them in their sick and helpless condition, the graves of those who had died were ploughed over and sown with seed.
During the spring they made friends with some of the Indians, particularly with Massasoit, an Indian Chief, and with Squanto, another chieftain who knew how to speak English. Squanto was very helpful to the colonists. He taught them how to catch fish and how to tread eels out of the mud. He told them to plant corn when the oak leaf was as big as a mouse's ear, and to drop a dead herring in each hill for fertilizer. He informed the unfriendly Indians that the white settlers kept the plague in their cellars, beside the black thunder powder, and could let it loose whenever they chose. In fact, he saved the little colony from utter destruction at the hands of the unfriendly savages.
At one time, Captain Standish had gone in a boat to buy corn from a tribe of Indians down the coast. When he arrived, the Indians formed a plot to kill him. One of them invited him to spend the night in his house. The wary Captain did not close his eyes. He could not understand what they said, but their actions were suspicious. Pacing to and fro, keeping his gun always ready, he watched through the long night for any sign of attack. "Why do you not sleep?" asked an Indian. "I have no desire to sleep in the house of a stranger," replied Standish. In the morning, Standish backed out of the house, making the Indian follow him to his boat, and even back to Plymouth.
The Massachusetts Indians formed a plot to destroy all the English at Plymouth. Massasoit sent word to the colonists that, if they would save their lives, they must kill the Massachusetts Chiefs. Standish, with eight men, undertook the mission. He went to their village, and pretended to trade for furs. The trade was very smooth, for smiling and fair words were spoken. But the Indians said, "The Captain's eyes are watchful, and there is anger in his heart."
Then came a Chief, whetting his knife. He said boastfully, "By and by it shall see, and by and by it shall eat, but not speak." Then, turning to Standish, he said, "You are a great Captain, if you are a little man. I am not a Chief, but I have great strength."
Then Standish gave a signal, and sprang upon the boasting Indian. Snatching the knife from the hands of the astonished savage, he drove it through his heart, laying him dead on the floor. The companions of the Captain made an onslaught on the other Indians, whereupon they all fled shrieking to the woods. This ended the combat and the conspiracy. From that time on the name of Standish was enough to make the Indians tremble with fear.
In this way, Captain Standish kept down the Indians, inspired hope and courage among the colonists, and secured peace and prosperity for Plymouth. | 1,552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The skull of a man, found lying prone in the lagoon’s sediments. The skull has multiple lesions consistent with wounds from a blunt implement, such as a club. (Credit: Marta Mirazón Lahr, enhanced by Fabio Lahr) Archaeologists have found the oldest evidence yet of organized conflict, which they say is a precursor to modern warfare. Historians don’t agree on when humans first started waging real, organized warfare against each other. One school of thought says that war is a product of agriculture, with its stored resources and new ideas about ownership, but others argue that the capacity for war is buried much deeper in our evolutionary history. Now, the 10,000-year-old victims of a prehistoric battle in Kenya may provide evidence that war is a much older human habit than previously thought. A team of archaeologists led by Marta Mirazón Lahr discovered the fossilized skeletons of at least 21 adults and 5 children lying partially exposed at a site called Nataruk, a few miles from the present-day shores of Lake Turkana, in Kenya. “None of the bodies at Nataruk had been buried, and the position of the skeletons strongly suggests that we found them where they had fallen, or from where they were too injured to move,” says Mirazón Lahr. At least ten of the skeletons show signs of serious injuries in their final moments: fractures and cuts that hadn’t yet begun to heal when they died.
Evidence of Trauma
The victims were hunter-gatherers who fished and foraged the area around Nataruk during the early Holocene period, about 10,000 years ago. The place where they died would have been a foraging camp, probably only occupied during certain parts of the year. Back then, Nataruk was along the shore of a lagoon, a marshy area surrounded by woodland, offering the perfect setting for hunting and fishing, as well as an abundance of clean drinking water. “The edge of the lake at that time must have been an amazing place to live – but also dangerous, as we have also found several fragments of human fossils at other sites with evidence of having been eaten by carnivores,” says Mirazón Lahr. Carnivores weren’t the only danger. The 27 people whose remains the team excavated at Nataruk died by human hands wielding clubs, knives, and projectiles. They published their findings Wednesday in the journal Nature.
A Planned Attack
The projectile points are the clearest evidence that this was an organized act of violence. Projectile points are a “hallmark of inter-group conflict,” according to Mirazón Lahr, since more personal fights would have been settled at close range with fists, knives, or clubs, rather than ranged weapons. Two of the points were made from a hard black stone called obsidian, which isn’t common in the area around Nataruk – a sign that the attackers may have come from somewhere else. Mirazón Lahr and her colleagues think they may have come from the east, near the Suguta Valley, by canoe or small boat, in what was, for the time, a well-planned raid. “What happened at Nataruk seems to have been a planned attack by one group on another, rather than an accidental hostile encounter between two groups,” she said. “The group who attacked the people at Nataruk was carrying weapons that would not normally be carried while hunting and fishing. The lesions show that clubs of at least two sizes were used, indicating that more than one of the attackers were carrying them. The attack combined distance and close-proximity weaponry, suggesting premeditation and planning.”
Aftermath of Battle
Today the bones of the victims silently tell the tale of the quick, brutal fighting on the banks of the Holocene lagoon. One man took at least two projectiles to the head, and a blow to the kneecaps with something blunt, like a club, before falling face-first into the lagoon. When Mirazón Lahr and her colleagues found him 10,000 years later, the obsidian projectile point was still lodged in his cranium. Another man was hit in the back of the head with a blunt object and fell face-down into the water, probably with a broken neck.
A man found in the lagoon with fractures to the skull, likely the result of blunt force. (Credit: Marta Mirazón Lahr, enhanced by Fabio Lahr) A woman’s hand still bears the mark of a futile effort to defend herself; her right hand is fractured, probably the result of blocking a club strike or catching herself as she fell. Something sharp – a stone knife or an arrowhead – had slashed her right cheek deeply enough to cut into the bone. Four people at Nataruk, including a woman in her last trimester of pregnancy, were found with their wrists crossed as though they had been bound. “I think they were all injured, but perhaps not immediately killed, and were therefore restrained,” says Mirazón Lahr. “We can never be sure if they were in fact bound, but to find four cases in which the hands cross over the wrists among people who were left to die unburied, suggests they were.”
A woman, found reclining on her left elbow, with fractures on the knees and possibly the left foot. The position of the hands suggests her wrists may have been bound. (Credit: Marta Mirazón Lahr) Others may have been captured, or escaped. With the exception of one teenage girl and four infants found near the remains of four adult women, there are no children or teenagers among the skeletons at Nataruk, but the group likely would have included at least some young people. “Whether they managed to escape, or were taken by the attacking party, we will never know,” she said. It’s also not clear whether the people at the site fought back. If any of the attackers are among the dead, said Mirazón Lahr, “they would be very few if any – not the women, not those that seem to have been bound, and not those hit by projectiles.”
Struggle for Resources
Nataruk would have been a prime foraging site, and the attackers probably came to take resources from the people who occupied it. They could have been after food, such as gathered nuts or fried fish, or they may have come to take women and children for their own band, an occasional practice among modern hunter-gatherers such as the Tiwi in Australia. They may even have sought to take control of the territory itself. “This shows that two of the conditions associated with warfare among settled societies – control of territory and resources – were probably the same for these hunter-gatherers, and that we have underestimated their role in the prehistoric life of hunter-gatherers,” said Mirazón Lahr. There are other hints of a violent past around Lake Turkana. Skeletons with embedded projectile points have been found at three other sites in the region. “This tells us that such attacks happened multiple times, and were part of the life of the hunter-gatherer communities at the time,” Mirazón Lahr said. “Nataruk is extraordinary for having preserved the uninterred bodies of many individuals from what was probably not an unusual event in the lives of hunter-gatherers at the time.”
Marta Mirazón Lahr and Justus Edung at the conclusion finish excavating a skeleton. (Credit: Robert Foley)
Mirazón Lahr and her colleagues think that in times when food and water were abundant, the land could sustain larger populations, but larger populations led to increased conflict for territory and resources.
“I believe that the key to prehistoric conflict was population density – very low numbers may have inhibited warfare, as it would be too costly to both defend and attack, while in periods of food abundance, inter-group conflict may have been indeed common, and that these conditions have been part of our evolutionary past for a very long time.
“At the moment, Nataruk is the oldest scientifically dated example of inter-group conflict among nomadic hunter-gatherers. However, if we are correct in our interpretation, warfare and conflict should be much older than Nataruk.”
“The injuries suffered by the people of Nataruk, men and women, pregnant or not, young and old, shock for their mercilessness,” says Mirazón Lahr. “What we see at the prehistoric site of Nataruk is no different from the fights, wars and conquests that shaped so much of our history, and indeed, sadly continue to shape our lives.” However, she added, “But we should also not forget that humans, uniquely in the animal world, are also capable of extraordinary acts of altruism, compassion and caring – clearly both are part of our nature.” | <urn:uuid:c0e48fee-64fa-4f2f-b90f-a2933c899294> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/prehistoric-massacre-is-earliest-evidence-of-organized-warfare | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00508.warc.gz | en | 0.980771 | 1,890 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.8026446104049... | 11 | The skull of a man, found lying prone in the lagoon’s sediments. The skull has multiple lesions consistent with wounds from a blunt implement, such as a club. (Credit: Marta Mirazón Lahr, enhanced by Fabio Lahr) Archaeologists have found the oldest evidence yet of organized conflict, which they say is a precursor to modern warfare. Historians don’t agree on when humans first started waging real, organized warfare against each other. One school of thought says that war is a product of agriculture, with its stored resources and new ideas about ownership, but others argue that the capacity for war is buried much deeper in our evolutionary history. Now, the 10,000-year-old victims of a prehistoric battle in Kenya may provide evidence that war is a much older human habit than previously thought. A team of archaeologists led by Marta Mirazón Lahr discovered the fossilized skeletons of at least 21 adults and 5 children lying partially exposed at a site called Nataruk, a few miles from the present-day shores of Lake Turkana, in Kenya. “None of the bodies at Nataruk had been buried, and the position of the skeletons strongly suggests that we found them where they had fallen, or from where they were too injured to move,” says Mirazón Lahr. At least ten of the skeletons show signs of serious injuries in their final moments: fractures and cuts that hadn’t yet begun to heal when they died.
Evidence of Trauma
The victims were hunter-gatherers who fished and foraged the area around Nataruk during the early Holocene period, about 10,000 years ago. The place where they died would have been a foraging camp, probably only occupied during certain parts of the year. Back then, Nataruk was along the shore of a lagoon, a marshy area surrounded by woodland, offering the perfect setting for hunting and fishing, as well as an abundance of clean drinking water. “The edge of the lake at that time must have been an amazing place to live – but also dangerous, as we have also found several fragments of human fossils at other sites with evidence of having been eaten by carnivores,” says Mirazón Lahr. Carnivores weren’t the only danger. The 27 people whose remains the team excavated at Nataruk died by human hands wielding clubs, knives, and projectiles. They published their findings Wednesday in the journal Nature.
A Planned Attack
The projectile points are the clearest evidence that this was an organized act of violence. Projectile points are a “hallmark of inter-group conflict,” according to Mirazón Lahr, since more personal fights would have been settled at close range with fists, knives, or clubs, rather than ranged weapons. Two of the points were made from a hard black stone called obsidian, which isn’t common in the area around Nataruk – a sign that the attackers may have come from somewhere else. Mirazón Lahr and her colleagues think they may have come from the east, near the Suguta Valley, by canoe or small boat, in what was, for the time, a well-planned raid. “What happened at Nataruk seems to have been a planned attack by one group on another, rather than an accidental hostile encounter between two groups,” she said. “The group who attacked the people at Nataruk was carrying weapons that would not normally be carried while hunting and fishing. The lesions show that clubs of at least two sizes were used, indicating that more than one of the attackers were carrying them. The attack combined distance and close-proximity weaponry, suggesting premeditation and planning.”
Aftermath of Battle
Today the bones of the victims silently tell the tale of the quick, brutal fighting on the banks of the Holocene lagoon. One man took at least two projectiles to the head, and a blow to the kneecaps with something blunt, like a club, before falling face-first into the lagoon. When Mirazón Lahr and her colleagues found him 10,000 years later, the obsidian projectile point was still lodged in his cranium. Another man was hit in the back of the head with a blunt object and fell face-down into the water, probably with a broken neck.
A man found in the lagoon with fractures to the skull, likely the result of blunt force. (Credit: Marta Mirazón Lahr, enhanced by Fabio Lahr) A woman’s hand still bears the mark of a futile effort to defend herself; her right hand is fractured, probably the result of blocking a club strike or catching herself as she fell. Something sharp – a stone knife or an arrowhead – had slashed her right cheek deeply enough to cut into the bone. Four people at Nataruk, including a woman in her last trimester of pregnancy, were found with their wrists crossed as though they had been bound. “I think they were all injured, but perhaps not immediately killed, and were therefore restrained,” says Mirazón Lahr. “We can never be sure if they were in fact bound, but to find four cases in which the hands cross over the wrists among people who were left to die unburied, suggests they were.”
A woman, found reclining on her left elbow, with fractures on the knees and possibly the left foot. The position of the hands suggests her wrists may have been bound. (Credit: Marta Mirazón Lahr) Others may have been captured, or escaped. With the exception of one teenage girl and four infants found near the remains of four adult women, there are no children or teenagers among the skeletons at Nataruk, but the group likely would have included at least some young people. “Whether they managed to escape, or were taken by the attacking party, we will never know,” she said. It’s also not clear whether the people at the site fought back. If any of the attackers are among the dead, said Mirazón Lahr, “they would be very few if any – not the women, not those that seem to have been bound, and not those hit by projectiles.”
Struggle for Resources
Nataruk would have been a prime foraging site, and the attackers probably came to take resources from the people who occupied it. They could have been after food, such as gathered nuts or fried fish, or they may have come to take women and children for their own band, an occasional practice among modern hunter-gatherers such as the Tiwi in Australia. They may even have sought to take control of the territory itself. “This shows that two of the conditions associated with warfare among settled societies – control of territory and resources – were probably the same for these hunter-gatherers, and that we have underestimated their role in the prehistoric life of hunter-gatherers,” said Mirazón Lahr. There are other hints of a violent past around Lake Turkana. Skeletons with embedded projectile points have been found at three other sites in the region. “This tells us that such attacks happened multiple times, and were part of the life of the hunter-gatherer communities at the time,” Mirazón Lahr said. “Nataruk is extraordinary for having preserved the uninterred bodies of many individuals from what was probably not an unusual event in the lives of hunter-gatherers at the time.”
Marta Mirazón Lahr and Justus Edung at the conclusion finish excavating a skeleton. (Credit: Robert Foley)
Mirazón Lahr and her colleagues think that in times when food and water were abundant, the land could sustain larger populations, but larger populations led to increased conflict for territory and resources.
“I believe that the key to prehistoric conflict was population density – very low numbers may have inhibited warfare, as it would be too costly to both defend and attack, while in periods of food abundance, inter-group conflict may have been indeed common, and that these conditions have been part of our evolutionary past for a very long time.
“At the moment, Nataruk is the oldest scientifically dated example of inter-group conflict among nomadic hunter-gatherers. However, if we are correct in our interpretation, warfare and conflict should be much older than Nataruk.”
“The injuries suffered by the people of Nataruk, men and women, pregnant or not, young and old, shock for their mercilessness,” says Mirazón Lahr. “What we see at the prehistoric site of Nataruk is no different from the fights, wars and conquests that shaped so much of our history, and indeed, sadly continue to shape our lives.” However, she added, “But we should also not forget that humans, uniquely in the animal world, are also capable of extraordinary acts of altruism, compassion and caring – clearly both are part of our nature.” | 1,816 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shame is the emotion felt when a person realises that the behaviour they are engaged in is forbidden. Shame is a learned response to the environmental rules and regulations in which the individual operates. What is permitted in one environment might not be allowed in another. It is a way of following the rules of the tribe.
Where a child unknowingly transgresses a tribal (family) rule then punishment is not appropriate but an explanation or what they have done might be. No-one should be made to feel they are bad because of behaviour that they were unaware was not appropriate.
Shame is a feeling adults may feel because of behaviours they engaged in which may have been risky or illegal or in which they were forced to participate.
Parents may feel shame because of the behaviour of their child in public and think that they are useless at parenting. | <urn:uuid:fcce9914-6f10-4160-8d4b-4b06c0900959> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://savvytherapy.co.uk/shame/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00401.warc.gz | en | 0.985373 | 169 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.36203339695930... | 4 | Shame is the emotion felt when a person realises that the behaviour they are engaged in is forbidden. Shame is a learned response to the environmental rules and regulations in which the individual operates. What is permitted in one environment might not be allowed in another. It is a way of following the rules of the tribe.
Where a child unknowingly transgresses a tribal (family) rule then punishment is not appropriate but an explanation or what they have done might be. No-one should be made to feel they are bad because of behaviour that they were unaware was not appropriate.
Shame is a feeling adults may feel because of behaviours they engaged in which may have been risky or illegal or in which they were forced to participate.
Parents may feel shame because of the behaviour of their child in public and think that they are useless at parenting. | 166 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We’ve been living in a new decade for almost two weeks, and so many things have already happened. Yet, the month of January is, more often than not,...
The history of slavery dates back to a time well before the founding of Rome. Historical records indicate that slavery had been in existence four thousand years before the birth of Christ. In many civilizations, the use of slaves was a way of life. Slaves were considered to be nothing more than beasts of burden, property, like horses or oxen. Though the Romans were not the first to use slaves, they acquired an insatiable taste for it. No other civilization in history was more dependent on slavery than Rome. There is evidence to indicate that when the Roman Empire was at the height of its power, there were six million people living in Italy. Two million of those people were slaves.
There were slave-sale days during which the slave trader paraded his latest acquisitions of slaves naked along the street with placards describing the best qualities of each slave. Among the slaves captured were skilled laborers. Greek slaves were known to fetch a higher price since many of them were educated and served as doctors, librarians or teachers. Those with special talents served as artists and musicians. Slaves were also employed as cooks, waiters, gardeners, hairdressers, dressmakers, maids and even bodyguards.
Quite often, the disparity of economic status played a pivotal role in the making of slaves. It was important to adhere to one’s financial responsibilities, since it was quite possible for one to become a slave if he or she did not repay borrowed money or failed to pay taxes in a timely manner. The poor might find themselves forced to sell their children into slavery to a wealthier neighbor.
Many historical accounts of Roman culture indicate that slavery was a thriving business. Slave traders would often follow the Roman legions to foreign lands and await the outcome of their battle campaigns, hoping, of course, that the Romans would win. If the Romans were victorious, everyone privy to the transaction made money: the army, who sold the defeated soldiers and their families to the slave traders and the slave traders who, in turn, transported the slaves back to Rome where they were sold for a higher price. The capture of enemy soldiers on the battlefield and reducing them to slavery was quite risky. They were angry and resentful after having been reduced to slavery, and so they waited for just the right time to rebel against their masters. History tells of three such rebellions which became known as the Servile Wars, named for those who served and fought for their freedom.
The First Servile War, in 135 B.C., was led by a slave from Syria by the name of Eunus who was gifted with a great personality. In fact he was so likable, that his master employed him as an entertainer. Eunus might be considered one of history’s first stand-up comics. Besides telling jokes, he liked to put on slight-of-hand magic shows, which included breathing fire and juggling. His monologue was so outrageous that he would often announce to his audience that Sicilian society would soon experience a role reversal, in which his audience, the wealthy masters of Sicily, would be killed or enslaved and he would become their king.
The audience, consisting of wealthy landowners, would laugh so hard that they threw money at his feet. Each time Eunus received a generous tip, he would thank the patron and promised to spare the patron’s life when he became king. Of course these remarks encouraged more laughter and more tips.
While Eunus was entertaining the aristocracy, tensions across Sicily were brewing between slaves and masters. Many slave owners did not provide enough food and clothing for their slaves. The slaves, in order to provide for themselves, resorted to thievery, for which they were punished. Eunus was well aware of the situation and had not been spending all of his time telling jokes. While he kept his audience laughing, he had been planning to lead some 200,000 slaves across the Sicilian country side in a rebellion against their Roman masters. This gutsy group began its revolt by taking on the Roman Republic in the city of Enna, Sicily, led by Eunus and another slave named Cleon, who became Eunus’ military general.
From the start, the slaves seemed invincible, winning one battle after another. The powers of Rome, having encountered uprisings in the past, showed little concern, since slaves were considered innately powerless. As the conflict was approaching its third year, however, Rome began to reconsider the seriousness of the situation. Legions of soldiers were dispatched with orders to put an end to the rebellion. The war had lasted almost three years. Cleon, the commanding general, was killed in battle, and Eunus was taken prisoner. It is believed that he would have been executed by means of crucifixion, but he died before he could be punished.
For the next twenty-eight years, slave problems remained low-key, but by 104 B.C., once again on the Island of Sicily, the Second Servile War occurred in a most peculiar way. It seems that Gaius Marius, Consul of Rome, in planning a military campaign was in need of additional troops. Rome’s Italian allies, however, refused to supply the needed troops because Roman tax collectors had enslaved Italians unable to pay their taxes. Since Gaius Marius was a consul, he had the power to fix the problem. He therefore decreed that all allied-friendly Italians be freed from Roman slavery. Approximately 800 slaves were freed in Sicily.
Apparently, the process of freeing slaves resulted in some confusion for two groups of slaves: one group of non-Italians who believed they would also be freed and the other, who incorrectly believed they had been freed. When these two groups were ordered by the governor to return to their slave masters an insurrection ensued.
From the rebellion emerged an elected leader named Salvius, who had managed to amass an army of about 20,000 trained slaves and two thousand cavalry. They easily overpowered a Roman legion of 10,000 and were then joined by another ex-slave, named Athenion, and his men who came from the western part of Sicily.
Manius Aquillius, a consul of Rome, was called upon to quell the revolt, but he soon discovered that such a task would not be an easy one. The revolt lasted about four years with slaves resorting to guerilla tactics. Their hit-and-run method of warfare proved to be quite successful since it allowed a small bands of slaves to outwit and defeat larger groups of trained soldiers who were accustomed to meeting their enemies face to face on the battle field.
Salvius’ method of fighting seemed foolproof, but for some unknown reason, he made the mistake of changing his method of warfare. By some accounts, it is believed that he had taken the advice of Athenion, who suggested that he take the fight to the open field. It was in a field battle that Salvius was killed. Athenion was wounded but he managed to escape and continue fighting for a while longer. Eventually, he was also defeated and killed by the forces of Consul Manius Aquillius.
The remaining slaves were taken prisoner. The timing of their defeat could not have been worse, since gladiator games were becoming one of the more popular forms of entertainment in Rome. Rome had plans for their future. But rather than end their days as gladiators in the arena, they chose to commit suicide.
For more than two decades there was relative calm in Rome until a single soldier emerged from within the ranks of the Roman legions and whose name was destined to be on the lips of many Romans who feared for their lives. He went by the name, Spartacus.
To be continued. | <urn:uuid:64a35ed7-db2a-4cdd-a736-25b7b09fb113> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://italoamericano.org/story/2015-5-11/slavery-rome1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.991839 | 1,624 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.3476567864... | 1 | We’ve been living in a new decade for almost two weeks, and so many things have already happened. Yet, the month of January is, more often than not,...
The history of slavery dates back to a time well before the founding of Rome. Historical records indicate that slavery had been in existence four thousand years before the birth of Christ. In many civilizations, the use of slaves was a way of life. Slaves were considered to be nothing more than beasts of burden, property, like horses or oxen. Though the Romans were not the first to use slaves, they acquired an insatiable taste for it. No other civilization in history was more dependent on slavery than Rome. There is evidence to indicate that when the Roman Empire was at the height of its power, there were six million people living in Italy. Two million of those people were slaves.
There were slave-sale days during which the slave trader paraded his latest acquisitions of slaves naked along the street with placards describing the best qualities of each slave. Among the slaves captured were skilled laborers. Greek slaves were known to fetch a higher price since many of them were educated and served as doctors, librarians or teachers. Those with special talents served as artists and musicians. Slaves were also employed as cooks, waiters, gardeners, hairdressers, dressmakers, maids and even bodyguards.
Quite often, the disparity of economic status played a pivotal role in the making of slaves. It was important to adhere to one’s financial responsibilities, since it was quite possible for one to become a slave if he or she did not repay borrowed money or failed to pay taxes in a timely manner. The poor might find themselves forced to sell their children into slavery to a wealthier neighbor.
