Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
Reimagining the Honey Bee through Indoor Hives This project addresses the wicked problem of Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) and the current perceptions of the honey bee. Currently, honey bees are rapidly disappearing as a result of various human actions including pesticides, monoculture, and loss of native flower species. Bees are necessary to human life not because of the honey they provide, but because of their efficient pollination. A problem that today’s culture faces is the lack of personal concern for the state of bees. This is due to an educational and relational disconnect between honey bees and humans. The goal of this indoor observational beehive is to bridge the gap between bees and humans by allowing the everyday person to keep bees in his or her home with little maintenance in a hive that they would want to show off. The hive was designed to be accessible to people of all socioeconomic backgrounds, whether they live in a house or an apartment. It requires no change to a person’s residence and will be sold at a lower price compared to alternatives. The hive also encourages the customers to become more educated about honey bees and get involved with their local beekeeping community. As a result, more of society will be personally invested in the lives of honey bees and will hopefully share in the movement to save the bees from CCD. In today’s day in age, it requires lots of people’s voices of concern and call to action in order to change the trajectory of businesses like agriculture and beekeeping. Our goal for our final project for Sticky Innovation was to come up with a solution to a “wicked problem.” We began by spending a class brainstorming any idea we could think of for possible projects. Even if the projects were not feasible, we wrote them all down and considered them. At the end of the class, we started to narrow our ideas down to ones that interested us. During the next class we thought about what we would try to achieve with each of our projects and decided on building an indoor hive. We hoped that an indoor hive would popularize the idea of beekeeping, bridge the gap between people and bees, and have people become more educated about bees. We initially designed a model and worked out all the details that would be necessary for a hive that bees can actually live in. The hive was made utilizing many features of the 1819 Innovation Hub which allowed us to learn more about using the CNC, the laser cutter, and the 3D printers. We ran into several errors while making our prototype hive, but it allowed us to learn of better ways to construct the hive that we wouldn’t have thought of without the prototype. I focused on making the user guide which would allow the owner of the hive to learn the functions of the hive and how to properly maintain it and care for the bees. We strongly encouraged the user to get involved in the local beekeeping community to help keep their bees alive and educate them on issues about the bees. While we were focused on making the physical prototype and writing the user guide, we really stopped having to focus on how our product would solve a “wicked problem”. I was worried that our prototype wasn’t turning out as expected, so I wasn’t thinking about the importance of the idea itself. Preparing for the presentation allowed me to look at the bigger picture and see all the possibilities of how an indoor hive can benefit the bees. Overall, I feel this project tied into what we had discussed throughout the semester about Arts Based Research. Not only did we learn many details about bee hives and keeping bees alive, but we were able to use this project as a way to come up with unique ideas for ways to help the bees. Prototyping the hive and typing out the reasons for all the features helped me learn in a way that simply reading the information couldn’t. I don’t think I would continue improving on this specific project due to my limited access to resources to build it, but I feel compelled to use Arts Based Research to find unique solutions to problems in the future. Earlier this semester, I was required to choose a book about bees to read and create a group presentation about the book. The options of books ranged from a fictional book about a bee named Flora who tries to break from Hive Books to books that presented research and information about bees and colony collapse disorder. I ended up choosing to read Bee Time: Lessons from the Hive by Mark L. Winston. Each chapter of this book covered a different topic but overall covered what the author had learned throughout his career about the behaviors of bees and their interaction with people. This book brought up concerns about how human interaction with bees is ultimately responsible for the rapid decline of the bee population. The book also connected human behaviors to the behaviors which causes us to ask what we can learn from bees and the problems they face. Our presentation (presentation slides attached below) briefly went over each chapter and then focused on quotes from the book and discussed what questions and takeaways we were able to get from them. Reading this book as research gave me a detailed background into the behaviors of bees and information about how humans have always depended on them. The author was an expert in his field which caused the book to be very informative and allowed me to ask new questions and see that when humans solve problems, they often create several new unforeseen issues. Watching the other groups present on their books gave me further perspective and allowed me to see that even fictional books can be informative and used as research. We recently had our fishbowl discussion in class. This consisted of three 30-minute discussions on different topics. One third of the class would discuss a topic while the rest of the class had to observe and was unable to participate or interject in any way. I participated in the third discussion, so I only observed for the first two topics. It really didn’t bother me that I was unable to participate because I really enjoy sitting back and listening to others’ opinions and perspectives. There were some moments where I felt that I had something to say, but I never felt frustrated that I was unable to say it. I had a much more difficult time participating in the discussion because I became nervous, feeling as if the people watching were judging what I was saying. I discussed the topic of Arts Based Research. We discussed how fiction could be classified as research, how it can generate knowledge, and how it is effective. Everyone in my discussion agreed that certain works of fiction could be classified as research and convey knowledge, but there are also works of fiction that may not try to convey any information and is not based on any facts. I quickly became more comfortable in the discussion, forgetting that everyone was watching, but I much preferred observing where I could just listen instead of focusing on what I’m going to say. The goal of the Ideal Project was to come up with an idea for the “ideal bee” then create a model showing the modifications we would make. In the past these models were all 3D printed, but we were able to use any of the machines and resources in the 1819 Innovation Hub. The idea for the ideal bee was to be based on our knowledge of the bee, but it didn’t have to be feasible. My team brainstormed several ideas for small changes we could make, but we decided we wanted to create a completely different kind of bee, the medic bee. The role of this bee would be completely different from the other bees. Instead of being a worker bee or queen bee, its only role would be to keep the bees in the hive healthy, ensuring the survival of the hive. We started by creating a low-fidelity prototype of our medic bee. Since we had limited resources, we decided to build it out of clay. The bee’s fur and wings were removed, because they would have no benefit for a bee who never leaves the kid. We replaced the stinger with a syringe that would inject the bees with healing medicine. We also added a tube to the prototype that would spray water on the bees to remove pesticides. The entire class’s prototypes looked nothing like bees, but it was fun to see what everyone had managed to put together and hear the concepts behind the prototypes. For the actual model, we decided to use 3D modeling. None of us had used Solidworks or done 3D modeling before, so we wanted to be able to learn how to use the 3D printers through this project. Since none of us had any experience with Solidworks, we were advised to use Tinkercad, a free program that is simpler and easy to use. The problem with this program is that it only allows you to put together basic shapes, and we were trying to use complex shapes to build a model of a bee. Unfortunately, most of our time was spent trying to create the shape of a bee on Tinkercad rather than making modifications to the bee. One thing we were able to add was a pre-designed honey comb, which we ended up using to emphasize that the medic bee doesn’t leave the hive (and so you could tell it was a bee and not an ant). Our final model had no wings or fur like our prototype. We were unable to add the syringe to the model, but we removed the tube to spray water and added claws to remove mites. In our presentation, we went over our model and the idea behind it. I did not expect the array of questions we would receive. We had to come up with several possible explanations for features of a bee that does not actually exist. How does the bee create the medicine for the syringe, and does it change based on the needs of each bee? Is the medic bee bred differently like the queen bee is? This made me start to think past our ideas for what could be improved, and start thinking about how these modifications would affect the hive as a whole. We weren’t actually modifying a bee, but in reality, many genetic modifications have unforeseen consequences. Our idea for a medic bee may have ended up hurting more than it could help. Maybe bees in their current state are already ideal. My Sticky Innovation class recently visited the Live Well Collaborative. Knowing nothing about who they were or what they did, I immediately wondered how this relates to bees and our course. As we walked in, we saw several displays up of projects they’ve completed to solve problems. The displays were creative and drew my attention. For example, they created their own version of the game Clue as a part of their display of home designs that will meet the needs of the elderly. Once everyone settled in, we began to learn about Live Well Collaborative, and it became immediately apparent how it connected to our course. Their goal is to solve problems by using a multidisciplinary approach, which is one of the main goals of our course. Live Well is hired to find solutions through design and creative thinking. They have people with all different types of skills working on their projects, so they are able to come up with a solution that solves multiple aspects of a problem. One thing that surprised me was that they seemed to do everything from the design to a product being built on their own. Even the displays in the office were created by them. I found it fascinating to see real examples of how multidisciplinary design is utilized since we have been discussing it so much. We then went downstairs to the Maker Space on the ground floor. I had no idea that it was even there, so I was amazed when we walked down to see it. The Maker Space is opening soon and will be able to be used by all UC students. It seemed to have any machine you could possibly think of to bring a design to life. We learned about the 3D printers, laser cutters, and more. It made me extremely eager to utilize the technology available there, but I had no idea what I would use it for. It was suggested that we could use the tools for our final projects, but I still couldn’t think of how I would use anything there. Then, it was suggested that we could determine which machine we wanted to learn how to use, and the idea for how to incorporate it into our project would come later. This seemed like thinking backwards to me, but it introduced me to another way of brainstorming ideas to solve a problem. Our first field experience for Sticky Innovation was to Greenacres. Beforehand, all I knew was that they had hives of bees, but they weren’t doing too well. I wasn’t sure if I should expect bees constantly flying around everywhere, but when I arrived, it felt like just a regular farm. When we arrived, we learned a little bit about the bees’ communication and how the bees use dances to communicate the angle and distance of food based on the angle of the sun. Afterwards, we went outside and tried to observe the bees firsthand. It was still chilly out, around 60°F and cloudy, so it was difficult to initially find any bees whose ideal weather is 70°F and sunny. As someone who is afraid of being stung, I didn’t imagine myself being so willing to get so close to bees to observe, but since the bees were so focused on their job of getting nectar from plants, pollinating as they go, they seemed unbothered by us getting close to take pictures. One thing I noticed about their behavior, is that they only went to a few flowers on each plant, then would fly off to the next. Did they receive communication about which flowers still had nectar? Could they sense which had not been visited? Were they perhaps leaving these for the other bees? I also observed that the honeybees only pollinated one specific type of flower, whereas the other bees went to several different types. These native bees were found just as commonly as the honeybee. We were told that they are more solitary, and don’t use the same communication methods that the honeybees use. We eventually arrived upon the hives. We were told to stay away from the them, so we wouldn’t bother the bees. There were three hives of different heights with bees flying around them. The makeup of the hive was explained to us. The bottom was where the bees lived and where the queen was located. The top was where honey was stored, and there was a barrier between the levels, so the queen would be unable to lay eggs in the honey. We were told about how taking too much honey can be harmful for the bees, because they will not have enough nectar to sustain themselves through the winter. This made me wonder how many hives have collapsed because too much honey was taken. How do they know the right amount of honey they can take? Does a long or harsh winter mean that they must leave more honey for the bees, and do they account for that? I was surprised that each hive had a personality. Some were more relaxed while others were more aggressive. Through my observations, I was able to see firsthand the strange behaviors of bees and how that allows them to be efficient pollinators. I was able to get up close to bees while they were working which allowed me to understand their behavior in a way that I couldn’t understand from simply reading about them. This of course prompted many more questions and sparked more curiosity about the life of a bee.	<urn:uuid:7f27a59a-378b-4527-a68d-97fe0387da05>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jessicabeirl.weebly.com/sticky-innovation-reflections	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00042.warc.gz	en	0.984933	3,156	3.3125	3	[ 0.21669907867908478, -0.2015368938446045, 0.2933714985847473, -0.30002525448799133, 0.08976931869983673, 0.2972070574760437, 0.029421761631965637, 0.28735828399658203, -0.1842116415500641, 0.08205728232860565, 0.07509242743253708, -0.4879671335220337, 0.10732782632112503, 0.119827464222908...	1	Reimagining the Honey Bee through Indoor Hives This project addresses the wicked problem of Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) and the current perceptions of the honey bee. Currently, honey bees are rapidly disappearing as a result of various human actions including pesticides, monoculture, and loss of native flower species. Bees are necessary to human life not because of the honey they provide, but because of their efficient pollination. A problem that today’s culture faces is the lack of personal concern for the state of bees. This is due to an educational and relational disconnect between honey bees and humans. The goal of this indoor observational beehive is to bridge the gap between bees and humans by allowing the everyday person to keep bees in his or her home with little maintenance in a hive that they would want to show off. The hive was designed to be accessible to people of all socioeconomic backgrounds, whether they live in a house or an apartment. It requires no change to a person’s residence and will be sold at a lower price compared to alternatives. The hive also encourages the customers to become more educated about honey bees and get involved with their local beekeeping community. As a result, more of society will be personally invested in the lives of honey bees and will hopefully share in the movement to save the bees from CCD. In today’s day in age, it requires lots of people’s voices of concern and call to action in order to change the trajectory of businesses like agriculture and beekeeping. Our goal for our final project for Sticky Innovation was to come up with a solution to a “wicked problem.” We began by spending a class brainstorming any idea we could think of for possible projects. Even if the projects were not feasible, we wrote them all down and considered them. At the end of the class, we started to narrow our ideas down to ones that interested us. During the next class we thought about what we would try to achieve with each of our projects and decided on building an indoor hive. We hoped that an indoor hive would popularize the idea of beekeeping, bridge the gap between people and bees, and have people become more educated about bees. We initially designed a model and worked out all the details that would be necessary for a hive that bees can actually live in. The hive was made utilizing many features of the 1819 Innovation Hub which allowed us to learn more about using the CNC, the laser cutter, and the 3D printers. We ran into several errors while making our prototype hive, but it allowed us to learn of better ways to construct the hive that we wouldn’t have thought of without the prototype. I focused on making the user guide which would allow the owner of the hive to learn the functions of the hive and how to properly maintain it and care for the bees. We strongly encouraged the user to get involved in the local beekeeping community to help keep their bees alive and educate them on issues about the bees. While we were focused on making the physical prototype and writing the user guide, we really stopped having to focus on how our product would solve a “wicked problem”. I was worried that our prototype wasn’t turning out as expected, so I wasn’t thinking about the importance of the idea itself. Preparing for the presentation allowed me to look at the bigger picture and see all the possibilities of how an indoor hive can benefit the bees. Overall, I feel this project tied into what we had discussed throughout the semester about Arts Based Research. Not only did we learn many details about bee hives and keeping bees alive, but we were able to use this project as a way to come up with unique ideas for ways to help the bees. Prototyping the hive and typing out the reasons for all the features helped me learn in a way that simply reading the information couldn’t. I don’t think I would continue improving on this specific project due to my limited access to resources to build it, but I feel compelled to use Arts Based Research to find unique solutions to problems in the future. Earlier this semester, I was required to choose a book about bees to read and create a group presentation about the book. The options of books ranged from a fictional book about a bee named Flora who tries to break from Hive Books to books that presented research and information about bees and colony collapse disorder. I ended up choosing to read Bee Time: Lessons from the Hive by Mark L. Winston. Each chapter of this book covered a different topic but overall covered what the author had learned throughout his career about the behaviors of bees and their interaction with people. This book brought up concerns about how human interaction with bees is ultimately responsible for the rapid decline of the bee population. The book also connected human behaviors to the behaviors which causes us to ask what we can learn from bees and the problems they face. Our presentation (presentation slides attached below) briefly went over each chapter and then focused on quotes from the book and discussed what questions and takeaways we were able to get from them. Reading this book as research gave me a detailed background into the behaviors of bees and information about how humans have always depended on them. The author was an expert in his field which caused the book to be very informative and allowed me to ask new questions and see that when humans solve problems, they often create several new unforeseen issues. Watching the other groups present on their books gave me further perspective and allowed me to see that even fictional books can be informative and used as research. We recently had our fishbowl discussion in class. This consisted of three 30-minute discussions on different topics. One third of the class would discuss a topic while the rest of the class had to observe and was unable to participate or interject in any way. I participated in the third discussion, so I only observed for the first two topics. It really didn’t bother me that I was unable to participate because I really enjoy sitting back and listening to others’ opinions and perspectives. There were some moments where I felt that I had something to say, but I never felt frustrated that I was unable to say it. I had a much more difficult time participating in the discussion because I became nervous, feeling as if the people watching were judging what I was saying. I discussed the topic of Arts Based Research. We discussed how fiction could be classified as research, how it can generate knowledge, and how it is effective. Everyone in my discussion agreed that certain works of fiction could be classified as research and convey knowledge, but there are also works of fiction that may not try to convey any information and is not based on any facts. I quickly became more comfortable in the discussion, forgetting that everyone was watching, but I much preferred observing where I could just listen instead of focusing on what I’m going to say. The goal of the Ideal Project was to come up with an idea for the “ideal bee” then create a model showing the modifications we would make. In the past these models were all 3D printed, but we were able to use any of the machines and resources in the 1819 Innovation Hub. The idea for the ideal bee was to be based on our knowledge of the bee, but it didn’t have to be feasible. My team brainstormed several ideas for small changes we could make, but we decided we wanted to create a completely different kind of bee, the medic bee. The role of this bee would be completely different from the other bees. Instead of being a worker bee or queen bee, its only role would be to keep the bees in the hive healthy, ensuring the survival of the hive. We started by creating a low-fidelity prototype of our medic bee. Since we had limited resources, we decided to build it out of clay. The bee’s fur and wings were removed, because they would have no benefit for a bee who never leaves the kid. We replaced the stinger with a syringe that would inject the bees with healing medicine. We also added a tube to the prototype that would spray water on the bees to remove pesticides. The entire class’s prototypes looked nothing like bees, but it was fun to see what everyone had managed to put together and hear the concepts behind the prototypes. For the actual model, we decided to use 3D modeling. None of us had used Solidworks or done 3D modeling before, so we wanted to be able to learn how to use the 3D printers through this project. Since none of us had any experience with Solidworks, we were advised to use Tinkercad, a free program that is simpler and easy to use. The problem with this program is that it only allows you to put together basic shapes, and we were trying to use complex shapes to build a model of a bee. Unfortunately, most of our time was spent trying to create the shape of a bee on Tinkercad rather than making modifications to the bee. One thing we were able to add was a pre-designed honey comb, which we ended up using to emphasize that the medic bee doesn’t leave the hive (and so you could tell it was a bee and not an ant). Our final model had no wings or fur like our prototype. We were unable to add the syringe to the model, but we removed the tube to spray water and added claws to remove mites. In our presentation, we went over our model and the idea behind it. I did not expect the array of questions we would receive. We had to come up with several possible explanations for features of a bee that does not actually exist. How does the bee create the medicine for the syringe, and does it change based on the needs of each bee? Is the medic bee bred differently like the queen bee is? This made me start to think past our ideas for what could be improved, and start thinking about how these modifications would affect the hive as a whole. We weren’t actually modifying a bee, but in reality, many genetic modifications have unforeseen consequences. Our idea for a medic bee may have ended up hurting more than it could help. Maybe bees in their current state are already ideal. My Sticky Innovation class recently visited the Live Well Collaborative. Knowing nothing about who they were or what they did, I immediately wondered how this relates to bees and our course. As we walked in, we saw several displays up of projects they’ve completed to solve problems. The displays were creative and drew my attention. For example, they created their own version of the game Clue as a part of their display of home designs that will meet the needs of the elderly. Once everyone settled in, we began to learn about Live Well Collaborative, and it became immediately apparent how it connected to our course. Their goal is to solve problems by using a multidisciplinary approach, which is one of the main goals of our course. Live Well is hired to find solutions through design and creative thinking. They have people with all different types of skills working on their projects, so they are able to come up with a solution that solves multiple aspects of a problem. One thing that surprised me was that they seemed to do everything from the design to a product being built on their own. Even the displays in the office were created by them. I found it fascinating to see real examples of how multidisciplinary design is utilized since we have been discussing it so much. We then went downstairs to the Maker Space on the ground floor. I had no idea that it was even there, so I was amazed when we walked down to see it. The Maker Space is opening soon and will be able to be used by all UC students. It seemed to have any machine you could possibly think of to bring a design to life. We learned about the 3D printers, laser cutters, and more. It made me extremely eager to utilize the technology available there, but I had no idea what I would use it for. It was suggested that we could use the tools for our final projects, but I still couldn’t think of how I would use anything there. Then, it was suggested that we could determine which machine we wanted to learn how to use, and the idea for how to incorporate it into our project would come later. This seemed like thinking backwards to me, but it introduced me to another way of brainstorming ideas to solve a problem. Our first field experience for Sticky Innovation was to Greenacres. Beforehand, all I knew was that they had hives of bees, but they weren’t doing too well. I wasn’t sure if I should expect bees constantly flying around everywhere, but when I arrived, it felt like just a regular farm. When we arrived, we learned a little bit about the bees’ communication and how the bees use dances to communicate the angle and distance of food based on the angle of the sun. Afterwards, we went outside and tried to observe the bees firsthand. It was still chilly out, around 60°F and cloudy, so it was difficult to initially find any bees whose ideal weather is 70°F and sunny. As someone who is afraid of being stung, I didn’t imagine myself being so willing to get so close to bees to observe, but since the bees were so focused on their job of getting nectar from plants, pollinating as they go, they seemed unbothered by us getting close to take pictures. One thing I noticed about their behavior, is that they only went to a few flowers on each plant, then would fly off to the next. Did they receive communication about which flowers still had nectar? Could they sense which had not been visited? Were they perhaps leaving these for the other bees? I also observed that the honeybees only pollinated one specific type of flower, whereas the other bees went to several different types. These native bees were found just as commonly as the honeybee. We were told that they are more solitary, and don’t use the same communication methods that the honeybees use. We eventually arrived upon the hives. We were told to stay away from the them, so we wouldn’t bother the bees. There were three hives of different heights with bees flying around them. The makeup of the hive was explained to us. The bottom was where the bees lived and where the queen was located. The top was where honey was stored, and there was a barrier between the levels, so the queen would be unable to lay eggs in the honey. We were told about how taking too much honey can be harmful for the bees, because they will not have enough nectar to sustain themselves through the winter. This made me wonder how many hives have collapsed because too much honey was taken. How do they know the right amount of honey they can take? Does a long or harsh winter mean that they must leave more honey for the bees, and do they account for that? I was surprised that each hive had a personality. Some were more relaxed while others were more aggressive. Through my observations, I was able to see firsthand the strange behaviors of bees and how that allows them to be efficient pollinators. I was able to get up close to bees while they were working which allowed me to understand their behavior in a way that I couldn’t understand from simply reading about them. This of course prompted many more questions and sparked more curiosity about the life of a bee.	3,097	ENGLISH	1
In 1876 a Medieval bog person was dug from a grave in the peat at Springhill, Knockan, Rogart. As well as a body, the grave on the moor also contained a woven shirt, a brogue and a cord. PV Glob’s seminal book ‘The Bog People’ catalogues a number of notable discoveries of similarly preserved people. Many of the bodies described were Iron-Age people who had died (through fair means or foul) and been mummified in peaty ground across Northern Europe. Unfortunately archaeology and conservation methodologies in the 19th century were not as sophisticated as they are today. Sadly, many of the ‘Bog People’ were only partially conserved after they had been dug up and very few photographs were taken. We have no image of the Springhill man but a plait of hair, the shirt, brogue and cord from the body were donated to Dunrobin Museum. Modern science can use radiocarbon dating to determine the age of bog bodies and also attempts to extract DNA extraction have been made. It is now possible to identify where a person might have wandered and also what they ate for their last meals. However, to get an indication of what our bog body may have looked like we can turn to an illustration from Glob’s book. Bockstein Man was another 14th century bog body, found in Sweden, and the pictures show the clothing he wore. References: Audrey S. Henshall: ‘Early Textiles Found in Scotland’; PV Glob ‘The Bog People: Iron-Age Man Preserved is an archaeological study of the bog bodies of Northern Europe’	<urn:uuid:ddadcd91-38b6-455a-a9a4-59bf2eebb35b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://rogartheritage.co.uk/antiquities/emerging-from-the-peats-of-rogart/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00538.warc.gz	en	0.98087	350	3.4375	3	[ -0.024732204154133797, 0.6450359225273132, 0.14649853110313416, 0.20389831066131592, 0.3686230182647705, -0.004625048488378525, 0.23066623508930206, -0.1042693704366684, -0.5733300447463989, -0.18847578763961792, 0.04866357520222664, -0.6381561160087585, -0.056579019874334335, 0.2281491607...	2	In 1876 a Medieval bog person was dug from a grave in the peat at Springhill, Knockan, Rogart. As well as a body, the grave on the moor also contained a woven shirt, a brogue and a cord. PV Glob’s seminal book ‘The Bog People’ catalogues a number of notable discoveries of similarly preserved people. Many of the bodies described were Iron-Age people who had died (through fair means or foul) and been mummified in peaty ground across Northern Europe. Unfortunately archaeology and conservation methodologies in the 19th century were not as sophisticated as they are today. Sadly, many of the ‘Bog People’ were only partially conserved after they had been dug up and very few photographs were taken. We have no image of the Springhill man but a plait of hair, the shirt, brogue and cord from the body were donated to Dunrobin Museum. Modern science can use radiocarbon dating to determine the age of bog bodies and also attempts to extract DNA extraction have been made. It is now possible to identify where a person might have wandered and also what they ate for their last meals. However, to get an indication of what our bog body may have looked like we can turn to an illustration from Glob’s book. Bockstein Man was another 14th century bog body, found in Sweden, and the pictures show the clothing he wore. References: Audrey S. Henshall: ‘Early Textiles Found in Scotland’; PV Glob ‘The Bog People: Iron-Age Man Preserved is an archaeological study of the bog bodies of Northern Europe’	337	ENGLISH	1
The Oracle Bone form for 贝 was a pictographic depiction of a Cowery shell. These shells were considered beautiful and lucky. They were also used as currency before the Qin Dynasty, lending the meaning of treasure in its use in words such as 宝贝 (bǎobèi) "Treasured". The ancient Chinese word for friendship was 贝贝; two treasures together. The story of the families 阿朋 (Āpéng), and 阿友 (Āyǒu) is a classic Chinese story illustrating friendship. At the base of a mountain lived two families, 阿朋 (Āpéng), and 阿友 (Āyǒu), who were very close. One day the 阿朋 family was devastated by a hurricane, while the 阿友 were unscathed. To help, 阿友 invited 阿朋 to live with them and helped them rebuild their home. From then on, people who shared in the good times and helped each other during difficult times were known as 朋友 (péngyǒu) “friends.” Today 贝 is a common radical found in many words associated with shells or valuables such as: 则 (criterion), 贡 (tribute), and 财 (property).	<urn:uuid:7876a70e-7014-4c4d-99cf-94725ccda25d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thelearninglotus.com/characters/shell	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00512.warc.gz	en	0.985435	303	3.34375	3	[ -0.5239285230636597, 0.2973821461200714, 0.046595435589551926, -0.14961259067058563, -0.10329616814851761, -0.1295325607061386, 0.3546839952468872, -0.1734716147184372, -0.16447408497333527, -0.010724427178502083, 0.38182368874549866, -0.7387719750404358, 0.37580370903015137, 0.20732024312...	3	The Oracle Bone form for 贝 was a pictographic depiction of a Cowery shell. These shells were considered beautiful and lucky. They were also used as currency before the Qin Dynasty, lending the meaning of treasure in its use in words such as 宝贝 (bǎobèi) "Treasured". The ancient Chinese word for friendship was 贝贝; two treasures together. The story of the families 阿朋 (Āpéng), and 阿友 (Āyǒu) is a classic Chinese story illustrating friendship. At the base of a mountain lived two families, 阿朋 (Āpéng), and 阿友 (Āyǒu), who were very close. One day the 阿朋 family was devastated by a hurricane, while the 阿友 were unscathed. To help, 阿友 invited 阿朋 to live with them and helped them rebuild their home. From then on, people who shared in the good times and helped each other during difficult times were known as 朋友 (péngyǒu) “friends.” Today 贝 is a common radical found in many words associated with shells or valuables such as: 则 (criterion), 贡 (tribute), and 财 (property).	269	ENGLISH	1
via History Today Robin Gwynn examines the arrival of Huguenot French to England in the 17th century. Robin Gwynn \| Published in History Today Volume 35 Issue 5 May 1985 Every English person has heard of the Battle of Hastings and the Norman invasion of 1066. Far fewer are aware of a very different, later descent from France on the England of the Tudors, Stuarts and Hanoverians, a descent which was large scale but peaceful and took place over a long period of time under conditions clouded by uncertainty. This was no invasion, but the irregular and uncharted arrival of Huguenots, French-speaking Calvinists. Some boats came crammed with these new arrivals; early in October 1681 the True Protestant Mercury reported 600 as having fled La Rochelle in four ships, for example, and particularly large numbers came in the spring and early summer of 1687. Other craft brought odd individuals. Sometimes families travelled as a whole, but ships could also arrive, as a 1681 newsletter described, ‘with few men in them, they sending their wives and children away first, and most of these have run great hazards at sea’. Such a flood of these new immigrants was washed onto British shores in the 1680s that a new word came into the English language at the time to describe them: ‘rés ‘ or refugees. Forty or fifty thousand crossed the Channel while Louis XIV sat on the French throne (1660-1714). Others had come in the time of the Tudors, especially during the reigns of Edward VI and Elizabeth. More continued to arrive during periods of persecution in the eighteenth century, for conditions in France could lead Protestants there to martyrdom for the sake of their beliefs as late as the 1760s. If the Huguenots were first and foremost Protestants, they were also distinctive in their social stratification. Most men and women in France, as in England, were directly employed in agriculture. Yet few among the Huguenots were workers of the land. The great majority lived in towns; they were artisans, especially weavers, Those who came to Britain included many skilled craftsmen, silversmiths, watchmakers and. the like, and professional people – clergy, doctors, merchants soldiers, teachers, There was a small sprinkling of the lesser nobility. Both their Protestantism and their skills are relevant in explaining why so many Huguenots crossed the Channel. England was second in popularity as a place of refuge only to the Dutch Republic, more popular than Germany or Switzerland or places further afield like America or the Cape of Good Hope. As a leading Protestant nation, Britain was an obvious possibility for those fleeing Catholic persecution in France. It is noteworthy that comparatively few refugees came in 1685, the actual year of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, or in 1686; but they arrived in large numbers in 1687, after James II had issued his Declaration of Indulgence. In other words, the Huguenots did not relish the thought of moving to the lands of another Catholic sovereign, but were strongly attracted to England as soon as the religious conditions seemed acceptable. The other attraction lay in the prospects for employment that were to be found in English towns and cities, especially London. Had Scotland been able to offer similar openings, surely many refugees would have gone there in view of the traditional Franco-Scottish alliance. But Scotland did not have the same markets, and had few towns, so only a few hundred Huguenots went that far north. Englishmen prized French fashions, and the more far-sighted welcomed both the new techniques that the refugees brought with them and their willingness to work hard. The same factors that encouraged fleeing Huguenots to head across the Channel also encouraged Englishmen to receive them, by and large, with sympathy and kindness. Inevitably there was some opposition; foreigners had never been popular in England, Frenchmen were particularly disliked, and the refugees found themselves in competition with the native poor for work opportunities. But such resentment was drowned beneath a welter of economic arguments and a flood of emotional support. Following the ideas of Sir William Petty and others, it was argued in the later seventeenth century that the manpower brought by the refugees was valuable, and the Huguenots undoubtedly benefited from the proven economic advantages that had accrued to the country from the Elizabethan foreign Protestant settlements. The emotional support for the refugees – translated into practical terms through a generous response to public collections ordered throughout the country for their relief – depended upon Stuart Englishmen’s conceptions of Catholicism. Anti-Popery was at a peak. Disgust at what was being done to Protestants abroad was paralleled by fears about what might be done by the Catholic James II in England. Anti-Popery underlay English preparedness to believe the lies of Titus Oates, the length and bitterness of the Exclusion Crisis, and eventually James’ loss of his throne. It, more than anything else, ensured that the normal hostility to foreigners would be suspended in the case of the Huguenots. When, three years before James’ accession, Samuel Bolde warned his readers in a printed sermon that they did not know how soon they might share the refugee condition, he was hitting a vital nerve. The appearance of so many people fleeing government action abroad had no previous parallels in English history. The Jews who had come to medieval England had been comparatively few in number, although their isolation from their Christian English hosts accentuated their presence. Dutch and Walloon Calvinists arrived in force in Elizabethan England – there were over 15,000 foreign Protestants in the country in the 1590s, the majority Dutch and almost all of the remainder Walloon and Huguenot – but few needed to come once the independence of the United Provinces was secured. Most of the refugees from the German Palatinate in 1709 were immediately resettled in Ireland and America. Irish and Scottish migrants, who chose to come for their individual economic benefit, belong to a different category. Not until the nineteenth century can any other swell of refugees be said to compare remotely with the Huguenots. From their ranks have come names so well-known in England that their foreign origins are now hidden beneath a cloak of familiarity: names like Bosanquet, Courtauld, Dollond, Gambier, Garrick, Minet, Portal, Tizard. A few, such as de Gruchy, Le Fanu, Lefevre, Lefroy or Ouvry, still immediately strike one as of foreign origin. But the very survival of such names hinders recognition of just how completely the Huguenots have been assimilated. Andrews, Baker, Barber, Cross, Forrester, Fox, Hart, Marshall, Monk, Newhouse, Peters, White, Wood do not look in the least like foreign names. Nor, of course, is there necessarily anything foreign about them. Yet they may well hide the Huguenot origins of Andrieu, Boulanger, Barbier, de laCroix, Forestier, Reynard, Le Cerf, Mareschal, Le Moine, de la Neuvemaison, de la Pierre, Blanc and Dubois. Other names have become even harder to disentangle. Worse still from the historian’s point of view, the corruptions and translations may stem from the very earliest months of a refugee’s arrival in Britain. ‘Lacklead’ has a Scottish, ‘Bursicott’ a West Country air; they are what Englishmen made of de la Clide and de Boursaquotte when they first encountered those Huguenot names. It is worth digressing to point out one result of such transmogrifications: estimates of, for example, the number of MPs of foreign extraction in eighteenth-century Parliaments, or of foreign capital tied up in the English banking system during the wars against Louis XIV’s France, are likely to be too low, even if based not on the inadequate published naturalisation records but on lengthy, detailed genealogical research. The number of Huguenots who sought refuge in England was so large, in relation to a national population of perhaps five and a half million at the end of the seventeenth century, that assimilation and intermarriage mean that most English readers of this journal will have some Huguenot blood in their veins. It runs strongly in the upper echelons of English society. Prince William and Prince Henry, for instance, have descent on their father’s side from families including Bourbon Montpensier, Coligny, d’Olbreuse, Rohan and Ruvigny; and on their mother, Lady Diana Spencer’s, from Bourbon Vendome, Bulteel, Guinand, Navarre, Rochefoucauld, Ruvigny, Schomberg, and Thellusson. It runs strongly too in the south-west and south-east of England, and also in Ireland, where a further 10,000 refugees settled. It is rarer in the north and west, and in Scotland and Wales; the only Huguenot communities known to have had organised congregations north of a line from the Severn to the Wash are the small settlement at Chester and the more substantial one at Edinburgh. Just as most Huguenot names have vanished in the process of assimilation, many Huguenot contributions go unrecognised as such because they are deeply embedded in our national life. David Garrick did so much for the theatre, especially in terms of rehabilitating Shakespeare, that it is hard to remember that he was the grandson of a Huguenot refugee who was an elder of the French Church of London. Users of Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases , readers of Harriet Martineau, Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu or Walter de la Mare, theatre-goers enjoying the skill of Lord Olivier, do not pause to consider their French ancestry. No doubt that is as it should be, for – especially after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes robbed them of the hope of toleration in France – the Huguenots proved very willing to become English. Those who came to Elizabethan England had been less prepared to cut all ties with their native country, where the ebb and flow of the fortunes of civil war continued to give them hope of re-establishing themselves when peace finally arrived. Protestants from Dieppe, for instance, took refuge in Rye and Winchelsea on the Kent coast on several occasions, only to return to France when. opportunity arose. After the fall of La Rochelle in 1628 and the Peace of Ales the following year, however, the Huguenots could no longer hope to resort successfully to force of arms to protect themselves against hostile action. Consequently they were defenceless against government legal actions in the 1670s, or against the dragonnades of the 1680s; their only answer lay in flight. It followed that unless outside pressures could be brought to bear, they could not influence or change the thinking that had underlain the Revocation in 1685. They did. indeed attempt to get clauses inserted in the Peace of Ryswick (1697) and the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) which would have allowed them back into France; but William III’s military efforts were insufficient to force such a concession on Louis in 1697, and by 1713 the economic value of the Huguenots was so great to the allies that neither England nor Holland wished to press the issue. By then, too, children of the refugees had grown up who were ambivalent about returning to a land that was their parents’ rather than their own. As the eighteenth century brought with it successive Anglo-French wars, the pressures on such descendants to underline their Englishness could only grow. In any case, their sense of identity with the Hanoverian succession and their abhorrence of the regime that had unjustly forced their parents to flee were both very strong. In 1715 it was claimed that they composed the most ‘desperate’ and disciplined body in England opposed to the restoration of the Stuarts. When the Young Pretender appeared in 1745, the Huguenots were quick to come forward with loyal addresses promising men for service against him. By the time of the Napoleonic Wars, no-one could doubt their Englishness. On July 26th, 1803 a mass meeting of Londoners unanimously declared its ‘determination to stand or fall with our King and country’ because: The independence and existence of the British Empire… are at stake. [Forthcoming events will]… determine whether we and our children are to continue freemen and members of the most flourishing communion in the world, or whether we are to be the slaves of our most implacable enemies. The declaration was signed by the chairman: Jacob Bosanquet, grandson of David Bosanquet who had taken refuge from Languedoc in 1685. Assimilation was not accomplished without strains within Huguenot families. Some of the steps that might be involved are revealed in the autobiography of Sir Samuel Romilly (1757-1818), a law reformer whose career was important for its long and successful campaign to inject a greater degree of mercy into the excessive harshness of the English criminal law of the day. His great-grandfather, a landowner at Montpellier, had remained in the south of France after the Revocation, but continued to worship in Protestant ways within the security of his own home, and brought up his children as Protestants. It was Samuel’s grandfather, Etienne, who became a refugee in 1701, at the age of seventeen. He went to Geneva for the specific purpose of receiving Communion, and there decided not to return home but to go instead to London. Only then did he inform his family of his decision, but his father accepted the situation and sent money to him from France which helped him establish himself as a wax-‘bleacher in Hoxton, It is typical of first-generation refugees to marry others of their own kind, and Etienne married Judith de Monsallier, the daughter of another Huguenot immigrant. Samuel Romilly’s father, Peter, was apprenticed to a Frenchman in the City, a jeweller named Lafosse. In due course Peter too married the daughter of a refugee, Margaret Gamault, so Samuel was brought up in surroundings which retained strong Huguenot influences. He described his father as attaching more importance to practical charitable behaviour towards his fellow men than to forms of worship, but Peter made his family regularly attend morning and evening worship on Sundays, alternating between the parish church and the French chapel in which he had a pew. ‘It was a kind of homage which he paid to the faith of his ancestors’, Samuel recorded, ‘and it was a means of rendering the French language familiar to us’. Otherwise he was far from impressed: Nothing was ever worse calculated to inspire the mind of a child with respect for religion than such a kind of religious worship. Most of the descendants of the refugees were born and bred in England, and desired nothing less than to preserve the memory of their origin; and their chapels were therefore ill-attended. A large uncouth room, the avenues to which were narrow courts and dirty alleys, and which, when you entered it, presented to the view only irregular unpainted pews and dusty plastered walls; a congregation consisting principally of some strange-looking old women scattered here and there, one or two in a pew, and a clergyman reading the service and preaching in a monotonous tone of voice, and in a language not familiar to me, was not likely either to impress my mind with much religious awe, or to attract my attention to the doctrines which were delivered. Nor did he respect the school to which he was sent, ‘of which the sole recommendation seems to have been that it had once been kept by a French refugee, and that the sons of many refugees were still scholars at it’. Writing, arithmetic, and the rules of French grammar. were all that he learnt there, if one discounts the influence that hatred of the unjust brutality of the schoolmaster must have exercised on his later career. As for ‘the more familiar use’ of French, that was something which he and his brother acquired at home, for it remained ‘a rule established by my father, that French should be spoken in the family on a Sunday morning, the only time… business allowed him to pass with us’. Despite his strictures on the French services he had known in his youth, Samuel Romilly continued to attend the chapel, and found it a changed place when a new minister, John Roget, replaced the old man whose monotony had so bored him. Roget indeed became a close friend, and married his sister Catherine. Samuel’s Huguenot background must have continued to influence him, and in 1786 he followed his elder brother and father in being elected a director of the French Protestant Hospital. But by and large it was the members of his – the third – generation of refugees who were the last to show any profound awareness of the Huguenot character of their families. In 1787 those Protestants who remained in France finally won toleration, and shortly afterwards special rights were offered to Huguenot descendants who might wish to return there. Very few of those who had crossed the Channel can have been tempted, for assimilation was complete. What had been French had become British. Various stages can be discerned in the process of assimilation. Just as modern West Indian immigrants may be specifically Grenadian or Trinidadian in the first generation but more generally West Indian in the second, so the Huguenots moved from a close attachment to their provinces of origin towards simply a consciousness of having had roots in France. Between the 1680s and 1710, a series of Friendly Societies – the first in England – were founded, almost all with a French regional basis: the ‘Societe des Enfants de Nimes’, the Society of Dauphine, the Norman Friendly Society and so on. In London, where there were many French congregations, certain churches drew markedly on some provinces rather than others, so that in Spitalfields refugees from Picardy were likely to attend the church of St Jean, while those from Poitou were drawn to La Patente. Refuge relief – a massive operation which involved the transfer of over one and a quarter million pounds across a period of two centuries – was at first organised through bureaux according to the province from which the recipients came. Soon, though, it was more broadly French institutions that were being established, like the Maisons de Charité created for the relief of the poor refugees who thronged the east and west London suburbs of Spitalfields and Soho. La Providence , the French Protestant Hospital, was founded in 1718, also in London; it still exists today, located now at Rochester in the form of flatlets for the elderly. French congregations dwindled in number and lost their regional bases of membership. The Westminster French Protestant School, founded in 1747 for descendants of the refugees, survived into this century and continues to assist with their education in the new guise of the Westminster French Protestant School Foundation. Calvinism, with its elders to supervise moral behaviour and its deacons to administer poor relief, was always a practical form of religion. Its founder, John Calvin, wanted people to worship God as was their duty, and established an organisation designed to achieve that end. The Friendly Societies with their mutual aid schemes, the Maisons de Charite, the French Protestant Hospital and School, all have their roots in the religious commitment that had prompted the Huguenots to seek refuge in the first place. For this was one wave of refugees whose destitution was due almost wholly to their adherence to their beliefs. The Protestants who reached Tudor England included a substantial proportion – nearly half, perhaps – whose motivation was primarily economic; and they came from lands divided by civil war, and to that extent could be charged by their enemies with sedition. But those fleeing Louis XIV’s France turned their back on violence. With the exception of the Camisard rebellion in the Cevennes, they made no effort to resist the state authorities except through flight itself. Since the French government had no wish to lose such useful citizens, that was a dangerous option. Soldiers were patrolling the land frontiers, ships the sea coasts. Capture meant fines and imprisonment at the least, and possibly transportation to the New World, death or – a still worse fate – a lifetime’s service chained aboard the French king’s galleys. Historians sometimes write as though religion was no longer the same motivating force in the late seventeenth century that it had been earlier, at the time of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The story of the Huguenots, or indeed the way in which James II threw away his throne in his vain and unpopular efforts to secure greater toleration and equal opportunities for his fellow Catholics in England, suggests that this view needs reconsideration. From the secular viewpoint of the twentieth century, it is surprising that Louis XIV’s advisers should have been willing to countenance the loss of so many useful, peaceful and productive subjects, and astonishing that perhaps a quarter of the Protestants in France at the time were prepared to accept the loss of land and possessions and embrace the dangers inherent in the option of flight. If their willingness to work hard, to persevere and to lead frugal, upright lives can be ascribed to their religious motivation, the remarkable versatility shown by some of the Huguenots seems rather the product of their displacement and situation as refugees. John Dollond was a silkweaver in Spitalfields when he developed an interest in optics, set his son up as an optician and then abandoned his earlier craft and joined him; he became a Fellow of the Royal Society and won a Copley gold medal, and the firm he founded has grown into that of Dollond and Aitchison. James Vauloue, who invented the machine that drove in the piles for the first Westminster Bridge, was a watchmaker. The career of Jacques Fontaine, who was training for the ministry when he escaped from France to Appledore near Barnstaple, Devon in 1685, is fascinating. He had no business or craft training, but was determined to make his own way and not rely on charity. Moving to Taunton in neighbouring Somerset, he opened a shop and began to make cloth. So successful was he that by 1694 he had made a thousand pounds, but he had also aroused local jealousy – and he still aimed to minister to a larger French congregation than Taunton could provide. Packing up, he moved to Cork in Ireland, where, in addition to his ministry, he engaged his formidable energies first in broadcloth manufacture, then in a fishing business. When he died in the early 1720s, he was running a school in Dublin, while most of his children had gone to Virginia to make yet another new start. Fontaine was a forceful man, not noted for compromise or tolerance – indeed even the Calvinist French Church of London felt constrained to advise him, while he was minister at Cork, that he should not publicise his low opinion of the Church of England. The Huguenots as a whole shared his quality of determination, yet they contributed to a European-wide movement towards greater toleration and understanding during the eighteenth century. This was partly because their own example underlined the unreasonableness and folly of displacing so many useful citizens in the search for religious uniformity. Further, when they voted with their feet to disobey their government and flee, they raised fundamental questions about the rights of the subject and of the individual conscience. The Huguenots had to answer those questions to their own satisfaction, and to defend their actions to their fellow countrymen still in France. Moreover, by their dispersion they helped create a more international community in Europe than had existed since pre-Reformation days. Pierre Bayle, a refugee in the Netherlands, exercised an important influence through his personal advocacy of toleration and freedom of conscience and through his sceptical and scientific method which pointed the way to Voltaire and other thinkers of the Enlightenment. Other Huguenots influenced a new cross-fertilisation of English and continental ideas. Pierre des Maiseaux translated Bayle’s work into English; Pierre Coste translated Locke’s writings into French; and Paul de Rapin (Rapin-Thoyras’) History of England and Abel Boyer’s Political State of Great Britain made English institutions better known in Europe than previously they had been. As the refugees rooted themselves in Britain, they began to explore the variety of religious experience around them. In the first generation after the Revocation, the majority clung to the form of worship they had known in France, while a minority used the Anglican Prayer Book translated into French. As their descendants became English, they came to play a part not only in Presbyterianism (which was closest to the French Calvinist forms) and Anglicanism, but in early Methodism – Vincent Perronet was the Wesleys’ right-hand man – and most other branches of Protestantism. And in the nineteenth century, that most notable of English Catholics, Cardinal Newman, was the son of a Fourdrinier mother. The breadth of the Huguenot religious contribution, even in spheres where it might not be anticipated, reflects and illustrates the refugees’ ample repayment of England’s hospitality towards them. Robin Gwynn is senior lecturer in history at Massey University, New Zealand, and currently Director of Huguenot Heritage. He is the author of Huguenot Heritage (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985).	<urn:uuid:d7502c12-1759-42ff-a31e-2f60231b868a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tracesdefrance.fr/2017/05/13/englands-first-refugees-history-today-magazine/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00504.warc.gz	en	0.980935	5,409	3.84375	4	[ -0.008661871775984764, 0.28382813930511475, 0.19854901731014252, -0.4190768003463745, 0.13411448895931244, -0.09169171750545502, -0.11443682760000229, -0.07753873616456985, 0.0494396835565567, -0.17105282843112946, -0.22386880218982697, -0.2567753195762634, 0.0976310521364212, 0.2315491437...	9	via History Today Robin Gwynn examines the arrival of Huguenot French to England in the 17th century. Robin Gwynn \| Published in History Today Volume 35 Issue 5 May 1985 Every English person has heard of the Battle of Hastings and the Norman invasion of 1066. Far fewer are aware of a very different, later descent from France on the England of the Tudors, Stuarts and Hanoverians, a descent which was large scale but peaceful and took place over a long period of time under conditions clouded by uncertainty. This was no invasion, but the irregular and uncharted arrival of Huguenots, French-speaking Calvinists. Some boats came crammed with these new arrivals; early in October 1681 the True Protestant Mercury reported 600 as having fled La Rochelle in four ships, for example, and particularly large numbers came in the spring and early summer of 1687. Other craft brought odd individuals. Sometimes families travelled as a whole, but ships could also arrive, as a 1681 newsletter described, ‘with few men in them, they sending their wives and children away first, and most of these have run great hazards at sea’. Such a flood of these new immigrants was washed onto British shores in the 1680s that a new word came into the English language at the time to describe them: ‘rés ‘ or refugees. Forty or fifty thousand crossed the Channel while Louis XIV sat on the French throne (1660-1714). Others had come in the time of the Tudors, especially during the reigns of Edward VI and Elizabeth. More continued to arrive during periods of persecution in the eighteenth century, for conditions in France could lead Protestants there to martyrdom for the sake of their beliefs as late as the 1760s. If the Huguenots were first and foremost Protestants, they were also distinctive in their social stratification. Most men and women in France, as in England, were directly employed in agriculture. Yet few among the Huguenots were workers of the land. The great majority lived in towns; they were artisans, especially weavers, Those who came to Britain included many skilled craftsmen, silversmiths, watchmakers and. the like, and professional people – clergy, doctors, merchants soldiers, teachers, There was a small sprinkling of the lesser nobility. Both their Protestantism and their skills are relevant in explaining why so many Huguenots crossed the Channel. England was second in popularity as a place of refuge only to the Dutch Republic, more popular than Germany or Switzerland or places further afield like America or the Cape of Good Hope. As a leading Protestant nation, Britain was an obvious possibility for those fleeing Catholic persecution in France. It is noteworthy that comparatively few refugees came in 1685, the actual year of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, or in 1686; but they arrived in large numbers in 1687, after James II had issued his Declaration of Indulgence. In other words, the Huguenots did not relish the thought of moving to the lands of another Catholic sovereign, but were strongly attracted to England as soon as the religious conditions seemed acceptable. The other attraction lay in the prospects for employment that were to be found in English towns and cities, especially London. Had Scotland been able to offer similar openings, surely many refugees would have gone there in view of the traditional Franco-Scottish alliance. But Scotland did not have the same markets, and had few towns, so only a few hundred Huguenots went that far north. Englishmen prized French fashions, and the more far-sighted welcomed both the new techniques that the refugees brought with them and their willingness to work hard. The same factors that encouraged fleeing Huguenots to head across the Channel also encouraged Englishmen to receive them, by and large, with sympathy and kindness. Inevitably there was some opposition; foreigners had never been popular in England, Frenchmen were particularly disliked, and the refugees found themselves in competition with the native poor for work opportunities. But such resentment was drowned beneath a welter of economic arguments and a flood of emotional support. Following the ideas of Sir William Petty and others, it was argued in the later seventeenth century that the manpower brought by the refugees was valuable, and the Huguenots undoubtedly benefited from the proven economic advantages that had accrued to the country from the Elizabethan foreign Protestant settlements. The emotional support for the refugees – translated into practical terms through a generous response to public collections ordered throughout the country for their relief – depended upon Stuart Englishmen’s conceptions of Catholicism. Anti-Popery was at a peak. Disgust at what was being done to Protestants abroad was paralleled by fears about what might be done by the Catholic James II in England. Anti-Popery underlay English preparedness to believe the lies of Titus Oates, the length and bitterness of the Exclusion Crisis, and eventually James’ loss of his throne. It, more than anything else, ensured that the normal hostility to foreigners would be suspended in the case of the Huguenots. When, three years before James’ accession, Samuel Bolde warned his readers in a printed sermon that they did not know how soon they might share the refugee condition, he was hitting a vital nerve. The appearance of so many people fleeing government action abroad had no previous parallels in English history. The Jews who had come to medieval England had been comparatively few in number, although their isolation from their Christian English hosts accentuated their presence. Dutch and Walloon Calvinists arrived in force in Elizabethan England – there were over 15,000 foreign Protestants in the country in the 1590s, the majority Dutch and almost all of the remainder Walloon and Huguenot – but few needed to come once the independence of the United Provinces was secured. Most of the refugees from the German Palatinate in 1709 were immediately resettled in Ireland and America. Irish and Scottish migrants, who chose to come for their individual economic benefit, belong to a different category. Not until the nineteenth century can any other swell of refugees be said to compare remotely with the Huguenots. From their ranks have come names so well-known in England that their foreign origins are now hidden beneath a cloak of familiarity: names like Bosanquet, Courtauld, Dollond, Gambier, Garrick, Minet, Portal, Tizard. A few, such as de Gruchy, Le Fanu, Lefevre, Lefroy or Ouvry, still immediately strike one as of foreign origin. But the very survival of such names hinders recognition of just how completely the Huguenots have been assimilated. Andrews, Baker, Barber, Cross, Forrester, Fox, Hart, Marshall, Monk, Newhouse, Peters, White, Wood do not look in the least like foreign names. Nor, of course, is there necessarily anything foreign about them. Yet they may well hide the Huguenot origins of Andrieu, Boulanger, Barbier, de laCroix, Forestier, Reynard, Le Cerf, Mareschal, Le Moine, de la Neuvemaison, de la Pierre, Blanc and Dubois. Other names have become even harder to disentangle. Worse still from the historian’s point of view, the corruptions and translations may stem from the very earliest months of a refugee’s arrival in Britain. ‘Lacklead’ has a Scottish, ‘Bursicott’ a West Country air; they are what Englishmen made of de la Clide and de Boursaquotte when they first encountered those Huguenot names. It is worth digressing to point out one result of such transmogrifications: estimates of, for example, the number of MPs of foreign extraction in eighteenth-century Parliaments, or of foreign capital tied up in the English banking system during the wars against Louis XIV’s France, are likely to be too low, even if based not on the inadequate published naturalisation records but on lengthy, detailed genealogical research. The number of Huguenots who sought refuge in England was so large, in relation to a national population of perhaps five and a half million at the end of the seventeenth century, that assimilation and intermarriage mean that most English readers of this journal will have some Huguenot blood in their veins. It runs strongly in the upper echelons of English society. Prince William and Prince Henry, for instance, have descent on their father’s side from families including Bourbon Montpensier, Coligny, d’Olbreuse, Rohan and Ruvigny; and on their mother, Lady Diana Spencer’s, from Bourbon Vendome, Bulteel, Guinand, Navarre, Rochefoucauld, Ruvigny, Schomberg, and Thellusson. It runs strongly too in the south-west and south-east of England, and also in Ireland, where a further 10,000 refugees settled. It is rarer in the north and west, and in Scotland and Wales; the only Huguenot communities known to have had organised congregations north of a line from the Severn to the Wash are the small settlement at Chester and the more substantial one at Edinburgh. Just as most Huguenot names have vanished in the process of assimilation, many Huguenot contributions go unrecognised as such because they are deeply embedded in our national life. David Garrick did so much for the theatre, especially in terms of rehabilitating Shakespeare, that it is hard to remember that he was the grandson of a Huguenot refugee who was an elder of the French Church of London. Users of Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases , readers of Harriet Martineau, Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu or Walter de la Mare, theatre-goers enjoying the skill of Lord Olivier, do not pause to consider their French ancestry. No doubt that is as it should be, for – especially after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes robbed them of the hope of toleration in France – the Huguenots proved very willing to become English. Those who came to Elizabethan England had been less prepared to cut all ties with their native country, where the ebb and flow of the fortunes of civil war continued to give them hope of re-establishing themselves when peace finally arrived. Protestants from Dieppe, for instance, took refuge in Rye and Winchelsea on the Kent coast on several occasions, only to return to France when. opportunity arose. After the fall of La Rochelle in 1628 and the Peace of Ales the following year, however, the Huguenots could no longer hope to resort successfully to force of arms to protect themselves against hostile action. Consequently they were defenceless against government legal actions in the 1670s, or against the dragonnades of the 1680s; their only answer lay in flight. It followed that unless outside pressures could be brought to bear, they could not influence or change the thinking that had underlain the Revocation in 1685. They did. indeed attempt to get clauses inserted in the Peace of Ryswick (1697) and the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) which would have allowed them back into France; but William III’s military efforts were insufficient to force such a concession on Louis in 1697, and by 1713 the economic value of the Huguenots was so great to the allies that neither England nor Holland wished to press the issue. By then, too, children of the refugees had grown up who were ambivalent about returning to a land that was their parents’ rather than their own. As the eighteenth century brought with it successive Anglo-French wars, the pressures on such descendants to underline their Englishness could only grow. In any case, their sense of identity with the Hanoverian succession and their abhorrence of the regime that had unjustly forced their parents to flee were both very strong. In 1715 it was claimed that they composed the most ‘desperate’ and disciplined body in England opposed to the restoration of the Stuarts. When the Young Pretender appeared in 1745, the Huguenots were quick to come forward with loyal addresses promising men for service against him. By the time of the Napoleonic Wars, no-one could doubt their Englishness. On July 26th, 1803 a mass meeting of Londoners unanimously declared its ‘determination to stand or fall with our King and country’ because: The independence and existence of the British Empire… are at stake. [Forthcoming events will]… determine whether we and our children are to continue freemen and members of the most flourishing communion in the world, or whether we are to be the slaves of our most implacable enemies. The declaration was signed by the chairman: Jacob Bosanquet, grandson of David Bosanquet who had taken refuge from Languedoc in 1685. Assimilation was not accomplished without strains within Huguenot families. Some of the steps that might be involved are revealed in the autobiography of Sir Samuel Romilly (1757-1818), a law reformer whose career was important for its long and successful campaign to inject a greater degree of mercy into the excessive harshness of the English criminal law of the day. His great-grandfather, a landowner at Montpellier, had remained in the south of France after the Revocation, but continued to worship in Protestant ways within the security of his own home, and brought up his children as Protestants. It was Samuel’s grandfather, Etienne, who became a refugee in 1701, at the age of seventeen. He went to Geneva for the specific purpose of receiving Communion, and there decided not to return home but to go instead to London. Only then did he inform his family of his decision, but his father accepted the situation and sent money to him from France which helped him establish himself as a wax-‘bleacher in Hoxton, It is typical of first-generation refugees to marry others of their own kind, and Etienne married Judith de Monsallier, the daughter of another Huguenot immigrant. Samuel Romilly’s father, Peter, was apprenticed to a Frenchman in the City, a jeweller named Lafosse. In due course Peter too married the daughter of a refugee, Margaret Gamault, so Samuel was brought up in surroundings which retained strong Huguenot influences. He described his father as attaching more importance to practical charitable behaviour towards his fellow men than to forms of worship, but Peter made his family regularly attend morning and evening worship on Sundays, alternating between the parish church and the French chapel in which he had a pew. ‘It was a kind of homage which he paid to the faith of his ancestors’, Samuel recorded, ‘and it was a means of rendering the French language familiar to us’. Otherwise he was far from impressed: Nothing was ever worse calculated to inspire the mind of a child with respect for religion than such a kind of religious worship. Most of the descendants of the refugees were born and bred in England, and desired nothing less than to preserve the memory of their origin; and their chapels were therefore ill-attended. A large uncouth room, the avenues to which were narrow courts and dirty alleys, and which, when you entered it, presented to the view only irregular unpainted pews and dusty plastered walls; a congregation consisting principally of some strange-looking old women scattered here and there, one or two in a pew, and a clergyman reading the service and preaching in a monotonous tone of voice, and in a language not familiar to me, was not likely either to impress my mind with much religious awe, or to attract my attention to the doctrines which were delivered. Nor did he respect the school to which he was sent, ‘of which the sole recommendation seems to have been that it had once been kept by a French refugee, and that the sons of many refugees were still scholars at it’. Writing, arithmetic, and the rules of French grammar. were all that he learnt there, if one discounts the influence that hatred of the unjust brutality of the schoolmaster must have exercised on his later career. As for ‘the more familiar use’ of French, that was something which he and his brother acquired at home, for it remained ‘a rule established by my father, that French should be spoken in the family on a Sunday morning, the only time… business allowed him to pass with us’. Despite his strictures on the French services he had known in his youth, Samuel Romilly continued to attend the chapel, and found it a changed place when a new minister, John Roget, replaced the old man whose monotony had so bored him. Roget indeed became a close friend, and married his sister Catherine. Samuel’s Huguenot background must have continued to influence him, and in 1786 he followed his elder brother and father in being elected a director of the French Protestant Hospital. But by and large it was the members of his – the third – generation of refugees who were the last to show any profound awareness of the Huguenot character of their families. In 1787 those Protestants who remained in France finally won toleration, and shortly afterwards special rights were offered to Huguenot descendants who might wish to return there. Very few of those who had crossed the Channel can have been tempted, for assimilation was complete. What had been French had become British. Various stages can be discerned in the process of assimilation. Just as modern West Indian immigrants may be specifically Grenadian or Trinidadian in the first generation but more generally West Indian in the second, so the Huguenots moved from a close attachment to their provinces of origin towards simply a consciousness of having had roots in France. Between the 1680s and 1710, a series of Friendly Societies – the first in England – were founded, almost all with a French regional basis: the ‘Societe des Enfants de Nimes’, the Society of Dauphine, the Norman Friendly Society and so on. In London, where there were many French congregations, certain churches drew markedly on some provinces rather than others, so that in Spitalfields refugees from Picardy were likely to attend the church of St Jean, while those from Poitou were drawn to La Patente. Refuge relief – a massive operation which involved the transfer of over one and a quarter million pounds across a period of two centuries – was at first organised through bureaux according to the province from which the recipients came. Soon, though, it was more broadly French institutions that were being established, like the Maisons de Charité created for the relief of the poor refugees who thronged the east and west London suburbs of Spitalfields and Soho. La Providence , the French Protestant Hospital, was founded in 1718, also in London; it still exists today, located now at Rochester in the form of flatlets for the elderly. French congregations dwindled in number and lost their regional bases of membership. The Westminster French Protestant School, founded in 1747 for descendants of the refugees, survived into this century and continues to assist with their education in the new guise of the Westminster French Protestant School Foundation. Calvinism, with its elders to supervise moral behaviour and its deacons to administer poor relief, was always a practical form of religion. Its founder, John Calvin, wanted people to worship God as was their duty, and established an organisation designed to achieve that end. The Friendly Societies with their mutual aid schemes, the Maisons de Charite, the French Protestant Hospital and School, all have their roots in the religious commitment that had prompted the Huguenots to seek refuge in the first place. For this was one wave of refugees whose destitution was due almost wholly to their adherence to their beliefs. The Protestants who reached Tudor England included a substantial proportion – nearly half, perhaps – whose motivation was primarily economic; and they came from lands divided by civil war, and to that extent could be charged by their enemies with sedition. But those fleeing Louis XIV’s France turned their back on violence. With the exception of the Camisard rebellion in the Cevennes, they made no effort to resist the state authorities except through flight itself. Since the French government had no wish to lose such useful citizens, that was a dangerous option. Soldiers were patrolling the land frontiers, ships the sea coasts. Capture meant fines and imprisonment at the least, and possibly transportation to the New World, death or – a still worse fate – a lifetime’s service chained aboard the French king’s galleys. Historians sometimes write as though religion was no longer the same motivating force in the late seventeenth century that it had been earlier, at the time of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The story of the Huguenots, or indeed the way in which James II threw away his throne in his vain and unpopular efforts to secure greater toleration and equal opportunities for his fellow Catholics in England, suggests that this view needs reconsideration. From the secular viewpoint of the twentieth century, it is surprising that Louis XIV’s advisers should have been willing to countenance the loss of so many useful, peaceful and productive subjects, and astonishing that perhaps a quarter of the Protestants in France at the time were prepared to accept the loss of land and possessions and embrace the dangers inherent in the option of flight. If their willingness to work hard, to persevere and to lead frugal, upright lives can be ascribed to their religious motivation, the remarkable versatility shown by some of the Huguenots seems rather the product of their displacement and situation as refugees. John Dollond was a silkweaver in Spitalfields when he developed an interest in optics, set his son up as an optician and then abandoned his earlier craft and joined him; he became a Fellow of the Royal Society and won a Copley gold medal, and the firm he founded has grown into that of Dollond and Aitchison. James Vauloue, who invented the machine that drove in the piles for the first Westminster Bridge, was a watchmaker. The career of Jacques Fontaine, who was training for the ministry when he escaped from France to Appledore near Barnstaple, Devon in 1685, is fascinating. He had no business or craft training, but was determined to make his own way and not rely on charity. Moving to Taunton in neighbouring Somerset, he opened a shop and began to make cloth. So successful was he that by 1694 he had made a thousand pounds, but he had also aroused local jealousy – and he still aimed to minister to a larger French congregation than Taunton could provide. Packing up, he moved to Cork in Ireland, where, in addition to his ministry, he engaged his formidable energies first in broadcloth manufacture, then in a fishing business. When he died in the early 1720s, he was running a school in Dublin, while most of his children had gone to Virginia to make yet another new start. Fontaine was a forceful man, not noted for compromise or tolerance – indeed even the Calvinist French Church of London felt constrained to advise him, while he was minister at Cork, that he should not publicise his low opinion of the Church of England. The Huguenots as a whole shared his quality of determination, yet they contributed to a European-wide movement towards greater toleration and understanding during the eighteenth century. This was partly because their own example underlined the unreasonableness and folly of displacing so many useful citizens in the search for religious uniformity. Further, when they voted with their feet to disobey their government and flee, they raised fundamental questions about the rights of the subject and of the individual conscience. The Huguenots had to answer those questions to their own satisfaction, and to defend their actions to their fellow countrymen still in France. Moreover, by their dispersion they helped create a more international community in Europe than had existed since pre-Reformation days. Pierre Bayle, a refugee in the Netherlands, exercised an important influence through his personal advocacy of toleration and freedom of conscience and through his sceptical and scientific method which pointed the way to Voltaire and other thinkers of the Enlightenment. Other Huguenots influenced a new cross-fertilisation of English and continental ideas. Pierre des Maiseaux translated Bayle’s work into English; Pierre Coste translated Locke’s writings into French; and Paul de Rapin (Rapin-Thoyras’) History of England and Abel Boyer’s Political State of Great Britain made English institutions better known in Europe than previously they had been. As the refugees rooted themselves in Britain, they began to explore the variety of religious experience around them. In the first generation after the Revocation, the majority clung to the form of worship they had known in France, while a minority used the Anglican Prayer Book translated into French. As their descendants became English, they came to play a part not only in Presbyterianism (which was closest to the French Calvinist forms) and Anglicanism, but in early Methodism – Vincent Perronet was the Wesleys’ right-hand man – and most other branches of Protestantism. And in the nineteenth century, that most notable of English Catholics, Cardinal Newman, was the son of a Fourdrinier mother. The breadth of the Huguenot religious contribution, even in spheres where it might not be anticipated, reflects and illustrates the refugees’ ample repayment of England’s hospitality towards them. Robin Gwynn is senior lecturer in history at Massey University, New Zealand, and currently Director of Huguenot Heritage. He is the author of Huguenot Heritage (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985).	5,433	ENGLISH	1