Many historical accounts of Roman culture indicate that slavery was a thriving business. Slave traders would often follow the Roman legions to foreign lands and await the outcome of their battle campaigns, hoping, of course, that the Romans would win. If the Romans were victorious, everyone privy to the transaction made money: the army, who sold the defeated soldiers and their families to the slave traders and the slave traders who, in turn, transported the slaves back to Rome where they were sold for a higher price. The capture of enemy soldiers on the battlefield and reducing them to slavery was quite risky. They were angry and resentful after having been reduced to slavery, and so they waited for just the right time to rebel against their masters. History tells of three such rebellions which became known as the Servile Wars, named for those who served and fought for their freedom.
The First Servile War, in 135 B.C., was led by a slave from Syria by the name of Eunus who was gifted with a great personality. In fact he was so likable, that his master employed him as an entertainer. Eunus might be considered one of history’s first stand-up comics. Besides telling jokes, he liked to put on slight-of-hand magic shows, which included breathing fire and juggling. His monologue was so outrageous that he would often announce to his audience that Sicilian society would soon experience a role reversal, in which his audience, the wealthy masters of Sicily, would be killed or enslaved and he would become their king.
The audience, consisting of wealthy landowners, would laugh so hard that they threw money at his feet. Each time Eunus received a generous tip, he would thank the patron and promised to spare the patron’s life when he became king. Of course these remarks encouraged more laughter and more tips.
While Eunus was entertaining the aristocracy, tensions across Sicily were brewing between slaves and masters. Many slave owners did not provide enough food and clothing for their slaves. The slaves, in order to provide for themselves, resorted to thievery, for which they were punished. Eunus was well aware of the situation and had not been spending all of his time telling jokes. While he kept his audience laughing, he had been planning to lead some 200,000 slaves across the Sicilian country side in a rebellion against their Roman masters. This gutsy group began its revolt by taking on the Roman Republic in the city of Enna, Sicily, led by Eunus and another slave named Cleon, who became Eunus’ military general.
From the start, the slaves seemed invincible, winning one battle after another. The powers of Rome, having encountered uprisings in the past, showed little concern, since slaves were considered innately powerless. As the conflict was approaching its third year, however, Rome began to reconsider the seriousness of the situation. Legions of soldiers were dispatched with orders to put an end to the rebellion. The war had lasted almost three years. Cleon, the commanding general, was killed in battle, and Eunus was taken prisoner. It is believed that he would have been executed by means of crucifixion, but he died before he could be punished.
For the next twenty-eight years, slave problems remained low-key, but by 104 B.C., once again on the Island of Sicily, the Second Servile War occurred in a most peculiar way. It seems that Gaius Marius, Consul of Rome, in planning a military campaign was in need of additional troops. Rome’s Italian allies, however, refused to supply the needed troops because Roman tax collectors had enslaved Italians unable to pay their taxes. Since Gaius Marius was a consul, he had the power to fix the problem. He therefore decreed that all allied-friendly Italians be freed from Roman slavery. Approximately 800 slaves were freed in Sicily.
Apparently, the process of freeing slaves resulted in some confusion for two groups of slaves: one group of non-Italians who believed they would also be freed and the other, who incorrectly believed they had been freed. When these two groups were ordered by the governor to return to their slave masters an insurrection ensued.
From the rebellion emerged an elected leader named Salvius, who had managed to amass an army of about 20,000 trained slaves and two thousand cavalry. They easily overpowered a Roman legion of 10,000 and were then joined by another ex-slave, named Athenion, and his men who came from the western part of Sicily.
Manius Aquillius, a consul of Rome, was called upon to quell the revolt, but he soon discovered that such a task would not be an easy one. The revolt lasted about four years with slaves resorting to guerilla tactics. Their hit-and-run method of warfare proved to be quite successful since it allowed a small bands of slaves to outwit and defeat larger groups of trained soldiers who were accustomed to meeting their enemies face to face on the battle field.
Salvius’ method of fighting seemed foolproof, but for some unknown reason, he made the mistake of changing his method of warfare. By some accounts, it is believed that he had taken the advice of Athenion, who suggested that he take the fight to the open field. It was in a field battle that Salvius was killed. Athenion was wounded but he managed to escape and continue fighting for a while longer. Eventually, he was also defeated and killed by the forces of Consul Manius Aquillius.
The remaining slaves were taken prisoner. The timing of their defeat could not have been worse, since gladiator games were becoming one of the more popular forms of entertainment in Rome. Rome had plans for their future. But rather than end their days as gladiators in the arena, they chose to commit suicide.
For more than two decades there was relative calm in Rome until a single soldier emerged from within the ranks of the Roman legions and whose name was destined to be on the lips of many Romans who feared for their lives. He went by the name, Spartacus.
To be continued. | 1,621 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This phase spans from the end of the Battle of Normandy, or Operation Overlord, (25 August 1944) incorporating the German winter counter-offensive through the Ardennes (commonly known as the Battle of the Bulge) and Operation Nordwind (in Alsace and Lorraine) up to the Allies preparing to cross the Rhine in the early months of 1945. This roughly corresponds with the official United States military European Theater of Operations Rhineland and Ardennes-Alsace Campaigns.
German forces had been routed during the Allied break-out from Normandy. The Allies advanced rapidly against an enemy that put up little resistance. But after the liberation of Paris in late August 1944, the Allies paused to re-group and organise before continuing their advance from Paris to the River Rhine. The pause allowed the Germans to solidify their lines--something they had been unable to do west of Paris.
By the middle of September 1944, the three Western Allied army groups; the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group (Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery) in the north, the United States U.S. 12th Army Group (Lieutenant General Omar Bradley) in the center, and the Franco-American 6th Army Group (Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers) in the south, formed a broad front under the Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower and his headquarters SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force).
While Montgomery and Bradley each favored relatively direct thrusts into Germany (with Montgomery and Bradley each offering to be the spearhead of such an assault), General Eisenhower disagreed. Instead, he chose a "broad-front" strategy, which allowed the Allies to gain ground from the beaten Germans in all sectors, allowed the advancing Allied forces to support each other, and minimized the difficulty of supplying the most advanced forces.
The rapid advance through France had caused considerable logistical strain, made worse by the lack of any major port other than the relatively distant Cherbourg in western France. Although Antwerp was seen as the key to solving the Allied logistics problems, its port was not open to Allied shipping until the Scheldt estuary was clear of German forces. As the campaign progressed, all the belligerents, Allied as well as German, felt the effects of the lack of suitable replacements for front-line troops.
There were two major defensive obstacles to the Allies. The first was the natural barriers made by the rivers of eastern France. The second was the Siegfried Line, which fell under the command, along with all Wehrmacht forces in the west, of Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt.
Although the breakout from Normandy had taken longer than planned, the advances until September had far exceeded expectations. Bradley, for example, by September had four more divisions than planned and all of his forces were 150 miles (240 km) ahead of their expected position. One effect was that insufficient supplies could be delivered to the various fronts to maintain the advance: demand had exceeded the expected needs.
Much war material still had to be brought ashore across the invasion beaches and through the one remaining Mulberry harbour (the other had been destroyed in an English Channel storm). Although small harbours, such as Isigny, Port-en-Bessin, and Courcelles, were being used, the major forward ports such as Calais, Boulogne, Dunkirk and Le Havre either remained in German hands as "fortresses" or had been systematically destroyed. The availability of Cherbourg had been valuable until the breakout, but then the shortage of transport to carry supplies to the rapidly advancing armies became the limiting factor.
Although fuel was successfully pumped from Britain to Normandy via the Pluto pipeline, this still had to reach the fronts, which were advancing faster than the pipelines could be extended. The railways had been largely destroyed by Allied attacks and would take much effort to repair, so fleets of trucks were needed in the interim. In an attempt to address this acute shortage of transport, three newly arrived U.S. infantry divisions--the 26th, 95th, and 104th--were stripped of their trucks in order to haul supplies. Advancing divisions of the U.S. 12th Army Group left all their heavy artillery and half their medium artillery west of the Seine, freeing their trucks to move supplies for other units. Four British truck companies were loaned to the Americans. Unfortunately, 1,500 other British trucks were found to have critical engine faults and were unusable, limiting assistance from that quarter. The Red Ball Express was an attempt to expedite deliveries by truck but capacity was inadequate for the circumstances.
The 6th Army Group advancing from southern France were supplied adequately from Toulon and Marseille because it had captured ports intact and the local railway system was less damaged. This source supplied about 25% of the Allied needs.
The U.S. supply organization--Communications Zone (COMZ)--is perceived to have failed to expedite solutions and to have been far too bureaucratic, employing 11,000 staff. COMZ and its commander, General John C. H. Lee, were roundly criticised by other American generals. Failure to supply forward units led to unofficial arrangements, with pressed units "diverting" supplies intended for others. General Eisenhower felt he could not exert authority as COMZ was directly answerable to Washington and not to SHAEF, but Eisenhower has been criticised for not exerting more pressure and influence than he did.
At this time the main Allied supply lines still ran back to Normandy, presenting serious logistical problems. The solution was to open the port of Antwerp. This major port had been captured at 90% intact on 4 September, but the occupation of Antwerp was not enough as the 21st Army Group failed to gain sea access by clearing the Scheldt estuary. So the port could not be used until 29 November after a protracted campaign by the Canadian First Army; initially the estuary was weakly held, but the German 15th Army was allowed to dig in there.
The delay in securing this area has been blamed on General Eisenhower as the 21st Army Group commander, Field Marshal Montgomery favored Operation Market-Garden and opening the French Channel ports over clearing the approaches to the port of Antwerp in the Battle of the Scheldt.
The German armies had lost large numbers of troops in Normandy and the subsequent pursuit. To counteract this, about 20,000 Luftwaffe personnel were reallocated to the German Army, invalided troops were redrafted into the front line and Volkssturm units were formed using barely trained civilians.
British manpower resources were limited after five years of war and through worldwide commitments. Replacements were no longer adequate to cover losses and some formations were disbanded to maintain the strength of others. The Canadians were also short of manpower, due to a reluctance to require conscripts to serve outside Canada or Canadian waters. This had arisen from internal Canadian political difficulties during World War I and there had been a wide consensus against conscription for overseas service.[note 1]
American losses now called on replacements direct from the United States. They were often inexperienced and not used to the harsh conditions of the latter part of the campaign. There were also complaints about the poor quality of troops released into the infantry from less-stressed parts of the U.S. Army. At one point, after the Battle of the Bulge had highlighted the shortage of infantrymen, the army relaxed its embargo on the use of black soldiers in combat formations. Black volunteers performed well and prompted a permanent change in military policy.
By the beginning of the next year, the war's outcome was clear. It became increasingly difficult to persuade Allied troops to risk their lives when peace was in sight. No one wished to be the last man killed.
The Channel ports were urgently needed to maintain the Allied armies. By the time that Brussels was liberated, it had become difficult to supply the 21st Army Group adequately. Indeed, one corps--VIII Corps--was withdrawn from active service to free its transport for general use. The Canadian First Army was tasked with liberating the ports during its advance along the French coast. The ports involved were Le Havre, Dieppe, Boulogne, Calais, and Dunkirk in France, as well as Ostend in Belgium. Adolf Hitler had appreciated their strategic value. He issued a Führer Order declaring them to be "fortresses" that must receive adequate materiel for a siege and be held to the last man.
Dieppe was evacuated by the Germans before Hitler's order had been received and, consequently, the Canadians took it with little trouble and with the port installations largely intact. Ostend had been omitted from the Führer Order and was also undefended, although demolitions delayed its use. The other ports were defended to varying degrees, however, and they required substantial work to bring them into use, except for Dunkirk which was sealed off to the rear of the Allied advance.
The first operation of the Rhineland Campaign, Market Garden, was commanded by Montgomery and was to secure a bridgehead over the Rhine in the north, at Arnhem, which would outflank the Siegfried Line.
Market Garden had two distinct parts. Market was to be the largest airborne operation in history, dropping three and a half divisions of American, British, and Polish paratroopers to capture key bridges and prevent their demolition by the Germans. Garden was a ground attack by the British Second Army across the bridges. It was assumed that the German forces would still be recovering from the previous campaign and opposition would not be very stiff for either operation.
If successful, the Allies would have a direct route into Germany that bypassed the main German defenses and also seize territory from which the Germans launched V-1s and V-2s against London, Antwerp and elsewhere.
General Eisenhower approved Market Garden. He gave supply priority to the 21st Army Group and diverted the U.S. First Army to the north of the Ardennes to stage limited attacks to draw German defenders south, away from the target sites.
The operation was launched on 17 September. At first, it went well. The U.S. 101st and 82nd Airborne Divisions took their objectives at Eindhoven, Veghel and Nijmegen. Although their landings outside Arnhem were on target, the British 1st Airborne Division landing zones were some distance from Arnhem bridge and only on the north side of the river. Problems arose when the British 1st Airborne Division lost vital equipment--jeeps and heavy anti-tank guns--when gliders crashed. There had also been a severe underestimation of German strength in the area. To make matters worse, poor weather prevented aerial reinforcements and drastically reduced resupply. German resistance to the forces driving to Arnhem was highly effective, and a copy of the Allied battle plan had been captured.
In the end, Market Garden was unsuccessful. Arnhem bridge was not held and the British paratroops suffered tremendous casualties--approximately 77% by 25 September.
The logistics situation was becoming critical, so opening the Port of Antwerp was now a high priority. On 12 September 1944, the Canadian First Army was given the task of clearing the Scheldt of German forces. The 1st Army comprised the II Canadian Corps, which included the Polish 1st Armoured Division, the British 49th and 52nd Divisions and the British I Corps.
The task involved four main operations: The first was to clear the area north of Antwerp and secure access to South Beveland. The second was to clear the Breskens pocket north of the Leopold Canal (Operation Switchback). The third--Operation Vitality--was the capture of South Beveland. The final phase was the capture of Walcheren Island, which had been fortified into a powerful German stronghold.
On 21 September 1944, the advance began. The 4th Canadian Armoured Division, moving north toward the south shore of the Scheldt around the Dutch town of Breskens, were the first Allied troops to face the formidable obstacle of the double line of the Leopold and Dérivation de la Lys Canals. The canals were crossed and a bridgehead established, but fierce counter-attacks by the Germans forced them to withdraw with heavy casualties. The 1st Polish Armoured Division had greater success, moving northeast to the coast, occupying Terneuzen and clearing the south bank of the Scheldt eastward to Antwerp. It was by then clear, however, that any further advances would be at tremendous cost.
The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division began its advance north from Antwerp on 2 October. Heavy casualties ensued, including the almost total destruction of the 5th Canadian Infantry Brigade's Black Watch Battalion on 13 October. However, on 16 October Woensdrecht was taken, following an immense artillery barrage which forced the Germans back. This cut South Beveland and Walcheren off from the mainland and achieved the objective of the first operation.
Montgomery issued a directive that made the opening of the Scheldt estuary the top priority. To the east, the British Second Army attacked westward to clear the Netherlands south of the Maas River. This helped secure the Scheldt region from counter-attack.
In Operation Switchback, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division mounted a two-pronged attack, with the 7th Canadian Infantry Brigade crossing the Leopold Canal and the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade launching an amphibious assault from the coastal side of the pocket. Despite fierce resistance from the Germans, the 10th Canadian Infantry Brigade crossed the Leopold Canal and the 8th Canadian Infantry Brigade moved southwards, opening a supply route into the pocket.
Operation Vitality--the third major phase of the Battle of the Scheldt--began on 24 October. The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division began its advance toward South Beveland, but was slowed by mines, mud and strong enemy defences. The British 52nd Division made an amphibious attack to get in behind the Germans' Beveland Canal defensive positions. Thus, this formidable defence was outflanked, and the 6th Canadian Infantry Brigade began a frontal attack in assault boats. The engineers were able to bridge the canal on the main road. With the canal line gone, the German defence crumbled and South Beveland was cleared. The third phase of the Battle of the Scheldt was now complete.
The final phase, Operation Infatuate was the attack on the heavily fortified island of Walcheren at the mouth of the West Scheldt. The island's dykes were breached by attacks from RAF Bomber Command on 3, 7, and 11 October. This flooded the central part of the island, forcing the German defenders onto the high ground and allowing the use of amphibious vehicles. Units of the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division attacked the causeway on 31 October, and after a grim struggle, established a precarious foothold. They were relieved by a battalion of the British 52nd Division. In conjunction with the waterborne attacks, the 52nd continued the advance.
The amphibious landings began on 1 November with units of the British 155th Infantry Brigade landing on a beach in the south-eastern area of Vlissingen. During the next few days, they engaged in heavy street fighting against the German defenders. Also on 1 November, after a heavy naval bombardment by the British Royal Navy, troops of 4th Commando Brigade, (with units of 10th Inter Allied Commando, consisting mainly of Belgian and Norwegian troops), supported by specialised armoured vehicles of the British 79th Armoured Division were landed on both sides of the gap in the sea dyke. Heavy fighting ensued. A smaller force moved south-eastward, toward Vlissingen, while the main force went northeast to clear the northern half of Walcheren to link up with the Canadians who had established a bridgehead on the eastern part of the island. Fierce resistance was again offered by German troops defending the area, and fighting continued until 7 November. However, the action ended on 8 November after a force of amphibious vehicles entered Middelburg, the capital of Walcheren.
Meanwhile, Operation Pheasant was launched in on October 20 which was intended as a major operation to clear German troops from the Province of North Brabant in conjunction with the battle of the Scheldt. The offensive after some resistance liberated most of region; the cities of Tilburg, s-Hertogenbosch, Willemstad and Roosendaal were liberated by British forces. Bergen Op Zoom was taken by the Canadians and the Polish 1st Armoured Division led by General Maczek liberated the city of Breda. As a result, the German positions which had defended the region along its canals and rivers had been broken. The operation was also a success in that civilian casualties relatively light.
Meanwhile, the 4th Canadian Armoured Division had pushed eastwards past Bergen-op-Zoom to Sint Philipsland where it sank several German vessels in Zijpe harbour. With the approaches to Antwerp free, the fourth phase of the Battle of the Scheldt was complete; on 28 November, the first convoy entered the port.
Montgomery's 21st Army Group were tasked with clearing the west bank of the Rhine downstream from the Krefeld area. The approach was for the Canadian 1st Army--strengthened by XXX Corps--to advance south-eastward between the Rhine and Maas rivers while the U.S. Ninth Army advanced north eastwards from the Roer. The two armies would meet in the Geldern area. The British Second Army stayed west of the Maas, apart from two divisions that reinforced the Anglo-Canadian advance, but the German High Command were initially convinced that they were the principal threat and deployed their reserves in anticipation of an assault from Venlo.
The two operations were delayed by the 'Battle of the Bulge' but they were rescheduled for 8 February 1945. Although the Anglo-Canadian attack (Operation Veritable) started on time, the US assault (Operation Grenade) was delayed by the threat and then the danger of flooding by water released from the Roer dams. This delay allowed the Germans to concentrate their defence on the Anglo-Canadian assaults, but they were unable to do much more than to slow it down in localised areas. When the Americans were able to advance, some two weeks later, there were few reserves left to face them and they made rapid progress until they encountered the German rearguard near the Rhine.
The two prongs met at Geldern, then pushed towards Rees, finally expelling German forces on 21 March.
The U.S. First Army was focused on capturing the city of Aachen, which had to be dealt with before advancing to assault the Siegfried Line itself. Initially, the city of Aachen was to be bypassed and cut off in an attempt by the Allies to imitate the Blitzkrieg tactics the Germans had so effectively used (see below). However, the city was the first to be assaulted on German soil and so had huge historical and cultural significance for the German people. Adolf Hitler personally ordered that the garrison there be reinforced and the city held. This forced the Allied commanders to re-think their strategy.
Some historians, including Stephen E. Ambrose, have suggested that the siege of Aachen was a mistake. The battle stalled the eastward advance by the Allies and caused approximately 5,000 Allied casualties. The fighting was, by all accounts, brutal street-to-street, house-to-house style urban combat and tied up the available resources of the advancing Allied armies. Ambrose has suggested that a more effective strategy would have been to have isolated the garrison at Aachen and continue the move east into the heart of Germany. In theory, this would have eliminated the ability of the German garrison to operate as a fighting force by cutting off their supply lines. This might have forced them to surrender or to move out of the city in an attempt to re-establish their supply lines. In the case of the latter, a confrontation in a more neutral setting would probably have resulted in fewer military and civilian casualties.
In late August, the U.S. Third Army started to run low on fuel. This situation was caused by the rapid Allied advance through France, and compounded by the shift of logistical priority to the northern forces to secure Antwerp. By 1 September 1944, with the last of its fuel, the Third Army managed one final push to capture key bridges over the Meuse River at Verdun and Commercy. Five days after that, however, the critical supply situation effectively caused the Third Army to grind to a halt, allowing previously routed German forces to regroup and the reinforcement of their strongholds in the area.
Soon after, the Third Army came up against Metz, part of the Maginot Line and one of the most heavily fortified cities in Western Europe. The city could not be bypassed, as several of its forts had guns directed at Moselle crossing sites and the main roads in the area. It could also be used as a stronghold to organize a German counter-attack to the Third Army's rear. In the following Battle of Metz, the Third Army, while victorious, took heavy casualties.
Following Metz, the Third Army continued eastwards to the Saar River and soon began their assault on the Siegfried Line.
Hürtgen Forest was seen as a possible location for incursions into the American flank, and the river dams in the area were a threat to the Allied advance downstream, so an assault to clear the area was started on 19 September 1944. German defence was more stubborn than expected and the terrain was highly favourable to defence, largely negating the American advantages of numbers and quality of troops. The battle--expected to last a few weeks--continued until February 1945 and cost 33,000 casualties (from all causes).
The value of the battle has been disputed. Modern historians argue that the outcome was not worth the foreseeable losses, and in any case, the American tactics played into German hands.
Operation Queen was a combined Allied air-ground offensive against the German forces at the Siegfried Line, which was conducted mainly by the combined effort of the U.S. Ninth and First Armies. The principal goal of the operation was to advance to the Roer River and to establish several bridgeheads over it, for a subsequent thrust into Germany to the Rhine River. Parts of this operation also included further fighting in the Hurtgen Forest. The offensive commenced on 16 November with one of the heaviest tactical air bombardments by the western Allies of the war. Although the German forces were heavily outnumbered, the Allied advance was very slow. After four weeks of intensive fighting, the Allies reached the Roer, but were not able to establish any bridgeheads over it. Fighting in the Hurtgen Forest also bogged down. The exhaustive fighting during Queen caused the Allied troops to suffer heavy casualties, and eventually the Germans launched their own counteroffensive--Operation Wacht am Rhein--on 16 December, which would lead to the Battle of the Bulge.
The Germans had been preparing a massive counter-attack in the West since the Allied breakout from Normandy. The plan called Wacht am Rhein ("Watch on the Rhine") was to attack through the Ardennes and swing North to Antwerp, splitting the American and British armies. The attack started on 16 December in what became known as the Battle of the Bulge. Defending the Ardennes were troops of the U.S. First Army. After initial successes in bad weather, which gave the Germans cover from the Allied air forces, the Allies launched a counterattack to clear them from the Ardennes. The Germans were eventually pushed back to their starting points by 25 January 1945.
The Germans launched a second, smaller offensive (Nordwind) into Alsace on 1 January 1945. Aiming to recapture Strasbourg, they attacked the 6th Army Group at multiple points. Because Allied lines had become severely stretched in response to the crisis in the Ardennes, holding and throwing back the Nordwind offensive was a costly affair that lasted almost four weeks. Allied counter-attacks restored the front line to the area of the German border and collapsed the Colmar Pocket.
The pincer movement of the Canadian First Army, advancing from the Nijmegen area in Operation Veritable, and the U.S. Ninth Army, crossing the Roer in Operation Grenade, was planned to start on 8 February 1945, but it was delayed by two weeks when the Germans flooded the Roer valley by destroying the floodgates of two dams on the upper Roer (Rur Dam and Urft Dam). During the two weeks that the little river was flooded, Hitler did not allow Rundstedt to withdraw German forces behind the Rhine, arguing that it would only delay the inevitable fight. Hitler ordered him to fight where his forces stood.
By the time the water had subsided and the U.S. Ninth Army was able to cross the Roer on 23 February, other Allied forces were also close to the Rhine's west bank. The German divisions that had remained on the west bank of the Rhine were cut to pieces, and 280,000 men were taken prisoner. The stubborn German resistance had been costly; their total losses reached an estimated 400,000 men.