What country did they live in? The Assyrians were fierce warriors who lived in northern Mesopotamia from 1900 – 612 BC. Their kingdom was upstream on the Tigris River, across from their enemies, the Babylonians. The Assyrians were a much more warlike people than the Babylonians. They were also known as great traders. Their caravans traveled all over the place, bringing goods to trade as well as food and wine to various cities in Mesopotamia. About 1200 BC, the Assyrians finally conquered Babylon, the greatest city of the time. The Assyrians leveled the city. They turned it into rubble. After they leveled the city, the Assyrians began to worry about Marduk, the chief of all the Babylonian gods. They were afraid Marduk might punish them for destroying his city. The Assyrians decided the smartest thing to do would be to rebuild the city, and to return the statue of Marduk to his temple. They really did not have any use for the city. So, they rebuilt Babylon, but left it an empty city. Eventually, people returned to the city and Babylon rose again. During the height of its power (8th – 6th centuries BC), the Assyrian civilization expanded to cover the whole of Mesopotamia (including Babylon, Syria, Palestine and Cyprus) as well as northern Arabia and north-eastern Egypt. Assyrians still exist around the world. The History of Assyria The history of the Assyrian Empire can be divided into three segments (or parts), the Old Assyrian Empire, the Middle Assyrian Empire, and the New Assyrian Empire. The Old Assyrian Empire was formed around 1900 B.C. and lasted until around 1363B.C. It was a time of conquest. The Assyrians attacked their neighbors, such as Sumer and Akkad, and grew more powerful, though still not as powerful as some of their other neighbors. During Middle Assyrian Empire, the Empire was very powerful and still growing. This stage in the life of the empire lasted from 4000 - 1000 B.C. Iron swords, lances, and armor strengthened the Assyrian army because iron weapons were stronger than the bronze weapons used by other civilizations of that era. The Assyrians used iron to create powerful battering rams. A battering ram is a large, heavy log carried by several men and propelled with enough force to break down city walls. The Assyrians added wheels and canopies to their battering rams. A canopy is a small roof that protected Assyrian soldiers from rocks and spears thrown down at them. The invention of spoke wheels made Assyrian chariots lighter, faster, and better prepared to outrun soldiers and other chariots. Arrows from their deadly crossbows could penetrate the armor of rival soldiers. About 1000 B.C., the Assyrians introduced the first cavalry. A cavalry is an army that fights on horseback. The saddle had not yet been invented, so the Assyrian cavalry fought on the bare backs of their horses. The New Assyrian Empire occurred during the pinnacle, or top, of the empire's power. The Assyrians owned most of their known world. In fact, the kings thought that the gods chose them to rule, and that made them representatives of the gods on earth. This was a form of what is known as Theocracy. Theocracy is a form of Government where ruler's power comes from religion. The kings were given titles and names like, "King of the Universe." Because of their power they were not only in charge of the army but the temples too. During this time magnificent palaces and temples were constructed, partly to show off the wealth (or money) of the kings. The last great king during the was Ashurbanipal (pronounced Ash-er-ban-ee-pol). He ruled from 668-627 B.C. After his rule the country soon fell. The Medes and Babylonians invaded and finally defeated the nation in 612 B.C. What did their buildings look like? Assyrians built magnificent temples and palaces, decorated with beautiful reliefs and statues of winged bulls, known as cherubs (though you must be careful not to confuse these with angels of the same name). The Assyrians built in rectangles. Their rectangular homes were built of stone. They had doors but no windows. The roofs were flat with layers of earth on sturdy beams. This made their homes nearly fireproof. They built walled towns with huge rectangular buildings. They decorated their buildings with huge demons to protect the building, and possible the town residents, from evil influence. First and foremost, the Assyrians were deeply religious warriors, and their construction reflected this. What did they eat? Assyrians ate a platter of ground lamb, wheat, pine nuts, and other middle eastern spices. This was called Kidbei (Kid-be). Their bread was called lehmo or pita. Yogurt was a main part of the Assyrians diet. Assyrians had two main desserts. One is a pastry filled with a buttery paste. This is called Kadee. The other dessert is called Baklava. Baklava is a dessert found in many other middle eastern civilizations. Richta, an Assyrian rice dish is tasty. Booshala is a creamy soup with many delicious ingredients one of which is ground lamb. What did they wear? The men wore long coatlike garments and were bearded. Women wore a sleeved tunic and a shawl over their shoulders. Knee-length and full-length tunics (a garment like a shirt) with short sleeves were the most common types of clothing worn. They were worn along with some type headdress. Shawls were also worn. The two were generally worn together, but sometimes not. The Assyrian cavalry was well outfitted for war, with chain mail and leather boots. Chainmail is a type of armor consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. While other armies fought in sandals, leather boots protected Assyrian soldiers while they were around horses, and prepared the Assyrian army to fight in rough terrain and in cold weather, rain, and snow. Though there are no actual pieces of clothing around today, archeologists can still infer with some help from the Old Testament of the Bible that rich coloring was prominent. Colors probably included: - Blue: dark indigo, though sometimes lighter. - Red: A lot Indian red. - Purple: Dark, and a little brownish. What did their writing look like? Assyrian writing was called cuneiform (kU-nee-u-form).The cuneiform is one of the oldest known forms of writing. Cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs. Over time, however, its letters simplified and became less of a picture. Cuneiform was written upon clay tablets, on which symbols were drawn with a blunt reed called a stylus. The indentations left by the stylus were wedge shaped, which gave rise to its name, cuneiform ("wedge shaped"). Around 600 BCE, before the people of ancient Mesopotamia were conquered by the great Persian Empire, the last Assyrian king started a project. He began collecting a library of clay tablets of all the literature of Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria. When discovered in modern times, over 30,000 tablets still remained in the great library in his capital city of Nineveh. These tablets are our single most important source of knowledge about ancient Mesopotamia. What did they believe? The Assyrian king was believed to be the earthy representative of the gods. His enemies were punished with violence. The message was simple – mess with Assyria and you will face the consequences. Like the Babylonians, the Assyrians believed that there were many gods that ruled different parts of the universe. They built each of their gods a primary temple that was considered the home of the god. People would bring sacrifices to the gods and the priests would try to attend to the needs of the gods through ceremonies and festivals. The Assyrians did not believe in a happy, busy afterlife. They believed that after death every soul went to the underworld. The underworld was considered a dark and dismal place. This made death a dreadful event as there was no hope of ever having anything better. In the funeral ceremony itself, they would place the hand of the deceased on a plate of food, so that they would have something for the trip. They would bury their dead with a few of their favorite possession. The Assyrians, however, liked to keep their dead at home. The poor would dig a hole somewhere in the house, and bury their dead at home. The rich would build a room just for the burial. In both cases, an oil lamp would be kept burning near or at the gravesite, to remind everyone that this person is near and cares for them. Babylonian and Assyrian religion had much in common: most of the myths and the gods were the same. One difference though was that in Assyria the king of gods was Assur, the patron god of the city of Assur, unlike Babylonian Marduk, the patron of Babylon. The following is a list of gods worshipped by the Assyrians: - Ishtar, the goddess of love - Adramelech, A sun god - Anshar, the national god - As Shalla, the Assyrian goddess of grain - Anasas, god of medicine - Nisroch, god of farming - Nabu, god of Wisdom and Writing - Ashur/Assur, king of the gods now Assyrian Christians believe in God. Are some of them famous even today? King Ashurbanipal is known for his library of cuneiform tablets. It was the largest collection of the books in the ancient world. Many masterpieces of ancient literature and many facts from ancient history are known to us from the documents of Ashurbanipal’s library. Also, the Assyrians are mentioned in the Bible as the people who conquered Israel over a hundred years before Judah's conquest. We can also see, in the Bible, that the Assyrians were conquered by the Babylonians, who conquered Judah later on. What is left of them today? Assyrian people still live in northern Iraq, Iran, Syria, Palestine (specially Jerusalem) Jordan (Medaba), Australia, and the US. They speak Aramaic language and most of them are Christians.	<urn:uuid:cb9c4408-4638-4e82-b58e-0c7fc88a29b8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:Ancient_Civilizations/Assyrians	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00557.warc.gz	en	0.981607	2,186	3.796875	4	[ 0.09567178040742874, 0.2979539632797241, 0.4220952093601227, -0.012210531160235405, -0.09481965750455856, -0.3259326219558716, 0.04516684636473656, 0.11744323372840881, -0.1041942611336708, 0.2581061124801636, -0.18543924391269684, -0.42573803663253784, 0.42839404940605164, 0.0513218902051...	1	What country did they live in? The Assyrians were fierce warriors who lived in northern Mesopotamia from 1900 – 612 BC. Their kingdom was upstream on the Tigris River, across from their enemies, the Babylonians. The Assyrians were a much more warlike people than the Babylonians. They were also known as great traders. Their caravans traveled all over the place, bringing goods to trade as well as food and wine to various cities in Mesopotamia. About 1200 BC, the Assyrians finally conquered Babylon, the greatest city of the time. The Assyrians leveled the city. They turned it into rubble. After they leveled the city, the Assyrians began to worry about Marduk, the chief of all the Babylonian gods. They were afraid Marduk might punish them for destroying his city. The Assyrians decided the smartest thing to do would be to rebuild the city, and to return the statue of Marduk to his temple. They really did not have any use for the city. So, they rebuilt Babylon, but left it an empty city. Eventually, people returned to the city and Babylon rose again. During the height of its power (8th – 6th centuries BC), the Assyrian civilization expanded to cover the whole of Mesopotamia (including Babylon, Syria, Palestine and Cyprus) as well as northern Arabia and north-eastern Egypt. Assyrians still exist around the world. The History of Assyria The history of the Assyrian Empire can be divided into three segments (or parts), the Old Assyrian Empire, the Middle Assyrian Empire, and the New Assyrian Empire. The Old Assyrian Empire was formed around 1900 B.C. and lasted until around 1363B.C. It was a time of conquest. The Assyrians attacked their neighbors, such as Sumer and Akkad, and grew more powerful, though still not as powerful as some of their other neighbors. During Middle Assyrian Empire, the Empire was very powerful and still growing. This stage in the life of the empire lasted from 4000 - 1000 B.C. Iron swords, lances, and armor strengthened the Assyrian army because iron weapons were stronger than the bronze weapons used by other civilizations of that era. The Assyrians used iron to create powerful battering rams. A battering ram is a large, heavy log carried by several men and propelled with enough force to break down city walls. The Assyrians added wheels and canopies to their battering rams. A canopy is a small roof that protected Assyrian soldiers from rocks and spears thrown down at them. The invention of spoke wheels made Assyrian chariots lighter, faster, and better prepared to outrun soldiers and other chariots. Arrows from their deadly crossbows could penetrate the armor of rival soldiers. About 1000 B.C., the Assyrians introduced the first cavalry. A cavalry is an army that fights on horseback. The saddle had not yet been invented, so the Assyrian cavalry fought on the bare backs of their horses. The New Assyrian Empire occurred during the pinnacle, or top, of the empire's power. The Assyrians owned most of their known world. In fact, the kings thought that the gods chose them to rule, and that made them representatives of the gods on earth. This was a form of what is known as Theocracy. Theocracy is a form of Government where ruler's power comes from religion. The kings were given titles and names like, "King of the Universe." Because of their power they were not only in charge of the army but the temples too. During this time magnificent palaces and temples were constructed, partly to show off the wealth (or money) of the kings. The last great king during the was Ashurbanipal (pronounced Ash-er-ban-ee-pol). He ruled from 668-627 B.C. After his rule the country soon fell. The Medes and Babylonians invaded and finally defeated the nation in 612 B.C. What did their buildings look like? Assyrians built magnificent temples and palaces, decorated with beautiful reliefs and statues of winged bulls, known as cherubs (though you must be careful not to confuse these with angels of the same name). The Assyrians built in rectangles. Their rectangular homes were built of stone. They had doors but no windows. The roofs were flat with layers of earth on sturdy beams. This made their homes nearly fireproof. They built walled towns with huge rectangular buildings. They decorated their buildings with huge demons to protect the building, and possible the town residents, from evil influence. First and foremost, the Assyrians were deeply religious warriors, and their construction reflected this. What did they eat? Assyrians ate a platter of ground lamb, wheat, pine nuts, and other middle eastern spices. This was called Kidbei (Kid-be). Their bread was called lehmo or pita. Yogurt was a main part of the Assyrians diet. Assyrians had two main desserts. One is a pastry filled with a buttery paste. This is called Kadee. The other dessert is called Baklava. Baklava is a dessert found in many other middle eastern civilizations. Richta, an Assyrian rice dish is tasty. Booshala is a creamy soup with many delicious ingredients one of which is ground lamb. What did they wear? The men wore long coatlike garments and were bearded. Women wore a sleeved tunic and a shawl over their shoulders. Knee-length and full-length tunics (a garment like a shirt) with short sleeves were the most common types of clothing worn. They were worn along with some type headdress. Shawls were also worn. The two were generally worn together, but sometimes not. The Assyrian cavalry was well outfitted for war, with chain mail and leather boots. Chainmail is a type of armor consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. While other armies fought in sandals, leather boots protected Assyrian soldiers while they were around horses, and prepared the Assyrian army to fight in rough terrain and in cold weather, rain, and snow. Though there are no actual pieces of clothing around today, archeologists can still infer with some help from the Old Testament of the Bible that rich coloring was prominent. Colors probably included: - Blue: dark indigo, though sometimes lighter. - Red: A lot Indian red. - Purple: Dark, and a little brownish. What did their writing look like? Assyrian writing was called cuneiform (kU-nee-u-form).The cuneiform is one of the oldest known forms of writing. Cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs. Over time, however, its letters simplified and became less of a picture. Cuneiform was written upon clay tablets, on which symbols were drawn with a blunt reed called a stylus. The indentations left by the stylus were wedge shaped, which gave rise to its name, cuneiform ("wedge shaped"). Around 600 BCE, before the people of ancient Mesopotamia were conquered by the great Persian Empire, the last Assyrian king started a project. He began collecting a library of clay tablets of all the literature of Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria. When discovered in modern times, over 30,000 tablets still remained in the great library in his capital city of Nineveh. These tablets are our single most important source of knowledge about ancient Mesopotamia. What did they believe? The Assyrian king was believed to be the earthy representative of the gods. His enemies were punished with violence. The message was simple – mess with Assyria and you will face the consequences. Like the Babylonians, the Assyrians believed that there were many gods that ruled different parts of the universe. They built each of their gods a primary temple that was considered the home of the god. People would bring sacrifices to the gods and the priests would try to attend to the needs of the gods through ceremonies and festivals. The Assyrians did not believe in a happy, busy afterlife. They believed that after death every soul went to the underworld. The underworld was considered a dark and dismal place. This made death a dreadful event as there was no hope of ever having anything better. In the funeral ceremony itself, they would place the hand of the deceased on a plate of food, so that they would have something for the trip. They would bury their dead with a few of their favorite possession. The Assyrians, however, liked to keep their dead at home. The poor would dig a hole somewhere in the house, and bury their dead at home. The rich would build a room just for the burial. In both cases, an oil lamp would be kept burning near or at the gravesite, to remind everyone that this person is near and cares for them. Babylonian and Assyrian religion had much in common: most of the myths and the gods were the same. One difference though was that in Assyria the king of gods was Assur, the patron god of the city of Assur, unlike Babylonian Marduk, the patron of Babylon. The following is a list of gods worshipped by the Assyrians: - Ishtar, the goddess of love - Adramelech, A sun god - Anshar, the national god - As Shalla, the Assyrian goddess of grain - Anasas, god of medicine - Nisroch, god of farming - Nabu, god of Wisdom and Writing - Ashur/Assur, king of the gods now Assyrian Christians believe in God. Are some of them famous even today? King Ashurbanipal is known for his library of cuneiform tablets. It was the largest collection of the books in the ancient world. Many masterpieces of ancient literature and many facts from ancient history are known to us from the documents of Ashurbanipal’s library. Also, the Assyrians are mentioned in the Bible as the people who conquered Israel over a hundred years before Judah's conquest. We can also see, in the Bible, that the Assyrians were conquered by the Babylonians, who conquered Judah later on. What is left of them today? Assyrian people still live in northern Iraq, Iran, Syria, Palestine (specially Jerusalem) Jordan (Medaba), Australia, and the US. They speak Aramaic language and most of them are Christians.	2,194	ENGLISH	1
Underground Railroad & Harriet Tubman - Referat "The Underground Railroad" The group called "Underground Railroad" has itīs origen in the year 1780 and dissolved in 1862. It was an organisation that aided slaves in their escape from the southern states, by means of a complex System, that first brought them over the border to the north and after a period of hiding them in safehouses, set them up for a new life with clothes and enough money to start it. Besides that, nothing much is known about the "Underground Railroad", neither about their exact method of operating nor about who was a member and when. This is due to the fact, that most african americans they rescued could not write or read and the members themselfs were so afraid of detection, that they destroyed most records. What we do know tho is were the now so popular name for the organisation comes from, it stems from the codenames employed to decrease the chances of being detected, the chargon used was alliend with the Railroad System and the people assosiated with it. Safehouses became stations, the supporters of the abolition and the group, people from all kinds of races, got called conducters and even the ones simply donating blankets or food hat a codename, they were known as stockholders. One of the most famous conducters was Harriet Tubman, a black woman, herself a former slave, who made 19 trips to the south in which she rescued more than 300 slaves, including much of her own family, like her parents and several siblings. But who was this remarkable woman? As previously hinted at, Harriet Tubman was born into slavery, which is why unfortunaly her date of birth is uncertain, but it lies somewhere between 1808 and 1832. During the harsh life as a slave, she got badly injured from one overseer and ever after sufferd from narcoleptic episodes and a very painfull and almost constant headache. She made first contact with the "Underground Railroad" in 1849, when she used it to make her dangerous escape, a trip of almost 90 miles to philladelphia. After her successful rescue, she didnīt stay in the relativ safety of the north for long, but reither made it her mission to aid the people that helped her and together with them rescue her family. When in 1850 she recieved word that her nice Kessiah was going to be sold along with her two children, she helped them escape to Philladelphia, in her first of many rescue trips, after her nices free black husband had made the winning bet in Baltimore. The dynamics of escaping slavery changed however in 1850, with the passing of the "Fugitive slave law". The law stated that escaped slaves could be captured in the north and be returned to the south. In reaction to this law, Tubman rerouted the Railraod to canada. Even during the civil war she remaind active, she was a Nurse and a cook for the union army, but quickly came to be a armed scout and a spy. Despite her fame and reputation she never was finally secure, but she still remaines a symbol of freedom for many. In 1912 she died sorrounded by friends and family and even after her death she was well remembered. In the year 2006 she even got her own dollar bill. Kommentare zum Referat Underground Railroad & Harriet Tubman:	<urn:uuid:e2b89c90-f94d-4a54-9c87-e8a6de78777b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lerntippsammlung.de/Underground-Railroad-%26-Harriet-Tubman.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00130.warc.gz	en	0.986042	714	3.625	4	[ 0.007534000091254711, -0.10384468734264374, 0.4985048770904541, 0.5393067598342896, -0.07918801158666611, -0.189546138048172, 0.2234964519739151, -0.2107021063566208, -0.41973039507865906, 0.045448221266269684, 0.4809861183166504, -0.07547757774591446, -0.05591601878404617, -0.143852829933...	4	Underground Railroad & Harriet Tubman - Referat "The Underground Railroad" The group called "Underground Railroad" has itīs origen in the year 1780 and dissolved in 1862. It was an organisation that aided slaves in their escape from the southern states, by means of a complex System, that first brought them over the border to the north and after a period of hiding them in safehouses, set them up for a new life with clothes and enough money to start it. Besides that, nothing much is known about the "Underground Railroad", neither about their exact method of operating nor about who was a member and when. This is due to the fact, that most african americans they rescued could not write or read and the members themselfs were so afraid of detection, that they destroyed most records. What we do know tho is were the now so popular name for the organisation comes from, it stems from the codenames employed to decrease the chances of being detected, the chargon used was alliend with the Railroad System and the people assosiated with it. Safehouses became stations, the supporters of the abolition and the group, people from all kinds of races, got called conducters and even the ones simply donating blankets or food hat a codename, they were known as stockholders. One of the most famous conducters was Harriet Tubman, a black woman, herself a former slave, who made 19 trips to the south in which she rescued more than 300 slaves, including much of her own family, like her parents and several siblings. But who was this remarkable woman? As previously hinted at, Harriet Tubman was born into slavery, which is why unfortunaly her date of birth is uncertain, but it lies somewhere between 1808 and 1832. During the harsh life as a slave, she got badly injured from one overseer and ever after sufferd from narcoleptic episodes and a very painfull and almost constant headache. She made first contact with the "Underground Railroad" in 1849, when she used it to make her dangerous escape, a trip of almost 90 miles to philladelphia. After her successful rescue, she didnīt stay in the relativ safety of the north for long, but reither made it her mission to aid the people that helped her and together with them rescue her family. When in 1850 she recieved word that her nice Kessiah was going to be sold along with her two children, she helped them escape to Philladelphia, in her first of many rescue trips, after her nices free black husband had made the winning bet in Baltimore. The dynamics of escaping slavery changed however in 1850, with the passing of the "Fugitive slave law". The law stated that escaped slaves could be captured in the north and be returned to the south. In reaction to this law, Tubman rerouted the Railraod to canada. Even during the civil war she remaind active, she was a Nurse and a cook for the union army, but quickly came to be a armed scout and a spy. Despite her fame and reputation she never was finally secure, but she still remaines a symbol of freedom for many. In 1912 she died sorrounded by friends and family and even after her death she was well remembered. In the year 2006 she even got her own dollar bill. Kommentare zum Referat Underground Railroad & Harriet Tubman:	731	ENGLISH	1
In the history of the people of Israel, the wilderness was a place of testing. During the years when the people wandered in the wilderness, God taught them to trust in him for the necessities of life. When they became desperate for food, they cried out to God and he provided for them. The manna they received nourished their bodies and reminded them to trust in God. (See Exodus 16.) More than a thousand years later Jesus taught his disciples the same lesson. In our reading for today, the expressions “quiet place,” “solitary place” and “remote place” can also be translated as “wilderness.” Jesus had just finished teaching a crowd of several thousand people out in the wilderness when a crisis arose. There was a food shortage, and the disciples didn’t know what to do. Jesus told them, “You give them something to eat.” Hearing this, they were dumbfounded. Jesus then took the little they had, gave thanks, and miraculously multiplied it so that everyone had more than enough to eat. In this way Jesus taught the disciples to trust in God for their needs. All of us experience “wilderness” times in our lives. We need to learn afresh that God has the power to provide all that we need—and more. We simply have to trust him. Crises lead to blessings when they teach us to depend on God.	<urn:uuid:23768a5a-cfaf-438f-bd7e-fb793324776f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://c3church.tv/feed-them/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00330.warc.gz	en	0.986928	299	3.4375	3	[ -0.02060987986624241, 0.3827863931655884, -0.040003228932619095, -0.22688601911067963, -0.02799583412706852, 0.2525540292263031, 0.2666904926300049, -0.18352583050727844, 0.034951645880937576, -0.04196692630648613, 0.16751636564731598, -0.24652808904647827, 0.3639734983444214, 0.2676481306...	3	In the history of the people of Israel, the wilderness was a place of testing. During the years when the people wandered in the wilderness, God taught them to trust in him for the necessities of life. When they became desperate for food, they cried out to God and he provided for them. The manna they received nourished their bodies and reminded them to trust in God. (See Exodus 16.) More than a thousand years later Jesus taught his disciples the same lesson. In our reading for today, the expressions “quiet place,” “solitary place” and “remote place” can also be translated as “wilderness.” Jesus had just finished teaching a crowd of several thousand people out in the wilderness when a crisis arose. There was a food shortage, and the disciples didn’t know what to do. Jesus told them, “You give them something to eat.” Hearing this, they were dumbfounded. Jesus then took the little they had, gave thanks, and miraculously multiplied it so that everyone had more than enough to eat. In this way Jesus taught the disciples to trust in God for their needs. All of us experience “wilderness” times in our lives. We need to learn afresh that God has the power to provide all that we need—and more. We simply have to trust him. Crises lead to blessings when they teach us to depend on God.	280	ENGLISH	1
Parashat Matot: Showing Appreciation In Parashat Matot, G-d commands Moshe to lead a war against Midyan, who initiated a scheme to lead Beneh Yisrael to sin which resulted in the deaths of thousands of people among the nation. The Midrash notes that whereas G-d instructed Moshe to wage this war, he did not go out to battle. Instead, he sent 12,000 men led by Pinhas to fight Midyan, while he remained behind. How, the Midrash asks, could Moshe Rabbenu shirk his responsibility? If G-d commanded him to go and wage war, how could he delegate this difficult task to others? The Midrash offers a remarkable answer. Moshe owed a debt of gratitude to Midyan, where he found refuge when he was forced to flee from Egypt many years earlier. As we read in Parashat Shemot, Moshe killed an Egyptian taskmaster who was beating an Israelite slave, and Pharaoh heard about the incident and sought to kill Moshe. Moshe immediately fled and found safety in Midyan, where he married the daughter of Yitro and worked for him as a shepherd. Moshe owed his life to Midyan, and it would thus have been inappropriate for him to lead a war against it. Moshe did not arrive at this logic on his own. He reached this conclusion on the basis of G-d’s commands many years earlier during the ten plagues. G-d commanded that specifically Aharon – as opposed to Moshe – should turn the water of Egypt into blood, and produce vermin from its dust. It would have been improper for Moshe to strike the water, which protected him when he was an infant and his mother placed him in a basket in the river to save him from the Egyptians, and to strike the earth, which he used to cover the remains of the taskmaster whom he killed. The fundamental value of gratitude dictates that one does not "throw a rock into the well from which he drank," that we must not cause harm to those who have been good to us. And thus even though G-d wished to strike the water and earth of Egypt, He did not want Moshe to carry out this task, given the debt of gratitude he owed. Recalling this precedent, Moshe understood that he was not the one to wage battle against Midyan. He realized that when G-d instructed him to go out to war, He meant that Moshe should mobilize and send an army, rather than go fight himself. The Torah value of gratitude extends even to sworn enemies of our nation – like Midyan – and even to inanimate objects – such as water and earth. It is told that Rav Yisrael Gustman, who served as a Rosh Yeshiva in Jerusalem, would water the plants and bushes outside his yeshiva each day. When asked about this practice, he explained that he survived the Holocaust, spending a considerable amount of time hiding in fields. He felt a deep sense of gratitude to bushes and plants for helping him escape from the Nazis, and he thus felt it was appropriate to personally care for the yeshiva’s garden. If this is the Torah’s attitude when it comes to plants, then it certainly applies to family members and friends. If Moshe owed a debt of gratitude to the waters of Egypt, shouldn’t we show appreciation to our spouses? If Moshe was to show respect to dirt for the service it provided him, shouldn’t we respect the people who work for us? If Moshe felt grateful to a wicked nation like Midyan, shouldn’t we be profoundly grateful to our parents, our siblings, our friends and our neighbors? The story of this war should thus serve as an important reminder to all of us to always take note of the favors done for us, of all the benefit we receive from other people, and to feel a sincere sense of gratitude which ought to be regularly expressed in both words and actions.	<urn:uuid:1ceb3427-a002-493f-933b-bcccb31121d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.dailyhalacha.com/WeeklyParasha.asp?ParashaClipID=506	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00322.warc.gz	en	0.982254	838	3.515625	4	[ -0.2903611361980438, 0.6981375217437744, 0.2910795211791992, -0.24897754192352295, -0.45939910411834717, -0.026583680883049965, 0.9593266248703003, 0.40962326526641846, -0.32839709520339966, -0.17237573862075806, -0.0521397702395916, -0.2602585256099701, 0.25833797454833984, 0.406803548336...	7	Parashat Matot: Showing Appreciation In Parashat Matot, G-d commands Moshe to lead a war against Midyan, who initiated a scheme to lead Beneh Yisrael to sin which resulted in the deaths of thousands of people among the nation. The Midrash notes that whereas G-d instructed Moshe to wage this war, he did not go out to battle. Instead, he sent 12,000 men led by Pinhas to fight Midyan, while he remained behind. How, the Midrash asks, could Moshe Rabbenu shirk his responsibility? If G-d commanded him to go and wage war, how could he delegate this difficult task to others? The Midrash offers a remarkable answer. Moshe owed a debt of gratitude to Midyan, where he found refuge when he was forced to flee from Egypt many years earlier. As we read in Parashat Shemot, Moshe killed an Egyptian taskmaster who was beating an Israelite slave, and Pharaoh heard about the incident and sought to kill Moshe. Moshe immediately fled and found safety in Midyan, where he married the daughter of Yitro and worked for him as a shepherd. Moshe owed his life to Midyan, and it would thus have been inappropriate for him to lead a war against it. Moshe did not arrive at this logic on his own. He reached this conclusion on the basis of G-d’s commands many years earlier during the ten plagues. G-d commanded that specifically Aharon – as opposed to Moshe – should turn the water of Egypt into blood, and produce vermin from its dust. It would have been improper for Moshe to strike the water, which protected him when he was an infant and his mother placed him in a basket in the river to save him from the Egyptians, and to strike the earth, which he used to cover the remains of the taskmaster whom he killed. The fundamental value of gratitude dictates that one does not "throw a rock into the well from which he drank," that we must not cause harm to those who have been good to us. And thus even though G-d wished to strike the water and earth of Egypt, He did not want Moshe to carry out this task, given the debt of gratitude he owed. Recalling this precedent, Moshe understood that he was not the one to wage battle against Midyan. He realized that when G-d instructed him to go out to war, He meant that Moshe should mobilize and send an army, rather than go fight himself. The Torah value of gratitude extends even to sworn enemies of our nation – like Midyan – and even to inanimate objects – such as water and earth. It is told that Rav Yisrael Gustman, who served as a Rosh Yeshiva in Jerusalem, would water the plants and bushes outside his yeshiva each day. When asked about this practice, he explained that he survived the Holocaust, spending a considerable amount of time hiding in fields. He felt a deep sense of gratitude to bushes and plants for helping him escape from the Nazis, and he thus felt it was appropriate to personally care for the yeshiva’s garden. If this is the Torah’s attitude when it comes to plants, then it certainly applies to family members and friends. If Moshe owed a debt of gratitude to the waters of Egypt, shouldn’t we show appreciation to our spouses? If Moshe was to show respect to dirt for the service it provided him, shouldn’t we respect the people who work for us? If Moshe felt grateful to a wicked nation like Midyan, shouldn’t we be profoundly grateful to our parents, our siblings, our friends and our neighbors? The story of this war should thus serve as an important reminder to all of us to always take note of the favors done for us, of all the benefit we receive from other people, and to feel a sincere sense of gratitude which ought to be regularly expressed in both words and actions.	818	ENGLISH	1
The Gatling gun is a machine gun that has many barrels that fire bullets by turning the barrels around in a circle. It was the first machine gun ever made. It was first used by the Union Army during the American Civil War. Although it was very powerful, it was not much used because it cost a lot of money and was heavy. It was used more often in other wars during the second half of the 19th century. It was used in the Anglo-Zulu War, the Boshin War, and the Spanish-American War. Early in the 20th century armies stopped using it because other machine guns were better. The Minigun is based on the Gatling gun. The Gatling gun is a machine gun, but it is not called an automatic weapon because a user must continue to crank it instead of merely holding down the trigger.	<urn:uuid:e0c964bc-67f4-429d-8848-7c2690340db5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatling_gun	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00224.warc.gz	en	0.989659	172	3.375	3	[ -0.2569413185119629, 0.17491579055786133, 0.04596361890435219, -0.22598935663700104, 0.4723348617553711, -0.3432799279689789, 0.20031405985355377, 0.23086068034172058, -0.42734941840171814, -0.43348225951194763, -0.19614167511463165, -0.023222995921969414, -0.0817936360836029, 0.2923816740...	2	The Gatling gun is a machine gun that has many barrels that fire bullets by turning the barrels around in a circle. It was the first machine gun ever made. It was first used by the Union Army during the American Civil War. Although it was very powerful, it was not much used because it cost a lot of money and was heavy. It was used more often in other wars during the second half of the 19th century. It was used in the Anglo-Zulu War, the Boshin War, and the Spanish-American War. Early in the 20th century armies stopped using it because other machine guns were better. The Minigun is based on the Gatling gun. The Gatling gun is a machine gun, but it is not called an automatic weapon because a user must continue to crank it instead of merely holding down the trigger.	175	ENGLISH	1
In the summer ofas a teenager in Hungary, Elie Wiesel, along with his father, mother and sisters, were deported by the Nazis to Auschwitz extermination camp in occupied Poland. Upon arrival there, Wiesel and his father were selected by SS Dr. Josef Mengele for slave labor and wound up at the nearby Buna rubber factory. Daily life included starvation rations of soup and bread, brutal discipline, and a constant struggle against overwhelming despair. Martin Luther King Jr. Biographical Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther attended segregated public schools in Georgia, graduating from high school at the age of fifteen; he received the B. After three years of theological study at Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania where he was elected president of a predominantly white senior class, he was awarded the B. With a fellowship won at Crozer, he enrolled in graduate studies at Boston University, completing his residence for the doctorate in and receiving the degree in In Boston he met and married Coretta Scott, a young woman of uncommon intellectual and artistic attainments. Two sons and two daughters were born into the family. Always a strong worker for civil rights for members of his race, King was, by this time, a member of the executive committee of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the leading organization of its kind in the nation. He was ready, then, early in December,to accept the leadership of the first great Negro nonviolent demonstration of contemporary times in the United States, the bus boycott described by Gunnar Jahn in his presentation speech in honor of the laureate. The boycott lasted days. On December 21,after the Supreme Court of the United States had declared unconstitutional the laws requiring segregation on buses, Negroes and whites rode the buses as equals. During these days of boycott, King was arrested, his home was bombed, he was subjected to personal abuse, but at the same time he emerged as a Negro leader of the first rank. In he was elected president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, an organization formed to provide new leadership for the now burgeoning civil rights movement. The ideals for this organization he took from Christianity; its operational techniques from Gandhi. In the eleven-year period between andKing traveled over six million miles and spoke over twenty-five hundred times, appearing wherever there was injustice, protest, and action; and meanwhile he wrote five books as well as numerous articles. In these years, he led a massive protest in Birmingham, Alabama, that caught the attention of the entire world, providing what he called a coalition of conscience. Kennedy and campaigned for President Lyndon B. Johnson; he was arrested upwards of twenty times and assaulted at least four times; he was awarded five honorary degrees; was named Man of the Year by Time magazine in ; and became not only the symbolic leader of American blacks but also a world figure. At the age of thirty-five, Martin Luther King, Jr. On the evening of April 4,while standing on the balcony of his motel room in Memphis, Tennessee, where he was to lead a protest march in sympathy with striking garbage workers of that city, he was assassinated. Chicago, Afro-Am Publishing Co. I Have a Dream: New York, Time Life Books, King, Martin Luther, Jr. The Christian Education Press, New York, Harper, It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above. Even though this word today is considered inappropriate, the biography is published in its original version in view of keeping it as a historical document. Nobel Media AB Whether you are a student in high school or college, there is a % chance that you will have to write some sort of informative essay during your educational years. Your teacher may either assign you a topic or allow you to choose one for yourself. Martin Luther King, Jr., (January 15, April 4, ) was born Michael Luther King, Jr., but later had his name changed to Martin. His grandfather began the family’s long tenure as pastors of the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, serving from to ; his father has served from then. Martin Luther King, Jr. is the kind of hero whose story inspires Americans of all ages, 8-year-olds and year-olds, generations past and generations to come.. Accordingly, authors have used his. Celebrated Stanford University historian Clayborne Carson is the director and editor of the Martin Luther King Papers Project; with thousands of King's essays, notes, letters, speeches, and sermons at his disposal, Carson has organized King's writings into a posthumous autobiography. Cook mentioned Martin Luther King, Jr. three times in his address, including at the very beginning and at the very end. He called King and former president John F. Kennedy two of his early heroes. Mahatma Gandhi In the attitude of silence the soul finds the path in a clearer light, and what is elusive and deceptive resolves itself into crystal clearness.	<urn:uuid:3bb406df-3de4-4cf6-8b15-bee04a74849a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lebofug.metin2sell.com/essay-about-martin-luther-king-speeches-41453hv.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00203.warc.gz	en	0.980063	1,030	3.890625	4	[ -0.24631506204605103, 0.6612491607666016, 0.3840394616127014, -0.1799493134021759, -0.2917197346687317, 0.3062717914581299, -0.037673115730285645, 0.03167635202407837, 0.033616095781326294, 0.18192018568515778, 0.045867905020713806, 0.33812254667282104, 0.06647391617298126, 0.1510196328163...	1	In the summer ofas a teenager in Hungary, Elie Wiesel, along with his father, mother and sisters, were deported by the Nazis to Auschwitz extermination camp in occupied Poland. Upon arrival there, Wiesel and his father were selected by SS Dr. Josef Mengele for slave labor and wound up at the nearby Buna rubber factory. Daily life included starvation rations of soup and bread, brutal discipline, and a constant struggle against overwhelming despair. Martin Luther King Jr. Biographical Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther attended segregated public schools in Georgia, graduating from high school at the age of fifteen; he received the B. After three years of theological study at Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania where he was elected president of a predominantly white senior class, he was awarded the B. With a fellowship won at Crozer, he enrolled in graduate studies at Boston University, completing his residence for the doctorate in and receiving the degree in In Boston he met and married Coretta Scott, a young woman of uncommon intellectual and artistic attainments. Two sons and two daughters were born into the family. Always a strong worker for civil rights for members of his race, King was, by this time, a member of the executive committee of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the leading organization of its kind in the nation. He was ready, then, early in December,to accept the leadership of the first great Negro nonviolent demonstration of contemporary times in the United States, the bus boycott described by Gunnar Jahn in his presentation speech in honor of the laureate. The boycott lasted days. On December 21,after the Supreme Court of the United States had declared unconstitutional the laws requiring segregation on buses, Negroes and whites rode the buses as equals. During these days of boycott, King was arrested, his home was bombed, he was subjected to personal abuse, but at the same time he emerged as a Negro leader of the first rank. In he was elected president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, an organization formed to provide new leadership for the now burgeoning civil rights movement. The ideals for this organization he took from Christianity; its operational techniques from Gandhi. In the eleven-year period between andKing traveled over six million miles and spoke over twenty-five hundred times, appearing wherever there was injustice, protest, and action; and meanwhile he wrote five books as well as numerous articles. In these years, he led a massive protest in Birmingham, Alabama, that caught the attention of the entire world, providing what he called a coalition of conscience. Kennedy and campaigned for President Lyndon B. Johnson; he was arrested upwards of twenty times and assaulted at least four times; he was awarded five honorary degrees; was named Man of the Year by Time magazine in ; and became not only the symbolic leader of American blacks but also a world figure. At the age of thirty-five, Martin Luther King, Jr. On the evening of April 4,while standing on the balcony of his motel room in Memphis, Tennessee, where he was to lead a protest march in sympathy with striking garbage workers of that city, he was assassinated. Chicago, Afro-Am Publishing Co. I Have a Dream: New York, Time Life Books, King, Martin Luther, Jr. The Christian Education Press, New York, Harper, It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above. Even though this word today is considered inappropriate, the biography is published in its original version in view of keeping it as a historical document. Nobel Media AB Whether you are a student in high school or college, there is a % chance that you will have to write some sort of informative essay during your educational years. Your teacher may either assign you a topic or allow you to choose one for yourself. Martin Luther King, Jr., (January 15, April 4, ) was born Michael Luther King, Jr., but later had his name changed to Martin. His grandfather began the family’s long tenure as pastors of the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, serving from to ; his father has served from then. Martin Luther King, Jr. is the kind of hero whose story inspires Americans of all ages, 8-year-olds and year-olds, generations past and generations to come.. Accordingly, authors have used his. Celebrated Stanford University historian Clayborne Carson is the director and editor of the Martin Luther King Papers Project; with thousands of King's essays, notes, letters, speeches, and sermons at his disposal, Carson has organized King's writings into a posthumous autobiography. Cook mentioned Martin Luther King, Jr. three times in his address, including at the very beginning and at the very end. He called King and former president John F. Kennedy two of his early heroes. Mahatma Gandhi In the attitude of silence the soul finds the path in a clearer light, and what is elusive and deceptive resolves itself into crystal clearness.	1,013	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Essay Pages: 6 (1391 words) In William Shakespeare’s play Macbeth, Macbeth, Lady Macbeth and the three witches destroy lives by their acts of deceit to create corruption, violence and an upset in the balance of good and evil. To be deceived implies a deliberate misrepresentation of facts through the words or actions, which is used by one to increase power. While caught in a viscous, power hungry cycle, it is hard to distinguish between what is ethical and moral as reality becomes distorted. It is this distortion and the negative repercussions that cause devastation, which has resulted from deceptions. These deceptions have ruined the lives of many, who were to caught up in a struggle for power and unable to realize their own shattered lives. Firstly, acts of deception, which created corruption, violence and a disturbance in good and evil, are illustrated through the life, which Macbeth led. The witches, through their prophecies, deceived Macbeth. These prophecies lead Macbeth to corruption, and through distortion of reality, felt murder was the only way to gain power. Macbeth murdered Duncan, in order to satisfy this hungry urge for control. Yet, instead of feeling remorse and repenting, he began to plan the murders of others, in order to protect his own guilt. Before Macbeth met the witches, he knew how morally wrong murder was. Through his own distorted perception and corruption, murder became a necessity for survival. Soon others saw Macbeth’s corrupt nature, and thus the rebellion against Macbeth resulted from his hastily built empire. Macbeth used violent actions for what he what he could not be achieve with integrity. Since Macbeth could not stay king without doing a dishonest act, he had Banquo violently slain by someone else, “Safe in a ditch he bides, /With twenty trenched gashes on his head, /The least a death to nature.” (Shakespeare 3.4.26-28). Although, Macbeth did not carry out these actions, it was his bloody directions that were followed. Violence is another example of how power hungry Macbeth was, by using violence; he had no ethics or morals and could not be admired. Macbeth used violent actions to gain his power, violent actions to stay in power, and regrettably, violent actions were what severed him form his power. Macbeth used violence to destroy the lives of others, and violence ultimately destroyed his. Macbeth was once a person who appeared to have a good grasp on good and evil and was able to distinguish between them. However, Macbeth was quickly confused when he first had the taste of power, once he had tasted the sweet victory, he would do anything not to lose his grasp. It was then, that the aspect of good and evil was forever altered in Macbeth’s eyes, good was quickly associated with power and strength and evil with limitations and vulnerability. Of course, Macbeth wanted to be powerful, he associated everything with it, respect, admiration and recognition. Unfortunately for Macbeth, no matter how powerful he became, he craved more. The only way he felt he could gain power was to kill, and killing is in truth evilness on it’s own. Consequently, Macbeth mistook good for evil and this added to his untimely downfall in the public eye. Macbeth’s hunger for an insatiable power was the act of deception used in order to promote his corruption, violence and disturbances in his morals. Secondly, Lady Macbeth used acts of deception in a more devious manner. She toyed with others emotions, not caring about the consequences as long as she ended up on top. She demonstrated deception through corruption, violence and the balance of good and evil. Thus, Lady Macbeth was along side her husband, also quite power hungry. She craved it, and would do and use any means possible to get it, manipulation, deceit, and even murder. Although lady Macbeth never physically killed anyone, she did play a large part in the murder of Duncan. Lady Macbeth is solely to blame for being corrupted. She did it all to herself. She began herself corruption by pleading to the spirits, “Come you spirits/That tend on mortal thoughts! unsex me here, / And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full/ Of direst cruelty; make my blood thick/ Stop up the access and passage to remorse, / That no compunctious visitings of nature”¦And pall thee in the dunnest smoke of hell” (Shakespeare, 1.6.39-50). By having herself corrupted, she was able to corrupt her husband. She fed his innocent mind full of unkindly thoughts of murder, she convinced him that he will not be suspected, “Who dares receive it other, / As we shall make our grief’s and clamour roar/Upon his death?” (Shakespeare 1.7.77-78) As a result, this begins the corruption of her spouse. By having her husband believe that power brings happiness, he does exactly as she says. Violence, defined as a powerful force or energy, is the second force Lady Macbeth uses to unknowingly destroy her husbands life and her own. She uses such power in the sense of how perfectly her plan to murder Duncan was carried out with precision. All of the strength she possessed was in the execution of this plan. She was drained emotionally of all her strengths, this let to the quick demise of her mentality. Lady Macbeth never really appeared to have a good grasp on the difference between good and evil. Neither mattered until she received what she wanted. She was spoiled by the evil of her ambitions for her husband to become king. Lady Macbeth wanted nothing more than the power her husband could control and used evil acts to get it. However, once she had the power, the imbalance of good and evil had been tampered with too much and her actions could not be reversed. Since lady Macbeth did not understand the difference between good and evil, her soul was never set free, her suicide is proof of this. Lady Macbeth became lost in her own guilty conscience, something she thought she had long since disposed of. Thirdly, the witches were perhaps the most deceitful characters presented in Macbeth. They used their powers for their own twisted pleasure and easily toyed with certain characters innocence. Initially and by far the largest character in which they corrupted was Macbeth. He was an easy target for the witches; he secretly dreamed of power and only attempted to be modest around others. The witches noticed this and fooled around with his boyish self-esteem. The three told him great prophecies of the future that Macbeth could only dream about. The three knew Macbeth was coming “A drum! A drum! /Macbeth doth come.” (Shakespeare 1.3.30-31) Secondly, the witches use violent actions to their advantage. They torture humans in their sleep, haunting them, “Sleep shall neither night nor day/ Hang upon his pent-house lid; / He shall live a man forbid. /Weary sev’n nights nine times nine,” (Shakespeare 1.3.19-22). The witches torture the innocent in their sleep. They tortured a sailor, and they quite possibly could have tortured Lady Macbeth as she slept, although she was not innocent. This could be the ultimate cause for her sleepwalking. Finally, the witches used good intentions on innocent people and use evil prophecies of the future to make others power hungry and desire the evil nature. After one visit from the witches, Macbeth had to know more, he yearned for more information, which was the witches’ objective all along. When Macbeth came back to visit them, they gave him miniscule pieces of information that lead him to believe he had nothing to worry about. While in fact had a great deal to worry about. The witches’ prophecies made him feel invulnerable and were what killed him in the end. The witches had perhaps the largest part in Macbeth, it was their evil prophecies of power that destroyed a vast variety of lives who unfortunately got involved. As clearly illustrated in the lives of Macbeth, Lady Macbeth and the three witches, deception and the consequences are undoubtedly portrayed as having detrimental effects in their lives. The corruption, violent tendencies and unethical choices are a few of the consequences of the deception, which was created, to devastate. In conclusion, Shakespeare’s play Macbeth, is an excellent portrait of today’s society, as it depicts effects of the insatiable, unrealistic and deceived society, which corrupts, hurts and promotes decisions that leads to the untimely waste of many lives. Cite this page Distortions Through Deception In Macbeth. (2016, Jul 15). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/distortions-through-deception-in-macbeth-essay	<urn:uuid:ea14b27e-ca54-405c-9685-86da7a42dc9f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/distortions-through-deception-in-macbeth-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00015.warc.gz	en	0.981983	1,916	3.375	3	[ -0.29797717928886414, -0.09101641923189163, 0.48668062686920166, 0.11133841425180435, -0.2906937897205353, 0.08762755244970322, 0.3322959542274475, 0.2009364664554596, -0.017645621672272682, 0.09161089360713959, -0.017407456412911415, -0.16233548521995544, -0.30919408798217773, -0.02462857...	1	Paper type: Essay Pages: 6 (1391 words) In William Shakespeare’s play Macbeth, Macbeth, Lady Macbeth and the three witches destroy lives by their acts of deceit to create corruption, violence and an upset in the balance of good and evil. To be deceived implies a deliberate misrepresentation of facts through the words or actions, which is used by one to increase power. While caught in a viscous, power hungry cycle, it is hard to distinguish between what is ethical and moral as reality becomes distorted. It is this distortion and the negative repercussions that cause devastation, which has resulted from deceptions. These deceptions have ruined the lives of many, who were to caught up in a struggle for power and unable to realize their own shattered lives. Firstly, acts of deception, which created corruption, violence and a disturbance in good and evil, are illustrated through the life, which Macbeth led. The witches, through their prophecies, deceived Macbeth. These prophecies lead Macbeth to corruption, and through distortion of reality, felt murder was the only way to gain power. Macbeth murdered Duncan, in order to satisfy this hungry urge for control. Yet, instead of feeling remorse and repenting, he began to plan the murders of others, in order to protect his own guilt. Before Macbeth met the witches, he knew how morally wrong murder was. Through his own distorted perception and corruption, murder became a necessity for survival. Soon others saw Macbeth’s corrupt nature, and thus the rebellion against Macbeth resulted from his hastily built empire. Macbeth used violent actions for what he what he could not be achieve with integrity. Since Macbeth could not stay king without doing a dishonest act, he had Banquo violently slain by someone else, “Safe in a ditch he bides, /With twenty trenched gashes on his head, /The least a death to nature.” (Shakespeare 3.4.26-28). Although, Macbeth did not carry out these actions, it was his bloody directions that were followed. Violence is another example of how power hungry Macbeth was, by using violence; he had no ethics or morals and could not be admired. Macbeth used violent actions to gain his power, violent actions to stay in power, and regrettably, violent actions were what severed him form his power. Macbeth used violence to destroy the lives of others, and violence ultimately destroyed his. Macbeth was once a person who appeared to have a good grasp on good and evil and was able to distinguish between them. However, Macbeth was quickly confused when he first had the taste of power, once he had tasted the sweet victory, he would do anything not to lose his grasp. It was then, that the aspect of good and evil was forever altered in Macbeth’s eyes, good was quickly associated with power and strength and evil with limitations and vulnerability. Of course, Macbeth wanted to be powerful, he associated everything with it, respect, admiration and recognition. Unfortunately for Macbeth, no matter how powerful he became, he craved more. The only way he felt he could gain power was to kill, and killing is in truth evilness on it’s own. Consequently, Macbeth mistook good for evil and this added to his untimely downfall in the public eye. Macbeth’s hunger for an insatiable power was the act of deception used in order to promote his corruption, violence and disturbances in his morals. Secondly, Lady Macbeth used acts of deception in a more devious manner. She toyed with others emotions, not caring about the consequences as long as she ended up on top. She demonstrated deception through corruption, violence and the balance of good and evil. Thus, Lady Macbeth was along side her husband, also quite power hungry. She craved it, and would do and use any means possible to get it, manipulation, deceit, and even murder. Although lady Macbeth never physically killed anyone, she did play a large part in the murder of Duncan. Lady Macbeth is solely to blame for being corrupted. She did it all to herself. She began herself corruption by pleading to the spirits, “Come you spirits/That tend on mortal thoughts! unsex me here, / And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full/ Of direst cruelty; make my blood thick/ Stop up the access and passage to remorse, / That no compunctious visitings of nature”¦And pall thee in the dunnest smoke of hell” (Shakespeare, 1.6.39-50). By having herself corrupted, she was able to corrupt her husband. She fed his innocent mind full of unkindly thoughts of murder, she convinced him that he will not be suspected, “Who dares receive it other, / As we shall make our grief’s and clamour roar/Upon his death?” (Shakespeare 1.7.77-78) As a result, this begins the corruption of her spouse. By having her husband believe that power brings happiness, he does exactly as she says. Violence, defined as a powerful force or energy, is the second force Lady Macbeth uses to unknowingly destroy her husbands life and her own. She uses such power in the sense of how perfectly her plan to murder Duncan was carried out with precision. All of the strength she possessed was in the execution of this plan. She was drained emotionally of all her strengths, this let to the quick demise of her mentality. Lady Macbeth never really appeared to have a good grasp on the difference between good and evil. Neither mattered until she received what she wanted. She was spoiled by the evil of her ambitions for her husband to become king. Lady Macbeth wanted nothing more than the power her husband could control and used evil acts to get it. However, once she had the power, the imbalance of good and evil had been tampered with too much and her actions could not be reversed. Since lady Macbeth did not understand the difference between good and evil, her soul was never set free, her suicide is proof of this. Lady Macbeth became lost in her own guilty conscience, something she thought she had long since disposed of. Thirdly, the witches were perhaps the most deceitful characters presented in Macbeth. They used their powers for their own twisted pleasure and easily toyed with certain characters innocence. Initially and by far the largest character in which they corrupted was Macbeth. He was an easy target for the witches; he secretly dreamed of power and only attempted to be modest around others. The witches noticed this and fooled around with his boyish self-esteem. The three told him great prophecies of the future that Macbeth could only dream about. The three knew Macbeth was coming “A drum! A drum! /Macbeth doth come.” (Shakespeare 1.3.30-31) Secondly, the witches use violent actions to their advantage. They torture humans in their sleep, haunting them, “Sleep shall neither night nor day/ Hang upon his pent-house lid; / He shall live a man forbid. /Weary sev’n nights nine times nine,” (Shakespeare 1.3.19-22). The witches torture the innocent in their sleep. They tortured a sailor, and they quite possibly could have tortured Lady Macbeth as she slept, although she was not innocent. This could be the ultimate cause for her sleepwalking. Finally, the witches used good intentions on innocent people and use evil prophecies of the future to make others power hungry and desire the evil nature. After one visit from the witches, Macbeth had to know more, he yearned for more information, which was the witches’ objective all along. When Macbeth came back to visit them, they gave him miniscule pieces of information that lead him to believe he had nothing to worry about. While in fact had a great deal to worry about. The witches’ prophecies made him feel invulnerable and were what killed him in the end. The witches had perhaps the largest part in Macbeth, it was their evil prophecies of power that destroyed a vast variety of lives who unfortunately got involved. As clearly illustrated in the lives of Macbeth, Lady Macbeth and the three witches, deception and the consequences are undoubtedly portrayed as having detrimental effects in their lives. The corruption, violent tendencies and unethical choices are a few of the consequences of the deception, which was created, to devastate. In conclusion, Shakespeare’s play Macbeth, is an excellent portrait of today’s society, as it depicts effects of the insatiable, unrealistic and deceived society, which corrupts, hurts and promotes decisions that leads to the untimely waste of many lives. Cite this page Distortions Through Deception In Macbeth. (2016, Jul 15). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/distortions-through-deception-in-macbeth-essay	1,838	ENGLISH	1
The English warship Mary Rose , one of the earliest warships with a broadside armament; illustration from the Anthony Roll , c. 1546 Since ancient times, war at sea had been fought much like on land: with melee weapons and bows and arrows, but on floating wooden platforms rather than battlefields. Though the introduction of guns was a significant change, it only slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat. The first guns on ships were small wrought-iron pieces mounted on the open decks and in the fighting tops, often requiring only one or two men to handle them. They were designed to injure, kill or simply stun, shock and frighten the enemy prior to boarding. As guns were made more durable to withstand stronger gunpowder charges, they increased their potential to inflict critical damage to the vessel rather than just its crew. Since these guns were much heavier than the earlier anti-personnel weapons, they had to be placed lower in the ships, and fire from gunports, to avoid ships becoming unstable. In Northern Europe the technique of building ships with clinker planking made it difficult to cut ports in the hull; clinker-built (or clench-built) ships had much of their structural strength in the outer hull. The solution was the gradual adoption of carvel-built ships that relied on an internal skeleton structure to bear the weight of the ship. The development of propulsion during the 15th century from single-masted, square-rigged cogs to three-masted carracks with a mix of square and lateen sails made ships nimbler and easier to maneuver. Gunports cut in the hull of ships had been common practise as early as 1501. According to tradition the inventor was a Breton shipwright called Descharges, but it is just as likely to have been a gradual adaptation of loading ports in the stern of merchant vessels that had already been in use for centuries. Initially, the gunports were used to mount heavy so-called stern chasers pointing aft, but soon gun ports migrated to the sides of ships. This made possible coordinated volleys from all the guns on one side of a ship for the first time in history, at least in theory. Guns in the 16th century were considered to be in fixed positions and were intended to be fired independently rather than in concerted volleys. It was not until the 1590s that the word "broadside" in English was commonly used to refer to gunfire from the side of a ship rather than the ship's side itself. firing her guns broadside (1984). Note that intervening structures such as the bridge tower would prevent all of the guns from being focused directly forward or aft. The main batteries in 20th century battleships tended to be powered gun turrets which could swivel 180 degrees or more to establish wider firing arcs around the entire vessel. Although this could allow at least some of the main guns to be focused directly forward or aft, most or all battleships still relied on broadsides for maximum firepower. Structures such as the bridge tower in the middle of a battleship would prevent guns in the aft portion of the ship from firing forward, and vice versa. Additionally, directing the guns to the port or starboard projected the massive muzzle blast out over the ocean, while firing the guns too close to the deck could cause damage to the ship.	<urn:uuid:cf5f49cd-c071-4835-a5bb-8c785ba1a49c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wikiplanet.click/enciclopedia/en/Broadside	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00060.warc.gz	en	0.981998	689	4.25	4	[ -0.3129062056541443, 0.008388755843043327, 0.6357742547988892, -0.486366868019104, -0.09462738037109375, -0.3855575919151306, -0.12938253581523895, 0.15719430148601532, -0.03990564122796059, -0.4160598814487457, 0.11768535524606705, -0.18192654848098755, -0.435100793838501, 0.2000365555286...	1	The English warship Mary Rose , one of the earliest warships with a broadside armament; illustration from the Anthony Roll , c. 1546 Since ancient times, war at sea had been fought much like on land: with melee weapons and bows and arrows, but on floating wooden platforms rather than battlefields. Though the introduction of guns was a significant change, it only slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat. The first guns on ships were small wrought-iron pieces mounted on the open decks and in the fighting tops, often requiring only one or two men to handle them. They were designed to injure, kill or simply stun, shock and frighten the enemy prior to boarding. As guns were made more durable to withstand stronger gunpowder charges, they increased their potential to inflict critical damage to the vessel rather than just its crew. Since these guns were much heavier than the earlier anti-personnel weapons, they had to be placed lower in the ships, and fire from gunports, to avoid ships becoming unstable. In Northern Europe the technique of building ships with clinker planking made it difficult to cut ports in the hull; clinker-built (or clench-built) ships had much of their structural strength in the outer hull. The solution was the gradual adoption of carvel-built ships that relied on an internal skeleton structure to bear the weight of the ship. The development of propulsion during the 15th century from single-masted, square-rigged cogs to three-masted carracks with a mix of square and lateen sails made ships nimbler and easier to maneuver. Gunports cut in the hull of ships had been common practise as early as 1501. According to tradition the inventor was a Breton shipwright called Descharges, but it is just as likely to have been a gradual adaptation of loading ports in the stern of merchant vessels that had already been in use for centuries. Initially, the gunports were used to mount heavy so-called stern chasers pointing aft, but soon gun ports migrated to the sides of ships. This made possible coordinated volleys from all the guns on one side of a ship for the first time in history, at least in theory. Guns in the 16th century were considered to be in fixed positions and were intended to be fired independently rather than in concerted volleys. It was not until the 1590s that the word "broadside" in English was commonly used to refer to gunfire from the side of a ship rather than the ship's side itself. firing her guns broadside (1984). Note that intervening structures such as the bridge tower would prevent all of the guns from being focused directly forward or aft. The main batteries in 20th century battleships tended to be powered gun turrets which could swivel 180 degrees or more to establish wider firing arcs around the entire vessel. Although this could allow at least some of the main guns to be focused directly forward or aft, most or all battleships still relied on broadsides for maximum firepower. Structures such as the bridge tower in the middle of a battleship would prevent guns in the aft portion of the ship from firing forward, and vice versa. Additionally, directing the guns to the port or starboard projected the massive muzzle blast out over the ocean, while firing the guns too close to the deck could cause damage to the ship.	701	ENGLISH	1
Overview of the Culture of Los Tsachillas Let’s go down to South America where we find the country Ecuador, within these areas we come across a place called Santo Domingo de los Colorados but is now known as Santo Domingo de los Tsachillas. This place we come too is named after its main habitants which are known as Los Colorados but original name is Los Tsachillas. The word Colorado means “colored” and it was given to them because of their way of coloring their bodies and hair with red dye. The red dye became a big part of them because during the time of the colonization of the European in which they were hit by many diseases given that they were brought by their new settlers, the Tsachillas in desperation asked their spirits to give them a sign for a cure or protection from these diseases and during that time a ray of sun was shining on a basket filled with achiote. They considered this ray of sun a sign and covered themselves with the achiote and since then it has been considered a powerful and important part of their culture. All throughout Ecuador are many tribes but the Tsachillas are one of the big cultures that stand out through their ways and their unique look. The Tsachillas like any other society have its own way of dressing, language, way of living, political organization, marriages, gender roles, religion and rituals but despite this the Tsachillas are struggling to preserve their own identity and culture. As I mentioned their unique look is what allows the Tsachillas to stand out, both women and men have their way of dressing. Traditionally the Colorado Male uses a shirt called chumbillina, this is made by the women. This shirt would be 10- 15cm above the knee and had stripes of color blue and white. These stripes couldn’t be bigger than 4cm or less than 2cm. They would also have a belt of color red called “sendori,” this was a long piece of fabric cut rectangular that is used to hold the chumbillina given two raps around the waist with a knot in the front. They would also have a poncho called “nanun panu” that was used in times of cold weather or for special occasion. The mens hair would be shaved on sides leaving the middle section long to form as a helmet with the red achiote. Some would also have stripes of fabric on the neck with a lot of colors and would wear many bracelets. These bracelets were used in marriage and throughout as a symbol of their marriage and if their wife would pass away they would take them off as a sign of mourning for the love one. The Men would also paint on themselves, on their chest and face, black stripes with the Huito, one of their special trees. The female Tsachillas wear a shirt also that contains the colors red, blue, yellow and white. This starts across the waist and the length depends on the age, for...	<urn:uuid:0a98816c-dc31-4438-8fa6-9c4f0f1efd8e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/breakdown-of-the-culture-of-los-tsachillas	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00239.warc.gz	en	0.985124	620	3.46875	3	[ 0.11128527671098709, 0.05725334212183952, 0.34019893407821655, 0.015085281804203987, 0.09994744509458542, -0.10982175916433334, 0.5633078813552856, 0.044715024530887604, -0.38613325357437134, -0.45464926958084106, -0.01672055386006832, 0.04909273982048035, -0.10395360738039017, 0.059077810...	1	Overview of the Culture of Los Tsachillas Let’s go down to South America where we find the country Ecuador, within these areas we come across a place called Santo Domingo de los Colorados but is now known as Santo Domingo de los Tsachillas. This place we come too is named after its main habitants which are known as Los Colorados but original name is Los Tsachillas. The word Colorado means “colored” and it was given to them because of their way of coloring their bodies and hair with red dye. The red dye became a big part of them because during the time of the colonization of the European in which they were hit by many diseases given that they were brought by their new settlers, the Tsachillas in desperation asked their spirits to give them a sign for a cure or protection from these diseases and during that time a ray of sun was shining on a basket filled with achiote. They considered this ray of sun a sign and covered themselves with the achiote and since then it has been considered a powerful and important part of their culture. All throughout Ecuador are many tribes but the Tsachillas are one of the big cultures that stand out through their ways and their unique look. The Tsachillas like any other society have its own way of dressing, language, way of living, political organization, marriages, gender roles, religion and rituals but despite this the Tsachillas are struggling to preserve their own identity and culture. As I mentioned their unique look is what allows the Tsachillas to stand out, both women and men have their way of dressing. Traditionally the Colorado Male uses a shirt called chumbillina, this is made by the women. This shirt would be 10- 15cm above the knee and had stripes of color blue and white. These stripes couldn’t be bigger than 4cm or less than 2cm. They would also have a belt of color red called “sendori,” this was a long piece of fabric cut rectangular that is used to hold the chumbillina given two raps around the waist with a knot in the front. They would also have a poncho called “nanun panu” that was used in times of cold weather or for special occasion. The mens hair would be shaved on sides leaving the middle section long to form as a helmet with the red achiote. Some would also have stripes of fabric on the neck with a lot of colors and would wear many bracelets. These bracelets were used in marriage and throughout as a symbol of their marriage and if their wife would pass away they would take them off as a sign of mourning for the love one. The Men would also paint on themselves, on their chest and face, black stripes with the Huito, one of their special trees. The female Tsachillas wear a shirt also that contains the colors red, blue, yellow and white. This starts across the waist and the length depends on the age, for...	605	ENGLISH	1
The first fortress, Eketorp I, was built in the 300´s during a period of prosperity on the island of Öland. In order to defend their possessions, about 20 households got together and built the fortress. It became a common meeting place and a temporary shelter in times of trouble. Gradually it became a permanent settlement during the Eketorp II period. The diameter of the first fortress´ wall was smaller than what you see today. The fortress worked for a hundred years as a refuge fortress. The next fortress, Eketorp II, was built in the 400´s and was inhabited until the 700´s. Eketorp worked as a fortified farming village for three hundred years. 150-200 people lived within the protective ring wall with their animals. Some buildings were built along the ring wall, and some were built in the middle of the fortress. 53 buildings were built in total; dwelling-houses, cattle sheds, storehouses and workshops. The reconstructed dwelling house has walls of limestone and a roof of grass. There was a meeting place in the western part of the fortress and in its centre some stones were found that may have been the foundation of a religious icon. The archaeologists made some of the fortress´ finest discoveries here: small thin gold foils of men and women, so-called guldgubbar. During the High Middle Ages, from 1170-1240, Eketorp III was used as a military garrison with a cavalry. During this time, more than a hundred buildings were contained inside the ring wall without a single fire except for a fire in the central kitchen. Eketorp fortress was abandoned by its inhabitants in the 700s and was left to decay for almost 500 years. In the 1100s, new people moved in and started repairing the fortress defenses. The fortress wall was reinforced and a low outer wall was built. A centrally positioned kitchen and a number of workshops were built. Objects found in the fortress, including a large number of arrowheads, show that defense played a large role during this time. Instead of buildings with stone walls, long rows of buildings with wooden walls that rested on stone were built. Many of the buildings served as stables and barracks, but it wasn´t only soldiers who lived in the fortress during this time. There were also woman and children, as soldiers brought their families when they moved into the fortress. The well has been on the same site since the Iron Age and the garrison´s central kitchen was nearby. Food for all of the fortress´ inhabitants was cooked over a huge fireplace. A channel drain led from the well to the adjacent wetland to the east. The people who lived in Eketorp fortress were well aware of the fire risks that the fortress´ dense wooden buildings constituted. Because of this blacksmith´s forges were placed outside of the south gate in the area between the inner and outer walls.	<urn:uuid:8f0509b0-b983-499f-b395-ec224d7635a8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.eketorpsborg.se/english/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00514.warc.gz	en	0.991352	591	3.703125	4	[ -0.25652050971984863, 0.3321027457714081, 0.4932032823562622, 0.13561010360717773, -0.2084326446056366, -0.264864444732666, 0.03501550480723381, 0.0306001715362072, -0.24062921106815338, 0.07870049774646759, -0.0058956388384103775, -0.6760463714599609, 0.07591564953327179, 0.24035972356796...	2	The first fortress, Eketorp I, was built in the 300´s during a period of prosperity on the island of Öland. In order to defend their possessions, about 20 households got together and built the fortress. It became a common meeting place and a temporary shelter in times of trouble. Gradually it became a permanent settlement during the Eketorp II period. The diameter of the first fortress´ wall was smaller than what you see today. The fortress worked for a hundred years as a refuge fortress. The next fortress, Eketorp II, was built in the 400´s and was inhabited until the 700´s. Eketorp worked as a fortified farming village for three hundred years. 150-200 people lived within the protective ring wall with their animals. Some buildings were built along the ring wall, and some were built in the middle of the fortress. 53 buildings were built in total; dwelling-houses, cattle sheds, storehouses and workshops. The reconstructed dwelling house has walls of limestone and a roof of grass. There was a meeting place in the western part of the fortress and in its centre some stones were found that may have been the foundation of a religious icon. The archaeologists made some of the fortress´ finest discoveries here: small thin gold foils of men and women, so-called guldgubbar. During the High Middle Ages, from 1170-1240, Eketorp III was used as a military garrison with a cavalry. During this time, more than a hundred buildings were contained inside the ring wall without a single fire except for a fire in the central kitchen. Eketorp fortress was abandoned by its inhabitants in the 700s and was left to decay for almost 500 years. In the 1100s, new people moved in and started repairing the fortress defenses. The fortress wall was reinforced and a low outer wall was built. A centrally positioned kitchen and a number of workshops were built. Objects found in the fortress, including a large number of arrowheads, show that defense played a large role during this time. Instead of buildings with stone walls, long rows of buildings with wooden walls that rested on stone were built. Many of the buildings served as stables and barracks, but it wasn´t only soldiers who lived in the fortress during this time. There were also woman and children, as soldiers brought their families when they moved into the fortress. The well has been on the same site since the Iron Age and the garrison´s central kitchen was nearby. Food for all of the fortress´ inhabitants was cooked over a huge fireplace. A channel drain led from the well to the adjacent wetland to the east. The people who lived in Eketorp fortress were well aware of the fire risks that the fortress´ dense wooden buildings constituted. Because of this blacksmith´s forges were placed outside of the south gate in the area between the inner and outer walls.	614	ENGLISH	1
The story " Diary of Anne Frank" discusses the ways a group of Jewish people, during the 1940's, went about trying to conceal their identity and themselves and save themselves from death. This story was a true story taken from a diary of a young girl during the period in history when Germany occupied almost all of . This famous story was made into a play in 1955. The play begins in November of 1945 as Mr. Frank reads the diary that was kept by his daughter, Anne. The scene flashes back to July 1942, the time the Frank family was hiding in an attic in Amsterdam with a group of friends. The most important part of the play were the people who were represented. They gave the play a sense of flavor and realism. Anne, a young German girl was particularly interesting as a person, because of the scuffles she and everyone around her seemed to have. Anne's Mother was a woman who was traditional in her ways and wanted Anne to act more ladylike. She always held up Anne's sister, Margot, as a role model for Anne. Margot was always very proper, polite, and never spoke out of turn. The Frank's weren't the only ones who were hiding in this attic. Mr. Frank had offered this place of refuge to some friends of his, the Van Daans. Mr. Frank let them stay because they also needed a place to hide and had helped him in the past by teaching Mr. Frank German. The Van Daans had a son, Peter, in whom Anne became interested. Peter was the only person who could understand Anne and knew that Anne could understand him. They could both talk to each other freely when they were together. Dussel, another friend of Mr. Frnak, soon joined the group. He was only supposed to be in the attic for a short time, but he ended up staying till the end. He had to leave his Dentistry to also hide from the Germans. These people would not have survived without the help of Miep Gies and Mr. Kraler who gave them the necessities they needed. The play was about the conflicts and struggles between two families who were forced to live together for a long period of time. The play also demonstrated how personalities deteriorate in times of troubles. For example Mr. Van Daan started stealing food while he knew his own son was close to starving. I thought this was a very well written human interest story about several people who lived in constant fear of being caught by the Germans and how they were able to survive for about 4 years in their hiding place, the attic..	<urn:uuid:315978a1-548b-433f-b357-43337eca7e3b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ww.novelguide.com/reportessay/literature/plays/diary-anne-frank	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00156.warc.gz	en	0.995	527	3.453125	3	[ 0.045420125126838684, 0.4496087431907654, 0.03527902811765671, -0.0744168609380722, -0.09081478416919708, 0.44035804271698, 0.3106754422187805, 0.036928147077560425, -0.1683063805103302, -0.33071058988571167, 0.2348940521478653, 0.05374091863632202, -0.2002568542957306, 0.40859687328338623...	3	The story " Diary of Anne Frank" discusses the ways a group of Jewish people, during the 1940's, went about trying to conceal their identity and themselves and save themselves from death. This story was a true story taken from a diary of a young girl during the period in history when Germany occupied almost all of . This famous story was made into a play in 1955. The play begins in November of 1945 as Mr. Frank reads the diary that was kept by his daughter, Anne. The scene flashes back to July 1942, the time the Frank family was hiding in an attic in Amsterdam with a group of friends. The most important part of the play were the people who were represented. They gave the play a sense of flavor and realism. Anne, a young German girl was particularly interesting as a person, because of the scuffles she and everyone around her seemed to have. Anne's Mother was a woman who was traditional in her ways and wanted Anne to act more ladylike. She always held up Anne's sister, Margot, as a role model for Anne. Margot was always very proper, polite, and never spoke out of turn. The Frank's weren't the only ones who were hiding in this attic. Mr. Frank had offered this place of refuge to some friends of his, the Van Daans. Mr. Frank let them stay because they also needed a place to hide and had helped him in the past by teaching Mr. Frank German. The Van Daans had a son, Peter, in whom Anne became interested. Peter was the only person who could understand Anne and knew that Anne could understand him. They could both talk to each other freely when they were together. Dussel, another friend of Mr. Frnak, soon joined the group. He was only supposed to be in the attic for a short time, but he ended up staying till the end. He had to leave his Dentistry to also hide from the Germans. These people would not have survived without the help of Miep Gies and Mr. Kraler who gave them the necessities they needed. The play was about the conflicts and struggles between two families who were forced to live together for a long period of time. The play also demonstrated how personalities deteriorate in times of troubles. For example Mr. Van Daan started stealing food while he knew his own son was close to starving. I thought this was a very well written human interest story about several people who lived in constant fear of being caught by the Germans and how they were able to survive for about 4 years in their hiding place, the attic..	542	ENGLISH	1