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0.3242899477481... | 1 | This phase spans from the end of the Battle of Normandy, or Operation Overlord, (25 August 1944) incorporating the German winter counter-offensive through the Ardennes (commonly known as the Battle of the Bulge) and Operation Nordwind (in Alsace and Lorraine) up to the Allies preparing to cross the Rhine in the early months of 1945. This roughly corresponds with the official United States military European Theater of Operations Rhineland and Ardennes-Alsace Campaigns.
German forces had been routed during the Allied break-out from Normandy. The Allies advanced rapidly against an enemy that put up little resistance. But after the liberation of Paris in late August 1944, the Allies paused to re-group and organise before continuing their advance from Paris to the River Rhine. The pause allowed the Germans to solidify their lines--something they had been unable to do west of Paris.
By the middle of September 1944, the three Western Allied army groups; the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group (Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery) in the north, the United States U.S. 12th Army Group (Lieutenant General Omar Bradley) in the center, and the Franco-American 6th Army Group (Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers) in the south, formed a broad front under the Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower and his headquarters SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force).
While Montgomery and Bradley each favored relatively direct thrusts into Germany (with Montgomery and Bradley each offering to be the spearhead of such an assault), General Eisenhower disagreed. Instead, he chose a "broad-front" strategy, which allowed the Allies to gain ground from the beaten Germans in all sectors, allowed the advancing Allied forces to support each other, and minimized the difficulty of supplying the most advanced forces.
The rapid advance through France had caused considerable logistical strain, made worse by the lack of any major port other than the relatively distant Cherbourg in western France. Although Antwerp was seen as the key to solving the Allied logistics problems, its port was not open to Allied shipping until the Scheldt estuary was clear of German forces. As the campaign progressed, all the belligerents, Allied as well as German, felt the effects of the lack of suitable replacements for front-line troops.
There were two major defensive obstacles to the Allies. The first was the natural barriers made by the rivers of eastern France. The second was the Siegfried Line, which fell under the command, along with all Wehrmacht forces in the west, of Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt.
Although the breakout from Normandy had taken longer than planned, the advances until September had far exceeded expectations. Bradley, for example, by September had four more divisions than planned and all of his forces were 150 miles (240 km) ahead of their expected position. One effect was that insufficient supplies could be delivered to the various fronts to maintain the advance: demand had exceeded the expected needs.
Much war material still had to be brought ashore across the invasion beaches and through the one remaining Mulberry harbour (the other had been destroyed in an English Channel storm). Although small harbours, such as Isigny, Port-en-Bessin, and Courcelles, were being used, the major forward ports such as Calais, Boulogne, Dunkirk and Le Havre either remained in German hands as "fortresses" or had been systematically destroyed. The availability of Cherbourg had been valuable until the breakout, but then the shortage of transport to carry supplies to the rapidly advancing armies became the limiting factor.
Although fuel was successfully pumped from Britain to Normandy via the Pluto pipeline, this still had to reach the fronts, which were advancing faster than the pipelines could be extended. The railways had been largely destroyed by Allied attacks and would take much effort to repair, so fleets of trucks were needed in the interim. In an attempt to address this acute shortage of transport, three newly arrived U.S. infantry divisions--the 26th, 95th, and 104th--were stripped of their trucks in order to haul supplies. Advancing divisions of the U.S. 12th Army Group left all their heavy artillery and half their medium artillery west of the Seine, freeing their trucks to move supplies for other units. Four British truck companies were loaned to the Americans. Unfortunately, 1,500 other British trucks were found to have critical engine faults and were unusable, limiting assistance from that quarter. The Red Ball Express was an attempt to expedite deliveries by truck but capacity was inadequate for the circumstances.
The 6th Army Group advancing from southern France were supplied adequately from Toulon and Marseille because it had captured ports intact and the local railway system was less damaged. This source supplied about 25% of the Allied needs.
The U.S. supply organization--Communications Zone (COMZ)--is perceived to have failed to expedite solutions and to have been far too bureaucratic, employing 11,000 staff. COMZ and its commander, General John C. H. Lee, were roundly criticised by other American generals. Failure to supply forward units led to unofficial arrangements, with pressed units "diverting" supplies intended for others. General Eisenhower felt he could not exert authority as COMZ was directly answerable to Washington and not to SHAEF, but Eisenhower has been criticised for not exerting more pressure and influence than he did.
At this time the main Allied supply lines still ran back to Normandy, presenting serious logistical problems. The solution was to open the port of Antwerp. This major port had been captured at 90% intact on 4 September, but the occupation of Antwerp was not enough as the 21st Army Group failed to gain sea access by clearing the Scheldt estuary. So the port could not be used until 29 November after a protracted campaign by the Canadian First Army; initially the estuary was weakly held, but the German 15th Army was allowed to dig in there.
The delay in securing this area has been blamed on General Eisenhower as the 21st Army Group commander, Field Marshal Montgomery favored Operation Market-Garden and opening the French Channel ports over clearing the approaches to the port of Antwerp in the Battle of the Scheldt.
The German armies had lost large numbers of troops in Normandy and the subsequent pursuit. To counteract this, about 20,000 Luftwaffe personnel were reallocated to the German Army, invalided troops were redrafted into the front line and Volkssturm units were formed using barely trained civilians.
British manpower resources were limited after five years of war and through worldwide commitments. Replacements were no longer adequate to cover losses and some formations were disbanded to maintain the strength of others. The Canadians were also short of manpower, due to a reluctance to require conscripts to serve outside Canada or Canadian waters. This had arisen from internal Canadian political difficulties during World War I and there had been a wide consensus against conscription for overseas service.[note 1]
American losses now called on replacements direct from the United States. They were often inexperienced and not used to the harsh conditions of the latter part of the campaign. There were also complaints about the poor quality of troops released into the infantry from less-stressed parts of the U.S. Army. At one point, after the Battle of the Bulge had highlighted the shortage of infantrymen, the army relaxed its embargo on the use of black soldiers in combat formations. Black volunteers performed well and prompted a permanent change in military policy.
By the beginning of the next year, the war's outcome was clear. It became increasingly difficult to persuade Allied troops to risk their lives when peace was in sight. No one wished to be the last man killed.
The Channel ports were urgently needed to maintain the Allied armies. By the time that Brussels was liberated, it had become difficult to supply the 21st Army Group adequately. Indeed, one corps--VIII Corps--was withdrawn from active service to free its transport for general use. The Canadian First Army was tasked with liberating the ports during its advance along the French coast. The ports involved were Le Havre, Dieppe, Boulogne, Calais, and Dunkirk in France, as well as Ostend in Belgium. Adolf Hitler had appreciated their strategic value. He issued a Führer Order declaring them to be "fortresses" that must receive adequate materiel for a siege and be held to the last man.
Dieppe was evacuated by the Germans before Hitler's order had been received and, consequently, the Canadians took it with little trouble and with the port installations largely intact. Ostend had been omitted from the Führer Order and was also undefended, although demolitions delayed its use. The other ports were defended to varying degrees, however, and they required substantial work to bring them into use, except for Dunkirk which was sealed off to the rear of the Allied advance.
The first operation of the Rhineland Campaign, Market Garden, was commanded by Montgomery and was to secure a bridgehead over the Rhine in the north, at Arnhem, which would outflank the Siegfried Line.
Market Garden had two distinct parts. Market was to be the largest airborne operation in history, dropping three and a half divisions of American, British, and Polish paratroopers to capture key bridges and prevent their demolition by the Germans. Garden was a ground attack by the British Second Army across the bridges. It was assumed that the German forces would still be recovering from the previous campaign and opposition would not be very stiff for either operation.
If successful, the Allies would have a direct route into Germany that bypassed the main German defenses and also seize territory from which the Germans launched V-1s and V-2s against London, Antwerp and elsewhere.
General Eisenhower approved Market Garden. He gave supply priority to the 21st Army Group and diverted the U.S. First Army to the north of the Ardennes to stage limited attacks to draw German defenders south, away from the target sites.
The operation was launched on 17 September. At first, it went well. The U.S. 101st and 82nd Airborne Divisions took their objectives at Eindhoven, Veghel and Nijmegen. Although their landings outside Arnhem were on target, the British 1st Airborne Division landing zones were some distance from Arnhem bridge and only on the north side of the river. Problems arose when the British 1st Airborne Division lost vital equipment--jeeps and heavy anti-tank guns--when gliders crashed. There had also been a severe underestimation of German strength in the area. To make matters worse, poor weather prevented aerial reinforcements and drastically reduced resupply. German resistance to the forces driving to Arnhem was highly effective, and a copy of the Allied battle plan had been captured.
In the end, Market Garden was unsuccessful. Arnhem bridge was not held and the British paratroops suffered tremendous casualties--approximately 77% by 25 September.
The logistics situation was becoming critical, so opening the Port of Antwerp was now a high priority. On 12 September 1944, the Canadian First Army was given the task of clearing the Scheldt of German forces. The 1st Army comprised the II Canadian Corps, which included the Polish 1st Armoured Division, the British 49th and 52nd Divisions and the British I Corps.
The task involved four main operations: The first was to clear the area north of Antwerp and secure access to South Beveland. The second was to clear the Breskens pocket north of the Leopold Canal (Operation Switchback). The third--Operation Vitality--was the capture of South Beveland. The final phase was the capture of Walcheren Island, which had been fortified into a powerful German stronghold.
On 21 September 1944, the advance began. The 4th Canadian Armoured Division, moving north toward the south shore of the Scheldt around the Dutch town of Breskens, were the first Allied troops to face the formidable obstacle of the double line of the Leopold and Dérivation de la Lys Canals. The canals were crossed and a bridgehead established, but fierce counter-attacks by the Germans forced them to withdraw with heavy casualties. The 1st Polish Armoured Division had greater success, moving northeast to the coast, occupying Terneuzen and clearing the south bank of the Scheldt eastward to Antwerp. It was by then clear, however, that any further advances would be at tremendous cost.
The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division began its advance north from Antwerp on 2 October. Heavy casualties ensued, including the almost total destruction of the 5th Canadian Infantry Brigade's Black Watch Battalion on 13 October. However, on 16 October Woensdrecht was taken, following an immense artillery barrage which forced the Germans back. This cut South Beveland and Walcheren off from the mainland and achieved the objective of the first operation.
Montgomery issued a directive that made the opening of the Scheldt estuary the top priority. To the east, the British Second Army attacked westward to clear the Netherlands south of the Maas River. This helped secure the Scheldt region from counter-attack.
In Operation Switchback, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division mounted a two-pronged attack, with the 7th Canadian Infantry Brigade crossing the Leopold Canal and the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade launching an amphibious assault from the coastal side of the pocket. Despite fierce resistance from the Germans, the 10th Canadian Infantry Brigade crossed the Leopold Canal and the 8th Canadian Infantry Brigade moved southwards, opening a supply route into the pocket.
Operation Vitality--the third major phase of the Battle of the Scheldt--began on 24 October. The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division began its advance toward South Beveland, but was slowed by mines, mud and strong enemy defences. The British 52nd Division made an amphibious attack to get in behind the Germans' Beveland Canal defensive positions. Thus, this formidable defence was outflanked, and the 6th Canadian Infantry Brigade began a frontal attack in assault boats. The engineers were able to bridge the canal on the main road. With the canal line gone, the German defence crumbled and South Beveland was cleared. The third phase of the Battle of the Scheldt was now complete.
The final phase, Operation Infatuate was the attack on the heavily fortified island of Walcheren at the mouth of the West Scheldt. The island's dykes were breached by attacks from RAF Bomber Command on 3, 7, and 11 October. This flooded the central part of the island, forcing the German defenders onto the high ground and allowing the use of amphibious vehicles. Units of the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division attacked the causeway on 31 October, and after a grim struggle, established a precarious foothold. They were relieved by a battalion of the British 52nd Division. In conjunction with the waterborne attacks, the 52nd continued the advance.
The amphibious landings began on 1 November with units of the British 155th Infantry Brigade landing on a beach in the south-eastern area of Vlissingen. During the next few days, they engaged in heavy street fighting against the German defenders. Also on 1 November, after a heavy naval bombardment by the British Royal Navy, troops of 4th Commando Brigade, (with units of 10th Inter Allied Commando, consisting mainly of Belgian and Norwegian troops), supported by specialised armoured vehicles of the British 79th Armoured Division were landed on both sides of the gap in the sea dyke. Heavy fighting ensued. A smaller force moved south-eastward, toward Vlissingen, while the main force went northeast to clear the northern half of Walcheren to link up with the Canadians who had established a bridgehead on the eastern part of the island. Fierce resistance was again offered by German troops defending the area, and fighting continued until 7 November. However, the action ended on 8 November after a force of amphibious vehicles entered Middelburg, the capital of Walcheren.
Meanwhile, Operation Pheasant was launched in on October 20 which was intended as a major operation to clear German troops from the Province of North Brabant in conjunction with the battle of the Scheldt. The offensive after some resistance liberated most of region; the cities of Tilburg, s-Hertogenbosch, Willemstad and Roosendaal were liberated by British forces. Bergen Op Zoom was taken by the Canadians and the Polish 1st Armoured Division led by General Maczek liberated the city of Breda. As a result, the German positions which had defended the region along its canals and rivers had been broken. The operation was also a success in that civilian casualties relatively light.
Meanwhile, the 4th Canadian Armoured Division had pushed eastwards past Bergen-op-Zoom to Sint Philipsland where it sank several German vessels in Zijpe harbour. With the approaches to Antwerp free, the fourth phase of the Battle of the Scheldt was complete; on 28 November, the first convoy entered the port.
Montgomery's 21st Army Group were tasked with clearing the west bank of the Rhine downstream from the Krefeld area. The approach was for the Canadian 1st Army--strengthened by XXX Corps--to advance south-eastward between the Rhine and Maas rivers while the U.S. Ninth Army advanced north eastwards from the Roer. The two armies would meet in the Geldern area. The British Second Army stayed west of the Maas, apart from two divisions that reinforced the Anglo-Canadian advance, but the German High Command were initially convinced that they were the principal threat and deployed their reserves in anticipation of an assault from Venlo.
The two operations were delayed by the 'Battle of the Bulge' but they were rescheduled for 8 February 1945. Although the Anglo-Canadian attack (Operation Veritable) started on time, the US assault (Operation Grenade) was delayed by the threat and then the danger of flooding by water released from the Roer dams. This delay allowed the Germans to concentrate their defence on the Anglo-Canadian assaults, but they were unable to do much more than to slow it down in localised areas. When the Americans were able to advance, some two weeks later, there were few reserves left to face them and they made rapid progress until they encountered the German rearguard near the Rhine.
The two prongs met at Geldern, then pushed towards Rees, finally expelling German forces on 21 March.
The U.S. First Army was focused on capturing the city of Aachen, which had to be dealt with before advancing to assault the Siegfried Line itself. Initially, the city of Aachen was to be bypassed and cut off in an attempt by the Allies to imitate the Blitzkrieg tactics the Germans had so effectively used (see below). However, the city was the first to be assaulted on German soil and so had huge historical and cultural significance for the German people. Adolf Hitler personally ordered that the garrison there be reinforced and the city held. This forced the Allied commanders to re-think their strategy.
Some historians, including Stephen E. Ambrose, have suggested that the siege of Aachen was a mistake. The battle stalled the eastward advance by the Allies and caused approximately 5,000 Allied casualties. The fighting was, by all accounts, brutal street-to-street, house-to-house style urban combat and tied up the available resources of the advancing Allied armies. Ambrose has suggested that a more effective strategy would have been to have isolated the garrison at Aachen and continue the move east into the heart of Germany. In theory, this would have eliminated the ability of the German garrison to operate as a fighting force by cutting off their supply lines. This might have forced them to surrender or to move out of the city in an attempt to re-establish their supply lines. In the case of the latter, a confrontation in a more neutral setting would probably have resulted in fewer military and civilian casualties.
In late August, the U.S. Third Army started to run low on fuel. This situation was caused by the rapid Allied advance through France, and compounded by the shift of logistical priority to the northern forces to secure Antwerp. By 1 September 1944, with the last of its fuel, the Third Army managed one final push to capture key bridges over the Meuse River at Verdun and Commercy. Five days after that, however, the critical supply situation effectively caused the Third Army to grind to a halt, allowing previously routed German forces to regroup and the reinforcement of their strongholds in the area.
Soon after, the Third Army came up against Metz, part of the Maginot Line and one of the most heavily fortified cities in Western Europe. The city could not be bypassed, as several of its forts had guns directed at Moselle crossing sites and the main roads in the area. It could also be used as a stronghold to organize a German counter-attack to the Third Army's rear. In the following Battle of Metz, the Third Army, while victorious, took heavy casualties.
Following Metz, the Third Army continued eastwards to the Saar River and soon began their assault on the Siegfried Line.
Hürtgen Forest was seen as a possible location for incursions into the American flank, and the river dams in the area were a threat to the Allied advance downstream, so an assault to clear the area was started on 19 September 1944. German defence was more stubborn than expected and the terrain was highly favourable to defence, largely negating the American advantages of numbers and quality of troops. The battle--expected to last a few weeks--continued until February 1945 and cost 33,000 casualties (from all causes).
The value of the battle has been disputed. Modern historians argue that the outcome was not worth the foreseeable losses, and in any case, the American tactics played into German hands.
Operation Queen was a combined Allied air-ground offensive against the German forces at the Siegfried Line, which was conducted mainly by the combined effort of the U.S. Ninth and First Armies. The principal goal of the operation was to advance to the Roer River and to establish several bridgeheads over it, for a subsequent thrust into Germany to the Rhine River. Parts of this operation also included further fighting in the Hurtgen Forest. The offensive commenced on 16 November with one of the heaviest tactical air bombardments by the western Allies of the war. Although the German forces were heavily outnumbered, the Allied advance was very slow. After four weeks of intensive fighting, the Allies reached the Roer, but were not able to establish any bridgeheads over it. Fighting in the Hurtgen Forest also bogged down. The exhaustive fighting during Queen caused the Allied troops to suffer heavy casualties, and eventually the Germans launched their own counteroffensive--Operation Wacht am Rhein--on 16 December, which would lead to the Battle of the Bulge.
The Germans had been preparing a massive counter-attack in the West since the Allied breakout from Normandy. The plan called Wacht am Rhein ("Watch on the Rhine") was to attack through the Ardennes and swing North to Antwerp, splitting the American and British armies. The attack started on 16 December in what became known as the Battle of the Bulge. Defending the Ardennes were troops of the U.S. First Army. After initial successes in bad weather, which gave the Germans cover from the Allied air forces, the Allies launched a counterattack to clear them from the Ardennes. The Germans were eventually pushed back to their starting points by 25 January 1945.
The Germans launched a second, smaller offensive (Nordwind) into Alsace on 1 January 1945. Aiming to recapture Strasbourg, they attacked the 6th Army Group at multiple points. Because Allied lines had become severely stretched in response to the crisis in the Ardennes, holding and throwing back the Nordwind offensive was a costly affair that lasted almost four weeks. Allied counter-attacks restored the front line to the area of the German border and collapsed the Colmar Pocket.
The pincer movement of the Canadian First Army, advancing from the Nijmegen area in Operation Veritable, and the U.S. Ninth Army, crossing the Roer in Operation Grenade, was planned to start on 8 February 1945, but it was delayed by two weeks when the Germans flooded the Roer valley by destroying the floodgates of two dams on the upper Roer (Rur Dam and Urft Dam). During the two weeks that the little river was flooded, Hitler did not allow Rundstedt to withdraw German forces behind the Rhine, arguing that it would only delay the inevitable fight. Hitler ordered him to fight where his forces stood.
By the time the water had subsided and the U.S. Ninth Army was able to cross the Roer on 23 February, other Allied forces were also close to the Rhine's west bank. The German divisions that had remained on the west bank of the Rhine were cut to pieces, and 280,000 men were taken prisoner. The stubborn German resistance had been costly; their total losses reached an estimated 400,000 men.
The Allies crossed the Rhine at four points. One crossing was an opportunity taken by U.S. forces when the Germans failed to blow up the Ludendorff Bridge at Remagen; another was a hasty assault; and two crossings were planned: | 5,427 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the 1960s, the political climate in America was beginning to change. The country previously had been steeped in racism against African Americans and the majority of the nation was considered to be a segregated country. There were separate schools for races, separate water fountains there were restaurants that said “whites only” and this was considered the norm, especially in the south. Yet in 1954, a major shift happened and the first major landmark in the road to Civil Rights was paved.
The Supreme Court, headed by Earl Warren, voted unanimously that it was unconstitutional and unjust to have laws forcing segregation between whites and blacks. As the highest level of law in the land, they ordered for the immediate desegregation of public schools in all states. This was no small task and it was no small action. Previously, states had a certain degree of control over their ability to enforce discrimination laws. They maintained that they had the sovereign right, as free states, to enforce these laws and as such, discrimination and segregation ran rampant. Those laws were known as Jim Crow Laws and they reigned supreme until the legal case known as Brown vs. Board of Education came before the Supreme Court. It was from there, in 1954, that it was made known that legally enforced segregation of schools would come to an end.
But ruling on a law and enforcing a law are two very different things. Just because the Federal Government said that desegregation was over didn’t meant that it was truly over. In fact, this ruling was just the beginning of a long process of schools being forced to desegregate. Our story today takes us to New Orleans, in 1960, where desegregation was something the public was desperate to avoid.
There were a lot of attempts, on a city level, to block the desegregation of the public schools in New Orleans, but those attempts failed. It was clear that they would be forced to allow African-Americans to attend their schools. On November 14th, 1960, two schools were desegregated. Students were allowed to transfer into those schools. Of course, the schools themselves weren’t interested in receiving transfers and instead developed a test that needed to be passed in order to transfer. This test, of course, would be extremely difficult and thus would hopefully prevent any black children from being able to transfer.
One of the two schools, William Frantz Elementary School, would soon receive its first black student. A young girl by the name of Ruby Bridges. Ruby, a little 6-year-old girl, had received word that she would be eligible to take the test for transferring. The school was closer than the segregated school she had been going to earlier and in her innocence, she wanted to go. She wasn’t fully aware of the radical racism that was surrounding these schools and instead thought it would be a good idea to go to a school only five blocks from her house. Her father wasn’t a fan of this plan and tried to dissuade his daughter, but Ruby’s mother wanted her daughter to receive a better education. A white school has more funding, she reasoned, so Ruby would receive a much better education. Not only that, Ruby’s mother maintained, this would help in the entire desegregation movement. After much argument and discussion, Ruby’s father finally relented and they allowed their little girl to take the test.
Soon Ruby discovered that she had been the only child out of six to pass the test. She was officially enrolled into William Frantz Elementary School. To a little girl, it was a happy occasion, after all she’d get to go to a new school. She was a little too young to fully understand the situation that was happening. To the rest of the world, she was the first African-American to go to a desegregated school in Louisiana. This was a big ordeal.
Ruby arrived to school, eager and excited. She could see people all around the school, shouting and throwing things. It was a celebration! After all, she was in New Orleans and this must have been Mardi Gras, right? In her innocence, that was what she believed, but the unfortunate truth was that those people surrounding the school and shouting were protestors. A large band of whites had boycotted the school and they had pulled all of their children out of the school for the day, as a way to protest Ruby’s entry.
Ruby’s car pulled up to the steps of the school and four men emerged with her. They were Federal Marshalls. Their job was to ensure that the school was desegregated, by any means possible, and with the danger of violence and savagery from the protestors, they were also there to protect Ruby. These Marshalls escorted her through the picket line into the school, where Ruby had the pleasure of sitting around and doing nothing for the entire day because every last student had left the school for the day. School had effectively been cancelled.
The protestors had no intentions of going away either. On Ruby’s second day, sure enough, they were there shouting and hurling insults at the little girl. Ruby began to realize that things weren’t as sunny as she had initially hoped. As she was escorted for her second day of school by the Federal Marshalls a woman shouted out from the crowd “I’m going to poison you for coming here!” This death threat was taken seriously and the Marshalls instructed poor Ruby to never eat anything from the school and instead bring her own lunch with her.
The second day of school seemed just as uneventful as the first. It looked like there wasn’t going to be any classes for Ruby because no one seemed like they wanted to teach the girl. That is, until Barbara Henry stepped in. Barbara was from Boston and had been raised in an all-girls school that was desegregated. It was in that school that she had learned the value of all life, regardless of their skin color. She had landed in the New Orleans public school, unaware that it would lead her to the opportunity of a lifetime. She saw little Ruby as an adorable, smart girl who needed someone to learn from. So, Barbara agreed to teach her.