US History Preparation for War World War I was a major war that began on 28 July 1918 in central Europe and lasted until 11 November 1918. Unlike other wars that had been fought before, World War I involved the world’s superpowers, who assembled into two opposing sides: the Central Powers and the Triple Entente. It is argued that this war was one of the largest and most destructive warfare in world’s history. Although the immediate cause of this war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo, Bosnia, the massing of armies, militarism, nationalism, alliances, and imperialism made the war almost necessary. While Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were in Sarajevo, Bosnia, a Serbian nationalist assassinated them. It is believed that the Archduke Ferdinand was assassinated by the Serbian nationalist in protest of Austria-Hungary’s intentions of having control of this region (Stokesbury, 2003). It was argued hat Serbia wanted to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina. As a result, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. When this war began, different countries started to support their allies in the war. Due to its close ties with Serbia, Russia began to mobilize resources and manpower to help Serbia. As a result, Germany, whose ally was Austria-Hungary, also started to mobilize manpower and other resources in aid of its ally (Keegan, 2000). As the war progressed, different countries all over Europe made mutual defense agreements with each other that pulled then into war. This means that when one country was attacked, all her allies would rally behind her in defense. Even before the World War had begun, an arms race was already underway in different countries in Europe. It is argued that Germany and Great Britain had made significant improvements in their armies. As a result, this military buildup influenced public policies. It is claimed that these countries compelled themselves into this war to showcase their military might (Keegan, 2000). An increased desire and competition to conquer more land and amerce more wealth also led to this war. Before this war, parts of Asia and Africa elicited fierce rivalry among many European countries. Stokesbury (2003) contends that these confrontations helped push these nations into war. Nationalism also played a big role in sparking off this war. This can be attributed to the fact that Slavic people living in Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted to be part of Serbia rather than Austria-Hungary and this elicited rivalry between the two sides. The United States of America was not interested in taking part in this was because of several reasons. First off, America was in the middle of a great depression at the time of this war and therefore, the country did not want to add more problems by going to war. Additionally, most Americans were of German and Italian decent whose attitude was that America should concentrate on its problems rather than getting involved in European politics. Another reason as to why America was neutral in the initial phase of this war was that the country wanted to keep the Atlantic open for trade. Nevertheless, it reached a point where America was compelled to join this war. America joined the war as a result of the Lusitania and submarine warfare. During the war, the Germans had an unauthorized access to the U.S. East Coast. The unrestricted submarine warfare that was sparked by German in the spring of 1917 compelled America to declare war. Moreover, the Germans sank the Lusitania, which was a British cruise ship that was headed to Great Britain from New York killing 1195 people, including 128 Americans. Wilson wanted the Senate to declare war because of several reasons. First off, the president saw the submarine warfare as warfare against humanity. He was of the opinion that by going into war, America would make the world a good place for democracy to thrive. Moreover, he wanted America to go into war to ensure the liberties and rights of small nations are sustained, democracy, and the establishment of an international body that would end war forever (Zieger, 2001). Most Americans did not support WWI. A majority believed that they were living in a new world that was free from corruption and old fashioned ideas like nationalism, communism and imperialism. After the war, over 100,000 American soldiers had died and Americans could not see why their sons, daughters, brothers and sisters had died keeping peace elsewhere. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:dda8ad9b-507c-4d8f-9756-c979bd1ddc7c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/us-history-preparation-for-war.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00104.warc.gz	en	0.980913	898	3.953125	4	[ -0.1877449005842209, 0.5236610770225525, 0.43752598762512207, -0.04923548549413681, 0.15432530641555786, 0.3287062644958496, -0.12587186694145203, 0.3229358196258545, 0.24543286859989166, -0.20394086837768555, 0.11439795792102814, -0.30222970247268677, -0.06349113583564758, 0.3751618266105...	1	US History Preparation for War World War I was a major war that began on 28 July 1918 in central Europe and lasted until 11 November 1918. Unlike other wars that had been fought before, World War I involved the world’s superpowers, who assembled into two opposing sides: the Central Powers and the Triple Entente. It is argued that this war was one of the largest and most destructive warfare in world’s history. Although the immediate cause of this war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo, Bosnia, the massing of armies, militarism, nationalism, alliances, and imperialism made the war almost necessary. While Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were in Sarajevo, Bosnia, a Serbian nationalist assassinated them. It is believed that the Archduke Ferdinand was assassinated by the Serbian nationalist in protest of Austria-Hungary’s intentions of having control of this region (Stokesbury, 2003). It was argued hat Serbia wanted to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina. As a result, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. When this war began, different countries started to support their allies in the war. Due to its close ties with Serbia, Russia began to mobilize resources and manpower to help Serbia. As a result, Germany, whose ally was Austria-Hungary, also started to mobilize manpower and other resources in aid of its ally (Keegan, 2000). As the war progressed, different countries all over Europe made mutual defense agreements with each other that pulled then into war. This means that when one country was attacked, all her allies would rally behind her in defense. Even before the World War had begun, an arms race was already underway in different countries in Europe. It is argued that Germany and Great Britain had made significant improvements in their armies. As a result, this military buildup influenced public policies. It is claimed that these countries compelled themselves into this war to showcase their military might (Keegan, 2000). An increased desire and competition to conquer more land and amerce more wealth also led to this war. Before this war, parts of Asia and Africa elicited fierce rivalry among many European countries. Stokesbury (2003) contends that these confrontations helped push these nations into war. Nationalism also played a big role in sparking off this war. This can be attributed to the fact that Slavic people living in Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted to be part of Serbia rather than Austria-Hungary and this elicited rivalry between the two sides. The United States of America was not interested in taking part in this was because of several reasons. First off, America was in the middle of a great depression at the time of this war and therefore, the country did not want to add more problems by going to war. Additionally, most Americans were of German and Italian decent whose attitude was that America should concentrate on its problems rather than getting involved in European politics. Another reason as to why America was neutral in the initial phase of this war was that the country wanted to keep the Atlantic open for trade. Nevertheless, it reached a point where America was compelled to join this war. America joined the war as a result of the Lusitania and submarine warfare. During the war, the Germans had an unauthorized access to the U.S. East Coast. The unrestricted submarine warfare that was sparked by German in the spring of 1917 compelled America to declare war. Moreover, the Germans sank the Lusitania, which was a British cruise ship that was headed to Great Britain from New York killing 1195 people, including 128 Americans. Wilson wanted the Senate to declare war because of several reasons. First off, the president saw the submarine warfare as warfare against humanity. He was of the opinion that by going into war, America would make the world a good place for democracy to thrive. Moreover, he wanted America to go into war to ensure the liberties and rights of small nations are sustained, democracy, and the establishment of an international body that would end war forever (Zieger, 2001). Most Americans did not support WWI. A majority believed that they were living in a new world that was free from corruption and old fashioned ideas like nationalism, communism and imperialism. After the war, over 100,000 American soldiers had died and Americans could not see why their sons, daughters, brothers and sisters had died keeping peace elsewhere. Most popular orders	932	ENGLISH	1
The Trelleborg near Slagelse on the Danish island of Zealand is one of the Viking ring castles of which five or six have been found until now (2006). It lies to the northwest of Slagelse. At the time the fortress was built it was situated on a peninsula that jutted into the swampy area between two rivers. It was connected to the Great Belt by a lake that at its time was usable for Viking ships, but that has since vanished. It might have commanded the connection to the island of Fyn and the sea traffic on the Great Belt. Similar to the other Viking ring castles found so far, the Trelleborg at Slagelse was designed as an exact circle with two roads that crossed at right angles in the geometric center and led to the four gates with two always opposite to each other. In each of the four quarters stood four almost identical longhouses arranged in a square. Unlike the others the fortress was extended with a sort of bailey. The whole fortress may have supplied room for some 1300 people. The circular main castle was surrounded by a 5 meter high rampart that was 17.5 meters wide at the base and had a diameter of 137 meters. The outer walling was made of oak. Two rows of poles were supported by slanted beams from the outside and the room in between the poles was filled with loam and stones. The inside was also clad with wood, the two facades were reinforced by beams connecting the two. In the east there was a 5 meter broad berm protected by a ditch with a pointed profile, 17 meters wide and 4 meters deep. The ditch was not filled with water and had a palisade at its base. The two roads were covered with wood and the four gates lined with stones on the inside. As in Fyrkat there may have been a circle path along the inner side of the ramparts. The 16 longhouses were arranged in four squares 29.42 meters long each and had a some what ship like form, the long walls bulging outwards. Each house was divided into three rooms with a large central hall (18 x 8 m) and two smaller rooms at the ends. Each house had four entrances, two at the short ends and two in the long walls. The doors where protected by porches. Besides the large longhouses there were also smaller houses to the north of the north eastern quarter, two small houses in the inner yard of the northeastern and southwestern quarter and a little square hut each near the northern and western gates. This part of the fortress seems unique as the other fortresses seem to lack this feature (so far only Aggersborg, Fyrkat and the Trelleborg near Slagelse have been fully excavated as of 2006). The bailey was protected by a rampart of its own to the east. The 16 longhouses of the bailey, each 26.33 meters long, were placed with their axis through the length of the buildings pointing to the center of the main castle. In an extension of this bailey was a cemetery with 135 graves. Most buried were young men but some were also women or children. Two contained mass burials, one for five and one for eleven persons. Over two thirds of the graves had no grave offerings, the others only had few pieces, weapons being rather rare. Only two graves were rich in items. One was a woman's grave with pearls, a bronze bucket, a wood casket and game stones. The other was the grave of a male with a bronze bowl and a silver adorned axe. The large amount of simple graves may indicate a Christian influence. Graves of horsemen were found on surrounding higher grounds. The site was excavated from 1934 to 1942. Most of the finds were things of every day life: pottery, locks, keys, fittings, knives, whetstones, combs, weaving weights, scissors and needles. Weapons such as iron axes, arrow points and parts of shields. Older datings put the castle near the year 1000. Datings by Dendrochronology have found the wood used for the construction to have been felled in the fall of 980 and thus being used for building presumedly in the spring of 981. The rather short construction time and the complete lack of any signs of maintenance indicate an only short use of the buildings. Possibly the fortress was abandoned before it was completed. Signs of fire may indicate its destruction by fire. The regions around the gates show signs of longer usage though. One of the Longhouses was reconstructed on the site in 1948. Further investigations have led to other opinions on the construction though. Today the site is an open air museum with some buildings for exhibits.	<urn:uuid:667c28e8-4b4c-4a32-8b93-2674b6995e7d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.advisor.travel/poi/Trelleborg-Slagelse-11416	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00362.warc.gz	en	0.986957	968	3.328125	3	[ 0.34388601779937744, 0.39709246158599854, -0.08267414569854736, -0.04816392809152603, -0.1399877518415451, -0.027371201664209366, -0.35876110196113586, 0.12426699697971344, -0.015783995389938354, -0.1216014176607132, 0.3507024347782135, -0.5124024152755737, 0.27360785007476807, 0.465674221...	1	The Trelleborg near Slagelse on the Danish island of Zealand is one of the Viking ring castles of which five or six have been found until now (2006). It lies to the northwest of Slagelse. At the time the fortress was built it was situated on a peninsula that jutted into the swampy area between two rivers. It was connected to the Great Belt by a lake that at its time was usable for Viking ships, but that has since vanished. It might have commanded the connection to the island of Fyn and the sea traffic on the Great Belt. Similar to the other Viking ring castles found so far, the Trelleborg at Slagelse was designed as an exact circle with two roads that crossed at right angles in the geometric center and led to the four gates with two always opposite to each other. In each of the four quarters stood four almost identical longhouses arranged in a square. Unlike the others the fortress was extended with a sort of bailey. The whole fortress may have supplied room for some 1300 people. The circular main castle was surrounded by a 5 meter high rampart that was 17.5 meters wide at the base and had a diameter of 137 meters. The outer walling was made of oak. Two rows of poles were supported by slanted beams from the outside and the room in between the poles was filled with loam and stones. The inside was also clad with wood, the two facades were reinforced by beams connecting the two. In the east there was a 5 meter broad berm protected by a ditch with a pointed profile, 17 meters wide and 4 meters deep. The ditch was not filled with water and had a palisade at its base. The two roads were covered with wood and the four gates lined with stones on the inside. As in Fyrkat there may have been a circle path along the inner side of the ramparts. The 16 longhouses were arranged in four squares 29.42 meters long each and had a some what ship like form, the long walls bulging outwards. Each house was divided into three rooms with a large central hall (18 x 8 m) and two smaller rooms at the ends. Each house had four entrances, two at the short ends and two in the long walls. The doors where protected by porches. Besides the large longhouses there were also smaller houses to the north of the north eastern quarter, two small houses in the inner yard of the northeastern and southwestern quarter and a little square hut each near the northern and western gates. This part of the fortress seems unique as the other fortresses seem to lack this feature (so far only Aggersborg, Fyrkat and the Trelleborg near Slagelse have been fully excavated as of 2006). The bailey was protected by a rampart of its own to the east. The 16 longhouses of the bailey, each 26.33 meters long, were placed with their axis through the length of the buildings pointing to the center of the main castle. In an extension of this bailey was a cemetery with 135 graves. Most buried were young men but some were also women or children. Two contained mass burials, one for five and one for eleven persons. Over two thirds of the graves had no grave offerings, the others only had few pieces, weapons being rather rare. Only two graves were rich in items. One was a woman's grave with pearls, a bronze bucket, a wood casket and game stones. The other was the grave of a male with a bronze bowl and a silver adorned axe. The large amount of simple graves may indicate a Christian influence. Graves of horsemen were found on surrounding higher grounds. The site was excavated from 1934 to 1942. Most of the finds were things of every day life: pottery, locks, keys, fittings, knives, whetstones, combs, weaving weights, scissors and needles. Weapons such as iron axes, arrow points and parts of shields. Older datings put the castle near the year 1000. Datings by Dendrochronology have found the wood used for the construction to have been felled in the fall of 980 and thus being used for building presumedly in the spring of 981. The rather short construction time and the complete lack of any signs of maintenance indicate an only short use of the buildings. Possibly the fortress was abandoned before it was completed. Signs of fire may indicate its destruction by fire. The regions around the gates show signs of longer usage though. One of the Longhouses was reconstructed on the site in 1948. Further investigations have led to other opinions on the construction though. Today the site is an open air museum with some buildings for exhibits.	1,011	ENGLISH	1
Anglo-Saxon settlers lived in groups under a chief, who could grow in strength and become a king. These kings ruled a kingdom and led a small army. Kings were in competition with each other. Archaeological digs have uncovered coins, clothes, shields, cups, shoes, lyres (musical instruments), and weapons. The treasure buried with the king included coins (with dates on them), the remains of clothes and armor, a shield, drinking cups, shoes, a lyre, a gold belt buckle, a sword and a helmet. It was clear this was the burial place of a great leader. One king, Offa, who lived in the 8th century AD, was the strongest, most powerful king in England at the time. He was the first to issue pennies as coins. Under his leadership they built a wall and ditch for defense in battles. Kings didn’t imprison anyone. Criminals were executed, punished, or fined. Any criminal that ran away would be considered an outlaw that anyone could hunt down. The church was considered a sanctuary where outlaws could be safe from those chasing after them. Fines for crimes were paid to the person who suffered from the crime in order to prevent revenge attacks. Slaves were owned in this society. Slaves could own no land. They could be captured or born into slavery. They would sleep in sheds and barns, while free peasants lived in small huts. Kings and other leaders lived in big wooden houses.	<urn:uuid:30f6575b-6484-4b0e-937b-f4b8a7e30f91>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://allinonehomeschool.com/kings/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00188.warc.gz	en	0.990616	309	4.40625	4	[ -0.13733257353305817, 0.49589502811431885, 0.20606544613838196, -0.15498152375221252, -0.06270676106214523, -0.32104775309562683, 0.18381242454051971, -0.40954458713531494, -0.06622763723134995, -0.00613970123231411, 0.025851620361208916, -0.3077644109725952, 0.32038959860801697, 0.0927109...	1	Anglo-Saxon settlers lived in groups under a chief, who could grow in strength and become a king. These kings ruled a kingdom and led a small army. Kings were in competition with each other. Archaeological digs have uncovered coins, clothes, shields, cups, shoes, lyres (musical instruments), and weapons. The treasure buried with the king included coins (with dates on them), the remains of clothes and armor, a shield, drinking cups, shoes, a lyre, a gold belt buckle, a sword and a helmet. It was clear this was the burial place of a great leader. One king, Offa, who lived in the 8th century AD, was the strongest, most powerful king in England at the time. He was the first to issue pennies as coins. Under his leadership they built a wall and ditch for defense in battles. Kings didn’t imprison anyone. Criminals were executed, punished, or fined. Any criminal that ran away would be considered an outlaw that anyone could hunt down. The church was considered a sanctuary where outlaws could be safe from those chasing after them. Fines for crimes were paid to the person who suffered from the crime in order to prevent revenge attacks. Slaves were owned in this society. Slaves could own no land. They could be captured or born into slavery. They would sleep in sheds and barns, while free peasants lived in small huts. Kings and other leaders lived in big wooden houses.	302	ENGLISH	1
Yangdi Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Yangdi was the son of the first emperor of the Chinese Sui dynasty. He ruled China as Emperor Yang from 604 to 618. Yangdi was born Yang Ying in 569 in Sui, China. His father Yang Jian was the Duke of Sui. Yang Jian changed his son’s name to Yang Guang after advice from the spiritual leader of the town. Yangdi studied the classical Confucian syllabus like all children of nobility in China. Yang Jian favored his second born Yangdi because of his physical and intellectual abilities. In 580 Emperor Xuan died. Yang Jian ruled as the regent on behalf of the young emperor’s son. In 581 Yang forced the late emperor’s son to abdicate the throne, He declared himself the emperor and assumed the title Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty. As a prince Yangdi served in the military as one of its top commanders. In 588 Emperor Wen invaded the Chen dynasty. Yangdi and his elder brother Yang Jun led the military offensive into Chen territory. After the victory in Chen, the Crown Prince Yang Jun lived a carefree life. He engaged in alcoholism and was involved with extramarital affairs. He lost favor from his parents. Yangdi saw the opportunity to depose his brother. He portrayed himself as being faithful to his marriage and listened to the royal counselors. Eventually, Emperor Wen stripped Yang Jun of his royal title and made Yangdi the Crown Prince. In 604 Emperor Wen died. Yangdi succeeded his father. He killed his elder brother to stop any rival claim to the throne. Yangdi assumed the throne as Emperor Yang. Yangdi was a zealous leader. He embarked on the industrialization of his empire’s infrastructure. He believed in food security and internal stability. Yangdi commissioned the construction of two mega canals in China. He built the Tongji canal in two phases. He first connected Luoyang with the Yellow River. After it was finished, he connected another canal from the Yellow River to Huai River. Yangdi reconstructed and reinforced the old Han canal. Yangdi completed the monumental task with almost half of the workers dying during the construction period. He constructed two other food storage facilities in Luokou and Huiluo. These storages helped in the conservation of surplus grains left during the harvest season. Yangdi also spent considerable resources to construct royal palaces for himself. Yangdi became the heroic emperor. To consolidate his power, Yangdi made foreign excursions into other territories. He conquered several neighboring empires, thus expanding his territory. He used the resources in the annexed regions to bolster the construction ambitions in his native Sui Empire. Yangdi extended his empire to Vietnam and Central Asia. He did not bother much about the cost of his military expeditions. Yangdi made his campaigns at all cost just to conquer what he wanted. Emperor Yang became more ruthless to the citizens. He imposed punitive taxes in order to fund his projects. He started living an expensive and extravagant life to the expense of the poor subjects. Ynagdi’s food security policy was abandoned in favor of his lavish lifestyle. The citizens staged several rebellions which were successfully pacified. In 618 senior army officers of his empire attacked his palace. They captured the emperor and held him hostage within the place. When he realized that the rebellious military officers had staged a coup on his regime, Yangdi opted to commit suicide. He tried poisoning himself but the palace did not have any lethal concoction. Eventually, he gave up and surrendered to the soldiers. He gave his scarf to one of the soldiers to strangle him. Emperor Yang died of strangulation in the palace rather than face the humiliation of public execution. In 582 Yangdi then still Prince Yang Guang married a princess of the Liang dynasty through an arranged political marriage. In 605 she became Empress Xiao when Yangdi assumed the throne as the emperor. They had two sons and a daughter. Like other imperial rulers of China, Emperor Yang had numerous royal concubines. He fathered several other children with the palace concubines. Yangdi was a progressive leader who stabilized his empire with mega projects. He majored in infrastructure development to bolster the agro economics policies he envisaged. He also modernized his military with new arsenal. He expanded his territory to consolidate his influence in the region. In his late years, he lost touch with his subjects. He focused solely on his lavish life and the construction of his projects at the expense of his imperial subjects. He paid with his life.	<urn:uuid:1dbdc691-3820-4db8-a0f0-3578eb218035>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/yangdi/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00332.warc.gz	en	0.985092	947	3.28125	3	[ -0.05569412186741829, 0.4023641049861908, 0.7921063899993896, -0.2246735394001007, -0.04525010660290718, 0.02791951224207878, 0.45998814702033997, -0.11318477988243103, 0.039321012794971466, -0.14694353938102722, 0.2657386064529419, -0.42896854877471924, 0.4243350028991699, 0.4197994470596...	3	Yangdi Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Yangdi was the son of the first emperor of the Chinese Sui dynasty. He ruled China as Emperor Yang from 604 to 618. Yangdi was born Yang Ying in 569 in Sui, China. His father Yang Jian was the Duke of Sui. Yang Jian changed his son’s name to Yang Guang after advice from the spiritual leader of the town. Yangdi studied the classical Confucian syllabus like all children of nobility in China. Yang Jian favored his second born Yangdi because of his physical and intellectual abilities. In 580 Emperor Xuan died. Yang Jian ruled as the regent on behalf of the young emperor’s son. In 581 Yang forced the late emperor’s son to abdicate the throne, He declared himself the emperor and assumed the title Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty. As a prince Yangdi served in the military as one of its top commanders. In 588 Emperor Wen invaded the Chen dynasty. Yangdi and his elder brother Yang Jun led the military offensive into Chen territory. After the victory in Chen, the Crown Prince Yang Jun lived a carefree life. He engaged in alcoholism and was involved with extramarital affairs. He lost favor from his parents. Yangdi saw the opportunity to depose his brother. He portrayed himself as being faithful to his marriage and listened to the royal counselors. Eventually, Emperor Wen stripped Yang Jun of his royal title and made Yangdi the Crown Prince. In 604 Emperor Wen died. Yangdi succeeded his father. He killed his elder brother to stop any rival claim to the throne. Yangdi assumed the throne as Emperor Yang. Yangdi was a zealous leader. He embarked on the industrialization of his empire’s infrastructure. He believed in food security and internal stability. Yangdi commissioned the construction of two mega canals in China. He built the Tongji canal in two phases. He first connected Luoyang with the Yellow River. After it was finished, he connected another canal from the Yellow River to Huai River. Yangdi reconstructed and reinforced the old Han canal. Yangdi completed the monumental task with almost half of the workers dying during the construction period. He constructed two other food storage facilities in Luokou and Huiluo. These storages helped in the conservation of surplus grains left during the harvest season. Yangdi also spent considerable resources to construct royal palaces for himself. Yangdi became the heroic emperor. To consolidate his power, Yangdi made foreign excursions into other territories. He conquered several neighboring empires, thus expanding his territory. He used the resources in the annexed regions to bolster the construction ambitions in his native Sui Empire. Yangdi extended his empire to Vietnam and Central Asia. He did not bother much about the cost of his military expeditions. Yangdi made his campaigns at all cost just to conquer what he wanted. Emperor Yang became more ruthless to the citizens. He imposed punitive taxes in order to fund his projects. He started living an expensive and extravagant life to the expense of the poor subjects. Ynagdi’s food security policy was abandoned in favor of his lavish lifestyle. The citizens staged several rebellions which were successfully pacified. In 618 senior army officers of his empire attacked his palace. They captured the emperor and held him hostage within the place. When he realized that the rebellious military officers had staged a coup on his regime, Yangdi opted to commit suicide. He tried poisoning himself but the palace did not have any lethal concoction. Eventually, he gave up and surrendered to the soldiers. He gave his scarf to one of the soldiers to strangle him. Emperor Yang died of strangulation in the palace rather than face the humiliation of public execution. In 582 Yangdi then still Prince Yang Guang married a princess of the Liang dynasty through an arranged political marriage. In 605 she became Empress Xiao when Yangdi assumed the throne as the emperor. They had two sons and a daughter. Like other imperial rulers of China, Emperor Yang had numerous royal concubines. He fathered several other children with the palace concubines. Yangdi was a progressive leader who stabilized his empire with mega projects. He majored in infrastructure development to bolster the agro economics policies he envisaged. He also modernized his military with new arsenal. He expanded his territory to consolidate his influence in the region. In his late years, he lost touch with his subjects. He focused solely on his lavish life and the construction of his projects at the expense of his imperial subjects. He paid with his life.	953	ENGLISH	1
Click on an oval to select your answer. To choose a different answer, click one different oval. Nothing divided the medieval world in Europe more decisively from the Early Modern period than printing with movable type. It was a German invention and the culmination of a complex process. The world of antiquity had recorded its writings mainly on papyrus. Between 200 B.C and A.D 300, this was supplemented by vellum, calf skin treated and then smoothed by pumice stone. To this in late Roman times was added parchment, similarly made from the smoothed skin of sheep or goats. In the early Middle Ages, Europe imported an industrial process from China, which turned almost any kind of fibrous material into pulp that was then spread in sheets. This was known as cloth parchment. By about 1150 the Spanish had developed the first mill for making cheap paper (a word contracted from "papyrus", which became the standard term). One of the most important phenomena of the later Middle Ages was the growing availability of cheap paper. Even in England, where technology lagged far behind, a sheet of paper, or eight octavo pages, cost only a penny by the fifteenth century. In the years 1446-1448, two German goldsmiths, Johannes Gutenberg and Johann Fust, made use of cheap paper to introduce a critical improvement in the way written pages were reproduced. Printing from wooden blocks was the old method; what the Germans did was to invent movable type for the letterpress. It had three merits: it could be used repeatedly until worn out; it was cast in metal from a mold and so could be renewed without difficulty; and it made lettering uniform. In 1450, Gutenberg began work on his Bible, the first printed book, known as the Gutenberg. It was completed in 1455 and is a marvel. As Gutenberg, apart from getting the key idea, had to solve a lot of practical problems, including imposing paper and ink into the process and the actual printing itself, for which he adapted the screw press used by winemakers, it is amazing that his first product does not look at all rudimentary. Those who handle it are struck by its clarity and quality. Printing was one of those technical revolutions that developed its own momentum at extraordinary speed. Europe in the fifteenth century was a place where intermediate technology-that is, workshops with skilled craftspeople-was well established and spreading fast, especially in Germany and Italy. Such workshops were able to take on printing easily, and it thus became Europe's first true industry. The process was aided by two factors: the new demand for cheap classical texts and the translation of the Latin Bible into "modern" languages. Works of reference were also in demand. Presses sprang up in several German cities, and by 1470, Nuremberg, Germany had established itself as the center of the international publishing trade, printing books from 24 presses and distributing them at trade fairs all over western and central Europe. The old monastic scriptoria-monastery workshops where monks copied texts by hand-worked closely alongside the new presses, continuing to produce the luxury goods that movable-type printing could not yet supply. Printing, however, was primarily aimed at a cheap mass sale. Although there was no competition between the technologies, there was rivalry between nations. The Italians made energetic and successful efforts to catch up with Germany. Their most successful scriptorium quickly imported two leading German printers to set up presses in their book-producing shop. German printers had the disadvantage of working with the complex typeface that the Italians sneeringly referred to as "Gothic" and that later became known as black letter. Outside Germany, readers found this typeface disagreeable. The Italians, on the other hand, had a clear typeface known as roman that became the type of the future. Hence, although the Germans made use of the paper revolution to introduce movable type, the Italians went far to regain the initiative by their artistry. By 1500 there were printing firms in 60 German cities, but there were 150 presses in Venice alone. However, since many nations and governments wanted their own presses, the trade quickly became international. The cumulative impact of this industrial spread was spectacular. Before printing, only the very largest libraries, of which there were a dozen in Europe, had as many as 600 books. The total number of books on the entire Continent was well under 100,000. But by 1500, after only 45 years of the printed book, there were 9 million in circulation. 原文定位：Between 200 B.C and A.D 300, this was supplemented by vellum, calf skin treated and then smoothed by pumice stone. 需要往前看指代信息“The world of antiquity had recorded its writings mainly on papyrus.”	<urn:uuid:f3a39f26-8a3f-4f56-9ce1-16ff852f52e6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://toefl.kmf.com/detail/read/11chdj.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00365.warc.gz	en	0.980247	1,010	4.125	4	[ -0.3546391725540161, 0.3277500867843628, 0.11864922940731049, 0.09356540441513062, -0.23955655097961426, -0.3223695158958435, -0.7794321775436401, 0.6260501146316528, -0.15550163388252258, -0.0259183831512928, -0.31354260444641113, -0.2653450071811676, -0.23061929643154144, 0.1900322437286...	4	Click on an oval to select your answer. To choose a different answer, click one different oval. Nothing divided the medieval world in Europe more decisively from the Early Modern period than printing with movable type. It was a German invention and the culmination of a complex process. The world of antiquity had recorded its writings mainly on papyrus. Between 200 B.C and A.D 300, this was supplemented by vellum, calf skin treated and then smoothed by pumice stone. To this in late Roman times was added parchment, similarly made from the smoothed skin of sheep or goats. In the early Middle Ages, Europe imported an industrial process from China, which turned almost any kind of fibrous material into pulp that was then spread in sheets. This was known as cloth parchment. By about 1150 the Spanish had developed the first mill for making cheap paper (a word contracted from "papyrus", which became the standard term). One of the most important phenomena of the later Middle Ages was the growing availability of cheap paper. Even in England, where technology lagged far behind, a sheet of paper, or eight octavo pages, cost only a penny by the fifteenth century. In the years 1446-1448, two German goldsmiths, Johannes Gutenberg and Johann Fust, made use of cheap paper to introduce a critical improvement in the way written pages were reproduced. Printing from wooden blocks was the old method; what the Germans did was to invent movable type for the letterpress. It had three merits: it could be used repeatedly until worn out; it was cast in metal from a mold and so could be renewed without difficulty; and it made lettering uniform. In 1450, Gutenberg began work on his Bible, the first printed book, known as the Gutenberg. It was completed in 1455 and is a marvel. As Gutenberg, apart from getting the key idea, had to solve a lot of practical problems, including imposing paper and ink into the process and the actual printing itself, for which he adapted the screw press used by winemakers, it is amazing that his first product does not look at all rudimentary. Those who handle it are struck by its clarity and quality. Printing was one of those technical revolutions that developed its own momentum at extraordinary speed. Europe in the fifteenth century was a place where intermediate technology-that is, workshops with skilled craftspeople-was well established and spreading fast, especially in Germany and Italy. Such workshops were able to take on printing easily, and it thus became Europe's first true industry. The process was aided by two factors: the new demand for cheap classical texts and the translation of the Latin Bible into "modern" languages. Works of reference were also in demand. Presses sprang up in several German cities, and by 1470, Nuremberg, Germany had established itself as the center of the international publishing trade, printing books from 24 presses and distributing them at trade fairs all over western and central Europe. The old monastic scriptoria-monastery workshops where monks copied texts by hand-worked closely alongside the new presses, continuing to produce the luxury goods that movable-type printing could not yet supply. Printing, however, was primarily aimed at a cheap mass sale. Although there was no competition between the technologies, there was rivalry between nations. The Italians made energetic and successful efforts to catch up with Germany. Their most successful scriptorium quickly imported two leading German printers to set up presses in their book-producing shop. German printers had the disadvantage of working with the complex typeface that the Italians sneeringly referred to as "Gothic" and that later became known as black letter. Outside Germany, readers found this typeface disagreeable. The Italians, on the other hand, had a clear typeface known as roman that became the type of the future. Hence, although the Germans made use of the paper revolution to introduce movable type, the Italians went far to regain the initiative by their artistry. By 1500 there were printing firms in 60 German cities, but there were 150 presses in Venice alone. However, since many nations and governments wanted their own presses, the trade quickly became international. The cumulative impact of this industrial spread was spectacular. Before printing, only the very largest libraries, of which there were a dozen in Europe, had as many as 600 books. The total number of books on the entire Continent was well under 100,000. But by 1500, after only 45 years of the printed book, there were 9 million in circulation. 原文定位：Between 200 B.C and A.D 300, this was supplemented by vellum, calf skin treated and then smoothed by pumice stone. 需要往前看指代信息“The world of antiquity had recorded its writings mainly on papyrus.”	1,021	ENGLISH	1
On December 21, 1817, the poet John Keats wrote a letter to his brother in which he expressed and named a quality of human existence that’s tricky to articulate. Keats’ formulation has been adopted by philosophers, poets, and others ever since. Keats wanted to name our ability to simultaneously acknowledge the unpredictable nature of events and conduct ourselves with confidence and happiness. He called this familiar, yet complex, concept negative capability. Here’s a passage from Keats’ letter referring to his theory: “… what quality went to form a Man of Achievement especially in literature and which Shakespeare possessed so enormously—I mean Negative Capability, that is when man is capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts without any irritable reaching after fact and reason.” Keats felt that it was great thinkers in particular (like poets, for example) who had the negative capability to see that all life’s big questions can’t be resolved. Scholars believe that Keats explores this idea in several poems, including his famous works “Ode to a Nightingale” and “Ode on a Grecian Urn.” It should be noted that while other writers continued to explore negative capability, Keats only explicitly mentioned it once—in the aforementioned letter to his brother. This isn’t the only idea Keats casually mentioned that turned out to be hugely influential, even though he led an infamously tragic life. He died at 25, and his significance as a poet of the Romantic movement became clear only after his death.	<urn:uuid:eb7361ec-e994-4ce3-89cd-4d51c73df4f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dictionary.com/e/negative-capability-keats/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00079.warc.gz	en	0.980909	331	3.984375	4	[ -0.21406309306621552, 0.3482460677623749, 0.31499120593070984, -0.1381087303161621, -0.695136308670044, 0.06966525316238403, 0.7534811496734619, 0.26944592595100403, -0.45542818307876587, -0.044999875128269196, -0.1407671421766281, 0.12872269749641418, 0.1545148640871048, -0.04204017296433...	1	On December 21, 1817, the poet John Keats wrote a letter to his brother in which he expressed and named a quality of human existence that’s tricky to articulate. Keats’ formulation has been adopted by philosophers, poets, and others ever since. Keats wanted to name our ability to simultaneously acknowledge the unpredictable nature of events and conduct ourselves with confidence and happiness. He called this familiar, yet complex, concept negative capability. Here’s a passage from Keats’ letter referring to his theory: “… what quality went to form a Man of Achievement especially in literature and which Shakespeare possessed so enormously—I mean Negative Capability, that is when man is capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts without any irritable reaching after fact and reason.” Keats felt that it was great thinkers in particular (like poets, for example) who had the negative capability to see that all life’s big questions can’t be resolved. Scholars believe that Keats explores this idea in several poems, including his famous works “Ode to a Nightingale” and “Ode on a Grecian Urn.” It should be noted that while other writers continued to explore negative capability, Keats only explicitly mentioned it once—in the aforementioned letter to his brother. This isn’t the only idea Keats casually mentioned that turned out to be hugely influential, even though he led an infamously tragic life. He died at 25, and his significance as a poet of the Romantic movement became clear only after his death.	310	ENGLISH	1
Klikitat Indians, Klickitat Tribe, Klickitat Indians (Chinookan: ‘beyond,’ with reference to the Cascade Mountains. ). A Shahaptian tribe whose former seat was at the headwaters of the Cowlitz, Lewis, White Salmon, and Klickitat rivers, north of Columbia River, in Klickitat and Skamania Counties, Washington. Their eastern neighbors were the Yakima, who speak a closely related language, and on the west they were met by various Salishan and Chinookan tribes. In 1805 Lewis and Clark reported them as wintering on Yakima and Klickitat rivers, and estimated their number at about 700. Between 1820 and 1830 the tribes of Willamette valley were visited by an epidemic of fever and greatly reduced in numbers. Taking advantage of their weakness, the Klikitat crossed the Columbia and forced their way as far south as the valley of the Umpqua. Their occupancy of this territory was temporary, however, and they were speedily compelled to retire to their old seat north of. the Columbia. The Klikitat were always active and enterprising traders, and from their favorable position became widely known as intermediaries between the coast tribes and those living east of the Cascade range. They joined in the Yakima treaty at Camp Stevens, Wash., June 9, 1855, by which they ceded their lands to the United States. They are now almost wholly on Yakima Reservation, Washington, where they have become so merged with related tribes that an accurate estimate of their number is impossible. Of the groups still recognized on that reservation the Topinish are probably their nearest relatives1 and may be regarded as a branch of the Klikitat, and the Taitinapam, speaking the same tongue, as another minor branch. One of the settlements of the Klikitat was Wiltkun. Mooney in <em>14th Rep. B. A. E.</em>, 738, 1896 ↩	<urn:uuid:d28908b4-a9ca-4d8f-868a-fe6cc6e68784>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://accessgenealogy.com/washington/klikitat-tribe.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00005.warc.gz	en	0.980011	423	3.515625	4	[ -0.2712455093860626, -0.05053454264998436, 0.6472658514976501, -0.0862969309091568, -0.27779069542884827, -0.33715856075286865, 0.3024837076663971, -0.027750570327043533, -0.4749395251274109, 0.18822163343429565, 0.5040868520736694, -0.48696935176849365, 0.11325289309024811, -0.10059061646...	1	Klikitat Indians, Klickitat Tribe, Klickitat Indians (Chinookan: ‘beyond,’ with reference to the Cascade Mountains. ). A Shahaptian tribe whose former seat was at the headwaters of the Cowlitz, Lewis, White Salmon, and Klickitat rivers, north of Columbia River, in Klickitat and Skamania Counties, Washington. Their eastern neighbors were the Yakima, who speak a closely related language, and on the west they were met by various Salishan and Chinookan tribes. In 1805 Lewis and Clark reported them as wintering on Yakima and Klickitat rivers, and estimated their number at about 700. Between 1820 and 1830 the tribes of Willamette valley were visited by an epidemic of fever and greatly reduced in numbers. Taking advantage of their weakness, the Klikitat crossed the Columbia and forced their way as far south as the valley of the Umpqua. Their occupancy of this territory was temporary, however, and they were speedily compelled to retire to their old seat north of. the Columbia. The Klikitat were always active and enterprising traders, and from their favorable position became widely known as intermediaries between the coast tribes and those living east of the Cascade range. They joined in the Yakima treaty at Camp Stevens, Wash., June 9, 1855, by which they ceded their lands to the United States. They are now almost wholly on Yakima Reservation, Washington, where they have become so merged with related tribes that an accurate estimate of their number is impossible. Of the groups still recognized on that reservation the Topinish are probably their nearest relatives1 and may be regarded as a branch of the Klikitat, and the Taitinapam, speaking the same tongue, as another minor branch. One of the settlements of the Klikitat was Wiltkun. Mooney in <em>14th Rep. B. A. E.</em>, 738, 1896 ↩	431	ENGLISH	1
Biblical manuscripts, with some exceptions that are minor as verses written on amulets and pots, are written on a single of three materials: Papyrus, Parchment, and Paper. Each had benefits and drawbacks. Parchment (treated animal skins) was probably the most durable, but in addition the highest priced, and it’s tough to get many sheets for the size that is same color. Papyrus was much cheaper, but wore down more quickly and, as it is damaged by moist, few copies survive towards the day that is present except from Egypt (as well as those usually defectively damaged). Paper failed to be available until fairly recently, and whilst it had been less expensive than parchment once paper mills had been founded, the mills had high overhead costs, so that they had been fairly quite few; paper had been in no way as low priced into the belated manuscript age as today (whenever paper is made of lumber pulp in place of rags). The sections that are following the different forms of ancient writing materials and exactly how they certainly were prepared. The initial fairly complete description of just just just how papyrus was prepared arises from Pliny’s normal History (xiii.11f.): “Papyrus the writing material is manufactured out of the papyrus plant by div > This declaration has its own questionable parts — e.g. there is absolutely no proof that water through the Nile as such can be utilized being a glue, though it will be possible that some type of glue could possibly be created from some form of soil discovered by the Nile. However the fundamental description is definitely real: The stalks had been cut, set hand and hand, braced by having another layer of strips glued across them perpendicularly, squeezed, and dried. Papyrus sheets arrived in every sizes, with regards to the measurements of this usable strips cut through the plant; the greatest understood are just as much as two-thirds of the metre (say 25 ins) wide, however the typical size ended up being about 50 % that, and sometimes one will discover things very little larger than a business card (presumably made from the leftovers of bigger strips trimmed right down to size). (more…)	<urn:uuid:9765e673-bd67-4f95-ae85-7582cf0b3518>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thangmaynhapngoai.com.vn/category/custom-writing-reviews-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00429.warc.gz	en	0.987118	453	3.765625	4	[ -0.4301902651786804, 0.32492607831954956, 0.3785708248615265, 0.19776637852191925, -0.24763870239257812, -0.2789715528488159, -0.4527398645877838, 0.25103333592414856, -0.07272735238075256, 0.4650137424468994, -0.1963781714439392, -0.19017387926578522, 0.05475419759750366, 0.09189524501562...	1	Biblical manuscripts, with some exceptions that are minor as verses written on amulets and pots, are written on a single of three materials: Papyrus, Parchment, and Paper. Each had benefits and drawbacks. Parchment (treated animal skins) was probably the most durable, but in addition the highest priced, and it’s tough to get many sheets for the size that is same color. Papyrus was much cheaper, but wore down more quickly and, as it is damaged by moist, few copies survive towards the day that is present except from Egypt (as well as those usually defectively damaged). Paper failed to be available until fairly recently, and whilst it had been less expensive than parchment once paper mills had been founded, the mills had high overhead costs, so that they had been fairly quite few; paper had been in no way as low priced into the belated manuscript age as today (whenever paper is made of lumber pulp in place of rags). The sections that are following the different forms of ancient writing materials and exactly how they certainly were prepared. The initial fairly complete description of just just just how papyrus was prepared arises from Pliny’s normal History (xiii.11f.): “Papyrus the writing material is manufactured out of the papyrus plant by div > This declaration has its own questionable parts — e.g. there is absolutely no proof that water through the Nile as such can be utilized being a glue, though it will be possible that some type of glue could possibly be created from some form of soil discovered by the Nile. However the fundamental description is definitely real: The stalks had been cut, set hand and hand, braced by having another layer of strips glued across them perpendicularly, squeezed, and dried. Papyrus sheets arrived in every sizes, with regards to the measurements of this usable strips cut through the plant; the greatest understood are just as much as two-thirds of the metre (say 25 ins) wide, however the typical size ended up being about 50 % that, and sometimes one will discover things very little larger than a business card (presumably made from the leftovers of bigger strips trimmed right down to size). (more…)	450	ENGLISH	1
According to historians, the earliest form of orangeries originated in the 14th century of France, itís called glass pavilions where flowers were grown going through south inside it. Coincidentally, a comparable idea was adopted by the Romans who grew cucumbers in rudimentary greenhouses produced out of mica. However the contemporary orangery started at the University of Pisa in 1544, when it established the European Botanical Gardens. With this particular, a whole lot of fascination was developed in protected gardening of unique fruits and crops. The very first orangery in England was built in 1580 for that garden of Sir Francis Carew in Beddington, Surrey. The modern form of orangeries is originated between the 17th and 19th centuries in Europe. It is a type of properties that exhibit architecture in the classical form and so are mainly found in places where you can find fashionable residences. Due to its unique capability of retaining heat and allowing direct sunlight poured in, orangeries had been initially used to grow citrus trees along with other tropical fruits and plants in the course of winter of the harshest frosts, where it can imitate warm tropical environment. The idea of an orangery began in Netherland within the early 17th century. In the course of the late 16th century, England and Netherland were allies in wars from the Habsburgs and the Spanish Armada. England had also aided the Dutch by sending troops and income throughout 80 years?Dutch war of independence. There was a lot of interaction between both nations on government levels as well as general public. The notion of an orangery was carried ahead from Netherland to England because of both the nobility who started expanding and owning gardens and the typical English weather of windy, rainy and low temperature. Pots were used to grow the seedlings till they were ready to be planted within the floor. These seedlings had been preserved in winter season by a portable orangery. In the seventeenth century, orange trees were imported by merchants. This was regarded as a standing image at that time.	<urn:uuid:a7097fd7-e0ce-4bc8-b440-d99dab665756>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.articlebiz.com/article/1051511541-1-the-origin-of-orangeries/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00352.warc.gz	en	0.98194	426	3.390625	3	[ 0.2006748914718628, 0.017125459387898445, 0.24990683794021606, 0.01758750155568123, 0.40495648980140686, -0.02504449337720871, 0.013308746740221977, 0.2482481449842453, 0.12330086529254913, 0.2305346131324768, -0.26400941610336304, -0.789610743522644, -0.14180657267570496, 0.24573798477649...	2	According to historians, the earliest form of orangeries originated in the 14th century of France, itís called glass pavilions where flowers were grown going through south inside it. Coincidentally, a comparable idea was adopted by the Romans who grew cucumbers in rudimentary greenhouses produced out of mica. However the contemporary orangery started at the University of Pisa in 1544, when it established the European Botanical Gardens. With this particular, a whole lot of fascination was developed in protected gardening of unique fruits and crops. The very first orangery in England was built in 1580 for that garden of Sir Francis Carew in Beddington, Surrey. The modern form of orangeries is originated between the 17th and 19th centuries in Europe. It is a type of properties that exhibit architecture in the classical form and so are mainly found in places where you can find fashionable residences. Due to its unique capability of retaining heat and allowing direct sunlight poured in, orangeries had been initially used to grow citrus trees along with other tropical fruits and plants in the course of winter of the harshest frosts, where it can imitate warm tropical environment. The idea of an orangery began in Netherland within the early 17th century. In the course of the late 16th century, England and Netherland were allies in wars from the Habsburgs and the Spanish Armada. England had also aided the Dutch by sending troops and income throughout 80 years?Dutch war of independence. There was a lot of interaction between both nations on government levels as well as general public. The notion of an orangery was carried ahead from Netherland to England because of both the nobility who started expanding and owning gardens and the typical English weather of windy, rainy and low temperature. Pots were used to grow the seedlings till they were ready to be planted within the floor. These seedlings had been preserved in winter season by a portable orangery. In the seventeenth century, orange trees were imported by merchants. This was regarded as a standing image at that time.	444	ENGLISH	1
From its earliest history, Narragansett Bay’s East Passage was crucial in serving naval vessels, maritime commerce and a developing local fishing industry. For the duration of the American Civil War (1861 to 1865), the Naval Academy was moved temporarily from Annapolis to Newport. Following the war, a permanent Naval Base was established on Newport’s Goat Island (1869). There were several navigational hazards for vessels approaching Narragansett Bay. Prior to 1853 when Brenton Reef was first marked by a lightship, a buoy was in place at the S.W. part of the rock reef. The 1850 publication American Coast Pilot warned that the shoal extended “about one mile S. by W. from the main shore.” It further noted that “some portions of it are bare at low tide, and may all times be seen breaking with a little motion of the sea.” Ships entering either the East or West Passage were also warned about Newton Rock, located a short distance offshore of the Beavertail Lighthouse. Whale Rock was yet another hazard for these sailing vessels; a lighthouse finally erected on the that site in 1882. In 1853, LV 14 became the first lightship assigned to Brenton Reef. The sloop-rigged, 91-foot wood vessel was equipped with single lantern. Lard fueled its 8 lamps. Its fog signal which consisted of a hand operated horn and bell, was sounded every 15 seconds. Keeping the smelly lard in a flowing condition during the colder months and sounding the fog signals, could not have been a popular duty for the vessel’s crewmen. In addition, the cramped vessel was totally inadequate for the pounding it took from open-ocean waves. On inspection in 1856, it was determined that it would be “best for use on an inside station.” During that year, it was transferred to the more sheltered Cornfield Point, in Long Island Sound, where it served for 16 years. It was then decommissioned and sold at auction in New London for $615. The sail-schooner rigged lightship LV 11 had served for barely 8 months at Nantucket’s New South Shoal (MA), when it lost anchorage during a winter storm. Having lost its sails, it drifted some 50 miles, before going aground at Montauk Point. Repairs were made at the New York Navy Yard and it was then reassigned to Brenton Reef (1856). After being stationed at Brenton Reef, history repeated itself. During the height of an October 1865 storm, LV 11 lost anchorage and was driven up on the rock reef. Repairs were made, but 8 years later, it again parted chain. As the steamer Newport was approaching Brenton Reef in a heavy fog, the ship’s lookout spotted two buoys, but where was the lightship? After shutting down their engine, in the distance they could hear the faint sound of LV 11’s fog bell. Once located, the lightship was towed by the steamer and taken to Newport Harbor. Life had its lighter moments aboard LV 11. A herring gull adopted the lightship and her crew. During the colder months, for over 20 years, the same seabird, nicknamed “Seagull Dick,” would arrive shortly after sunrise. It gladly swooped down to the deck to accept handouts and even some petting from the crewmen. If the bird was out-of-sight, calling its name or whistling would bring it in for another snack. At the end of the day, “Dick” always headed back to shore where it roosted overnight LV 11 spent 41 years at Brenton Reef before being replaced in 1897 by LV 39, a sail-schooner rig, 119-foot vessel. The new lightship was stationed at the reef until 1935. In 1905, the battleship Iowa ran into LV 39 as she was heading toward Newport. The dense fog had apparently absorbed much of fog signal’s sound. Luckily, the battleship struck the lightship near its bow, creating some damage 7 feet above the water line. During that same year, two other area lightships suffered mishaps. A fire nearly destroyed Cornfield Point’s Lightship (LV 48) and during a December storm, the crew of South Shoal Relief Lightship LV 58, were rescued just in time before the vessel sank to the bottom. On July 1, 1909, a heavy fog shrouded the East Passage as the Navy collier (coal carrier) Nero headed out, bound for Provincetown. Running too close to shore, the collier ran up the shallows of Brenton Reef. Impaled on the rocks with serious damage to her hull, her captain was unable to back off his vessel the reef. On the following day, a wrecking tug and two other vessels failed to pull the Nero off the rocks. It would be a full month until the stranded collier was finally removed with the assist of 5 tugs and compressed air. All the ship’s hatches and other deck access areas were closed using steel plates; the underwater openings were left intact. Holes were then made through the hull for the compressed air. The high-pressure air drove out the water, the holes were sealed, cargo was shifted or removed, and the ship was finally refloated. After decommissioning in 1935, LV 39 was sold and then used for a time as a floating restaurant. In 1975, the vessel V 39 sank at her dock. Refloated, she was taken in tow, bound for Beverly MA. She never made it. The century-old lightship sank in about 180 feet, approximately 4 miles east of Marblehead, MA. The last lightship to serve Brenton Reef was the 119-foot, 10-inch long, steel hull, LV 102/WAL 525. During the Second World War, 22 lightships were used as examination vessels (about 12 of them were armed), net tenders and guard ships. Nine of the vessels, including Brenton Reef’s lightship, remained on station unarmed, for the duration of the war. LV 102 served at Brenton Reef until September 28, 1962, when she was replaced by a 40 by 10-foot platform, Texas-type steel tower. Because of maintenance expenses, Brenton Reef Light Tower was removed in 1992. It was replaced by a buoy. The tower was transported out to Shinnecock Reef, off Long Island and sunk there as part of an artificial reef. Its structure, which lies in about 82 feet of water, is said to be a great fishing spot.	<urn:uuid:baf4cc65-d71b-4d5d-8c1a-d9e93aedb022>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.liboatingworld.com/single-post/2017/05/19/Brenton-Reef-and-the-East-Passage	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00432.warc.gz	en	0.980322	1,383	3.8125	4	[ 0.050103578716516495, -0.2537965178489685, 0.0969763994216919, -0.4896485507488251, -0.20845240354537964, 0.11159522831439972, -0.19219845533370972, 0.14600558578968048, -0.28123679757118225, 0.10171130299568176, 0.3000580072402954, -0.09600785374641418, -0.34376809000968933, 0.37188214063...	5	From its earliest history, Narragansett Bay’s East Passage was crucial in serving naval vessels, maritime commerce and a developing local fishing industry. For the duration of the American Civil War (1861 to 1865), the Naval Academy was moved temporarily from Annapolis to Newport. Following the war, a permanent Naval Base was established on Newport’s Goat Island (1869). There were several navigational hazards for vessels approaching Narragansett Bay. Prior to 1853 when Brenton Reef was first marked by a lightship, a buoy was in place at the S.W. part of the rock reef. The 1850 publication American Coast Pilot warned that the shoal extended “about one mile S. by W. from the main shore.” It further noted that “some portions of it are bare at low tide, and may all times be seen breaking with a little motion of the sea.” Ships entering either the East or West Passage were also warned about Newton Rock, located a short distance offshore of the Beavertail Lighthouse. Whale Rock was yet another hazard for these sailing vessels; a lighthouse finally erected on the that site in 1882. In 1853, LV 14 became the first lightship assigned to Brenton Reef. The sloop-rigged, 91-foot wood vessel was equipped with single lantern. Lard fueled its 8 lamps. Its fog signal which consisted of a hand operated horn and bell, was sounded every 15 seconds. Keeping the smelly lard in a flowing condition during the colder months and sounding the fog signals, could not have been a popular duty for the vessel’s crewmen. In addition, the cramped vessel was totally inadequate for the pounding it took from open-ocean waves. On inspection in 1856, it was determined that it would be “best for use on an inside station.” During that year, it was transferred to the more sheltered Cornfield Point, in Long Island Sound, where it served for 16 years. It was then decommissioned and sold at auction in New London for $615. The sail-schooner rigged lightship LV 11 had served for barely 8 months at Nantucket’s New South Shoal (MA), when it lost anchorage during a winter storm. Having lost its sails, it drifted some 50 miles, before going aground at Montauk Point. Repairs were made at the New York Navy Yard and it was then reassigned to Brenton Reef (1856). After being stationed at Brenton Reef, history repeated itself. During the height of an October 1865 storm, LV 11 lost anchorage and was driven up on the rock reef. Repairs were made, but 8 years later, it again parted chain. As the steamer Newport was approaching Brenton Reef in a heavy fog, the ship’s lookout spotted two buoys, but where was the lightship? After shutting down their engine, in the distance they could hear the faint sound of LV 11’s fog bell. Once located, the lightship was towed by the steamer and taken to Newport Harbor. Life had its lighter moments aboard LV 11. A herring gull adopted the lightship and her crew. During the colder months, for over 20 years, the same seabird, nicknamed “Seagull Dick,” would arrive shortly after sunrise. It gladly swooped down to the deck to accept handouts and even some petting from the crewmen. If the bird was out-of-sight, calling its name or whistling would bring it in for another snack. At the end of the day, “Dick” always headed back to shore where it roosted overnight LV 11 spent 41 years at Brenton Reef before being replaced in 1897 by LV 39, a sail-schooner rig, 119-foot vessel. The new lightship was stationed at the reef until 1935. In 1905, the battleship Iowa ran into LV 39 as she was heading toward Newport. The dense fog had apparently absorbed much of fog signal’s sound. Luckily, the battleship struck the lightship near its bow, creating some damage 7 feet above the water line. During that same year, two other area lightships suffered mishaps. A fire nearly destroyed Cornfield Point’s Lightship (LV 48) and during a December storm, the crew of South Shoal Relief Lightship LV 58, were rescued just in time before the vessel sank to the bottom. On July 1, 1909, a heavy fog shrouded the East Passage as the Navy collier (coal carrier) Nero headed out, bound for Provincetown. Running too close to shore, the collier ran up the shallows of Brenton Reef. Impaled on the rocks with serious damage to her hull, her captain was unable to back off his vessel the reef. On the following day, a wrecking tug and two other vessels failed to pull the Nero off the rocks. It would be a full month until the stranded collier was finally removed with the assist of 5 tugs and compressed air. All the ship’s hatches and other deck access areas were closed using steel plates; the underwater openings were left intact. Holes were then made through the hull for the compressed air. The high-pressure air drove out the water, the holes were sealed, cargo was shifted or removed, and the ship was finally refloated. After decommissioning in 1935, LV 39 was sold and then used for a time as a floating restaurant. In 1975, the vessel V 39 sank at her dock. Refloated, she was taken in tow, bound for Beverly MA. She never made it. The century-old lightship sank in about 180 feet, approximately 4 miles east of Marblehead, MA. The last lightship to serve Brenton Reef was the 119-foot, 10-inch long, steel hull, LV 102/WAL 525. During the Second World War, 22 lightships were used as examination vessels (about 12 of them were armed), net tenders and guard ships. Nine of the vessels, including Brenton Reef’s lightship, remained on station unarmed, for the duration of the war. LV 102 served at Brenton Reef until September 28, 1962, when she was replaced by a 40 by 10-foot platform, Texas-type steel tower. Because of maintenance expenses, Brenton Reef Light Tower was removed in 1992. It was replaced by a buoy. The tower was transported out to Shinnecock Reef, off Long Island and sunk there as part of an artificial reef. Its structure, which lies in about 82 feet of water, is said to be a great fishing spot.	1,474	ENGLISH	1
"By 1900 more than half of the world's pianos were made in the United States. In 1910, piano production in the United States was growing at a rate six times faster than the population." (1) Yet before the advent of plastic, what was essential for piano production? Ivory. Ivory from East African elephants. Just over 100 years ago, there existed a unique connection between Victorian New England and Zanzibar, which is a large inhabited island just off the coast of what is now known as Tanzania. America wanted ivory. Africa had elephants. And the port where thousands of tusks funneled through was on the island of Zanzibar. Most of that ivory ended up in Connecticut, at a manufacturing village appropriately called "Ivoryton," which milled an estimated 100,000 elephant tusks before 1929. At the industry's height, over 350,000 pianos were sold each year. (2) I've lived in Tanzania for sixteen years, and visited Zanzibar many times, and I never knew this until I recently explored the new museum attached to David Livingstone's church. I knew that Zanzibar was home to a massive slave industry in the 19th century; I knew that missionary David Livingstone was instrumental in ending that slave trade. Many times, I have visited the church he had built on the site of the slave market, with the altar placed strategically on the spot where slaves had been tied up and whipped. But all this time, I didn't know there was a connection between East African slavery and America, because most American slaves came from West Africa. (East African slaves were usually sent to Arab countries and colonial British plantations.) Yet the Connecticut ivory industry fueled a large part of East African slavery. Each of those 100 pound tusks had to be carried, by hand, for hundreds of miles from the African interior. The journey was so grueling, and the slave drivers so cruel, that David Livingstone once estimated that 5 slaves died for every tusk. We all know about slaves coming out of Africa. What I have also recently learned, both through reading about the rubber trade in Congo and now the ivory trade in Tanzania, was that hundreds of thousands of Africans were enslaved in their own homeland. Though it is certainly fair to say that most of these people were captured, owned, and sold by their fellow Africans, it was the the insatiable desire for Africa's resources by Europeans and Americans that fueled the demand for doing business in human souls. I imagine early 20th century Americans, gathering around their new pianos in their prim and proper Victorian parlors, gaily singing Christmas carols while the snow silently falls outside. It's the quintessential American picture, is it not? Yet what was the cost of that picture-perfect scene? I haven't mentioned the mass destruction and near extinction of African elephants--which is a tragedy in and of itself. But even more tragic was that those pianos were built on the backs of suffering and death of countless African men, women, and children. Did average Americans know this at the time? Probably not. But thinking about this tragedy made me contemplate what this generation of Americans does know. We've all heard the reports, right? Our cocoa and coffee harvested by children in developing countries, the profit from the tantalum in our cell phones used to fuel civil wars in Africa, designer clothes created by near-slave-like conditions in Bangladesh or India. So many of the comforts around us were built on the backs of someone else's suffering. What do we do about it? I hear you asking. And honestly, I don't know. The problem is incredibly complicated. I don't have answers. Yet, knowing these things is still good for our souls. This knowledge should humble us, convict us, make us wiser. It should help us to be more careful in what we buy. More aware. More generous. More grateful. \|The Anglican church in Zanzibar which was inspired by David Livingstone's fight to end slavery on the island. The church is built on the site of the main slave market.\| \|Under the church, two holding chambers have been preserved. Each of these chambers would hold up to 50 slaves at a time, waiting for sale.\| \|"This crucifix [is] made from the wood of the tree under which Dr. Livingstone died at Chitambo village, Ilala, Zambia in 1873, and under which his heart [is] buried."\| My sources for this article came from the museum at Livingstone's church, as well as these two sites: All pictures by Gil Medina.	<urn:uuid:85388cf4-d82d-42c6-b9d9-824c00a9d376>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gilandamy.blogspot.com/2020/01/what-your-grandmothers-piano-had-to-do.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00245.warc.gz	en	0.980997	961	3.28125	3	[ -0.0194445438683033, 0.31929174065589905, 0.3538559377193451, -0.20678916573524475, 0.18898595869541168, 0.1714135706424713, 0.028216760605573654, -0.06546170264482498, 0.14044314622879028, 0.3067215085029602, 0.41177132725715637, -0.17312969267368317, 0.19223083555698395, 0.14911346137523...	2	"By 1900 more than half of the world's pianos were made in the United States. In 1910, piano production in the United States was growing at a rate six times faster than the population." (1) Yet before the advent of plastic, what was essential for piano production? Ivory. Ivory from East African elephants. Just over 100 years ago, there existed a unique connection between Victorian New England and Zanzibar, which is a large inhabited island just off the coast of what is now known as Tanzania. America wanted ivory. Africa had elephants. And the port where thousands of tusks funneled through was on the island of Zanzibar. Most of that ivory ended up in Connecticut, at a manufacturing village appropriately called "Ivoryton," which milled an estimated 100,000 elephant tusks before 1929. At the industry's height, over 350,000 pianos were sold each year. (2) I've lived in Tanzania for sixteen years, and visited Zanzibar many times, and I never knew this until I recently explored the new museum attached to David Livingstone's church. I knew that Zanzibar was home to a massive slave industry in the 19th century; I knew that missionary David Livingstone was instrumental in ending that slave trade. Many times, I have visited the church he had built on the site of the slave market, with the altar placed strategically on the spot where slaves had been tied up and whipped. But all this time, I didn't know there was a connection between East African slavery and America, because most American slaves came from West Africa. (East African slaves were usually sent to Arab countries and colonial British plantations.) Yet the Connecticut ivory industry fueled a large part of East African slavery. Each of those 100 pound tusks had to be carried, by hand, for hundreds of miles from the African interior. The journey was so grueling, and the slave drivers so cruel, that David Livingstone once estimated that 5 slaves died for every tusk. We all know about slaves coming out of Africa. What I have also recently learned, both through reading about the rubber trade in Congo and now the ivory trade in Tanzania, was that hundreds of thousands of Africans were enslaved in their own homeland. Though it is certainly fair to say that most of these people were captured, owned, and sold by their fellow Africans, it was the the insatiable desire for Africa's resources by Europeans and Americans that fueled the demand for doing business in human souls. I imagine early 20th century Americans, gathering around their new pianos in their prim and proper Victorian parlors, gaily singing Christmas carols while the snow silently falls outside. It's the quintessential American picture, is it not? Yet what was the cost of that picture-perfect scene? I haven't mentioned the mass destruction and near extinction of African elephants--which is a tragedy in and of itself. But even more tragic was that those pianos were built on the backs of suffering and death of countless African men, women, and children. Did average Americans know this at the time? Probably not. But thinking about this tragedy made me contemplate what this generation of Americans does know. We've all heard the reports, right? Our cocoa and coffee harvested by children in developing countries, the profit from the tantalum in our cell phones used to fuel civil wars in Africa, designer clothes created by near-slave-like conditions in Bangladesh or India. So many of the comforts around us were built on the backs of someone else's suffering. What do we do about it? I hear you asking. And honestly, I don't know. The problem is incredibly complicated. I don't have answers. Yet, knowing these things is still good for our souls. This knowledge should humble us, convict us, make us wiser. It should help us to be more careful in what we buy. More aware. More generous. More grateful. \|The Anglican church in Zanzibar which was inspired by David Livingstone's fight to end slavery on the island. The church is built on the site of the main slave market.\| \|Under the church, two holding chambers have been preserved. Each of these chambers would hold up to 50 slaves at a time, waiting for sale.\| \|"This crucifix [is] made from the wood of the tree under which Dr. Livingstone died at Chitambo village, Ilala, Zambia in 1873, and under which his heart [is] buried."\| My sources for this article came from the museum at Livingstone's church, as well as these two sites: All pictures by Gil Medina.	982	ENGLISH	1
Seen as one of the harshest times, the Economic Depression did not only affect Germany. The Wall Street Crash had an enormous effect on many countries all over the world. As mistaken by economists and leaders, the “mild bump” increased to an overgrowing problem, which ended with disaster. As the value of money decreased, many governments decided to print more money. Germany’s economy was very susceptible since it was built up on the American loans. The country was also dependable on foreign trades. As the Germans still had to pay the reparations, which were due to the War guilt from World War I, the banks throughout Germany failed, along with many production levels. Almost every German citizen suffered from the Economic Depression. It …show more content… As the unemployment increased, the Nazis gave the German inhabitants new hope through offering them jobs. The Nazis had a phenomenal good propaganda, which was a good advantage for them, after they gained more and more hope from the German citizen. Hitler used the Economic Depression mostly for gaining new members for his party and for his propaganda. He was a man, who held very influential speeches and used a lot of enthusiasm while presenting his speeches. The Germans believed a lot in the speeches Hitler held and they more and more gained trust towards Hitler and the Nazis. The Economic Depression was a great affect on the rise of Hitler. Many people soon realized that the Weimar Republic failed its office and that Hitler and the Nazis were actually speaking out of their minds. Through the Great Depression in 1929, the Nazi Party gained more and more votes every time Hitler held an expressive speech. The Economic Depression contributed a lot to Hitler’s rise of power, since it was one of the triggers that gave them more and more votes. Most actions in Hitler’s rise to power were either long or short-term causes. As a long-term cause considered, in this case, is an act, which has taken place many years before Hitler acquired his power. In the case of Hitler’s rise to power, a short-term cause is an action, which took place only a few years before he gained the power.	<urn:uuid:73fc7467-5c0b-4a83-bb42-700d0065c7ad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/adolf-hitlers-rise-to-power/FKTBJ3K5C	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00194.warc.gz	en	0.985421	441	3.375	3	[ -0.44071993231773376, 0.4555625319480896, 0.004324851557612419, 0.2652635872364044, 0.12891870737075806, 0.3959302604198456, -0.04665674269199371, 0.18520361185073853, 0.0831494927406311, -0.19884362816810608, 0.4114520251750946, 0.28735312819480896, 0.23385457694530487, 0.3027202188968658...	1	Seen as one of the harshest times, the Economic Depression did not only affect Germany. The Wall Street Crash had an enormous effect on many countries all over the world. As mistaken by economists and leaders, the “mild bump” increased to an overgrowing problem, which ended with disaster. As the value of money decreased, many governments decided to print more money. Germany’s economy was very susceptible since it was built up on the American loans. The country was also dependable on foreign trades. As the Germans still had to pay the reparations, which were due to the War guilt from World War I, the banks throughout Germany failed, along with many production levels. Almost every German citizen suffered from the Economic Depression. It …show more content… As the unemployment increased, the Nazis gave the German inhabitants new hope through offering them jobs. The Nazis had a phenomenal good propaganda, which was a good advantage for them, after they gained more and more hope from the German citizen. Hitler used the Economic Depression mostly for gaining new members for his party and for his propaganda. He was a man, who held very influential speeches and used a lot of enthusiasm while presenting his speeches. The Germans believed a lot in the speeches Hitler held and they more and more gained trust towards Hitler and the Nazis. The Economic Depression was a great affect on the rise of Hitler. Many people soon realized that the Weimar Republic failed its office and that Hitler and the Nazis were actually speaking out of their minds. Through the Great Depression in 1929, the Nazi Party gained more and more votes every time Hitler held an expressive speech. The Economic Depression contributed a lot to Hitler’s rise of power, since it was one of the triggers that gave them more and more votes. Most actions in Hitler’s rise to power were either long or short-term causes. As a long-term cause considered, in this case, is an act, which has taken place many years before Hitler acquired his power. In the case of Hitler’s rise to power, a short-term cause is an action, which took place only a few years before he gained the power.	429	ENGLISH	1
William Tecumseh Sherman was a soldier, businessman, teacher, and author who served as a general in the Union Army during the Civil War and afterward led troops against the Indians in the American West. Born Tecumseh Sherman in Lancaster, Ohio on February 8, 1820, to Judge Charles Robert Sherman and Mary Hoyt Sherman, William was one of 11 children. His father died when he was nine, and he was taken in and raised by a family friend. He joined the Military Academy at West Point at the age of 16. Upon graduation in 1840, he entered the Army as a second lieutenant and saw action in the Second Seminole War (1840-1842). Later, he would serve in the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). In 1853, Sherman resigned his military commission and became president of a bank in San Francisco. However, the bank failed in the financial panic of 1857. Afterward, he practiced law in Leavenworth, Kansas, a venture that was unsuccessful. In 1859, he accepted a job as the first superintendent of the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning and Military Academy, a position he held until the outbreak of the Civil War. On May 14, 1861, he accepted a commission as a Colonel in the 13th U.S. Infantry regiment. He led a brigade in the First Battle of Manassas, Virginia. In August, he was made a brigadier general of volunteers and sent to Kentucky. In October, he was put in command of the Department of the Cumberland; however, in November he was transferred to the Department of the Missouri. He distinguished himself as a division commander at Shiloh, Tennessee and thus was promoted to major general in May 1862. After the occupation of Memphis, he took command of the District of Memphis from October through December 1862. After his defeat at Chickasaw Bayou, Mississippi, he served in the capture of Arkansas Post. When General Ulysses S. Grant assumed supreme command in the West, Sherman became commander of the Army of the Tennessee. He commanded the Union left in the Chattanooga campaign before he moved to Knoxville, to the relief of General Burnside. In March 1864, when Grant became Commanding General, Sherman succeeded him as supreme commander in the West. His Atlanta campaign resulted in the fall of that city on September 2, 1864. Sherman burned through the city, and, with 60,000 men, began his famous march to the sea. Savannah, Georgia fell on December 21st. In February 1865, Sherman started northward, through South Carolina. In North Carolina, General Joseph E. Johnston opposed Sherman in engagements at Averasboro and Bentonville, but, after hearing of General Robert E. Lee’s surrender, Johnson surrendered to Sherman. When the Civil War was over, General Ulysses S. Grant promoted Sherman first to Lieutenant General in 1866, and Commanding General of the U.S. Army in 1869 when Grant became President. Operating in the West, he deployed troops to protect transcontinental railroad workers from Indians who feared that the railroad would mean further encroachment on their territory. He also established military outposts across the region, expanding the network of federal authority. The general who marched through Georgia during the Civil War was not the sort who would go easy on the Indians. Sherman believed Indians should be punished for their atrocities, put on reservations, and forced to stay there. He continued with his philosophy directing a series of campaigns that finally crushed Indian resistance. He perceived clearly the devastating effectiveness of striking at the economic basis of the Plains Indians‘ lives. By aggressively killing the buffalo and attacking Indian encampments during the winter, when their supplies and mobility were limited, he weakened his enemy. By the late 1870s, the once free-roaming warrior tribes of the plains had been forced on reservations. Sherman retired from the army on February 8, 1884, and lived most of the rest of his life in New York City. He died there on February 19, 1891, and his body was transported to St. Louis, Missouri, where he was buried in Calvary Cemetery. I am tired and sick of war. Its glory is all moonshine. It is only those who have neither fired a shot nor heard the shrieks and groans of the wounded who cry aloud for blood, for vengeance, for desolation. War is hell. — William Tecumseh Sherman	<urn:uuid:25df0d77-0bd6-485c-807a-28342f2683ee>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.legendsofamerica.com/ah-williamsherman/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00456.warc.gz	en	0.983611	919	3.421875	3	[ 0.038742467761039734, 0.4303472638130188, 0.5096951127052307, -0.09030976891517639, -0.38643786311149597, -0.5410770177841187, 0.05317780002951622, -0.02952674776315689, -0.4570434093475342, -0.1355002224445343, 0.11295342445373535, -0.24357527494430542, 0.07215876877307892, 0.450822770595...	7	William Tecumseh Sherman was a soldier, businessman, teacher, and author who served as a general in the Union Army during the Civil War and afterward led troops against the Indians in the American West. Born Tecumseh Sherman in Lancaster, Ohio on February 8, 1820, to Judge Charles Robert Sherman and Mary Hoyt Sherman, William was one of 11 children. His father died when he was nine, and he was taken in and raised by a family friend. He joined the Military Academy at West Point at the age of 16. Upon graduation in 1840, he entered the Army as a second lieutenant and saw action in the Second Seminole War (1840-1842). Later, he would serve in the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). In 1853, Sherman resigned his military commission and became president of a bank in San Francisco. However, the bank failed in the financial panic of 1857. Afterward, he practiced law in Leavenworth, Kansas, a venture that was unsuccessful. In 1859, he accepted a job as the first superintendent of the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning and Military Academy, a position he held until the outbreak of the Civil War. On May 14, 1861, he accepted a commission as a Colonel in the 13th U.S. Infantry regiment. He led a brigade in the First Battle of Manassas, Virginia. In August, he was made a brigadier general of volunteers and sent to Kentucky. In October, he was put in command of the Department of the Cumberland; however, in November he was transferred to the Department of the Missouri. He distinguished himself as a division commander at Shiloh, Tennessee and thus was promoted to major general in May 1862. After the occupation of Memphis, he took command of the District of Memphis from October through December 1862. After his defeat at Chickasaw Bayou, Mississippi, he served in the capture of Arkansas Post. When General Ulysses S. Grant assumed supreme command in the West, Sherman became commander of the Army of the Tennessee. He commanded the Union left in the Chattanooga campaign before he moved to Knoxville, to the relief of General Burnside. In March 1864, when Grant became Commanding General, Sherman succeeded him as supreme commander in the West. His Atlanta campaign resulted in the fall of that city on September 2, 1864. Sherman burned through the city, and, with 60,000 men, began his famous march to the sea. Savannah, Georgia fell on December 21st. In February 1865, Sherman started northward, through South Carolina. In North Carolina, General Joseph E. Johnston opposed Sherman in engagements at Averasboro and Bentonville, but, after hearing of General Robert E. Lee’s surrender, Johnson surrendered to Sherman. When the Civil War was over, General Ulysses S. Grant promoted Sherman first to Lieutenant General in 1866, and Commanding General of the U.S. Army in 1869 when Grant became President. Operating in the West, he deployed troops to protect transcontinental railroad workers from Indians who feared that the railroad would mean further encroachment on their territory. He also established military outposts across the region, expanding the network of federal authority. The general who marched through Georgia during the Civil War was not the sort who would go easy on the Indians. Sherman believed Indians should be punished for their atrocities, put on reservations, and forced to stay there. He continued with his philosophy directing a series of campaigns that finally crushed Indian resistance. He perceived clearly the devastating effectiveness of striking at the economic basis of the Plains Indians‘ lives. By aggressively killing the buffalo and attacking Indian encampments during the winter, when their supplies and mobility were limited, he weakened his enemy. By the late 1870s, the once free-roaming warrior tribes of the plains had been forced on reservations. Sherman retired from the army on February 8, 1884, and lived most of the rest of his life in New York City. He died there on February 19, 1891, and his body was transported to St. Louis, Missouri, where he was buried in Calvary Cemetery. I am tired and sick of war. Its glory is all moonshine. It is only those who have neither fired a shot nor heard the shrieks and groans of the wounded who cry aloud for blood, for vengeance, for desolation. War is hell. — William Tecumseh Sherman	982	ENGLISH	1