The two bonded quickly and Ruby spent her time learning everything that she could from Mrs. Henry, despite the fact that they were the only two people in the classroom. No one student was with Ruby because none of them were willing to be seen with her. The two set out on a long journey of education together with Mrs. Henry refusing to compromise the quality of education for the girl. So, they did everything together. Barbara was the gym teacher, the music teacher, the history and English teacher. They sang together, played together, read together. Barbara didn’t treat the classroom as if it were empty and instead kept all of the formalities of it being a full classroom.
Ruby continued to go to school, regardless of the way people around he treated her. The racism was fully understood now and while she was afraid on the inside, her heart resolved to keep herself strong externally. It was said that she didn’t whimper, cry or ran away despite the crowd screaming at her and hurling insults. Even when she received death threats and these adults displayed the full ugliness of racism to a little girl, she stayed strong. When afraid, she would pray. She wouldn’t be discouraged.
The time in school was a lonely time for little Ruby. She had Mrs. Henry to keep her company, but she wasn’t even allowed to join the cafeteria or go out for recess. The two were bound to the inside of the classroom for quite some time. A few students were beginning to trickle back into the school, but they still wanted nothing to do with her. As her interactions with other students became rejected, she started to realize that it was because of the color of her skin. This cast a damper on her whole heart and soon she began to experience nightmares. She would waken frequently in the middle of the night and wouldn’t be able to go back to sleep.
Pressure on her family was exerted as well. As backlash for sending their daughter to a formerly all-white school, Ruby’s father lost his job. Her grandparents were forced off of some land that they had been taking care of for several years. Even the grocery store they frequented made a point to keep them from shopping there. The ramifications for standing against society’s norm, the decision to fight back against racism had a cost and it wasn’t easy for everyone to stomach. But they continued on.
Soon Ruby found herself in the company of a psychologist who assisted her by listening and talking with her. On occasion this psychologist would bring his wife to their sessions to help the girl continue to develop healthily. Soon things began to take a turn for Ruby. Her family found themselves supported by their neighbors and friends. People began to come alongside Ruby as she went to school, they would be right behind the Marshalls helping her have a sense of safety. Some friends gave Ruby’s dad a job.
The protests lasted almost a year. Every day there were people out there, screaming and shouting at Ruby. Sometimes they would intimidate her, but in those times of fear she would simply pray. She would pray not just for strength but she would even pray for those who were mean to her. She continued each and every day, never missing a single day of school. Mrs. Henry also didn’t miss school either and the two spent each day together. Through courage, determination and a refusal to let the racism around her drag her down, Ruby Bridges passed her first year of elementary school.
The second year rolled around and she arrived to a school that had no protestors. Children were instead seen going into class. Mrs. Henry’s contract was not renewed with the school, and so she had departed. Ruby found herself inside a second-grade classroom full of other children. It was almost like the protests last year had not happened. Things would be normal for this little girl and she would go on all through the school system and graduate with her high school diploma.
Ruby’s story isn’t loud and explosive. There were no big speeches given, no rallies held in her honor. She didn’t command the attention of the national media and she certainly didn’t move hearts and minds across America to change. But in truth, that is not how segregation was defeated. Segregation in America was a war that was won by small victories. All it took was for one little girl to stand up and do something. Across the country, there are hundreds of stories of people who decided to do something about where they were. Sometimes those stories, like Rosa Parks, echo across the media. Sometimes those stories, like little Ruby’s don’t echo nearly as loud. But in the end, we see the truth, that no major social change happens in one swift movement. There is no definitive singular story that ended segregation, just as there will be no singular event that will end racism. Instead, the battle is won little by little, one person at a time. The tide of progress might not seem like it is moving quickly for some, but with people like Ruby, a little girl who’s first major contribution to the civil rights movement was just to go to a school where people would cast dispersion and hatred upon her, there will be progress. The world will change with each and every small victory.
As for Ruby, after her graduation, she went on to live a rich and full life. Eventually she founded the Ruby Bridges Foundation, dedicated to provided children with opportunity for education and to aid in the elimination of racism. “Racism is a grown-up disease,” the foundation believes, “and we must stop using our children to spread it.”
READ MORE: Malcolm X
After Five Decades Ruby Bridges Gets Appplause Instead of Death Threats: http://youthtoday.org/2016/01/after-5-decades-ruby-bridges-gets-applause-instead-of-death-threats/
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0.1628056168556... | 1 | In the 1960s, the political climate in America was beginning to change. The country previously had been steeped in racism against African Americans and the majority of the nation was considered to be a segregated country. There were separate schools for races, separate water fountains there were restaurants that said “whites only” and this was considered the norm, especially in the south. Yet in 1954, a major shift happened and the first major landmark in the road to Civil Rights was paved.
The Supreme Court, headed by Earl Warren, voted unanimously that it was unconstitutional and unjust to have laws forcing segregation between whites and blacks. As the highest level of law in the land, they ordered for the immediate desegregation of public schools in all states. This was no small task and it was no small action. Previously, states had a certain degree of control over their ability to enforce discrimination laws. They maintained that they had the sovereign right, as free states, to enforce these laws and as such, discrimination and segregation ran rampant. Those laws were known as Jim Crow Laws and they reigned supreme until the legal case known as Brown vs. Board of Education came before the Supreme Court. It was from there, in 1954, that it was made known that legally enforced segregation of schools would come to an end.
But ruling on a law and enforcing a law are two very different things. Just because the Federal Government said that desegregation was over didn’t meant that it was truly over. In fact, this ruling was just the beginning of a long process of schools being forced to desegregate. Our story today takes us to New Orleans, in 1960, where desegregation was something the public was desperate to avoid.
There were a lot of attempts, on a city level, to block the desegregation of the public schools in New Orleans, but those attempts failed. It was clear that they would be forced to allow African-Americans to attend their schools. On November 14th, 1960, two schools were desegregated. Students were allowed to transfer into those schools. Of course, the schools themselves weren’t interested in receiving transfers and instead developed a test that needed to be passed in order to transfer. This test, of course, would be extremely difficult and thus would hopefully prevent any black children from being able to transfer.
One of the two schools, William Frantz Elementary School, would soon receive its first black student. A young girl by the name of Ruby Bridges. Ruby, a little 6-year-old girl, had received word that she would be eligible to take the test for transferring. The school was closer than the segregated school she had been going to earlier and in her innocence, she wanted to go. She wasn’t fully aware of the radical racism that was surrounding these schools and instead thought it would be a good idea to go to a school only five blocks from her house. Her father wasn’t a fan of this plan and tried to dissuade his daughter, but Ruby’s mother wanted her daughter to receive a better education. A white school has more funding, she reasoned, so Ruby would receive a much better education. Not only that, Ruby’s mother maintained, this would help in the entire desegregation movement. After much argument and discussion, Ruby’s father finally relented and they allowed their little girl to take the test.
Soon Ruby discovered that she had been the only child out of six to pass the test. She was officially enrolled into William Frantz Elementary School. To a little girl, it was a happy occasion, after all she’d get to go to a new school. She was a little too young to fully understand the situation that was happening. To the rest of the world, she was the first African-American to go to a desegregated school in Louisiana. This was a big ordeal.
Ruby arrived to school, eager and excited. She could see people all around the school, shouting and throwing things. It was a celebration! After all, she was in New Orleans and this must have been Mardi Gras, right? In her innocence, that was what she believed, but the unfortunate truth was that those people surrounding the school and shouting were protestors. A large band of whites had boycotted the school and they had pulled all of their children out of the school for the day, as a way to protest Ruby’s entry.
Ruby’s car pulled up to the steps of the school and four men emerged with her. They were Federal Marshalls. Their job was to ensure that the school was desegregated, by any means possible, and with the danger of violence and savagery from the protestors, they were also there to protect Ruby. These Marshalls escorted her through the picket line into the school, where Ruby had the pleasure of sitting around and doing nothing for the entire day because every last student had left the school for the day. School had effectively been cancelled.
The protestors had no intentions of going away either. On Ruby’s second day, sure enough, they were there shouting and hurling insults at the little girl. Ruby began to realize that things weren’t as sunny as she had initially hoped. As she was escorted for her second day of school by the Federal Marshalls a woman shouted out from the crowd “I’m going to poison you for coming here!” This death threat was taken seriously and the Marshalls instructed poor Ruby to never eat anything from the school and instead bring her own lunch with her.
The second day of school seemed just as uneventful as the first. It looked like there wasn’t going to be any classes for Ruby because no one seemed like they wanted to teach the girl. That is, until Barbara Henry stepped in. Barbara was from Boston and had been raised in an all-girls school that was desegregated. It was in that school that she had learned the value of all life, regardless of their skin color. She had landed in the New Orleans public school, unaware that it would lead her to the opportunity of a lifetime. She saw little Ruby as an adorable, smart girl who needed someone to learn from. So, Barbara agreed to teach her.
The two bonded quickly and Ruby spent her time learning everything that she could from Mrs. Henry, despite the fact that they were the only two people in the classroom. No one student was with Ruby because none of them were willing to be seen with her. The two set out on a long journey of education together with Mrs. Henry refusing to compromise the quality of education for the girl. So, they did everything together. Barbara was the gym teacher, the music teacher, the history and English teacher. They sang together, played together, read together. Barbara didn’t treat the classroom as if it were empty and instead kept all of the formalities of it being a full classroom.
Ruby continued to go to school, regardless of the way people around he treated her. The racism was fully understood now and while she was afraid on the inside, her heart resolved to keep herself strong externally. It was said that she didn’t whimper, cry or ran away despite the crowd screaming at her and hurling insults. Even when she received death threats and these adults displayed the full ugliness of racism to a little girl, she stayed strong. When afraid, she would pray. She wouldn’t be discouraged.
The time in school was a lonely time for little Ruby. She had Mrs. Henry to keep her company, but she wasn’t even allowed to join the cafeteria or go out for recess. The two were bound to the inside of the classroom for quite some time. A few students were beginning to trickle back into the school, but they still wanted nothing to do with her. As her interactions with other students became rejected, she started to realize that it was because of the color of her skin. This cast a damper on her whole heart and soon she began to experience nightmares. She would waken frequently in the middle of the night and wouldn’t be able to go back to sleep.
Pressure on her family was exerted as well. As backlash for sending their daughter to a formerly all-white school, Ruby’s father lost his job. Her grandparents were forced off of some land that they had been taking care of for several years. Even the grocery store they frequented made a point to keep them from shopping there. The ramifications for standing against society’s norm, the decision to fight back against racism had a cost and it wasn’t easy for everyone to stomach. But they continued on.
Soon Ruby found herself in the company of a psychologist who assisted her by listening and talking with her. On occasion this psychologist would bring his wife to their sessions to help the girl continue to develop healthily. Soon things began to take a turn for Ruby. Her family found themselves supported by their neighbors and friends. People began to come alongside Ruby as she went to school, they would be right behind the Marshalls helping her have a sense of safety. Some friends gave Ruby’s dad a job.
The protests lasted almost a year. Every day there were people out there, screaming and shouting at Ruby. Sometimes they would intimidate her, but in those times of fear she would simply pray. She would pray not just for strength but she would even pray for those who were mean to her. She continued each and every day, never missing a single day of school. Mrs. Henry also didn’t miss school either and the two spent each day together. Through courage, determination and a refusal to let the racism around her drag her down, Ruby Bridges passed her first year of elementary school.
The second year rolled around and she arrived to a school that had no protestors. Children were instead seen going into class. Mrs. Henry’s contract was not renewed with the school, and so she had departed. Ruby found herself inside a second-grade classroom full of other children. It was almost like the protests last year had not happened. Things would be normal for this little girl and she would go on all through the school system and graduate with her high school diploma.
Ruby’s story isn’t loud and explosive. There were no big speeches given, no rallies held in her honor. She didn’t command the attention of the national media and she certainly didn’t move hearts and minds across America to change. But in truth, that is not how segregation was defeated. Segregation in America was a war that was won by small victories. All it took was for one little girl to stand up and do something. Across the country, there are hundreds of stories of people who decided to do something about where they were. Sometimes those stories, like Rosa Parks, echo across the media. Sometimes those stories, like little Ruby’s don’t echo nearly as loud. But in the end, we see the truth, that no major social change happens in one swift movement. There is no definitive singular story that ended segregation, just as there will be no singular event that will end racism. Instead, the battle is won little by little, one person at a time. The tide of progress might not seem like it is moving quickly for some, but with people like Ruby, a little girl who’s first major contribution to the civil rights movement was just to go to a school where people would cast dispersion and hatred upon her, there will be progress. The world will change with each and every small victory.
As for Ruby, after her graduation, she went on to live a rich and full life. Eventually she founded the Ruby Bridges Foundation, dedicated to provided children with opportunity for education and to aid in the elimination of racism. “Racism is a grown-up disease,” the foundation believes, “and we must stop using our children to spread it.”
READ MORE: Malcolm X
After Five Decades Ruby Bridges Gets Appplause Instead of Death Threats: http://youthtoday.org/2016/01/after-5-decades-ruby-bridges-gets-applause-instead-of-death-threats/
Remember Them: http://www.remember-them.org/bridges.htm | 2,460 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Everyone has heard of the office of the president, but there is also an official office of the first lady, which has increased in size and importance as the presidency has grown.
It was created by Edith Roosevelt, whose husband, Theodore, was propelled into office in 1901 after President William McKinley
was assassinated. The White House they moved into was shabby, and from almost any point of view seemed an unsuitable presidential residence. Politicians, the press and major architects urged Teddy Roosevelt to build
something more imposing and comfortable in its place. He refused, but agreed to a renovation and expansion. Edith oversaw the project, and Roosevelt lived and worked for more than a year amid construction hell.
By the time the workmen moved out, Edith had taken charge of the day-to-day running of the executive mansion. For that, she needed a secretary and an office of her own, and Congress agreed to finance both.
Like many another woman of the day, she had little interest in the cause of women’s suffrage. Being a wife and a mother, wasn’t that enough? All the same, Edith was drawn into politics. In her office she
held a weekly “parlor cabinet” where the wives of cabinet members could exchange news, gossip and rumors. But mostly they discussed what their husbands were doing and thinking.
When T.R. and Edith left the White House in 1909, the office of the first lady had a staff of four and its permanence seemed assured. Yet it would take another generation and another Roosevelt administration before Edith’s true successor would arrive. Eleanor Roosevelt was Edith’s niece (T.R. and Franklin D. Roosevelt were fifth cousins), and she came to the role with a passion for justice that transcended gender and nationality. Theodore Roosevelt had called the presidency “a bully pulpit.” Eleanor turned the office of first lady into a pulpit all her own.
In the years before F.D.R. was elected president, Eleanor’s energies had been devoted to the public good. She had taught at a progressive school, joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, renounced her membership in the Daughters of the American Revolution for its racist attitudes, and established a furniture factory near Hyde Park to provide local jobs.
After her husband became president, Eleanor made no secret of the fact that she had never wanted to be the first lady. Yet despite her protests, she only had to be her natural self to succeed. She held press conferences for female reporters, whom she felt (rightly) did not receive their due respect. These gatherings were limited mainly to topics women were interested in, but she was not shy about expressing political views in her syndicated newspaper column, “My Day.”
Traveling extensively to promote Roosevelt’s New Deal programs, Eleanor became “my ears and legs,” as the wheelchair-bound president put it. In turn, she persuaded him to put a woman, Frances Perkins, in the cabinet for the first time.
The very model of a modern woman in action, Eleanor preferred airplanes to trains. The fact that the first lady was willing to risk flying probably encouraged other women, and more than a few men, to do the same. Still, all this busyness provoked a certain amount of mockery and contempt. During the 1940 presidential election, Republicans distributed buttons that read, “We don’t want Eleanor either.”
In the end, though, she triumphed over her small-minded critics. According to a recent Harris poll, Eleanor Roosevelt is considered the greatest first lady ever. Jacqueline Kennedy ranks second, but it’s a distant second.
The true inheritor of the office of the first lady wasn’t Jackie, but the outspoken Betty Ford, who modernized it with her frankness — something the presidency sorely needed in the wake of Watergate.
Like Eleanor Roosevelt, Betty Ford had a pronounced desire not to be the first lady. Her interests were cultural and, like Eleanor, she had joined the N.A.A.C.P. A professional dancer trained by Martha Graham, Betty had been briefly married and speedily divorced. Pretty and leggy, she had paid for her dancing lessons by working as a fashion model.
Her marriage to Gerald Ford ended her career, gave her four children and provided her with a husband who was almost never at home. She turned to alcohol, and its old companion depression came along, too. Betty brought enough baggage to the White House to fill a very large truck. Yet, she told friends that as she listened to her husband take the oath of office, “I felt like I was taking the oath too.”
The nation soon found that an ostensibly Republican presidency had another side to it. The office of the first lady by now had a staff of more than 20 and was presided over by someone who publicly applauded the Roe v. Wade abortion decision and deplored the Vietnam War. Betty was a proponent of therapy, having turned to it when depressed. She also supported gay rights and did not see anything wrong with couples cohabiting rather than getting married. But she stirred controversy by lobbying for the Equal Rights Amendment. Her favorite historical figure was Susan B. Anthony.
In September of 1974, Betty was diagnosed with breast cancer and underwent a mastectomy two days later. At the time, a third of those afflicted died from the disease. Betty spoke out about her ordeal and treatment. The unmentionable had suddenly become the discussable. The number of women requesting breast cancer screening rose by 400 per cent.
After the Fords left Washington and moved to Palm Springs, Calif., she created the Betty Ford Center, in Rancho Mirage, to help people who, like her, struggled against alcohol and drug abuse. A Good Housekeeping poll rated her most admired woman in America. And Congress awarded her its highest honor, the Congressional Gold Medal.
In the “two for one” presidency of Bill Clinton, the legacy of Edith Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt and Betty Ford was advanced by Hillary Clinton, who openly involved herself in the making of government policy. Instead of whispering in the president’s ear, she testified before Congressional committees. But when she stood by her man after his infidelities were revealed to the world, there were bumper stickers that read, “World’s Most Powerful Doormat.” They seem remote now.
In 2005 the National First Ladies’ Library opened in Canton, Ohio, and this month the United States Mint will begin producing commemorative one-dollar coins that celebrate every president — and, beginning in 2008, every first lady. They are dedicated not to the first ladies as such but to “the first spouse.” That seems to leave room for a female president.
It might also leave room for something else. Millions of Democrats seem to be yearning for Bill Clinton to return to the White House. Hillary for president and Bill for first spouse? | <urn:uuid:9c8f324a-ac4b-4e88-8770-3b6a6e41cd36> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://campaigningforhistory.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/05/13/triumphs-of-the-white-house-spouse/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00462.warc.gz | en | 0.982513 | 1,455 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Everyone has heard of the office of the president, but there is also an official office of the first lady, which has increased in size and importance as the presidency has grown.
It was created by Edith Roosevelt, whose husband, Theodore, was propelled into office in 1901 after President William McKinley
was assassinated. The White House they moved into was shabby, and from almost any point of view seemed an unsuitable presidential residence. Politicians, the press and major architects urged Teddy Roosevelt to build
something more imposing and comfortable in its place. He refused, but agreed to a renovation and expansion. Edith oversaw the project, and Roosevelt lived and worked for more than a year amid construction hell.
By the time the workmen moved out, Edith had taken charge of the day-to-day running of the executive mansion. For that, she needed a secretary and an office of her own, and Congress agreed to finance both.
Like many another woman of the day, she had little interest in the cause of women’s suffrage. Being a wife and a mother, wasn’t that enough? All the same, Edith was drawn into politics. In her office she
held a weekly “parlor cabinet” where the wives of cabinet members could exchange news, gossip and rumors. But mostly they discussed what their husbands were doing and thinking.
When T.R. and Edith left the White House in 1909, the office of the first lady had a staff of four and its permanence seemed assured. Yet it would take another generation and another Roosevelt administration before Edith’s true successor would arrive. Eleanor Roosevelt was Edith’s niece (T.R. and Franklin D. Roosevelt were fifth cousins), and she came to the role with a passion for justice that transcended gender and nationality. Theodore Roosevelt had called the presidency “a bully pulpit.” Eleanor turned the office of first lady into a pulpit all her own.
In the years before F.D.R. was elected president, Eleanor’s energies had been devoted to the public good. She had taught at a progressive school, joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, renounced her membership in the Daughters of the American Revolution for its racist attitudes, and established a furniture factory near Hyde Park to provide local jobs.
After her husband became president, Eleanor made no secret of the fact that she had never wanted to be the first lady. Yet despite her protests, she only had to be her natural self to succeed. She held press conferences for female reporters, whom she felt (rightly) did not receive their due respect. These gatherings were limited mainly to topics women were interested in, but she was not shy about expressing political views in her syndicated newspaper column, “My Day.”
Traveling extensively to promote Roosevelt’s New Deal programs, Eleanor became “my ears and legs,” as the wheelchair-bound president put it. In turn, she persuaded him to put a woman, Frances Perkins, in the cabinet for the first time.
The very model of a modern woman in action, Eleanor preferred airplanes to trains. The fact that the first lady was willing to risk flying probably encouraged other women, and more than a few men, to do the same. Still, all this busyness provoked a certain amount of mockery and contempt. During the 1940 presidential election, Republicans distributed buttons that read, “We don’t want Eleanor either.”
In the end, though, she triumphed over her small-minded critics. According to a recent Harris poll, Eleanor Roosevelt is considered the greatest first lady ever. Jacqueline Kennedy ranks second, but it’s a distant second.
The true inheritor of the office of the first lady wasn’t Jackie, but the outspoken Betty Ford, who modernized it with her frankness — something the presidency sorely needed in the wake of Watergate.
Like Eleanor Roosevelt, Betty Ford had a pronounced desire not to be the first lady. Her interests were cultural and, like Eleanor, she had joined the N.A.A.C.P. A professional dancer trained by Martha Graham, Betty had been briefly married and speedily divorced. Pretty and leggy, she had paid for her dancing lessons by working as a fashion model.
Her marriage to Gerald Ford ended her career, gave her four children and provided her with a husband who was almost never at home. She turned to alcohol, and its old companion depression came along, too. Betty brought enough baggage to the White House to fill a very large truck. Yet, she told friends that as she listened to her husband take the oath of office, “I felt like I was taking the oath too.”
The nation soon found that an ostensibly Republican presidency had another side to it. The office of the first lady by now had a staff of more than 20 and was presided over by someone who publicly applauded the Roe v. Wade abortion decision and deplored the Vietnam War. Betty was a proponent of therapy, having turned to it when depressed. She also supported gay rights and did not see anything wrong with couples cohabiting rather than getting married. But she stirred controversy by lobbying for the Equal Rights Amendment. Her favorite historical figure was Susan B. Anthony.
In September of 1974, Betty was diagnosed with breast cancer and underwent a mastectomy two days later. At the time, a third of those afflicted died from the disease. Betty spoke out about her ordeal and treatment. The unmentionable had suddenly become the discussable. The number of women requesting breast cancer screening rose by 400 per cent.
After the Fords left Washington and moved to Palm Springs, Calif., she created the Betty Ford Center, in Rancho Mirage, to help people who, like her, struggled against alcohol and drug abuse. A Good Housekeeping poll rated her most admired woman in America. And Congress awarded her its highest honor, the Congressional Gold Medal.
In the “two for one” presidency of Bill Clinton, the legacy of Edith Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt and Betty Ford was advanced by Hillary Clinton, who openly involved herself in the making of government policy. Instead of whispering in the president’s ear, she testified before Congressional committees. But when she stood by her man after his infidelities were revealed to the world, there were bumper stickers that read, “World’s Most Powerful Doormat.” They seem remote now.
In 2005 the National First Ladies’ Library opened in Canton, Ohio, and this month the United States Mint will begin producing commemorative one-dollar coins that celebrate every president — and, beginning in 2008, every first lady. They are dedicated not to the first ladies as such but to “the first spouse.” That seems to leave room for a female president.
It might also leave room for something else. Millions of Democrats seem to be yearning for Bill Clinton to return to the White House. Hillary for president and Bill for first spouse? | 1,410 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Given a choice of items to lose on a train, a top-secret document detailing the newly developed hydrogen bomb should be on the bottom of the list. In January 1953, amid the Red Scare and the Korean War, that's exactly what physicist John Archibald Wheeler lost.
In the December 2019 issue of Physics Today, science historian Alex Wellerstein details the creation of the document and Wheeler's day leading up to its mysterious loss.
"I like the absurdity of the sequence of events, but beyond the absurdity, it connects up with some bigger Cold War themes," he said.
Wellerstein, from the Stevens Institute of Technology, collects FBI files of physicists, obtained via the Freedom of Information Act, as part of his research into the history of nuclear secrecy.