Solidarity was a cultural and social movement as much as a political one A Tour Around the Gdańsk Shipyard Gdańsk Shipyard, formerly Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk, is the historic Polish shipyard located in the city of Gdańsk, Poland. A strike by more than 12,000 shipyard workers in 1980 led to the founding of, Solidarity (Solidarność), the first non-communist trade union in the Eastern Bloc countries. Led by shipyard election Lech Wałęsa, the strike was one of the first actions in a campaign of civil resistance, which contributed to the eventual collapse of communism in Poland. So we can start outside at the entrance to the shipyard where there is the memorial The Monument to the Fallen Shipyard Workers of 1970. For the Polish people it is one of the most important post WW2 memorials. It is a testament to the strikers and the local people that this monument stands, as the government did not want to memorialize this event, where they killed at least 44 people. The monument is deeply connected to Catholicism. The crosses represent faith, the anchors represent hope, and the 10 boards represent the love of freedom and the Decalogue. The circles in the pavement surrounding the structure represent the circles that ripple out from throwing a stone into water. The stone representing freedom and the idea that freedom, like the ripples, is something that you cannot stop. The three tower-like structures represent the crucifixions at Golgotha. The technique of building the monument was the same as employed for building ships, intentionally reflecting the labor of the workers who were killed by the government troops. The gate at the entrance to the shipyards represents the entrance to what was the largest shipyard in the world, measuring a total of 165,000 square hectors (63 square miles). It is not the original gate. A tank, destroyed the original gate in the 1980s, when the government was cracking down on strikers. This gate also marks where people died on Dec 16, 1970. Then, the strikers were protesting the high price increases of food. And for this they were killed. The shipyard was a city within a city with streets, tramlines, even trains running through. However, the main mode of transportation was bicycle. It would take between 45 – 60 minutes to bicycle from one end of the shipyard to the other. There was a hospital, a post office, and a sports club, even a cinema. During the 1960s over 18,000 people worked here. To understand the shipyards as a place, one needs to know that there was a whole culture here that went beyond the production of ships, to know that people were living much of their lives here. It was common for three generations of people in the same family to be working here at the same time, a grandfather, a father and a son / grandson. Also, many husband and wives worked in different parts of the shipyards. People fell in love here, got married here, and had their children here in the shipyard hospital. So, the shipyard was, in a way, a whole society. Thus, Solidarity was a cultural and social movement as much as a political one. Even people who didn’t work in the shipyards had family members who worked in the shipyards. It is because of this connection, where people were living, in a way, their whole lives at the shipyard that a movement like Solidarity could be created here in the 1980s. This tour was conducted in English and Polish with aid from a translator. Photographs by Janeil Engelstad	<urn:uuid:3ca94a7f-0531-4351-a6f5-3ced80d72913>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://voicesfromthecenter.net/72/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00207.warc.gz	en	0.984515	757	3.796875	4	[ -0.2233489751815796, 0.47609761357307434, 0.09431473910808563, 0.15352007746696472, -0.002184920944273472, 0.24279960989952087, 0.030298816040158272, 0.2866896390914917, -0.08077546954154968, -0.21882319450378418, 0.2036287635564804, 0.05528735741972923, -0.2708349823951721, 0.311973273754...	25	Solidarity was a cultural and social movement as much as a political one A Tour Around the Gdańsk Shipyard Gdańsk Shipyard, formerly Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk, is the historic Polish shipyard located in the city of Gdańsk, Poland. A strike by more than 12,000 shipyard workers in 1980 led to the founding of, Solidarity (Solidarność), the first non-communist trade union in the Eastern Bloc countries. Led by shipyard election Lech Wałęsa, the strike was one of the first actions in a campaign of civil resistance, which contributed to the eventual collapse of communism in Poland. So we can start outside at the entrance to the shipyard where there is the memorial The Monument to the Fallen Shipyard Workers of 1970. For the Polish people it is one of the most important post WW2 memorials. It is a testament to the strikers and the local people that this monument stands, as the government did not want to memorialize this event, where they killed at least 44 people. The monument is deeply connected to Catholicism. The crosses represent faith, the anchors represent hope, and the 10 boards represent the love of freedom and the Decalogue. The circles in the pavement surrounding the structure represent the circles that ripple out from throwing a stone into water. The stone representing freedom and the idea that freedom, like the ripples, is something that you cannot stop. The three tower-like structures represent the crucifixions at Golgotha. The technique of building the monument was the same as employed for building ships, intentionally reflecting the labor of the workers who were killed by the government troops. The gate at the entrance to the shipyards represents the entrance to what was the largest shipyard in the world, measuring a total of 165,000 square hectors (63 square miles). It is not the original gate. A tank, destroyed the original gate in the 1980s, when the government was cracking down on strikers. This gate also marks where people died on Dec 16, 1970. Then, the strikers were protesting the high price increases of food. And for this they were killed. The shipyard was a city within a city with streets, tramlines, even trains running through. However, the main mode of transportation was bicycle. It would take between 45 – 60 minutes to bicycle from one end of the shipyard to the other. There was a hospital, a post office, and a sports club, even a cinema. During the 1960s over 18,000 people worked here. To understand the shipyards as a place, one needs to know that there was a whole culture here that went beyond the production of ships, to know that people were living much of their lives here. It was common for three generations of people in the same family to be working here at the same time, a grandfather, a father and a son / grandson. Also, many husband and wives worked in different parts of the shipyards. People fell in love here, got married here, and had their children here in the shipyard hospital. So, the shipyard was, in a way, a whole society. Thus, Solidarity was a cultural and social movement as much as a political one. Even people who didn’t work in the shipyards had family members who worked in the shipyards. It is because of this connection, where people were living, in a way, their whole lives at the shipyard that a movement like Solidarity could be created here in the 1980s. This tour was conducted in English and Polish with aid from a translator. Photographs by Janeil Engelstad	780	ENGLISH	1
Jeremiah Burke Sanderson (1821-75), a native of New Bedford, learned to agitate for equal rights in his hometown and became one of the most active proponents of the cause in early California. His ethnic origin is not entirely clear. His father, Daniel, may have been partly or entirely Scottish; his mother, Sarah, was either entirely or partly native Wampanoag Indian. The Sanderson family came to New Bedford from Bristol, Rhode Island, about 1826-27; Daniel Sanderson appears to have left the village after 1830 and never returned. Before Jeremiah Sanderson turned twenty, he had become active in abolitionism. In 1840 he was elected secretary of a New Bedford colored citizens’ meeting in support of the “old,” Garrisonian American Anti-Slavery Society and had begun his lifelong correspondence and friendship with Boston abolitionist William C. Nell. By June 1841, when he was working as a barber in downtown New Bedford, Sanderson became local subscription agent for Garrison’s Liberator. On Nantucket, in August that year he spoke at the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society meeting that catapulted Frederick Douglass to national notice. Both Parker Pillsbury and Edmund Quincy had high praise for Sanderson’s Nantucket address. The New Bedford native spoke often at antislavery and equal rights meetings throughout his life. In the course of his antislavery work Sanderson developed close relationships with Frederick Douglass, with whom he lived while the Douglass family resided in Lynn, Massachusetts, and the fugitive-turned-antislavery orator William Wells Brown. Sanderson was a featured lecturer at the annual meeting of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1845. He was one of two Massachusetts delegates to the 1853 National Convention of the Colored People of the United States, and a member of the State Council of Colored People of Massachusetts in 1854. Sanderson resigned the last-named position later in 1854 before moving to California, clearly to improve his financial position. He married in about 1848 and had a wife and four children to support by 1855. As he wrote his wife from California in 1857, “I have always hoped, and do hope to do something better for my family here, than I can at home.” In 1856 Sanderson established Sacramento’s first school for children of color and ran it without any state aid for more than a year. During that time he tried to persuade the state to support public education for the students he taught and those his school was unable to accommodate. He was also active in the first and subsequent conventions for people of color in that state. Jeremiah Sanderson’s family joined him in California after the death of his wife’s mother, Mary Gibson, in March 1859. Their daughter Mary Sanderson Grasses later became the first black public school teacher in Oakland, California. In 1859 Sanderson was placed in charge of San Francisco’s first black public school and named its principal in 1864. By 1868 he was teaching school in Stockton and in 1871 was appointed vice president of a convention held there on the education of children of color in the state. He remained active in equal rights, having helped found the state’s Franchise League in 1862 and having signed a call in 1873 for a state convention of blacks to assure equal rights under the Fifteenth Amendment. During this time he also helped organized the California Conference of the Union Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church, served as a local preacher, and was ordained an elder in the church by T. M. D. Ward, who had also lived for a time in New Bedford, in Stockton in 1871. Sanderson died tragically four years later: returning home from a prayer meeting at his then current pastorate, Shiloh AME Church in Oakland, he was struck by a Southern Pacific train as he crossed the tracks and killed instantly.	<urn:uuid:13ffa06c-1650-473f-bf47-d44496311ba8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nbhistoricalsociety.org/Important-Figures/jeremiah-burke-sanderson/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00435.warc.gz	en	0.985286	818	3.453125	3	[ 0.08083061873912811, 0.13376674056053162, 0.10426878929138184, -0.29512327909469604, -0.2253245860338211, 0.0960976704955101, -0.03911647945642471, 0.12263153493404388, -0.4815189838409424, -0.19680555164813995, -0.2872821092605591, -0.007565210573375225, 0.2832016944885254, 0.171508252620...	11	Jeremiah Burke Sanderson (1821-75), a native of New Bedford, learned to agitate for equal rights in his hometown and became one of the most active proponents of the cause in early California. His ethnic origin is not entirely clear. His father, Daniel, may have been partly or entirely Scottish; his mother, Sarah, was either entirely or partly native Wampanoag Indian. The Sanderson family came to New Bedford from Bristol, Rhode Island, about 1826-27; Daniel Sanderson appears to have left the village after 1830 and never returned. Before Jeremiah Sanderson turned twenty, he had become active in abolitionism. In 1840 he was elected secretary of a New Bedford colored citizens’ meeting in support of the “old,” Garrisonian American Anti-Slavery Society and had begun his lifelong correspondence and friendship with Boston abolitionist William C. Nell. By June 1841, when he was working as a barber in downtown New Bedford, Sanderson became local subscription agent for Garrison’s Liberator. On Nantucket, in August that year he spoke at the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society meeting that catapulted Frederick Douglass to national notice. Both Parker Pillsbury and Edmund Quincy had high praise for Sanderson’s Nantucket address. The New Bedford native spoke often at antislavery and equal rights meetings throughout his life. In the course of his antislavery work Sanderson developed close relationships with Frederick Douglass, with whom he lived while the Douglass family resided in Lynn, Massachusetts, and the fugitive-turned-antislavery orator William Wells Brown. Sanderson was a featured lecturer at the annual meeting of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1845. He was one of two Massachusetts delegates to the 1853 National Convention of the Colored People of the United States, and a member of the State Council of Colored People of Massachusetts in 1854. Sanderson resigned the last-named position later in 1854 before moving to California, clearly to improve his financial position. He married in about 1848 and had a wife and four children to support by 1855. As he wrote his wife from California in 1857, “I have always hoped, and do hope to do something better for my family here, than I can at home.” In 1856 Sanderson established Sacramento’s first school for children of color and ran it without any state aid for more than a year. During that time he tried to persuade the state to support public education for the students he taught and those his school was unable to accommodate. He was also active in the first and subsequent conventions for people of color in that state. Jeremiah Sanderson’s family joined him in California after the death of his wife’s mother, Mary Gibson, in March 1859. Their daughter Mary Sanderson Grasses later became the first black public school teacher in Oakland, California. In 1859 Sanderson was placed in charge of San Francisco’s first black public school and named its principal in 1864. By 1868 he was teaching school in Stockton and in 1871 was appointed vice president of a convention held there on the education of children of color in the state. He remained active in equal rights, having helped found the state’s Franchise League in 1862 and having signed a call in 1873 for a state convention of blacks to assure equal rights under the Fifteenth Amendment. During this time he also helped organized the California Conference of the Union Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church, served as a local preacher, and was ordained an elder in the church by T. M. D. Ward, who had also lived for a time in New Bedford, in Stockton in 1871. Sanderson died tragically four years later: returning home from a prayer meeting at his then current pastorate, Shiloh AME Church in Oakland, he was struck by a Southern Pacific train as he crossed the tracks and killed instantly.	859	ENGLISH	1
Joseph Lister was a smart man, that by 24 had already graduated from medical school. Lister did not let the negative feedback stop him. Lister was a level-headed man that knew if he could keep publishing his colleagues would soon have to start scratching their head and listening. Lister saw what other smart men around them were discovering, and he used their ideas to build his own. All for the common good of helping those who were dying from something that could not be seen or heard. Lister used the journals of others, which is why I assume he always published his own paper. So, we as a society could reap the benefit of their hard work and long hours. The proof is in the history. Look at where we are now with surgical aseptic techniques. We are far more technically advanced, but it is due to people like Lister who kept fighting, kept looking for the answers to even the hardest questions. Joseph Lister was born in 1827. At the age of 17 he was attending school at the University College, London. In 1848 he decided to attend medical school at University College, London. In 1852 Lister earned his bachelor of medicine degree, then began his surgical internship at the school’s infirmary. During his time at the infirmary, Lister became interested in the process of wound inflammation and healing, and would use a microscope in the examination of such wounds. That was not the standard of practice in at that time. “Lister still felt that wound suppuration resulted from agents in the air, and he felt that to stop wound infections he must destroy these agents that had gained access to the wound and also must prevent subsequent invasion into a healing wound.” (Francoeur p.130) In 1865 the civil war in America had just ended, and Lister was still seeing soldiers dyeing of infection. Lister was introduced to another scientist named Louis Pasteur who was doing experiments with fermentation wear microbes in the air could fall into a media and cause fermentation. “Lister reasoned that fermentation was similar to wound suppuration and perhaps these microbes were responsible for wound suppuration.” (Francoeur p.130) With that new knowledge Lister came up with a theory that if you applied carbolic acid it would keep the wound from becoming septic. In 1877 a German doctor named Robert Koch discovered what he named Bacillus anthrax is sheep’s blood and the Bacillus anthrax could be used to infect other sheep. Which gave lister prof that there were spores in the air, which then gave rise and backing to Lister with other doctors that the spore was living on the skin of the patient, the doctor’s hands, and even the surgical equipment being used. “Dr. Schimmelbusch demonstrated that heating the surgical instruments would kill any microbes present.” (Francoeur p. 131) Experiments and result: Lister started out testing his theory. He would wrap the wounds with rags soaked in carbolic acid then seal them with tin foil. Which took a lot of time and the carbolic acid would damage the tissue of the injured. Lister preformed the first surgery with aseptic techniques on a patient with the drainage of a psoas abscess, an operation that few had chances of surviving with or without surgery. But Lister’s patient survived and recovered without sepsis. “Lister stated “previous to its introduction, the 2 large wards in which most of my cases of accident	<urn:uuid:25bf7190-423a-4982-917e-3bc61e34f27c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://e-lib.info/joseph-lister-43188/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00497.warc.gz	en	0.987006	731	3.75	4	[ -0.3390989899635315, 0.2579004466533661, 0.14240552484989166, -0.2681886553764343, 0.048155978322029114, -0.045943692326545715, 0.3995824456214905, 0.5959469676017761, -0.23985958099365234, -0.22309206426143646, 0.08936090767383575, -0.5148171782493591, 0.12062244117259979, 0.2503786087036...	3	Joseph Lister was a smart man, that by 24 had already graduated from medical school. Lister did not let the negative feedback stop him. Lister was a level-headed man that knew if he could keep publishing his colleagues would soon have to start scratching their head and listening. Lister saw what other smart men around them were discovering, and he used their ideas to build his own. All for the common good of helping those who were dying from something that could not be seen or heard. Lister used the journals of others, which is why I assume he always published his own paper. So, we as a society could reap the benefit of their hard work and long hours. The proof is in the history. Look at where we are now with surgical aseptic techniques. We are far more technically advanced, but it is due to people like Lister who kept fighting, kept looking for the answers to even the hardest questions. Joseph Lister was born in 1827. At the age of 17 he was attending school at the University College, London. In 1848 he decided to attend medical school at University College, London. In 1852 Lister earned his bachelor of medicine degree, then began his surgical internship at the school’s infirmary. During his time at the infirmary, Lister became interested in the process of wound inflammation and healing, and would use a microscope in the examination of such wounds. That was not the standard of practice in at that time. “Lister still felt that wound suppuration resulted from agents in the air, and he felt that to stop wound infections he must destroy these agents that had gained access to the wound and also must prevent subsequent invasion into a healing wound.” (Francoeur p.130) In 1865 the civil war in America had just ended, and Lister was still seeing soldiers dyeing of infection. Lister was introduced to another scientist named Louis Pasteur who was doing experiments with fermentation wear microbes in the air could fall into a media and cause fermentation. “Lister reasoned that fermentation was similar to wound suppuration and perhaps these microbes were responsible for wound suppuration.” (Francoeur p.130) With that new knowledge Lister came up with a theory that if you applied carbolic acid it would keep the wound from becoming septic. In 1877 a German doctor named Robert Koch discovered what he named Bacillus anthrax is sheep’s blood and the Bacillus anthrax could be used to infect other sheep. Which gave lister prof that there were spores in the air, which then gave rise and backing to Lister with other doctors that the spore was living on the skin of the patient, the doctor’s hands, and even the surgical equipment being used. “Dr. Schimmelbusch demonstrated that heating the surgical instruments would kill any microbes present.” (Francoeur p. 131) Experiments and result: Lister started out testing his theory. He would wrap the wounds with rags soaked in carbolic acid then seal them with tin foil. Which took a lot of time and the carbolic acid would damage the tissue of the injured. Lister preformed the first surgery with aseptic techniques on a patient with the drainage of a psoas abscess, an operation that few had chances of surviving with or without surgery. But Lister’s patient survived and recovered without sepsis. “Lister stated “previous to its introduction, the 2 large wards in which most of my cases of accident	735	ENGLISH	1
In 343 Aristotle was invited back to Macedonia by the King to tutor the young Alexander. The differing ambitions of the two friends (teacher and student), made for an intense scholarly relationship. Aristotle was working on establishing a new philosophical world-view with Greece at its center, however Alexander was preparing to conquer an empire far exceeding the boundaries of the Greek world. Aristotle supported a nationalistic strategy, which would protect Greek culture from the "barbarians," whereas Alexander eventually supported the inclusion of non-Greek culture into his policies to ease his rule of the outer provinces. When Alexander succeeded King Philip and launched his first series of campaigns, extending his rule to India and Egypt, Aristotle returned to Athens for the first time since Plato's death. Platonism had become the dominant philosophy of Athens, and the Platonic school was running successfully under the leadership of Xenocrates. Aristotle decided to establish his own school at the Lyceum. For the next thirteen years he concentrated on teaching and writing the philosophical treatises, which would become his published works. In the morning at the Lyceum Aristotle would facilitate detailed discussions for his more advanced students, and in the afternoon he would lecture on popular topics of discourse for a general body of philosophers and students. His followers became known as "peripatetics," meaning "to walk about," referring to Aristotle's habit of walking back and forth while relating his lectures. In 323 Alexander the Great was killed while on campaign in the East, and anti-Macedonian sentiment reigned in Athens. In an attempt to free Greek city-states from Macedonian rule, the Athenian Assembly declared war against Antiipon, Alexander's successor. In a repetition of his experience in 347, Aristotle was considered pro-Macedonian and therefore anti-Athenian, and he was charged with "impiety." This is the same charge that had led to Socrates' execution in 399. To avoid Socrates' end, Aristotle went into voluntary exile to the city of Chalcis. Here he lived with his second wife, Herpyllis, who was also the mother of his son, Nichomachus. In 322 BCE, at age 63, Aristotle died of a digestive ailment. Aristotle wrote treatises covering a vast range of philosophical thought, from biology, physics, logic, science, and metaphysics to ethics, morality, aesthetics, and politics. He developed a non-Platonic theory of form, produced a system of…	<urn:uuid:b4ba00b8-69ca-4bc6-a9e1-8e5dc690c26e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Lyceum-Aristotle-593520.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00200.warc.gz	en	0.981512	502	3.921875	4	[ -0.07923436164855957, 0.2743813395500183, 0.2575966417789459, -0.16757239401340485, -0.7064335942268372, -0.44263195991516113, 0.22400259971618652, 0.7581427097320557, 0.06387560814619064, -0.08097264170646667, -0.18467482924461365, -0.2375398576259613, 0.1883215606212616, 0.05781071633100...	1	In 343 Aristotle was invited back to Macedonia by the King to tutor the young Alexander. The differing ambitions of the two friends (teacher and student), made for an intense scholarly relationship. Aristotle was working on establishing a new philosophical world-view with Greece at its center, however Alexander was preparing to conquer an empire far exceeding the boundaries of the Greek world. Aristotle supported a nationalistic strategy, which would protect Greek culture from the "barbarians," whereas Alexander eventually supported the inclusion of non-Greek culture into his policies to ease his rule of the outer provinces. When Alexander succeeded King Philip and launched his first series of campaigns, extending his rule to India and Egypt, Aristotle returned to Athens for the first time since Plato's death. Platonism had become the dominant philosophy of Athens, and the Platonic school was running successfully under the leadership of Xenocrates. Aristotle decided to establish his own school at the Lyceum. For the next thirteen years he concentrated on teaching and writing the philosophical treatises, which would become his published works. In the morning at the Lyceum Aristotle would facilitate detailed discussions for his more advanced students, and in the afternoon he would lecture on popular topics of discourse for a general body of philosophers and students. His followers became known as "peripatetics," meaning "to walk about," referring to Aristotle's habit of walking back and forth while relating his lectures. In 323 Alexander the Great was killed while on campaign in the East, and anti-Macedonian sentiment reigned in Athens. In an attempt to free Greek city-states from Macedonian rule, the Athenian Assembly declared war against Antiipon, Alexander's successor. In a repetition of his experience in 347, Aristotle was considered pro-Macedonian and therefore anti-Athenian, and he was charged with "impiety." This is the same charge that had led to Socrates' execution in 399. To avoid Socrates' end, Aristotle went into voluntary exile to the city of Chalcis. Here he lived with his second wife, Herpyllis, who was also the mother of his son, Nichomachus. In 322 BCE, at age 63, Aristotle died of a digestive ailment. Aristotle wrote treatises covering a vast range of philosophical thought, from biology, physics, logic, science, and metaphysics to ethics, morality, aesthetics, and politics. He developed a non-Platonic theory of form, produced a system of…	514	ENGLISH	1
There are two institutions which helped to define the Orthodox Christianity in the Middle Period of the Byzantine Empire (from the 7th to the 11th century AD). Monasticism was one of them. The development of ecclesiastical eunuchs is another. The place of religious eunuchs in this period is one of great interest. There is an increase in both the establishment of eunuchs in the overall ecclesiastical structure of the Byzantine Church and in the hagiographical stories (known as vitas, or lives) of this time period. This is quite a marked difference to the strong disdain that was being applied to eunuchs in the Early Byzantine Period (4th to the 7th century AD) . During this earlier period, eunuchs were damned for their lack of genitalia. Just a few centuries later, they are being glorified for that same absence. One of the questions from this time period in Byzantine history is whether castration came to be seen as a type of ascetic discipline. After all, a monastic in the Byzantine Empire were given to all types of self-mortification (scourging and extreme fasting immediately spring to mind). These practices were viewed as a means to strip the world away to get to the true part of self from the person. Castration may have been viewed in a similar light. One of the first things that should be clarified in any study of eunuchs is to examine what is meant by the term eunuch itself. Since language helps to shape our reality, it is important to develop a perspective of the term itself. In our modern world the word eunuch has solely related to a medical condition or procedure. However, in the ancient world the term was multifaceted. Its usage could convey a multitude of meanings, from that of the castrated male to that of the celibate male. It could describe a slave as well as a bishop. While we may be tempted to overlay our own interpretations and biases on the word and its function, it is important to realize that we cannot assume other societies have the same categories that we do, no matter if they appear obvious to us. The word eunuch in its original Greek is eunouchos, which literally means “keeper of the bed” .While the word much later became synonymous with the medical procedure of castration; originally the term was more multifaceted. The term eunuch (and its variants) in the ancient world was used for not only those men who had underwent the process of castration (involuntarily), but also to male children to whom nature or God had 'castrated' (through underdeveloped sexual organs or no sexual desire), as well as those men who had underwent voluntary castration (sometimes figuratively, sometimes literally). Such practices meant that it was possible to put several types of men under a type of 'eunuch umbrella'. The term eunuch, rather than being a monolithic term referring to one type of physical modification (that of the removal of all of the sexual/reproductive organs) referred to several...	<urn:uuid:f97b2e8c-7059-403f-9f4d-8d1bb55cf644>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/divine-shadows	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00226.warc.gz	en	0.982064	631	3.484375	3	[ 0.24834658205509186, 0.14759878814220428, 0.09108225256204605, -0.3490065634250641, -0.09664426743984222, -0.08639107644557953, 0.42240315675735474, -0.0008827939163893461, 0.39798399806022644, 0.10451330989599228, -0.22380703687667847, -0.0995311290025711, -0.03155382350087166, 0.18492856...	1	There are two institutions which helped to define the Orthodox Christianity in the Middle Period of the Byzantine Empire (from the 7th to the 11th century AD). Monasticism was one of them. The development of ecclesiastical eunuchs is another. The place of religious eunuchs in this period is one of great interest. There is an increase in both the establishment of eunuchs in the overall ecclesiastical structure of the Byzantine Church and in the hagiographical stories (known as vitas, or lives) of this time period. This is quite a marked difference to the strong disdain that was being applied to eunuchs in the Early Byzantine Period (4th to the 7th century AD) . During this earlier period, eunuchs were damned for their lack of genitalia. Just a few centuries later, they are being glorified for that same absence. One of the questions from this time period in Byzantine history is whether castration came to be seen as a type of ascetic discipline. After all, a monastic in the Byzantine Empire were given to all types of self-mortification (scourging and extreme fasting immediately spring to mind). These practices were viewed as a means to strip the world away to get to the true part of self from the person. Castration may have been viewed in a similar light. One of the first things that should be clarified in any study of eunuchs is to examine what is meant by the term eunuch itself. Since language helps to shape our reality, it is important to develop a perspective of the term itself. In our modern world the word eunuch has solely related to a medical condition or procedure. However, in the ancient world the term was multifaceted. Its usage could convey a multitude of meanings, from that of the castrated male to that of the celibate male. It could describe a slave as well as a bishop. While we may be tempted to overlay our own interpretations and biases on the word and its function, it is important to realize that we cannot assume other societies have the same categories that we do, no matter if they appear obvious to us. The word eunuch in its original Greek is eunouchos, which literally means “keeper of the bed” .While the word much later became synonymous with the medical procedure of castration; originally the term was more multifaceted. The term eunuch (and its variants) in the ancient world was used for not only those men who had underwent the process of castration (involuntarily), but also to male children to whom nature or God had 'castrated' (through underdeveloped sexual organs or no sexual desire), as well as those men who had underwent voluntary castration (sometimes figuratively, sometimes literally). Such practices meant that it was possible to put several types of men under a type of 'eunuch umbrella'. The term eunuch, rather than being a monolithic term referring to one type of physical modification (that of the removal of all of the sexual/reproductive organs) referred to several...	639	ENGLISH	1
Langston Hughes is a renowned African American poet who wrote numerous poems mostly depicting the struggle that African Americans went through, as well as glorifying their heritage. His poems got great prominence, and he is considered one the greatest poets in America and the world beyond. He is also considered to have provided American poetry with a strong foundation. His works, just like works of many other great poets in history, received both applause and criticism. His poems still receive applause and criticism the way they did when they were still fresh, which is certainly an indication of the timeless nature of his work. He is considered a key figure in the literary world in the 1920s, a period which is popularly referred to as the “Harlem Renaissance.” The name came about because of a large number of African American writers in the literary world. Hughes was conspicuous in this group of Black intellectuals, very passionate, subjective, with great keenness and sensitivity towards beauty. His musical sense was unimpeachable. A review of Langston Hughes’ poems reveals a great poet whose writings were greatly influenced by the life and prevailing social, political, and economic conditions, as well as developments in the literary world, “Harlem Renaissance.” First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! Langston Hughes’ understanding of life can immensely contribute to the understanding of his works and their contribution to the literary world. Hughes was born in 1902 in Joplin, Missouri. He was born in a family that had a long history of fighting for the rights of African Americans. He was a great-great grandson of Charles Henry Langston, the brother of John Mercer Langston who is remembered for being the first African American to be elected in 1855 into a public office (Leach 3). He was a member of a great abolitionist family. Hughes’ poems were mostly dedicated to his maternal grandmother Mary Langston, who lost her husband, a member of the John Brown Band, at Harpers Ferry. Her second husband, the grandfather of Hughes, was also a militant abolitionist. Hughes’ desolation caused by parental neglect drove him to books which are likely to have inspired him to write (Leach 1). He began writing poems while in the eighth grade at Central School in Cleveland, Ohio. His first published poem became his greatest poem “The Negro Speaks of Rives.” It was published in several magazines and other publications (Leach 15). After leaving Columbia, Hughes spent the following years working in a range of menial jobs. He travelled and labored on a freighter near the West African coast, then he spent several months in France before returning to the U.S. in 1924 (Leach 21). Through his early life, Hughes’ poetry was influenced by several writers and personalities. The strongest early influences came from Carl Sandburg and Walt Whitman and black poets such as Claude McKay and Paul Laurence Dunbar. McKay was a radical abolitionist who wrote amazing lyrical poems, while Dunbar was accomplished at both standard verse and dialect. Hughes, however, stated that Sandburg was his “guiding star,” for being influential in leading him towards adopting free verse alongside a radical and democratic modesty presentation of poetry. His love of African American music is yet another aspect that influenced his literary career. The love of music encouraged him to develop a fusion between blues and Jazz, which were popular in Harlem, with conventional verse in his early books, The Weary Blues and Fine Clothes to the Jew writen in 1926 and 1927 respectively (Wulff 4). The focus on lower-class, black life in these books, especially the latter, stirred harsh criticism from the black press. It is this book that made him a force to reckon in the Harlem Renaissance. Hughes supported the need for artistic independence and race pride. This was clearly argued in his essay “The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain” in 1926 which was perceived as a manifesto for the Harlem Renaissance movement. In 1929, he graduated from Lincoln University in Pennsylvania while being in the middle of one of the most defining relationships in his life with his patron or Godmother Mrs. Charlotte Mason, who supported him for two years starting in 1927 and supervised writing of his first novel (Rampersad 156). The novel Not Without a Laughter published in 1930 presented a story of a black, sensitive Midwestern boy and the struggles he encountered in life. Hughes’ relationship with his Godmother ended before the novel was published leading him to enormous personal disillusionment and unhappiness. This was the beginning of Hughes’ turn to far-left politics. He subsequently spent a year in the Soviet Union from where he wrote his most radical verses. Later, while in California, he wrote a collection of short stories compiled in the book The Ways of the White Folks in 1934 (Rampersad 289). The stories were filled with pessimistic ideas about racial relations and sardonic realism. His travels between Europe and America influenced his writing and at the onset and during the Second World War, he shifted to the political center. Despite strongly attacking racial segregation, his writing had no leftist sympathies. That was the stance he maintained after the Second World War and during the civil rights movements period that followed the war. Hughes’ activities in Harlem were influenced by his life experiences. For instance, he revealed his passion for writing after he was engaged in long book sessions caused by the distance between him and his parents during his childhood. He proceeded to write borrowing insight from his rich abolitionist background and the constant battle of people of color to gain a place in American social, political, and economic spheres. He was further influenced by African American culture in Harlem, especially music such as blues and Jazz, his travels between America and other places such as Europe, Asia, and Africa, and political ideologies such as leftist views. The author’s works depict all these influences. He explored various literal genres ranging from poems, short stories, fictional novels, historical writings, plays, humorous books, cultural works, biographical and autobiographical writings, librettos, lyrics, scripts, articles, and translations. The influence of his African American heritage and struggle for a place in American society is visible right from the first poem to be published “Negro Speaks of Rivers”, which made him famous (Rasche 7). This is a free verse poem with no rhymes but with a movement of a raging river. The poem seems to have three parts: the world’s famous rivers’ part, the “my soul has grown deep as rivers” part, and the “I have known rivers” part. The first part sits comfortably in the center of the poem, while the second and third parts come at the end of the poem. Repetition is also evident creating a musical sound. Enjambment is evident creating a zigzag movvement typical of rivers. The poem exhibits the influence of Whiteman, who one of Hughes’ greatest influential poets. For instance, the repetition of “I” is similar to Whitman’s repetition of the word in “A Noiseless Patient Spider” (Rasche 8). Hughes uses the term “negro”, a term that was used by African Americans for solidarity and self-identification, to show that the poem would share the experience of African Americans. The musical nature of the poem is based on the African American identity of Jazz and blues. The poem concentrates on humanity from the earliest times in Mesopotamia to the abolition of brutality in the form of slavery along the Mississippi. Another interesting work by Hughes is the poem “I too Sing American” (Rampersad, 95). This poem embodies the oppression and violence that slaves experienced under their white masters and their hope that one day it would all end and they would become proud Americans. This is yet another free verse poem by Hughes, with no specific pattern. The poem also has a first-person narrator, as the pronoun “I” is used. Again this poem is inspired by Whitman. Hughes wrote it in response to Whitman’s “I hear America Singing.” Unlike most of Hughes’ poems, I Too Sing America does not contain blues or jazzy rhythm; it is rather a collection of short declarative sentences communicating the message. The Weary Blues, which is another poem by Hughes, also has the features found in the poems mentioned above. It also shows strong influence by Whitman; it is a free verse poem with a strong musical rhythm. The rhythm flows naturally like speech, with longer pauses and musical rhymes. The Weary Blues also proves the influence of blues and Jazz on Hughes. It also uses a single first-person narrator like the previous two poems. The poem is set in the 1920s, when there was a ban on alcohol, and traders sold alcohol in unmarked containers. The action takes place in a bar that is crowded and can afford electricity, so the narrator could see the musician clearly. From the bar, the musician goes home to sleep. In this poem, Hughes reported on the African American life in the 1920s America. The Wear Blues is a product of the impact of Jazzy nightlife in Harlem on Hughes (Wulff 4). All the poems mentioned above were a free verse, following the influence of Whitman and other poets. The poems had a jazzy or blues rhythm, which resulted from the influence of African American heritage. Born when African Americans were largely marginalized and were struggling for their position in American society, Hughes’ poems depicted this struggles and had literary characteristics of the Harlem Renaissance. Furthermore, the poems depicted what was happening in America and in some other parts of the world, for example the ban on alcohol in the 1920s, the Second World War, and the civil rights movement. In conclusion, Langston Hughes is a renowned poet and writer whose literary work was greatly influenced by his own life, his mentors, and the forces of the Harlem Renaissance. The poems show the influence of his African American heritage such as Jazzy and blues rhythms, the influence of African American struggles, prevailing political ideologies, and other trends in Harlem. He died in 1967 after developing complications caused by an abdominal surgery. His last book The Panther and the Lash was published posthumously. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:a9f0212c-f7da-4155-b34e-197474142c68>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essays-expert.com/essays/literary-analysis/the-pioneering-american-poet-langston-hughes.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00433.warc.gz	en	0.980634	2,173	3.96875	4	[ -0.2815716564655304, 0.21361875534057617, 0.1330704391002655, 0.567357063293457, -0.3330514132976532, 0.04074743017554283, 0.5338363647460938, -0.18766070902347565, -0.5155985355377197, 0.1657254695892334, -0.11681023240089417, 0.1507899910211563, -0.13224737346172333, 0.2230788767337799, ...	1	Langston Hughes is a renowned African American poet who wrote numerous poems mostly depicting the struggle that African Americans went through, as well as glorifying their heritage. His poems got great prominence, and he is considered one the greatest poets in America and the world beyond. He is also considered to have provided American poetry with a strong foundation. His works, just like works of many other great poets in history, received both applause and criticism. His poems still receive applause and criticism the way they did when they were still fresh, which is certainly an indication of the timeless nature of his work. He is considered a key figure in the literary world in the 1920s, a period which is popularly referred to as the “Harlem Renaissance.” The name came about because of a large number of African American writers in the literary world. Hughes was conspicuous in this group of Black intellectuals, very passionate, subjective, with great keenness and sensitivity towards beauty. His musical sense was unimpeachable. A review of Langston Hughes’ poems reveals a great poet whose writings were greatly influenced by the life and prevailing social, political, and economic conditions, as well as developments in the literary world, “Harlem Renaissance.” First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! Langston Hughes’ understanding of life can immensely contribute to the understanding of his works and their contribution to the literary world. Hughes was born in 1902 in Joplin, Missouri. He was born in a family that had a long history of fighting for the rights of African Americans. He was a great-great grandson of Charles Henry Langston, the brother of John Mercer Langston who is remembered for being the first African American to be elected in 1855 into a public office (Leach 3). He was a member of a great abolitionist family. Hughes’ poems were mostly dedicated to his maternal grandmother Mary Langston, who lost her husband, a member of the John Brown Band, at Harpers Ferry. Her second husband, the grandfather of Hughes, was also a militant abolitionist. Hughes’ desolation caused by parental neglect drove him to books which are likely to have inspired him to write (Leach 1). He began writing poems while in the eighth grade at Central School in Cleveland, Ohio. His first published poem became his greatest poem “The Negro Speaks of Rives.” It was published in several magazines and other publications (Leach 15). After leaving Columbia, Hughes spent the following years working in a range of menial jobs. He travelled and labored on a freighter near the West African coast, then he spent several months in France before returning to the U.S. in 1924 (Leach 21). Through his early life, Hughes’ poetry was influenced by several writers and personalities. The strongest early influences came from Carl Sandburg and Walt Whitman and black poets such as Claude McKay and Paul Laurence Dunbar. McKay was a radical abolitionist who wrote amazing lyrical poems, while Dunbar was accomplished at both standard verse and dialect. Hughes, however, stated that Sandburg was his “guiding star,” for being influential in leading him towards adopting free verse alongside a radical and democratic modesty presentation of poetry. His love of African American music is yet another aspect that influenced his literary career. The love of music encouraged him to develop a fusion between blues and Jazz, which were popular in Harlem, with conventional verse in his early books, The Weary Blues and Fine Clothes to the Jew writen in 1926 and 1927 respectively (Wulff 4). The focus on lower-class, black life in these books, especially the latter, stirred harsh criticism from the black press. It is this book that made him a force to reckon in the Harlem Renaissance. Hughes supported the need for artistic independence and race pride. This was clearly argued in his essay “The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain” in 1926 which was perceived as a manifesto for the Harlem Renaissance movement. In 1929, he graduated from Lincoln University in Pennsylvania while being in the middle of one of the most defining relationships in his life with his patron or Godmother Mrs. Charlotte Mason, who supported him for two years starting in 1927 and supervised writing of his first novel (Rampersad 156). The novel Not Without a Laughter published in 1930 presented a story of a black, sensitive Midwestern boy and the struggles he encountered in life. Hughes’ relationship with his Godmother ended before the novel was published leading him to enormous personal disillusionment and unhappiness. This was the beginning of Hughes’ turn to far-left politics. He subsequently spent a year in the Soviet Union from where he wrote his most radical verses. Later, while in California, he wrote a collection of short stories compiled in the book The Ways of the White Folks in 1934 (Rampersad 289). The stories were filled with pessimistic ideas about racial relations and sardonic realism. His travels between Europe and America influenced his writing and at the onset and during the Second World War, he shifted to the political center. Despite strongly attacking racial segregation, his writing had no leftist sympathies. That was the stance he maintained after the Second World War and during the civil rights movements period that followed the war. Hughes’ activities in Harlem were influenced by his life experiences. For instance, he revealed his passion for writing after he was engaged in long book sessions caused by the distance between him and his parents during his childhood. He proceeded to write borrowing insight from his rich abolitionist background and the constant battle of people of color to gain a place in American social, political, and economic spheres. He was further influenced by African American culture in Harlem, especially music such as blues and Jazz, his travels between America and other places such as Europe, Asia, and Africa, and political ideologies such as leftist views. The author’s works depict all these influences. He explored various literal genres ranging from poems, short stories, fictional novels, historical writings, plays, humorous books, cultural works, biographical and autobiographical writings, librettos, lyrics, scripts, articles, and translations. The influence of his African American heritage and struggle for a place in American society is visible right from the first poem to be published “Negro Speaks of Rivers”, which made him famous (Rasche 7). This is a free verse poem with no rhymes but with a movement of a raging river. The poem seems to have three parts: the world’s famous rivers’ part, the “my soul has grown deep as rivers” part, and the “I have known rivers” part. The first part sits comfortably in the center of the poem, while the second and third parts come at the end of the poem. Repetition is also evident creating a musical sound. Enjambment is evident creating a zigzag movvement typical of rivers. The poem exhibits the influence of Whiteman, who one of Hughes’ greatest influential poets. For instance, the repetition of “I” is similar to Whitman’s repetition of the word in “A Noiseless Patient Spider” (Rasche 8). Hughes uses the term “negro”, a term that was used by African Americans for solidarity and self-identification, to show that the poem would share the experience of African Americans. The musical nature of the poem is based on the African American identity of Jazz and blues. The poem concentrates on humanity from the earliest times in Mesopotamia to the abolition of brutality in the form of slavery along the Mississippi. Another interesting work by Hughes is the poem “I too Sing American” (Rampersad, 95). This poem embodies the oppression and violence that slaves experienced under their white masters and their hope that one day it would all end and they would become proud Americans. This is yet another free verse poem by Hughes, with no specific pattern. The poem also has a first-person narrator, as the pronoun “I” is used. Again this poem is inspired by Whitman. Hughes wrote it in response to Whitman’s “I hear America Singing.” Unlike most of Hughes’ poems, I Too Sing America does not contain blues or jazzy rhythm; it is rather a collection of short declarative sentences communicating the message. The Weary Blues, which is another poem by Hughes, also has the features found in the poems mentioned above. It also shows strong influence by Whitman; it is a free verse poem with a strong musical rhythm. The rhythm flows naturally like speech, with longer pauses and musical rhymes. The Weary Blues also proves the influence of blues and Jazz on Hughes. It also uses a single first-person narrator like the previous two poems. The poem is set in the 1920s, when there was a ban on alcohol, and traders sold alcohol in unmarked containers. The action takes place in a bar that is crowded and can afford electricity, so the narrator could see the musician clearly. From the bar, the musician goes home to sleep. In this poem, Hughes reported on the African American life in the 1920s America. The Wear Blues is a product of the impact of Jazzy nightlife in Harlem on Hughes (Wulff 4). All the poems mentioned above were a free verse, following the influence of Whitman and other poets. The poems had a jazzy or blues rhythm, which resulted from the influence of African American heritage. Born when African Americans were largely marginalized and were struggling for their position in American society, Hughes’ poems depicted this struggles and had literary characteristics of the Harlem Renaissance. Furthermore, the poems depicted what was happening in America and in some other parts of the world, for example the ban on alcohol in the 1920s, the Second World War, and the civil rights movement. In conclusion, Langston Hughes is a renowned poet and writer whose literary work was greatly influenced by his own life, his mentors, and the forces of the Harlem Renaissance. The poems show the influence of his African American heritage such as Jazzy and blues rhythms, the influence of African American struggles, prevailing political ideologies, and other trends in Harlem. He died in 1967 after developing complications caused by an abdominal surgery. His last book The Panther and the Lash was published posthumously. Most popular orders	2,182	ENGLISH	1
Repression is a defense mechanism which blocks out emotional aroused memories and these memories because inaccessible because they are motivated by that person and placed in the unconscious mind. Examples of memories which might be repressed are child abuse or rape. This theory was based on the ideas of Freud, whose theories have now been heavily criticized. The implication of this is that such memories could be retired accidentally. Freud’s 1901 case study supports repression as he found that a man kept forgetting what followed the line, ‘with a white sheet’. This indicates that he was repressing the fear of death as he associated the white sheet with the linen sheet that is placed over a corpse. Freud used questions to found out this information from the man. It could be a case of false memory syndrome where an existing memory is confused and someone else has put ideas (i. e. the psychologist) in to the patient’s head. This doesn’t support repression. All the theories that support the study are subjective; this means that it is open to individual interpretation. It is therefore very difficult to prove whether someone has repressed something or not. Furthermore you cannot generalize the idea. Levinger and Clark’s experiment supports Freud’s repression theory as the study showed that participants took longer to respond to negatively charged words compared with those for neutral words. This supports the repression theory as the repression theory states that certain memories are pushed into our unconscious mind through motivation when they create negative emotions. This would explain why it took participants longer to respond to the negatively charged words as thoughts associated with words would have been pushed out into the unconscious memory. This experiment was done on a large sample. However there are criticisms of this experiment, it is also based on subjective measures like Freud’s studies. It may have been conducted in a laboratory but the theory it was testing was based on one person’s research into one case. The results have been interoperated by the people who conducted the experiment. Parkin et al. 1982) did a variation on the original experiment but added a delay. He found that some of the words were still remembered so the words could not have been repressed as the participants were able to recall them. This experiment did not support the repression theory. Flashbulb memory is when emotional aroused memories are recalled easily where significant details are remembered clearly. This contradicts repression because it suggests that the emotionally aroused memory is remembered more clearly whereas repression suggests that memories are blocked out and not remembered. However we can ask how accurate is a flashbulb memory? Brown and Kulik 1977 analyzed people’s recall of national events. They found out that people remembered details of what was going on when they found out an incident such as Princess Diana’s death. Memories for such events were particularly vivid, detailed and long lasting. People usually remembered where they were when they heard the news, how they heard it, what they and others were doing at the time, and the emotional impact of the news on themselves and those around them. They concluded that flashbulb memories are special and quite different from other memories. They allow people to remember minor details of an event that they would otherwise forget. Flashbulb memories are sometimes quite inaccurate. People who tend to forget these small details or make minor errors, are suggested that the event was not as personally important to them as it was to other people. Flashbulb memories provide a good explanation on how great details of some days can be remembered, whereas details of the next cannot.	<urn:uuid:74cf04a0-6b68-4e01-9030-733e1e2cd157>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thenewstandardgallery.com/emotion-factors-of-forgetting/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00511.warc.gz	en	0.980152	719	3.890625	4	[ -0.20935547351837158, 0.6694431304931641, 0.06427699327468872, 0.36241477727890015, -0.030678756535053253, 0.31433185935020447, 0.5003461837768555, -0.06317009031772614, 0.4620753228664398, -0.5833843946456909, 0.007038477808237076, 0.05633426830172539, 0.4490852952003479, 0.49975064396858...	2	Repression is a defense mechanism which blocks out emotional aroused memories and these memories because inaccessible because they are motivated by that person and placed in the unconscious mind. Examples of memories which might be repressed are child abuse or rape. This theory was based on the ideas of Freud, whose theories have now been heavily criticized. The implication of this is that such memories could be retired accidentally. Freud’s 1901 case study supports repression as he found that a man kept forgetting what followed the line, ‘with a white sheet’. This indicates that he was repressing the fear of death as he associated the white sheet with the linen sheet that is placed over a corpse. Freud used questions to found out this information from the man. It could be a case of false memory syndrome where an existing memory is confused and someone else has put ideas (i. e. the psychologist) in to the patient’s head. This doesn’t support repression. All the theories that support the study are subjective; this means that it is open to individual interpretation. It is therefore very difficult to prove whether someone has repressed something or not. Furthermore you cannot generalize the idea. Levinger and Clark’s experiment supports Freud’s repression theory as the study showed that participants took longer to respond to negatively charged words compared with those for neutral words. This supports the repression theory as the repression theory states that certain memories are pushed into our unconscious mind through motivation when they create negative emotions. This would explain why it took participants longer to respond to the negatively charged words as thoughts associated with words would have been pushed out into the unconscious memory. This experiment was done on a large sample. However there are criticisms of this experiment, it is also based on subjective measures like Freud’s studies. It may have been conducted in a laboratory but the theory it was testing was based on one person’s research into one case. The results have been interoperated by the people who conducted the experiment. Parkin et al. 1982) did a variation on the original experiment but added a delay. He found that some of the words were still remembered so the words could not have been repressed as the participants were able to recall them. This experiment did not support the repression theory. Flashbulb memory is when emotional aroused memories are recalled easily where significant details are remembered clearly. This contradicts repression because it suggests that the emotionally aroused memory is remembered more clearly whereas repression suggests that memories are blocked out and not remembered. However we can ask how accurate is a flashbulb memory? Brown and Kulik 1977 analyzed people’s recall of national events. They found out that people remembered details of what was going on when they found out an incident such as Princess Diana’s death. Memories for such events were particularly vivid, detailed and long lasting. People usually remembered where they were when they heard the news, how they heard it, what they and others were doing at the time, and the emotional impact of the news on themselves and those around them. They concluded that flashbulb memories are special and quite different from other memories. They allow people to remember minor details of an event that they would otherwise forget. Flashbulb memories are sometimes quite inaccurate. People who tend to forget these small details or make minor errors, are suggested that the event was not as personally important to them as it was to other people. Flashbulb memories provide a good explanation on how great details of some days can be remembered, whereas details of the next cannot.	706	ENGLISH	1
February 5th is the official date when the Mexican constitution was formed in 1917 after signing of a convention by Venustiano Carranza. Up until 2006, the day was celebrated in Mexico on 5th February itself. However, following the new labor law, the day is now celebrated on the first Monday of February, irrespective of the date. The day is celebrated to commemorate the formation of a new Mexican constitution. The constitution of Mexico has undergone several changes. It was in 1910 that the people of Mexico began getting restless with the old constitution of Mexico which was established in 1857. This led to the Mexican revolution in 1910, resulting in the ouster of General Diaz, who was known to be an oppressive ruler. What followed was a series of fights among the Mexican rulers themselves, resulting in assassination of quite a few political leaders. It was in 1913 that Pancho Villa formed a huge army which fought inside forces on the side of those in favor of a new constitution, namely Venustiano Carranza. After a long struggle, Pancho Villa was successful in ousting the rebellion forces and Venustiano Carranza was sworn to presidency. It was in 1917 that Carranza signed an important convention which resulted in the formation of the new constitution. The new Mexican constitution laid emphasis on land reforms and fair land distribution among the poor. The constitution is in effect till date. The day is one of the major public holidays in Mexico. All the offices, schools and most businesses are closed on this day. The day is celebrated with grand parades across the nation, much like the celebration of Constitution Day in other parts of the world. A lot of music concerts and other festivities are also arranged on this day, and people can be seen enjoying the day with great pride and honor. Sale of liquor is banned 3 days prior to the day up until the day itself. Exchanging of gifts and pleasantries is also not uncommon on this day, as this is one of the most important festivals in the country.	<urn:uuid:6f44ddff-5ef1-4281-b47e-2a60392856c4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://sandbridgelife.com/event/constitution-day-mexico-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00137.warc.gz	en	0.980999	410	3.734375	4	[ -0.1260024607181549, 0.13612358272075653, 0.666443943977356, -0.04311094060540199, -0.04276607930660248, 0.29516541957855225, 0.1350550800561905, 0.18555410206317902, -0.40279287099838257, -0.3304702937602997, -0.18758681416511536, 0.3006219267845154, 0.22632424533367157, 0.186019763350486...	3	February 5th is the official date when the Mexican constitution was formed in 1917 after signing of a convention by Venustiano Carranza. Up until 2006, the day was celebrated in Mexico on 5th February itself. However, following the new labor law, the day is now celebrated on the first Monday of February, irrespective of the date. The day is celebrated to commemorate the formation of a new Mexican constitution. The constitution of Mexico has undergone several changes. It was in 1910 that the people of Mexico began getting restless with the old constitution of Mexico which was established in 1857. This led to the Mexican revolution in 1910, resulting in the ouster of General Diaz, who was known to be an oppressive ruler. What followed was a series of fights among the Mexican rulers themselves, resulting in assassination of quite a few political leaders. It was in 1913 that Pancho Villa formed a huge army which fought inside forces on the side of those in favor of a new constitution, namely Venustiano Carranza. After a long struggle, Pancho Villa was successful in ousting the rebellion forces and Venustiano Carranza was sworn to presidency. It was in 1917 that Carranza signed an important convention which resulted in the formation of the new constitution. The new Mexican constitution laid emphasis on land reforms and fair land distribution among the poor. The constitution is in effect till date. The day is one of the major public holidays in Mexico. All the offices, schools and most businesses are closed on this day. The day is celebrated with grand parades across the nation, much like the celebration of Constitution Day in other parts of the world. A lot of music concerts and other festivities are also arranged on this day, and people can be seen enjoying the day with great pride and honor. Sale of liquor is banned 3 days prior to the day up until the day itself. Exchanging of gifts and pleasantries is also not uncommon on this day, as this is one of the most important festivals in the country.	432	ENGLISH	1
In a paper in Nature, scientists claim to have found humanity's oldest known ancestor. This horrifying, bag-like sea creature lived about 540 million years ago and was recently dug up in China. Technically, the oldest known fossils go way farther back, to about 3.5 billion years. But those were cyanobacteria, and although we're related to them, those photosynthetic creatures are on a different branch of Earth's family tree. The new fossil, named Saccorhytus, appears to be the oldest deuterostome found to date. Deuterostomes are a group of animals that includes vertebrates (that's us) as well as starfish and other echinoderms. The group is defined by how its embryos develop: the first opening that forms in each tiny ball of cells becomes the organism's anus. It's a glamorous family legacy, to be sure. Saccorhytus was a tiny creature. To the naked eye, it would look like a millimeter-size black speck—in fact, scientists think it lived between grains of sand. It probably got around by wriggling. Interestingly, our sac-like ancestor doesn't appear to have been in possession of an anus, although that may be because the fossils are incomplete. "We think that as an early deuterostome this may represent the primitive beginnings of a very diverse range of species, including ourselves," said study author Simon Conway Morris from the University of Cambridge in a statement. "All deuterostomes had a common ancestor, and we think that is what we are looking at here." At first glance, it may not seem like we have all that much in common with this nightmare creature. But there is a slight family resemblance. Without an anus, Saccorhytus would have spewed fecal matter from its big mouth. Sound like someone you know?	<urn:uuid:728ec782-5827-448c-8df6-d45d85050725>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.popsci.com/this-ghastly-sack-cells-may-be-your-distant-ancestor/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00006.warc.gz	en	0.980618	390	3.75	4	[ -0.3593989610671997, -0.05405672639608383, 0.21844837069511414, 0.021552417427301407, 0.09309981763362885, -0.22540618479251862, -0.03633135184645653, 0.04269931837916374, -0.18192686140537262, 0.20501631498336792, 0.3059905767440796, -0.5650571584701538, 0.4294098913669586, 0.343290805816...	1	In a paper in Nature, scientists claim to have found humanity's oldest known ancestor. This horrifying, bag-like sea creature lived about 540 million years ago and was recently dug up in China. Technically, the oldest known fossils go way farther back, to about 3.5 billion years. But those were cyanobacteria, and although we're related to them, those photosynthetic creatures are on a different branch of Earth's family tree. The new fossil, named Saccorhytus, appears to be the oldest deuterostome found to date. Deuterostomes are a group of animals that includes vertebrates (that's us) as well as starfish and other echinoderms. The group is defined by how its embryos develop: the first opening that forms in each tiny ball of cells becomes the organism's anus. It's a glamorous family legacy, to be sure. Saccorhytus was a tiny creature. To the naked eye, it would look like a millimeter-size black speck—in fact, scientists think it lived between grains of sand. It probably got around by wriggling. Interestingly, our sac-like ancestor doesn't appear to have been in possession of an anus, although that may be because the fossils are incomplete. "We think that as an early deuterostome this may represent the primitive beginnings of a very diverse range of species, including ourselves," said study author Simon Conway Morris from the University of Cambridge in a statement. "All deuterostomes had a common ancestor, and we think that is what we are looking at here." At first glance, it may not seem like we have all that much in common with this nightmare creature. But there is a slight family resemblance. Without an anus, Saccorhytus would have spewed fecal matter from its big mouth. Sound like someone you know?	384	ENGLISH	1
The Vailala Madness was a religious movement. It was active between 1919 and 1922. Many people think it was one of the first cargo cults, even though that term was first used in the 1940s. The Vailala Madness was active in the Papuan Gulf, which was a territory of Australia at the time, but now belongs to Papua New Guinea. The Vailala Madness got its name from the behaviour of people who took part in it. This behaviour included glossolalia (or "speaking in tongues"), shaking, and signs of mental or emotional disturbances . In the indigenous language, people who were taking part in the Vailala Madness called it iki haveve, or "belly-don't know," which was another way of saying "dizziness." The people in the movement thought that a 'Ghost Steamer' would come. This ship would be piloted by dead people who were coming back. The dead people would bring with them cargo with tinned food and tools. In one version of the story, the dead people would bring guns to kick the white colonizers out, but not everybody agrees that this was what people in the Vailala Madness actually believed. - Ghost Dance, a belief extended among North American Indians that, in its Sioux version, prophesied that their ancestors would come back by train. - John Frum, a later cargo cult.	<urn:uuid:808b3b83-4dbe-4acf-bd4e-46973768cf19>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vailala_Madness	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00240.warc.gz	en	0.986712	286	3.375	3	[ 0.047521449625492096, 0.26381513476371765, 0.055821847170591354, -0.16364654898643494, 0.05785715952515602, 0.5435587167739868, 0.10486701130867004, -0.08732805401086807, 0.07718376070261002, -0.27270588278770447, -0.019237250089645386, -0.34660804271698, -0.08530817925930023, 0.0952381417...	2	The Vailala Madness was a religious movement. It was active between 1919 and 1922. Many people think it was one of the first cargo cults, even though that term was first used in the 1940s. The Vailala Madness was active in the Papuan Gulf, which was a territory of Australia at the time, but now belongs to Papua New Guinea. The Vailala Madness got its name from the behaviour of people who took part in it. This behaviour included glossolalia (or "speaking in tongues"), shaking, and signs of mental or emotional disturbances . In the indigenous language, people who were taking part in the Vailala Madness called it iki haveve, or "belly-don't know," which was another way of saying "dizziness." The people in the movement thought that a 'Ghost Steamer' would come. This ship would be piloted by dead people who were coming back. The dead people would bring with them cargo with tinned food and tools. In one version of the story, the dead people would bring guns to kick the white colonizers out, but not everybody agrees that this was what people in the Vailala Madness actually believed. - Ghost Dance, a belief extended among North American Indians that, in its Sioux version, prophesied that their ancestors would come back by train. - John Frum, a later cargo cult.	295	ENGLISH	1
There is a good deal of historical evidence for women’s leadership in the early church. But the references are often brief, and they’re scattered across centuries and locations. Two interpretations of the evidence have been common in the last forty years. One claims that women were always excluded from church leadership, beginning with the biblical demand, “women should be silent in the churches” (1 Cor 14:34). The second argues instead that the church was open to women’s leadership in its early years, but excluded women from ordination as church institutions developed. Although these explanations often represent opposing positions on women’s ordination today, they often share a lot in common in the ways they interpret the ancient evidence. Both interpretations have to explain away evidence that suggests that orthodox women were leaders, and they end up relying on similar arguments to do so. The four myths below can show up in either explanation, depending on who is doing the arguing. Myth 1. Women were not ordained in the early church. Many ancient sources identify women office holders. Some are burial inscriptions, like this one: “Tomb of Athanasia, deacon, and of Maria her foster child” (MAMA 3.212b). Some are writings of notable church fathers, who praise women leaders for their outstanding virtue. Other evidence comes from inscriptions donating items to a church, like the inscription on a marble column in a basilica, “Of Celerina, deaconess” (SEG 45-945). Why did we forget these women? Gary Macy argues that the church revised its theology of ordination in ways that excluded women – but not until the 11th century. Before that, church liturgies included prayers for the ordination of women. As part of the revision process, theologians reinterpreted ancient sources in ways that denied that women had ever been ordained. Apparently their efforts had a lasting effect. Ancient women were never viewed as the equals of men. In general, social norms and laws allowed men greater freedom and power than women. But this didn’t eliminate the leadership of women, who served as patrons, city officials, and religious leaders. Christian communities seem to have adopted similar patterns. Men were more likely than women to serve in official roles. Even so, women were commonly ordained to tasks their communities deemed important. Myth 2. Women leaders were heretics. Orthodox Christians eliminated women’s leadership. Early Christianity is very diverse, so it’s a good idea not to generalize too much. The evidence suggests that women were leaders in many Christian groups, including those we now think of as orthodox. It’s true that some church fathers make explicit statements against women serving in various roles. But these should not be taken as rules that applied to all communities of faith. Tertullian, for example, argues against women’s right to baptize. But other mainstream communities ordained women to play roles in baptism. There is a lot of conflicting evidence about women’s leadership, but it can’t be divided neatly into orthodox and heretical groups. Myth 3. Women could only lead private groups of women. Women often did lead groups of women, but in some cases they led men as well. When a leader was chosen for a religious or civic group in antiquity, preference was given to the person of highest status. Women sometimes had higher status than men — due to their wealth or family, or to their extraordinary virtue. If so, they were likely to be chosen as leaders. In a church that put a high value on sexual self-control; single-gender groups were a natural. But men might also seek a woman of acknowledged virtue and status as their leader. Were these groups ‘private’ rather than ‘public’? Ancient women were ideally described as limited to the private realm. This is somewhat misleading for modern readers, who tend to think of ‘private’ as restricted to the home and domestic labor. For Romans, however, ‘private’ life included commerce, education, religion, and social relations. Women participated in all of these ‘private’ activities, and did so with approval. Religious leadership was also civic in nature because it secured divine favor for the community. Myth 4. Celibate women could lead, but married women were subject to their husbands. Some women leaders were married. Women in the Roman world maintained control over much of their property during marriage and thus had access to wealth, an important factor in social status. Like their unmarried counterparts, married women served as patrons, gave gifts, made loans, dedicated buildings and served as civic and religious leaders. Marriage contributed to a woman’s social status, and might therefore increase her opportunities for leadership. Chastity was a virtue prized by the church in its earliest centuries. Chastity was related to self-control, an important quality of leaders because it meant they could consider the needs of the whole community. So it is not surprising that many leaders were celibate. But chastity was encouraged for all Christians — whether married or unmarried. Christian writers agreed that married persons could — and should — practice sexual self-control. Some women leaders practiced celibacy while remaining married.	<urn:uuid:a9d37d67-8e34-4a2e-83f6-efa472b1d787>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.oup.com/2015/09/four-myths-women-early-church/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00485.warc.gz	en	0.982642	1,085	3.28125	3	[ -0.04076247289776802, 0.376342236995697, 0.0808059573173523, 0.27018362283706665, 0.09075507521629333, 0.16277198493480682, -0.2829590141773224, 0.11092241108417511, 0.3851289749145508, 0.15193304419517517, -0.07139508426189423, 0.1215367466211319, 0.13540183007717133, -0.08073091506958008...	7	There is a good deal of historical evidence for women’s leadership in the early church. But the references are often brief, and they’re scattered across centuries and locations. Two interpretations of the evidence have been common in the last forty years. One claims that women were always excluded from church leadership, beginning with the biblical demand, “women should be silent in the churches” (1 Cor 14:34). The second argues instead that the church was open to women’s leadership in its early years, but excluded women from ordination as church institutions developed. Although these explanations often represent opposing positions on women’s ordination today, they often share a lot in common in the ways they interpret the ancient evidence. Both interpretations have to explain away evidence that suggests that orthodox women were leaders, and they end up relying on similar arguments to do so. The four myths below can show up in either explanation, depending on who is doing the arguing. Myth 1. Women were not ordained in the early church. Many ancient sources identify women office holders. Some are burial inscriptions, like this one: “Tomb of Athanasia, deacon, and of Maria her foster child” (MAMA 3.212b). Some are writings of notable church fathers, who praise women leaders for their outstanding virtue. Other evidence comes from inscriptions donating items to a church, like the inscription on a marble column in a basilica, “Of Celerina, deaconess” (SEG 45-945). Why did we forget these women? Gary Macy argues that the church revised its theology of ordination in ways that excluded women – but not until the 11th century. Before that, church liturgies included prayers for the ordination of women. As part of the revision process, theologians reinterpreted ancient sources in ways that denied that women had ever been ordained. Apparently their efforts had a lasting effect. Ancient women were never viewed as the equals of men. In general, social norms and laws allowed men greater freedom and power than women. But this didn’t eliminate the leadership of women, who served as patrons, city officials, and religious leaders. Christian communities seem to have adopted similar patterns. Men were more likely than women to serve in official roles. Even so, women were commonly ordained to tasks their communities deemed important. Myth 2. Women leaders were heretics. Orthodox Christians eliminated women’s leadership. Early Christianity is very diverse, so it’s a good idea not to generalize too much. The evidence suggests that women were leaders in many Christian groups, including those we now think of as orthodox. It’s true that some church fathers make explicit statements against women serving in various roles. But these should not be taken as rules that applied to all communities of faith. Tertullian, for example, argues against women’s right to baptize. But other mainstream communities ordained women to play roles in baptism. There is a lot of conflicting evidence about women’s leadership, but it can’t be divided neatly into orthodox and heretical groups. Myth 3. Women could only lead private groups of women. Women often did lead groups of women, but in some cases they led men as well. When a leader was chosen for a religious or civic group in antiquity, preference was given to the person of highest status. Women sometimes had higher status than men — due to their wealth or family, or to their extraordinary virtue. If so, they were likely to be chosen as leaders. In a church that put a high value on sexual self-control; single-gender groups were a natural. But men might also seek a woman of acknowledged virtue and status as their leader. Were these groups ‘private’ rather than ‘public’? Ancient women were ideally described as limited to the private realm. This is somewhat misleading for modern readers, who tend to think of ‘private’ as restricted to the home and domestic labor. For Romans, however, ‘private’ life included commerce, education, religion, and social relations. Women participated in all of these ‘private’ activities, and did so with approval. Religious leadership was also civic in nature because it secured divine favor for the community. Myth 4. Celibate women could lead, but married women were subject to their husbands. Some women leaders were married. Women in the Roman world maintained control over much of their property during marriage and thus had access to wealth, an important factor in social status. Like their unmarried counterparts, married women served as patrons, gave gifts, made loans, dedicated buildings and served as civic and religious leaders. Marriage contributed to a woman’s social status, and might therefore increase her opportunities for leadership. Chastity was a virtue prized by the church in its earliest centuries. Chastity was related to self-control, an important quality of leaders because it meant they could consider the needs of the whole community. So it is not surprising that many leaders were celibate. But chastity was encouraged for all Christians — whether married or unmarried. Christian writers agreed that married persons could — and should — practice sexual self-control. Some women leaders practiced celibacy while remaining married.	1,046	ENGLISH	1