"Theoretical physicists were in particular targeted by the FBI and anti-Communists during the Cold War, both because they were thought to know the secrets of nuclear weapons, and because they were considered politically naïve," he said. "Together, it made for a dangerous combination."
Wheeler is perhaps best known for coining the term "black hole," and his contributions to physics span different fields of study to include the hydrogen bomb project. When the Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy decided to compile a history of the hydrogen bomb as part of a smear campaign against controversial physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, they sent a six-page extract to Wheeler to ensure the accuracy of the report's technical aspects. The pages contained information about the discoveries of Edward Teller and Stanislaw Ulam that led to the creation of thermonuclear weapons.
Wheeler read the document overnight on a sleeper train. After reading it, he recalled placing it into a white envelope, putting the white envelope into a manila envelope, then the manila envelope into his suitcase, and placing his suitcase in between himself and the wall of the train.
When Wheeler used the lavatory the following morning, he took the manila envelope out of his suitcase and into the stall with him but mistakenly left it there. He returned and retrieved it, but when he opened it later, the white envelope inside was missing, with the secret hydrogen bomb history inside of it.
The FBI dismantled the train car, searched the entirety of the rail line, tried to track down a list of passengers and conducted investigations on Wheeler and others involved, but their efforts were fruitless. The document was gone.
Wellerstein said the "lurid details" are what made him want to dig further into this story.
"There was one moment where John Wheeler is standing to peer at a guy sitting at a toilet on a train to see if he has a secret document in his hand," Wellerstein said. "When I read that, I was hooked."
Though its loss derailed multiple careers and was part of the sequence of events that led to Oppenheimer's famous security hearing, the mystery of whatever happened to those six pages in the white envelope remains.
"I find it very likely that he did read the document on the train, because his memory of that was very distinct, but then the fuzzy part comes in. Did Wheeler put it back correctly?" asked Wellerstein. "And if he didn't put it back correctly, what happened to it?"
"My personal favorite theory is that the porter found it and just threw it away, because he would have known there's no way this would have worked out well for him, and he'd have been better off to just pretend he never saw it," Wellerstein joked. "I would love for it to be a spy, because that would be much more exciting. But there's no evidence of that, and there are a lot of reasons to think that's very improbable."
As for Wheeler, despite the dire punishments for mishandling nuclear secrets, he got off with only a letter of rebuke from the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
"He was too valuable as a scientist," Wellerstein said. "They said they couldn't punish him without hurting the nuclear program." | <urn:uuid:c033c662-37a2-467f-a2b4-00464e7e8d2c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.teoti.com/military/161159-how-the-us-hydrogen-bomb-secrets-disappeared.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.982473 | 832 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.4921903610229... | 2 | Given a choice of items to lose on a train, a top-secret document detailing the newly developed hydrogen bomb should be on the bottom of the list. In January 1953, amid the Red Scare and the Korean War, that's exactly what physicist John Archibald Wheeler lost.
In the December 2019 issue of Physics Today, science historian Alex Wellerstein details the creation of the document and Wheeler's day leading up to its mysterious loss.
"I like the absurdity of the sequence of events, but beyond the absurdity, it connects up with some bigger Cold War themes," he said.
Wellerstein, from the Stevens Institute of Technology, collects FBI files of physicists, obtained via the Freedom of Information Act, as part of his research into the history of nuclear secrecy.
"Theoretical physicists were in particular targeted by the FBI and anti-Communists during the Cold War, both because they were thought to know the secrets of nuclear weapons, and because they were considered politically naïve," he said. "Together, it made for a dangerous combination."
Wheeler is perhaps best known for coining the term "black hole," and his contributions to physics span different fields of study to include the hydrogen bomb project. When the Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy decided to compile a history of the hydrogen bomb as part of a smear campaign against controversial physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, they sent a six-page extract to Wheeler to ensure the accuracy of the report's technical aspects. The pages contained information about the discoveries of Edward Teller and Stanislaw Ulam that led to the creation of thermonuclear weapons.
Wheeler read the document overnight on a sleeper train. After reading it, he recalled placing it into a white envelope, putting the white envelope into a manila envelope, then the manila envelope into his suitcase, and placing his suitcase in between himself and the wall of the train.
When Wheeler used the lavatory the following morning, he took the manila envelope out of his suitcase and into the stall with him but mistakenly left it there. He returned and retrieved it, but when he opened it later, the white envelope inside was missing, with the secret hydrogen bomb history inside of it.
The FBI dismantled the train car, searched the entirety of the rail line, tried to track down a list of passengers and conducted investigations on Wheeler and others involved, but their efforts were fruitless. The document was gone.
Wellerstein said the "lurid details" are what made him want to dig further into this story.
"There was one moment where John Wheeler is standing to peer at a guy sitting at a toilet on a train to see if he has a secret document in his hand," Wellerstein said. "When I read that, I was hooked."
Though its loss derailed multiple careers and was part of the sequence of events that led to Oppenheimer's famous security hearing, the mystery of whatever happened to those six pages in the white envelope remains.
"I find it very likely that he did read the document on the train, because his memory of that was very distinct, but then the fuzzy part comes in. Did Wheeler put it back correctly?" asked Wellerstein. "And if he didn't put it back correctly, what happened to it?"
"My personal favorite theory is that the porter found it and just threw it away, because he would have known there's no way this would have worked out well for him, and he'd have been better off to just pretend he never saw it," Wellerstein joked. "I would love for it to be a spy, because that would be much more exciting. But there's no evidence of that, and there are a lot of reasons to think that's very improbable."
As for Wheeler, despite the dire punishments for mishandling nuclear secrets, he got off with only a letter of rebuke from the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
"He was too valuable as a scientist," Wellerstein said. "They said they couldn't punish him without hurting the nuclear program." | 826 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first legal record of a divorce in the English Colonies was recorded on January 5, 1643. Anne Clarke of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was granted a divorce from her husband, Denis Clarke, by the Quarter Court of Boston. He was accused of having abandoned his wife and two children he had with her. That was likely because he was living with and had two other children with another woman, which he admitted to in an affadavit to John Winthrop, Jr., son of the colony’s founder.
The Quarter Court’s final decision read: “Anne Clarke, beeing deserted by Denis Clarke hir husband, and hee refusing to accompany with hir, she is graunted to bee divorced.” English has evolved a bit in 377 years. I can not imagine this conduct sat well in a Puritan Society.
Thankfully, today we have divorce mediation to make the process a bit easier for all the involved parties. | <urn:uuid:9b07dcd4-04f7-449b-b730-c1c516103d60> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sannsmediation.com/2020/01/05/the-first-divorce-in-the-english-colonies-granted-377-years-ago-today/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.987279 | 196 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4098647236824035... | 11 | The first legal record of a divorce in the English Colonies was recorded on January 5, 1643. Anne Clarke of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was granted a divorce from her husband, Denis Clarke, by the Quarter Court of Boston. He was accused of having abandoned his wife and two children he had with her. That was likely because he was living with and had two other children with another woman, which he admitted to in an affadavit to John Winthrop, Jr., son of the colony’s founder.
The Quarter Court’s final decision read: “Anne Clarke, beeing deserted by Denis Clarke hir husband, and hee refusing to accompany with hir, she is graunted to bee divorced.” English has evolved a bit in 377 years. I can not imagine this conduct sat well in a Puritan Society.
Thankfully, today we have divorce mediation to make the process a bit easier for all the involved parties. | 193 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are many ways that the narrator of the story used in order to have a good understanding of the Nazi people and all the activities they do. From this overview, the narrator is able to get to learn of the Nazi practices and their ways of survival. From the story, it is very clear that the people of this community or rather the prisoners are used to the daily routine that enables them to acquire their food and clothing. For the narrator to survive and get to learn of the Nazi people, he is compelled to involve in particular defense mechanisms of which he is able to get acquainted to the reasons for the long governance of the world for a very long period of time (Kijowski 45-48).
Buy Borowski, Ladies and Gentlemen, to the Gas Chamber essay paper online
First and foremost, as the story unfolds, we find the narrator unnamed. He is a polish gentile imprisoned in Auschwitz. From this understanding, he is never known so much that he is a native to the particular land or country. If he would have been known, it is almost untrue that he would have remained in the camp. Moreover, he is able to win the interest of many, and in the story, we are told that he is better off than most of his prisoners and receives food packages from his family in the way that others did not. We find him taking breakfast with his friend and prisoner called Henri who is a member of a certain squad called Canada squad. It is from this view that he was able to stay and probably communicate with many of the prisoners without bothering to have them get to know of his endeavors. He eats, sleeps and even works together with the other prisoners hence able to learn of their schemes and secrets.
We are told that the Canada squad represents members of the komando labor gang whose work is to get the Jewish prisoners out of the cattle cars and send them to the camp where they work or to another place called the gas chambers. In his first experience of the job place and the kind of the job itself, he is amazed by the fact that he had never thought to be of how it evolved to him. He gets a real touch of the kind of the work the Nazis were doing. We are told that on his way to the station of the train, he happened to have considered himself lucky oblivious of the fact that what he was expecting was likely to be the opposite of the matter. Having portrayed of this character, the fellow Nazi prisoners could not comprehend the trick behind the narrator’s behavior (Kijowski 45-48).
The narrator gets to the task of unloading thousands of the Jews prisoners as they forge to acquire food and may be a pair of shoes. We are told that the narrator had an unpleasantly cold situation. The story is furthermore chilly from the fact that the narrator is able to distance himself from the actions that he is doomed to be participating in them. He is forced to do this work in order for him to have the guarantee to stay in the camp, probably his existence because he knew that he was a Jew himself. He becomes part of the community of the concentration camp. He is able to survive by being obligated to work without showing signs of having pity among his fellow Jews prisoners who were being brutally handled to the point of death. He is thus able to stay for long over which he gets to learn of what made the Nazi people to have dominion for a long time.
The narrator of the story is too a kind of a hypocrite in the way he behaves and reacts to the life being experienced by the Jewish prisoners. He portrays the world of the prison camp as utterly meaningless yet he still stays in it with all the freedom and the ability to escape and rescue his fellow prisoners. Everything on the concentration camp was governed by violence and death of which the inmates were the pathetic subjects of the forces that were used to manage the Nazi authority. He was able to survive the selection methods that were used to get rid of those whose lives were finished. The characters in the story were actually “good” in that they were in a state of showing obedience and discipline to the Nazi authority. Even the narrator was forced to participate in the various brutal activities, throwing the blame on the Jewish prisoners. He fully and obediently participated in the Nazi activities to a point of getting used to (Kijowski 45-48).
In conclusion, the narrator is able to learn of the ways that the Nazi people used in order to remain strong and in control for a very long time. He was able to escape into the Nazis camp and also place of work where he got to experience how the Nazi people worked. Moreover, he was able to have his name hidden for he was a Jew.
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Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:6bc16e81-b053-4d41-853a-17edfec358bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/world-literature/borowski-ladies-and-gentlemen-to-the-gas-chamber.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00205.warc.gz | en | 0.98884 | 1,073 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3739331364631... | 1 | There are many ways that the narrator of the story used in order to have a good understanding of the Nazi people and all the activities they do. From this overview, the narrator is able to get to learn of the Nazi practices and their ways of survival. From the story, it is very clear that the people of this community or rather the prisoners are used to the daily routine that enables them to acquire their food and clothing. For the narrator to survive and get to learn of the Nazi people, he is compelled to involve in particular defense mechanisms of which he is able to get acquainted to the reasons for the long governance of the world for a very long period of time (Kijowski 45-48).
Buy Borowski, Ladies and Gentlemen, to the Gas Chamber essay paper online
First and foremost, as the story unfolds, we find the narrator unnamed. He is a polish gentile imprisoned in Auschwitz. From this understanding, he is never known so much that he is a native to the particular land or country. If he would have been known, it is almost untrue that he would have remained in the camp. Moreover, he is able to win the interest of many, and in the story, we are told that he is better off than most of his prisoners and receives food packages from his family in the way that others did not. We find him taking breakfast with his friend and prisoner called Henri who is a member of a certain squad called Canada squad. It is from this view that he was able to stay and probably communicate with many of the prisoners without bothering to have them get to know of his endeavors. He eats, sleeps and even works together with the other prisoners hence able to learn of their schemes and secrets.
We are told that the Canada squad represents members of the komando labor gang whose work is to get the Jewish prisoners out of the cattle cars and send them to the camp where they work or to another place called the gas chambers. In his first experience of the job place and the kind of the job itself, he is amazed by the fact that he had never thought to be of how it evolved to him. He gets a real touch of the kind of the work the Nazis were doing. We are told that on his way to the station of the train, he happened to have considered himself lucky oblivious of the fact that what he was expecting was likely to be the opposite of the matter. Having portrayed of this character, the fellow Nazi prisoners could not comprehend the trick behind the narrator’s behavior (Kijowski 45-48).
The narrator gets to the task of unloading thousands of the Jews prisoners as they forge to acquire food and may be a pair of shoes. We are told that the narrator had an unpleasantly cold situation. The story is furthermore chilly from the fact that the narrator is able to distance himself from the actions that he is doomed to be participating in them. He is forced to do this work in order for him to have the guarantee to stay in the camp, probably his existence because he knew that he was a Jew himself. He becomes part of the community of the concentration camp. He is able to survive by being obligated to work without showing signs of having pity among his fellow Jews prisoners who were being brutally handled to the point of death. He is thus able to stay for long over which he gets to learn of what made the Nazi people to have dominion for a long time.
The narrator of the story is too a kind of a hypocrite in the way he behaves and reacts to the life being experienced by the Jewish prisoners. He portrays the world of the prison camp as utterly meaningless yet he still stays in it with all the freedom and the ability to escape and rescue his fellow prisoners. Everything on the concentration camp was governed by violence and death of which the inmates were the pathetic subjects of the forces that were used to manage the Nazi authority. He was able to survive the selection methods that were used to get rid of those whose lives were finished. The characters in the story were actually “good” in that they were in a state of showing obedience and discipline to the Nazi authority. Even the narrator was forced to participate in the various brutal activities, throwing the blame on the Jewish prisoners. He fully and obediently participated in the Nazi activities to a point of getting used to (Kijowski 45-48).
In conclusion, the narrator is able to learn of the ways that the Nazi people used in order to remain strong and in control for a very long time. He was able to escape into the Nazis camp and also place of work where he got to experience how the Nazi people worked. Moreover, he was able to have his name hidden for he was a Jew.
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Most popular orders | 1,063 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On November 2, 1950, died George Bernard Shaw.
Bernard Shaw was an Irish playwright, critic and polemicist who strongly influenced Western cultural and political life.
He wrote more than sixty plays, including major works such as Man and Superman (1902), Pygmalion (1912), and Saint Joan (1923). With a range incorporating both contemporary satire and historical allegory, Shaw became the leading dramatist of his generation, and in 1925 he won the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Born in Dublin, Shaw left for London aged twenty to become a writer but struggled to establish himself as a writer and novelist and began a rigorous process of self-education.
He wrote five novels but all of them were rejected.
In 1895, Shaw took a post as music critic on the Star newspaper and became a local councillor in St Pancras, taking a principal role in the Fabian Society and became its most prominent pamphleteer.
Influenced by Henrik Ibsen, a major 19th-century Norwegian playwright, theatre director, and poet, Shaw sought to introduce a new realism into English-language drama, using his plays as vehicles to disseminate his political, social and religious ideas.
By the early twentieth century his reputation as a dramatist was secured with a series of critical and popular successes that included Major Barbara, The Doctor’s Dilemma and Caesar and Cleopatra.
Shaw often expressed views were often contentious; he promoted eugenics and alphabet reform, and opposed vaccination and organized religion.
He became unpopular by denouncing both sides in the First World War as equally culpable. His controversial pamphlet, Common Sense about The War, accused Britain of being as culpable as Germany for the occurrence of the war.
Shaw opposed the war. In 1938 he provided the screenplay for a filmed version of Pygmalion, for which he received an Academy Award.
Shaw once said:
In the final decade of his life he made fewer public statements, but continued to write productively until shortly before his death, aged 94, having refused all state honors, including the Order of Merit in 1946.
Shaw died in 1950. In his will he made a bequest to fund the creation of a phonetic alphabet, but before his death, Shaw had, quite wisely, spent all his money. However, a small amount was made available from the royalties of My Fair Lady, a musical based on Shaw’s Pygmalion. | <urn:uuid:4746b684-a6d6-474b-8f82-1c4f79a58643> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tall-white-aliens.com/?p=9518 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.989157 | 514 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.297749370336532... | 4 | On November 2, 1950, died George Bernard Shaw.
Bernard Shaw was an Irish playwright, critic and polemicist who strongly influenced Western cultural and political life.
He wrote more than sixty plays, including major works such as Man and Superman (1902), Pygmalion (1912), and Saint Joan (1923). With a range incorporating both contemporary satire and historical allegory, Shaw became the leading dramatist of his generation, and in 1925 he won the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Born in Dublin, Shaw left for London aged twenty to become a writer but struggled to establish himself as a writer and novelist and began a rigorous process of self-education.
He wrote five novels but all of them were rejected.
In 1895, Shaw took a post as music critic on the Star newspaper and became a local councillor in St Pancras, taking a principal role in the Fabian Society and became its most prominent pamphleteer.
Influenced by Henrik Ibsen, a major 19th-century Norwegian playwright, theatre director, and poet, Shaw sought to introduce a new realism into English-language drama, using his plays as vehicles to disseminate his political, social and religious ideas.
By the early twentieth century his reputation as a dramatist was secured with a series of critical and popular successes that included Major Barbara, The Doctor’s Dilemma and Caesar and Cleopatra.
Shaw often expressed views were often contentious; he promoted eugenics and alphabet reform, and opposed vaccination and organized religion.
He became unpopular by denouncing both sides in the First World War as equally culpable. His controversial pamphlet, Common Sense about The War, accused Britain of being as culpable as Germany for the occurrence of the war.
Shaw opposed the war. In 1938 he provided the screenplay for a filmed version of Pygmalion, for which he received an Academy Award.
Shaw once said:
In the final decade of his life he made fewer public statements, but continued to write productively until shortly before his death, aged 94, having refused all state honors, including the Order of Merit in 1946.
Shaw died in 1950. In his will he made a bequest to fund the creation of a phonetic alphabet, but before his death, Shaw had, quite wisely, spent all his money. However, a small amount was made available from the royalties of My Fair Lady, a musical based on Shaw’s Pygmalion. | 529 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In this section
Usually families and the medical team (doctors and nurses) make decisions together about life support. However, sometimes doctors make the final decision about life support. Sometimes families will decide. This depends on the type of decision, as well as on what families want. You can let your child's doctor know how you would prefer decisions to be made (See Shared decision-making).
There are different ways that decisions are made about life support. It is important that you let the doctors know how much you want to be involved in the decisions that are made.
Some parents have very clear views about which decision is right for their child and do not feel the need for guidance from others. In other situations, doctors will make the final decision. For example, this might be because a treatment is very unlikely to work (see Futility), or because parents do not wish to make a decision about treatment. In these situations doctors will still take into account parents' views about treatment. Most times, though, the decision is shared between families and the medical team.
Parents often have mixed feelings about who should make decisions. One part of them feels like they want to be involved in decisions, but another part feels afraid of taking on responsibility for decisions. If you have those mixed feelings, that is very normal at this time. Shared decision-making means that your views are important, but that you do not have to make the decision on your own.
For some families (for example, from an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander background) it may be important for other members of the wider family or community to be involved in decisions. If that is important for you, let the doctors and nurses know so that they can respect this. Where family members are far away and cannot travel, it may be possible for them to speak with the doctors on the telephone.
It can be hard to talk with doctors about how you prefer to make decisions. See Phrases that may be helpful for some ideas. You could ask an Aboriginal Liaison Officer, or hospital chaplain to help explain to the doctors how decisions are made in your culture or religion.
Shared decision-making means that medical teams and families work together to try to work out how best to care for a child. Families and doctors share information, expertise and responsibility for decisions.
Research studies with families who have made life support decisions have shown that most parents would like to share the decisions with doctors. These families want to be part of decisions, but they often don't want to make them on their own.
There are different things that are important for decisions about life support. This includes both medical facts and parents' values. Doctors are experts in treatments, how they work, whether they are likely to work, what problems they can cause. They will do their best to help you understand the facts that affect your child. But parents' views about the value of life, quality of life, and dying are also important when making decisions. As parents, you are valued as the experts about your child. For an older child you will also know best what your child feels about medical treatment, and may be able to help doctors understand what your child would choose. When doctors and parents share decision-making they bring these different types of expertise together to determine how best to look after a child.
For many families, this may be the first time that they have ever had to think about life support or about decisions for someone who may be dying. It can be very hard to know what is the right thing to do, or even what you want to happen. Doctors and nurses will try to help you to work out what is important for you and for your child. You may find that you would like some advice about what to do and it is OK to ask those who are caring for your child what they would recommend. You may also find it helpful to speak to other people, for example family members, community elders, social workers, hospital chaplains or members of your religion before you make a decision.
I have a clear idea about what I want for my child (but I want to know what you think about it too).
I need some help with this decision, I can't make it on my own.
This is too hard for me. I would like you to make the decision about life support. I still want to be told what is going on (or) I would prefer not to be told what is going on every step of the way.
You are not alone. Making a decision about life support can seem like an enormous burden to carry. Let your child's doctor know how you are feeling. Doctors and nurses are there to support you as well as your child, and are used to working with families to try to determine together the best course of action (see Shared Decision-making).
If you prefer not to decide, the doctors may be able to make the decision about life support for your child.
For many this is the most difficult question that they have ever faced. Families can feel overwhelmed by decisions about life support. Some feel that they do not want to take responsibility for having decided to stop life support - even if that would be best for their child. In that situation, some families would prefer doctors to make the decision for them.
If you are feeling this way, let your child's doctor know. It is OK to ask doctors to make the decision. Tell them how much you would like to be involved as well as what is important for your family so that they can make the best decision for your child.
Parents and doctors usually make decisions together about life support treatment. (See Shared decision-making). In most situations medical teams will make sure that parents are in agreement before a decision is made to stop life support treatment.
However, in many countries doctors are not legally required to provide treatment that they believe is futile. In some situations parents may prefer that doctors make the final decision about life support. (See What if I don't want to decide?)
If parents disagree with the medical team about life support, they can seek a second opinion, or may have the option of review by the courts. (See What should I do if I don't agree with my child's doctors about life support treatment?)
It is OK to ask your child's doctor for advice. You may find it helpful though, to ask them to explain why they would make a particular decision. Then you can work out whether you feel the same way.
Sometimes doctors and nurses are unsure what to say when they are asked what they would do. Although they may have supported other families in your situation, they will probably never have faced this decision themselves. It is important to recognise that doctors and nurses probably have a different background from you and your family. They may be at a different stage of life and have different amounts of support from their own family and friends. They may have different religious and ethical views. This means that what would be right for them may not be right for you.
It can be very helpful to ask your child's doctor for advice and guidance. Even if you find that you have different values from doctors and nurses, discussing decisions with them may help you to work out what your own views are and what would be right for your family. | <urn:uuid:8c829d60-417b-44d0-87b1-46b6d7d01853> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rch.org.au/caringdecisions/chapters/Who_decides_about_life_support_/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.980954 | 1,482 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.25782671570... | 14 | In this section
Usually families and the medical team (doctors and nurses) make decisions together about life support. However, sometimes doctors make the final decision about life support. Sometimes families will decide. This depends on the type of decision, as well as on what families want. You can let your child's doctor know how you would prefer decisions to be made (See Shared decision-making).
There are different ways that decisions are made about life support. It is important that you let the doctors know how much you want to be involved in the decisions that are made.
Some parents have very clear views about which decision is right for their child and do not feel the need for guidance from others. In other situations, doctors will make the final decision. For example, this might be because a treatment is very unlikely to work (see Futility), or because parents do not wish to make a decision about treatment. In these situations doctors will still take into account parents' views about treatment. Most times, though, the decision is shared between families and the medical team.
Parents often have mixed feelings about who should make decisions. One part of them feels like they want to be involved in decisions, but another part feels afraid of taking on responsibility for decisions. If you have those mixed feelings, that is very normal at this time. Shared decision-making means that your views are important, but that you do not have to make the decision on your own.
For some families (for example, from an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander background) it may be important for other members of the wider family or community to be involved in decisions. If that is important for you, let the doctors and nurses know so that they can respect this. Where family members are far away and cannot travel, it may be possible for them to speak with the doctors on the telephone.
It can be hard to talk with doctors about how you prefer to make decisions. See Phrases that may be helpful for some ideas. You could ask an Aboriginal Liaison Officer, or hospital chaplain to help explain to the doctors how decisions are made in your culture or religion.