Heroin is one of the most damaging and also notorious illegal drugs in the United States. The U.S. is currently in the midst of a staggering opioid epidemic, and heroin is front and center in that. Heroin is an illegal drug responsible for countless deaths and immense destruction to families and even entire communities. When heroin is used, it binds to opioid receptors throughout the central nervous system, and it has a pain-relieving effect. It can initially create a sense of euphoria and well-being. Following the high of heroin, people often feel drowsy and sluggish, and they may nod off or appear visibly impaired. Heroin is highly addictive and physical dependence on tends to develop quickly. Withdrawal from the drug is often difficult. Despite the fact that heroin is so relevant in the opioid epidemic, a lot of people don’t know very much about the history of the drug. The following is an overview of the heroin history timeline and heroin addiction history. For example, opium was discovered in the Mediterranean mountains sometime between 10,200 B.C. and 2,000 B.C. Following its discovery, the use of opium spread throughout the world. In Europe, opium and then morphine began to be used in medicine for hundreds of years. The discovery of heroin itself was credited to C.R. Wright in England in 1874. Wright boiled morphine and acetic anhydride to create the first version of synthesized heroin. The early iterations of heroin had side effects that were seen as negative including anxiety and vomiting, so Wright ended his research. It wasn’t until 1895 that a German scientist by the name of Heinrich Dreser, who worked for the Bayer company, started looking at it again as a way to treat respiratory diseases. The Bayer pharmaceutical company started making diacetylmorphine, and its marketing name was heroin. At this point, heroin was available over-the-counter. Heroin was viewed as a cure-all for everything from headaches to the common cold. Many of the people who used heroin were wealthy people. At the time, heroin was viewed as a safe alternative to morphine because it was seen as less addictive. People who were addicted to morphine, as well as codeine, were given heroin as a way to treat their addiction. Around the 1850s, morphine became available in the U.S. and its use was popular in medicine. Morphine was used to treat pain, and during the Civil War, it was one of the primary treatment options for injured soldiers. During this time, doctors were amazed at morphine’s ability to help with even severe pain. However, following the Civil War, it started to become clear that morphine had a serious side effect: addiction. Following the Civil War, there were tens of thousands of soldiers from both sides that were addicted to morphine. Morphine addiction became an epidemic in the U.S. just a short time after it was introduced in the country. Doctors were concerned and searched for ways to deal with the problem, and that’s why the introduction of heroin in Germany became interesting to physicians in the U.S. After the German invention of heroin, it was imported to the U.S. and the sales pitch for it was that it was a safe and non-addictive alternative to morphine. Shortly after, it became apparent that heroin was also extremely addictive. It wasn’t until the 1920s that regulation was introduced for the sale of heroin and other opiates. The Dangerous Drug Act was introduced and made into law by Congress, and it regulated the sale of heroin and other opiates. The medications were no longer available over-the-counter. Despite this attempt to curb addiction, there were around 200,000 people that had already developed heroin use disorders in the United States. There have been waves of additional heroin crises throughout the years, including in the 1970s. While it’s been more than a century since the original crackdown on heroin, America is still in an opioid crisis. It’s been declared a national emergency. If you or a loved one live with addiction or are using drugs recreationally and want to stop, The Recovery Village® can help. Reach out to one of our representatives today to learn how you can start on your path to recovery.	<urn:uuid:3ae242e1-58d3-4d5a-a534-d32b6e1073e7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.therecoveryvillage.com/heroin-addiction/heroin-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00458.warc.gz	en	0.984619	886	3.53125	4	[ -0.02325311303138733, -0.11710681021213531, 0.5108908414840698, 0.11533226072788239, 0.21265535056591034, 0.20131796598434448, 0.4584966003894806, 0.3253159821033478, -0.27650022506713867, 0.033475540578365326, 0.4081043004989624, 0.3768797814846039, 0.1974462866783142, 0.23012295365333557...	7	Heroin is one of the most damaging and also notorious illegal drugs in the United States. The U.S. is currently in the midst of a staggering opioid epidemic, and heroin is front and center in that. Heroin is an illegal drug responsible for countless deaths and immense destruction to families and even entire communities. When heroin is used, it binds to opioid receptors throughout the central nervous system, and it has a pain-relieving effect. It can initially create a sense of euphoria and well-being. Following the high of heroin, people often feel drowsy and sluggish, and they may nod off or appear visibly impaired. Heroin is highly addictive and physical dependence on tends to develop quickly. Withdrawal from the drug is often difficult. Despite the fact that heroin is so relevant in the opioid epidemic, a lot of people don’t know very much about the history of the drug. The following is an overview of the heroin history timeline and heroin addiction history. For example, opium was discovered in the Mediterranean mountains sometime between 10,200 B.C. and 2,000 B.C. Following its discovery, the use of opium spread throughout the world. In Europe, opium and then morphine began to be used in medicine for hundreds of years. The discovery of heroin itself was credited to C.R. Wright in England in 1874. Wright boiled morphine and acetic anhydride to create the first version of synthesized heroin. The early iterations of heroin had side effects that were seen as negative including anxiety and vomiting, so Wright ended his research. It wasn’t until 1895 that a German scientist by the name of Heinrich Dreser, who worked for the Bayer company, started looking at it again as a way to treat respiratory diseases. The Bayer pharmaceutical company started making diacetylmorphine, and its marketing name was heroin. At this point, heroin was available over-the-counter. Heroin was viewed as a cure-all for everything from headaches to the common cold. Many of the people who used heroin were wealthy people. At the time, heroin was viewed as a safe alternative to morphine because it was seen as less addictive. People who were addicted to morphine, as well as codeine, were given heroin as a way to treat their addiction. Around the 1850s, morphine became available in the U.S. and its use was popular in medicine. Morphine was used to treat pain, and during the Civil War, it was one of the primary treatment options for injured soldiers. During this time, doctors were amazed at morphine’s ability to help with even severe pain. However, following the Civil War, it started to become clear that morphine had a serious side effect: addiction. Following the Civil War, there were tens of thousands of soldiers from both sides that were addicted to morphine. Morphine addiction became an epidemic in the U.S. just a short time after it was introduced in the country. Doctors were concerned and searched for ways to deal with the problem, and that’s why the introduction of heroin in Germany became interesting to physicians in the U.S. After the German invention of heroin, it was imported to the U.S. and the sales pitch for it was that it was a safe and non-addictive alternative to morphine. Shortly after, it became apparent that heroin was also extremely addictive. It wasn’t until the 1920s that regulation was introduced for the sale of heroin and other opiates. The Dangerous Drug Act was introduced and made into law by Congress, and it regulated the sale of heroin and other opiates. The medications were no longer available over-the-counter. Despite this attempt to curb addiction, there were around 200,000 people that had already developed heroin use disorders in the United States. There have been waves of additional heroin crises throughout the years, including in the 1970s. While it’s been more than a century since the original crackdown on heroin, America is still in an opioid crisis. It’s been declared a national emergency. If you or a loved one live with addiction or are using drugs recreationally and want to stop, The Recovery Village® can help. Reach out to one of our representatives today to learn how you can start on your path to recovery.	885	ENGLISH	1
Ancient Rome Facts Ancient Rome was one mighty powerful empire and the Romans ruled over most of Europe for nearly 1,000 years! Here we take a look at this mighty city and give you some history and interesting facts to understand what it’s all about. The Roman Republic Rome first grew into power as a Republic. A Republic basically means that the leaders were elected into power and would serve for a certain period of time. This is very unlike kings, who were born into leadership and then ruled for life. The Republic ruled Rome for hundreds of years from around 509 BC to 45 BC. The Roman Empire In 45 BC Julius Caesar took over the Roman Republic and made himself the high and mighty supreme dictator. That was the end of the republic. A few years later, in 27 BC, Caesar Augustus became the first Roman Emperor and this was when the Roman Empire began. The lower levels of government pretty much stayed the same, except now the emperor had all the power. The Empire Splits The Roman Empire grew and grew and grew, and as it did the city of Rome became very difficult to manage. So what did they do? Well, they literally split Rome into two empires. One was the Western Roman Empire and was ruled out of the city of Rome and the other was the Eastern Roman Empire and was ruled out of Constantinople, which is what we now know as Istanbul in Turkey. The Eastern Roman Empire became known as Byzantium. Fall of Rome When we talk about the fall of Rome, it generally means the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which happened in 476 AD. The Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, still carried on ruling parts of Eastern Europe for another 1000 years. The Major Events in the History of Ancient Rome Here we take a look at some of the really important historical events that make up the history of Ancient Rome. We hope you find this interesting! 753 BC – The amazing city of Rome was founded. There is a legend that Romulus and Remus – the twin sons of Mars (the god of war) – founded the city. Romulus killed Remus and became ruler of Rome and named the city after himself. Can you imagine killing your own brother? How cruel! Rome was ruled by kings for the next 240 years. 509 BC – Rome became a republic as the last king was overthrown. 364 BC – In the Battle of Cynoscephalae the Roman Legion was under Titus Flamininus who defeated the Macedonian Army. It was an important battle because the successors of the Greek leader Alexander the Great had now been defeated. Rome had become the dominant world power. 264 – 241 BC – This was the time of the first Punic War which was fought over the island of Sicily. This meant a lot of the fighting was at sea where Carthage had a much stronger navy than Rome. However, Rome quickly built up a large navy of over 100 ships and went on to win the war. 218 BC – Hannibal invaded Italy and led his army in the famous crossing of the Alps to attack Rome. This was part of the Second Punic war. 149 – 146 BC – This was the time of the Third Punic War where Rome attacked the city of Carthage. After three years the Roman army broke through the walls and burned the city to the ground. 73 BC – Spartacus the gladiator led the slaves in an uprising. 55 BC – Julius Caesar invaded Britain but wasn’t very successful. A year later, he went back with a large force of Roman legions. He succeeded and invaded most of Britain and even crossed the River Thames. Caesar left peacefully when the tribes of Britain paid tribute to Rome. 45 BC – Julius Caesar became the first dictator of Rome. He made his famous Crossing of the Rubicon, defeated Pompey in a civil war, and became the supreme ruler of Rome. Then the Roman Republic ended, just like that. 44 BC – Julius Caesar was assassinated by a man called Marcus Brutus and others. He wanted Rome to be a Republic again, but war broke out instead. 31 BC – In the Battle of Actium Octavian’s forces, defeated the combined forces of Roman general Marc Antony and Egyptian Pharaoh Cleopatra VII. Octavian then went on to become the sole power in Rome and was soon Rome’s first Emperor. 27 BC – The famous Caesar Augustus became the first Roman Emperor and so the Roman Empire was born. 43 AD – The Romans conquered Britain under the rule of Emperor Claudius. He’d decided he wanted to be famous. It took around 30 years for Rome to gain control of the southern part of the island. 50 AD – The Romans also established the city of Londinium, which later became London. They built roads throughout England and the city became an important trade center. 64 AD – Most or Rome burnt down. How sad. Legend has it that Emperor Nero watched the city burn while playing a lyre (which was a type of harp). He obviously wasn’t too bothered about it! 80 AD – The Colosseum was built and is still famous today. It could fit 50,000 people seated inside. Wow. 121 AD – Hadrian’s Wall in northern England was built to keep out the barbarians by Roman Emperor Hadrian. The wall was 73 miles (117 kilometers) long. Wow. It is estimated that more than 10,000 troops manned the wall at some point. 306 AD – Constantine becomes Emperor and his mission was to convert Rome to be a Christian society. Before he came along Christians were persecuted. 395 AD – This is when Rome split into the two different empires. 410 AD – The Visigoths sacked Rome and it was the first time in 800 years that the city had been conquered by enemies. They were clearly very strong. 476 AD – This was when the Western Roman Empire fell as well as Ancient Rome. The last Roman Emperor Romulus Augustus was defeated by the German Goth Odoacer. This was the start of the Dark Ages in Europe. 1453 AD – The Byzantine Empire comes to an end as it falls to the Ottoman Empire. Who were the leaders of the Roman Republic? We’ve mentioned that the Roman Republic had a number of elected leaders and officials. There were lots of different levels of leadership and the Roman Government was pretty complicated. Here we take a look at who did what! Consuls – They were right at the top of the ruling chain and were very important and powerful people. To make sure that no king or dictator came into power, there were always two consuls elected and they only served for one year. Clever cats they were. And on top of that, if the consuls disagreed with each other, they could make sure something didn’t happen. They had heaps of power; they decided when to go to war, how much tax to collect and they also decided on the laws. Powerful indeed. Senators – The Senate was a group of respected leaders who advised the consuls. The consuls usually did what the Senate recommended and these guys ruled for life. Plebeian Council – The Plebeian Council was also called the People’s Assembly. This was how the common people or plebeians as they were called, could elect their own leaders, magistrates, pass laws, and hold court. Tribunes – Tribunes represented the Plebeian Council. They had the power to reject laws made by the Senate. Governors – As Rome conquered new lands, they needed people to be local rulers. The Senate would then appoint a governor to rule the land or province. They were in charge of the local Roman army and also collected taxes. Aedile – An Aedile was a city official who maintained public buildings and festivals. If people wanted to go to the top of the ruling chain, (for example become a consul), they’d first become an aedile and hold massive festivals so they could become popular with the people. Sneaky. Censor – The Censor counted how many citizens there were and kept all the records of this. They had some hand to make sure people were good and decent and public finances. Were all people treated equally? Definitely not, and it all had to do with how much money they had, whether they were male or female and their citizenship. As an example, women weren’t allowed to vote or hold a position of power. And the more money you had the more voting power you got. The people in power were very rich and came from wealthy families. Although it sounds unfair, it was certainly better than other civilizations where average people had no say at all and in fact were treated really badly. The Roman Army When the Roman Empire ruled the Roman army was one of the most successful armies in world history; they were well trained, well equipped and very well organized. Romans were well known for building good roads, and this is how the army would move about quickly. As the army was so important they were given good armor, which were made from strong strips of iron, they had iron helmets to protect their heads and neck, but of course they could still see really well. As you can imagine, this armor was super heavy, so they sure needed to be strong. They also sometimes had tall shields. The soldiers had different types of weapons including daggers, swords, spears, javelins and bows and arrows. When Rome was at the Peak of its Power Rome reached its peak of power in the year 117 AD under the rule of the great Roman emperor Trajan. Almost the whole coastline along the Mediterranean Sea was part of the Roman Empire. The Fall of Rome didn’t happen in a day, it happened over a long period of time. There are a number of reasons why the empire began to fail, including the following: The politicians and rulers of Rome became more and more corrupt. Infighting and civil wars within the Empire. Attacks from barbarian tribes outside of the empire. The Roman army was no longer a dominant force. The empire became so large it was difficult to govern. What was a typical day like in Ancient Rome? Well people would have a light breakfast and then head off to work. Work ended in the early afternoon and then loads of Romans would head off to the baths to socialize and of course get clean. At around 3pm they would have dinner which was as much of a social event as a meal. Ancient Roman Jobs There were loads of jobs that people could have for example farmers, soldiers, merchants, craftsmen, entertainers, lawyers, teachers, engineers and of course they could have jobs in the government. Family was very important to the Romans and the head of the family was the father, who had all the power legally. But the wives still had a strong say in what happened in the family and she ran the household and managed their finances. What was school like? Roman children started school at the age of 7 but wealthy children had full time tutors. Other children went to public school. They studied subjects such as reading, writing, math, literature, and debate. School was mostly for boys but some of the wealthy girls were tutored at home. Poor children did not get to go to school.	<urn:uuid:e0b4bf52-4788-4064-ab72-ded61f86a13b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.coolkidfacts.com/ancient-rome-for-kids-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00305.warc.gz	en	0.989419	2,381	3.390625	3	[ -0.18701457977294922, 0.41574639081954956, 0.7098807692527771, 0.05251563340425491, -0.5913864374160767, 0.05418386682868004, 0.12709777057170868, 0.2904193699359894, 0.30971676111221313, -0.160270556807518, -0.14845120906829834, -0.33712852001190186, -0.10586006939411163, 0.34868597984313...	4	Ancient Rome Facts Ancient Rome was one mighty powerful empire and the Romans ruled over most of Europe for nearly 1,000 years! Here we take a look at this mighty city and give you some history and interesting facts to understand what it’s all about. The Roman Republic Rome first grew into power as a Republic. A Republic basically means that the leaders were elected into power and would serve for a certain period of time. This is very unlike kings, who were born into leadership and then ruled for life. The Republic ruled Rome for hundreds of years from around 509 BC to 45 BC. The Roman Empire In 45 BC Julius Caesar took over the Roman Republic and made himself the high and mighty supreme dictator. That was the end of the republic. A few years later, in 27 BC, Caesar Augustus became the first Roman Emperor and this was when the Roman Empire began. The lower levels of government pretty much stayed the same, except now the emperor had all the power. The Empire Splits The Roman Empire grew and grew and grew, and as it did the city of Rome became very difficult to manage. So what did they do? Well, they literally split Rome into two empires. One was the Western Roman Empire and was ruled out of the city of Rome and the other was the Eastern Roman Empire and was ruled out of Constantinople, which is what we now know as Istanbul in Turkey. The Eastern Roman Empire became known as Byzantium. Fall of Rome When we talk about the fall of Rome, it generally means the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which happened in 476 AD. The Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, still carried on ruling parts of Eastern Europe for another 1000 years. The Major Events in the History of Ancient Rome Here we take a look at some of the really important historical events that make up the history of Ancient Rome. We hope you find this interesting! 753 BC – The amazing city of Rome was founded. There is a legend that Romulus and Remus – the twin sons of Mars (the god of war) – founded the city. Romulus killed Remus and became ruler of Rome and named the city after himself. Can you imagine killing your own brother? How cruel! Rome was ruled by kings for the next 240 years. 509 BC – Rome became a republic as the last king was overthrown. 364 BC – In the Battle of Cynoscephalae the Roman Legion was under Titus Flamininus who defeated the Macedonian Army. It was an important battle because the successors of the Greek leader Alexander the Great had now been defeated. Rome had become the dominant world power. 264 – 241 BC – This was the time of the first Punic War which was fought over the island of Sicily. This meant a lot of the fighting was at sea where Carthage had a much stronger navy than Rome. However, Rome quickly built up a large navy of over 100 ships and went on to win the war. 218 BC – Hannibal invaded Italy and led his army in the famous crossing of the Alps to attack Rome. This was part of the Second Punic war. 149 – 146 BC – This was the time of the Third Punic War where Rome attacked the city of Carthage. After three years the Roman army broke through the walls and burned the city to the ground. 73 BC – Spartacus the gladiator led the slaves in an uprising. 55 BC – Julius Caesar invaded Britain but wasn’t very successful. A year later, he went back with a large force of Roman legions. He succeeded and invaded most of Britain and even crossed the River Thames. Caesar left peacefully when the tribes of Britain paid tribute to Rome. 45 BC – Julius Caesar became the first dictator of Rome. He made his famous Crossing of the Rubicon, defeated Pompey in a civil war, and became the supreme ruler of Rome. Then the Roman Republic ended, just like that. 44 BC – Julius Caesar was assassinated by a man called Marcus Brutus and others. He wanted Rome to be a Republic again, but war broke out instead. 31 BC – In the Battle of Actium Octavian’s forces, defeated the combined forces of Roman general Marc Antony and Egyptian Pharaoh Cleopatra VII. Octavian then went on to become the sole power in Rome and was soon Rome’s first Emperor. 27 BC – The famous Caesar Augustus became the first Roman Emperor and so the Roman Empire was born. 43 AD – The Romans conquered Britain under the rule of Emperor Claudius. He’d decided he wanted to be famous. It took around 30 years for Rome to gain control of the southern part of the island. 50 AD – The Romans also established the city of Londinium, which later became London. They built roads throughout England and the city became an important trade center. 64 AD – Most or Rome burnt down. How sad. Legend has it that Emperor Nero watched the city burn while playing a lyre (which was a type of harp). He obviously wasn’t too bothered about it! 80 AD – The Colosseum was built and is still famous today. It could fit 50,000 people seated inside. Wow. 121 AD – Hadrian’s Wall in northern England was built to keep out the barbarians by Roman Emperor Hadrian. The wall was 73 miles (117 kilometers) long. Wow. It is estimated that more than 10,000 troops manned the wall at some point. 306 AD – Constantine becomes Emperor and his mission was to convert Rome to be a Christian society. Before he came along Christians were persecuted. 395 AD – This is when Rome split into the two different empires. 410 AD – The Visigoths sacked Rome and it was the first time in 800 years that the city had been conquered by enemies. They were clearly very strong. 476 AD – This was when the Western Roman Empire fell as well as Ancient Rome. The last Roman Emperor Romulus Augustus was defeated by the German Goth Odoacer. This was the start of the Dark Ages in Europe. 1453 AD – The Byzantine Empire comes to an end as it falls to the Ottoman Empire. Who were the leaders of the Roman Republic? We’ve mentioned that the Roman Republic had a number of elected leaders and officials. There were lots of different levels of leadership and the Roman Government was pretty complicated. Here we take a look at who did what! Consuls – They were right at the top of the ruling chain and were very important and powerful people. To make sure that no king or dictator came into power, there were always two consuls elected and they only served for one year. Clever cats they were. And on top of that, if the consuls disagreed with each other, they could make sure something didn’t happen. They had heaps of power; they decided when to go to war, how much tax to collect and they also decided on the laws. Powerful indeed. Senators – The Senate was a group of respected leaders who advised the consuls. The consuls usually did what the Senate recommended and these guys ruled for life. Plebeian Council – The Plebeian Council was also called the People’s Assembly. This was how the common people or plebeians as they were called, could elect their own leaders, magistrates, pass laws, and hold court. Tribunes – Tribunes represented the Plebeian Council. They had the power to reject laws made by the Senate. Governors – As Rome conquered new lands, they needed people to be local rulers. The Senate would then appoint a governor to rule the land or province. They were in charge of the local Roman army and also collected taxes. Aedile – An Aedile was a city official who maintained public buildings and festivals. If people wanted to go to the top of the ruling chain, (for example become a consul), they’d first become an aedile and hold massive festivals so they could become popular with the people. Sneaky. Censor – The Censor counted how many citizens there were and kept all the records of this. They had some hand to make sure people were good and decent and public finances. Were all people treated equally? Definitely not, and it all had to do with how much money they had, whether they were male or female and their citizenship. As an example, women weren’t allowed to vote or hold a position of power. And the more money you had the more voting power you got. The people in power were very rich and came from wealthy families. Although it sounds unfair, it was certainly better than other civilizations where average people had no say at all and in fact were treated really badly. The Roman Army When the Roman Empire ruled the Roman army was one of the most successful armies in world history; they were well trained, well equipped and very well organized. Romans were well known for building good roads, and this is how the army would move about quickly. As the army was so important they were given good armor, which were made from strong strips of iron, they had iron helmets to protect their heads and neck, but of course they could still see really well. As you can imagine, this armor was super heavy, so they sure needed to be strong. They also sometimes had tall shields. The soldiers had different types of weapons including daggers, swords, spears, javelins and bows and arrows. When Rome was at the Peak of its Power Rome reached its peak of power in the year 117 AD under the rule of the great Roman emperor Trajan. Almost the whole coastline along the Mediterranean Sea was part of the Roman Empire. The Fall of Rome didn’t happen in a day, it happened over a long period of time. There are a number of reasons why the empire began to fail, including the following: The politicians and rulers of Rome became more and more corrupt. Infighting and civil wars within the Empire. Attacks from barbarian tribes outside of the empire. The Roman army was no longer a dominant force. The empire became so large it was difficult to govern. What was a typical day like in Ancient Rome? Well people would have a light breakfast and then head off to work. Work ended in the early afternoon and then loads of Romans would head off to the baths to socialize and of course get clean. At around 3pm they would have dinner which was as much of a social event as a meal. Ancient Roman Jobs There were loads of jobs that people could have for example farmers, soldiers, merchants, craftsmen, entertainers, lawyers, teachers, engineers and of course they could have jobs in the government. Family was very important to the Romans and the head of the family was the father, who had all the power legally. But the wives still had a strong say in what happened in the family and she ran the household and managed their finances. What was school like? Roman children started school at the age of 7 but wealthy children had full time tutors. Other children went to public school. They studied subjects such as reading, writing, math, literature, and debate. School was mostly for boys but some of the wealthy girls were tutored at home. Poor children did not get to go to school.	2,373	ENGLISH	1
Oliver Cromwell was a language soldier and statesman who have led parliamentary forces in the English Detrimental Wars. Having been lord protector of Great britain, Scotland, and Ireland via 1653 to 1658 throughout the republican Commonwealth. Being a general around the parliamentary part of the British Civil Conflict vs . Charles I, Cromwell helped bring about the undoing of the Stuart monarchy, and he raised his country's status to that of a leading European power since the loss of life of California king Elizabeth I. Being a guy with solid character produced him probably the most remarkable rulers in modern day European history. Although he was a persuaded Calvinist he believed deeply in the worth of religious toleration. Cromwell's victories at home and abroad helped to vitalize a Puritan attitude of mind, in the uk and in United states, which has continuing to effect political and social your life until recent years. (Gaunt, 1996) Cromwell, the only son of Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward came to be in Huntingdon, England in 1599. His father, who had been active in local affairs, had been a part of one of Queen Elizabeth's parliaments. Robert Cromwell died when his son was 18, but his widow lived to the age of fifth there’s 89. Oliver attended the local school and then for a year went to Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. After his father passed away he left Cambridge to travel care for his mother and sisters nonetheless it is believed that he studies at Lincoln's Inn in London, wherever gentlemen can acquire a smattering of regulation. In 1620 he committed Elizabeth, little girl of Sir James Bourchier, a vendor in London. They'd five kids and four children. (Kathe, 1984) Both his father and mother had been Protestants who profited in the destruction of the monasteries during the reign of King Holly VIII, plus they probably motivated their child in his spiritual upbringing. Both his schoolmaster in Huntingdon and the Learn of Sidney Sussex College were enthusiastic Calvinists and strongly anti-Catholic. In his children Cromwell had not been very studious, since this individual enjoyed outdoor sports, just like hunting; although he was a devoted reader with the Bible, and he adored Sir Walter Raleigh's A history of the World. Cromwell learned that the sins of man could possibly be punished on earth but that God, through His Holy Spirit, could guide the elect into the paths of righteousness. (Kathe, 1984) In the early parts of his married life Cromwell, like his father, was quite alert to his tasks to his fellow guys and concerned himself with affairs in his native fenlands, nevertheless at the same time he previously a religious and internal struggle which confused him and broken his wellness. He was convinced that he previously been " the chief of sinners" before he learned that he was one among God's Chosen. (Kathe, 1984) Cromwell as well had monetary worries till, at the age of 39, he handed down property for Ely coming from his uncle. Like other lesser medlock, he asserted with poor harvests and a variety of income taxes and impositions, such as " ship money", exacted by monarchy not only to pay for the upkeep of the navy yet also to sustain the luxuries from the court. In 1628 he had been selected a member of Parliament for the area of Huntingdon, but Full Charles I actually dissolved this kind of Parliament in 1629 and did not call it again to get 11 years. (Gaunt, 1996) During this time, country gentlemen just like Cromwell started to be annoyed. The Cromwell friends and family was certainly one of a mass of furious gentry who also belonged to " the political nation": for example , John Hampden, a rich squire who also brought an instance against the king over the levying of deliver money, was Cromwell's cousin. Then in 1640 Cromwell was selected a member of the Parliament for the borough of Cambridge (partly due to important sociable position he held in Ely and partly because of his fame as " Master of the Fens, " ) he identified himself between many friends at Wc2 who were extremely critical of the monarchy. This " Short Parliament" performed little as it was mixed after 3 weeks, however... Internship Report In UNITED CLINIC LIMITED: COMPANY OVERVIEW & SERVICE ADVERTISING MIX Submitted By: Mir ..	<urn:uuid:8232123f-578d-40db-b8c6-de8e1d791ee2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://scholarship-essay.org/oliver-cromwell/99297-oliver-cromwell-essay.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00250.warc.gz	en	0.983151	914	3.65625	4	[ 0.03368239104747772, 0.1308753788471222, 0.3880900740623474, -0.14205826818943024, -0.42488598823547363, -0.36132246255874634, 0.43782925605773926, -0.1021147221326828, -0.1335383653640747, 0.0018884381279349327, -0.2609797418117523, -0.6472768783569336, 0.27024316787719727, 0.393858224153...	1	Oliver Cromwell was a language soldier and statesman who have led parliamentary forces in the English Detrimental Wars. Having been lord protector of Great britain, Scotland, and Ireland via 1653 to 1658 throughout the republican Commonwealth. Being a general around the parliamentary part of the British Civil Conflict vs . Charles I, Cromwell helped bring about the undoing of the Stuart monarchy, and he raised his country's status to that of a leading European power since the loss of life of California king Elizabeth I. Being a guy with solid character produced him probably the most remarkable rulers in modern day European history. Although he was a persuaded Calvinist he believed deeply in the worth of religious toleration. Cromwell's victories at home and abroad helped to vitalize a Puritan attitude of mind, in the uk and in United states, which has continuing to effect political and social your life until recent years. (Gaunt, 1996) Cromwell, the only son of Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward came to be in Huntingdon, England in 1599. His father, who had been active in local affairs, had been a part of one of Queen Elizabeth's parliaments. Robert Cromwell died when his son was 18, but his widow lived to the age of fifth there’s 89. Oliver attended the local school and then for a year went to Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. After his father passed away he left Cambridge to travel care for his mother and sisters nonetheless it is believed that he studies at Lincoln's Inn in London, wherever gentlemen can acquire a smattering of regulation. In 1620 he committed Elizabeth, little girl of Sir James Bourchier, a vendor in London. They'd five kids and four children. (Kathe, 1984) Both his father and mother had been Protestants who profited in the destruction of the monasteries during the reign of King Holly VIII, plus they probably motivated their child in his spiritual upbringing. Both his schoolmaster in Huntingdon and the Learn of Sidney Sussex College were enthusiastic Calvinists and strongly anti-Catholic. In his children Cromwell had not been very studious, since this individual enjoyed outdoor sports, just like hunting; although he was a devoted reader with the Bible, and he adored Sir Walter Raleigh's A history of the World. Cromwell learned that the sins of man could possibly be punished on earth but that God, through His Holy Spirit, could guide the elect into the paths of righteousness. (Kathe, 1984) In the early parts of his married life Cromwell, like his father, was quite alert to his tasks to his fellow guys and concerned himself with affairs in his native fenlands, nevertheless at the same time he previously a religious and internal struggle which confused him and broken his wellness. He was convinced that he previously been " the chief of sinners" before he learned that he was one among God's Chosen. (Kathe, 1984) Cromwell as well had monetary worries till, at the age of 39, he handed down property for Ely coming from his uncle. Like other lesser medlock, he asserted with poor harvests and a variety of income taxes and impositions, such as " ship money", exacted by monarchy not only to pay for the upkeep of the navy yet also to sustain the luxuries from the court. In 1628 he had been selected a member of Parliament for the area of Huntingdon, but Full Charles I actually dissolved this kind of Parliament in 1629 and did not call it again to get 11 years. (Gaunt, 1996) During this time, country gentlemen just like Cromwell started to be annoyed. The Cromwell friends and family was certainly one of a mass of furious gentry who also belonged to " the political nation": for example , John Hampden, a rich squire who also brought an instance against the king over the levying of deliver money, was Cromwell's cousin. Then in 1640 Cromwell was selected a member of the Parliament for the borough of Cambridge (partly due to important sociable position he held in Ely and partly because of his fame as " Master of the Fens, " ) he identified himself between many friends at Wc2 who were extremely critical of the monarchy. This " Short Parliament" performed little as it was mixed after 3 weeks, however... Internship Report In UNITED CLINIC LIMITED: COMPANY OVERVIEW & SERVICE ADVERTISING MIX Submitted By: Mir ..	953	ENGLISH	1
Many believe that dolphins would be the second species to evolve if the human were to disappear and the intelligence of these animals is known. For these reasons in the 60s in a laboratory located in the Virgin Islands in the United States a peculiar experiment was carried out. The experiment consisted of teaching English to a dolphin for 10 weeks, since neurologist John C. Lilly said that dolphins have a brain 40% larger than humans and were able to understand human language. To complete and demonstrate what the neurologist claimed, they hired the young 23-year-old Margaret Howe, who lived day and night with the animal. The dolphin was called "Peter" and together with the young Howe lived in a house built especially for human-aquatic mammal. The ground was covered with water to a height of 22 centimeters so that Peter could swim everywhere. Both were constantly interacting with each other: they ate, slept, worked and played together. The furniture remained suspended from the ceiling or hung on the wall. Like the desk where Margaret made her notes on the progress of the experiment. Interestingly, the animal managed to approximate its language to the human, emitting sounds similar to English words such as: "ball", "one", "we", "triangle" and "hello". Time was passing and Peter reached sexual maturity, it was then that the dolphin wanted the closest thing to a girlfriend, a female to court and the only one who was there was the young woman. There came a point where Peter ceased to be interested in the lessons and began courting the researcher nibbling on her feet. Margaret ignored these actions so Peter began to behave more violently. It was a phase where the dolphin used its nose and fins to hit Margaret's legs. For a while he had to wear rubber boots and a kind of broom with which he tried to scare Peter away every time he became violent. This made them decide that Peter should have "conjugal" visits with the other dolphins. Peter, after these visits, returned to live in the house with Margaret, and once again, he tried to woo her but no longer as before, instead of biting her, he began to woo her by gently rubbing her on the leg of the young woman while showing her his genitals. Margaret, at the insistence of the animal and because he believed that if he calmed that sexual desire that Peter felt, he would be interested in language lessons again, then he accepted and began to rub the dolphin's erection. She expressed the following: “It was not sexual of me, perhaps sensual. It became a part of what was happening, like an itch, you just had to scratch to get rid of it and move on. It seems to me that this strengthened the link, not because of sexual activity, but that there were no interruptions. And that was all. I was there to meet Peter, and that was part of Peter. ” The experiment failed and had to be canceled so the dolphin ended up in a Miami warehouse and, soon after, he decided to end his life, committing suicide. But How was it possible for him to commit suicide? After experiencing a significant deterioration, he stopped breathing and dropped to the bottom. Experts indicate that it was due to depression after separating from Margaret. Dolphins unlike ours, their breathing is not automatic: "Each breath is a conscious effort: if life becomes difficult, the dolphin stops breathing." He never tried to teach a dolphin to speak English.	<urn:uuid:82ee435b-1799-4701-9d37-f62594cead90>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://despertarsabiendo.com/en/naturaleza/caso-de-delfin-que-se-enamoro-de-su-profesora-de-ingles/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00128.warc.gz	en	0.986114	715	3.296875	3	[ -0.17157204449176788, 0.19780081510543823, 0.05592808872461319, -0.024801000952720642, 0.035363100469112396, 0.2666972875595093, 0.045252759009599686, 0.395729660987854, 0.21223792433738708, -0.018339091911911964, 0.161207377910614, -0.6625407934188843, -0.20112407207489014, 0.363217622041...	1	Many believe that dolphins would be the second species to evolve if the human were to disappear and the intelligence of these animals is known. For these reasons in the 60s in a laboratory located in the Virgin Islands in the United States a peculiar experiment was carried out. The experiment consisted of teaching English to a dolphin for 10 weeks, since neurologist John C. Lilly said that dolphins have a brain 40% larger than humans and were able to understand human language. To complete and demonstrate what the neurologist claimed, they hired the young 23-year-old Margaret Howe, who lived day and night with the animal. The dolphin was called "Peter" and together with the young Howe lived in a house built especially for human-aquatic mammal. The ground was covered with water to a height of 22 centimeters so that Peter could swim everywhere. Both were constantly interacting with each other: they ate, slept, worked and played together. The furniture remained suspended from the ceiling or hung on the wall. Like the desk where Margaret made her notes on the progress of the experiment. Interestingly, the animal managed to approximate its language to the human, emitting sounds similar to English words such as: "ball", "one", "we", "triangle" and "hello". Time was passing and Peter reached sexual maturity, it was then that the dolphin wanted the closest thing to a girlfriend, a female to court and the only one who was there was the young woman. There came a point where Peter ceased to be interested in the lessons and began courting the researcher nibbling on her feet. Margaret ignored these actions so Peter began to behave more violently. It was a phase where the dolphin used its nose and fins to hit Margaret's legs. For a while he had to wear rubber boots and a kind of broom with which he tried to scare Peter away every time he became violent. This made them decide that Peter should have "conjugal" visits with the other dolphins. Peter, after these visits, returned to live in the house with Margaret, and once again, he tried to woo her but no longer as before, instead of biting her, he began to woo her by gently rubbing her on the leg of the young woman while showing her his genitals. Margaret, at the insistence of the animal and because he believed that if he calmed that sexual desire that Peter felt, he would be interested in language lessons again, then he accepted and began to rub the dolphin's erection. She expressed the following: “It was not sexual of me, perhaps sensual. It became a part of what was happening, like an itch, you just had to scratch to get rid of it and move on. It seems to me that this strengthened the link, not because of sexual activity, but that there were no interruptions. And that was all. I was there to meet Peter, and that was part of Peter. ” The experiment failed and had to be canceled so the dolphin ended up in a Miami warehouse and, soon after, he decided to end his life, committing suicide. But How was it possible for him to commit suicide? After experiencing a significant deterioration, he stopped breathing and dropped to the bottom. Experts indicate that it was due to depression after separating from Margaret. Dolphins unlike ours, their breathing is not automatic: "Each breath is a conscious effort: if life becomes difficult, the dolphin stops breathing." He never tried to teach a dolphin to speak English.	706	ENGLISH	1
Black Caesar was an African pirate from the early eighteenth century. There is little historical evidence linked to him, so many historians are unsure of his existence. According to legend, he was a tribal chief in Africa, and was able to avoid capture by slave traders because of his strength and intelligence. He was lured onto a ship by a trader who offered him immense treasure. Once onboard, he was pampered with food, music, and luxurious silks, while the ship began to set sail. When Caesar finally noticed what was happening, the sailors kept him from escaping by holding him at gunpoint. Once in captivity, he slowly became friends with one sailor, who fed him all his meals. The ship was overwhelmed by a hurricane off the coast of Florida and, while the ship was sinking, the sailor helped Caesar escape. They are believed to be the only two survivors of the wreck, and they hid on one of the islands off the Florida coast. For years, the two men made a living by posing as shipwrecked sailors on the island. When large ships would signal that they were going to rescue the men, Caesar and the sailor would paddle out in their small boat, holding the ship at gunpoint and stealing supplies and jewelry. Eventually, trouble struck the two friends however. The sailor captured a woman during one of the raids, and Caesar wanted her for himself. They had a duel, which resulted in the death of the sailor. Black Caesar built a business. He recruited several pirates for his crew and began a brothel on the island using women he had captured during raids. The enterprise got large enough that they were able to sail out and attack ships that were a good distance from the island. However, they could always escape using the canals and inlets all around the Florida Keys. Caesar finally left the Keys to join Edward “Blackbeard” Teach’s crew. He was supposedly a lieutenant on Blackbeard’s flagship, Queen Anne’s Revenge. Following Blackbeard’s death in 1718, Caesar was convicted of piracy in Williamsburg, Virginia, and he was hanged for his crimes.	<urn:uuid:a91872ae-1972-458f-a65d-9e0aeb0e6b74>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.crimemuseum.org/crime-library/international-crimes/black-caesar/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00512.warc.gz	en	0.992255	439	3.640625	4	[ -0.25947603583335876, 0.49974530935287476, -0.10734307765960693, 0.07089275121688843, -0.21046949923038483, -0.4957895576953888, 0.4079191982746124, 0.010071569122374058, 0.11519546806812286, -0.0438058078289032, 0.2691543996334076, -0.11248573660850525, -0.47274819016456604, 0.46083128452...	2	Black Caesar was an African pirate from the early eighteenth century. There is little historical evidence linked to him, so many historians are unsure of his existence. According to legend, he was a tribal chief in Africa, and was able to avoid capture by slave traders because of his strength and intelligence. He was lured onto a ship by a trader who offered him immense treasure. Once onboard, he was pampered with food, music, and luxurious silks, while the ship began to set sail. When Caesar finally noticed what was happening, the sailors kept him from escaping by holding him at gunpoint. Once in captivity, he slowly became friends with one sailor, who fed him all his meals. The ship was overwhelmed by a hurricane off the coast of Florida and, while the ship was sinking, the sailor helped Caesar escape. They are believed to be the only two survivors of the wreck, and they hid on one of the islands off the Florida coast. For years, the two men made a living by posing as shipwrecked sailors on the island. When large ships would signal that they were going to rescue the men, Caesar and the sailor would paddle out in their small boat, holding the ship at gunpoint and stealing supplies and jewelry. Eventually, trouble struck the two friends however. The sailor captured a woman during one of the raids, and Caesar wanted her for himself. They had a duel, which resulted in the death of the sailor. Black Caesar built a business. He recruited several pirates for his crew and began a brothel on the island using women he had captured during raids. The enterprise got large enough that they were able to sail out and attack ships that were a good distance from the island. However, they could always escape using the canals and inlets all around the Florida Keys. Caesar finally left the Keys to join Edward “Blackbeard” Teach’s crew. He was supposedly a lieutenant on Blackbeard’s flagship, Queen Anne’s Revenge. Following Blackbeard’s death in 1718, Caesar was convicted of piracy in Williamsburg, Virginia, and he was hanged for his crimes.	432	ENGLISH	1
What is herpes gladiatorum? Herpes gladiatorum is a virus similar to that which causes the common cold. It is spread through skin-to-skin contact. The symptoms vary between people, but they include a fever and skin sores. If the virus affects the eyes, it can be dangerous. Find out about the symptoms, risks, treatment, and prevention options. Read now Jamie*, 29, is HSV-positive and contracted herpes from her husband. But, she explains, “He only had one outbreak when he was young and that was it. So he didn't realize what it was.” Jamie was infected three years into their relationship simply because he had outbreaks that infrequently. She says, “I was worried he had cheated on me, but then found similar stories online, and our outbreak patterns underscore that what happened is very possible.” A 2004 study in the New England Journal of Medicine found that suppressive therapy decreases the risk of HSV-2 transmission from symptomatic, infected partners to uninfected partners by 48%. So “the risk of transmission is significantly reduced, but cannot be eliminated even with suppressive therapy,” Johnston explains, and she stresses that the virus can be passed along even without signs or symptoms.	<urn:uuid:5562d5e6-b427-4591-b389-9d67b7c9000b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://inmouthherpes.com/batonrouge/duration-of-herpes-eye-infection-baton-rouge-get-more-info-here.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00330.warc.gz	en	0.984643	261	3.5625	4	[ 0.1767507642507553, 0.05258195474743843, 0.20605790615081787, 0.48309415578842163, 0.3398197591304779, -0.32278192043304443, 0.6814640760421753, 0.17365454137325287, 0.16526566445827484, -0.2902131676673889, -0.01649904064834118, -0.5198711156845093, 0.4955330491065979, 0.33518528938293457...	1	What is herpes gladiatorum? Herpes gladiatorum is a virus similar to that which causes the common cold. It is spread through skin-to-skin contact. The symptoms vary between people, but they include a fever and skin sores. If the virus affects the eyes, it can be dangerous. Find out about the symptoms, risks, treatment, and prevention options. Read now Jamie*, 29, is HSV-positive and contracted herpes from her husband. But, she explains, “He only had one outbreak when he was young and that was it. So he didn't realize what it was.” Jamie was infected three years into their relationship simply because he had outbreaks that infrequently. She says, “I was worried he had cheated on me, but then found similar stories online, and our outbreak patterns underscore that what happened is very possible.” A 2004 study in the New England Journal of Medicine found that suppressive therapy decreases the risk of HSV-2 transmission from symptomatic, infected partners to uninfected partners by 48%. So “the risk of transmission is significantly reduced, but cannot be eliminated even with suppressive therapy,” Johnston explains, and she stresses that the virus can be passed along even without signs or symptoms.	255	ENGLISH	1
Japanese occupation of Guam This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Japanese occupation of Guam was the period in the history of Guam between 1941 and 1944 when Imperial Japanese forces occupied Guam during World War II. The island was renamed Ōmiya-Jima (Great Shrine Island). \|Status\|\|Military occupation by the Empire of Japan\| \|Historical era\|\|World War II\| \|11 December 1941\| • Ruled by Imperial Japanese Navy \|21 July 1944\| • Occupation ends \|10 August 1944\| \|Today part of\|\|Guam\| Events leading to the occupationEdit The Battle of Guam in 1941 was an engagement during the Pacific War in World War II which took place on 8 December 1941 on Guam in the Mariana Islands between the Japanese and Allied forces. During the battle, the USS Penguin (AM-33) was scuttled after shooting down a Japanese plane. Naval Governor of Guam George McMillin surrendered to the Japanese forces around 7:00 a.m. on 10 December 1941, ceding control of the island. Life during the occupationEdit During the occupation period, Chamorros were forced to endure the hardships of the military occupation, in which they were largely esteemed incidental. For the first four months, the island was controlled by army troops, who were housed in schools and government buildings in Agana. Specifically, Commander Hayashi Horace, who was one of the military leaders during the Japanese invasion in December made the Agana's former Governor's palace as the headquarter for the Keibitai. Chamorros were required to learn the Japanese custom of bowing, Japanese yen became the island’s currency, and civilian affairs were handled by a branch of the army called the minseisho. Cars, radios, and cameras were confiscated and food was rationed until supplies became exhausted. Control of the island came under the Imperial Japanese Navy in March 1942. The keibitai, as it was known, governed the populace for about 19 months. Chamorros were allowed to remain on their farms and trade for products they needed. Social activities including parties, Japanese movies, and sports competitions were allowed. Mass meetings were held in Agana to reinforce the "Nippon Seishin" (spirit of Japan). Schools were reopened and Chamorros were required to learn the Japanese language and customs. English was forbidden. Adults and children were taught reading, writing, math, and Japanese games and songs. Before Japanese occupation, Guam's economy was semi-self-sufficient through the exportation of copra. However, the economy was deeply impacted by the war and the Japanese occupation caused further damage through setting a low exchange rate of US dollars to the Japanese yen. There was also unreasonable seizure of assets, destruction of homes, and shortage of food and other necessities for the locals. Chamorros' labor was also exploited through Japanese-led land development and fortifications. The Japanese military also occupied land that was essential to the agriculture and the economy of Guam. Events leading to end of the occupationEdit In early 1944, the war was going badly for Japan. With an American invasion threatening, the Japanese Army returned to Guam, bringing with it a new stricter form of government: the kaikontai. Social activities were terminated, schools were closed, and Chamorro men, women, and children over the age of 12 were forced to work long hours in the fields, repair or build airstrips and defense installations, and dig hundreds of Japanese cave shelters, many of which are within the boundaries of War in the Pacific National Historical Park on Guam. Chamorros, laboring at bayonet point, were mistreated and, in some cases, executed after completing defense installations. Without warning, 10,000–15,000 Chamorros of all ages were forced to march with only the belongings they could carry to camps in Guam’s central and southern jungles. With inadequate shelter, little food, and no sanitary facilities, life in these camps was miserable. Despite hardships, however, incarceration proved to be a blessing in disguise for those who survived the camps. Had they not been moved, many Chamorros would have been killed by the American misallocation of bombs and Japanese cross fire. End of the occupationEdit On 21 July, the Americans landed on both sides of the Orote peninsula. On the western side of Guam, the Americans endeavored to cut off the airfield. The 3rd Marine Division landed near Agana to the north of Orote at 08:28, and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade landed near Agat to the south. Japanese artillery sank 20 LVTs, but by 09:00 tanks were ashore at both beaches. The 77th Infantry Division had a more difficult landing. Lacking amphibious vehicles, they had to wade ashore from the edge of the reef where they were dropped by their landing craft. By nightfall, the Americans had established beachheads about 2,000 meters deep. Japanese counterattacks were made throughout the first few days of the battle, mostly at night, using infiltration tactics. Several times they penetrated the American defenses and were driven back with heavy loss of men and equipment. Lieutenant General Takeshi Takashina was killed on 28 July, and Lieutenant General Hideyoshi Obata took over the command of the defenders. Supply was very difficult for the Americans in the first days of the battle. Landing ships could not come closer than the reef, several hundred meters from the beach, and amphibious vehicles were scarce. However, the two beachheads were joined up on 28 July, and the Orote airfield and Apra Harbor were captured by 30 July. The counterattacks around the American beachheads had exhausted the Japanese. At the start of August they were running out of food and ammunition and had only a handful of tanks left. Obata withdrew his troops from the south of Guam, planning to make a stand in the mountainous central part of the island. But with resupply and reinforcement impossible because of American control of the sea and air around Guam, he could hope to do no more than delay the inevitable defeat for a few days. Rain and thick jungle made conditions difficult for the Americans, but after an engagement at Mount Barrigada from August 2nd to the 4th, the Japanese line collapsed and the rest of the battle was a pursuit to the north. As in other battles of the Pacific War, the Japanese refused to surrender, and almost all were killed. On 10 August 1944, the American forces defeated the last Japanese troops on Guam, ending the occupation. Life after occupationEdit As a result of the end of the Japanese occupation, Guam celebrates with a yearly Liberation Day on 21 July. The island also holds a procession on 8 December; this also commemorates the day of the Japanese attack. On this day, people gather in Hagatna and watch parades and have carnivals. But the results of the Japanese military occupation lead to strong anti-Japanese views from the Chamorros that continued until late 1960s. A majority of the hostility was directed at the Japanese residents in Guam. Many were expelled to either Japan or Saipan and some were even tried in court. The impacts of the war are still seen today, through the unpaid war reparation claims. Due to the Treaty of Peace with Japan, Guam is unable to ask Japan to pay the War Claims so instead, they are seeking reparations from the US. Since June 2006, the US Congress, the House Judiciary Committee, and the Department of Justice have worked together to approve a bill for Chamorro war reparations. Within the Department of Justice's Foreign Claims Settlement Commission, the Guam Claims Program is still actively looking at cases and providing compensations for Guam Victims.	<urn:uuid:7e0a0bd6-11a4-4bde-a15c-2f494366842e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Guam	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00357.warc.gz	en	0.982925	1,612	3.78125	4	[ -0.19181117415428162, 0.06571035832166672, 0.7231676578521729, -0.47090503573417664, 0.040948495268821716, 0.14215770363807678, 0.41806572675704956, 0.2262902855873108, -0.11667455732822418, 0.14751015603542328, 0.0706525444984436, -0.23514220118522644, 0.3112448453903198, 1.09840703010559...	1	Japanese occupation of Guam This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Japanese occupation of Guam was the period in the history of Guam between 1941 and 1944 when Imperial Japanese forces occupied Guam during World War II. The island was renamed Ōmiya-Jima (Great Shrine Island). \|Status\|\|Military occupation by the Empire of Japan\| \|Historical era\|\|World War II\| \|11 December 1941\| • Ruled by Imperial Japanese Navy \|21 July 1944\| • Occupation ends \|10 August 1944\| \|Today part of\|\|Guam\| Events leading to the occupationEdit The Battle of Guam in 1941 was an engagement during the Pacific War in World War II which took place on 8 December 1941 on Guam in the Mariana Islands between the Japanese and Allied forces. During the battle, the USS Penguin (AM-33) was scuttled after shooting down a Japanese plane. Naval Governor of Guam George McMillin surrendered to the Japanese forces around 7:00 a.m. on 10 December 1941, ceding control of the island. Life during the occupationEdit During the occupation period, Chamorros were forced to endure the hardships of the military occupation, in which they were largely esteemed incidental. For the first four months, the island was controlled by army troops, who were housed in schools and government buildings in Agana. Specifically, Commander Hayashi Horace, who was one of the military leaders during the Japanese invasion in December made the Agana's former Governor's palace as the headquarter for the Keibitai. Chamorros were required to learn the Japanese custom of bowing, Japanese yen became the island’s currency, and civilian affairs were handled by a branch of the army called the minseisho. Cars, radios, and cameras were confiscated and food was rationed until supplies became exhausted. Control of the island came under the Imperial Japanese Navy in March 1942. The keibitai, as it was known, governed the populace for about 19 months. Chamorros were allowed to remain on their farms and trade for products they needed. Social activities including parties, Japanese movies, and sports competitions were allowed. Mass meetings were held in Agana to reinforce the "Nippon Seishin" (spirit of Japan). Schools were reopened and Chamorros were required to learn the Japanese language and customs. English was forbidden. Adults and children were taught reading, writing, math, and Japanese games and songs. Before Japanese occupation, Guam's economy was semi-self-sufficient through the exportation of copra. However, the economy was deeply impacted by the war and the Japanese occupation caused further damage through setting a low exchange rate of US dollars to the Japanese yen. There was also unreasonable seizure of assets, destruction of homes, and shortage of food and other necessities for the locals. Chamorros' labor was also exploited through Japanese-led land development and fortifications. The Japanese military also occupied land that was essential to the agriculture and the economy of Guam. Events leading to end of the occupationEdit In early 1944, the war was going badly for Japan. With an American invasion threatening, the Japanese Army returned to Guam, bringing with it a new stricter form of government: the kaikontai. Social activities were terminated, schools were closed, and Chamorro men, women, and children over the age of 12 were forced to work long hours in the fields, repair or build airstrips and defense installations, and dig hundreds of Japanese cave shelters, many of which are within the boundaries of War in the Pacific National Historical Park on Guam. Chamorros, laboring at bayonet point, were mistreated and, in some cases, executed after completing defense installations. Without warning, 10,000–15,000 Chamorros of all ages were forced to march with only the belongings they could carry to camps in Guam’s central and southern jungles. With inadequate shelter, little food, and no sanitary facilities, life in these camps was miserable. Despite hardships, however, incarceration proved to be a blessing in disguise for those who survived the camps. Had they not been moved, many Chamorros would have been killed by the American misallocation of bombs and Japanese cross fire. End of the occupationEdit On 21 July, the Americans landed on both sides of the Orote peninsula. On the western side of Guam, the Americans endeavored to cut off the airfield. The 3rd Marine Division landed near Agana to the north of Orote at 08:28, and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade landed near Agat to the south. Japanese artillery sank 20 LVTs, but by 09:00 tanks were ashore at both beaches. The 77th Infantry Division had a more difficult landing. Lacking amphibious vehicles, they had to wade ashore from the edge of the reef where they were dropped by their landing craft. By nightfall, the Americans had established beachheads about 2,000 meters deep. Japanese counterattacks were made throughout the first few days of the battle, mostly at night, using infiltration tactics. Several times they penetrated the American defenses and were driven back with heavy loss of men and equipment. Lieutenant General Takeshi Takashina was killed on 28 July, and Lieutenant General Hideyoshi Obata took over the command of the defenders. Supply was very difficult for the Americans in the first days of the battle. Landing ships could not come closer than the reef, several hundred meters from the beach, and amphibious vehicles were scarce. However, the two beachheads were joined up on 28 July, and the Orote airfield and Apra Harbor were captured by 30 July. The counterattacks around the American beachheads had exhausted the Japanese. At the start of August they were running out of food and ammunition and had only a handful of tanks left. Obata withdrew his troops from the south of Guam, planning to make a stand in the mountainous central part of the island. But with resupply and reinforcement impossible because of American control of the sea and air around Guam, he could hope to do no more than delay the inevitable defeat for a few days. Rain and thick jungle made conditions difficult for the Americans, but after an engagement at Mount Barrigada from August 2nd to the 4th, the Japanese line collapsed and the rest of the battle was a pursuit to the north. As in other battles of the Pacific War, the Japanese refused to surrender, and almost all were killed. On 10 August 1944, the American forces defeated the last Japanese troops on Guam, ending the occupation. Life after occupationEdit As a result of the end of the Japanese occupation, Guam celebrates with a yearly Liberation Day on 21 July. The island also holds a procession on 8 December; this also commemorates the day of the Japanese attack. On this day, people gather in Hagatna and watch parades and have carnivals. But the results of the Japanese military occupation lead to strong anti-Japanese views from the Chamorros that continued until late 1960s. A majority of the hostility was directed at the Japanese residents in Guam. Many were expelled to either Japan or Saipan and some were even tried in court. The impacts of the war are still seen today, through the unpaid war reparation claims. Due to the Treaty of Peace with Japan, Guam is unable to ask Japan to pay the War Claims so instead, they are seeking reparations from the US. Since June 2006, the US Congress, the House Judiciary Committee, and the Department of Justice have worked together to approve a bill for Chamorro war reparations. Within the Department of Justice's Foreign Claims Settlement Commission, the Guam Claims Program is still actively looking at cases and providing compensations for Guam Victims.	1,683	ENGLISH	1
Dalton Civil War Tour The beautifully built, Federal style Blunt House, built in 1848, is the second oldest home in Dalton and the home of her first Mayor and Postmaster, Ainsworth Emery Blunt. Blunt was instrumental in the formation of Whitfield County. Ainsworth Emery Blunt was born in Amherst, New Hampshire in 1800. He was a missionary for the American Board of Foreign Missions and was sent to Chattanooga, Tennessee in the 1820’s where he taught Cherokee Natives English, religion and agriculture at the then Brainerd Mission. He would meet his wife, Harriet Ellsworth while stationed in Chattanooga. The Ainsworth’s had five children, however two of their daughters would die in infancy. Blunt was a dedicated missionary and often went to great lengths to show Christ to those he taught. When the Cherokee natives were sent west during what is now known as the Trail of Tears, Blunt rode along with them up through Nashville, then into Kentucky until they reached the Mississippi River. During this time temperatures dropped and the Mississippi River froze preventing anyone from crossing. Soon, Blunt became deathly ill and was persuaded by companions to return to the Brainerd Mission, which he reluctantly did. Blunt and a few of his companions returned to Chattanooga where he settled, and it was there that he helped establish the First Presbyterian Church. In 1843 Blunt entered into the mercantile business with his son-in-law, Benjamin Morse. He moved to what was then known as Cross Plains (Now Dalton) and began building a house for his family. The house he built would become known as the Blunt House. During the Civil War, in the winter of 1863 and 1864, Blunt and his family welcomed and entertained Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston and his staff at the Blunt House. The Confederate Army of the Tennessee was occupying Dalton at this time. However, soon afterwards, Dalton fell to the Union Army and Blunt and his family fled to Illinois to live with his son, John. The Blunt house was turned into a Union hospital and its outside brush arbors used to protect wounded soldiers. Before leaving Dalton to begin his great March to the Sea, General William T. Sherman burned many of the wooden structures in Dalton, except for the Blunt House. It is unknown why he decided not to burn it; perhaps because it had been used as a Union hospital but also because Blunt was a Union sympathizer. Blunt and his family returned to the house during the summer of 1865, just after the end of the war. Blunt would only survive a few more months. He died in December of the same year. The House was left to his wife and daughter Lillie. The Blunt House is a Federal Style architecture with a 1910 Victorian Style addition. The original house had four rooms—two up stairs and two down with a central stair hall. The kitchen was probably a separate building with one room attached. The fireplace in the room behind the kitchen shares a chimney with the kitchen fireplace. The room is not in the style of the rooms that were part of the addition but seems more from the era of the original house. It is possible that this one room and the kitchen were used as living quarters while the main house was being built. The addition consists of a dining room, hall, and a back porch downstairs. The hall connects a room, the kitchen, and the addition to the main house. Stairs were removed from the original front hall and were replaced with a larger staircase in the new back hall that leads upstairs to an added hall, bedroom, and a bath. The house was originally located on four acres of land with accompanying outbuildings and a barn. The Blunt house still stands today and is located at 506 South Thornton Drive in the historic section of Dalton, Georgia. Tours are offered through the house by the Whitfield-Murray Historical Society Thursday through Saturday from 10am until 4pm. However, tours are only given by appointment only. To schedule a tour you can call the Whitfield-Murray Historical Society at 706 278-0217, or email them at email@example.com. Th – Sat 10 am – 4 pm and by appointment Small Admission for Guided Tours 506 S. Thornton Avenue Dalton GA 30720 United States	<urn:uuid:4abcac5e-8896-4a27-8158-d0526158d246>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://visitdaltonga.com/dalton-civil-war-tour/name/blunt-house/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00285.warc.gz	en	0.988676	899	3.390625	3	[ -0.5761550068855286, 0.09170326590538025, -0.05009733885526657, 0.1834341287612915, -0.3153809905052185, 0.14026229083538055, 0.35182222723960876, 0.33061036467552185, -0.2231108844280243, -0.18370532989501953, 0.03821717947721481, -0.02486756630241871, 0.2452983558177948, 0.59404844045639...	1	Dalton Civil War Tour The beautifully built, Federal style Blunt House, built in 1848, is the second oldest home in Dalton and the home of her first Mayor and Postmaster, Ainsworth Emery Blunt. Blunt was instrumental in the formation of Whitfield County. Ainsworth Emery Blunt was born in Amherst, New Hampshire in 1800. He was a missionary for the American Board of Foreign Missions and was sent to Chattanooga, Tennessee in the 1820’s where he taught Cherokee Natives English, religion and agriculture at the then Brainerd Mission. He would meet his wife, Harriet Ellsworth while stationed in Chattanooga. The Ainsworth’s had five children, however two of their daughters would die in infancy. Blunt was a dedicated missionary and often went to great lengths to show Christ to those he taught. When the Cherokee natives were sent west during what is now known as the Trail of Tears, Blunt rode along with them up through Nashville, then into Kentucky until they reached the Mississippi River. During this time temperatures dropped and the Mississippi River froze preventing anyone from crossing. Soon, Blunt became deathly ill and was persuaded by companions to return to the Brainerd Mission, which he reluctantly did. Blunt and a few of his companions returned to Chattanooga where he settled, and it was there that he helped establish the First Presbyterian Church. In 1843 Blunt entered into the mercantile business with his son-in-law, Benjamin Morse. He moved to what was then known as Cross Plains (Now Dalton) and began building a house for his family. The house he built would become known as the Blunt House. During the Civil War, in the winter of 1863 and 1864, Blunt and his family welcomed and entertained Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston and his staff at the Blunt House. The Confederate Army of the Tennessee was occupying Dalton at this time. However, soon afterwards, Dalton fell to the Union Army and Blunt and his family fled to Illinois to live with his son, John. The Blunt house was turned into a Union hospital and its outside brush arbors used to protect wounded soldiers. Before leaving Dalton to begin his great March to the Sea, General William T. Sherman burned many of the wooden structures in Dalton, except for the Blunt House. It is unknown why he decided not to burn it; perhaps because it had been used as a Union hospital but also because Blunt was a Union sympathizer. Blunt and his family returned to the house during the summer of 1865, just after the end of the war. Blunt would only survive a few more months. He died in December of the same year. The House was left to his wife and daughter Lillie. The Blunt House is a Federal Style architecture with a 1910 Victorian Style addition. The original house had four rooms—two up stairs and two down with a central stair hall. The kitchen was probably a separate building with one room attached. The fireplace in the room behind the kitchen shares a chimney with the kitchen fireplace. The room is not in the style of the rooms that were part of the addition but seems more from the era of the original house. It is possible that this one room and the kitchen were used as living quarters while the main house was being built. The addition consists of a dining room, hall, and a back porch downstairs. The hall connects a room, the kitchen, and the addition to the main house. Stairs were removed from the original front hall and were replaced with a larger staircase in the new back hall that leads upstairs to an added hall, bedroom, and a bath. The house was originally located on four acres of land with accompanying outbuildings and a barn. The Blunt house still stands today and is located at 506 South Thornton Drive in the historic section of Dalton, Georgia. Tours are offered through the house by the Whitfield-Murray Historical Society Thursday through Saturday from 10am until 4pm. However, tours are only given by appointment only. To schedule a tour you can call the Whitfield-Murray Historical Society at 706 278-0217, or email them at email@example.com. Th – Sat 10 am – 4 pm and by appointment Small Admission for Guided Tours 506 S. Thornton Avenue Dalton GA 30720 United States	928	ENGLISH	1
History of Wallingford A castle was completed in 1071, which became one of the most important castles in England in its heyday. King Henry II held his first parliament in 1154 at Wallingford, and he subsequently granted the town a charter. The town also received a mention in the Magna Carta of 1215, along with only a handful of other towns. During the Civil War (1642-6) the town was occupied by Royalists sieged by Parliamentary forces. The Castle was then demolished stone by stone on the personal order of Oliver Cromwell; all that now remains are the ruins of a tower facing the river, a small section of the hall overlooking the northern moat, the massive earthworks and a castle mound. From this time, the town’s importance began to decline but much architecture from the middle Ages still remains. The magnificent stone bridge is similar to the old London Bridge. Both bridges have nineteen arches, and Wallingford Bridge is 900 feet long – 15 feet shorter than the old London Bridge. (Read more about the bridge here.) Today Wallingford is a bustling market town with a population of nearly 7000. In the mid 1970’s three families were living in Wallingford, but were in fellowship at neighbouring assemblies. For seven years these believers were exercised about bringing the gospel to people in their locality and they held a weekly prayer meeting in their home. On 1st October 1978, the assembly was formed with the fellowship and commendation of neighbouring assemblies. For seventeen years the assembly met at the Scout Hut, off Station Road, looking for a site to build a Gospel Hall. Land became available when a new housing development was commenced in the 1980’s. However, it was not until the 1990’s that land could be acquired to build the Hall. In October 1995, the new hall was opened on the site of an old Work House, Atwell Close.	<urn:uuid:a5f3293f-8945-4d87-9f4f-af024a42c801>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.wallingfordchristianassembly.org.uk/history-of-wallingford-christian-assembly/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00147.warc.gz	en	0.98208	399	3.34375	3	[ 0.035747118294239044, -0.23153333365917206, 0.7047001719474792, 0.10352384299039841, -0.22142840921878815, -0.42060092091560364, 0.00928605254739523, -0.38109633326530457, -0.4081971049308777, -0.32406917214393616, -0.24114060401916504, -0.3623717129230499, 0.017204610630869865, 0.34539109...	14	History of Wallingford A castle was completed in 1071, which became one of the most important castles in England in its heyday. King Henry II held his first parliament in 1154 at Wallingford, and he subsequently granted the town a charter. The town also received a mention in the Magna Carta of 1215, along with only a handful of other towns. During the Civil War (1642-6) the town was occupied by Royalists sieged by Parliamentary forces. The Castle was then demolished stone by stone on the personal order of Oliver Cromwell; all that now remains are the ruins of a tower facing the river, a small section of the hall overlooking the northern moat, the massive earthworks and a castle mound. From this time, the town’s importance began to decline but much architecture from the middle Ages still remains. The magnificent stone bridge is similar to the old London Bridge. Both bridges have nineteen arches, and Wallingford Bridge is 900 feet long – 15 feet shorter than the old London Bridge. (Read more about the bridge here.) Today Wallingford is a bustling market town with a population of nearly 7000. In the mid 1970’s three families were living in Wallingford, but were in fellowship at neighbouring assemblies. For seven years these believers were exercised about bringing the gospel to people in their locality and they held a weekly prayer meeting in their home. On 1st October 1978, the assembly was formed with the fellowship and commendation of neighbouring assemblies. For seventeen years the assembly met at the Scout Hut, off Station Road, looking for a site to build a Gospel Hall. Land became available when a new housing development was commenced in the 1980’s. However, it was not until the 1990’s that land could be acquired to build the Hall. In October 1995, the new hall was opened on the site of an old Work House, Atwell Close.	428	ENGLISH	1
The Battle of the Bulge, fought over the winter months of 1944 – 1945, was the last major Nazi offensive against the Allies in World War Two. The battle was a last ditch attempt by Hitler to split the Allies in two in their drive towards Germany The Battle of the Bulge started on December 16th 1944. Hitler had convinced himself that the alliance between Britain, France and America in the western sector of Europe was not strong and that a major attack and defeat would break up the alliance. Therefore, he ordered a massive attack against what were primarily American forces. The attack is strictly known as the Ardennes Offensive but because the initial attack by the Germans created a bulge in the Allied front line, it has become more commonly known as the Battle of the Bulge. Hitler’s plan was to launch a massive attack using three armies on the Allies which would, in his mind, destabilise their accord and also take the huge port of Antwerp through which a great deal of supplies was reaching the Allies. The Fifteenth Army was to be held in reserve to counter any Allied attack when they took place. Hitler believed that his forces would be able to surround and cut off Canada’s First Army, America’s First and Ninth Armies and Britain’s Second Army. On paper, it was a seemingly absurd plan – especially as Germany had been in retreat since D-Day, her military was depleted of supplies and was facing the awesome might of the Allies. However, Hitler, as commander-in-chief of the military, decreed that the attack should take place. The battle started with a two hour bombardment of the Allies lines that was followed by a huge armoured attack with the majority of the German armoured might based at the Schnee Eifel. The Germans experienced great success to start with. Why was this? The Allies were surprised by the attack. They had received little intelligence that such an attack would take place. Before the attack started, English speaking German soldiers dressed in American uniforms went behind the lines of the Allies and caused havoc by spreading misinformation, changing road signs and cutting telephone lines. Those who were caught were shot after a court martial. The weather was also in Hitler’s favour. Low cloud and fog meant that the superior air force of the Allies could not be used – especially the tank-busting Typhoons of the RAF or Mustang fighters from the USAAF which would have been used against the German tanks. Though the weather was typical for the Ardennes in winter, the ground was hard enough for military vehicles to cross and this suited the armoured attack Hitler envisaged. However, the success of the Germans lasted just two days. Despite punching a bulge into the Allies front line, the Germans could not capitalise on this. The Germans had based their attack on a massive armoured onslaught. However, such an attack required fuel to maintain it and the Germans simply did not possess such quantities of fuel. By December 22nd, the weather started to clear, thus allowing the Allies to bring their air power into force and on the following day, the Americans started a counter-attack against the Germans. On Christmas Eve, the Allies experienced the first ever attack by jet bombers. Sixteen German Me-262’s attacked rail yards in an attempt to upset the ability of the Allies to supply them. However, without fuel for their armoured vehicles, any success in the air was meaningless. The Germans had advanced 60 miles in two days but from December 18th on, they were in a position of stalemate. The fighting was ferocious. The New Year’s period was a time of particularly intensive fighting as the Germans attempted to start a second front in Holland. This time in the Ardennes coincided with a period of intense cold and rain and the soldiers on the ground faced very difficult conditions. Trench foot was a common problem for infantrymen, as was exposure. By mid-January 1945, the effect of lack of fuel was becoming evident as the Germans had to simply abandon their vehicles. The 1st SS Panzer Division, led by Lieutenant-Colonel Joachim Peiper, had to make their way back to Germany on foot. This was the unit that was responsible for the Malmédy Massacre. The Battle of the Bulge was the largest battle fought by the Americans in World War Two. 600,000 American troops were involved in the battle. The Americans lost 81,000 men while the Germans lost 100,000 killed, wounded and captured. Could the Germans have won the battle? Almost certainly not, as they had one huge problem – their inability to keep their armoured columns supplied with fuel. Any form of armoured attack needed a constant supply of fuel – and Allied bombing of fuel plants in Germany meant that such supplies did not exist. Field Marshall von Rundstedt believed all along that the plan was too ambitious. When on trial after the war, von Rundstedt said that “all, absolutely all, conditions for the possible success of such an offensive were lacking.” (Citation: C N Trueman "The Battle of the Bulge" historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 20 Apr 2015. 16 Dec 2015.)	<urn:uuid:871651ab-926a-414f-a9f6-7ec3b611385c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essaydocs.org/the-sixth-panzer-army-led-by-sepp-dietrich-was-to-lead-the-att.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00123.warc.gz	en	0.987864	1,075	3.71875	4	[ -0.36694979667663574, 0.6006084680557251, 0.0437791608273983, 0.00704973004758358, -0.07900179922580719, 0.16669949889183044, 0.04446079209446907, 0.16728973388671875, -0.16592366993427277, -0.27680638432502747, 0.22074726223945618, -0.2836381793022156, 0.43278825283050537, 0.5166456103324...	1	The Battle of the Bulge, fought over the winter months of 1944 – 1945, was the last major Nazi offensive against the Allies in World War Two. The battle was a last ditch attempt by Hitler to split the Allies in two in their drive towards Germany The Battle of the Bulge started on December 16th 1944. Hitler had convinced himself that the alliance between Britain, France and America in the western sector of Europe was not strong and that a major attack and defeat would break up the alliance. Therefore, he ordered a massive attack against what were primarily American forces. The attack is strictly known as the Ardennes Offensive but because the initial attack by the Germans created a bulge in the Allied front line, it has become more commonly known as the Battle of the Bulge. Hitler’s plan was to launch a massive attack using three armies on the Allies which would, in his mind, destabilise their accord and also take the huge port of Antwerp through which a great deal of supplies was reaching the Allies. The Fifteenth Army was to be held in reserve to counter any Allied attack when they took place. Hitler believed that his forces would be able to surround and cut off Canada’s First Army, America’s First and Ninth Armies and Britain’s Second Army. On paper, it was a seemingly absurd plan – especially as Germany had been in retreat since D-Day, her military was depleted of supplies and was facing the awesome might of the Allies. However, Hitler, as commander-in-chief of the military, decreed that the attack should take place. The battle started with a two hour bombardment of the Allies lines that was followed by a huge armoured attack with the majority of the German armoured might based at the Schnee Eifel. The Germans experienced great success to start with. Why was this? The Allies were surprised by the attack. They had received little intelligence that such an attack would take place. Before the attack started, English speaking German soldiers dressed in American uniforms went behind the lines of the Allies and caused havoc by spreading misinformation, changing road signs and cutting telephone lines. Those who were caught were shot after a court martial. The weather was also in Hitler’s favour. Low cloud and fog meant that the superior air force of the Allies could not be used – especially the tank-busting Typhoons of the RAF or Mustang fighters from the USAAF which would have been used against the German tanks. Though the weather was typical for the Ardennes in winter, the ground was hard enough for military vehicles to cross and this suited the armoured attack Hitler envisaged. However, the success of the Germans lasted just two days. Despite punching a bulge into the Allies front line, the Germans could not capitalise on this. The Germans had based their attack on a massive armoured onslaught. However, such an attack required fuel to maintain it and the Germans simply did not possess such quantities of fuel. By December 22nd, the weather started to clear, thus allowing the Allies to bring their air power into force and on the following day, the Americans started a counter-attack against the Germans. On Christmas Eve, the Allies experienced the first ever attack by jet bombers. Sixteen German Me-262’s attacked rail yards in an attempt to upset the ability of the Allies to supply them. However, without fuel for their armoured vehicles, any success in the air was meaningless. The Germans had advanced 60 miles in two days but from December 18th on, they were in a position of stalemate. The fighting was ferocious. The New Year’s period was a time of particularly intensive fighting as the Germans attempted to start a second front in Holland. This time in the Ardennes coincided with a period of intense cold and rain and the soldiers on the ground faced very difficult conditions. Trench foot was a common problem for infantrymen, as was exposure. By mid-January 1945, the effect of lack of fuel was becoming evident as the Germans had to simply abandon their vehicles. The 1st SS Panzer Division, led by Lieutenant-Colonel Joachim Peiper, had to make their way back to Germany on foot. This was the unit that was responsible for the Malmédy Massacre. The Battle of the Bulge was the largest battle fought by the Americans in World War Two. 600,000 American troops were involved in the battle. The Americans lost 81,000 men while the Germans lost 100,000 killed, wounded and captured. Could the Germans have won the battle? Almost certainly not, as they had one huge problem – their inability to keep their armoured columns supplied with fuel. Any form of armoured attack needed a constant supply of fuel – and Allied bombing of fuel plants in Germany meant that such supplies did not exist. Field Marshall von Rundstedt believed all along that the plan was too ambitious. When on trial after the war, von Rundstedt said that “all, absolutely all, conditions for the possible success of such an offensive were lacking.” (Citation: C N Trueman "The Battle of the Bulge" historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 20 Apr 2015. 16 Dec 2015.)	1,103	ENGLISH	1
Liu Bei facts for kids Liu Bei (161-223) was the founder of the Chinese Shu Han dynasty and its first emperor. He went into battle against the Yellow Scarves rebellion in 184, along with his sworn brothers Guan Yu and Zhang Fei. Later (in 190) he joined Gongsun Zan against the evil Dong Zhuo who had seized the Han emperor Xian. After Dong lost, the emperor was in the clutches of his followers—until Cao Cao saved him and seized control over him. Cao Cao tried to conquer all of China for the emperor but in fact wanted to conquer it for himself. He defeated Liu Bei once at the Battle of Changban in 207 but was not able to win the Battle of Red Cliffs against the united forces of Liu Bei and Sun Quan, a warlord in the South. Sun Quan granted Liu Bei some land in the West of his domain, and the two agreed to fight Cao Cao again if necessary. From 211 to 214, Liu Bei conquered the country Ba Shu in the West. Because he had now an empire of his own, Sun Quan demanded his western regions back but Liu Bei declined. This made Sun Quan quite angry. After several useless battles against Liu Bei's general Guan Yu, Cao Cao chose to make a union with Sun Quan. They attacked Guan Yu with their allied forces and overthrew him in 219. Liu Bei was mad and swore revenge for the death of his brother and the loss of an important part of his empire. When Cao Cao died in 220, his son Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian of Han to give up his power. Cao Pi declared himself Emperor of the Wei Dynasty. Liu Bei found that offensive, for he was a member of the royal family of Han and considered himself the righteous Emperor of China. That's why he declared himself emperor of the Shu Han in 221. The next year, Sun Quan claimed the title Emperor of Wu for himself. Liu Bei was really mad at Sun Quan's arrogance. In 222 he opposed him in the Battle of Yiling but failed due to Lu Xun's (a Wu general) great tactics. After his defeat Liu Bei got ill and died a year later. His son Liu Shan followed him as emperor. Images for kids Liu Bei declares himself king, portrait at the Long Corridor of the Summer Palace, Beijing Liu Bei Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	<urn:uuid:a0707a67-54dc-4876-a64c-fdcf165f14a8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.kiddle.co/Liu_Bei	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00290.warc.gz	en	0.982657	491	3.546875	4	[ -0.6429104208946228, 0.2825022339820862, 0.2598036825656891, -0.02346636727452278, -0.22532688081264496, -0.05747118964791298, 0.326891154050827, 0.1702738255262375, 0.10557951033115387, 0.22148750722408295, 0.49753883481025696, -0.7994968295097351, 0.3922673463821411, 0.5325044989585876, ...	1	Liu Bei facts for kids Liu Bei (161-223) was the founder of the Chinese Shu Han dynasty and its first emperor. He went into battle against the Yellow Scarves rebellion in 184, along with his sworn brothers Guan Yu and Zhang Fei. Later (in 190) he joined Gongsun Zan against the evil Dong Zhuo who had seized the Han emperor Xian. After Dong lost, the emperor was in the clutches of his followers—until Cao Cao saved him and seized control over him. Cao Cao tried to conquer all of China for the emperor but in fact wanted to conquer it for himself. He defeated Liu Bei once at the Battle of Changban in 207 but was not able to win the Battle of Red Cliffs against the united forces of Liu Bei and Sun Quan, a warlord in the South. Sun Quan granted Liu Bei some land in the West of his domain, and the two agreed to fight Cao Cao again if necessary. From 211 to 214, Liu Bei conquered the country Ba Shu in the West. Because he had now an empire of his own, Sun Quan demanded his western regions back but Liu Bei declined. This made Sun Quan quite angry. After several useless battles against Liu Bei's general Guan Yu, Cao Cao chose to make a union with Sun Quan. They attacked Guan Yu with their allied forces and overthrew him in 219. Liu Bei was mad and swore revenge for the death of his brother and the loss of an important part of his empire. When Cao Cao died in 220, his son Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian of Han to give up his power. Cao Pi declared himself Emperor of the Wei Dynasty. Liu Bei found that offensive, for he was a member of the royal family of Han and considered himself the righteous Emperor of China. That's why he declared himself emperor of the Shu Han in 221. The next year, Sun Quan claimed the title Emperor of Wu for himself. Liu Bei was really mad at Sun Quan's arrogance. In 222 he opposed him in the Battle of Yiling but failed due to Lu Xun's (a Wu general) great tactics. After his defeat Liu Bei got ill and died a year later. His son Liu Shan followed him as emperor. Images for kids Liu Bei declares himself king, portrait at the Long Corridor of the Summer Palace, Beijing Liu Bei Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	545	ENGLISH	1
As I understand it, the Space Shuttle was essentially a glider when it was coming back to land, and the engines were not there to facilitate powered flight. So what was the procedure, had the Space Shuttle had to do an aborted landing? If the Space Shuttle missed its landing approach, what could have been done? Nothing. Not one thing. Once the reentry burn was complete, the Shuttle was either going to explode on the way down or land at or near the intended landing site. There was no such thing as an aborted/retried landing. If the Shuttle didn't land at the intended landing site, it was still going to land near that site. The reentry burn made the decision to land irrevocable. The only way to avoid landing was not to perform that reentry burn. Because landing was a one-shot event, the number one perceived threat to a safe landing was bad weather. There were quite a few Shuttle flights that spent an extra day or two on orbit because of forecasts of inclement weather at or near the intended landing site. Some of the Shuttle flights that were intended to land at the Cape ended up landing at Edwards Air Force Base because of continued threats of bad weather at the Cape. One flight, STS-3, ended up landing at White Sands because of continued threats of bad weather at Edwards. The other answers address the case of nominal entries. Since the question references aborts, perhaps the intent is to ask about ascent aborts which result in a stable entry that does not reach a runway. In this case a special autopilot mode would be engaged which basically held the wings level, the side hatch would be jettisoned and the crew would use the "escape pole" to bail out. The orbiter would eventually crash into the water. Note that this was an extremely unlikely situation due to ascent flight design closing most of the black zones. More information here And, you can read the bailout flight rules here (Paragraph A2-251) The answer is that they made sure everything went smooth, understanding they had one chance only: The early orbiter design for Columbia included emergency ejection seats useful for a late aborted orbiter landing for two cockpit located astronauts. Early Shuttle Astronauts trained in test seats and the flight cabin mockups at JSC/Houston fully included the related seat hardware and means of activation. The propellants though at Kennedy Launch facility were never loaded and the seats were never available for arming in any landing emergency. This decision was reported to be a direct request of STS-1 astronaut John Young as he had early concerns for the seats operational safety as well as a possible accidental activation during their times of non-use. Shuttle crews for the following flights also abandoned the emergency egress seat design altogether citing that the seats only afforded a flight crew of two emergency egress, though crews were exceeding that number. On Columbia's later makeover, the emergency seat design was fully removed.	<urn:uuid:dabfcc2f-8dfd-4193-b839-5787bc917902>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://space.stackexchange.com/questions/5409/if-the-space-shuttle-missed-its-landing-approach-what-could-have-been-done/5413	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00528.warc.gz	en	0.983833	609	3.4375	3	[ -0.3661770522594452, 0.09223368763923645, 0.03381893411278725, -0.036395542323589325, -0.30203989148139954, -0.03269227594137192, 0.18030044436454773, 0.37151384353637695, -0.03555898368358612, 0.047372981905937195, 0.1785650998353958, -0.17234838008880615, -0.04678057134151459, 0.36245089...	2	As I understand it, the Space Shuttle was essentially a glider when it was coming back to land, and the engines were not there to facilitate powered flight. So what was the procedure, had the Space Shuttle had to do an aborted landing? If the Space Shuttle missed its landing approach, what could have been done? Nothing. Not one thing. Once the reentry burn was complete, the Shuttle was either going to explode on the way down or land at or near the intended landing site. There was no such thing as an aborted/retried landing. If the Shuttle didn't land at the intended landing site, it was still going to land near that site. The reentry burn made the decision to land irrevocable. The only way to avoid landing was not to perform that reentry burn. Because landing was a one-shot event, the number one perceived threat to a safe landing was bad weather. There were quite a few Shuttle flights that spent an extra day or two on orbit because of forecasts of inclement weather at or near the intended landing site. Some of the Shuttle flights that were intended to land at the Cape ended up landing at Edwards Air Force Base because of continued threats of bad weather at the Cape. One flight, STS-3, ended up landing at White Sands because of continued threats of bad weather at Edwards. The other answers address the case of nominal entries. Since the question references aborts, perhaps the intent is to ask about ascent aborts which result in a stable entry that does not reach a runway. In this case a special autopilot mode would be engaged which basically held the wings level, the side hatch would be jettisoned and the crew would use the "escape pole" to bail out. The orbiter would eventually crash into the water. Note that this was an extremely unlikely situation due to ascent flight design closing most of the black zones. More information here And, you can read the bailout flight rules here (Paragraph A2-251) The answer is that they made sure everything went smooth, understanding they had one chance only: The early orbiter design for Columbia included emergency ejection seats useful for a late aborted orbiter landing for two cockpit located astronauts. Early Shuttle Astronauts trained in test seats and the flight cabin mockups at JSC/Houston fully included the related seat hardware and means of activation. The propellants though at Kennedy Launch facility were never loaded and the seats were never available for arming in any landing emergency. This decision was reported to be a direct request of STS-1 astronaut John Young as he had early concerns for the seats operational safety as well as a possible accidental activation during their times of non-use. Shuttle crews for the following flights also abandoned the emergency egress seat design altogether citing that the seats only afforded a flight crew of two emergency egress, though crews were exceeding that number. On Columbia's later makeover, the emergency seat design was fully removed.	599	ENGLISH	1
The Taj Mahal is a huge white mausoleum that is located in the town of Agra near the Yamuna River. The mausoleum is one of the best-known structures in the world and is designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The building of the mausoleum was done between 1631 and 1643, but it took another ten years for the gigantic project to be complete. The construction of the mausoleum was commissioned by 17th century Indian Emperor, Shah Jahan in 1631. The project is estimated to have cost about $827 million in 2015 estimates and involved thousands of laborers and a reported 1,000 elephants. Shah Jahan was a ruler who reigned over the Mughal Empire in the 17th century who commissioned the building of the mausoleum in honor of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal who had died in 1631 during childbirth. While the actual origin of the name “Taj Mahal” is yet to be known, scholars believe that the mausoleum was named after the Empress, stating that “Taj Mahal” was the name the Agra people called Mumtaz Mahal. The emperor wanted the mausoleum to be inspired by the beauty of Mumtaz, and exhibit her femininity. Upon the completion of the Taj Mahal, the remains of Mumtaz were exhumed from Burhanpur where they were initially buried, and transported to the new mausoleum were they were buried in a cenotaph. The Love Story of the Taj Mahal The Taj Mahal is often labeled as the “greatest expression of undying love and marital commitment in history,” as it was a testament to the love Shah Jahan had for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The two were betrothed while still teenagers (Shah was only 15 years old while Mumtaz was 14 years old). The Emperor was genuinely in love with Mumtaz, so much so that he had little care to exercise his polygamous rights as Emperor, and only married his two other wives, Akbarabadi Mahal and Kandahari Begum to sire more children. Therefore, when Mumtaz Mahal died in 1631 while delivering their daughter, Shah Jahan was so sad that he would not be seen in public for years. After recovering from the death of his wife, Emperor Shah made the construction of a mausoleum in honor of Mumtaz. The identity of the persons behind the design of the Taj Mahal can only be speculated, as there exist no records about the designers. The construction of the Taj Mahal involved a team of architects, the best in the Mughal Empire who were led by Mir Abd-ul Karim and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. The two were selected by the Emperor since they had been involved in the construction of other structures in the Empire. For the mausoleum’s exterior decorations, the Emperor saw fit to have calligraphic inscriptions. The entire mausoleum features calligraphic inscriptions from the Quran. Amanat Khan, a Persian artist, and renowned calligrapher was tasked with making the calligraphic inscriptions. Amanat made his beautiful calligraphy on the Taj Mahal in 1609. Scholars believe the choice of the lines from the Quran to be used on calligraphic inscriptions was the discretion of Amanat Khan and not the Emperor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:d08ddaf7-6f23-4276-ac4c-52541e52e400>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/when-was-the-taj-mahal-built.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00358.warc.gz	en	0.981422	755	3.4375	3	[ 0.20745982229709625, 0.6581113934516907, 0.05773446708917618, -0.11789163947105408, -0.5845717191696167, 0.029641523957252502, 0.5944910049438477, -0.05657390505075455, 0.24891912937164307, -0.20941418409347534, 0.019420577213168144, -0.6432247161865234, 0.14681348204612732, 0.651745796203...	2	The Taj Mahal is a huge white mausoleum that is located in the town of Agra near the Yamuna River. The mausoleum is one of the best-known structures in the world and is designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The building of the mausoleum was done between 1631 and 1643, but it took another ten years for the gigantic project to be complete. The construction of the mausoleum was commissioned by 17th century Indian Emperor, Shah Jahan in 1631. The project is estimated to have cost about $827 million in 2015 estimates and involved thousands of laborers and a reported 1,000 elephants. Shah Jahan was a ruler who reigned over the Mughal Empire in the 17th century who commissioned the building of the mausoleum in honor of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal who had died in 1631 during childbirth. While the actual origin of the name “Taj Mahal” is yet to be known, scholars believe that the mausoleum was named after the Empress, stating that “Taj Mahal” was the name the Agra people called Mumtaz Mahal. The emperor wanted the mausoleum to be inspired by the beauty of Mumtaz, and exhibit her femininity. Upon the completion of the Taj Mahal, the remains of Mumtaz were exhumed from Burhanpur where they were initially buried, and transported to the new mausoleum were they were buried in a cenotaph. The Love Story of the Taj Mahal The Taj Mahal is often labeled as the “greatest expression of undying love and marital commitment in history,” as it was a testament to the love Shah Jahan had for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The two were betrothed while still teenagers (Shah was only 15 years old while Mumtaz was 14 years old). The Emperor was genuinely in love with Mumtaz, so much so that he had little care to exercise his polygamous rights as Emperor, and only married his two other wives, Akbarabadi Mahal and Kandahari Begum to sire more children. Therefore, when Mumtaz Mahal died in 1631 while delivering their daughter, Shah Jahan was so sad that he would not be seen in public for years. After recovering from the death of his wife, Emperor Shah made the construction of a mausoleum in honor of Mumtaz. The identity of the persons behind the design of the Taj Mahal can only be speculated, as there exist no records about the designers. The construction of the Taj Mahal involved a team of architects, the best in the Mughal Empire who were led by Mir Abd-ul Karim and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. The two were selected by the Emperor since they had been involved in the construction of other structures in the Empire. For the mausoleum’s exterior decorations, the Emperor saw fit to have calligraphic inscriptions. The entire mausoleum features calligraphic inscriptions from the Quran. Amanat Khan, a Persian artist, and renowned calligrapher was tasked with making the calligraphic inscriptions. Amanat made his beautiful calligraphy on the Taj Mahal in 1609. Scholars believe the choice of the lines from the Quran to be used on calligraphic inscriptions was the discretion of Amanat Khan and not the Emperor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	776	ENGLISH	1
First, their weaponry and armor were much more advanced. As Pizarro and his men took over portions of South America they plundered and enslaved countless people. The slaves were often prisoners-of-war taken in battles between indigenous African groups. Much of Aztec culture was destroyed, but some artifacts are now held in museums. The revolt, lasted from the early s untilwhen Haiti received its independence. This was assisted by the expansion of European colonial empires. Many of the indigenous people did convert. The Spanish baptised her into the Catholic faith and she was renamed. The European diseases that reduced the population of the indigenous people of the Caribbean islands also affected the Aztecs, and to a lesser degree the Incas. Weakened by disease, the Native Americans were unable to cope with hard manual labour. He was buried with Christian rites in the church of San Francisco at Cajamarca, but was soon disinterred. False interpretations from the interpreter Felipillo made the Spaniards paranoid. Instead of sparing his life as promised, Pizarro executed Atahualpa on 29 August and took control of the town of Cajarmaca. What were some of the reasons that the Spanish had success in conquering both the Aztec and Inca peoples? The aztec empire was feared and hated by the other native clans and tribes they had conquered. Most settlers were involved in mining the vast amounts of silver and gold that existed in Peru. This was a major disadvantage for the Inca and their undoing was due to a lack of self-confidence, and a desire to make public demonstration of fearlessness and godlike command of situation. In addition to their strategic alliances with different indigenous groups, the Spanish had several advantages. Balboa is best known as the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish were successful over the Incas and the Mayans because they had better tools and they had guns and cannons. The Aztecs lived in a fertile valley metres above sea level, the water from the surrounding mountains watered their crops, which included maize, cotton, beans and chili peppers. Montezuma was killed, and many Spaniards and Aztecs lost their lives. The Spanish built a line of forts to defend their settlements against continuous Araucanian attacks and raids. Today, Panama honours Balboa by naming its monetary unit, the balboa, after him. She learnt Spanish, lived with Cortes and later gave birth to his son. In Central and South America, the Spanish settlers eventually intermarried with the Incas and Aztecs as most of the settlers were men. The fact that such a small number of Spanish troops were able to defeat the thousands Inca warriors at Cajamarca is attributable to many factors, among them that the Spanish had caballeroscannon and guns while the Inca had only rustic armament. How were the relatively small Spanish armies able to conquer much larger indigenous forces? He kidnapped and murdered their king and proceeded to meltdown and secure all of their gold and silver for his own personalgain. The Spaniards, led by Francisco Pizarro, arrived in and were able to exploit the situation and capture the already weakened state. Of all the things there is to know about Peru, which then were not many, he decided to stick to that. Use books in the school or community library as well as the internet. Atahualpa asked what to do about the men, and Cinquinchara replied that they should be killed because they are evil thieves who take whatever they want and are supai cuna or "devils". They ended up retreating from the Aztecs, but Moctezuma was killed in the fight. The account was used by eighteenth-century Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero in his descriptions of the history of Mexico. The Spaniards destroyed almost every Inca building in Cuzco,[ citation needed ] built a Spanish city over the old foundations, and proceeded to colonize and exploit the former empire. Despite the war, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. In any case, a study by N. By the early sixteenth century, the Spanish settlement in Cuba was mired in problems. How did Cortes conquer the Aztec empire? These two accounts are full-blown narratives from the viewpoint of the Spanish opponents. Colonialism did not cause racism, but it helped to reinforce the belief that Europeans were the dominant race and therefore superior and that other races were subordinate and therefore inferior. In a letter in Nahuatl to the Spanish Crown, the indigenous lords of Huexotzinco lay out their case in for their valorous service. When he first encountered the totonacshe offered to free them from the Mexica in exchange for a military alliance. Ruins of the Aztec capital have been uncovered from beneath the streets of modern Mexico City.The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the dominicgaudious.net years of preliminary exploration and military skirmishes, Spanish soldiers under conquistador Francisco Pizarro, his brothers, and their native allies captured the Sapa Inca Atahualpa in the Battle of dominicgaudious.net was the first step in a long campaign that Territorial changes: Former Inca lands incorporated into the Spanish Empire. The Spanish Conquest What happened to the Aztecs, Maya, and Inca? The great civilizations of Mexico and of Central and South America faced many internal conflicts at the start of the sixteenth dominicgaudious.net://dominicgaudious.net 22 Art History: Aztec and Inca Empires. STUDY. PLAY. Who was the ruler of the Aztec empire when the Spanish conquest began? b. Moctezuma. What is this headdress made from? b. quetzal bird feathers. What does the page above describe? b. the Aztec world view before the Spanish dominicgaudious.net://dominicgaudious.net · The Conquest of the Inca Empire. Little did the residents of the massive Inca empire know that they would soon be learning Spanish in Peru. Their adoption of the rapidly-spreading Spanish language would be symptomatic of the loss of their culture and land (one of the richest in America) at the hands of the Spanish dominicgaudious.net://dominicgaudious.net The conquest of the Aztec and Incan empires were relatively easy battles. A couple of reasons as to why it was so easy were because these empires were isolated, they knew nothing of the new world and other cultures, they believed that the Europeans intentions were of. The Spanish Conquest What happened to the Aztecs, Maya, and Inca? The great civilizations of Mexico and of Central and South America faced many internal conflicts at the start of the sixteenth century.Download	<urn:uuid:b2fd7857-5d06-462c-be9b-2bbb2d0ce669>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://rovicin.dominicgaudious.net/spanish-conquest-of-the-aztec-and-the-inca-empires-14208mr.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00377.warc.gz	en	0.981774	1,429	3.640625	4	[ -0.15541836619377136, 0.6074992418289185, 0.472451776266098, 0.22654873132705688, -0.14257210493087769, -0.4215087592601776, 0.07945385575294495, 0.33153682947158813, -0.1348486840724945, 0.003582433331757784, 0.1852770745754242, -0.3070542812347412, -0.2209254801273346, 0.358365923166275,...	1	First, their weaponry and armor were much more advanced. As Pizarro and his men took over portions of South America they plundered and enslaved countless people. The slaves were often prisoners-of-war taken in battles between indigenous African groups. Much of Aztec culture was destroyed, but some artifacts are now held in museums. The revolt, lasted from the early s untilwhen Haiti received its independence. This was assisted by the expansion of European colonial empires. Many of the indigenous people did convert. The Spanish baptised her into the Catholic faith and she was renamed. The European diseases that reduced the population of the indigenous people of the Caribbean islands also affected the Aztecs, and to a lesser degree the Incas. Weakened by disease, the Native Americans were unable to cope with hard manual labour. He was buried with Christian rites in the church of San Francisco at Cajamarca, but was soon disinterred. False interpretations from the interpreter Felipillo made the Spaniards paranoid. Instead of sparing his life as promised, Pizarro executed Atahualpa on 29 August and took control of the town of Cajarmaca. What were some of the reasons that the Spanish had success in conquering both the Aztec and Inca peoples? The aztec empire was feared and hated by the other native clans and tribes they had conquered. Most settlers were involved in mining the vast amounts of silver and gold that existed in Peru. This was a major disadvantage for the Inca and their undoing was due to a lack of self-confidence, and a desire to make public demonstration of fearlessness and godlike command of situation. In addition to their strategic alliances with different indigenous groups, the Spanish had several advantages. Balboa is best known as the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish were successful over the Incas and the Mayans because they had better tools and they had guns and cannons. The Aztecs lived in a fertile valley metres above sea level, the water from the surrounding mountains watered their crops, which included maize, cotton, beans and chili peppers. Montezuma was killed, and many Spaniards and Aztecs lost their lives. The Spanish built a line of forts to defend their settlements against continuous Araucanian attacks and raids. Today, Panama honours Balboa by naming its monetary unit, the balboa, after him. She learnt Spanish, lived with Cortes and later gave birth to his son. In Central and South America, the Spanish settlers eventually intermarried with the Incas and Aztecs as most of the settlers were men. The fact that such a small number of Spanish troops were able to defeat the thousands Inca warriors at Cajamarca is attributable to many factors, among them that the Spanish had caballeroscannon and guns while the Inca had only rustic armament. How were the relatively small Spanish armies able to conquer much larger indigenous forces? He kidnapped and murdered their king and proceeded to meltdown and secure all of their gold and silver for his own personalgain. The Spaniards, led by Francisco Pizarro, arrived in and were able to exploit the situation and capture the already weakened state. Of all the things there is to know about Peru, which then were not many, he decided to stick to that. Use books in the school or community library as well as the internet. Atahualpa asked what to do about the men, and Cinquinchara replied that they should be killed because they are evil thieves who take whatever they want and are supai cuna or "devils". They ended up retreating from the Aztecs, but Moctezuma was killed in the fight. The account was used by eighteenth-century Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero in his descriptions of the history of Mexico. The Spaniards destroyed almost every Inca building in Cuzco,[ citation needed ] built a Spanish city over the old foundations, and proceeded to colonize and exploit the former empire. Despite the war, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. In any case, a study by N. By the early sixteenth century, the Spanish settlement in Cuba was mired in problems. How did Cortes conquer the Aztec empire? These two accounts are full-blown narratives from the viewpoint of the Spanish opponents. Colonialism did not cause racism, but it helped to reinforce the belief that Europeans were the dominant race and therefore superior and that other races were subordinate and therefore inferior. In a letter in Nahuatl to the Spanish Crown, the indigenous lords of Huexotzinco lay out their case in for their valorous service. When he first encountered the totonacshe offered to free them from the Mexica in exchange for a military alliance. Ruins of the Aztec capital have been uncovered from beneath the streets of modern Mexico City.The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the dominicgaudious.net years of preliminary exploration and military skirmishes, Spanish soldiers under conquistador Francisco Pizarro, his brothers, and their native allies captured the Sapa Inca Atahualpa in the Battle of dominicgaudious.net was the first step in a long campaign that Territorial changes: Former Inca lands incorporated into the Spanish Empire. The Spanish Conquest What happened to the Aztecs, Maya, and Inca? The great civilizations of Mexico and of Central and South America faced many internal conflicts at the start of the sixteenth dominicgaudious.net://dominicgaudious.net 22 Art History: Aztec and Inca Empires. STUDY. PLAY. Who was the ruler of the Aztec empire when the Spanish conquest began? b. Moctezuma. What is this headdress made from? b. quetzal bird feathers. What does the page above describe? b. the Aztec world view before the Spanish dominicgaudious.net://dominicgaudious.net · The Conquest of the Inca Empire. Little did the residents of the massive Inca empire know that they would soon be learning Spanish in Peru. Their adoption of the rapidly-spreading Spanish language would be symptomatic of the loss of their culture and land (one of the richest in America) at the hands of the Spanish dominicgaudious.net://dominicgaudious.net The conquest of the Aztec and Incan empires were relatively easy battles. A couple of reasons as to why it was so easy were because these empires were isolated, they knew nothing of the new world and other cultures, they believed that the Europeans intentions were of. The Spanish Conquest What happened to the Aztecs, Maya, and Inca? The great civilizations of Mexico and of Central and South America faced many internal conflicts at the start of the sixteenth century.Download	1,399	ENGLISH	1
Six Ashes Noticeboard In 1405 a Franco-Welsh army led by Owain Glyndŵr, Prince of Wales, entered England and made its way towards the ‘Onennau Meigion’ – now known as Six Ashes – on the road from Kinver to Bridgnorth. It was a significant place for the Welsh because it was on the ancient border between Wales and England, and had been described centuries earlier by Merlin, famous in Arthurian legends. At the beginning of August in 1405 a large force of French troops landed at Milford Haven in West Wales. They had been sent by the French King, Charles VI, to support Glyndŵr in his campaign against Henry IV of England. Henry had usurped the English throne a few years earlier and proclaimed himself king - and had upset many people in the process, including Glyndŵr. The army travelled across South Wales, entered England and attacked the suburbs of Worcester. From there they set off for the ‘Onennau Meigion’, but were intercepted by Henry IV’s army near Great Witley. A stand-off then occurred with Glyndŵr camped on Woodbury Hill and Henry IV facing him on the other side of the Teme Valley on Abberley Hill. This impasse lasted for a week until Glyndŵr and his allies eventually ran out of supplies, whereupon both sides decided to retreat. Glyndŵr had wanted to reach the ancient border at Six Ashes, deep inside the Marcher lands, to reclaim the area for Wales. After defeating Henry, he had planned to split England and Wales into three parts: Owain would control the western part, and the rest would be divided between his allies Henry Percy (the Earl of Northumberland) and Edmund Mortimer. The three of them had agreed this in a document called the Tripartite Indenture, with the northern part of England being controlled by Percy, and the southern part by Mortimer – who happened to be Glyndŵr’s son-in-law. The Tripartite Indenture Edmund Mortimer had been captured by Glyndŵr at a battle near Knighton in 1402 but, when Henry IV refused to pay a ransom for his release, he transferred his allegiance to Owain. Henry had already begun to confiscate his lands, however, because the Mortimer family had a better claim to the throne than he did. In 1403 at the Battle of Shrewsbury, Edmund’s brother-in-law – ‘Harry Hotspur’ – was killed, which helped to consolidate the alliance between Glyndŵr and Hotspur’s father, the Earl of Northumberland. A prophecy attributed to Merlin identified the ‘ash trees of Meigion’ as the place where the Great Eagle would muster the warriors of Wales. It may well have also been the location of a Welsh victory for Cadwallon ap Cadfan against the Saxons in the 7th Century, where he defeated and then formed an alliance with Penda of Mercia. Owain Glyndŵr would have known of the prophecy and made it the destination of his campaign to confront Henry IV. The Six Ashes pub is now on the site of the Onennau Meigion. The original Ashes were felled many years ago but there is still a line of six trees outside the pub which were grown from their cuttings. Local author Martin Wall approached The Owain Glyndŵr Society to look for a way of commemorating this significant historical site, and a noticeboard explaining its history is the result. The Noticeboard at Six Ashes It is hoped that this will increase interest in a little-known part of our history. There are a number of footpaths in the area which let visitors explore the surrounding countryside, and accommodation is being added to the Six Ashes pub which will also allow them to stay near this historic site.	<urn:uuid:7056ba4f-7126-4bd2-9188-0cba7d2943fd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.owain-glyndwr.wales/word_web_pages/SixAshesNoticeboard.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00322.warc.gz	en	0.983086	828	3.8125	4	[ -0.39301183819770813, 0.24681033194065094, 0.4183417558670044, -0.11588339507579803, -0.16004490852355957, -0.16355280578136444, 0.11469392478466034, 0.20992009341716766, -0.4559504985809326, -0.17588526010513306, -0.034522294998168945, -0.6437869071960449, -0.08862059563398361, 0.58872449...	4	Six Ashes Noticeboard In 1405 a Franco-Welsh army led by Owain Glyndŵr, Prince of Wales, entered England and made its way towards the ‘Onennau Meigion’ – now known as Six Ashes – on the road from Kinver to Bridgnorth. It was a significant place for the Welsh because it was on the ancient border between Wales and England, and had been described centuries earlier by Merlin, famous in Arthurian legends. At the beginning of August in 1405 a large force of French troops landed at Milford Haven in West Wales. They had been sent by the French King, Charles VI, to support Glyndŵr in his campaign against Henry IV of England. Henry had usurped the English throne a few years earlier and proclaimed himself king - and had upset many people in the process, including Glyndŵr. The army travelled across South Wales, entered England and attacked the suburbs of Worcester. From there they set off for the ‘Onennau Meigion’, but were intercepted by Henry IV’s army near Great Witley. A stand-off then occurred with Glyndŵr camped on Woodbury Hill and Henry IV facing him on the other side of the Teme Valley on Abberley Hill. This impasse lasted for a week until Glyndŵr and his allies eventually ran out of supplies, whereupon both sides decided to retreat. Glyndŵr had wanted to reach the ancient border at Six Ashes, deep inside the Marcher lands, to reclaim the area for Wales. After defeating Henry, he had planned to split England and Wales into three parts: Owain would control the western part, and the rest would be divided between his allies Henry Percy (the Earl of Northumberland) and Edmund Mortimer. The three of them had agreed this in a document called the Tripartite Indenture, with the northern part of England being controlled by Percy, and the southern part by Mortimer – who happened to be Glyndŵr’s son-in-law. The Tripartite Indenture Edmund Mortimer had been captured by Glyndŵr at a battle near Knighton in 1402 but, when Henry IV refused to pay a ransom for his release, he transferred his allegiance to Owain. Henry had already begun to confiscate his lands, however, because the Mortimer family had a better claim to the throne than he did. In 1403 at the Battle of Shrewsbury, Edmund’s brother-in-law – ‘Harry Hotspur’ – was killed, which helped to consolidate the alliance between Glyndŵr and Hotspur’s father, the Earl of Northumberland. A prophecy attributed to Merlin identified the ‘ash trees of Meigion’ as the place where the Great Eagle would muster the warriors of Wales. It may well have also been the location of a Welsh victory for Cadwallon ap Cadfan against the Saxons in the 7th Century, where he defeated and then formed an alliance with Penda of Mercia. Owain Glyndŵr would have known of the prophecy and made it the destination of his campaign to confront Henry IV. The Six Ashes pub is now on the site of the Onennau Meigion. The original Ashes were felled many years ago but there is still a line of six trees outside the pub which were grown from their cuttings. Local author Martin Wall approached The Owain Glyndŵr Society to look for a way of commemorating this significant historical site, and a noticeboard explaining its history is the result. The Noticeboard at Six Ashes It is hoped that this will increase interest in a little-known part of our history. There are a number of footpaths in the area which let visitors explore the surrounding countryside, and accommodation is being added to the Six Ashes pub which will also allow them to stay near this historic site.	808	ENGLISH	1
President Nixon addresses the nation on his plan for welfare reform: the Family Assistance Plan. On August 8, 1969, President Nixon addressed the nation on his administration’s domestic program proposals. He unveiled a series of domestic policies aimed at combating the nation’s growing problem of welfare dependency and continued struggle with poverty The focal point of his address and domestic legislative push was the Family Assistance Plan, a plan crafted with the help of chief Urban Affairs counsel Daniel Patrick Moynihan. The two believed that if an income floor was provided to the families of the unemployed and working poor on the condition that they find work or enroll in job training, the stability of a base income would encourage them to seek better pay and shed themselves from the welfare rolls. The plan would do way with what was then the injustice of the present system: The present system often makes it possible to receive more money on welfare than on a low-paying job. This creates an incentive not to work, and it also is unfair to the working poor. It is morally wrong for a family that is working to try to make ends meet to receive less than a family across the street on welfare. This has been bitterly resented by the man who works, and rightly so–the rewards are just the opposite of what they should be. Its effect is to draw people off payrolls and onto welfare rolls–just the opposite of what government should be doing. To put it bluntly and simply–any system which makes it more profitable for a man not to work than to work, or which encourages a man to desert his family rather than to stay with his family, is wrong and indefensible. The new plan would adopt three basic principles: equality of treatment across the Nation, a work requirement, and a work incentive. A basic federal minimum wage would be provided to any family, headed by either a mother or father or both, regardless of where they lived. The new worker would be able to keep the first $60 a month of outside earnings with no reduction in his benefits, and beyond that, his family assistance supplement would be reduced by only 50 cents for each dollar earned. “Thus, for the first time, the government would recognize that it has no less an obligation to the working poor than to the nonworking poor,” President Nixon said in his address. “And for the first time, benefits would be scaled in such a way that it would always pay to work.” Congress would never see to the passage of the Family Assistance Plan, but the concept would be the model of welfare reform in the mid-1990s. President Nixon and Daniel Patrick Moynihan unveiled the Family Assistance Program, an idea ahead of its time. Read the complete address here.	<urn:uuid:e62dcd21-a55b-4731-a3dd-bf4730cdfd85>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2014/06/family-assistance-plan-families-can-succeed/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00169.warc.gz	en	0.983313	560	3.671875	4	[ -0.6714670658111572, 0.365614652633667, 0.06689512729644775, -0.0681409239768982, 0.08800233900547028, 0.6361429691314697, -0.5171805620193481, -0.10641048848628998, -0.1961023211479187, 0.16438502073287964, 0.406436562538147, 0.6223746538162231, 0.2095550298690796, 0.39059415459632874, ...	5	President Nixon addresses the nation on his plan for welfare reform: the Family Assistance Plan. On August 8, 1969, President Nixon addressed the nation on his administration’s domestic program proposals. He unveiled a series of domestic policies aimed at combating the nation’s growing problem of welfare dependency and continued struggle with poverty The focal point of his address and domestic legislative push was the Family Assistance Plan, a plan crafted with the help of chief Urban Affairs counsel Daniel Patrick Moynihan. The two believed that if an income floor was provided to the families of the unemployed and working poor on the condition that they find work or enroll in job training, the stability of a base income would encourage them to seek better pay and shed themselves from the welfare rolls. The plan would do way with what was then the injustice of the present system: The present system often makes it possible to receive more money on welfare than on a low-paying job. This creates an incentive not to work, and it also is unfair to the working poor. It is morally wrong for a family that is working to try to make ends meet to receive less than a family across the street on welfare. This has been bitterly resented by the man who works, and rightly so–the rewards are just the opposite of what they should be. Its effect is to draw people off payrolls and onto welfare rolls–just the opposite of what government should be doing. To put it bluntly and simply–any system which makes it more profitable for a man not to work than to work, or which encourages a man to desert his family rather than to stay with his family, is wrong and indefensible. The new plan would adopt three basic principles: equality of treatment across the Nation, a work requirement, and a work incentive. A basic federal minimum wage would be provided to any family, headed by either a mother or father or both, regardless of where they lived. The new worker would be able to keep the first $60 a month of outside earnings with no reduction in his benefits, and beyond that, his family assistance supplement would be reduced by only 50 cents for each dollar earned. “Thus, for the first time, the government would recognize that it has no less an obligation to the working poor than to the nonworking poor,” President Nixon said in his address. “And for the first time, benefits would be scaled in such a way that it would always pay to work.” Congress would never see to the passage of the Family Assistance Plan, but the concept would be the model of welfare reform in the mid-1990s. President Nixon and Daniel Patrick Moynihan unveiled the Family Assistance Program, an idea ahead of its time. Read the complete address here.	553	ENGLISH	1
IT SOUNDS like an idea dreamed up over a few beers in the pub one evening. And that, those involved freely admit, is exactly what it was. As Christian Cajochen and his colleagues put it in their paper on the matter in Current Biology, “We just thought of it after a drink in a local bar one evening at full Moon.” “It” was a way of testing the persistent but unproven idea that the full Moon affects human behaviour, generally for the worse. In prescientific days this was expressed in terms like “moonstruck” and “lunatic”. And it found even more sinister manifestation in the form of the lycanthrope, who did not sleep when the Moon was full, but turned into a wolf instead. Though few now believe in werewolves some modern thinkers still suspect the Moon’s phase affects sleep patterns—and on that particular moonlit night Dr Cajochen and his buddies realised they already had the data needed to find out. Those data came from a study on body clocks and sleep patterns they had conducted a decade earlier at the Centre for Chronobiology at the University of Basel, where they work. Between 2000 and 2003 they had looked at the effect of the daily body clock on the sleep patterns of 33 volunteers. The protocol they had used was perfect. Volunteers were shut away from daylight (and therefore also from moonlight) for days at a time, so their sleep patterns could not be affected by the illumination a full Moon brings. And it was also the ultimate in double-blind experiments. Neither the participants nor the organisers could possibly have been biased by knowing the experiment was intended to look at the effect of the full Moon, since at the time it was conducted it wasn’t. A few days’ number-crunching gave Dr Cajochen and his team what they were looking for. And the answer was “yes”, the phase of the Moon does affect human sleep patterns, even when the human involved cannot possibly see the Moon. Electroencephalography showed that the volunteers slept, on average, 20 minutes less around the time of the full Moon. It also took them five minutes longer to get to sleep, their delta activity (a measure of how deeply they were sleeping) was 30% lower than at other times, their level of melatonin, a sleep-related hormone, was reduced, and they reported, subjectively, that they had not slept as well as usual. Nor was any of this connected, in female volunteers, with their menstrual cycles. Lest any astrologer reading this result get cocky, Dr Cajochen does not believe that what he has found is directly influenced by the Moon through, say, some tidal effect. What he thinks he has discovered is an additional hand on the body’s clock-face. Besides the well-known endogenous daily cycle which the experiment originally studied, there is also an endogenous monthly cycle entrained to the Moon (as the daily one is to the sun) by unconscious observation over a long period of the light from the heavenly bodies concerned. Lunar cycles exist in other species so this is not, as it were, a lunatic idea. But those species that have been studied are animals like marine iguanas, for whom knowing the tides is important. What use an ingrained lunar calendar is (or once was) to a human being remains to be determined. Perhaps sleeping lightly on moonlit nights was a defence mechanism against predators. Wolves, for example. This article appeared in the Science and technology section of the print edition under the headline "Lunacy?"	<urn:uuid:7d9c4b8f-ea30-495f-b9ec-3407f28e1463>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2013/07/27/lunacy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00099.warc.gz	en	0.980013	756	3.515625	4	[ 0.0020166453905403614, 0.18785153329372406, -0.0369018092751503, 0.18358394503593445, -0.07291112840175629, 0.3757592737674713, 0.17289453744888306, -0.14713677763938904, 0.3675711154937744, -0.24171431362628937, -0.00009194074664264917, 0.1850421130657196, -0.04652934893965721, 0.23341354...	1	IT SOUNDS like an idea dreamed up over a few beers in the pub one evening. And that, those involved freely admit, is exactly what it was. As Christian Cajochen and his colleagues put it in their paper on the matter in Current Biology, “We just thought of it after a drink in a local bar one evening at full Moon.” “It” was a way of testing the persistent but unproven idea that the full Moon affects human behaviour, generally for the worse. In prescientific days this was expressed in terms like “moonstruck” and “lunatic”. And it found even more sinister manifestation in the form of the lycanthrope, who did not sleep when the Moon was full, but turned into a wolf instead. Though few now believe in werewolves some modern thinkers still suspect the Moon’s phase affects sleep patterns—and on that particular moonlit night Dr Cajochen and his buddies realised they already had the data needed to find out. Those data came from a study on body clocks and sleep patterns they had conducted a decade earlier at the Centre for Chronobiology at the University of Basel, where they work. Between 2000 and 2003 they had looked at the effect of the daily body clock on the sleep patterns of 33 volunteers. The protocol they had used was perfect. Volunteers were shut away from daylight (and therefore also from moonlight) for days at a time, so their sleep patterns could not be affected by the illumination a full Moon brings. And it was also the ultimate in double-blind experiments. Neither the participants nor the organisers could possibly have been biased by knowing the experiment was intended to look at the effect of the full Moon, since at the time it was conducted it wasn’t. A few days’ number-crunching gave Dr Cajochen and his team what they were looking for. And the answer was “yes”, the phase of the Moon does affect human sleep patterns, even when the human involved cannot possibly see the Moon. Electroencephalography showed that the volunteers slept, on average, 20 minutes less around the time of the full Moon. It also took them five minutes longer to get to sleep, their delta activity (a measure of how deeply they were sleeping) was 30% lower than at other times, their level of melatonin, a sleep-related hormone, was reduced, and they reported, subjectively, that they had not slept as well as usual. Nor was any of this connected, in female volunteers, with their menstrual cycles. Lest any astrologer reading this result get cocky, Dr Cajochen does not believe that what he has found is directly influenced by the Moon through, say, some tidal effect. What he thinks he has discovered is an additional hand on the body’s clock-face. Besides the well-known endogenous daily cycle which the experiment originally studied, there is also an endogenous monthly cycle entrained to the Moon (as the daily one is to the sun) by unconscious observation over a long period of the light from the heavenly bodies concerned. Lunar cycles exist in other species so this is not, as it were, a lunatic idea. But those species that have been studied are animals like marine iguanas, for whom knowing the tides is important. What use an ingrained lunar calendar is (or once was) to a human being remains to be determined. Perhaps sleeping lightly on moonlit nights was a defence mechanism against predators. Wolves, for example. This article appeared in the Science and technology section of the print edition under the headline "Lunacy?"	734	ENGLISH	1
HISTORIANS AND SURVIVORS AS PARTNERS IN TELLING THE TRUTH OF THE SHOAH Chris Friedrichs Professor Emeritus of History University of British Columbia World Federation of Jewish Child Survivors of the Holocaust and Descendants conference November 2019 Note: You may quote or cite this lecture, but please do not publish or circulate the full text without permission. Thank you. This is a gathering of men and women bound by a common identity. All of you are child survivors of the Shoah, or children or grandchildren of child survivors. Since identity is so central to this event, let me begin by saying a few words about my own identity. I am not a child survivor or the child of a child survivor. My parents were refugees to the United States from Nazi Germany. My non-Jewish father and my Jewish mother were engaged but not permitted to marry because the notorious Nazi Nuremberg laws made it a crime for Jews and non-Jews to marry. So they escaped to the United States where they married and had five children. I myself was born shortly after the war ended, always knowing, of course, that many members of my mother’s family had not been so fortunate as she was and had been murdered by the Nazis. But I also have another identity. I am a historian. My research has mostly concerned earlier periods of German history – but no historian of Germany, and certainly none with a personal history like mine, could fail to feel a profound interest in the Holocaust. Thinking and speaking about it has been an important part of my career. What I say and teach about the Shoah has been informed by many sources of information – but above all by the research of other professional historians, and by the narratives of Holocaust survivors. So what I want to talk about today is the role played by these two important groups in telling the truth of the Shoah. It is important to realize the first research into the history of the Shoah began to take place even before it actually had ended. In the fall of 1944 – months before Auschwitz and other camps were liberated but when the Soviet army had gotten control of eastern Poland – a small group of Jewish survivors, most of whom had been historians before the war, decided that they must immediately start gathering material about what had happened to the Jews. Consider the situation: the war was still raging, there were shortages of food and of places to live, many of these Jews knew or feared that most of their relatives had been killed – but even so, they got to work. They founded what they called the Central Jewish Historical Commission and spread the word that every surviving Jew in Poland should compose and send them a full account of what they had experienced. These survivor historians were concerned that if this were not done, others would propagate a false history of the war claiming that the Germans had not done any harm to the Jews. Within a few months, this commission had a formal structure and a director was chosen. His name was Philip Friedmann. All the other members of his family had been murdered – but with the incredible resilience that was so typical of many survivors, he poured his energy into this new project. Questionnaires were distributed to as many surviving Jews as could be located. The commission was particularly interested in hearing from child survivors, because they believed that these children would provide the most objective accounts of what they had seen or experienced, uninfluenced by prejudices or ideological factors or conversations with fellow-survivors. A huge amount of material was gathered. But this material was then ignored. As the communists gained increasing control over Poland, they showed little interest in these activities. Many of the Jews in Poland were made to feel unwelcome, and most of these historians left to go to western Europe or the United States or Palestine. Their work remained unread in storage boxes for decades. And indeed, in the first fifteen years after the war ended, little was said or written about what we now call the Holocaust or the Shoah. There was lots of interest in the history of the war, of course – books about battles or military campaigns or biographies of generals became best sellers. Nobody really forgot about what happened to the Jews, but this was often just seen as one small part of a big story of massive military activity that inflicted suffering on many different groups of civilians. And the survivors themselves were often preoccupied with struggling to establish new lives for themselves, whether in Europe or North America or Israel. Often they just wanted to look forward, not back to the past. There were some exceptions, of course. When Anne Frank’s diary was given to her father, he was determined to get it published. And it was – first in Dutch, then in English and countless other languages. It became an international best seller – and rightly so. Every reader of the diary – and surely that includes almost everyone in this room – can relate to the story of this gifted teenager struggling to cope with the claustrophobic life of the secret annex. And every reader knows how Anne’s life ended – not with the return to normal life in Amsterdam for which Anne desperately yearned, but with the betrayal, the arrest, the deportation to Auschwitz, and ultimately her ghastly death from typhus and starvation in the mud of Bergen-Belsen. A few other books about what Jews had experienced also appeared. One was written by a young survivor of Auschwitz and Buchenwald named Elie Wiesel. After his liberation from Buchenwald at the age of 16, Wiesel was taken to France and eventually became a journalist there. In 1955 he wrote an enormous book in Yiddish about what he had experienced. Almost nobody read this. He then rewrote this into a short book in French. A few people read this. The book was then translated into English. One publisher after another rejected the manuscript until finally one agreed to print a few thousand. Unlike the diary of Anne Frank, few people read this book at the time—it was just too depressing. It took decades before Night became widely known, one of those books everyone should read. Night is a memoir. But it is not a work of reportage. Because it was a condensed version of the original 800-page version, some experiences were combined or reshaped for brevity. But what it retained was absolute emotional truth. Even if some events did not happen exactly when and where Wiesel said they did, every line of the book reflects the authentically and often deep conflicted emotions that this teenager experienced as he struggled to remain close to his increasingly desperate and helpless father while also urgently hoping to survive. His father, of course, did not survive. But he did. Meanwhile a very different kind of book was being written. Raul Hilberg was the son of Austrian Jewish refugees who had escaped from the Nazis and arrived in New York in September 1939. He studied history and political science, started teaching at a small university in Vermont, and dedicated himself to doing something that nobody had yet undertaken: to write a complete, meticulous history of the relentlessly well organized and systematic way in which the German regime had destroyed the lives of five to six million Jews during the Second World War. Hilberg’s book was not about the victims, it was about the perpetrators. Indeed, the first paragraph of the preface made this completely clear: “This is not a book about the Jews. It is about the people who destroyed the Jews.” The book was based on a study of thousands of German documents. Pages are devoted to things like railway lines or organizational charts or analyses of the supply chain for obtaining the gas for the gas chambers. When Jews are described, it is mostly in connection with how they were coerced into helping the Germans operate the ghettoes or why they could not resist the German orders. There were two main reasons for this. In the first place, Hilberg belonged to a generation of historians who had been taught that the best way to understand the past was to study documents – and the Germans had produced incredibly many documents. At the same time, Hilberg also belonged to a generation of political scientists who believed that the most important question of their time was to figure out how the great totalitarian regimes in Germany and the Soviet Union and the militaristic regime in Japan had come to power and, having done so, why and how these regimes inflicted so much suffering on so many people. The suffering itself was not so important to describe. It was taken for granted. People of that generation remembered the war, after all. This book, published in 1961, was a turning point in understanding what we now call the Holocaust. So was another event which took place in the same year: the trial of Adolf Eichmann. As you know, Eichmann was the SS official in charge of the vast operation by which millions of Jews were transferred from the occupied countries of Europe to the Nazi death camps. His capture in Argentina by Israeli agents and his trial in Jerusalem attracted world- wide interest. It was largely as a result of this trial that more and more people began to understand that the killing of Jews was not just a part of World War II, it was a distinct event in and of itself that took place during and under cover of the war – an event to which people gradually attached the name Holocaust. And there was ever more interest in learning about this distinct event. So more and more aspects of the Holocaust were researched. More and more books were published by historians and social scientists. The Holocaust emerged as a distinct sub-discipline of academic study. But something else started happening too. More and more survivors started telling or writing their stories. Of course survivor testimony was not new. Even though the records gathered by the Polish commission were sitting unnoticed in storage boxes, other accounts given by survivors got more attention. Some survivors had testified at the Nuremberg trials or at trials of SS commandants. Survivors gave testimony at the Eichmann trial. These accounts were widely reported. But that was only one of the many ways in which the voices of survivors came to be heard. Many survivors were now more willing to come forth and tell their stories to their children, to their friends, or to groups in their home communities. And more and more people were willing or even eager to listen. That included professional historians. A new generation of historians was increasingly interested in studying not just the actions and decisions of the people who guided the destiny of nations; there was more and more interest in what was called history-from-below – the lived experience of men and women and children. And this meant that in studying and teaching about the Holocaust, the experiences of victims and survivors came to be heard and read and recorded. This was also the time when the first Holocaust education programs were established and survivors were called upon to tell their stories. You – the child survivors – were part of that process. You increasingly spoke out. Take a look at this list. Not many of you, I think, have been called upon to give testimony in courts. But every one of you has told your story in at least one of these forms and often in many more. In many cases you have told your story to many different kinds of audiences. And often the most important audiences to whom you have spoken have been young people. Here in Vancouver a program of teaching high school students about the Holocaust was launched over forty years ago. By now tens of thousands of students from all over southern British Columbia have attended these events, sometimes in their own schools, sometimes on the campus of my university. Usually such a program begins with a historian explaining to the students what the Holocaust was and why it is important to learn about it. But the highlight is always when a survivor of the Holocaust then comes forward to tell his or her story. I have participated in dozens of these events as the historian on call, and I have always been moved to see how students of every race or color or ethnic background react to hearing an actual survivor describe what it was like to live in a ghetto or to be at Auschwitz or Buchenwald or to spend years as a frightened child, hidden in an orphanage or living with a family of rescuers but always knowing that one must rush to hide in a closet or in the cellar whenever a stranger visited, and never knowing when or how one would see one’s own family again. I could see how moved the students were, and the letters they wrote afterwards reinforced the point. Most of these students would never read any of the thousands of academic studies of the Holocaust, and nobody would expect them to. But to hear a survivor talk could change their lives. In recent years, of course, simply because of the inevitable passage of time, more and more of the survivor speakers in Vancouver and elsewhere have been child survivors. Many of our local child survivor speakers are right here today. They – and all of you who contribute in a similar way to your own communities – are doing an invaluable service. But survivor narratives in their various forms are not only vital for education. They are also increasingly appreciated by historians as indispensable sources of information and inspiration for understanding dimensions of the Holocaust. Of course there are still historians who prefer to work only in archives with documents generated by the perpetrators and their allies or collaborators all over Europe. Some of them might even say that such documents are more reliable than survivor narratives. Survivors, after all, were not taking notes. People hiding in cellars or working in slave labor factories or starving in camps could hardly be expected to keep any records. They might misremember exactly when and where something happened or which brutal uniformed guard had said or done this or that. Documents are more reliable. Well, yes and no. Documents, after all, can lie. And they often do. Let me give you just one example. This particular document has a deeply personal meaning to me. It is located today in an archive in Berlin. It comes from a file of records having to do with the confiscation of property owned by an elderly Jewish couple in Berlin shortly before they were deported to their deaths in 1942. These two people, Thekla Rosenberg and Carl Rosenberg, were in fact the grandparents of my late wife. These documents exist because two different German agencies were engaged in a dispute about which agency was entitled to claim the money which had been stolen from the Rosenbergs before they were put onto trains headed to Poland. In referring to those deportations, the document says “when they were sent to the east to be resettled.” But Carl and Thekla Rosenberg were not sent to the east to be resettled, of course. They were sent to the east to be murdered. Any good historian, of course, knows exactly what this coded language means. But it is a reminder that documents do not simply speak for themselves. Everything must be studied, compared, contextualized, interpreted. And of course the same applies to the way in which historians use and interpret survivor narratives. Among the tens of thousands of survivor narratives that have come to light, a handful – half a dozen or so – have proved to be falsifications. They were written by some deeply troubled souls who were not survivors at all but for some strange psychological reasons wished they were. We need not dwell on these odd cases. What is more important is that many, perhaps even most, authentic survivor narratives do have some discrepancies or omissions. Sometimes survivors have some memory that is simply so agonizingly painful that they cannot bear to put it into words. Sometimes survivors have confused a date or mixed up a name or forgotten the exact order in which some things happened. But almost every survivor narrative is completely reliable when it comes to the most important element of all – emotional truth. For no matter how difficult it is to recall a name or a date, survivors never forget what they saw and how they felt. Many of you have written descriptions of your own experiences, and some of you have composed or even published an entire memoir or autobiography. Often the title of such a work contains some reference to memory: “Memories of My Youth” or “What I Remember.” For after all, a memoir or autobiography is in fact a collection of organized memories. I will mention only one example. It is the recent autobiography of someone who is well known to every one of you and to me as well – my esteemed friend Dr. Robert Krell. It is a book I can well recommend reading – but at the moment I just want you to take a look at the title: it is not ‘Memoirs,’ and not ‘Memories’ – but instead it is called ‘Memoiries.’ It is a word that encapsulates exactly what all memoirs really are – a collection of memories. But how can professional historians use such memoirs – such ‘memoiries’ – in constructing an ever deeper or richer understanding of what happened in the Shoah? Are such writings – your writings, in many cases – reliable enough to be used in compiling the historical record? Let me discuss the work of one historian who has set out to answer exactly this question. Professor Christopher Browning is one of the most famous and admired of all Holocaust historians – and rightly so. For most of his career, Browning focused chiefly on the perpetrators, with pioneering studies of the step-by-step process by which the Holocaust was initiated and equally important work on the behavior and mentality of ordinary guards and SS members who carried out these operations. But then Browning became increasingly interested in the experience of survivors, and especially the way that survivor testimonies can add to our understanding of the Shoah. He came across the interesting case of a cluster of camps in a town in central Poland called Starachowice, where Jews lived while doing slave labor in a nearby steel mill and munitions factory run by the Germans. For two years they were kept there, until in 1944 all the inmates were transferred to Auschwitz. Because it was expected that they would continue to work together as a team, these Jews were kept together in a separate barracks and surprisingly many of them were still alive when Auschwitz was liberated a few months later. As a result, there are remarkably many survivor testimonies from this particular group – Browning found interviews and narratives and memoirs by almost three hundred survivors who had been at that labor camp and then in the barracks in Auschwitz. This made possible a unique project – comparing exactly how different survivors described the same events and experiences. And what did Browning find? He found that overwhelmingly their stories matched. Of course the accounts were not identical. The remembered different things, or remembered the same episodes differently. But the basic story was always the same. And in fact by comparing and collating the different versions of each important episode in the camps and the factories and Auschwitz, Browning could arrive at the most detailed and convincing version of what had happened to these Jews. There were some discrepancies. For example, almost all the survivors described vividly how, after days trapped in a train without food or water, they finally arrival at Auschwitz. They all told of the same things – the darkness, the bright searchlights, the barking dogs, the shouting uniformed SS guards. But many also mentioned seeing the notorious Dr. Mengele as they came down the ramp. That, in fact, did not happen; Mengele was not there that evening. But in the years since 1944, the survivors had read and heard so often about Dr. Mengele and his selections that they assumed he must have been one of the uniformed men they saw. This was a rare instance of incorrect memory. But in fact the overall result of Browning’s book is to demonstrate beyond any possible doubt that survivor testimony is not only useful but in fact an indispensable source of information for historians who are still struggling, seventy years later, to fully comprehend what happened in the Shoah. So historians are still telling the story of the Shoah. And so are survivors. But why? To tell of these things goes far beyond the normal human impulse to recount stories from the past. For we must keep teaching people – above all the younger generation – about what can happen when racist thinking takes over a society and becomes the basis for an entire program of state-sponsored genocide. And we must combat the dangerous attitudes that threaten to diminish the importance of these lessons. Here are what, in my view, are the four greatest challenges to the truth about the Shoah against which we must always struggle. We all know about HOLOCAUST DENIAL. And we know that the main cause of Holocaust denial is of course antisemitism, pure and simple. But that is not the only cause. Some of the Holocaust deniers are motivated by something else. They are contrarians, people who enjoy cooking up or believing conspiracy theories for their own sake. They are nurtured by the garbage produced by the antisemitic Holocaust deniers, and their own conspiracy theories in turn further nurture the antisemites. It is a problem that will not go away. But it is not, in fact, the biggest challenge. That is HOLOCAUST INDIFFERENCE. Most people, after all, fully accept and understand that the Holocaust took place. But “so what?,” they say. “Lots of bad things happened in history. Why keep harping on this one? Let’s just look ahead and build a better future.” But in fact the most important building blocks for a better future are a knowledge of the past. History does not slavishly repeat itself — but there are patterns. And if we do not know what the patterns in the past were, we will not recognize them in time when they come back. And there is HOLOCAUST GENERALIZATION. “Sure, the Holocaust was genocide. But genocides are happening all over. The Holocaust was just one of a long list.” Yes, many terrible things happen to people and they must be discussed. But true genocides are much rarer, and the term should be used carefully so that it does not lose its meaning. We must always remind people of the truly horrific genocides of the past hundred years. We should not forget the Holodomor, Stalin’s mass murder of millions of Ukrainian peasants by the brutally simple method of having his agents confiscate every last bushel of grain so the peasants had nothing to live on. Nor should the events in Armenia, in Cambodia, in Rwanda, in Darfur be forgotten. But nor should the fact that even on this horrific list, the Shoah was unique in the relentlessness with which a powerful state regime tried to eliminate from human existence an entire age-old human community. Finally, there is HOLOCAUST DISTORTION. This take place when people fully agree that the Holocaust took place, but do so in a way that so completely distorts its meaning that it perverts the actual truth. Time permits me to mention only one example, and that only one briefly: some recent events in Poland. Many of you will remember being shocked about the Polish legislation that was enacted last year which made it a criminal offense to state that the Polish state or nation was responsible or co-responsible for the Nazi crimes of World War II. After an international outcry, the law was amended to eliminate the criminal penalties, but the amended law is still on the books. Its real purpose is to make people in Poland nervous about discussing this sensitive aspect of their country’s history – something which, by the way, many courageous Polish historians continue to do despite the consequences. But this law had nothing to do with Holocaust denial. Quite the contrary. The fact that millions of Jews had lived in Poland before the war and that three million of them were murdered – along with many non-Jewish Poles – is a fact that the Polish government actually encourages people to remember. The government itself produces books and sponsors exhibits about this subject. And the reason is this: Thousands of Poles courageously and at great risk to themselves and their families rescued or sheltered or helped Jews. They are honored at Yad Vashem as the Righteous Among the Gentiles, and rightly so. They are honored in Poland too. In fact they are venerated as Polish national heroes for having defied the Germans in this way. If you deny that the Holocaust happened, then all these rescuers would have to be denied as well. What many groups in Poland wish to forget is the fact that while there were thousands of Poles who rescued Jews, there were many, many more who did the opposite. Poles did not cause or initiate the Holocaust. But once the Germans arrived, there were many people who saw in this an opportunity to get rid of Jews or to take their property. Of course much the same happened in almost every country the Germans occupied, except perhaps Denmark and Albania. But since there were so many Jews in Poland, it happened there with particular frequency. In July of 1941, in the town of Jedwabne, before the Germans even began the round- up of Jews local inhabitants themselves rounded up hundreds of Jews, locked them inside a barn, and set the barn on fire. And this case was not unique. Historians can show that in numerous Polish communities when the Germans did indeed order all the Jews to assemble to be deported to camps, many of their neighbors immediately started plundering Jewish homes or even grabbing the meager possessions the Jews were carrying with them on the way to the stations. These facts must be confronted and remembered. Many Polish historians and researchers and curators are doing exactly that. But legislation of the kind passed last year, even in its amended form, could make many more people hesitate to speak out. This makes it all the more important in countries that enjoy freedom of speech to use that freedom fully to keep on telling the truth about the past – and especially about the Shoah. My job – and that of countless other historians – is certainly not finished. And neither is yours. Let me close by mentioning two specific women here in Canada. One was Bronia Sonnenschein. Members of the audience from Vancouver will remember Bronia well. She was not a child survivor. She was already a young woman when her family had to leave Vienna and live in the Lodz ghetto. From there they were taken to Auschwitz and then, in the closing days of the war, Bronia and her mother and sister were sent on death marches first to Germany and then to Bohemia where they were finally liberated. Eventually Bronia came to Vancouver where she raised a family and worked hard until she retired. At that point she began speaking in public about the Holocaust, especially to high school students. Time and time again I saw hundreds of our local students sit in awed silence as this tiny woman with a strong European accent described, without pathos or bitterness but with uncompromising honesty, everything that she had experienced in those horrific years. When she finished speaking, the students jumped to their feet in a standing ovation and as soon as the program ended they rushed down to meet her, to thank her, to embrace her. She had changed their lives. Bronia retired from public speaking at the age of 92 and died three years later. But her legacy lives on. A few years ago her granddaughter Emily wrote a play based on her grandmother’s life. The play was performed with great success in Emily’s home town of Calgary, Alberta. It has also been performed in Germany, and surely more performances lie ahead. Through her own granddaughter, Bronia’s message lives on. All of you who are child survivors have told your stories, perhaps in front of hundreds of students, perhaps to individual interviewers or researchers, perhaps in the form of a book or a manuscript, perhaps around the kitchen table to your family or friends. The time will come when you too feel that you can retire from telling your stories. You can do so knowing that your story will not be forgotten. One reason it will not be forgotten is that many of you have children or grandchildren or nieces or nephews or just friends of a younger generation who will carry the message forward. To those of the next generations, let me say this: Don’t worry, you do not have to write a play – but when you are asked to tell the story of your mother or father or grandparent or uncle or aunt, do so. You cannot hope to have the same emotional impact as actual survivors, but what you say will have the ring of truth and it will matter to those you reach. And we historians will back you up. Because in fact historians on the one hand and survivors and their descendants on the other have always been partners in telling the truth about the Holocaust. And as long as the world is willing to listen, we will continue to tell about the events and the significance and the implications of this unspeakable episode in the history of humanity. Together we will continue to tell the truth of the Shoah. Stay up to date on conference news and updates	<urn:uuid:beebd2c1-ae96-4056-9475-caad1f851bf5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.holocaustchild.org/2019/12/2019-conference-vancouver-historians-and-survivors-as-partners-in-telling-the-truth-of-the-shoah-chris-friedrichs/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00237.warc.gz	en	0.982076	5,940	3.359375	3	[ -0.029580717906355858, 0.7983913421630859, -0.06486232578754425, 0.12573738396167755, 0.07864990830421448, 0.5425546169281006, 0.11437657475471497, -0.10630952566862106, -0.07948091626167297, -0.1955241709947586, 0.23996824026107788, -0.20288430154323578, 0.054862383753061295, 0.4060544371...	