Shared decision-making means that medical teams and families work together to try to work out how best to care for a child. Families and doctors share information, expertise and responsibility for decisions.
Research studies with families who have made life support decisions have shown that most parents would like to share the decisions with doctors. These families want to be part of decisions, but they often don't want to make them on their own.
There are different things that are important for decisions about life support. This includes both medical facts and parents' values. Doctors are experts in treatments, how they work, whether they are likely to work, what problems they can cause. They will do their best to help you understand the facts that affect your child. But parents' views about the value of life, quality of life, and dying are also important when making decisions. As parents, you are valued as the experts about your child. For an older child you will also know best what your child feels about medical treatment, and may be able to help doctors understand what your child would choose. When doctors and parents share decision-making they bring these different types of expertise together to determine how best to look after a child.
For many families, this may be the first time that they have ever had to think about life support or about decisions for someone who may be dying. It can be very hard to know what is the right thing to do, or even what you want to happen. Doctors and nurses will try to help you to work out what is important for you and for your child. You may find that you would like some advice about what to do and it is OK to ask those who are caring for your child what they would recommend. You may also find it helpful to speak to other people, for example family members, community elders, social workers, hospital chaplains or members of your religion before you make a decision.
I have a clear idea about what I want for my child (but I want to know what you think about it too).
I need some help with this decision, I can't make it on my own.
This is too hard for me. I would like you to make the decision about life support. I still want to be told what is going on (or) I would prefer not to be told what is going on every step of the way.
You are not alone. Making a decision about life support can seem like an enormous burden to carry. Let your child's doctor know how you are feeling. Doctors and nurses are there to support you as well as your child, and are used to working with families to try to determine together the best course of action (see Shared Decision-making).
If you prefer not to decide, the doctors may be able to make the decision about life support for your child.
For many this is the most difficult question that they have ever faced. Families can feel overwhelmed by decisions about life support. Some feel that they do not want to take responsibility for having decided to stop life support - even if that would be best for their child. In that situation, some families would prefer doctors to make the decision for them.
If you are feeling this way, let your child's doctor know. It is OK to ask doctors to make the decision. Tell them how much you would like to be involved as well as what is important for your family so that they can make the best decision for your child.
Parents and doctors usually make decisions together about life support treatment. (See Shared decision-making). In most situations medical teams will make sure that parents are in agreement before a decision is made to stop life support treatment.
However, in many countries doctors are not legally required to provide treatment that they believe is futile. In some situations parents may prefer that doctors make the final decision about life support. (See What if I don't want to decide?)
If parents disagree with the medical team about life support, they can seek a second opinion, or may have the option of review by the courts. (See What should I do if I don't agree with my child's doctors about life support treatment?)
It is OK to ask your child's doctor for advice. You may find it helpful though, to ask them to explain why they would make a particular decision. Then you can work out whether you feel the same way.
Sometimes doctors and nurses are unsure what to say when they are asked what they would do. Although they may have supported other families in your situation, they will probably never have faced this decision themselves. It is important to recognise that doctors and nurses probably have a different background from you and your family. They may be at a different stage of life and have different amounts of support from their own family and friends. They may have different religious and ethical views. This means that what would be right for them may not be right for you.
It can be very helpful to ask your child's doctor for advice and guidance. Even if you find that you have different values from doctors and nurses, discussing decisions with them may help you to work out what your own views are and what would be right for your family. | 1,452 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anger has been increasing lately toward the way standardized testing has taken over the educational process. Both parents and teachers are aware of the amount of school time devoted to the preparation for and taking of tests. Worse than that, is the way that what teachers teach and what children learn is focused on what will be in the tests. Schools, teachers, children and indirectly parents are all judged by test results, so the stakes and anxiety are high.
Historically, education has been used as a means of solving or addressing various social and economic problems that are of wide systemic origin. Education seems so important a determinant of individual well-being in American society that currently it is the focus of concerns about inequality.
Our education system is one in which an individual’s performance is comparatively evaluated against that of his age-mates in a way that affects his future opportunities for success in life. And increasingly, the basis of that evaluation has been the standardized test. Such tests are used to determine children’s ability and achievement levels. Also, differences in test results between and within groups of children have been attributed to poor teachers and have also led to the closing of “failing schools.”
Now there seems to be recognition growing among parents and educators that children are more than a test score, and that education should be more than memorizing information in order to pass tests. Some parents have even had their children opt out of standardized testing altogether.
A new book by education journalist Anya Kamenetz has arrived just in time to shed light on this issue. “The Test: Why Our Schools Are Obsessed With Standardized Testing – But You Don’t Have to Be” was written to directly address parents who are concerned and stressed about testing. A parent herself, the author’s hope is that by understanding where these tests came from and how they are made, families will have the tools they need to address them in a constructive way.
“The Test” offers a history of testing including the differences in the way intelligence has been defined, the invention of the multiple-choice test as a way of limiting teachers’ subjective judgments of students’ work, and also shows the roots in the science of testing of the racism of the early IQ movement. Kamenetz discusses the history and politics of testing and explores what a parent, teacher, or concerned citizen can do. She offers advice for families who want to opt out of some tests, as well as those who want to do better on tests.
Kamenetz writes that “students, teachers and schools are being held accountable for the outcome of tests that don’t cover the most important material that they need to succeed,” such as creativity and self-motivation. But they fail in other ways as well. Test outcomes do not reflect what makes a good teacher. Neither do they reflect the range of abilities and qualities children may have, or that test taking in itself reflects certain skills that are not the most important ones to measure.
Tests fail as a tool in solving inequality of outcome in education and thereby as a means of using education as the solution to inequality in life. More significantly, however, the focus on testing has diverted attention from the many causes of inequality that are at work before children even enter school. Outcome on tests reinforce what many things have created while once again making education the culprit.
Tests fail as the solution to inequality of outcome, or to the problems in education.
Elaine Heffner, LCSW, Ed.D., has written for Parents Magazine, Fox.com, Redbook, Disney online and PBS Parents, as well as other publications. She has appeared on PBS, ABC, Fox TV and other networks. Dr. Heffner is the author of “Goodenoughmothering: The Best of the Blog,” as well as “Mothering: The Emotional Experience of Motherhood after Freud and Feminism.” She is a psychotherapist and parent educator in private practice, as well as a senior lecturer of education in psychiatry at Weill Cornell Medical College. Dr. Heffner was a co-founder and served as director of the Nursery School Treatment Center at Payne Whitney Clinic, New York Hospital. And she blogs at goodenoughmothering.com. | <urn:uuid:b67faefb-fd2a-4aa5-a8b1-4a382468eb09> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.recordonline.com/article/20150210/NEWS/150219979 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00259.warc.gz | en | 0.981349 | 882 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4560880959... | 3 | Anger has been increasing lately toward the way standardized testing has taken over the educational process. Both parents and teachers are aware of the amount of school time devoted to the preparation for and taking of tests. Worse than that, is the way that what teachers teach and what children learn is focused on what will be in the tests. Schools, teachers, children and indirectly parents are all judged by test results, so the stakes and anxiety are high.
Historically, education has been used as a means of solving or addressing various social and economic problems that are of wide systemic origin. Education seems so important a determinant of individual well-being in American society that currently it is the focus of concerns about inequality.
Our education system is one in which an individual’s performance is comparatively evaluated against that of his age-mates in a way that affects his future opportunities for success in life. And increasingly, the basis of that evaluation has been the standardized test. Such tests are used to determine children’s ability and achievement levels. Also, differences in test results between and within groups of children have been attributed to poor teachers and have also led to the closing of “failing schools.”
Now there seems to be recognition growing among parents and educators that children are more than a test score, and that education should be more than memorizing information in order to pass tests. Some parents have even had their children opt out of standardized testing altogether.
A new book by education journalist Anya Kamenetz has arrived just in time to shed light on this issue. “The Test: Why Our Schools Are Obsessed With Standardized Testing – But You Don’t Have to Be” was written to directly address parents who are concerned and stressed about testing. A parent herself, the author’s hope is that by understanding where these tests came from and how they are made, families will have the tools they need to address them in a constructive way.
“The Test” offers a history of testing including the differences in the way intelligence has been defined, the invention of the multiple-choice test as a way of limiting teachers’ subjective judgments of students’ work, and also shows the roots in the science of testing of the racism of the early IQ movement. Kamenetz discusses the history and politics of testing and explores what a parent, teacher, or concerned citizen can do. She offers advice for families who want to opt out of some tests, as well as those who want to do better on tests.
Kamenetz writes that “students, teachers and schools are being held accountable for the outcome of tests that don’t cover the most important material that they need to succeed,” such as creativity and self-motivation. But they fail in other ways as well. Test outcomes do not reflect what makes a good teacher. Neither do they reflect the range of abilities and qualities children may have, or that test taking in itself reflects certain skills that are not the most important ones to measure.
Tests fail as a tool in solving inequality of outcome in education and thereby as a means of using education as the solution to inequality in life. More significantly, however, the focus on testing has diverted attention from the many causes of inequality that are at work before children even enter school. Outcome on tests reinforce what many things have created while once again making education the culprit.
Tests fail as the solution to inequality of outcome, or to the problems in education.
Elaine Heffner, LCSW, Ed.D., has written for Parents Magazine, Fox.com, Redbook, Disney online and PBS Parents, as well as other publications. She has appeared on PBS, ABC, Fox TV and other networks. Dr. Heffner is the author of “Goodenoughmothering: The Best of the Blog,” as well as “Mothering: The Emotional Experience of Motherhood after Freud and Feminism.” She is a psychotherapist and parent educator in private practice, as well as a senior lecturer of education in psychiatry at Weill Cornell Medical College. Dr. Heffner was a co-founder and served as director of the Nursery School Treatment Center at Payne Whitney Clinic, New York Hospital. And she blogs at goodenoughmothering.com. | 834 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are a few similarities between the attitudes that people, in both Mesopotamia and Egypt, had about their rulers.Despite theses similarities, there were also significant differences.There were very different definitions of who ruled, and how they ruled, each land.
Mesopotamia was thefirst identifiable civilization in the Ancient world.Located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, it was given its name by the Greeks, literally meaning "the country between rivers." The name referred mainly to the land of Sumer, however it also included the countries of Akkad, Babylonia and Assyria.All were connected by the Tigris and the Euphrates, which flooded swiftly and irregularly (at different times during the year).
Ancient Egypt was located closer to the Nile and Indus rivers.The Nile Valley of Egypt was notably different from the Tigris and Euphrates.The waters flowed slowly and flooded on a much more predictable basis .Rock walls and barren desert closed off Egypt from the rest of the continent.
In Mesopotamia, it was believed that gods ruled the world.They were said to have behaved like human beingsonly they lived much longer; they existed forever.Each individual god embodied the most important natural entities; they were earth, sky, sun, moon, storm, fresh water and salt water.Statues, set in individual temples, represented each god.They inhabited the statues in the same manner that souls inhabit human bodies .
Mesopotamian cities developed around the temples of the gods. The people of these cities were servants to their gods.If they served them well, they would reap the benefits.However, if the gods were not pleased, there would be severe repercussions in the form of famine, invasion and so forth .
The people of Mesopotamia believed that the gods were petty, just as people could be.They feared a sudden change in their gods' moods and carefully kept track of each god&… | <urn:uuid:a2e3a415-d946-42f5-b82c-31e863ee0001> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/compare-and-contrast-of-mesopotamian-and-egyptian-rulers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00424.warc.gz | en | 0.987576 | 398 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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-0.20191623270511627,... | 1 | There are a few similarities between the attitudes that people, in both Mesopotamia and Egypt, had about their rulers.Despite theses similarities, there were also significant differences.There were very different definitions of who ruled, and how they ruled, each land.
Mesopotamia was thefirst identifiable civilization in the Ancient world.Located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, it was given its name by the Greeks, literally meaning "the country between rivers." The name referred mainly to the land of Sumer, however it also included the countries of Akkad, Babylonia and Assyria.All were connected by the Tigris and the Euphrates, which flooded swiftly and irregularly (at different times during the year).
Ancient Egypt was located closer to the Nile and Indus rivers.The Nile Valley of Egypt was notably different from the Tigris and Euphrates.The waters flowed slowly and flooded on a much more predictable basis .Rock walls and barren desert closed off Egypt from the rest of the continent.
In Mesopotamia, it was believed that gods ruled the world.They were said to have behaved like human beingsonly they lived much longer; they existed forever.Each individual god embodied the most important natural entities; they were earth, sky, sun, moon, storm, fresh water and salt water.Statues, set in individual temples, represented each god.They inhabited the statues in the same manner that souls inhabit human bodies .
Mesopotamian cities developed around the temples of the gods. The people of these cities were servants to their gods.If they served them well, they would reap the benefits.However, if the gods were not pleased, there would be severe repercussions in the form of famine, invasion and so forth .
The people of Mesopotamia believed that the gods were petty, just as people could be.They feared a sudden change in their gods' moods and carefully kept track of each god&… | 396 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Martin Luther was a German priest who was a major figure in the Protestant Reformation. A professor of theology and a former monk, he is credited to have started the Protestant Reformation in 16th-century Europe which changed the course of Western civilization. He not only rejected several teachings and practices of the Late Medieval Catholic Church, but also vehemently opposed the strong belief that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Born into a Catholic family, he was interested in theology and philosophy from a young age. Once as a young man he was almost struck by lightning during a thunderstorm. Terrified, he vowed to God that he would become a monk if he escaped alive. Thus he embarked on a life dedicated to religion and earned a Doctor of Theology degree. Initially a follower of Catholicism, he eventually recanted several of his beliefs and proceeded to reformulate some basic tenets of Christian belief that resulted in the division of Western Christendom into two factions: Roman Catholicism and the newly formed Protestant traditions. Pope Leo X and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V were angered by Luther’s actions and asked him to retract all his wittings. He refused to do so and was excommunicated by the pope.
- Martin Luther was born to Hans and Margarette Luther on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic. His father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters, while his mother was a hard-working woman. He had several siblings and was closest to his brother Jacob.His father harbored great ambitions for Martin and wanted him to become a lawyer. He ensured that the young boy received a good education and sent him to a Latin school in Mansfeld in 1488.Martin received a thorough training in the Latin language and also learned Ten Commandments, the Lord’s Prayer, the Apostles’ Creed, and morning and evening prayers.He moved to a school operated by the Brethren of the Common Life, a lay monastic order, in 1497. Then he enrolled at the University of Erfurt, one of the most distinguished universities in Germany at that time.He received a baccalaureate degree in the liberal arts in 1502, and a master’s degree three years later. He was deeply influenced by the works of Aristotle and William of Ockham during his student days.His father wanted him to become a lawyer but Martin Luther was now growing more interested in religion. An incident that happened in 1505 changed the course of his life. He was returning to the university on horseback one day when he was caught in a thunderstorm. Suddenly a lightning bolt struck near him, and terrified for his life, he prayed to Saint Anna and vowed to become a monk.As promised, he left the university, sold off his books, and entered an Augustinian cloister in Erfurt. This step greatly infuriated his father.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists:
Recommended Lists:Later Life
- Having decided to dedicate his life to religion, he began the study of theology at the University of Erfurt in 1507; he was ordained to priesthood the same year.He shifted to the Augustinian monastery at Wittenberg the next year, and received a bachelor's degree in Biblical studies in 1508, and another bachelor's degree in the Sentences by Peter Lombard in 1509.He furthered his religious studies to earn his Doctor of Theology in 1512. He soon joined the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg where he would spend the rest of his career.In 1517, Pope Leo X announced a new round of indulgences to help build St. Peter’s Basilica. This move greatly angered Luther who was convinced that the church was corrupt in its ways.He wrote ‘The 95 Theses’, in retaliation in which he severely criticized certain beliefs of the Catholic Church and called for reforms. He then nailed the text on the university’s chapel door and also shared copies with his like-minded friends for distribution to the masses.’The 95 Theses’ was widely circulated throughout Germany and Europe, reaching France, England, and Italy, thus heralding the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and Magdeburg was infuriated with Luther’s ‘The 95 Theses’ and his stance against the indulgences as the Archbishop himself needed the revenue from the indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation. Thus he had the theses checked for heresy and forwarded it to Rome.On receiving the theses, Pope Leo X deployed a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther. But this did not deter Luther from speaking his mind; in fact, this only strengthened his anti-papal theology. Now he even stated that the Bible did not give the pope the exclusive right to interpret scripture, and questioned the papal authority.The pope grew increasingly frustrated with Luther and sent him a letter in 1520, threatening Luther with excommunication unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the 95 Theses, within 60 days. Luther burned the letter publicly, adding to the pope’s annoyance.Continue Reading BelowAs a result, the pope excommunicated Luther in January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem. Luther was now ordered to appear before the Diet of Worms, a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in Worms.Luther appeared as ordered before the Diet of Worms in 1521. Emperor Charles V commenced the Imperial Diet where Luther was presented with copies of his writings and asked if he stood by their contents. He refused to recant his writings and was thus declared a heretic, an outlaw.Luther faced the risk of arrest and was helped by his friends in making good his escape. He settled in Wartburg Castle at Eisenach where he continued his works. He translated the New Testament from Greek into German and authored the essays ‘On Confession, Whether the Pope has the Power to Require It’ and ‘The Judgement of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows’.During his later years he organized a new church, Lutheranism, and gained many followers. In 1533, he began serving as the dean of theology at University of Wittenberg, a post he held until his death.Recommended Lists:
Recommended Lists:Major Works
- Martin Luther is credited to have sparked the Protestant Reformation which began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church. He challenged the authority of the papacy, and attempted to reform certain Christian doctrines through his writings. In addition, his hymns inspired the development of congregational singing within Christianity.He translated the Bible from Hebrew and ancient Greek to German language which made the Scriptures more accessible to the common man, leading to a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture. His translations not only helped in popularizing Christianity, but also aided the development of a standard version of the German language.He authored ‘The 95 Theses’ which is widely regarded as the initial catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. The theses question the Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences and protest clerical abuses, especially nepotism, simony, usury, and pluralism.Recommended Lists:
Recommended Lists:Personal Life & Legacy
- He married Katharina von Bora, one of the nuns he had helped escape from the Nimbschen Cistercian convent. He was 41 years old at that time and his decision to marry came as a surprise to many. The couple’s marriage set a model for the practice of clerical marriage within Protestantism. They had a happy marriage that resulted in the birth of six children.He suffered from ill health during his later years, plagued by several ailments like kidney stones, arthritis, heart problems and digestive disorders. He died on February 18, 1546, at age 62.Martin Luther is considered both an influential and a controversial figure in the Reformation movement. He is honored on 18 February with a commemoration in the Lutheran Calendar of Saints and in the Episcopal (United States) Calendar of Saints.
How To CiteArticle Title- Martin Luther BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/martin-luther-92.phpLast Updated- July 21, 2017
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-0.269424796... | 2 | Martin Luther was a German priest who was a major figure in the Protestant Reformation. A professor of theology and a former monk, he is credited to have started the Protestant Reformation in 16th-century Europe which changed the course of Western civilization. He not only rejected several teachings and practices of the Late Medieval Catholic Church, but also vehemently opposed the strong belief that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Born into a Catholic family, he was interested in theology and philosophy from a young age. Once as a young man he was almost struck by lightning during a thunderstorm. Terrified, he vowed to God that he would become a monk if he escaped alive. Thus he embarked on a life dedicated to religion and earned a Doctor of Theology degree. Initially a follower of Catholicism, he eventually recanted several of his beliefs and proceeded to reformulate some basic tenets of Christian belief that resulted in the division of Western Christendom into two factions: Roman Catholicism and the newly formed Protestant traditions. Pope Leo X and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V were angered by Luther’s actions and asked him to retract all his wittings. He refused to do so and was excommunicated by the pope.
- Martin Luther was born to Hans and Margarette Luther on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic. His father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters, while his mother was a hard-working woman. He had several siblings and was closest to his brother Jacob.His father harbored great ambitions for Martin and wanted him to become a lawyer. He ensured that the young boy received a good education and sent him to a Latin school in Mansfeld in 1488.Martin received a thorough training in the Latin language and also learned Ten Commandments, the Lord’s Prayer, the Apostles’ Creed, and morning and evening prayers.He moved to a school operated by the Brethren of the Common Life, a lay monastic order, in 1497. Then he enrolled at the University of Erfurt, one of the most distinguished universities in Germany at that time.He received a baccalaureate degree in the liberal arts in 1502, and a master’s degree three years later. He was deeply influenced by the works of Aristotle and William of Ockham during his student days.His father wanted him to become a lawyer but Martin Luther was now growing more interested in religion. An incident that happened in 1505 changed the course of his life. He was returning to the university on horseback one day when he was caught in a thunderstorm. Suddenly a lightning bolt struck near him, and terrified for his life, he prayed to Saint Anna and vowed to become a monk.As promised, he left the university, sold off his books, and entered an Augustinian cloister in Erfurt. This step greatly infuriated his father.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists:
Recommended Lists:Later Life
- Having decided to dedicate his life to religion, he began the study of theology at the University of Erfurt in 1507; he was ordained to priesthood the same year.He shifted to the Augustinian monastery at Wittenberg the next year, and received a bachelor's degree in Biblical studies in 1508, and another bachelor's degree in the Sentences by Peter Lombard in 1509.He furthered his religious studies to earn his Doctor of Theology in 1512. He soon joined the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg where he would spend the rest of his career.In 1517, Pope Leo X announced a new round of indulgences to help build St. Peter’s Basilica. This move greatly angered Luther who was convinced that the church was corrupt in its ways.He wrote ‘The 95 Theses’, in retaliation in which he severely criticized certain beliefs of the Catholic Church and called for reforms. He then nailed the text on the university’s chapel door and also shared copies with his like-minded friends for distribution to the masses.’The 95 Theses’ was widely circulated throughout Germany and Europe, reaching France, England, and Italy, thus heralding the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and Magdeburg was infuriated with Luther’s ‘The 95 Theses’ and his stance against the indulgences as the Archbishop himself needed the revenue from the indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation. Thus he had the theses checked for heresy and forwarded it to Rome.On receiving the theses, Pope Leo X deployed a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther. But this did not deter Luther from speaking his mind; in fact, this only strengthened his anti-papal theology. Now he even stated that the Bible did not give the pope the exclusive right to interpret scripture, and questioned the papal authority.The pope grew increasingly frustrated with Luther and sent him a letter in 1520, threatening Luther with excommunication unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the 95 Theses, within 60 days. Luther burned the letter publicly, adding to the pope’s annoyance.Continue Reading BelowAs a result, the pope excommunicated Luther in January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem. Luther was now ordered to appear before the Diet of Worms, a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in Worms.Luther appeared as ordered before the Diet of Worms in 1521. Emperor Charles V commenced the Imperial Diet where Luther was presented with copies of his writings and asked if he stood by their contents. He refused to recant his writings and was thus declared a heretic, an outlaw.Luther faced the risk of arrest and was helped by his friends in making good his escape. He settled in Wartburg Castle at Eisenach where he continued his works. He translated the New Testament from Greek into German and authored the essays ‘On Confession, Whether the Pope has the Power to Require It’ and ‘The Judgement of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows’.During his later years he organized a new church, Lutheranism, and gained many followers. In 1533, he began serving as the dean of theology at University of Wittenberg, a post he held until his death.Recommended Lists:
Recommended Lists:Major Works
- Martin Luther is credited to have sparked the Protestant Reformation which began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church. He challenged the authority of the papacy, and attempted to reform certain Christian doctrines through his writings. In addition, his hymns inspired the development of congregational singing within Christianity.He translated the Bible from Hebrew and ancient Greek to German language which made the Scriptures more accessible to the common man, leading to a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture. His translations not only helped in popularizing Christianity, but also aided the development of a standard version of the German language.He authored ‘The 95 Theses’ which is widely regarded as the initial catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. The theses question the Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences and protest clerical abuses, especially nepotism, simony, usury, and pluralism.Recommended Lists:
Recommended Lists:Personal Life & Legacy
- He married Katharina von Bora, one of the nuns he had helped escape from the Nimbschen Cistercian convent. He was 41 years old at that time and his decision to marry came as a surprise to many. The couple’s marriage set a model for the practice of clerical marriage within Protestantism. They had a happy marriage that resulted in the birth of six children.He suffered from ill health during his later years, plagued by several ailments like kidney stones, arthritis, heart problems and digestive disorders. He died on February 18, 1546, at age 62.Martin Luther is considered both an influential and a controversial figure in the Reformation movement. He is honored on 18 February with a commemoration in the Lutheran Calendar of Saints and in the Episcopal (United States) Calendar of Saints.