8	HISTORIANS AND SURVIVORS AS PARTNERS IN TELLING THE TRUTH OF THE SHOAH Chris Friedrichs Professor Emeritus of History University of British Columbia World Federation of Jewish Child Survivors of the Holocaust and Descendants conference November 2019 Note: You may quote or cite this lecture, but please do not publish or circulate the full text without permission. Thank you. This is a gathering of men and women bound by a common identity. All of you are child survivors of the Shoah, or children or grandchildren of child survivors. Since identity is so central to this event, let me begin by saying a few words about my own identity. I am not a child survivor or the child of a child survivor. My parents were refugees to the United States from Nazi Germany. My non-Jewish father and my Jewish mother were engaged but not permitted to marry because the notorious Nazi Nuremberg laws made it a crime for Jews and non-Jews to marry. So they escaped to the United States where they married and had five children. I myself was born shortly after the war ended, always knowing, of course, that many members of my mother’s family had not been so fortunate as she was and had been murdered by the Nazis. But I also have another identity. I am a historian. My research has mostly concerned earlier periods of German history – but no historian of Germany, and certainly none with a personal history like mine, could fail to feel a profound interest in the Holocaust. Thinking and speaking about it has been an important part of my career. What I say and teach about the Shoah has been informed by many sources of information – but above all by the research of other professional historians, and by the narratives of Holocaust survivors. So what I want to talk about today is the role played by these two important groups in telling the truth of the Shoah. It is important to realize the first research into the history of the Shoah began to take place even before it actually had ended. In the fall of 1944 – months before Auschwitz and other camps were liberated but when the Soviet army had gotten control of eastern Poland – a small group of Jewish survivors, most of whom had been historians before the war, decided that they must immediately start gathering material about what had happened to the Jews. Consider the situation: the war was still raging, there were shortages of food and of places to live, many of these Jews knew or feared that most of their relatives had been killed – but even so, they got to work. They founded what they called the Central Jewish Historical Commission and spread the word that every surviving Jew in Poland should compose and send them a full account of what they had experienced. These survivor historians were concerned that if this were not done, others would propagate a false history of the war claiming that the Germans had not done any harm to the Jews. Within a few months, this commission had a formal structure and a director was chosen. His name was Philip Friedmann. All the other members of his family had been murdered – but with the incredible resilience that was so typical of many survivors, he poured his energy into this new project. Questionnaires were distributed to as many surviving Jews as could be located. The commission was particularly interested in hearing from child survivors, because they believed that these children would provide the most objective accounts of what they had seen or experienced, uninfluenced by prejudices or ideological factors or conversations with fellow-survivors. A huge amount of material was gathered. But this material was then ignored. As the communists gained increasing control over Poland, they showed little interest in these activities. Many of the Jews in Poland were made to feel unwelcome, and most of these historians left to go to western Europe or the United States or Palestine. Their work remained unread in storage boxes for decades. And indeed, in the first fifteen years after the war ended, little was said or written about what we now call the Holocaust or the Shoah. There was lots of interest in the history of the war, of course – books about battles or military campaigns or biographies of generals became best sellers. Nobody really forgot about what happened to the Jews, but this was often just seen as one small part of a big story of massive military activity that inflicted suffering on many different groups of civilians. And the survivors themselves were often preoccupied with struggling to establish new lives for themselves, whether in Europe or North America or Israel. Often they just wanted to look forward, not back to the past. There were some exceptions, of course. When Anne Frank’s diary was given to her father, he was determined to get it published. And it was – first in Dutch, then in English and countless other languages. It became an international best seller – and rightly so. Every reader of the diary – and surely that includes almost everyone in this room – can relate to the story of this gifted teenager struggling to cope with the claustrophobic life of the secret annex. And every reader knows how Anne’s life ended – not with the return to normal life in Amsterdam for which Anne desperately yearned, but with the betrayal, the arrest, the deportation to Auschwitz, and ultimately her ghastly death from typhus and starvation in the mud of Bergen-Belsen. A few other books about what Jews had experienced also appeared. One was written by a young survivor of Auschwitz and Buchenwald named Elie Wiesel. After his liberation from Buchenwald at the age of 16, Wiesel was taken to France and eventually became a journalist there. In 1955 he wrote an enormous book in Yiddish about what he had experienced. Almost nobody read this. He then rewrote this into a short book in French. A few people read this. The book was then translated into English. One publisher after another rejected the manuscript until finally one agreed to print a few thousand. Unlike the diary of Anne Frank, few people read this book at the time—it was just too depressing. It took decades before Night became widely known, one of those books everyone should read. Night is a memoir. But it is not a work of reportage. Because it was a condensed version of the original 800-page version, some experiences were combined or reshaped for brevity. But what it retained was absolute emotional truth. Even if some events did not happen exactly when and where Wiesel said they did, every line of the book reflects the authentically and often deep conflicted emotions that this teenager experienced as he struggled to remain close to his increasingly desperate and helpless father while also urgently hoping to survive. His father, of course, did not survive. But he did. Meanwhile a very different kind of book was being written. Raul Hilberg was the son of Austrian Jewish refugees who had escaped from the Nazis and arrived in New York in September 1939. He studied history and political science, started teaching at a small university in Vermont, and dedicated himself to doing something that nobody had yet undertaken: to write a complete, meticulous history of the relentlessly well organized and systematic way in which the German regime had destroyed the lives of five to six million Jews during the Second World War. Hilberg’s book was not about the victims, it was about the perpetrators. Indeed, the first paragraph of the preface made this completely clear: “This is not a book about the Jews. It is about the people who destroyed the Jews.” The book was based on a study of thousands of German documents. Pages are devoted to things like railway lines or organizational charts or analyses of the supply chain for obtaining the gas for the gas chambers. When Jews are described, it is mostly in connection with how they were coerced into helping the Germans operate the ghettoes or why they could not resist the German orders. There were two main reasons for this. In the first place, Hilberg belonged to a generation of historians who had been taught that the best way to understand the past was to study documents – and the Germans had produced incredibly many documents. At the same time, Hilberg also belonged to a generation of political scientists who believed that the most important question of their time was to figure out how the great totalitarian regimes in Germany and the Soviet Union and the militaristic regime in Japan had come to power and, having done so, why and how these regimes inflicted so much suffering on so many people. The suffering itself was not so important to describe. It was taken for granted. People of that generation remembered the war, after all. This book, published in 1961, was a turning point in understanding what we now call the Holocaust. So was another event which took place in the same year: the trial of Adolf Eichmann. As you know, Eichmann was the SS official in charge of the vast operation by which millions of Jews were transferred from the occupied countries of Europe to the Nazi death camps. His capture in Argentina by Israeli agents and his trial in Jerusalem attracted world- wide interest. It was largely as a result of this trial that more and more people began to understand that the killing of Jews was not just a part of World War II, it was a distinct event in and of itself that took place during and under cover of the war – an event to which people gradually attached the name Holocaust. And there was ever more interest in learning about this distinct event. So more and more aspects of the Holocaust were researched. More and more books were published by historians and social scientists. The Holocaust emerged as a distinct sub-discipline of academic study. But something else started happening too. More and more survivors started telling or writing their stories. Of course survivor testimony was not new. Even though the records gathered by the Polish commission were sitting unnoticed in storage boxes, other accounts given by survivors got more attention. Some survivors had testified at the Nuremberg trials or at trials of SS commandants. Survivors gave testimony at the Eichmann trial. These accounts were widely reported. But that was only one of the many ways in which the voices of survivors came to be heard. Many survivors were now more willing to come forth and tell their stories to their children, to their friends, or to groups in their home communities. And more and more people were willing or even eager to listen. That included professional historians. A new generation of historians was increasingly interested in studying not just the actions and decisions of the people who guided the destiny of nations; there was more and more interest in what was called history-from-below – the lived experience of men and women and children. And this meant that in studying and teaching about the Holocaust, the experiences of victims and survivors came to be heard and read and recorded. This was also the time when the first Holocaust education programs were established and survivors were called upon to tell their stories. You – the child survivors – were part of that process. You increasingly spoke out. Take a look at this list. Not many of you, I think, have been called upon to give testimony in courts. But every one of you has told your story in at least one of these forms and often in many more. In many cases you have told your story to many different kinds of audiences. And often the most important audiences to whom you have spoken have been young people. Here in Vancouver a program of teaching high school students about the Holocaust was launched over forty years ago. By now tens of thousands of students from all over southern British Columbia have attended these events, sometimes in their own schools, sometimes on the campus of my university. Usually such a program begins with a historian explaining to the students what the Holocaust was and why it is important to learn about it. But the highlight is always when a survivor of the Holocaust then comes forward to tell his or her story. I have participated in dozens of these events as the historian on call, and I have always been moved to see how students of every race or color or ethnic background react to hearing an actual survivor describe what it was like to live in a ghetto or to be at Auschwitz or Buchenwald or to spend years as a frightened child, hidden in an orphanage or living with a family of rescuers but always knowing that one must rush to hide in a closet or in the cellar whenever a stranger visited, and never knowing when or how one would see one’s own family again. I could see how moved the students were, and the letters they wrote afterwards reinforced the point. Most of these students would never read any of the thousands of academic studies of the Holocaust, and nobody would expect them to. But to hear a survivor talk could change their lives. In recent years, of course, simply because of the inevitable passage of time, more and more of the survivor speakers in Vancouver and elsewhere have been child survivors. Many of our local child survivor speakers are right here today. They – and all of you who contribute in a similar way to your own communities – are doing an invaluable service. But survivor narratives in their various forms are not only vital for education. They are also increasingly appreciated by historians as indispensable sources of information and inspiration for understanding dimensions of the Holocaust. Of course there are still historians who prefer to work only in archives with documents generated by the perpetrators and their allies or collaborators all over Europe. Some of them might even say that such documents are more reliable than survivor narratives. Survivors, after all, were not taking notes. People hiding in cellars or working in slave labor factories or starving in camps could hardly be expected to keep any records. They might misremember exactly when and where something happened or which brutal uniformed guard had said or done this or that. Documents are more reliable. Well, yes and no. Documents, after all, can lie. And they often do. Let me give you just one example. This particular document has a deeply personal meaning to me. It is located today in an archive in Berlin. It comes from a file of records having to do with the confiscation of property owned by an elderly Jewish couple in Berlin shortly before they were deported to their deaths in 1942. These two people, Thekla Rosenberg and Carl Rosenberg, were in fact the grandparents of my late wife. These documents exist because two different German agencies were engaged in a dispute about which agency was entitled to claim the money which had been stolen from the Rosenbergs before they were put onto trains headed to Poland. In referring to those deportations, the document says “when they were sent to the east to be resettled.” But Carl and Thekla Rosenberg were not sent to the east to be resettled, of course. They were sent to the east to be murdered. Any good historian, of course, knows exactly what this coded language means. But it is a reminder that documents do not simply speak for themselves. Everything must be studied, compared, contextualized, interpreted. And of course the same applies to the way in which historians use and interpret survivor narratives. Among the tens of thousands of survivor narratives that have come to light, a handful – half a dozen or so – have proved to be falsifications. They were written by some deeply troubled souls who were not survivors at all but for some strange psychological reasons wished they were. We need not dwell on these odd cases. What is more important is that many, perhaps even most, authentic survivor narratives do have some discrepancies or omissions. Sometimes survivors have some memory that is simply so agonizingly painful that they cannot bear to put it into words. Sometimes survivors have confused a date or mixed up a name or forgotten the exact order in which some things happened. But almost every survivor narrative is completely reliable when it comes to the most important element of all – emotional truth. For no matter how difficult it is to recall a name or a date, survivors never forget what they saw and how they felt. Many of you have written descriptions of your own experiences, and some of you have composed or even published an entire memoir or autobiography. Often the title of such a work contains some reference to memory: “Memories of My Youth” or “What I Remember.” For after all, a memoir or autobiography is in fact a collection of organized memories. I will mention only one example. It is the recent autobiography of someone who is well known to every one of you and to me as well – my esteemed friend Dr. Robert Krell. It is a book I can well recommend reading – but at the moment I just want you to take a look at the title: it is not ‘Memoirs,’ and not ‘Memories’ – but instead it is called ‘Memoiries.’ It is a word that encapsulates exactly what all memoirs really are – a collection of memories. But how can professional historians use such memoirs – such ‘memoiries’ – in constructing an ever deeper or richer understanding of what happened in the Shoah? Are such writings – your writings, in many cases – reliable enough to be used in compiling the historical record? Let me discuss the work of one historian who has set out to answer exactly this question. Professor Christopher Browning is one of the most famous and admired of all Holocaust historians – and rightly so. For most of his career, Browning focused chiefly on the perpetrators, with pioneering studies of the step-by-step process by which the Holocaust was initiated and equally important work on the behavior and mentality of ordinary guards and SS members who carried out these operations. But then Browning became increasingly interested in the experience of survivors, and especially the way that survivor testimonies can add to our understanding of the Shoah. He came across the interesting case of a cluster of camps in a town in central Poland called Starachowice, where Jews lived while doing slave labor in a nearby steel mill and munitions factory run by the Germans. For two years they were kept there, until in 1944 all the inmates were transferred to Auschwitz. Because it was expected that they would continue to work together as a team, these Jews were kept together in a separate barracks and surprisingly many of them were still alive when Auschwitz was liberated a few months later. As a result, there are remarkably many survivor testimonies from this particular group – Browning found interviews and narratives and memoirs by almost three hundred survivors who had been at that labor camp and then in the barracks in Auschwitz. This made possible a unique project – comparing exactly how different survivors described the same events and experiences. And what did Browning find? He found that overwhelmingly their stories matched. Of course the accounts were not identical. The remembered different things, or remembered the same episodes differently. But the basic story was always the same. And in fact by comparing and collating the different versions of each important episode in the camps and the factories and Auschwitz, Browning could arrive at the most detailed and convincing version of what had happened to these Jews. There were some discrepancies. For example, almost all the survivors described vividly how, after days trapped in a train without food or water, they finally arrival at Auschwitz. They all told of the same things – the darkness, the bright searchlights, the barking dogs, the shouting uniformed SS guards. But many also mentioned seeing the notorious Dr. Mengele as they came down the ramp. That, in fact, did not happen; Mengele was not there that evening. But in the years since 1944, the survivors had read and heard so often about Dr. Mengele and his selections that they assumed he must have been one of the uniformed men they saw. This was a rare instance of incorrect memory. But in fact the overall result of Browning’s book is to demonstrate beyond any possible doubt that survivor testimony is not only useful but in fact an indispensable source of information for historians who are still struggling, seventy years later, to fully comprehend what happened in the Shoah. So historians are still telling the story of the Shoah. And so are survivors. But why? To tell of these things goes far beyond the normal human impulse to recount stories from the past. For we must keep teaching people – above all the younger generation – about what can happen when racist thinking takes over a society and becomes the basis for an entire program of state-sponsored genocide. And we must combat the dangerous attitudes that threaten to diminish the importance of these lessons. Here are what, in my view, are the four greatest challenges to the truth about the Shoah against which we must always struggle. We all know about HOLOCAUST DENIAL. And we know that the main cause of Holocaust denial is of course antisemitism, pure and simple. But that is not the only cause. Some of the Holocaust deniers are motivated by something else. They are contrarians, people who enjoy cooking up or believing conspiracy theories for their own sake. They are nurtured by the garbage produced by the antisemitic Holocaust deniers, and their own conspiracy theories in turn further nurture the antisemites. It is a problem that will not go away. But it is not, in fact, the biggest challenge. That is HOLOCAUST INDIFFERENCE. Most people, after all, fully accept and understand that the Holocaust took place. But “so what?,” they say. “Lots of bad things happened in history. Why keep harping on this one? Let’s just look ahead and build a better future.” But in fact the most important building blocks for a better future are a knowledge of the past. History does not slavishly repeat itself — but there are patterns. And if we do not know what the patterns in the past were, we will not recognize them in time when they come back. And there is HOLOCAUST GENERALIZATION. “Sure, the Holocaust was genocide. But genocides are happening all over. The Holocaust was just one of a long list.” Yes, many terrible things happen to people and they must be discussed. But true genocides are much rarer, and the term should be used carefully so that it does not lose its meaning. We must always remind people of the truly horrific genocides of the past hundred years. We should not forget the Holodomor, Stalin’s mass murder of millions of Ukrainian peasants by the brutally simple method of having his agents confiscate every last bushel of grain so the peasants had nothing to live on. Nor should the events in Armenia, in Cambodia, in Rwanda, in Darfur be forgotten. But nor should the fact that even on this horrific list, the Shoah was unique in the relentlessness with which a powerful state regime tried to eliminate from human existence an entire age-old human community. Finally, there is HOLOCAUST DISTORTION. This take place when people fully agree that the Holocaust took place, but do so in a way that so completely distorts its meaning that it perverts the actual truth. Time permits me to mention only one example, and that only one briefly: some recent events in Poland. Many of you will remember being shocked about the Polish legislation that was enacted last year which made it a criminal offense to state that the Polish state or nation was responsible or co-responsible for the Nazi crimes of World War II. After an international outcry, the law was amended to eliminate the criminal penalties, but the amended law is still on the books. Its real purpose is to make people in Poland nervous about discussing this sensitive aspect of their country’s history – something which, by the way, many courageous Polish historians continue to do despite the consequences. But this law had nothing to do with Holocaust denial. Quite the contrary. The fact that millions of Jews had lived in Poland before the war and that three million of them were murdered – along with many non-Jewish Poles – is a fact that the Polish government actually encourages people to remember. The government itself produces books and sponsors exhibits about this subject. And the reason is this: Thousands of Poles courageously and at great risk to themselves and their families rescued or sheltered or helped Jews. They are honored at Yad Vashem as the Righteous Among the Gentiles, and rightly so. They are honored in Poland too. In fact they are venerated as Polish national heroes for having defied the Germans in this way. If you deny that the Holocaust happened, then all these rescuers would have to be denied as well. What many groups in Poland wish to forget is the fact that while there were thousands of Poles who rescued Jews, there were many, many more who did the opposite. Poles did not cause or initiate the Holocaust. But once the Germans arrived, there were many people who saw in this an opportunity to get rid of Jews or to take their property. Of course much the same happened in almost every country the Germans occupied, except perhaps Denmark and Albania. But since there were so many Jews in Poland, it happened there with particular frequency. In July of 1941, in the town of Jedwabne, before the Germans even began the round- up of Jews local inhabitants themselves rounded up hundreds of Jews, locked them inside a barn, and set the barn on fire. And this case was not unique. Historians can show that in numerous Polish communities when the Germans did indeed order all the Jews to assemble to be deported to camps, many of their neighbors immediately started plundering Jewish homes or even grabbing the meager possessions the Jews were carrying with them on the way to the stations. These facts must be confronted and remembered. Many Polish historians and researchers and curators are doing exactly that. But legislation of the kind passed last year, even in its amended form, could make many more people hesitate to speak out. This makes it all the more important in countries that enjoy freedom of speech to use that freedom fully to keep on telling the truth about the past – and especially about the Shoah. My job – and that of countless other historians – is certainly not finished. And neither is yours. Let me close by mentioning two specific women here in Canada. One was Bronia Sonnenschein. Members of the audience from Vancouver will remember Bronia well. She was not a child survivor. She was already a young woman when her family had to leave Vienna and live in the Lodz ghetto. From there they were taken to Auschwitz and then, in the closing days of the war, Bronia and her mother and sister were sent on death marches first to Germany and then to Bohemia where they were finally liberated. Eventually Bronia came to Vancouver where she raised a family and worked hard until she retired. At that point she began speaking in public about the Holocaust, especially to high school students. Time and time again I saw hundreds of our local students sit in awed silence as this tiny woman with a strong European accent described, without pathos or bitterness but with uncompromising honesty, everything that she had experienced in those horrific years. When she finished speaking, the students jumped to their feet in a standing ovation and as soon as the program ended they rushed down to meet her, to thank her, to embrace her. She had changed their lives. Bronia retired from public speaking at the age of 92 and died three years later. But her legacy lives on. A few years ago her granddaughter Emily wrote a play based on her grandmother’s life. The play was performed with great success in Emily’s home town of Calgary, Alberta. It has also been performed in Germany, and surely more performances lie ahead. Through her own granddaughter, Bronia’s message lives on. All of you who are child survivors have told your stories, perhaps in front of hundreds of students, perhaps to individual interviewers or researchers, perhaps in the form of a book or a manuscript, perhaps around the kitchen table to your family or friends. The time will come when you too feel that you can retire from telling your stories. You can do so knowing that your story will not be forgotten. One reason it will not be forgotten is that many of you have children or grandchildren or nieces or nephews or just friends of a younger generation who will carry the message forward. To those of the next generations, let me say this: Don’t worry, you do not have to write a play – but when you are asked to tell the story of your mother or father or grandparent or uncle or aunt, do so. You cannot hope to have the same emotional impact as actual survivors, but what you say will have the ring of truth and it will matter to those you reach. And we historians will back you up. Because in fact historians on the one hand and survivors and their descendants on the other have always been partners in telling the truth about the Holocaust. And as long as the world is willing to listen, we will continue to tell about the events and the significance and the implications of this unspeakable episode in the history of humanity. Together we will continue to tell the truth of the Shoah. Stay up to date on conference news and updates	5,885	ENGLISH	1
Autobiography plays a decisive role in giving you a better insight into a person’s life. It offers you first-hand account into their life and gives you knowledge about how their experiences have shaped them as a person. Before diving deep into how to write autobiography and difference between biography and autobiography, let us first understand what exactly autobiography means. What is an autobiography? The definition of Autobiography is based on one’s life story. As per the autobiography definition, it is a story that is written by the same person on whom the story is based. The person writes about everything he went through in his life. These self-written books are mostly written by famous personalities, who have established a lot in their lifetime. This is how you can define autobiography if somebody would ask you to define autobiography. How to Write Autobiography It is important to remember a few things while writing an autobiography. The start of an autobiography should always begin from the introduction. The introduction will have a proper thesis about the subject. Then the body should contain quite a few paragraphs. That body content will tell the story about the person. The autobiography will end with the conclusion that is also known as moral. If anybody would ask you, you can tell him or her that this is how to start an autobiography. Difference between Biography and Autobiography People get confused and think that autobiography and biography both are the same. There is a fine difference between both. Just to ignore the confusion you can go through distinguish between Biography vs. Autobiography. The third person writes it. The story is written on the historic facts of a person who has inspired many. The same person about whom the story is written writes autobiography. The story expresses their thoughts and gives them the chance to explain their lives to others. The biography provides information and Autobiography helps in expressing the emotions of that person in his own words to the world. These are the few autobiographies of celebrities. 1. Malcolm X His autobiography is based on his spiritual conversion narrative. It narrates about his Black Nationalism, pan Africanism, and black pride. The books express the collaborative process and the events at the end of his life. The book influences some of his literal choices. The New York Times described the book based on his autobiography as a painful, brilliant and important book. This autobiography introduces about the Paramahansa Yogananda. His real name was Mukunda Lal Gosh. He was born in Gorakhpur. His autobiography speaks about his encounters with spiritual figures with both the western and eastern worlds. He travels around the world to give lectures on his teachings. 3. Range Rover Autobiography It is one of the most luxurious and expensive cars. It has unique equipment and features. Its unique features and goodwill make it different from other cars. In Range Rover Vogue SE has features such as front and rear parking cameras, you can also get heated leather and wood steering wheel. It also has a panoramic roof as standards and larger alloy wheels. This automatic climate control feature is not something you can get in every car. 4. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin He is known as the American icon. He was known for many popular things he did. He was the first postmaster general of the United States of America. In his book, his writing symbolizes a career of scientific, literary and political efforts. All of this extended the entire 18th century and the birth of the United States of America. 5. Frederick Douglass Autobiography He was an American statesman, writer, orator, social reformer, and abolitionist. He escaped from slavery in Maryland; he was the one who became a national leader of the abolitionist movement in Massachusetts and New York. He wrote many autobiographies. He wrote about his experiences as a slave in his books. His books became the bestseller. His books started spreading the cause of abolition through his books. 6. Vic Mensa The Autobiography It was a debut album by him. He was an American rapper. The album is about his life, it is all about his blood, sweat, tears, and pain he went through in his lifetime. It also tells about everything he learned in his life. He talks about loss and love and depression, happiness and addictions he went through in his life. 7. The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman This book talks about the struggles of African Americans. She talks about the huge actions that were faced by her while she was a young slave in the American south at the closing stages of the Civil war. Ernest J. Gaines wrote this novel and it was written in the year 1971. The novel was also converted into a television movie in the year 1974. 8. Gucci Mane Autobiography In his book, he wrote about his life story. He wrote how he grew up in a hustle and what all he faced during his childhood. He also wrote about how he became the man he is today, and how he shaped himself into a rapper. 9. Autobiography of an ex-coloured Man This book is written by James Weldon Johnson. It is based on a fiction where a young biracial man who is referred to as the ex-coloured Man who lives in the post-reconstruction period in America in the late nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. 10. My Inventions: The Autobiography of Nikola Tesla This book is produced and edited by Ben Johnston. In this book, he wrote in detail about the work and articles of Nikola Tesla. In this book, Nikola Tesla wrote about his electrical experimenter magazine in the year 1919. He was 63 years old when he wrote them. This musical album gives the touch of many mix emotions. When Samantha Brown’s best friend dies, she is paralyzed. She starts feeling grief pain and feels the loss. It also teaches how to take risks and how she must forget her senior year to enter in her adolescence. These were the few examples of celebrities and their autobiographies. They write about their life experiences and they express their emotions in their way.	<urn:uuid:b6258abb-06db-4c0e-a8e2-4c31421467dd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://autobiography.tech/autobiography-definition/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00548.warc.gz	en	0.985743	1,274	3.5	4	[ 0.1481626033782959, 0.4753037393093109, 0.39858582615852356, -0.10888989269733429, -0.17285288870334625, 0.2991662323474884, 0.7692568302154541, -0.17422431707382202, 0.16742536425590515, 0.02901323512196541, 0.22119276225566864, 0.08076271414756775, -0.007909433916211128, -0.1539168357849...	2	Autobiography plays a decisive role in giving you a better insight into a person’s life. It offers you first-hand account into their life and gives you knowledge about how their experiences have shaped them as a person. Before diving deep into how to write autobiography and difference between biography and autobiography, let us first understand what exactly autobiography means. What is an autobiography? The definition of Autobiography is based on one’s life story. As per the autobiography definition, it is a story that is written by the same person on whom the story is based. The person writes about everything he went through in his life. These self-written books are mostly written by famous personalities, who have established a lot in their lifetime. This is how you can define autobiography if somebody would ask you to define autobiography. How to Write Autobiography It is important to remember a few things while writing an autobiography. The start of an autobiography should always begin from the introduction. The introduction will have a proper thesis about the subject. Then the body should contain quite a few paragraphs. That body content will tell the story about the person. The autobiography will end with the conclusion that is also known as moral. If anybody would ask you, you can tell him or her that this is how to start an autobiography. Difference between Biography and Autobiography People get confused and think that autobiography and biography both are the same. There is a fine difference between both. Just to ignore the confusion you can go through distinguish between Biography vs. Autobiography. The third person writes it. The story is written on the historic facts of a person who has inspired many. The same person about whom the story is written writes autobiography. The story expresses their thoughts and gives them the chance to explain their lives to others. The biography provides information and Autobiography helps in expressing the emotions of that person in his own words to the world. These are the few autobiographies of celebrities. 1. Malcolm X His autobiography is based on his spiritual conversion narrative. It narrates about his Black Nationalism, pan Africanism, and black pride. The books express the collaborative process and the events at the end of his life. The book influences some of his literal choices. The New York Times described the book based on his autobiography as a painful, brilliant and important book. This autobiography introduces about the Paramahansa Yogananda. His real name was Mukunda Lal Gosh. He was born in Gorakhpur. His autobiography speaks about his encounters with spiritual figures with both the western and eastern worlds. He travels around the world to give lectures on his teachings. 3. Range Rover Autobiography It is one of the most luxurious and expensive cars. It has unique equipment and features. Its unique features and goodwill make it different from other cars. In Range Rover Vogue SE has features such as front and rear parking cameras, you can also get heated leather and wood steering wheel. It also has a panoramic roof as standards and larger alloy wheels. This automatic climate control feature is not something you can get in every car. 4. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin He is known as the American icon. He was known for many popular things he did. He was the first postmaster general of the United States of America. In his book, his writing symbolizes a career of scientific, literary and political efforts. All of this extended the entire 18th century and the birth of the United States of America. 5. Frederick Douglass Autobiography He was an American statesman, writer, orator, social reformer, and abolitionist. He escaped from slavery in Maryland; he was the one who became a national leader of the abolitionist movement in Massachusetts and New York. He wrote many autobiographies. He wrote about his experiences as a slave in his books. His books became the bestseller. His books started spreading the cause of abolition through his books. 6. Vic Mensa The Autobiography It was a debut album by him. He was an American rapper. The album is about his life, it is all about his blood, sweat, tears, and pain he went through in his lifetime. It also tells about everything he learned in his life. He talks about loss and love and depression, happiness and addictions he went through in his life. 7. The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman This book talks about the struggles of African Americans. She talks about the huge actions that were faced by her while she was a young slave in the American south at the closing stages of the Civil war. Ernest J. Gaines wrote this novel and it was written in the year 1971. The novel was also converted into a television movie in the year 1974. 8. Gucci Mane Autobiography In his book, he wrote about his life story. He wrote how he grew up in a hustle and what all he faced during his childhood. He also wrote about how he became the man he is today, and how he shaped himself into a rapper. 9. Autobiography of an ex-coloured Man This book is written by James Weldon Johnson. It is based on a fiction where a young biracial man who is referred to as the ex-coloured Man who lives in the post-reconstruction period in America in the late nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. 10. My Inventions: The Autobiography of Nikola Tesla This book is produced and edited by Ben Johnston. In this book, he wrote in detail about the work and articles of Nikola Tesla. In this book, Nikola Tesla wrote about his electrical experimenter magazine in the year 1919. He was 63 years old when he wrote them. This musical album gives the touch of many mix emotions. When Samantha Brown’s best friend dies, she is paralyzed. She starts feeling grief pain and feels the loss. It also teaches how to take risks and how she must forget her senior year to enter in her adolescence. These were the few examples of celebrities and their autobiographies. They write about their life experiences and they express their emotions in their way.	1,247	ENGLISH	1
Helen Frankenthaler was a famous American abstract expressionist artist who has contributed immensely to the history of post-war paintings. She introduced a new technique of painting, called soak-stain painting, which she is very well known for. Soak stain painting is using turpentine-thinned paint and pouring it on the canvas which creates a bright color wash that is merged with the canvas. Through stain painting, she was able to create unique pieces of art and expand the possibilities of abstract art. Her works and creation of her new technique have strongly influenced other artists’ work and styles such as Morris Louis, Kenneth Noland and Jules Olitski. She also helped develop “Color Field Painting” with her technique and work. Her work of provides a different perspective of how art is viewed and allows people to think more creatively. She is one of few women who has obtained a long-standing visibility. Frankenthaler (born December 12th, 1928) was born and raised in a rich family who lived in Manhattan, along with her two older sisters. Her artistic talents were noticed at a young age (four years old) by her parents and they made efforts to allow her talent to thrive by sending her to experimental schools, which is the main reason for why many of her painting’s names are named after landscapes. Frankenthaler developed her interest in landscapes when going on vacation with her family. At 15, she went to Dalton School, located in New York, and worked with a painter named Rufino Tamayo. When she was 16, she made the official decision to become an artist and enrolled into Bennington College, where she studied under Paul Feeley. He was fundamental in setting up exhibits for Abstract Expressionists, greatly influencing her art style. In 1950, she met Clement Greenberg, who she had a romantic relationship and he introduced her to several famous Abstract Expressionists such as Willem de Kooning, Lee Krasner, Jackson Pollock, and Franz Kline. She studied under Hans Hoffman, who has helped her develop her style. In 1952, she introduced her soak-stain painting method, inspired by Jackson Pollock. After her breakthrough, her painting was featured in many exhibits and she has inspired many with her art style. She experimented non-stop with different art techniques and also worked with a wide range of different mediums such as ceramics, tapestry, and printmaking. One of her most important works of art is “Mountains and Seas” (created in 1952), which is where she introduced soak-stain painting. With the introduction of her new technique, it helped the rise o the “Color Field movement”, which she greatly contributed to. The Color Field art movement placed less emphasis and importance on gestures and brushstrokes. This type of art allows the allows the color to be the main focus the art piece. Another important art piece was “Playa” (created in 1950, translates to “Beach”), which was the beginning of her exhibition career. It was apart of the exhibition named Fifteen Unknowns: Selected by Artists of the Kootz Gallery. This is what started it all and allowed her to continue what she was doing. With her exhibition, many were able to view her unique paintings and helped inspired many famous artists. “Canyon”, created in 1965, was landscape piece that showed off her new artistic practice. Instead of using turpentine-thinned oil, she used watered down acrylics to pour large stains and blots. “Canyon” clearly shows that, being a painting that mostly consists of a large red blot.	<urn:uuid:cfd13dae-c304-40cd-8769-c4943f7ec129>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alpinrunning.org/helen-and-pouring-it-on-the-canvas-which/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00425.warc.gz	en	0.989459	753	3.359375	3	[ 0.02638673037290573, 0.05560506507754326, 0.5128178596496582, 0.08925899118185043, -0.39882779121398926, 0.20402000844478607, 0.4239456057548523, -0.3535672724246979, -0.1582604944705963, -0.024325266480445862, 0.5505557656288147, -0.23779422044754028, -0.40164002776145935, 0.4538906216621...	2	Helen Frankenthaler was a famous American abstract expressionist artist who has contributed immensely to the history of post-war paintings. She introduced a new technique of painting, called soak-stain painting, which she is very well known for. Soak stain painting is using turpentine-thinned paint and pouring it on the canvas which creates a bright color wash that is merged with the canvas. Through stain painting, she was able to create unique pieces of art and expand the possibilities of abstract art. Her works and creation of her new technique have strongly influenced other artists’ work and styles such as Morris Louis, Kenneth Noland and Jules Olitski. She also helped develop “Color Field Painting” with her technique and work. Her work of provides a different perspective of how art is viewed and allows people to think more creatively. She is one of few women who has obtained a long-standing visibility. Frankenthaler (born December 12th, 1928) was born and raised in a rich family who lived in Manhattan, along with her two older sisters. Her artistic talents were noticed at a young age (four years old) by her parents and they made efforts to allow her talent to thrive by sending her to experimental schools, which is the main reason for why many of her painting’s names are named after landscapes. Frankenthaler developed her interest in landscapes when going on vacation with her family. At 15, she went to Dalton School, located in New York, and worked with a painter named Rufino Tamayo. When she was 16, she made the official decision to become an artist and enrolled into Bennington College, where she studied under Paul Feeley. He was fundamental in setting up exhibits for Abstract Expressionists, greatly influencing her art style. In 1950, she met Clement Greenberg, who she had a romantic relationship and he introduced her to several famous Abstract Expressionists such as Willem de Kooning, Lee Krasner, Jackson Pollock, and Franz Kline. She studied under Hans Hoffman, who has helped her develop her style. In 1952, she introduced her soak-stain painting method, inspired by Jackson Pollock. After her breakthrough, her painting was featured in many exhibits and she has inspired many with her art style. She experimented non-stop with different art techniques and also worked with a wide range of different mediums such as ceramics, tapestry, and printmaking. One of her most important works of art is “Mountains and Seas” (created in 1952), which is where she introduced soak-stain painting. With the introduction of her new technique, it helped the rise o the “Color Field movement”, which she greatly contributed to. The Color Field art movement placed less emphasis and importance on gestures and brushstrokes. This type of art allows the allows the color to be the main focus the art piece. Another important art piece was “Playa” (created in 1950, translates to “Beach”), which was the beginning of her exhibition career. It was apart of the exhibition named Fifteen Unknowns: Selected by Artists of the Kootz Gallery. This is what started it all and allowed her to continue what she was doing. With her exhibition, many were able to view her unique paintings and helped inspired many famous artists. “Canyon”, created in 1965, was landscape piece that showed off her new artistic practice. Instead of using turpentine-thinned oil, she used watered down acrylics to pour large stains and blots. “Canyon” clearly shows that, being a painting that mostly consists of a large red blot.	754	ENGLISH	1
Featured image: CGI reconstruction of the London. Most of the warships, especially the very largest, would have been built in the royal dockyards, since no other yards had the infrastructure or the manpower to support such endeavours. Historians think that scaled plans were being used by the 17th Century. During construction in English yards, the main frames were all fastened to the keel and raised before work began on floors and planking. Each frame was made of three main sections; the floor timbers crossing the keel, the futtocks below the waterline, and the top timbers. The planking process progressed roughly at the same time as framing, being reinforced with bands of timber than ran the entire length of the hull. The most common type of fastening on warships was the ‘treenail’ which was a wooden peg slotted into a hole. Gunports (holes for the cannons to fire out of) were cut in the planks on the sides of the ship. To make the hulls strong and watertight, they were caulked (sealed) with oakum, a substance made from old sails and ropes boiled down. Planks were coated with ‘white stuff’, a substance made from resin, brimstone and oil. Deck beams inside the ship would have been supported by pillars, with a lattice framework fitted over them to form the decks. The whole structure had to be strong enough to support the immense weight of the ship’s ordnance and to withstand the force of the cannons firing.	<urn:uuid:10ba4a62-c2e0-4639-9eb0-f331534ffe24>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://thelondon.southendmuseums.org.uk/feature-content/construction/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00163.warc.gz	en	0.985199	317	4	4	[ -0.14583082497119904, 0.0602397620677948, 0.4865220785140991, -0.477946937084198, 0.056610673666000366, -0.33106353878974915, -0.29205965995788574, 0.17458604276180267, -0.3918015956878662, -0.2326669991016388, 0.2719355821609497, -0.5134690999984741, -0.2661641240119934, 0.370194882154464...	11	Featured image: CGI reconstruction of the London. Most of the warships, especially the very largest, would have been built in the royal dockyards, since no other yards had the infrastructure or the manpower to support such endeavours. Historians think that scaled plans were being used by the 17th Century. During construction in English yards, the main frames were all fastened to the keel and raised before work began on floors and planking. Each frame was made of three main sections; the floor timbers crossing the keel, the futtocks below the waterline, and the top timbers. The planking process progressed roughly at the same time as framing, being reinforced with bands of timber than ran the entire length of the hull. The most common type of fastening on warships was the ‘treenail’ which was a wooden peg slotted into a hole. Gunports (holes for the cannons to fire out of) were cut in the planks on the sides of the ship. To make the hulls strong and watertight, they were caulked (sealed) with oakum, a substance made from old sails and ropes boiled down. Planks were coated with ‘white stuff’, a substance made from resin, brimstone and oil. Deck beams inside the ship would have been supported by pillars, with a lattice framework fitted over them to form the decks. The whole structure had to be strong enough to support the immense weight of the ship’s ordnance and to withstand the force of the cannons firing.	315	ENGLISH	1
During the 19th century, body snatching or grave robbery occurred fairly often. The motive was usually money, as corpses were used for medical dissection purposes and a black market existed for bodies. Medical experimenters in Boston in the 1870s were nicknamed "sawbones" as they were known to completely dissect bodies until nothing was left but flesh and muscle. The following is a newspaper account of a body snatched in 1884: "This town is tremendously excited over a grave robbery which has just come to light. On September 2, 1884, Mrs. Albert -, 75 years old, who had been an invalid for years, died, and three days later her remains were interred in the town cemetery, about one-fourth of a mile from the village. Her husband immediately went to Lowell [MA], where he spent the winter, returning to Ashland about three weeks ago. One of the first places he visited was his wife's grave. He was greatly surprised to find that the surface of the grave was entirely flat. When he next visited the grave, he found, to his horror, that it was lower than the surrounding ground [the frost had melted away]. Pushing down a stick, he could find no casket. Today the grave was opened, and the body, coffin and box containing the coffin were missing. In the bottom of the grave was found a lot of brush, supposed to be put in to prevent the discovery of the vandalism. It is thought the body must have been stolen the night of the internment." Green Grove Cemetery Route 93, Exit 24 at West & Main Streets Ashland, MA 03217	<urn:uuid:0abbe075-600a-42f6-87b4-5921882b4bea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.celebrateboston.com/ghost/body-snatcher-ashland-nh.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00251.warc.gz	en	0.991645	335	3.359375	3	[ -0.12745720148086548, -0.0622226819396019, 0.28659865260124207, -0.04464488849043846, -0.22251281142234802, -0.2507478892803192, 0.3719266653060913, 0.09821154922246933, -0.3366381824016571, 0.13737016916275024, 0.4638015031814575, -0.28618842363357544, -0.3644784092903137, 0.2101697325706...	5	During the 19th century, body snatching or grave robbery occurred fairly often. The motive was usually money, as corpses were used for medical dissection purposes and a black market existed for bodies. Medical experimenters in Boston in the 1870s were nicknamed "sawbones" as they were known to completely dissect bodies until nothing was left but flesh and muscle. The following is a newspaper account of a body snatched in 1884: "This town is tremendously excited over a grave robbery which has just come to light. On September 2, 1884, Mrs. Albert -, 75 years old, who had been an invalid for years, died, and three days later her remains were interred in the town cemetery, about one-fourth of a mile from the village. Her husband immediately went to Lowell [MA], where he spent the winter, returning to Ashland about three weeks ago. One of the first places he visited was his wife's grave. He was greatly surprised to find that the surface of the grave was entirely flat. When he next visited the grave, he found, to his horror, that it was lower than the surrounding ground [the frost had melted away]. Pushing down a stick, he could find no casket. Today the grave was opened, and the body, coffin and box containing the coffin were missing. In the bottom of the grave was found a lot of brush, supposed to be put in to prevent the discovery of the vandalism. It is thought the body must have been stolen the night of the internment." Green Grove Cemetery Route 93, Exit 24 at West & Main Streets Ashland, MA 03217	353	ENGLISH	1
John Keats was an English poet. He published only fifty four poems in three small books and a few magazines but had one of the most remarkable careers as a poet. He used a wide range of poetic forms including odes and sonnets. Early Life: – He was born on October 31, 1795 in London, England. His father Thomas Keats died when he was just 9 years old. Initially, he attended a school at Enfield which was run by John Clarke. John Clarke’s son Charles Clarke played an important role in encouraging Keats’ literary aspirations. In 1810, his mother also died and Richard Abbey was appointed as the guardian for him and his siblings. Abbey was the executor of their maternal grandmother’s estate. Initial Career: – John Keats started his apprenticeship with a surgeon at Edmonton in 1811 but broke off in 1814. After that he moved to London and worked as a dresser for some time at Guy’s and St. Thomas’ hospitals. During this time, he continued his literary interests. Keats wrote his first mature poem in 1816. It was a sonnet named as ‘On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer’. It was inspired by George Chapman’s classic 17th-century translation of the Iliad and the Odyssey. In March 1817, his first book got published under the name ‘Poems’. His longest poems were Endymion and Hyperion which tell stories from ancient Greek mythology. Quick Facts: – - He was an active letter writer for all his life like most other people at that time. - In 1817 and 1818, he wrote ‘Isabella’ which was an adaptation of the story of the Pot of Basilin Giovanni Boccaccio’s - After becoming a published poet, John burned all papers containing his earlier works. - In October 1819, Keats got engaged to Fanny Brawne, his next door neighbor but they could not get married because of Keats’ early death. - During John’s illness, he could not meet Fanny so they communicated through a glass screen and wrote letters to each other. - At an early age, he also suffered from chronic anxiety. - His second volume of poetry was published in July 1820 but by that time he was very ill. - He only had a poetic career of five years because he died of tuberculosis at a very young age of 25 years. - He died in Rome on 23 February 1821 and was buried in Rome in a Protestant Cemetery. - His mother Frances Keats and brother Tom Keats also died of tuberculosis. Question & Answers: – Ques. What was the profession of John Keats’ father? Ans. His father was a livery-stable manager. Ques. What were the names of John’s brothers? Ans. George and Tom. Ques. Where did Keats children spend their childhood? Ans. At Edmonton, Middlesex. Ques. How tall was John Keats? Ans. He was a short man with a height of approximately 5 feet. Ques. Who was John Keats’ earliest model in poetry? Ans. At a very young age he was introduced to Edmund Spenser and the Elizabethans and they became his model. Ques. Did Keats get married? Ans. No, he got engaged to Fanny Brawne but could not get married because of his serious health condition. Ques. When did he leave London for a trip to the Isle of Wight and Canterbury? Ans. In 1817. Ques. What was his friend Richard Woodhouse’s opinion about him? Ans. According to Richard Woodhouse, Keats was particularly horrible at reading his own poems not giving them justice. Ques. From whom did John catch Tuberculosis? Ans. He nursed his brother Tom through the final stages of tuberculosis and got infected himself. Ques. What are some of John Keats’ short poems? Ans. ‘The Eve of St Agnes’, ‘La Belle Dame Sans Merci’, ‘Ode to a Nightingale’ and ‘To Autumn’. Ques. When did he start working on Hyperion? Ans. In September 1818. Ques. How many versions of Hyperion are there? Ans. There are two versions of Hyperion. Ques. What revealed the seriousness of Keats’s illness? Ans. In February 1820 a severe haemorrhage in the lungs revealed the seriousness of the disease. Ques. Which was the most famous poem in his first book? Ans. ‘Sleep and Poetry’ is the most famous poem of this volume. Ques. When did John get engaged to Fanny Brawne? Ans. In October 1819. Ques. During what time did Keats compose all of his odes? Ans. Between March and September 1819. Cite This Page You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples: MLA Style Citation Declan, Tobin. " Facts for Kids about John Keats ." Easy Science for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 25 Jan 2020. < https://easyscienceforkids.com/john-keats/ >. APA Style Citation Tobin, Declan. (2020). Facts for Kids about John Keats. Easy Science for Kids. Retrieved from https://easyscienceforkids.com/john-keats/ Sponsored Links :	<urn:uuid:8161c817-1786-47d1-b47a-63a0cc56e936>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://easyscienceforkids.com/john-keats/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00387.warc.gz	en	0.985602	1,222	3.390625	3	[ 0.09710471332073212, 0.39478403329849243, 0.3951367735862732, 0.11720388382673264, -0.37099528312683105, -0.17740991711616516, 0.060996294021606445, -0.0873471200466156, -0.2708260715007782, -0.27355366945266724, -0.2015703320503235, 0.1561252474784851, -0.061630718410015106, 0.09320636093...	1	John Keats was an English poet. He published only fifty four poems in three small books and a few magazines but had one of the most remarkable careers as a poet. He used a wide range of poetic forms including odes and sonnets. Early Life: – He was born on October 31, 1795 in London, England. His father Thomas Keats died when he was just 9 years old. Initially, he attended a school at Enfield which was run by John Clarke. John Clarke’s son Charles Clarke played an important role in encouraging Keats’ literary aspirations. In 1810, his mother also died and Richard Abbey was appointed as the guardian for him and his siblings. Abbey was the executor of their maternal grandmother’s estate. Initial Career: – John Keats started his apprenticeship with a surgeon at Edmonton in 1811 but broke off in 1814. After that he moved to London and worked as a dresser for some time at Guy’s and St. Thomas’ hospitals. During this time, he continued his literary interests. Keats wrote his first mature poem in 1816. It was a sonnet named as ‘On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer’. It was inspired by George Chapman’s classic 17th-century translation of the Iliad and the Odyssey. In March 1817, his first book got published under the name ‘Poems’. His longest poems were Endymion and Hyperion which tell stories from ancient Greek mythology. Quick Facts: – - He was an active letter writer for all his life like most other people at that time. - In 1817 and 1818, he wrote ‘Isabella’ which was an adaptation of the story of the Pot of Basilin Giovanni Boccaccio’s - After becoming a published poet, John burned all papers containing his earlier works. - In October 1819, Keats got engaged to Fanny Brawne, his next door neighbor but they could not get married because of Keats’ early death. - During John’s illness, he could not meet Fanny so they communicated through a glass screen and wrote letters to each other. - At an early age, he also suffered from chronic anxiety. - His second volume of poetry was published in July 1820 but by that time he was very ill. - He only had a poetic career of five years because he died of tuberculosis at a very young age of 25 years. - He died in Rome on 23 February 1821 and was buried in Rome in a Protestant Cemetery. - His mother Frances Keats and brother Tom Keats also died of tuberculosis. Question & Answers: – Ques. What was the profession of John Keats’ father? Ans. His father was a livery-stable manager. Ques. What were the names of John’s brothers? Ans. George and Tom. Ques. Where did Keats children spend their childhood? Ans. At Edmonton, Middlesex. Ques. How tall was John Keats? Ans. He was a short man with a height of approximately 5 feet. Ques. Who was John Keats’ earliest model in poetry? Ans. At a very young age he was introduced to Edmund Spenser and the Elizabethans and they became his model. Ques. Did Keats get married? Ans. No, he got engaged to Fanny Brawne but could not get married because of his serious health condition. Ques. When did he leave London for a trip to the Isle of Wight and Canterbury? Ans. In 1817. Ques. What was his friend Richard Woodhouse’s opinion about him? Ans. According to Richard Woodhouse, Keats was particularly horrible at reading his own poems not giving them justice. Ques. From whom did John catch Tuberculosis? Ans. He nursed his brother Tom through the final stages of tuberculosis and got infected himself. Ques. What are some of John Keats’ short poems? Ans. ‘The Eve of St Agnes’, ‘La Belle Dame Sans Merci’, ‘Ode to a Nightingale’ and ‘To Autumn’. Ques. When did he start working on Hyperion? Ans. In September 1818. Ques. How many versions of Hyperion are there? Ans. There are two versions of Hyperion. Ques. What revealed the seriousness of Keats’s illness? Ans. In February 1820 a severe haemorrhage in the lungs revealed the seriousness of the disease. Ques. Which was the most famous poem in his first book? Ans. ‘Sleep and Poetry’ is the most famous poem of this volume. Ques. When did John get engaged to Fanny Brawne? Ans. In October 1819. Ques. During what time did Keats compose all of his odes? Ans. Between March and September 1819. Cite This Page You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples: MLA Style Citation Declan, Tobin. " Facts for Kids about John Keats ." Easy Science for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 25 Jan 2020. < https://easyscienceforkids.com/john-keats/ >. APA Style Citation Tobin, Declan. (2020). Facts for Kids about John Keats. Easy Science for Kids. Retrieved from https://easyscienceforkids.com/john-keats/ Sponsored Links :	1,175	ENGLISH	1
The Invasion of Curaçao in 1800 during the French Revolutionary Wars was launched by French forces against the Batavian Republic. The French had landed on the island on 22 July, and on 5 September attacked and captured a fort protecting the town of Willemstad, Curaçao. The American consul sent for help, and on 10 September the Dutch governor of the island surrendered to a British frigate, HMS Nereide, who promised to protect the town but did little to help. On 22 September the American sloopsUSS Patapsco and USS Merrimack arrived, and on 23 September the Patapsco sailed into the harbor and landed troops to reinforce the garrison protecting the town. On 23 September and 24 September the French fired upon the defenders, consequently exchanging cannon and musket fire with them throughout the day and night. Though it appeared a French assault was imminent, French forces left the island during the night. Significantly, the French suffered many killed or wounded in contrast to two American wounded. The British took control of the island, and American forces sailed away. The island of Curaçao was important to American merchants in the Caribbean, and ships had been stationed near there to guard American interests since the start of the Quasi-War. The sloop USS Patapsco was ordered to sail there in May 1800, and arrived in June and left soon afterwards. No American warships ships were stationed at Curaçao on 23 July when a French fleet arrived from Guadeloupe, consisting of 5 ships and 1,400 troops, sailors and Guadeloupean militia. The French forces landed and their commander demanded the surrender of the forts, which Governor Johan Lausser refused.	<urn:uuid:a000e9a7-9cc1-4aad-ae80-73dc75bc8a3d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wikiplanet.click/enciclopedia/en/Invasion_of_Cura%C3%A7ao_(1800)	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00409.warc.gz	en	0.980851	350	4.1875	4	[ 0.1713300347328186, 0.05381181091070175, 0.17009282112121582, -0.15750913321971893, 0.13411085307598114, -0.2768378257751465, 0.060912758111953735, -0.010972441174089909, -0.035879697650671005, -0.35324156284332275, 0.11985546350479126, -0.3873501718044281, -0.3865067958831787, 0.576433598...	1	The Invasion of Curaçao in 1800 during the French Revolutionary Wars was launched by French forces against the Batavian Republic. The French had landed on the island on 22 July, and on 5 September attacked and captured a fort protecting the town of Willemstad, Curaçao. The American consul sent for help, and on 10 September the Dutch governor of the island surrendered to a British frigate, HMS Nereide, who promised to protect the town but did little to help. On 22 September the American sloopsUSS Patapsco and USS Merrimack arrived, and on 23 September the Patapsco sailed into the harbor and landed troops to reinforce the garrison protecting the town. On 23 September and 24 September the French fired upon the defenders, consequently exchanging cannon and musket fire with them throughout the day and night. Though it appeared a French assault was imminent, French forces left the island during the night. Significantly, the French suffered many killed or wounded in contrast to two American wounded. The British took control of the island, and American forces sailed away. The island of Curaçao was important to American merchants in the Caribbean, and ships had been stationed near there to guard American interests since the start of the Quasi-War. The sloop USS Patapsco was ordered to sail there in May 1800, and arrived in June and left soon afterwards. No American warships ships were stationed at Curaçao on 23 July when a French fleet arrived from Guadeloupe, consisting of 5 ships and 1,400 troops, sailors and Guadeloupean militia. The French forces landed and their commander demanded the surrender of the forts, which Governor Johan Lausser refused.	375	ENGLISH	1
Marie Antoinette and Maine hardly trip off the tongue together, but an intrepid ship captain from the state nearly saved the life of the French queen. She was awaiting trial in prison in 1792 when Stephen Clough of Wiscasset arrived at the French port in Havre with a load of lumber aboard the ship Sally. Clough was working for James Swan, a former colonel in the American Revolution. Swan had emigrated from Scotland to Boston and succeeded at trading, particularly with France. Swan held large tracts of land in Virginia. He also acquired a group of islands off the coast of Maine, including Swan’s Island. In the 1780s, he faced mounting debts, so he turned to his old friend the Marquis de Lafayette for help. Lafayette arranged for him a profitable post supplying goods, including timber, to the French military. By 1792, however, France had fallen into disarray. Revolutionaries were toppling the monarchy and Lafayette fell from favor. Stephen Clough’s ship, Sally, and cargo were waylaid. While Clough tried to sort out what was going on, the king’s supporters noticed his vessel. They then began to plot. Fate of Marie Antoinette Political factions argued over the fate of the king and the queen, imprisoned in August and stripped of their titles in September. Moderates urged they be allowed to live, while radicals wanted them executed. The idea of exile in America came up, and it appealed to Swan. Jean Pierre de Batz (or de Bance), Baron de Sainte-Croix, was searching for a way to rescue the royal family. He and Alexandre Gonsse de Rougeville, another counter-revolutionary, came up with a plan and approached Clough. They would arrange for the release of his ship and payment for his cargo, and in return he would ferry the royal family to America. Clough accepted the offer and, as his ship lay in the harbor, he began surreptitiously loading it with items for the royal family – furnishings, rugs, tapestries, china, etc. King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette remained popular in America, warmly remembered for their support of the colonies in the war with England. Though Catholic, they would still have friends in the new country. Time was running out, however. The revolutionaries got the trial of the king they wanted in January of 1793. A group of 721 men controlled his fate, as they voted on whether he should be executed. When the voting ended, 361, the minimum needed, voted for execution. Louis XVI fell to the guillotine. The sentiment against Marie Antoinette was now growing more hostile. Once imprisoned, the king, queen, and their two children had all been held separately. Marie Antoinette was increasingly despised. Her profligacy, gambling and expensive tastes were all resented by an impoverished nation struggling with massive debts. Let Them Eat Cake — Not! The propagandists worked overtime to blacken her name further. They created the story that when informed that peasants were starving for lack of bread, she replied: Let them eat cake. The queen never did say that. In fact, the story had been created and used against others before her, but the legend stuck to Marie Antoinette. The radicals began looking for more ways to slander her, and built spurious charges, including that she abused her son. Her supporters realized they needed to act quickly. In July or August, they sent word to her in prison that they were planning her escape. They planned to have a guard take her to the door of her prison where a carriage would meet her and take her to Clough’s ship. The message was sent in a note wrapped around the stem of a carnation flower. She managed to reply in writing by using a pin to prick holes in the paper. Now, sick with tuberculosis and, some researchers believe, cancer, she was ready to leave France. The plot backfired badly, however, as one of the guards got cold feet and revealed the note to his superiors. The revolution was by now spinning out of control. The radical elements of the revolution began to turn on the moderates, and the Reign of Terror got underway. Tens of thousands would be slaughtered before it ended. After the plot, dubbed the carnation conspiracy, was discovered Marie Antoinette’s captors had even less sympathy. They locked her in a stronger cell and guarded her even more closely. Maine Waits For A Queen Clough had managed to tell his wife to prepare for meeting the queen, and by some accounts many in Maine were working out a proper reception. He had warned that, far from being the glamorous queen they expected, they should prepare for a very weak and sickly woman. It’s not altogether clear that the plan called for the royal family to remain in Maine or even New England. Some accounts suggest that Swan actually intended to create a colony on his Virginia lands for French exiles. With the French conspirators now on the run, Clough began to realize that the chances of completing the escape were slim. In October, Marie Antoinette was tried. Her famous head of hair was cut off to give the guillotine a clear shot at her neck, and she was executed. Her body was dumped into an unmarked grave. It remained there until the monarchy was reestablished more than 10 years later. Some accounts say Clough was among the crowd of thousands who witnessed the execution of Marie Antoinette. After her death, he hastily put to sea, lest he be discovered as a collaborator. The French furnishings that Clough assembled were distributed among the Americans who had supported the plan. Many wound up with the Swan household in Boston (now in the Museum of Fine Arts). Others went with Clough to Wiscasset, Edgecomb and Westport. Some wound up in Henry Knox’s Thomaston mansion, probably via his son-in-law who was one of Swan’s sons. Stories of the attempted rescue of Marie Antoinette made the rounds for years. Clough, moved by the experience, named a daughter after her. This story about Marie Antoinette was updated in 2019.	<urn:uuid:617a8c74-080c-448b-95fe-5fa80550de77>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/let-eat-lobster-marie-antoinette-plans-move-maine/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00148.warc.gz	en	0.984359	1,311	3.28125	3	[ -0.3617890179157257, 0.22553756833076477, -0.0577395036816597, -0.5403960943222046, -0.1307968646287918, 0.09873215854167938, 0.17431586980819702, 0.19611619412899017, -0.013874702155590057, -0.283461332321167, 0.1618555188179016, -0.013499446213245392, 0.13952744007110596, -0.044272892177...	1	Marie Antoinette and Maine hardly trip off the tongue together, but an intrepid ship captain from the state nearly saved the life of the French queen. She was awaiting trial in prison in 1792 when Stephen Clough of Wiscasset arrived at the French port in Havre with a load of lumber aboard the ship Sally. Clough was working for James Swan, a former colonel in the American Revolution. Swan had emigrated from Scotland to Boston and succeeded at trading, particularly with France. Swan held large tracts of land in Virginia. He also acquired a group of islands off the coast of Maine, including Swan’s Island. In the 1780s, he faced mounting debts, so he turned to his old friend the Marquis de Lafayette for help. Lafayette arranged for him a profitable post supplying goods, including timber, to the French military. By 1792, however, France had fallen into disarray. Revolutionaries were toppling the monarchy and Lafayette fell from favor. Stephen Clough’s ship, Sally, and cargo were waylaid. While Clough tried to sort out what was going on, the king’s supporters noticed his vessel. They then began to plot. Fate of Marie Antoinette Political factions argued over the fate of the king and the queen, imprisoned in August and stripped of their titles in September. Moderates urged they be allowed to live, while radicals wanted them executed. The idea of exile in America came up, and it appealed to Swan. Jean Pierre de Batz (or de Bance), Baron de Sainte-Croix, was searching for a way to rescue the royal family. He and Alexandre Gonsse de Rougeville, another counter-revolutionary, came up with a plan and approached Clough. They would arrange for the release of his ship and payment for his cargo, and in return he would ferry the royal family to America. Clough accepted the offer and, as his ship lay in the harbor, he began surreptitiously loading it with items for the royal family – furnishings, rugs, tapestries, china, etc. King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette remained popular in America, warmly remembered for their support of the colonies in the war with England. Though Catholic, they would still have friends in the new country. Time was running out, however. The revolutionaries got the trial of the king they wanted in January of 1793. A group of 721 men controlled his fate, as they voted on whether he should be executed. When the voting ended, 361, the minimum needed, voted for execution. Louis XVI fell to the guillotine. The sentiment against Marie Antoinette was now growing more hostile. Once imprisoned, the king, queen, and their two children had all been held separately. Marie Antoinette was increasingly despised. Her profligacy, gambling and expensive tastes were all resented by an impoverished nation struggling with massive debts. Let Them Eat Cake — Not! The propagandists worked overtime to blacken her name further. They created the story that when informed that peasants were starving for lack of bread, she replied: Let them eat cake. The queen never did say that. In fact, the story had been created and used against others before her, but the legend stuck to Marie Antoinette. The radicals began looking for more ways to slander her, and built spurious charges, including that she abused her son. Her supporters realized they needed to act quickly. In July or August, they sent word to her in prison that they were planning her escape. They planned to have a guard take her to the door of her prison where a carriage would meet her and take her to Clough’s ship. The message was sent in a note wrapped around the stem of a carnation flower. She managed to reply in writing by using a pin to prick holes in the paper. Now, sick with tuberculosis and, some researchers believe, cancer, she was ready to leave France. The plot backfired badly, however, as one of the guards got cold feet and revealed the note to his superiors. The revolution was by now spinning out of control. The radical elements of the revolution began to turn on the moderates, and the Reign of Terror got underway. Tens of thousands would be slaughtered before it ended. After the plot, dubbed the carnation conspiracy, was discovered Marie Antoinette’s captors had even less sympathy. They locked her in a stronger cell and guarded her even more closely. Maine Waits For A Queen Clough had managed to tell his wife to prepare for meeting the queen, and by some accounts many in Maine were working out a proper reception. He had warned that, far from being the glamorous queen they expected, they should prepare for a very weak and sickly woman. It’s not altogether clear that the plan called for the royal family to remain in Maine or even New England. Some accounts suggest that Swan actually intended to create a colony on his Virginia lands for French exiles. With the French conspirators now on the run, Clough began to realize that the chances of completing the escape were slim. In October, Marie Antoinette was tried. Her famous head of hair was cut off to give the guillotine a clear shot at her neck, and she was executed. Her body was dumped into an unmarked grave. It remained there until the monarchy was reestablished more than 10 years later. Some accounts say Clough was among the crowd of thousands who witnessed the execution of Marie Antoinette. After her death, he hastily put to sea, lest he be discovered as a collaborator. The French furnishings that Clough assembled were distributed among the Americans who had supported the plan. Many wound up with the Swan household in Boston (now in the Museum of Fine Arts). Others went with Clough to Wiscasset, Edgecomb and Westport. Some wound up in Henry Knox’s Thomaston mansion, probably via his son-in-law who was one of Swan’s sons. Stories of the attempted rescue of Marie Antoinette made the rounds for years. Clough, moved by the experience, named a daughter after her. This story about Marie Antoinette was updated in 2019.	1,292	ENGLISH	1
Infant adoption has been around for centuries, but it did not become legalized until the 1850s. Prior to this time, people might take in a baby whose mother and/or father could no longer care for them. However, they had virtually no rights to the child and the child had no rights as their family. The Beginnings of Legal Adoption In 1850, a law was passed in Massachusetts which recognized the legality of adoption. Technically, all that was required were willing adoptive parents, a child, and consenting biological parents. However, the statute wasn’t followed in most cases. Many times, the infant was treated as property. In fact, many adoptions focused around older children who were looked upon as labor for the families. Adoption records were open during this time, and often no information was kept at all. Birth certificates weren’t changed and nothing remained secret in the process of adoption. Birth parents could easily find their children and the adoptive families, which often created more confusion. During the 1930s and the decades following, changes in the system and process of adoption began. Records became sealed to protect the privacy of the birth family, the adopted child, and the adoptive family. Social workers decided who was given which child. No information was shared with them about the child, and if any was provided, it was often made up. An adoptive child’s search for their biological parents was discouraged and touted as the path to unhappiness. Changes to Adoption Major changes began in the 1960s and 70s as fewer women had babies to give up. The stigma of raising a child alone lessened and adoptees were able to begin searching for their birth families. During this time, birth families and adoptive families began sharing information with each other though most adoptions were still closed. Today, infant adoption in the US has changed radically from its beginnings. Not only do the birth parents and adoptive parents have the right to get to know each other, the potential birth mother may select the parents who will take her child. She even has the right to maintain contact with the family and be part of their lives in many situations. Adopt infants may be handled through private agencies, by private adoption, or through public agencies. It may be voluntary or involuntary, depending on the birth family’s circumstances. While the adoption process is still not perfect, it has come a long way from the early days. In today’s adoptions, the concerns and rights of all parties involved are considered and protected.	<urn:uuid:9b673894-49c3-47bf-bc18-6cb492109ce7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://adoptionweek.com/history-infant-adoption-us/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00138.warc.gz	en	0.988636	520	3.9375	4	[ -0.23275594413280487, -0.11318352818489075, -0.05635889247059822, -0.5208438634872437, -0.2909797430038452, 0.20675933361053467, -0.26104751229286194, -0.3279382586479187, 0.07707875221967697, 0.133463516831398, 0.21317584812641144, 0.429939329624176, -0.01587064005434513, -0.0099514434114...	5	Infant adoption has been around for centuries, but it did not become legalized until the 1850s. Prior to this time, people might take in a baby whose mother and/or father could no longer care for them. However, they had virtually no rights to the child and the child had no rights as their family. The Beginnings of Legal Adoption In 1850, a law was passed in Massachusetts which recognized the legality of adoption. Technically, all that was required were willing adoptive parents, a child, and consenting biological parents. However, the statute wasn’t followed in most cases. Many times, the infant was treated as property. In fact, many adoptions focused around older children who were looked upon as labor for the families. Adoption records were open during this time, and often no information was kept at all. Birth certificates weren’t changed and nothing remained secret in the process of adoption. Birth parents could easily find their children and the adoptive families, which often created more confusion. During the 1930s and the decades following, changes in the system and process of adoption began. Records became sealed to protect the privacy of the birth family, the adopted child, and the adoptive family. Social workers decided who was given which child. No information was shared with them about the child, and if any was provided, it was often made up. An adoptive child’s search for their biological parents was discouraged and touted as the path to unhappiness. Changes to Adoption Major changes began in the 1960s and 70s as fewer women had babies to give up. The stigma of raising a child alone lessened and adoptees were able to begin searching for their birth families. During this time, birth families and adoptive families began sharing information with each other though most adoptions were still closed. Today, infant adoption in the US has changed radically from its beginnings. Not only do the birth parents and adoptive parents have the right to get to know each other, the potential birth mother may select the parents who will take her child. She even has the right to maintain contact with the family and be part of their lives in many situations. Adopt infants may be handled through private agencies, by private adoption, or through public agencies. It may be voluntary or involuntary, depending on the birth family’s circumstances. While the adoption process is still not perfect, it has come a long way from the early days. In today’s adoptions, the concerns and rights of all parties involved are considered and protected.	522	ENGLISH	1
Jonathan Swift is famous today both as a writer of prose satire, in particular A Tale of a Tub (1704) and Gulliver's Travels (1726), and as a former 'Irish Patriot' Dean of St Patrick's in Dublin. As far as the latter is concerned, the decisive event was the death of Queen Anne in 1714. This led to the collapse of the Tory ministry with which Swift had been associated for four years, and to his return to Ireland, a return he regarded as a virtual exile. In Ireland he agitated against English oppression, and wrote Gulliver's Travels. A Description of the Morning was published in The Tatler on 30 April 1709, during Swift's residence in London as the emissary of the Church of Ireland. The poem refers to and rejects conventional, idealised descriptions of morning, offering instead a series of gritty, unromantic details.	<urn:uuid:ba9b8e68-b2f7-404c-ae6b-69d8f62e4ea8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315504735/chapters/10.4324/9781315504735-6	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00375.warc.gz	en	0.982735	182	3.28125	3	[ 0.02958289347589016, -0.23069092631340027, 0.4297431409358978, 0.03802253678441048, 0.08782578259706497, 0.22323353588581085, 0.2950010299682617, -0.08240730315446854, -0.15584513545036316, -0.23586405813694, -0.5624957084655762, -0.06301583349704742, 0.06983112543821335, 0.298972189426422...	1	Jonathan Swift is famous today both as a writer of prose satire, in particular A Tale of a Tub (1704) and Gulliver's Travels (1726), and as a former 'Irish Patriot' Dean of St Patrick's in Dublin. As far as the latter is concerned, the decisive event was the death of Queen Anne in 1714. This led to the collapse of the Tory ministry with which Swift had been associated for four years, and to his return to Ireland, a return he regarded as a virtual exile. In Ireland he agitated against English oppression, and wrote Gulliver's Travels. A Description of the Morning was published in The Tatler on 30 April 1709, during Swift's residence in London as the emissary of the Church of Ireland. The poem refers to and rejects conventional, idealised descriptions of morning, offering instead a series of gritty, unromantic details.	197	ENGLISH	1
From various tribes of Native Americans living and travelling through the area to our modern towns with populations made of many different cultures, Scotts Bluff has served as a landmark for a huge diversity of peoples. Although earlier people did not leave very much that shows what the bluffs meant to them, evidence shows they did camp at the foot of the bluff. On the other hand, the westward emigrants of the 19th century often mentioned Scotts Bluff in their diaries and journals. In fact, it was the second most referred to landmark on the Oregon, Mormon Pioneer and California trails after Chimney Rock. Over 250,000 people made their way through the area between 1843 and 1869, often pausing in wonder to see such a natural marvel and many remembered it long after their journeys were over. Early communications also came through Scotts Bluff . The riders of the Pony Express rode through Mitchell Pass from 1860-1861. Then came the telegraph. The first "singing wires", as they were known to the Native Americans, were strung between Eagle Rock and Sentinel Rock along the well traveled trails of the pioneers. As the area became more settled, the idea of protecting the fragile bluffs became popular. Scotts Bluff National Monument was proposed and became reality in 1919. The history of the monument development involved many people and a lot of time. Last updated: December 31, 2019	<urn:uuid:cf9b9d08-08e6-4e30-8a16-089aa50ba076>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nps.gov/scbl/learn/historyculture/index.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00187.warc.gz	en	0.986185	287	4.03125	4	[ 0.08690673112869263, 0.10176697373390198, 0.1291816085577011, 0.10351445525884628, -0.5905910730361938, 0.46863317489624023, 0.11113735288381577, 0.1106414943933487, -0.08733423054218292, 0.06733955442905426, 0.12093853205442429, 0.12771545350551605, 0.27689605951309204, 0.1176357567310333...	4	From various tribes of Native Americans living and travelling through the area to our modern towns with populations made of many different cultures, Scotts Bluff has served as a landmark for a huge diversity of peoples. Although earlier people did not leave very much that shows what the bluffs meant to them, evidence shows they did camp at the foot of the bluff. On the other hand, the westward emigrants of the 19th century often mentioned Scotts Bluff in their diaries and journals. In fact, it was the second most referred to landmark on the Oregon, Mormon Pioneer and California trails after Chimney Rock. Over 250,000 people made their way through the area between 1843 and 1869, often pausing in wonder to see such a natural marvel and many remembered it long after their journeys were over. Early communications also came through Scotts Bluff . The riders of the Pony Express rode through Mitchell Pass from 1860-1861. Then came the telegraph. The first "singing wires", as they were known to the Native Americans, were strung between Eagle Rock and Sentinel Rock along the well traveled trails of the pioneers. As the area became more settled, the idea of protecting the fragile bluffs became popular. Scotts Bluff National Monument was proposed and became reality in 1919. The history of the monument development involved many people and a lot of time. Last updated: December 31, 2019	312	ENGLISH	1
Lesson time 14:54 min Using “March Tale” as an example, Neil shows you how to expand your narrative by creating conflict for your protagonist and how to bring your story to a satisfying climax. Topics include: “March Tale” · Expanding the Narrative Some years ago, I got a call from BlackBerry. Actually the call came from an advertising agency, and they said would I come in and talk to them. I said sure. And they said BlackBerry are launching their first smartphone, and they want to do something to do with art. And they want you to do something to do with art. I said, well, do I have to do it with the BlackBerry? And they said, no, you just have to do a thing. What would you like to do? And I said, well, I have an idea that's a bit mad. I said so what I'd love to do is something that basically is the 21st century equivalent of when Harlan Ellison used to write short stories in the windows of bookshops, and he would set up his typewriter and a chair in the window and he would work. And he loved the idea that people were seeing him working and seeing what was actually happening and that seeing him staring and writing and not writing. So I put together a bunch of questions, 12 questions. And they were things like why is January dangerous? What's the strangest thing you've seen in July? What did you lose in November? Just questions that went out. What I didn't want was people suggesting titles for stories, suggesting ideas for stories. What I wanted was just to take a beautiful little idea and go OK, that's the starting point and for people to realize that anything could be a starting point. So my question that I asked for March was what historical figure does march remind you of? And I thought, well, that'll be a fun question because I'll get something that's got a person in it. And the reply was beautiful. The one that I picked just said Anne Bonny and her rapscallion heart dreaming for a ship of her very own. I found a notebook. I really liked this particular notebook because it's just a blank book. It's bound. I think it may even have been a misprinted book with no text in. And then I wrote calendar of tales in the front. I wrote down all of the months in order. And then I began to write. "So it was too warm in the great house. And so the two of them went out onto the porch. A spring storm was brewing far to the West. Already the flicker of lightning and the unpredictable chilly gusts blew about them and cooled them. They sat decorously on the porch swing, the mother and the daughter, and they talked of when the woman's husband would be home, for he had taken ship the tobacco crop to faraway England. "Mary, who was 13, so pretty, so easily startled said, 'I do declare, I'm glad that all the pirates have gone to the gallows, and father will come back to us safely.' Her mother's smile was gentle, and it did not fade as she said, 'I do not care to talk about pirates, Mary.' "She was dressed as a boy when she was a girl to cover up her father's scandal. She did not wear a woman's dress until she was on the ship with her father and with her mother his serving girl mistress whom he would call wife in the New World, and they were on their way from Cork to the Carolin... Award-winning author Neil Gaiman has spent more than a quarter of a century crafting vivid, absorbing fiction. Now, the author of Stardust, Coraline, and The Sandman teaches his approach to imaginative storytelling in his online writing class. Learn how to find your unique voice, develop original ideas, and breathe life into your characters. Discover Neil’s philosophy on what drives a story—and open new windows to the stories inside you. Splendid class. Made me go back and finish a story I'd left hanging. In general, there a number of specific techniques I've filed away in the folder for later. Slightly less general, I really enjoy Mr. Gaiman's personality, coming through with warmth as it does. As I don't want to enhance the competition too much, I will also say I very much enjoyed Mr. Gaiman's ending sentiment, considering it very wise. More than the tips on story craft, I found the lessons on strategies and habits much more useful. Combined with the writing exercises, I have made progress on current work and found inspiration for new ideas. I just wanted more. Drinking in lots of great advice that I will use in my next story	<urn:uuid:221369ae-b45d-4c71-b6ef-4f991093c2d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.masterclass.com/classes/neil-gaiman-teaches-the-art-of-storytelling/chapters/short-fiction-case-study-march-tale	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00192.warc.gz	en	0.988081	983	3.515625	4	[ -0.0008465704740956426, 0.2217336893081665, -0.06483671814203262, 0.06581281125545502, -0.33851486444473267, -0.062039636075496674, -0.09778428822755814, 0.278289794921875, 0.07700169086456299, 0.17887946963310242, 0.09556630998849869, 0.4286211431026459, 0.1743137240409851, 0.511742353439...	1	Lesson time 14:54 min Using “March Tale” as an example, Neil shows you how to expand your narrative by creating conflict for your protagonist and how to bring your story to a satisfying climax. Topics include: “March Tale” · Expanding the Narrative Some years ago, I got a call from BlackBerry. Actually the call came from an advertising agency, and they said would I come in and talk to them. I said sure. And they said BlackBerry are launching their first smartphone, and they want to do something to do with art. And they want you to do something to do with art. I said, well, do I have to do it with the BlackBerry? And they said, no, you just have to do a thing. What would you like to do? And I said, well, I have an idea that's a bit mad. I said so what I'd love to do is something that basically is the 21st century equivalent of when Harlan Ellison used to write short stories in the windows of bookshops, and he would set up his typewriter and a chair in the window and he would work. And he loved the idea that people were seeing him working and seeing what was actually happening and that seeing him staring and writing and not writing. So I put together a bunch of questions, 12 questions. And they were things like why is January dangerous? What's the strangest thing you've seen in July? What did you lose in November? Just questions that went out. What I didn't want was people suggesting titles for stories, suggesting ideas for stories. What I wanted was just to take a beautiful little idea and go OK, that's the starting point and for people to realize that anything could be a starting point. So my question that I asked for March was what historical figure does march remind you of? And I thought, well, that'll be a fun question because I'll get something that's got a person in it. And the reply was beautiful. The one that I picked just said Anne Bonny and her rapscallion heart dreaming for a ship of her very own. I found a notebook. I really liked this particular notebook because it's just a blank book. It's bound. I think it may even have been a misprinted book with no text in. And then I wrote calendar of tales in the front. I wrote down all of the months in order. And then I began to write. "So it was too warm in the great house. And so the two of them went out onto the porch. A spring storm was brewing far to the West. Already the flicker of lightning and the unpredictable chilly gusts blew about them and cooled them. They sat decorously on the porch swing, the mother and the daughter, and they talked of when the woman's husband would be home, for he had taken ship the tobacco crop to faraway England. "Mary, who was 13, so pretty, so easily startled said, 'I do declare, I'm glad that all the pirates have gone to the gallows, and father will come back to us safely.' Her mother's smile was gentle, and it did not fade as she said, 'I do not care to talk about pirates, Mary.' "She was dressed as a boy when she was a girl to cover up her father's scandal. She did not wear a woman's dress until she was on the ship with her father and with her mother his serving girl mistress whom he would call wife in the New World, and they were on their way from Cork to the Carolin... Award-winning author Neil Gaiman has spent more than a quarter of a century crafting vivid, absorbing fiction. Now, the author of Stardust, Coraline, and The Sandman teaches his approach to imaginative storytelling in his online writing class. Learn how to find your unique voice, develop original ideas, and breathe life into your characters. Discover Neil’s philosophy on what drives a story—and open new windows to the stories inside you. Splendid class. Made me go back and finish a story I'd left hanging. In general, there a number of specific techniques I've filed away in the folder for later. Slightly less general, I really enjoy Mr. Gaiman's personality, coming through with warmth as it does. As I don't want to enhance the competition too much, I will also say I very much enjoyed Mr. Gaiman's ending sentiment, considering it very wise. More than the tips on story craft, I found the lessons on strategies and habits much more useful. Combined with the writing exercises, I have made progress on current work and found inspiration for new ideas. I just wanted more. Drinking in lots of great advice that I will use in my next story	978	ENGLISH	1