How To CiteArticle Title- Martin Luther BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/martin-luther-92.phpLast Updated- July 21, 2017
People Also Viewed | 1,779 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Ghost is a Character in the Drama "Hamlet"
The Ghost is a famous character in the drama "Hamlet", written by William Shakespeare. The ghost character is Hamlet 1, which talks to Hamlet’s father that his brother murdered him. His name was Claudius and hamlet was his nephew. Claudius is the same person who is married to Gertude (Hamlet’s mother) and sitting on the throne of Denmark as the Queen. The ghost also claims that he had to suffer tormenting flames until the foul crimes done by him previously, are not burned, and pulled away.
In the meantime, young Hamlet was wondering and was surprised as to whether a ghost had to go such torment after death once reaching the heaven? He was also surprised when the ghost asked him to murder someone close to him because as per his knowledge, ghosts were not supposed to order to murder someone. Hamlet was in a great mystery and was finding it difficult to figure what exactly he had to do, whether to follow the ghost’s commands and believe whatever the ghost said to him or just refuse to murder his Uncle Claudius instead of believing in what the ghost said about him (Lower, 445).
Hamlet lived in Denmark, which is a country that has the majority of protestant people. What increased his dilemma was the belief in which they deny the concept of purgatory. “There was little reason for hamlet to believe or the ghost’s said to him so his disbelief continued and he had more reasons not to be with the ghost told him” (Lower, 86-91). As soon as the ghost disappeared, he was back to the real life. Claudius, the King of Denmark, asked the reason of massive Danish troop buildup near the border since he himself was puzzled. He was told by Horatio that Danish army was preparing a possible invasion over Fortinbras. “The reason for such a massive military consolidation along the border was the curious moments of enemy troops across the Fortinbras” (Lower, 86-91).
Claudius addresses his people after his marriage to Hamlet’s mother, representing himself as a person mourning the death of his elder brother despite the happiness he enjoyed since his wedding, the beginning of a new life. He also said that he has spoken to Fortinbras’s uncle and he promised to hold any misadventure plan by Fortinbras. With this message to the Norwegians to settle down the business and reduce the tension on borders, Claudius finishes as a speech (Sanchez, 275).
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Hamlet is given a chance to speak to the crowds for the first time although he was not attentive to what his uncle had said to the people. From Hamlet, the loss of his father was too grieving to listen to Claudius. Which was the reason for his gloominess and sad behavior, so he did not reply about why he was still deeply grieved by the death of his father? Claudius agreed with his nephew and makes a speech about losing one’s father or any nearby relative. Hamlet is not at all impressed by his uncle’s speech because after the Ghost appeared to him, he was skeptic of Claudius. “Claudius made an offer to his nephew to live with them instead of going back to Wittenberg where he was a student there, but when his mother insisted, he could not disagree” (Lower, 86-91).
At times Hamlet was surprised at his mother’s marriage with his uncle and how her silly everything occurred which disgusted him. This all was added to his existing frustration and the word of ghost began circling in his thoughts. At times, used to think whether the ghost was saying that truth? Those were confusing times for Hamlet and he had little, if at all, to deny for. Then he used the think that Claudius, no matter how powerful he was, was still his uncle and the brother of his father, why would he do such a thing? Even if Claudius did it, why his mother was with Claudius instead of being mourning for her husband?
Many puzzling questions were circling his mind but Hamlet it had no uncertain any of them. It was all too vague to make a definite picture out of it. In the meantime, his old friend Horatio entered his room but Hamlet was thinking so deeply that he could not notice when his friend entered. Horatio told him the event when he saw the ghost in person and all that the ghost told him. Hamlet was interested to know more about the ghost and decided to go with Horatio next day. In the meantime, hamlet found a deep interest in Laertis, with whom he was spending much of his time lately. Although he like her, but he was being realistic when he told her to forget him because he was the prince of Denmark and he had huge responsibilities to fulfill for his country and asked her not to expect him to be a good husband after being the ruler of his state since it was not the most rational thing to do.
ARGUMENT, ANALYSIS OF GHOST AND EVIL
The character of ghost in Hamlet is not just a symbolic figure that but it has a lot to do with the mindset of Shakespeare. The ghost of king Hamlet was not a creature of flesh and blood, instead, it was the spirit of the man who spent his life under the burden of sins and may have to who regretted majority of his life a span as a senior but at the same time, he wanted his son to avenge his death. The ghost also wanted to tell Hamlet what exactly the kingdom meant to him because on the death of hs mother, his son was the true king of Denmark and not his uncle Claudius. Shakespeare has the character of ghost with so much the pathos and with the nobility that it was understandable that he believed that the ghost was not to deceive Hamlet because the spirit had no connection with the devil (Sanchez, 275).
The story revolves around the theme of vengeance that Hamlet carries with himself after realizing the truth of his father’s death. The ghost, an apparition of his father, Hamlet 1 comes to his son to let him know the truth behind his death. The character of ghost symbolizes the devil and his intention to corrupt an innocent soul with rage, wrath and it makes sure that this is the only desire that the boy lives with, as long as he lives. The negativity is inevitable in the ghost’s motif of telling the story of his alleged murder to Hamlet who is a young man, full of emotions and strength, able to lay revenge upon the so-called murderer of his father, without realizing what the actual event was. However, for an instant, he thinks about what the ghost told him and he had no way to verify his story.
Throughout history, according to well-known philosophers like Immanuel Kant, Sigmund Freud, all agree that the very character of evil is the epitome of negativity and it does the same to those who intend to fallow him. Same has occurred with Hamlet, he is corrupted by evil motifs of ghost which is clear when he taunts his mother in a cruel way, same occurs when he killed Polonius although he thought about whether to kill or not but this is what devil does to a person’s mind by presenting him with negative thoughts, plans.
Overall, the theme of evil and corruption of emotions is presented by Shakespeare in the form of ghost who goes on a mission to corrupt the boy, his thoughts, his mind, and his feelings. He was in love before he met the ghost but it is easy to see how negative thoughts encompass a person with rage and revenge that he forgets even those who are dearer to him, closer to him than others. I believe that Hamlet has a presentation of evil in the form of his father’s spirit, which came to him with a mission i.e. to twist his thoughts to the level of madness, and it achieved just that.
“The beauty of the whole drama lies in the portrayal of a Christian belief which is what all the Christians deeply admire” (Lower, 86-91). The theme reminds us of life after death and how a soul resides in an undisclosed place that lies between the heaven and the earth. The spirit of king Hamlet is so restless that he can barely avenge his murder. The restlessness of king Hamlet’s soul is not only because of his own sense and what happened to him but it is more so because he wanted to erase the sins of his country and his nation about whom he was more worried.
Later, when Hamlet is all alone, he accepts the mission as one for his personal vengeance. He was in control of himself when swept away with ambition and the love of Ophelia who was not pure despite of what he thought about her. In vengeance, even the purest love becomes impure, according to Hamlet. He also realizes that while committing to avenge his father’s death, he is no longer a noble person worthy of ruling his country and nation (Sanchez, 275).
He did not consider himself as the savior of Denmark after what he was about to do i.e. to the murder of his father because he committed to return evil with evil. The spirit of his father already worked well on his son because what he told his son was enough to anger him and to relate his wrath on his uncle who, according to the spirit, was the real culprit. Hamlet’s heart was wounded deeply and due to the effect of this wound, he was deaf to listen to anything, any opinion, any justification, was deemed insufficient at this stage. On the next night, Hamlet, along with her friends, waits for the ghost to appear.
But that they hear cannons firing sounds, Hamlet tells them that this is a sign that Claudius is drinking pledges. In the meantime, Hamlet goes on a show tirade against the Danish custom of drinking heavily. He immediately addressed the ghost as he was imploring to speak. After listening to what he had to say, the goes back and for Hamlet to come away apart from his friends. Horatio and Marcellus tried their best to keep Hamlet from chasing the ghost that he never listened. They warn him repeatedly of the consequences of chasing the ghost but to no avail and Hamlet kept moving. Despite this, move his friends kept a close watch on Hamlet to make sure that no harm comes to him.
“Finding Hamlet along, the ghost speaks about why he came to him again” (Lower, 86-91). Ghost’s tells him that heat comes at a nightly walk from purgatory where he has been under constant torment because of the scenes of his life. The ghost also reveals that he was not killed by a wiper as a visually announced but he was in fact, murdered. Eventually the ghost tells Hamlet what actually happened to him and how he was murdered.
Claudius, Hamlet’s uncle and his father’s younger brother, also the current ruler of Denmark and hamlets stepfather, was the real murderer. The ghost told hamlet, “I am thy father; I am tormenting in hell as I was killed in a dreadful way and remained unpurified of my sins”; (Lower, 86-91). Hamlet replies in disbelief, “Where will thou take me? I’ll go no further” (Lower, 86-91). Ghost replied, “My hour has come, to leave and go back to tormenting flames” (Lower, 86-91). Hamlet replies, “Alas! Poor ghost” (Lower, 443). The Ghost continues to tell his story, “I am the spirit of thy father, doomed for a certain period to walk the night and to confine in fire during the day” (Lower, 86-91). Ghost continues, “I could unfold a tale whose lightest words would harrow up thy soul, freeze thy young blood”. Ghost said, “Thy knots and combined locks to part, and each hair to stand on end, as quills upon fretful porpentine, thou dist ever thy father’s love, revenge his foul and most unnatural murder”. Hamlet shouted, “Murder!” Ghost, “That roots itself in ease on lethe wharf, would thou not stir in this” (Lower, 67-70).
The ghost also told him how Claudius knocked into his garden while he was resting; having an afternoon nap was a habit of King Hamlet. After sneaking through, Claudius poured poison into his ear, killing the King in the most painful way possible, leaving his soul unpurified of his sins thus also responsible for his torment in the afterlife. Ghost said, “Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchid, a serpent stung me, so the whole ear of Denmark is by a forged process of my death, but know thy noble youth, the serpent that stung thy father’s life, now wears his crown” (Lower, 45).
While telling the whole story, the ghost asked him to wage his vengeance upon his murder and a person who was responsible for sending his soul unpurified thus increasing his torment many fold. The ghost also emphasize that Hamlet must not do anything against his mother because she had nothing to do with his murder, simply suggested that his mother was innocent and was not aware what went through with her former husband. Although she was weak and lustrous, the ghost spared her. While telling the story, ghost said, “Thus I was sleeping, by a brother’s hand, cut off even the blossoms of my sin, no reckoning made but sent to my account, with all my imperfections on my head, O, horrible, o horrible, most horrible” (Hilary, 69).
Hamlet replies with shock and awe, “What a rogue and peasant slave am I, Is I not monstrous that this slave here, but in a dream of passion, in a fiction could force his soul so to his conceit that from her working all his visage wann’d.”(Lower, 55-66). With tears in his eyes, Hamlet continued, “A broken voice and all his function suiting with forms of his conceit, and all for nothing!”(Lower, 33) “What Hacuba to him or him to Hacuba that he should weep for her? Had he the motif and the cue for passion that I have? O vengeance, what an ass I am!” (Lower, 102)
This had a profound effect on Hamlet and left him overwhelmed and full of rage. He was willing to wrath his anger upon his uncle the moment she got a chance. He swears to the ghost of his father and pledges to kill his murder regardless whether he was as uncle, stepfather, or whoever. Hamlet does not even tell his friends about what conversation he had with the ghost and goes to sleep without much discussion. He kept the promise between him and his father’s ghost like a true son. However, his friends insisted that he tell them about the conversation so he was left with no choice but to tell them but in doing so, he made them swear that they will not tell anyone about this in this regard will remain between the three of them. Hamlet was still not sure what to make of the ghost, so he said, “The spirit that I have seen, maybe the Devil and the Devil hath power to assume a pleasing shape, out of my weakness and my melancholy as he is very potent to such spirits, abuse me to damn me and I shall have ground but more relative to this is the play is the thing, wherein I will catch the conscious of the king”. (Lower, 67)
He told in the whole story what the ghost told him the other night and asked them not to tell it to anyone. He also told about their scene that he had in mind to kill the murder of his father that he did not give them the full details as he did not trust anyone anymore. The theme of ghost in Hamlet is by no means a new theme and has been used in many classic dramas all with the years but there is something you need to understand about the relationship between father and son in the context of Hamlet.
Shakespeare has presented a theme, which represents a pure relation between a father and son. It also represents possible emotions the sole might feel after death. There’s a lot of symbolism and religious gesture present in Shakespeare’s work and Hamlet is no different with what actually happens in the afterlife is ones guess and we as a religious followers only believe what we are told because we consider it as a part of our faith and nothing more. It also presents a case about lost, deceit, and Greed and to what extent these three traits can harm a man’s thoughts. Claudius suffered with lust and greed and ended up taking his brother’s life but in doing so, he earned his nephew’s wrath and anger. This is the theme of the play, which suggests that hatred must never be earned and if earned, it always results in an unpleasant manner.
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Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:4dc5745d-9191-4663-b820-981c2b4ad9b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://prime-writing.com/essays/literature/the-ghost-is-a-character-in-the-drama-hamlet.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.990428 | 3,742 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.3559396266937... | 1 | The Ghost is a Character in the Drama "Hamlet"
The Ghost is a famous character in the drama "Hamlet", written by William Shakespeare. The ghost character is Hamlet 1, which talks to Hamlet’s father that his brother murdered him. His name was Claudius and hamlet was his nephew. Claudius is the same person who is married to Gertude (Hamlet’s mother) and sitting on the throne of Denmark as the Queen. The ghost also claims that he had to suffer tormenting flames until the foul crimes done by him previously, are not burned, and pulled away.
In the meantime, young Hamlet was wondering and was surprised as to whether a ghost had to go such torment after death once reaching the heaven? He was also surprised when the ghost asked him to murder someone close to him because as per his knowledge, ghosts were not supposed to order to murder someone. Hamlet was in a great mystery and was finding it difficult to figure what exactly he had to do, whether to follow the ghost’s commands and believe whatever the ghost said to him or just refuse to murder his Uncle Claudius instead of believing in what the ghost said about him (Lower, 445).
Hamlet lived in Denmark, which is a country that has the majority of protestant people. What increased his dilemma was the belief in which they deny the concept of purgatory. “There was little reason for hamlet to believe or the ghost’s said to him so his disbelief continued and he had more reasons not to be with the ghost told him” (Lower, 86-91). As soon as the ghost disappeared, he was back to the real life. Claudius, the King of Denmark, asked the reason of massive Danish troop buildup near the border since he himself was puzzled. He was told by Horatio that Danish army was preparing a possible invasion over Fortinbras. “The reason for such a massive military consolidation along the border was the curious moments of enemy troops across the Fortinbras” (Lower, 86-91).
Claudius addresses his people after his marriage to Hamlet’s mother, representing himself as a person mourning the death of his elder brother despite the happiness he enjoyed since his wedding, the beginning of a new life. He also said that he has spoken to Fortinbras’s uncle and he promised to hold any misadventure plan by Fortinbras. With this message to the Norwegians to settle down the business and reduce the tension on borders, Claudius finishes as a speech (Sanchez, 275).
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Hamlet is given a chance to speak to the crowds for the first time although he was not attentive to what his uncle had said to the people. From Hamlet, the loss of his father was too grieving to listen to Claudius. Which was the reason for his gloominess and sad behavior, so he did not reply about why he was still deeply grieved by the death of his father? Claudius agreed with his nephew and makes a speech about losing one’s father or any nearby relative. Hamlet is not at all impressed by his uncle’s speech because after the Ghost appeared to him, he was skeptic of Claudius. “Claudius made an offer to his nephew to live with them instead of going back to Wittenberg where he was a student there, but when his mother insisted, he could not disagree” (Lower, 86-91).
At times Hamlet was surprised at his mother’s marriage with his uncle and how her silly everything occurred which disgusted him. This all was added to his existing frustration and the word of ghost began circling in his thoughts. At times, used to think whether the ghost was saying that truth? Those were confusing times for Hamlet and he had little, if at all, to deny for. Then he used the think that Claudius, no matter how powerful he was, was still his uncle and the brother of his father, why would he do such a thing? Even if Claudius did it, why his mother was with Claudius instead of being mourning for her husband?
Many puzzling questions were circling his mind but Hamlet it had no uncertain any of them. It was all too vague to make a definite picture out of it. In the meantime, his old friend Horatio entered his room but Hamlet was thinking so deeply that he could not notice when his friend entered. Horatio told him the event when he saw the ghost in person and all that the ghost told him. Hamlet was interested to know more about the ghost and decided to go with Horatio next day. In the meantime, hamlet found a deep interest in Laertis, with whom he was spending much of his time lately. Although he like her, but he was being realistic when he told her to forget him because he was the prince of Denmark and he had huge responsibilities to fulfill for his country and asked her not to expect him to be a good husband after being the ruler of his state since it was not the most rational thing to do.
ARGUMENT, ANALYSIS OF GHOST AND EVIL
The character of ghost in Hamlet is not just a symbolic figure that but it has a lot to do with the mindset of Shakespeare. The ghost of king Hamlet was not a creature of flesh and blood, instead, it was the spirit of the man who spent his life under the burden of sins and may have to who regretted majority of his life a span as a senior but at the same time, he wanted his son to avenge his death. The ghost also wanted to tell Hamlet what exactly the kingdom meant to him because on the death of hs mother, his son was the true king of Denmark and not his uncle Claudius. Shakespeare has the character of ghost with so much the pathos and with the nobility that it was understandable that he believed that the ghost was not to deceive Hamlet because the spirit had no connection with the devil (Sanchez, 275).
The story revolves around the theme of vengeance that Hamlet carries with himself after realizing the truth of his father’s death. The ghost, an apparition of his father, Hamlet 1 comes to his son to let him know the truth behind his death. The character of ghost symbolizes the devil and his intention to corrupt an innocent soul with rage, wrath and it makes sure that this is the only desire that the boy lives with, as long as he lives. The negativity is inevitable in the ghost’s motif of telling the story of his alleged murder to Hamlet who is a young man, full of emotions and strength, able to lay revenge upon the so-called murderer of his father, without realizing what the actual event was. However, for an instant, he thinks about what the ghost told him and he had no way to verify his story.
Throughout history, according to well-known philosophers like Immanuel Kant, Sigmund Freud, all agree that the very character of evil is the epitome of negativity and it does the same to those who intend to fallow him. Same has occurred with Hamlet, he is corrupted by evil motifs of ghost which is clear when he taunts his mother in a cruel way, same occurs when he killed Polonius although he thought about whether to kill or not but this is what devil does to a person’s mind by presenting him with negative thoughts, plans.
Overall, the theme of evil and corruption of emotions is presented by Shakespeare in the form of ghost who goes on a mission to corrupt the boy, his thoughts, his mind, and his feelings. He was in love before he met the ghost but it is easy to see how negative thoughts encompass a person with rage and revenge that he forgets even those who are dearer to him, closer to him than others. I believe that Hamlet has a presentation of evil in the form of his father’s spirit, which came to him with a mission i.e. to twist his thoughts to the level of madness, and it achieved just that.
“The beauty of the whole drama lies in the portrayal of a Christian belief which is what all the Christians deeply admire” (Lower, 86-91). The theme reminds us of life after death and how a soul resides in an undisclosed place that lies between the heaven and the earth. The spirit of king Hamlet is so restless that he can barely avenge his murder. The restlessness of king Hamlet’s soul is not only because of his own sense and what happened to him but it is more so because he wanted to erase the sins of his country and his nation about whom he was more worried.
Later, when Hamlet is all alone, he accepts the mission as one for his personal vengeance. He was in control of himself when swept away with ambition and the love of Ophelia who was not pure despite of what he thought about her. In vengeance, even the purest love becomes impure, according to Hamlet. He also realizes that while committing to avenge his father’s death, he is no longer a noble person worthy of ruling his country and nation (Sanchez, 275).
He did not consider himself as the savior of Denmark after what he was about to do i.e. to the murder of his father because he committed to return evil with evil. The spirit of his father already worked well on his son because what he told his son was enough to anger him and to relate his wrath on his uncle who, according to the spirit, was the real culprit. Hamlet’s heart was wounded deeply and due to the effect of this wound, he was deaf to listen to anything, any opinion, any justification, was deemed insufficient at this stage. On the next night, Hamlet, along with her friends, waits for the ghost to appear.
But that they hear cannons firing sounds, Hamlet tells them that this is a sign that Claudius is drinking pledges. In the meantime, Hamlet goes on a show tirade against the Danish custom of drinking heavily. He immediately addressed the ghost as he was imploring to speak. After listening to what he had to say, the goes back and for Hamlet to come away apart from his friends. Horatio and Marcellus tried their best to keep Hamlet from chasing the ghost that he never listened. They warn him repeatedly of the consequences of chasing the ghost but to no avail and Hamlet kept moving. Despite this, move his friends kept a close watch on Hamlet to make sure that no harm comes to him.
“Finding Hamlet along, the ghost speaks about why he came to him again” (Lower, 86-91). Ghost’s tells him that heat comes at a nightly walk from purgatory where he has been under constant torment because of the scenes of his life. The ghost also reveals that he was not killed by a wiper as a visually announced but he was in fact, murdered. Eventually the ghost tells Hamlet what actually happened to him and how he was murdered.
Claudius, Hamlet’s uncle and his father’s younger brother, also the current ruler of Denmark and hamlets stepfather, was the real murderer. The ghost told hamlet, “I am thy father; I am tormenting in hell as I was killed in a dreadful way and remained unpurified of my sins”; (Lower, 86-91). Hamlet replies in disbelief, “Where will thou take me? I’ll go no further” (Lower, 86-91). Ghost replied, “My hour has come, to leave and go back to tormenting flames” (Lower, 86-91). Hamlet replies, “Alas! Poor ghost” (Lower, 443). The Ghost continues to tell his story, “I am the spirit of thy father, doomed for a certain period to walk the night and to confine in fire during the day” (Lower, 86-91). Ghost continues, “I could unfold a tale whose lightest words would harrow up thy soul, freeze thy young blood”. Ghost said, “Thy knots and combined locks to part, and each hair to stand on end, as quills upon fretful porpentine, thou dist ever thy father’s love, revenge his foul and most unnatural murder”. Hamlet shouted, “Murder!” Ghost, “That roots itself in ease on lethe wharf, would thou not stir in this” (Lower, 67-70).
The ghost also told him how Claudius knocked into his garden while he was resting; having an afternoon nap was a habit of King Hamlet. After sneaking through, Claudius poured poison into his ear, killing the King in the most painful way possible, leaving his soul unpurified of his sins thus also responsible for his torment in the afterlife. Ghost said, “Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchid, a serpent stung me, so the whole ear of Denmark is by a forged process of my death, but know thy noble youth, the serpent that stung thy father’s life, now wears his crown” (Lower, 45).
While telling the whole story, the ghost asked him to wage his vengeance upon his murder and a person who was responsible for sending his soul unpurified thus increasing his torment many fold. The ghost also emphasize that Hamlet must not do anything against his mother because she had nothing to do with his murder, simply suggested that his mother was innocent and was not aware what went through with her former husband. Although she was weak and lustrous, the ghost spared her. While telling the story, ghost said, “Thus I was sleeping, by a brother’s hand, cut off even the blossoms of my sin, no reckoning made but sent to my account, with all my imperfections on my head, O, horrible, o horrible, most horrible” (Hilary, 69).
Hamlet replies with shock and awe, “What a rogue and peasant slave am I, Is I not monstrous that this slave here, but in a dream of passion, in a fiction could force his soul so to his conceit that from her working all his visage wann’d.”(Lower, 55-66). With tears in his eyes, Hamlet continued, “A broken voice and all his function suiting with forms of his conceit, and all for nothing!”(Lower, 33) “What Hacuba to him or him to Hacuba that he should weep for her? Had he the motif and the cue for passion that I have? O vengeance, what an ass I am!” (Lower, 102)
This had a profound effect on Hamlet and left him overwhelmed and full of rage. He was willing to wrath his anger upon his uncle the moment she got a chance. He swears to the ghost of his father and pledges to kill his murder regardless whether he was as uncle, stepfather, or whoever. Hamlet does not even tell his friends about what conversation he had with the ghost and goes to sleep without much discussion. He kept the promise between him and his father’s ghost like a true son. However, his friends insisted that he tell them about the conversation so he was left with no choice but to tell them but in doing so, he made them swear that they will not tell anyone about this in this regard will remain between the three of them. Hamlet was still not sure what to make of the ghost, so he said, “The spirit that I have seen, maybe the Devil and the Devil hath power to assume a pleasing shape, out of my weakness and my melancholy as he is very potent to such spirits, abuse me to damn me and I shall have ground but more relative to this is the play is the thing, wherein I will catch the conscious of the king”. (Lower, 67)
He told in the whole story what the ghost told him the other night and asked them not to tell it to anyone. He also told about their scene that he had in mind to kill the murder of his father that he did not give them the full details as he did not trust anyone anymore. The theme of ghost in Hamlet is by no means a new theme and has been used in many classic dramas all with the years but there is something you need to understand about the relationship between father and son in the context of Hamlet.
Shakespeare has presented a theme, which represents a pure relation between a father and son. It also represents possible emotions the sole might feel after death. There’s a lot of symbolism and religious gesture present in Shakespeare’s work and Hamlet is no different with what actually happens in the afterlife is ones guess and we as a religious followers only believe what we are told because we consider it as a part of our faith and nothing more. It also presents a case about lost, deceit, and Greed and to what extent these three traits can harm a man’s thoughts. Claudius suffered with lust and greed and ended up taking his brother’s life but in doing so, he earned his nephew’s wrath and anger. This is the theme of the play, which suggests that hatred must never be earned and if earned, it always results in an unpleasant manner.
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Most popular orders | 3,664 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography Birth and childhood Claude Monet was born on 14 November on the fifth floor of 45 rue Laffittein the 9th arrondissement of Paris. On 20 Mayhe was baptized in the local parish church, Notre-Dame-de-Loretteas Oscar-Claude, but his parents called him simply Oscar. Despite being baptized Catholic, Monet later became an atheist.
Struck by the constantly changing sea and sky on the coast, Claude would go on to put these onto a canvas. Before this however, he started to paint caricatures for locals.
Instead, he studied art under local artists and developed much promise. One of these was Eugene Louis Boudin, who painted coastal landscapes. He was sent to Algeria for military service from It was at the studio that Claude would participate in a rare practice.
Many European artists of the day painted landscapes, but they were most often painted in the studio, with a basic feeling of what the scene looked like.
By he was painting marine and forest subjects, townscapes, and figures in landscape settings, all outdoors. In the summer ofhe worked with Renoir to lead the creation of outdoor impressionism.
In what is now known as a signature of impressionism, he favored rivers with light dappled water and scenes in which brushstrokes dissolve the forms of objects by breaking brushstrokes and patches of color into their contours.
Then in he enacted his plan to paint a single object from several viewpoints. He picked as his subject Gare Saint-Lazare, a train station in Paris.
Despite his talent, Monet had to endure extreme poverty. He was then free to paint as he pleased. He once again started doing studies of objects. Some of his subjects included haystacks, poplar trees, the facade of Rouen Cathedral, the Seine at Giverny, and view of the River Thames and the Houses of Parliament.
But after his main subject was the lily pond in his backyard. Monet died December 5, Behind him he left his works and a new style of art — impressionism.Feb 09, · Claude Monet is sometimes known as the father of French Impressionism. He is a very famous artist who created thousands of paintings in what was, at the time, a new and exciting style.
Claude Monet was the leader of the French Impressionist movement, literally giving the movement its name. As an inspirational talent and personality, he was crucial in bringing its adherents pfmlures.com Of Birth: Paris, France.
Oscar-Claude Monet was born on the 14th of November, in Paris. His father was called Claude-Adolphe Monet, and his mother, Louise-Justine Aubree Monet.
In , his family moved to Le Havre in Normandy. The term Impressionism is derived from the title of his painting Impression, Sunrise. Claude Monet was born on November 14, on the fifth floor of 45 rue Laffitte, in the ninth arrondissement of Paris.
Oscar-Claude Monet (/ m oʊ ˈ n eɪ /; French: [klod mɔnɛ]; 14 November – 5 December ) was a French painter, a founder of French Impressionist painting and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to plein air landscape painting.
Oscar-Claude Monet French:klod mɔnɛ; (November – 5 December ) was a founder of French Impressionist painting, and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to plein-air landscape painting. | <urn:uuid:7426052e-9341-4894-9860-f90df10ac2c2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hevexyfaweja.pfmlures.com/a-biography-of-oscar-claude-monet-the-french-impressionist-painter-4204cu.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00495.warc.gz | en | 0.984946 | 785 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.271566241979... | 1 | Biography Birth and childhood Claude Monet was born on 14 November on the fifth floor of 45 rue Laffittein the 9th arrondissement of Paris. On 20 Mayhe was baptized in the local parish church, Notre-Dame-de-Loretteas Oscar-Claude, but his parents called him simply Oscar. Despite being baptized Catholic, Monet later became an atheist.
Struck by the constantly changing sea and sky on the coast, Claude would go on to put these onto a canvas. Before this however, he started to paint caricatures for locals.
Instead, he studied art under local artists and developed much promise. One of these was Eugene Louis Boudin, who painted coastal landscapes. He was sent to Algeria for military service from It was at the studio that Claude would participate in a rare practice.
Many European artists of the day painted landscapes, but they were most often painted in the studio, with a basic feeling of what the scene looked like.
By he was painting marine and forest subjects, townscapes, and figures in landscape settings, all outdoors. In the summer ofhe worked with Renoir to lead the creation of outdoor impressionism.
In what is now known as a signature of impressionism, he favored rivers with light dappled water and scenes in which brushstrokes dissolve the forms of objects by breaking brushstrokes and patches of color into their contours.
Then in he enacted his plan to paint a single object from several viewpoints. He picked as his subject Gare Saint-Lazare, a train station in Paris.
Despite his talent, Monet had to endure extreme poverty. He was then free to paint as he pleased. He once again started doing studies of objects. Some of his subjects included haystacks, poplar trees, the facade of Rouen Cathedral, the Seine at Giverny, and view of the River Thames and the Houses of Parliament.
But after his main subject was the lily pond in his backyard. Monet died December 5, Behind him he left his works and a new style of art — impressionism.Feb 09, · Claude Monet is sometimes known as the father of French Impressionism. He is a very famous artist who created thousands of paintings in what was, at the time, a new and exciting style.
Claude Monet was the leader of the French Impressionist movement, literally giving the movement its name. As an inspirational talent and personality, he was crucial in bringing its adherents pfmlures.com Of Birth: Paris, France.
Oscar-Claude Monet was born on the 14th of November, in Paris. His father was called Claude-Adolphe Monet, and his mother, Louise-Justine Aubree Monet.
In , his family moved to Le Havre in Normandy. The term Impressionism is derived from the title of his painting Impression, Sunrise. Claude Monet was born on November 14, on the fifth floor of 45 rue Laffitte, in the ninth arrondissement of Paris.
Oscar-Claude Monet (/ m oʊ ˈ n eɪ /; French: [klod mɔnɛ]; 14 November – 5 December ) was a French painter, a founder of French Impressionist painting and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to plein air landscape painting.
Oscar-Claude Monet French:klod mɔnɛ; (November – 5 December ) was a founder of French Impressionist painting, and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to plein-air landscape painting. | 775 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pride in Sophocles' Antigone
Pride is a quality that all people possess in one way or another. Some people take pride in their appearance, worldly possessions, or position in society. The story of Antigone written by Sophocles has two characters who have a tragic flaw of pride. I will show how Creon’s pride of power leads to his destruction, and how Antigone’s pride makes her an honorable character who should be treated as a hero.
Creon is a man who has just become the king of Thebes and has a flaw of having too much pride. He can’t control the power of being over other people and he lets the power go to his head. “ I now possess the throne and all its powers. No, he must be left unburied, his corpse carrion for the birds and dogs to tear, an obscenity for the citizens to behold!”(1272) In getting his new powers Creon decides to make a decree that will not allow the brother of Antigone to be buried, and if someone does bury him then that person will be killed. This goes against the beliefs of most of the people in the town and many feel that it goes against what the gods would see as acceptable. A leader tries to suggest that it could be the work of the gods. “My king, ever since he began I’ve been debating in my mind, could this possibly be the work of the gods?”(1274) This again is a reference that the people are disgusted by what Creon has decreed. They feel like it is gross or disgusting to let a persons body have no burial rights and leave the remains to be against the elements of nature. I think that this decree is inhumane and think that Creon was just using his power to get revenge on Polynices for being against the enemy. Creon then shows that he has let the power go to his head by refusing advice of an elder. “Stop- before you make me choke with anger- the gods! You, you’re senile, must you be insane? To prove his final act of power Creon informs his son that the person who buried Polynices is his fiancé Antigone and that he will kill her to make an example of his power to all the people under his rule that he would not be disobeyed.
Creon’s son Haemon does not want his wife to be to be put to death and pleads with his father. “ I see my father offending justice wrong. That she’ll die but her death will kill another.”(1287) Haemon reveals to the his father that if he continues with killing his wife to be he will flee his presence and kill himself for his love Antigone. In the end Creon realizes that his pride has lead to the destruction of his life and his kingdom. “ I know it myself- I’m shaken, torn. It’s a dreadful... | <urn:uuid:cad21d65-4773-43b6-9432-d3b5235e9615> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/pride-in-sophocles-antigone | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00466.warc.gz | en | 0.98884 | 634 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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-0.12774039804935455,... | 1 | Pride in Sophocles' Antigone
Pride is a quality that all people possess in one way or another. Some people take pride in their appearance, worldly possessions, or position in society. The story of Antigone written by Sophocles has two characters who have a tragic flaw of pride. I will show how Creon’s pride of power leads to his destruction, and how Antigone’s pride makes her an honorable character who should be treated as a hero.
Creon is a man who has just become the king of Thebes and has a flaw of having too much pride. He can’t control the power of being over other people and he lets the power go to his head. “ I now possess the throne and all its powers. No, he must be left unburied, his corpse carrion for the birds and dogs to tear, an obscenity for the citizens to behold!”(1272) In getting his new powers Creon decides to make a decree that will not allow the brother of Antigone to be buried, and if someone does bury him then that person will be killed. This goes against the beliefs of most of the people in the town and many feel that it goes against what the gods would see as acceptable. A leader tries to suggest that it could be the work of the gods. “My king, ever since he began I’ve been debating in my mind, could this possibly be the work of the gods?”(1274) This again is a reference that the people are disgusted by what Creon has decreed. They feel like it is gross or disgusting to let a persons body have no burial rights and leave the remains to be against the elements of nature. I think that this decree is inhumane and think that Creon was just using his power to get revenge on Polynices for being against the enemy. Creon then shows that he has let the power go to his head by refusing advice of an elder. “Stop- before you make me choke with anger- the gods! You, you’re senile, must you be insane? To prove his final act of power Creon informs his son that the person who buried Polynices is his fiancé Antigone and that he will kill her to make an example of his power to all the people under his rule that he would not be disobeyed.
Creon’s son Haemon does not want his wife to be to be put to death and pleads with his father. “ I see my father offending justice wrong. That she’ll die but her death will kill another.”(1287) Haemon reveals to the his father that if he continues with killing his wife to be he will flee his presence and kill himself for his love Antigone. In the end Creon realizes that his pride has lead to the destruction of his life and his kingdom. “ I know it myself- I’m shaken, torn. It’s a dreadful... | 608 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was not his choice. It was a command, a demand, an order. He would leave his Polish village in the mountains and become one of them. It did not matter that he was a man of peace. It was no concern of anyone that his heart and soul did not want to be a part of this. He was conscripted with no choice. It was the early 20th Century, and it was his turn to take his place as a soldier. Reluctant, strong-willed, he did as he was instructed to wear the uniform and live the life of the lowest rank in the Prussian Army. Franciszek Slabik would do his service as instructed. He would serve with a heavy heart, and he would serve in selected silence.
In time, Franciszek would emigrate from Poland in 1912 to travel to this dream of America. He had escaped the Great War on the European continent. He married and had a daughter and two sons. His sons would serve during World War II. His older boy was a parachutist who was shot down over Belgium; later he received a Purple Heart. His younger son would fight against the Japanese in the Pacific. Soldiering had continued in his family.
Later, his first grandson would become a cadet at West Point. Proudly, he shared with him his picture in his Prussian uniform. “Be as good a soldier as I was, ” he instructed the young man. His grandson would have a lifelong career in the military and achieve high rank.
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0.45008218288421... | 14 | It was not his choice. It was a command, a demand, an order. He would leave his Polish village in the mountains and become one of them. It did not matter that he was a man of peace. It was no concern of anyone that his heart and soul did not want to be a part of this. He was conscripted with no choice. It was the early 20th Century, and it was his turn to take his place as a soldier. Reluctant, strong-willed, he did as he was instructed to wear the uniform and live the life of the lowest rank in the Prussian Army. Franciszek Slabik would do his service as instructed. He would serve with a heavy heart, and he would serve in selected silence.
In time, Franciszek would emigrate from Poland in 1912 to travel to this dream of America. He had escaped the Great War on the European continent. He married and had a daughter and two sons. His sons would serve during World War II. His older boy was a parachutist who was shot down over Belgium; later he received a Purple Heart. His younger son would fight against the Japanese in the Pacific. Soldiering had continued in his family.
Later, his first grandson would become a cadet at West Point. Proudly, he shared with him his picture in his Prussian uniform. “Be as good a soldier as I was, ” he instructed the young man. His grandson would have a lifelong career in the military and achieve high rank.
Soldier, soldiering…what is its real meaning of sacrifice and honor? | 330 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Imagine yourself back in the early eighteen hundreds as black slave living on a plantation with death knocking on your door at any second. The only chance to survive this born-into captivity, is to humble yourself before a white master or attempt to escape to an unknown safe haven. To chance an escape would put your life at risk to the bounty hunters and cause severe brutality upon those you left behind. The only logical way to live ones life in these situations would be submissive from birth to death and to die quietly, so those remaining dont lose what little faith they have left. This is an example of the atrocities that occurred throughout our Great Nations history, and will forever be a scar for everyone to see. One individual lived through this time period and wrote about what he saw and endured. Frederick Douglass wrote an autobiographical account, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself. This account of slavery is a prime example of what life on a plantation was like, and illustrates the effects of captivity, along with the sense of personal identity.
Frederick Douglass wrote his first autobiography when he was about twenty-seven years old. This age, which he had given himself, was not an actual written account, but a verbal comment that his master made when Douglass was about age seventeen. I have no accurate knowledge of my age, never having seen any authentic record containing it (970). Douglass gives comments to the fact that he, and other slaves, was not allowed to know such information about themselves. If a slave would ask about their birthday or what age they were, harsh treatment would generally be the resulting answer. The only recollection of a slaves birthday would revolve around the time of harvest during the seasons. They seldom came nearer to it than planting-time, harvest-time, cherry-time, spring-time, or fall time (970). This lack of personal identity would become one of the fundamental elements of oppression to a slave. Such personal information is vital to a slave, to know what day is the day of their birth and how long they have lived in captivity. A want of information concerning my own was a source of unhappiness to me even during childhood. The white children could tell their ages. I could not tell why I ought to be deprived of the same privilege (970). To not know a part of ones own history, especially their age, is to leave a deep void within the slave; a burning desire to know such information would cause madness and any action of inquiry, would be met with equal amounts of physical pain. Physical pain was the key factor of submission, but when slave children were raised only knowing physical brutality, emotional pain tormented the soul even more.
Another action taken by the white masters was the act of making their female salves their personal concubines and then robbing the slave-mothers of their newly born children. This act was performed when the child was about twelve months old, just being old enough to be stripped from the breast that fed and nourished them. Even though most of the slave-children were of mulatto decent from their white fathers, sparing a child from the loss of its mother was not considered and highly deemed as showing favoritism towards the slaves. Slaveholders have ordained, and by law established, that the children of slave women shall in all cases follow the condition of their mothers; and this is done too obviously to administer to their lusts, and make a gratification of their wicked desires profitable as well as pleasurable; for by this cunning arrangement, the slaveholder, in cases not a few, sustains to his slaves the double relation of master and father (971). The mother of the slave-child was usually sold off to some plantation some distance away. This was done to keep her from trying to make any attempt to see her child and to rid the plantation of any witness of the mulatto creation. The slave-child was then placed under the care of an old woman, who was too old for both fieldwork and escape. This action was done to further oppress the masses of slaves through example and to hinder the child under oppression from their first earliest memory. For what this separation is done, I do now know, unless it be to hinder the development of the childs affection toward its mother, and to blunt and destroy the natural affection of the mother for the child. This is the inevitable result (970). Unlike most slave-children, Douglass was able to see his natural mother. She was sold to a plantation about twenty miles away from Douglass home. She traveled at night by foot to see her son, even though her punishment would be severe. I never saw my mother, to know her as such, more than four or five times in my life; and each of these times was very short in duration, and at night. I do not recollect of ever seeing my mother by the light of day (970). This lack of motherly affection is another effect of the oppression slavery has caused on the mental perceptions of slave-children.
Douglass was sold to a slave-owner named Anthony. This master was not a wealthy man, owning two or three farms, and about thirty slaves. Douglass talks about a man who was in charge of disciplining the slaves on the plantation. He refers to this man as Mr. Plummer, a drunkard, a profane swearer, and a savage monster (972). Douglasss accounts of this man are defiant of human compassion and further illustrate the harsh brutality suffered by all held in captivity.
He would at times seem to take a great pleasure in whipping a slave. I have often been awakened at the dawn of day by the most heartrending shrieks of an own aunt of mine, whom he used to tie up to a joist, and whip upon her naked back till she was literally covered with blood. The louder she screamed, the harder he whipped; and where the blood ran fastest, there he whipped the longest. He would whip her to make her scream, and whip her to make her hush; and not until overcome by fatigue, would he cease to swing the blood-clotted cowskin.
The acts of Mr. Plummer are atrocious, but deemed as necessary by the white man to control the acts and wants of the slaves. For a slave to achieve the upper hand would be a true act of defiance, and this was the last thing that any white man would want, anarchy on his own lands. For this kind of brutality to occur almost on a daily routine would be physical evidence to all slaves that opposition would be met with severe punishment. To live ones life with this act of cruelty hanging above ones head would create a sense of suppression towards any hope of freedom or emancipation. The only clear evidence to a slave would be that their lives were under the strictest control of some barbaric brute that had no sense of compassion for humans of another skin color.
Frederick Douglass was a man of great abilities. After escaping the submissive control from his owners, he fled to the North where he married and became skilled in the trade of caulking. Douglass then became intellectually competent about the antislavery movement, learning everything he could to achieve the upper hand over his white fellow men, and giving speeches to anyone who would listen. He was able to control a crowd with his magnificent oratory skills, leaving crowds of mixed-race audiences compelled to his thoughts of equality and antislavery. Douglasss accounts of his life are harsh but compelling facts that human nature will always find a way to overcome the abuse that is given. Douglass himself was a true role model for all slaves, by being knowledgeable and optimistic that the moral decay in the social order that slaves were considered would end in the not-so-distant future of that time. The writings of such a great man are a true testimonial that knowledge is power and anyone has the ability to become powerful, despite situations that are oppressive and brutal.
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0.2680438160896... | 2 | Imagine yourself back in the early eighteen hundreds as black slave living on a plantation with death knocking on your door at any second. The only chance to survive this born-into captivity, is to humble yourself before a white master or attempt to escape to an unknown safe haven. To chance an escape would put your life at risk to the bounty hunters and cause severe brutality upon those you left behind. The only logical way to live ones life in these situations would be submissive from birth to death and to die quietly, so those remaining dont lose what little faith they have left. This is an example of the atrocities that occurred throughout our Great Nations history, and will forever be a scar for everyone to see. One individual lived through this time period and wrote about what he saw and endured. Frederick Douglass wrote an autobiographical account, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself. This account of slavery is a prime example of what life on a plantation was like, and illustrates the effects of captivity, along with the sense of personal identity.
Frederick Douglass wrote his first autobiography when he was about twenty-seven years old. This age, which he had given himself, was not an actual written account, but a verbal comment that his master made when Douglass was about age seventeen. I have no accurate knowledge of my age, never having seen any authentic record containing it (970). Douglass gives comments to the fact that he, and other slaves, was not allowed to know such information about themselves. If a slave would ask about their birthday or what age they were, harsh treatment would generally be the resulting answer. The only recollection of a slaves birthday would revolve around the time of harvest during the seasons. They seldom came nearer to it than planting-time, harvest-time, cherry-time, spring-time, or fall time (970). This lack of personal identity would become one of the fundamental elements of oppression to a slave. Such personal information is vital to a slave, to know what day is the day of their birth and how long they have lived in captivity. A want of information concerning my own was a source of unhappiness to me even during childhood. The white children could tell their ages. I could not tell why I ought to be deprived of the same privilege (970). To not know a part of ones own history, especially their age, is to leave a deep void within the slave; a burning desire to know such information would cause madness and any action of inquiry, would be met with equal amounts of physical pain. Physical pain was the key factor of submission, but when slave children were raised only knowing physical brutality, emotional pain tormented the soul even more.
Another action taken by the white masters was the act of making their female salves their personal concubines and then robbing the slave-mothers of their newly born children. This act was performed when the child was about twelve months old, just being old enough to be stripped from the breast that fed and nourished them. Even though most of the slave-children were of mulatto decent from their white fathers, sparing a child from the loss of its mother was not considered and highly deemed as showing favoritism towards the slaves. Slaveholders have ordained, and by law established, that the children of slave women shall in all cases follow the condition of their mothers; and this is done too obviously to administer to their lusts, and make a gratification of their wicked desires profitable as well as pleasurable; for by this cunning arrangement, the slaveholder, in cases not a few, sustains to his slaves the double relation of master and father (971). The mother of the slave-child was usually sold off to some plantation some distance away. This was done to keep her from trying to make any attempt to see her child and to rid the plantation of any witness of the mulatto creation. The slave-child was then placed under the care of an old woman, who was too old for both fieldwork and escape. This action was done to further oppress the masses of slaves through example and to hinder the child under oppression from their first earliest memory. For what this separation is done, I do now know, unless it be to hinder the development of the childs affection toward its mother, and to blunt and destroy the natural affection of the mother for the child. This is the inevitable result (970). Unlike most slave-children, Douglass was able to see his natural mother. She was sold to a plantation about twenty miles away from Douglass home. She traveled at night by foot to see her son, even though her punishment would be severe. I never saw my mother, to know her as such, more than four or five times in my life; and each of these times was very short in duration, and at night. I do not recollect of ever seeing my mother by the light of day (970). This lack of motherly affection is another effect of the oppression slavery has caused on the mental perceptions of slave-children.
Douglass was sold to a slave-owner named Anthony. This master was not a wealthy man, owning two or three farms, and about thirty slaves. Douglass talks about a man who was in charge of disciplining the slaves on the plantation. He refers to this man as Mr. Plummer, a drunkard, a profane swearer, and a savage monster (972). Douglasss accounts of this man are defiant of human compassion and further illustrate the harsh brutality suffered by all held in captivity.
He would at times seem to take a great pleasure in whipping a slave. I have often been awakened at the dawn of day by the most heartrending shrieks of an own aunt of mine, whom he used to tie up to a joist, and whip upon her naked back till she was literally covered with blood. The louder she screamed, the harder he whipped; and where the blood ran fastest, there he whipped the longest. He would whip her to make her scream, and whip her to make her hush; and not until overcome by fatigue, would he cease to swing the blood-clotted cowskin.
The acts of Mr. Plummer are atrocious, but deemed as necessary by the white man to control the acts and wants of the slaves. For a slave to achieve the upper hand would be a true act of defiance, and this was the last thing that any white man would want, anarchy on his own lands. For this kind of brutality to occur almost on a daily routine would be physical evidence to all slaves that opposition would be met with severe punishment. To live ones life with this act of cruelty hanging above ones head would create a sense of suppression towards any hope of freedom or emancipation. The only clear evidence to a slave would be that their lives were under the strictest control of some barbaric brute that had no sense of compassion for humans of another skin color.
Frederick Douglass was a man of great abilities. After escaping the submissive control from his owners, he fled to the North where he married and became skilled in the trade of caulking. Douglass then became intellectually competent about the antislavery movement, learning everything he could to achieve the upper hand over his white fellow men, and giving speeches to anyone who would listen. He was able to control a crowd with his magnificent oratory skills, leaving crowds of mixed-race audiences compelled to his thoughts of equality and antislavery. Douglasss accounts of his life are harsh but compelling facts that human nature will always find a way to overcome the abuse that is given. Douglass himself was a true role model for all slaves, by being knowledgeable and optimistic that the moral decay in the social order that slaves were considered would end in the not-so-distant future of that time. The writings of such a great man are a true testimonial that knowledge is power and anyone has the ability to become powerful, despite situations that are oppressive and brutal.
/ Pages : 1,440 / 24 | 1,637 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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