Earthquake In A MEDC Japan, 1995 What Happened? • The earthquake occurred at 5.46am on the 17th January 1995. • It measured 7.2 on the Richter Scale and lasted 20 seconds. • Kobe lies on the Nojima fault, a destructive boundary, where the Philippine plate dives below the Eurasian plate. • This plate boundary is the reason for Japan's existence but also means that there is a constant earthquake threat. • Kobe was unlucky in the sense that the focus of the earthquake was very close to the surface and the epicentre was right beside the city. Primary Effects • included a death toll of approximately 5,500, with another 30,000 injured and 250,000 made homeless. • Over 100,000 buildings collapsed. • Infrastructure damage included a 1km stretch of elevated road, numerous railway bridges, and 120 of the city's 150 quays. Secondary Effects • included the fact that electricity, gas, water and sewage systems were all hugely disrupted. • Emergency services found it very difficult to get into the city due to the massive destruction of the roads. • Many temporary shelters were required, as well as food and medicines. • Cold weather meant that diseases spread quickly. Secondary Effects • A week after the earthquake fires still were burning, 2 million homes still were without power and 1 million were without water. • The fires destroyed over 7,000 more homes. • Hundreds of aftershocks, 74 strong enough for people to feel, meant people were too afraid to return to their homes for weeks after the event. Secondary Effects • Tough new laws, building codes and emergency plans were brought in after criticism of the Japanese Government. • Work is continuing to try to predict future earthquakes, but as yet there is very little way of giving any significant warning time.	<urn:uuid:a139129b-c2a6-4996-b416-5ef6e8d8a38f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.slideserve.com/latif/earthquake-in-a-medc	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00053.warc.gz	en	0.98179	372	3.375	3	[ -0.27367037534713745, -0.11859448254108429, -0.06792738288640976, -0.23268461227416992, 0.46257248520851135, 0.4588225185871124, 0.10970348119735718, 0.32392287254333496, 0.05603303387761116, 0.11209959536790848, 0.1132165715098381, -0.2822718620300293, 0.37764841318130493, 0.5455858707427...	2	Earthquake In A MEDC Japan, 1995 What Happened? • The earthquake occurred at 5.46am on the 17th January 1995. • It measured 7.2 on the Richter Scale and lasted 20 seconds. • Kobe lies on the Nojima fault, a destructive boundary, where the Philippine plate dives below the Eurasian plate. • This plate boundary is the reason for Japan's existence but also means that there is a constant earthquake threat. • Kobe was unlucky in the sense that the focus of the earthquake was very close to the surface and the epicentre was right beside the city. Primary Effects • included a death toll of approximately 5,500, with another 30,000 injured and 250,000 made homeless. • Over 100,000 buildings collapsed. • Infrastructure damage included a 1km stretch of elevated road, numerous railway bridges, and 120 of the city's 150 quays. Secondary Effects • included the fact that electricity, gas, water and sewage systems were all hugely disrupted. • Emergency services found it very difficult to get into the city due to the massive destruction of the roads. • Many temporary shelters were required, as well as food and medicines. • Cold weather meant that diseases spread quickly. Secondary Effects • A week after the earthquake fires still were burning, 2 million homes still were without power and 1 million were without water. • The fires destroyed over 7,000 more homes. • Hundreds of aftershocks, 74 strong enough for people to feel, meant people were too afraid to return to their homes for weeks after the event. Secondary Effects • Tough new laws, building codes and emergency plans were brought in after criticism of the Japanese Government. • Work is continuing to try to predict future earthquakes, but as yet there is very little way of giving any significant warning time.	409	ENGLISH	1
What did Mary Anning discover? The French naturalist George Cuvier had demonstrated that fossils were the remains of fantastical creatures that no longer roamed the earth, but it was Mary Anning’s discoveries of fossils along the coast of Dorset that brought home the fact that southern England once was filled with giant monsters more strange and terrible than the wildest dream. Somewhat unfairly, she gained scant credit for her achievement in her own short lifetime. Mary Anning was eventually acknowledged by the Royal Society as one of the ten British women who most influenced the history of science, but her background was one of poverty and her education was meagre. Her home, Lyme Regis, had become a holiday destination for the English middle classes, after the outbreak of revolution in France in 1792 had made the Continent too dangerous to visit. To scratch a living, Mary Anning’s poverty-stricken father dug strange-shaped rocks out of the crumbling cliffs nearby and sold them to the tourists. When was Mary Anning born? Mary Anning’s parents had ten children, but only two survived to adulthood. She herself born on 21 May 1799 but was struck by lightning aged fifteen months, appeared to be dead but was resuscitated by immersion in a warm bath. After that event, which a local doctor thought was miraculous, she seemed to blossom. She helped her father in the family business of collecting fossils. These were known locally as curios, and they had names such as ‘snake stone’ for the coiled-up ammonites and ‘devil’s fingers’ for belemnites. The cliffs they came from were composed of alternating layers of limestone and clay and are part of the Blue Lias geological formation from the later Triassic and earlier Jurassic times, between 195 and 200 million years ago. The area is now a world heritage site known as the Jurassic Coast. The cliffs are unstable, and during the winter they would regularly collapse, revealing more fossils. This season was when Anning did most of her work. This work was dangerous. Her father eventually died partly due to injuries sustained from a fall from a cliff, and she herself was nearly swept away in a landslide that killed her pet dog Tray.‘Perhaps you will laugh when I say that the death of my old faithful dog has quite upset me, the cliff that fell upon him and killed him in a moment before my eyes, and close to my feet … it was but a moment between me and the same fate.’ However, she persevered and her discoveries began to attract the notice of the gentlemen of science. In a find important to students of the Loch Ness monster, on 10 December 1823 she found the first complete Plesiosaurus,a 3.5 m (11 ft) long large marine reptile with a long neck and small head. This was very much like the creature the first witnesses, the Spicers described as crossing the road next to Loch Ness. Her discovery aroused huge excitement in the scientific community, which in England was largely composed of God-fearing Anglican clergymen. Plesiosaurus was one of the first reptiles to be discovered from the ‘antediluvian’ or Pre-Flood period described in the Bible. The name meant ‘near lizard’ to show that it was more like a modern reptile than Ichthyosaurus, the complete specimen of which Mary Anning had also found in the same rock strata just a few years earlier. The significance of her discovery was that as a creature with no living representative, Plesiosaurus provided evidence for the new theory of extinction. This theory contributed to some of Charles Darwin’s ideas about evolution. Tourists started to come to Lyme Regis to see Mary Anning at work. Lady Harriet Sylvester visited her on 17 September 1824 and noted in her diary: “The extraordinary thing in this young woman is that she has made herself so thoroughly acquainted with the science that the moment she finds any bones she knows to what tribe they belong. She fixes the bones on a frame with cement and then makes drawings and has them engraved… It is certainly a wonderful instance of divine favour – that this poor, ignorant girl should be so blessed, for by reading and application she has arrived to that degree of knowledge as to be in the habit of writing and talking with professors and other clever men on the subject, and they all acknowledge that she understands more of the science than anyone else in this kingdom.” Mary Anning also demonstrated a rigorous attitude towards scientific truth. She noticed that one of the fossil collectors, Thomas Hawkins, was ‘improving’ some of the finds: ‘He is such an enthusiast that he makes things as he imagines they ought to be; and not as they are really found.’Hawkins was later found to have added faked fossil bones to make some ichthyosaur skeletons seem complete and had then sold them on to the British Museum without declaring his additions. In this he was certainly not as egregious a faker as Charles Dawson, the Piltdown Man hoaxster, but truthfulness is the very foundation of scientific knowledge and Anning understood this. How and when did Mary Anning die? Mary Anning died of breast cancer at the age of 47. Towards the end of her brief life, she did gain plaudits from the geological community and was granted a small pension, but she suffered from her poverty and her gender. It is interesting to imagine what she could have done in our times. It is good to report that Lyme Regis is planning to erect a statue of their famous fossil hunter.	<urn:uuid:dafc4491-8f73-43b6-a62e-8a924e0a274d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.grahamhoyland.com/who-is-fossil-hunter-mary-anning/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00552.warc.gz	en	0.985664	1,169	3.515625	4	[ 0.0769294947385788, 0.20197555422782898, 0.7331265211105347, -0.2039688378572464, -0.07264094054698944, -0.026435619220137596, 0.09851904213428497, -0.03218642622232437, 0.002015547826886177, 0.06319735944271088, 0.07665526121854782, -0.3791247010231018, 0.1955922394990921, 0.4067394435405...	13	What did Mary Anning discover? The French naturalist George Cuvier had demonstrated that fossils were the remains of fantastical creatures that no longer roamed the earth, but it was Mary Anning’s discoveries of fossils along the coast of Dorset that brought home the fact that southern England once was filled with giant monsters more strange and terrible than the wildest dream. Somewhat unfairly, she gained scant credit for her achievement in her own short lifetime. Mary Anning was eventually acknowledged by the Royal Society as one of the ten British women who most influenced the history of science, but her background was one of poverty and her education was meagre. Her home, Lyme Regis, had become a holiday destination for the English middle classes, after the outbreak of revolution in France in 1792 had made the Continent too dangerous to visit. To scratch a living, Mary Anning’s poverty-stricken father dug strange-shaped rocks out of the crumbling cliffs nearby and sold them to the tourists. When was Mary Anning born? Mary Anning’s parents had ten children, but only two survived to adulthood. She herself born on 21 May 1799 but was struck by lightning aged fifteen months, appeared to be dead but was resuscitated by immersion in a warm bath. After that event, which a local doctor thought was miraculous, she seemed to blossom. She helped her father in the family business of collecting fossils. These were known locally as curios, and they had names such as ‘snake stone’ for the coiled-up ammonites and ‘devil’s fingers’ for belemnites. The cliffs they came from were composed of alternating layers of limestone and clay and are part of the Blue Lias geological formation from the later Triassic and earlier Jurassic times, between 195 and 200 million years ago. The area is now a world heritage site known as the Jurassic Coast. The cliffs are unstable, and during the winter they would regularly collapse, revealing more fossils. This season was when Anning did most of her work. This work was dangerous. Her father eventually died partly due to injuries sustained from a fall from a cliff, and she herself was nearly swept away in a landslide that killed her pet dog Tray.‘Perhaps you will laugh when I say that the death of my old faithful dog has quite upset me, the cliff that fell upon him and killed him in a moment before my eyes, and close to my feet … it was but a moment between me and the same fate.’ However, she persevered and her discoveries began to attract the notice of the gentlemen of science. In a find important to students of the Loch Ness monster, on 10 December 1823 she found the first complete Plesiosaurus,a 3.5 m (11 ft) long large marine reptile with a long neck and small head. This was very much like the creature the first witnesses, the Spicers described as crossing the road next to Loch Ness. Her discovery aroused huge excitement in the scientific community, which in England was largely composed of God-fearing Anglican clergymen. Plesiosaurus was one of the first reptiles to be discovered from the ‘antediluvian’ or Pre-Flood period described in the Bible. The name meant ‘near lizard’ to show that it was more like a modern reptile than Ichthyosaurus, the complete specimen of which Mary Anning had also found in the same rock strata just a few years earlier. The significance of her discovery was that as a creature with no living representative, Plesiosaurus provided evidence for the new theory of extinction. This theory contributed to some of Charles Darwin’s ideas about evolution. Tourists started to come to Lyme Regis to see Mary Anning at work. Lady Harriet Sylvester visited her on 17 September 1824 and noted in her diary: “The extraordinary thing in this young woman is that she has made herself so thoroughly acquainted with the science that the moment she finds any bones she knows to what tribe they belong. She fixes the bones on a frame with cement and then makes drawings and has them engraved… It is certainly a wonderful instance of divine favour – that this poor, ignorant girl should be so blessed, for by reading and application she has arrived to that degree of knowledge as to be in the habit of writing and talking with professors and other clever men on the subject, and they all acknowledge that she understands more of the science than anyone else in this kingdom.” Mary Anning also demonstrated a rigorous attitude towards scientific truth. She noticed that one of the fossil collectors, Thomas Hawkins, was ‘improving’ some of the finds: ‘He is such an enthusiast that he makes things as he imagines they ought to be; and not as they are really found.’Hawkins was later found to have added faked fossil bones to make some ichthyosaur skeletons seem complete and had then sold them on to the British Museum without declaring his additions. In this he was certainly not as egregious a faker as Charles Dawson, the Piltdown Man hoaxster, but truthfulness is the very foundation of scientific knowledge and Anning understood this. How and when did Mary Anning die? Mary Anning died of breast cancer at the age of 47. Towards the end of her brief life, she did gain plaudits from the geological community and was granted a small pension, but she suffered from her poverty and her gender. It is interesting to imagine what she could have done in our times. It is good to report that Lyme Regis is planning to erect a statue of their famous fossil hunter.	1,150	ENGLISH	1
The greater part of medieval civilization was a time of simplicity and little cultural development. Feudalism was the structure that governed medieval society and came to represent this time period. The church became the universal symbol of medieval unity. Toward the end of the medieval period, however, town life and large-scale trade and commerce were revived. Great changes took place in the church fostering a new era and change. Feudalism was a system of government that provided the structure for the political, social, and economic aspects of medieval civilization. It consisted of contracts between members of the nobility and less powerful nobles who served as their vassals. Economically it was a contract between the serfs who farmed that land and the nobles who owned it. Feudalism was very complex and confusing in some ways, but it could also be looked at as very simple. It was constructed in a pyramid or chess board-like form. Kings were at the top although they did not have much power, lords and vassals followed the king and had control of the lesser nobles. The serfs were at the base of the pyramid. A manor, otherwise known as the lords estate, was where everyone lived and worked. In exchange for a place to live, food, and mainly protection, the serfs farmed the land. Agriculture was the foundation of feudalism, where land and food was used to barter for other items. There were different taxes and positions of distinct people on the manor. This illustrates the complexity of feudal life during the medieval ages. If you look at it as what the duties were of each specific class you see the simplicity of feudalism. Each member of medieval society had its own particular tasks to perform. The serfs preformed the most labor-intensive tasks and often did the same thing everyday. The knights protected the manor and the lords were responsible for taking care of everyone on their manor. The feudal system could be compared to a modern corporation. The serfs could be looked at as the workers, the lords as management, the knights to the security, and the king would be the CEO of the company. Feudalism was complex in its organization and simple it its implementation. During most of the medieval time period the church was the center of society and was the law of the land. The church regulated business practices, had the power to tax, controlled all people through the power of excommunication and had influence on the aesthetic aspects of life. The church exemplified both the simplicity and complexity of medieval life. Monks led a very simple life. Their days were spent working hard, studying, and praying. The church wanted to make life simpler by standardizing the rite, calendar, and monastic rule. It was more complex then simple however. The church held a great deal of power that was often in conflict with the monarch. The head of the church, the pope, spent much of his time in Rome while attempting to govern the rest of Europe. It was difficult to govern such a large geographical area while residing in a city that was not centrally located. In A. D. 1377, Pope Gregory XI left Avignon and returned to Rome. This was known as the great schism and it developed great entanglement in the popes standing in medieval society. The crusades, while increasing the status of the pope, also increased the power of the monarchs over the nobles. Feudalism was broken down and the power the church was illustrated in the crusades. Certain aspects of the church tried to simplify life while other things only made it more complex. Population growth contributed to the migration of people from the manor to the town, which was the base of complexity in the later stage of the Middle Ages. A self-sufficient manor sometimes was the beginning of a town where people came to form a complex web of commerce and trade. Products were bought with money rather then used to barter for other necessities such as in the earlier stage of the Middle Ages. As the towns grew the people became dissatisfied with being ruled by the nobles and church. They wanted to govern and tax themselves, and eventually they began to do these things without the consent of the church or nobles. To better protect themselves the townspeople often joined together with people from other towns to form leagues. These leagues would band together to protect one another and promote trade. The people organized themselves even further with forming merchant and craft guilds. The guilds controlled the making and sale of particular products. Feudal lords as well as the church was concerned with the formation of towns. Townspeople were able to increase their wealth through the sale and manufacturing of goods, while the lords only produced what was needed for their manor. The serfs began to move away from the manor because they realized that they could have a better life if they lived in the towns. By forming autonomous towns, people created complex relationships between themselves and the monarchs and churches. This was the development of a more complex form of economic subsistence known as capitalism. Medieval civilization was a time of change in many different ways, both simple and complex. Feudalism was organized in a quite clear way yet the structure in which it was carried out and the roles played in it were confusing. The churchs power was very perplexing in that it had the power to run the government and economy. The way that the church wanted to standardize certain things was easy to understand. Towns were complex in their organization and in the way they divided the power among the common people and the nobles and church. Medieval society that was once based on faith became rooted in scholasticism. Many new ideas brought up through the medieval civilization forced the society to be both simple and complex in many aspects.	<urn:uuid:7921e7e4-ea1f-44bd-a6b3-6fe047b69210>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mypaynetapps.com/midevil-civilazation/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00156.warc.gz	en	0.989757	1,177	3.96875	4	[ -0.20303571224212646, 0.5633963346481323, 0.21996501088142395, -0.03681620955467224, 0.03553960472345352, -0.2599279284477234, -0.1842966079711914, -0.06161033734679222, -0.07647448778152466, 0.15764516592025757, -0.17392602562904358, -0.18025588989257812, 0.5648010969161987, 0.11087505519...	7	The greater part of medieval civilization was a time of simplicity and little cultural development. Feudalism was the structure that governed medieval society and came to represent this time period. The church became the universal symbol of medieval unity. Toward the end of the medieval period, however, town life and large-scale trade and commerce were revived. Great changes took place in the church fostering a new era and change. Feudalism was a system of government that provided the structure for the political, social, and economic aspects of medieval civilization. It consisted of contracts between members of the nobility and less powerful nobles who served as their vassals. Economically it was a contract between the serfs who farmed that land and the nobles who owned it. Feudalism was very complex and confusing in some ways, but it could also be looked at as very simple. It was constructed in a pyramid or chess board-like form. Kings were at the top although they did not have much power, lords and vassals followed the king and had control of the lesser nobles. The serfs were at the base of the pyramid. A manor, otherwise known as the lords estate, was where everyone lived and worked. In exchange for a place to live, food, and mainly protection, the serfs farmed the land. Agriculture was the foundation of feudalism, where land and food was used to barter for other items. There were different taxes and positions of distinct people on the manor. This illustrates the complexity of feudal life during the medieval ages. If you look at it as what the duties were of each specific class you see the simplicity of feudalism. Each member of medieval society had its own particular tasks to perform. The serfs preformed the most labor-intensive tasks and often did the same thing everyday. The knights protected the manor and the lords were responsible for taking care of everyone on their manor. The feudal system could be compared to a modern corporation. The serfs could be looked at as the workers, the lords as management, the knights to the security, and the king would be the CEO of the company. Feudalism was complex in its organization and simple it its implementation. During most of the medieval time period the church was the center of society and was the law of the land. The church regulated business practices, had the power to tax, controlled all people through the power of excommunication and had influence on the aesthetic aspects of life. The church exemplified both the simplicity and complexity of medieval life. Monks led a very simple life. Their days were spent working hard, studying, and praying. The church wanted to make life simpler by standardizing the rite, calendar, and monastic rule. It was more complex then simple however. The church held a great deal of power that was often in conflict with the monarch. The head of the church, the pope, spent much of his time in Rome while attempting to govern the rest of Europe. It was difficult to govern such a large geographical area while residing in a city that was not centrally located. In A. D. 1377, Pope Gregory XI left Avignon and returned to Rome. This was known as the great schism and it developed great entanglement in the popes standing in medieval society. The crusades, while increasing the status of the pope, also increased the power of the monarchs over the nobles. Feudalism was broken down and the power the church was illustrated in the crusades. Certain aspects of the church tried to simplify life while other things only made it more complex. Population growth contributed to the migration of people from the manor to the town, which was the base of complexity in the later stage of the Middle Ages. A self-sufficient manor sometimes was the beginning of a town where people came to form a complex web of commerce and trade. Products were bought with money rather then used to barter for other necessities such as in the earlier stage of the Middle Ages. As the towns grew the people became dissatisfied with being ruled by the nobles and church. They wanted to govern and tax themselves, and eventually they began to do these things without the consent of the church or nobles. To better protect themselves the townspeople often joined together with people from other towns to form leagues. These leagues would band together to protect one another and promote trade. The people organized themselves even further with forming merchant and craft guilds. The guilds controlled the making and sale of particular products. Feudal lords as well as the church was concerned with the formation of towns. Townspeople were able to increase their wealth through the sale and manufacturing of goods, while the lords only produced what was needed for their manor. The serfs began to move away from the manor because they realized that they could have a better life if they lived in the towns. By forming autonomous towns, people created complex relationships between themselves and the monarchs and churches. This was the development of a more complex form of economic subsistence known as capitalism. Medieval civilization was a time of change in many different ways, both simple and complex. Feudalism was organized in a quite clear way yet the structure in which it was carried out and the roles played in it were confusing. The churchs power was very perplexing in that it had the power to run the government and economy. The way that the church wanted to standardize certain things was easy to understand. Towns were complex in their organization and in the way they divided the power among the common people and the nobles and church. Medieval society that was once based on faith became rooted in scholasticism. Many new ideas brought up through the medieval civilization forced the society to be both simple and complex in many aspects.	1,178	ENGLISH	1
Why is election day on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November? Originally everything was back-timed so that the voting would be completed by the time the Electoral College was to meet on the first Wednesday in December; in 1792 it was specified that the election for presidential electors needed to be held “within 34 days preceding the first Wednesday in December, every fourth year.” In 1844 a bill was introduced (passed it in 1845) specifying a uniform election day for all states. The original bill stated “the first Tuesday of November,” but it was amended to note the “first Tuesday after the first Monday…” Without that alteration, the first Tuesday did not always fall within 34 days preceding the meeting of the Electoral College. (The first election where this new schedule was applied was 1848.) In 1887 the date of the Electoral College meeting was moved to the second Monday in January, in years following a presidential election; this wiped out the “within 34-days” issue. In 1936 another date change for the Electoral College occurred, and it’s the one we now abide by: The Electors now meet in their respective states to cast their votes on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December. The country has maintained the earlier tradition of the “Tuesday after the first Monday in November.” A Tuesday was selected because voters often had to travel to come in to town in order to vote. The government did not want people to have to travel on the sabbath (Sunday for most Americans), so a Tuesday was selected as being a preferred day of the week for voting.	<urn:uuid:8df5ad9a-e31a-4e02-b86f-c8913c314b39>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://americacomesalive.com/2012/11/01/why-is-election-day-on-the-tuesday-after-the-first-monday-in-november/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00196.warc.gz	en	0.980506	340	3.859375	4	[ -0.5620649456977844, 0.03753671050071716, 0.017562136054039, -0.15939952433109283, -0.6306525468826294, 0.4706950783729553, -0.3607061505317688, 0.09592603147029877, 0.2068861424922943, 0.19300208985805511, 0.36127740144729614, 0.3037934899330139, -0.08519265800714493, 0.21326228976249695,...	1	Why is election day on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November? Originally everything was back-timed so that the voting would be completed by the time the Electoral College was to meet on the first Wednesday in December; in 1792 it was specified that the election for presidential electors needed to be held “within 34 days preceding the first Wednesday in December, every fourth year.” In 1844 a bill was introduced (passed it in 1845) specifying a uniform election day for all states. The original bill stated “the first Tuesday of November,” but it was amended to note the “first Tuesday after the first Monday…” Without that alteration, the first Tuesday did not always fall within 34 days preceding the meeting of the Electoral College. (The first election where this new schedule was applied was 1848.) In 1887 the date of the Electoral College meeting was moved to the second Monday in January, in years following a presidential election; this wiped out the “within 34-days” issue. In 1936 another date change for the Electoral College occurred, and it’s the one we now abide by: The Electors now meet in their respective states to cast their votes on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December. The country has maintained the earlier tradition of the “Tuesday after the first Monday in November.” A Tuesday was selected because voters often had to travel to come in to town in order to vote. The government did not want people to have to travel on the sabbath (Sunday for most Americans), so a Tuesday was selected as being a preferred day of the week for voting.	342	ENGLISH	1
CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS FOUNDATION Bill of Rights in Action SPRING 2009 (Volume 24, No. 4) John Stuart Mill and Individual Liberty British philosopher John Stuart Mill’s radical childhood education prepared him to write major works on philosophy and social reform. Writing in the mid-1800s, Mill’s views on freedom of expression and equal rights for women were far ahead of his time. John Stuart Mill’s father, James, trained to be a Presbyterian minister but became disillusioned and soon rejected all organized religion. James went to work as a journalist in London, and he joined philosopher Jeremy Bentham to lead a group of social reformers known as the Philosophic Radicals. They followed Bentham’s philosophy called Utilitarianism. Bentham attempted to devise a standard for human conduct and for deciding what public policies and laws society should adopt. He concluded that actions were right if they promoted the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. He argued that it was human nature to seek happiness, defined as pleasure, and to avoid unhappiness, defined as pain. The Philosophic Radicals used Bentham’s principle of happiness to mount a social reform movement in Britain. They sought to address social problems brought on by the Industrial Revolution. The radicals attacked the conservative landowning aristocracy that still dominated British society and resisted social change. They also called for such reforms as the right to vote for all adult men, a public education system, and population control to prevent too many workers, which depressed wages. James Mill married Harriet Burrow in 1805. The first of their nine children, John Stuart Mill, was born in London on May 20, 1806. With the encouragement and help of Jeremy Bentham, James designed a radical education program to home school his son. James set out to make John Stuart Mill a philosopher who would carry on the work of the Philosophic Radicals. John learned Greek at age 3 and started studying Latin at 8. By 10, he had read the Greek and Roman classic writers such as Plato and Cicero, English and Roman history, works on algebra and geometry, and Shakespeare. John read Newton’s Principia Mathematica at 11 and Aristotle’s work on logic at 12. As a young teenager, he studied philosophy and political economy (now called economics), including the works of John Locke, Adam Smith, and Jeremy Bentham. Every day, John took walks with his father, giving an account of what he had read and learned. His father was demanding, impatient, and a severe teacher, who constantly criticized John’s shortcomings. Later in life, John wrote in his Autobiography that he was “in awe” of his father who provided him with “an education for precise thinking” that made him “find out everything for myself.” He also remarked, “I was not at all aware that my attainments [accomplishments] were anything unusual at my age.” By age 15, John had read hundreds of works in Greek, Latin, and English equal to a classic university education. But he never attended any school or college. Nor did he have any friends his age because his father believed they would interfere with his education. Nor was he allowed any holidays or vacations from his studies. When the other Mill children came along, John’s father assigned him to teach them. In reality, John Stuart Mill never had a childhood. Mental Crisis and Renewal After 1819, James Mill worked as an administrator at India House, the London headquarters for the East India Company. This old trading firm had acquired the authority to govern Britain’s India colony. In 1823, he secured a job at India House for his 17-year-old son. John Stuart Mill’s duties at India House were light, which gave him time to write for literary journals. He also participated in debates, defending the Utilitarian views of his father and the other Philosophic Radicals. In 1826, however, at age 20, Mill suffered a mental crisis that apparently arose from a conflict between loyalty to his father and growing disagreement with some of his Utilitarian ideas. Mill also began to question the adequacy of his unique education. He later wrote, “The whole foundation on which my life was constructed fell down.” Mill began to see himself as a “mere reasoning machine.” He sensed “all feeling was dead within me.” He realized that his education had lacked such things as music, appreciation of natural beauty, and especially poetry. Utilitarians like his father thought these things distracted people from the reasoning necessary to arrive at universal truths in life. Mill began to read and meet Romantic writers and poets like Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Goethe. They all emphasized the importance of human feelings as a source for truth. Mill also explored history as another source of getting at the truth about how people should live and organize their societies. Mill began to doubt Bentham’s basic assumption of human nature: that people always seek pleasure and avoid pain to achieve happiness. Mill decided that “free will,” an individual’s freedom to choose his own form of happiness, could override the Utilitarian pleasure-pain principle. All this caused Mill to re-evaluate Utilitarianism. What was happiness? Mill thought that it was more than simply pleasure, as Bentham and his father had stated. Mill asserted that happiness was becoming whatever the individual wanted to be. This required individuals to develop their own minds, feelings, and imagination to become independent, thinking persons. Mill called this “individuality.” By individuality, Mill did not mean selfish individualism. He argued that to achieve true happiness, individuals should strive not only to develop themselves but also to help others do the same. Mill concluded that the role of society, the economy, and government was to enable individuals to achieve their individuality. Mill believed that individuality could not prosper without a “liberal culture,” consisting of individual liberties, equality of women, toleration of different lifestyles, a free-market economy, and limited government. Mill and Harriet Taylor Harriet Taylor, a wife of a pharmacist and mother of three, strongly supported equal rights for women and other social reforms. These issues, however, did not interest her husband, who provided little intellectual stimulation for her. In 1830, Harriet first met John Stuart Mill at a dinner party in her home. Both in their mid-20s, they quickly recognized their mutual interests and “affection” for each other. From this point on, she worked constantly with Mill, helping him write and edit his articles and books. Harriet’s husband demanded that she end her close relationship with Mill, but she refused. Instead, she devised an odd compromise to share herself with both men. She divided her time between living with her family at home and staying with Mill at a country cottage. This arrangement went on for more than 20 years. After he met Harriet, Mill began to make an impact on Britain’s intellectual world. In 1831, he wrote “The Spirit of the Age,” an essay that used history to show how Britain was going through a transition from feudalism to a new age. He hoped to foster an alliance of the middle and working classes to get rid of Britain’s old feudal aristocracy. When his father died in 1836, Mill experienced a personal liberation from the man who had dominated his life. Now 30, he took over his father’s job at India House. With Harriet’s steady support, Mill published books on logic and economics that made him a more important philosopher than his father. In his economics book, Mill criticized the selfish pursuit of money. Mill argued that wealth should only be a means to achieve the higher goal of individual self-development, what he called individuality. Mill wanted as many as possible to participate as business owners in a free-market economy. This was possible, he wrote, if workers pooled their money to buy out private businesses and operate them as cooperative enterprises. Workers would elect their managers and collect their wages from the profits of the enterprise, which would have to compete with other privately owned businesses. Mill opposed government central planning, which most European socialists advocated. His vision was every man and woman a business owner. He saw this as a way to help them achieve their self-development and happiness. Today, historians often classify Mill as a Utopian Socialist. Mill finally married Harriet Taylor in 1851 after the death of her husband. Both of them, however, soon suffered from tuberculosis. Believing he would die before long, Mill spent more time writing his Autobiography. But Harriet’s case was more severe, and she died in 1858 while they were on a trip in France. Mill buried her there and erected a monument with a long inscription, praising her. Mill and Harriet spent much time writing and rewriting “On Liberty.” They were almost ready to publish it when she died. He published this pamphlet-length work without further revision the following year, dedicating it to her. At the beginning of “On Liberty,” Mill stated that democracies like the United States were going to replace the absolute monarchies and tyrannies of the past. With the people in control of their governments, however, a new problem arose. Based on his careful reading of Democracy in America by Alexis de Tocqueville, Mill feared that the “will of the people” would more often be the “will of the majority.” This could threaten liberty and individual self-development if the majority acted to oppress minority viewpoints and lifestyles. A democracy, Mill argued, could easily become a “tyranny of the majority.” To overcome this threat, Mill proposed what philosophers today call his “harm principle.” Mill wrote that “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.” Mills’ “harm principle” would block democratic majorities from interfering with the liberty of any adult unless that person threatened harm to others. Mill then identified the specific liberties he had in mind: • “liberty of conscience” • “liberty of thought and feeling” • “absolute freedom of opinion” • “liberty of expressing and publishing opinions” (freedom of speech and press) • “freedom to unite, for any purpose” (freedom of assembly) • “liberty . . . of forming the plan of our life to suit our own character, of doing what we like” even if this appeared to be “foolish, perverse, or wrong” Any society without these liberties, Mill declared, was not free. “The only freedom which deserves the name,” he wrote, “is that of pursuing our own good in our own way, so long as we do not attempt to deprive others of theirs, or impede [obstruct] their efforts to obtain it.” Mill further argued that truth is found through the “collision of adverse opinions.” He wrote, “He who knows only his side of the case, knows little of that.” When people listen only to one viewpoint, he explained, “errors harden into prejudices, and truth itself ceases to have the effect of truth, by being exaggerated into falsehood.” Mill recognized that individual liberty needed limits or else harm to others may result. He gave the example of an “excited mob” outside the house of a grain dealer, shouting that he was starving the poor. In such circumstances, Mill agreed, the police were justified in arresting those whose angry words might easily inflame violence. He also said that the government had no business censoring those same words published in a newspaper article. Mill argued that “an atmosphere of freedom” was necessary to assure all people the opportunity to develop their individuality. He condemned British society of his day for its suffocating conformity. He applauded original thinkers, oddballs, geniuses, and nonconformists who experimented with different lifestyles, thus preventing human life from becoming a “stagnant pool.” Mill stated that government should be limited to providing the conditions necessary for people to achieve their individuality. He cited examples of when government was wrong in trying to stamp out certain human behavior and lifestyles. One example was prohibiting gambling. Another was persecuting the Mormon religion. On the other hand, he argued that government was right to prohibit people from getting married if they could not support their children. To have a child, he wrote, “without a fair prospect of being able, not only to provide food for its body, but instruction for its mind, is a moral crime, both against the unfortunate offspring and against society.” Mill’s “On Liberty” drew criticism. Some accused him of encouraging anarchy, immorality, and godlessness. Other critics doubted that he had adequately defined “harm” and questioned his assumption that people actually wanted to pursue self-development. Mill himself remarked that “On Liberty” was “likely to survive longer than anything else that I have written.” He was right. It is his most famous work and has never gone out of print. ‘The Subjection of Women’ After publishing “On Liberty” in 1859, Mill turned to political reform. He advocated expanding the right to vote to all adults, including women. He devised, however, a controversial voting system, which gave more voting power to those with an education (rather than owners of property). Mill supported government subsidies to parents who could not afford schooling for their children. But he opposed a public school system because he believed it would enforce social conformity. An opponent of slavery (which Britain had abolished in 1833), Mill supported the North during the American Civil War. He wrote that if the South won this “would be a victory of the powers of evil, which would give courage to the enemies of progress.” In 1865, Mill won a Liberal Party seat in Parliament. He ran on the condition that he would only vote his conscience, even if this went against the wishes of the voters he represented. Mill saw his seat in Parliament as a platform to voice his views on political and social reforms, especially the right of women to vote. In 1867, he helped organize Britain’s first women’s suffrage (right to vote) society. His speeches and votes in Parliament were often far ahead of his time. Consequently, he was defeated for re-election in 1868 after serving only one term. The year after he left Parliament, Mill published “The Subjection of Women.” This pamphlet summarized his longstanding arguments for the equality of women in Britain’s male-dominated society. He stressed that women should have the same rights as men to develop their individuality. This included the right to own property, earn a college education, choose any occupation, and participate fully in politics. Mill disagreed sharply with his father on women’s suffrage. James Mill always held that a husband represented his wife when he voted, so she had no reason to exercise this right. John, however, argued that a wife’s interests were often different from those of her husband, and thus she should have an equal right to vote for them. Despite Mill’s efforts, British women did not secure even a limited right to vote until 1918, long after he died. * * * * * In his last years, Mill finally wrote on religion, a topic that he had avoided all his life. His critics often called him an atheist. He wrote, however, that he accepted the existence of God as probable and Jesus as a great prophet. Even so, he believed that organized religions opposed social change and restricted individual self-development. Mill died in France in 1873, a few days short of his 67th birthday and was buried next to Harriet. Helen Taylor, Harriet’s daughter who cared for Mill after she died, published his now-famous Autobiography soon after his death. Today, most consider John Stuart Mill Britain’s greatest philosopher of the 19th century. He was also one of the last major world thinkers to write on nearly every philosophical topic, ranging from logic to religion. His farsighted views on democracy, individual liberty, and equality for women make him as relevant today as in his own day. For Discussion and Writing 1. Mill redefined the Utilitarian concept of happiness as achieving “individuality.” What did he mean by this? Do you agree with him? Explain. 2. What did Mill mean by the “tyranny of the majority”? Do you think this is a problem for democracy? Why? 3. Do you think Mill would object to laws stopping individuals from doing harm to themselves such as taking addictive drugs? Why? For Further Reading Capaldi, Nicholas. John Stuart Mill: A Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Mill, John Stuart. The Basic Writings of John Stuart Mill. New York: The Modern Library, 2002. A C T I V I T Y The Harm Principle In “On Liberty,” John Stuart Mill defined harm to others in this way: Whenever, in short, there is a definite damage, or a definite risk of damage, either to an individual or to the public, the case is taken out of the province of liberty, and placed in that of morality or law. Form six small groups to each discuss one of the situations listed below. In each case, group members should decide if it meets Mills’ definition of harm. According to Mill, if something is harmful, then government is justified in passing a law to prevent the harm. 1. A business person opens a pornographic bookstore. 2. Two people of the same sex get married to each other. 3. A private college newspaper prints articles that promote hatred of certain races. 4. An individual neglects and cruelly abuses his dogs. 5. Protesters burn an American flag. 6. An atheist organization pays for a highway billboard that says, “God Does Not Exist. Enjoy Life Now.” Each group should report its decision and explain why harm to others does or does not exist.	<urn:uuid:1bce55b3-f122-4bbf-9303-6a245b8a07ea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-24-4-john-stuart-mill-and-individual-liberty.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00302.warc.gz	en	0.982888	3,861	4.0625	4	[ -0.5756511092185974, 0.2727283239364624, -0.019249005243182182, -0.17830486595630646, -0.2407446801662445, 0.5058928728103638, -0.016670912504196167, 0.21311190724372864, -0.43205103278160095, -0.13534396886825562, -0.36754676699638367, 0.3834317624568939, 0.07561417669057846, 0.1528700590...	5	CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS FOUNDATION Bill of Rights in Action SPRING 2009 (Volume 24, No. 4) John Stuart Mill and Individual Liberty British philosopher John Stuart Mill’s radical childhood education prepared him to write major works on philosophy and social reform. Writing in the mid-1800s, Mill’s views on freedom of expression and equal rights for women were far ahead of his time. John Stuart Mill’s father, James, trained to be a Presbyterian minister but became disillusioned and soon rejected all organized religion. James went to work as a journalist in London, and he joined philosopher Jeremy Bentham to lead a group of social reformers known as the Philosophic Radicals. They followed Bentham’s philosophy called Utilitarianism. Bentham attempted to devise a standard for human conduct and for deciding what public policies and laws society should adopt. He concluded that actions were right if they promoted the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. He argued that it was human nature to seek happiness, defined as pleasure, and to avoid unhappiness, defined as pain. The Philosophic Radicals used Bentham’s principle of happiness to mount a social reform movement in Britain. They sought to address social problems brought on by the Industrial Revolution. The radicals attacked the conservative landowning aristocracy that still dominated British society and resisted social change. They also called for such reforms as the right to vote for all adult men, a public education system, and population control to prevent too many workers, which depressed wages. James Mill married Harriet Burrow in 1805. The first of their nine children, John Stuart Mill, was born in London on May 20, 1806. With the encouragement and help of Jeremy Bentham, James designed a radical education program to home school his son. James set out to make John Stuart Mill a philosopher who would carry on the work of the Philosophic Radicals. John learned Greek at age 3 and started studying Latin at 8. By 10, he had read the Greek and Roman classic writers such as Plato and Cicero, English and Roman history, works on algebra and geometry, and Shakespeare. John read Newton’s Principia Mathematica at 11 and Aristotle’s work on logic at 12. As a young teenager, he studied philosophy and political economy (now called economics), including the works of John Locke, Adam Smith, and Jeremy Bentham. Every day, John took walks with his father, giving an account of what he had read and learned. His father was demanding, impatient, and a severe teacher, who constantly criticized John’s shortcomings. Later in life, John wrote in his Autobiography that he was “in awe” of his father who provided him with “an education for precise thinking” that made him “find out everything for myself.” He also remarked, “I was not at all aware that my attainments [accomplishments] were anything unusual at my age.” By age 15, John had read hundreds of works in Greek, Latin, and English equal to a classic university education. But he never attended any school or college. Nor did he have any friends his age because his father believed they would interfere with his education. Nor was he allowed any holidays or vacations from his studies. When the other Mill children came along, John’s father assigned him to teach them. In reality, John Stuart Mill never had a childhood. Mental Crisis and Renewal After 1819, James Mill worked as an administrator at India House, the London headquarters for the East India Company. This old trading firm had acquired the authority to govern Britain’s India colony. In 1823, he secured a job at India House for his 17-year-old son. John Stuart Mill’s duties at India House were light, which gave him time to write for literary journals. He also participated in debates, defending the Utilitarian views of his father and the other Philosophic Radicals. In 1826, however, at age 20, Mill suffered a mental crisis that apparently arose from a conflict between loyalty to his father and growing disagreement with some of his Utilitarian ideas. Mill also began to question the adequacy of his unique education. He later wrote, “The whole foundation on which my life was constructed fell down.” Mill began to see himself as a “mere reasoning machine.” He sensed “all feeling was dead within me.” He realized that his education had lacked such things as music, appreciation of natural beauty, and especially poetry. Utilitarians like his father thought these things distracted people from the reasoning necessary to arrive at universal truths in life. Mill began to read and meet Romantic writers and poets like Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Goethe. They all emphasized the importance of human feelings as a source for truth. Mill also explored history as another source of getting at the truth about how people should live and organize their societies. Mill began to doubt Bentham’s basic assumption of human nature: that people always seek pleasure and avoid pain to achieve happiness. Mill decided that “free will,” an individual’s freedom to choose his own form of happiness, could override the Utilitarian pleasure-pain principle. All this caused Mill to re-evaluate Utilitarianism. What was happiness? Mill thought that it was more than simply pleasure, as Bentham and his father had stated. Mill asserted that happiness was becoming whatever the individual wanted to be. This required individuals to develop their own minds, feelings, and imagination to become independent, thinking persons. Mill called this “individuality.” By individuality, Mill did not mean selfish individualism. He argued that to achieve true happiness, individuals should strive not only to develop themselves but also to help others do the same. Mill concluded that the role of society, the economy, and government was to enable individuals to achieve their individuality. Mill believed that individuality could not prosper without a “liberal culture,” consisting of individual liberties, equality of women, toleration of different lifestyles, a free-market economy, and limited government. Mill and Harriet Taylor Harriet Taylor, a wife of a pharmacist and mother of three, strongly supported equal rights for women and other social reforms. These issues, however, did not interest her husband, who provided little intellectual stimulation for her. In 1830, Harriet first met John Stuart Mill at a dinner party in her home. Both in their mid-20s, they quickly recognized their mutual interests and “affection” for each other. From this point on, she worked constantly with Mill, helping him write and edit his articles and books. Harriet’s husband demanded that she end her close relationship with Mill, but she refused. Instead, she devised an odd compromise to share herself with both men. She divided her time between living with her family at home and staying with Mill at a country cottage. This arrangement went on for more than 20 years. After he met Harriet, Mill began to make an impact on Britain’s intellectual world. In 1831, he wrote “The Spirit of the Age,” an essay that used history to show how Britain was going through a transition from feudalism to a new age. He hoped to foster an alliance of the middle and working classes to get rid of Britain’s old feudal aristocracy. When his father died in 1836, Mill experienced a personal liberation from the man who had dominated his life. Now 30, he took over his father’s job at India House. With Harriet’s steady support, Mill published books on logic and economics that made him a more important philosopher than his father. In his economics book, Mill criticized the selfish pursuit of money. Mill argued that wealth should only be a means to achieve the higher goal of individual self-development, what he called individuality. Mill wanted as many as possible to participate as business owners in a free-market economy. This was possible, he wrote, if workers pooled their money to buy out private businesses and operate them as cooperative enterprises. Workers would elect their managers and collect their wages from the profits of the enterprise, which would have to compete with other privately owned businesses. Mill opposed government central planning, which most European socialists advocated. His vision was every man and woman a business owner. He saw this as a way to help them achieve their self-development and happiness. Today, historians often classify Mill as a Utopian Socialist. Mill finally married Harriet Taylor in 1851 after the death of her husband. Both of them, however, soon suffered from tuberculosis. Believing he would die before long, Mill spent more time writing his Autobiography. But Harriet’s case was more severe, and she died in 1858 while they were on a trip in France. Mill buried her there and erected a monument with a long inscription, praising her. Mill and Harriet spent much time writing and rewriting “On Liberty.” They were almost ready to publish it when she died. He published this pamphlet-length work without further revision the following year, dedicating it to her. At the beginning of “On Liberty,” Mill stated that democracies like the United States were going to replace the absolute monarchies and tyrannies of the past. With the people in control of their governments, however, a new problem arose. Based on his careful reading of Democracy in America by Alexis de Tocqueville, Mill feared that the “will of the people” would more often be the “will of the majority.” This could threaten liberty and individual self-development if the majority acted to oppress minority viewpoints and lifestyles. A democracy, Mill argued, could easily become a “tyranny of the majority.” To overcome this threat, Mill proposed what philosophers today call his “harm principle.” Mill wrote that “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.” Mills’ “harm principle” would block democratic majorities from interfering with the liberty of any adult unless that person threatened harm to others. Mill then identified the specific liberties he had in mind: • “liberty of conscience” • “liberty of thought and feeling” • “absolute freedom of opinion” • “liberty of expressing and publishing opinions” (freedom of speech and press) • “freedom to unite, for any purpose” (freedom of assembly) • “liberty . . . of forming the plan of our life to suit our own character, of doing what we like” even if this appeared to be “foolish, perverse, or wrong” Any society without these liberties, Mill declared, was not free. “The only freedom which deserves the name,” he wrote, “is that of pursuing our own good in our own way, so long as we do not attempt to deprive others of theirs, or impede [obstruct] their efforts to obtain it.” Mill further argued that truth is found through the “collision of adverse opinions.” He wrote, “He who knows only his side of the case, knows little of that.” When people listen only to one viewpoint, he explained, “errors harden into prejudices, and truth itself ceases to have the effect of truth, by being exaggerated into falsehood.” Mill recognized that individual liberty needed limits or else harm to others may result. He gave the example of an “excited mob” outside the house of a grain dealer, shouting that he was starving the poor. In such circumstances, Mill agreed, the police were justified in arresting those whose angry words might easily inflame violence. He also said that the government had no business censoring those same words published in a newspaper article. Mill argued that “an atmosphere of freedom” was necessary to assure all people the opportunity to develop their individuality. He condemned British society of his day for its suffocating conformity. He applauded original thinkers, oddballs, geniuses, and nonconformists who experimented with different lifestyles, thus preventing human life from becoming a “stagnant pool.” Mill stated that government should be limited to providing the conditions necessary for people to achieve their individuality. He cited examples of when government was wrong in trying to stamp out certain human behavior and lifestyles. One example was prohibiting gambling. Another was persecuting the Mormon religion. On the other hand, he argued that government was right to prohibit people from getting married if they could not support their children. To have a child, he wrote, “without a fair prospect of being able, not only to provide food for its body, but instruction for its mind, is a moral crime, both against the unfortunate offspring and against society.” Mill’s “On Liberty” drew criticism. Some accused him of encouraging anarchy, immorality, and godlessness. Other critics doubted that he had adequately defined “harm” and questioned his assumption that people actually wanted to pursue self-development. Mill himself remarked that “On Liberty” was “likely to survive longer than anything else that I have written.” He was right. It is his most famous work and has never gone out of print. ‘The Subjection of Women’ After publishing “On Liberty” in 1859, Mill turned to political reform. He advocated expanding the right to vote to all adults, including women. He devised, however, a controversial voting system, which gave more voting power to those with an education (rather than owners of property). Mill supported government subsidies to parents who could not afford schooling for their children. But he opposed a public school system because he believed it would enforce social conformity. An opponent of slavery (which Britain had abolished in 1833), Mill supported the North during the American Civil War. He wrote that if the South won this “would be a victory of the powers of evil, which would give courage to the enemies of progress.” In 1865, Mill won a Liberal Party seat in Parliament. He ran on the condition that he would only vote his conscience, even if this went against the wishes of the voters he represented. Mill saw his seat in Parliament as a platform to voice his views on political and social reforms, especially the right of women to vote. In 1867, he helped organize Britain’s first women’s suffrage (right to vote) society. His speeches and votes in Parliament were often far ahead of his time. Consequently, he was defeated for re-election in 1868 after serving only one term. The year after he left Parliament, Mill published “The Subjection of Women.” This pamphlet summarized his longstanding arguments for the equality of women in Britain’s male-dominated society. He stressed that women should have the same rights as men to develop their individuality. This included the right to own property, earn a college education, choose any occupation, and participate fully in politics. Mill disagreed sharply with his father on women’s suffrage. James Mill always held that a husband represented his wife when he voted, so she had no reason to exercise this right. John, however, argued that a wife’s interests were often different from those of her husband, and thus she should have an equal right to vote for them. Despite Mill’s efforts, British women did not secure even a limited right to vote until 1918, long after he died. * * * * * In his last years, Mill finally wrote on religion, a topic that he had avoided all his life. His critics often called him an atheist. He wrote, however, that he accepted the existence of God as probable and Jesus as a great prophet. Even so, he believed that organized religions opposed social change and restricted individual self-development. Mill died in France in 1873, a few days short of his 67th birthday and was buried next to Harriet. Helen Taylor, Harriet’s daughter who cared for Mill after she died, published his now-famous Autobiography soon after his death. Today, most consider John Stuart Mill Britain’s greatest philosopher of the 19th century. He was also one of the last major world thinkers to write on nearly every philosophical topic, ranging from logic to religion. His farsighted views on democracy, individual liberty, and equality for women make him as relevant today as in his own day. For Discussion and Writing 1. Mill redefined the Utilitarian concept of happiness as achieving “individuality.” What did he mean by this? Do you agree with him? Explain. 2. What did Mill mean by the “tyranny of the majority”? Do you think this is a problem for democracy? Why? 3. Do you think Mill would object to laws stopping individuals from doing harm to themselves such as taking addictive drugs? Why? For Further Reading Capaldi, Nicholas. John Stuart Mill: A Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Mill, John Stuart. The Basic Writings of John Stuart Mill. New York: The Modern Library, 2002. A C T I V I T Y The Harm Principle In “On Liberty,” John Stuart Mill defined harm to others in this way: Whenever, in short, there is a definite damage, or a definite risk of damage, either to an individual or to the public, the case is taken out of the province of liberty, and placed in that of morality or law. Form six small groups to each discuss one of the situations listed below. In each case, group members should decide if it meets Mills’ definition of harm. According to Mill, if something is harmful, then government is justified in passing a law to prevent the harm. 1. A business person opens a pornographic bookstore. 2. Two people of the same sex get married to each other. 3. A private college newspaper prints articles that promote hatred of certain races. 4. An individual neglects and cruelly abuses his dogs. 5. Protesters burn an American flag. 6. An atheist organization pays for a highway billboard that says, “God Does Not Exist. Enjoy Life Now.” Each group should report its decision and explain why harm to others does or does not exist.	3,714	ENGLISH	1
An 8-foot wave of the syrupy brown liquid moved down Commercial Street on a January morning at a speed of 35 mph. Wreckage of the collapsed tank visible can be seen in background. (Photo: BPL [public domain]/Wikimedia Commons) The 21 people who died in Boston on Jan. 15, 1919, had little warning of the events that were about to occur. According to an article published the next day in The New York Times, the only sound before the disaster was "a dull, muffled roar." That was the noise made by the explosion of a massive tank of molasses owned by the Purity Distilling Company. Moments later, more than 2 million gallons of hot, thick, sticky molasses flooded the surrounding streets, destroying buildings, overturning wagons and trucks, and even knocking an elevated train off its tracks. Witnesses say the wave of molasses reached as high as 30 feet tall and it traveled as fast as 35 miles per hour. For the people in the surrounding streets and buildings, there was no escape. Twenty-one people died, including three firemen who were killed when their nearby firehouse collapsed. Another 150 people were injured, and several horses were also killed. Police, a local Army battalion, the Red Cross and even the Navy arrived to help the survivors, but rescuers were hampered by the sticky goo that filled the streets. It took four days to find all of the victims, and another two weeks to clean up the molasses mess. Even today, nearly a century later, some people say the neighborhood still smells like molasses on hot summer days. Coverage of the Great Molasses Flood in the Boston Post. (Photo: Boston Post [public domain]/Wikimedia Commons) This terrible event has come to be known as the Great Boston Molasses Disaster, one of the most bizarre — and least talked about — tragedies in U.S. history. As Stephen Puleo writes in his excellent book, "Dark Tide: The Great Boston Molasses Flood of 1919," it's possible that the history books rarely take notice of the tragedy because no one "prominent" died that day. "The survivors did not go on to become famous," Puleo writes. "They were mostly immigrants and city workers who returned to their workaday lives, recovered from injuries, and provided for their families." Why did it turn into a disaster? So what caused the flood? Purity immediately placed the blame on anarchists, saying the explosion that ripped open the molasses storage tank must have been sabotage. Years of hearings and testimony by hundreds of people revealed otherwise: the tank wasn't built well and it was poorly maintained. It appears that the fermentation process combined with an abnormally warm day caused a buildup of pressure within the tank, more pressure than the roof and walls could contain. The unseasonably warm weather — 41 degrees, up from just 2 degrees that morning — may have also contributed to the high death toll, since more people were on the streets than would have been normal for Boston in January. More recently, scientists have been digging into the story, looking for clues. Nicole Sharp, an aerospace engineer who runs a popular Tumblr blog, and Jordan Kennedy of Harvard University gathered data from historical records and studied how molasses flows under various conditions, according to New Scientist. They wanted to know if fluid dynamics could help solve the mystery — and they were right. The true culprit: gravity currents, which come into play when a dense fluid spreads horizontally into a less dense fluid (in this case, molasses into air). It’s similar to how dense cold air will flow through an open door into a warm room, even if there is no wind to drive it. The density of the molasses alone would account for the speed of its initial spread. “Basically, you got bowled over by a tidal wave of molasses,” says Sharp, likening the effect to a sticky-sweet tsunami made of a substance 1.5 times as dense and several thousand times more viscous than water. Ultimately Purity and its parent company were found to be responsible. The civil lawsuit lasted until 1925. That year the company took a charge of $628,000 against its profits, reflecting settlements and legal costs related to the disaster. That's about $8.3 million in 2013 dollars. In his book, Puleo points out that the flood — though mostly forgotten today — embodies life in United States during the early 20th century. The tank was built during World War I. Prohibition arrived the following year. The labor movement was growing, dangerous anarchists were active, and the country was dealing with issues related to immigration. "The flood, therefore, was a microcosm of America, a dramatic event that encapsulated something much bigger," he writes, calling it "a lens through which to view the major events that shaped a nation." Puleo offers a closer look at the Boston Molasses Flood and how it impacted the neighborhood in this video: This story was originally published in June 2013 and has been updated with more recent information.	<urn:uuid:1d500362-3f1c-41fa-878a-f6cfdb6b0dce>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mnn.com/family/protection-safety/stories/the-1919-boston-molasses-flood-the-forgotten-tragedy-too-bizarre	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00250.warc.gz	en	0.981996	1,046	3.515625	4	[ -0.031957365572452545, 0.022340333089232445, 0.19512563943862915, -0.335003137588501, 0.12713170051574707, -0.02669132500886917, 0.0071629686281085014, 0.15259143710136414, -0.3955095112323761, -0.05408044159412384, -0.004363551270216703, -0.0747857540845871, -0.06484849750995636, 0.087381...	2	An 8-foot wave of the syrupy brown liquid moved down Commercial Street on a January morning at a speed of 35 mph. Wreckage of the collapsed tank visible can be seen in background. (Photo: BPL [public domain]/Wikimedia Commons) The 21 people who died in Boston on Jan. 15, 1919, had little warning of the events that were about to occur. According to an article published the next day in The New York Times, the only sound before the disaster was "a dull, muffled roar." That was the noise made by the explosion of a massive tank of molasses owned by the Purity Distilling Company. Moments later, more than 2 million gallons of hot, thick, sticky molasses flooded the surrounding streets, destroying buildings, overturning wagons and trucks, and even knocking an elevated train off its tracks. Witnesses say the wave of molasses reached as high as 30 feet tall and it traveled as fast as 35 miles per hour. For the people in the surrounding streets and buildings, there was no escape. Twenty-one people died, including three firemen who were killed when their nearby firehouse collapsed. Another 150 people were injured, and several horses were also killed. Police, a local Army battalion, the Red Cross and even the Navy arrived to help the survivors, but rescuers were hampered by the sticky goo that filled the streets. It took four days to find all of the victims, and another two weeks to clean up the molasses mess. Even today, nearly a century later, some people say the neighborhood still smells like molasses on hot summer days. Coverage of the Great Molasses Flood in the Boston Post. (Photo: Boston Post [public domain]/Wikimedia Commons) This terrible event has come to be known as the Great Boston Molasses Disaster, one of the most bizarre — and least talked about — tragedies in U.S. history. As Stephen Puleo writes in his excellent book, "Dark Tide: The Great Boston Molasses Flood of 1919," it's possible that the history books rarely take notice of the tragedy because no one "prominent" died that day. "The survivors did not go on to become famous," Puleo writes. "They were mostly immigrants and city workers who returned to their workaday lives, recovered from injuries, and provided for their families." Why did it turn into a disaster? So what caused the flood? Purity immediately placed the blame on anarchists, saying the explosion that ripped open the molasses storage tank must have been sabotage. Years of hearings and testimony by hundreds of people revealed otherwise: the tank wasn't built well and it was poorly maintained. It appears that the fermentation process combined with an abnormally warm day caused a buildup of pressure within the tank, more pressure than the roof and walls could contain. The unseasonably warm weather — 41 degrees, up from just 2 degrees that morning — may have also contributed to the high death toll, since more people were on the streets than would have been normal for Boston in January. More recently, scientists have been digging into the story, looking for clues. Nicole Sharp, an aerospace engineer who runs a popular Tumblr blog, and Jordan Kennedy of Harvard University gathered data from historical records and studied how molasses flows under various conditions, according to New Scientist. They wanted to know if fluid dynamics could help solve the mystery — and they were right. The true culprit: gravity currents, which come into play when a dense fluid spreads horizontally into a less dense fluid (in this case, molasses into air). It’s similar to how dense cold air will flow through an open door into a warm room, even if there is no wind to drive it. The density of the molasses alone would account for the speed of its initial spread. “Basically, you got bowled over by a tidal wave of molasses,” says Sharp, likening the effect to a sticky-sweet tsunami made of a substance 1.5 times as dense and several thousand times more viscous than water. Ultimately Purity and its parent company were found to be responsible. The civil lawsuit lasted until 1925. That year the company took a charge of $628,000 against its profits, reflecting settlements and legal costs related to the disaster. That's about $8.3 million in 2013 dollars. In his book, Puleo points out that the flood — though mostly forgotten today — embodies life in United States during the early 20th century. The tank was built during World War I. Prohibition arrived the following year. The labor movement was growing, dangerous anarchists were active, and the country was dealing with issues related to immigration. "The flood, therefore, was a microcosm of America, a dramatic event that encapsulated something much bigger," he writes, calling it "a lens through which to view the major events that shaped a nation." Puleo offers a closer look at the Boston Molasses Flood and how it impacted the neighborhood in this video: This story was originally published in June 2013 and has been updated with more recent information.	1,068	ENGLISH	1
The history behind the inclusion of “Natural Born Citizen” in the Constitution was proposed by one man – John Jay. Jay is described as “an American statesman, Patriot, diplomat, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, signer of the Treaty of Paris, and first Chief Justice of the United States (1789–95).” He was also the United States Minister to Spain from September 27, 1779 to May 20, 1782 where three of his children were born: “The happy marriage of John and Sarah Jay produced six children: Peter Augustus, born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, in 1776; Susan, born and died in Madrid after only a few weeks of life, in 1780; Maria, born in Madrid in 1782; Ann, born in Paris in 1783, William and Sarah Louisa, born in NYC in 1789 and 1792 respectively.” Alexander Hamilton’s original draft of the Constitution did not include the “natural born citizen” provision. It stated simply that “No person shall be eligible to the office of President of the United States unless he be now a Citizen of one of the States, or hereafter be born a Citizen of the United States.” This was not enough for Jay who on July 25, 1787 wrote the following letter to George Washington, the presiding president of the Convention: “Permit me to hint, whether it would not be wise and seasonable to provide a strong check to the admission of Foreigners into the administration of our national Government, and to declare expressly that the Command in chief of the American army shall not be given to, nor devolve on, any but a natural born Citizen.” It’s important to note that if the Natural Born Citizen requirement had been applied as some are applying it today, James Wilson (born in Carskerdo, Scotland), Alexander Hamilton (born out of wedlock, raised in the West Indies), and Robert Morris (Liverpool, United Kingdom) would not have qualified since they were born abroad to parents who were not American citizens. They were by definition “foreigners.” This is why Article Two, section 1 includes an exception for their specific circumstances: “No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen.” In effect, they were incorporated into the citizenry of the United States even though they were born abroad to parents who were not United States citizens: “While the Committee on Detail originally proposed that the President must be merely a citizen as well as a resident for 21 years, the Committee of Eleven changed ‘citizen’ to ‘natural born citizen’ without recorded explanation after receiving Jay’s letter. The Convention accepted the change without further recorded debate.” “Without explanation” is the problem. Let’s go back to John Jay. Remember, it was Jay who wanted the “natural born Citizen” requirement included. Here’s the question: Would Jay’s two surviving children have been eligible to be President since they were born in Spain if the exception had not been written into the Constitution since his children were born prior to its passage and on foreign soil? Did he really have his type of situation in mind when he proposed the “Natural Born Citizen” requirement, that children born abroad to parents who were born and raised in the United States would be excluded from running for President of the United States out of a divided loyalty? It didn’t seem to be a problem for Hamilton, Wilson, and Morris who were born abroad to foreign parents. Ted Cruz was born in Canada in 1970 to a mother who was a United States citizen. He lived in Canada for four years but “grew up in Texas and graduated from high school there, later attending Princeton University and Harvard Law School.” (H/T: Politifact) These facts make Ted Cruz more of an American than some of the drafters of the Constitution.Don't forget to Like Godfather Politics on Facebook and Twitter, and visit our friends at RepublicanLegion.com. Become an insider! Sign up for the free Godfather Politics email newsletter, and we'll make sure to keep you in the loop.	<urn:uuid:0951d24b-1b08-48e6-b842-6b82236a8e48>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://godfatherpolitics.com/three-children-of-the-founder-who-proposed-the-natural-born-citizen-clause-were-not-born-in-the-united-states/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00256.warc.gz	en	0.984356	935	3.59375	4	[ -0.2155032604932785, 0.2929602861404419, 0.30749577283859253, -0.3820677101612091, -0.3141106963157654, 0.3351672887802124, 0.41603079438209534, -0.10597361624240875, -0.13178156316280365, 0.3342628479003906, -0.11518684029579163, 0.4605119228363037, -0.07197833806276321, 0.113314568996429...	3	The history behind the inclusion of “Natural Born Citizen” in the Constitution was proposed by one man – John Jay. Jay is described as “an American statesman, Patriot, diplomat, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, signer of the Treaty of Paris, and first Chief Justice of the United States (1789–95).” He was also the United States Minister to Spain from September 27, 1779 to May 20, 1782 where three of his children were born: “The happy marriage of John and Sarah Jay produced six children: Peter Augustus, born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, in 1776; Susan, born and died in Madrid after only a few weeks of life, in 1780; Maria, born in Madrid in 1782; Ann, born in Paris in 1783, William and Sarah Louisa, born in NYC in 1789 and 1792 respectively.” Alexander Hamilton’s original draft of the Constitution did not include the “natural born citizen” provision. It stated simply that “No person shall be eligible to the office of President of the United States unless he be now a Citizen of one of the States, or hereafter be born a Citizen of the United States.” This was not enough for Jay who on July 25, 1787 wrote the following letter to George Washington, the presiding president of the Convention: “Permit me to hint, whether it would not be wise and seasonable to provide a strong check to the admission of Foreigners into the administration of our national Government, and to declare expressly that the Command in chief of the American army shall not be given to, nor devolve on, any but a natural born Citizen.” It’s important to note that if the Natural Born Citizen requirement had been applied as some are applying it today, James Wilson (born in Carskerdo, Scotland), Alexander Hamilton (born out of wedlock, raised in the West Indies), and Robert Morris (Liverpool, United Kingdom) would not have qualified since they were born abroad to parents who were not American citizens. They were by definition “foreigners.” This is why Article Two, section 1 includes an exception for their specific circumstances: “No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen.” In effect, they were incorporated into the citizenry of the United States even though they were born abroad to parents who were not United States citizens: “While the Committee on Detail originally proposed that the President must be merely a citizen as well as a resident for 21 years, the Committee of Eleven changed ‘citizen’ to ‘natural born citizen’ without recorded explanation after receiving Jay’s letter. The Convention accepted the change without further recorded debate.” “Without explanation” is the problem. Let’s go back to John Jay. Remember, it was Jay who wanted the “natural born Citizen” requirement included. Here’s the question: Would Jay’s two surviving children have been eligible to be President since they were born in Spain if the exception had not been written into the Constitution since his children were born prior to its passage and on foreign soil? Did he really have his type of situation in mind when he proposed the “Natural Born Citizen” requirement, that children born abroad to parents who were born and raised in the United States would be excluded from running for President of the United States out of a divided loyalty? It didn’t seem to be a problem for Hamilton, Wilson, and Morris who were born abroad to foreign parents. Ted Cruz was born in Canada in 1970 to a mother who was a United States citizen. He lived in Canada for four years but “grew up in Texas and graduated from high school there, later attending Princeton University and Harvard Law School.” (H/T: Politifact) These facts make Ted Cruz more of an American than some of the drafters of the Constitution.Don't forget to Like Godfather Politics on Facebook and Twitter, and visit our friends at RepublicanLegion.com. Become an insider! Sign up for the free Godfather Politics email newsletter, and we'll make sure to keep you in the loop.	906	ENGLISH	1
Abitibi First Nation Located adjacent to a large lake with a same name, is an Ojibway community known as Abitibi First Nation. According to 2016's census, their on-Reserve population is 144. They have 63 dwellings with 56 lived in. Average household size is 2.5 persons per household. Ojibway Language is no longer spoken at Abitibi First Nation. In 1972, they decided to establish two communities. One at Lake Abitibi and another near Amos, Quebec. On June 7, 1906 their leaders signed Treaty 9 at Lake Abitibi, in Quebec. Apparently some kind of predicament followed because Treaty 9 was intended only for Ojibway People in Ontario yet much of Abitibi First Nation Territory was in Quebec. These Ojibway Peoples district extends to James Bay. They used Abitibi River (A-bi-ta Sip-pi in Ojibway) to reach James Bay. Their district extends east to central Quebec, where O-bed-jiw-an is located. To their west, their district extends well past Timmins, Ontario. Lake Nipissing was possibly their districts southern boundary. However, Lake Abitibi was their main location. In Quebec, they use "Abitibiwinni" which is a no, no. Abitibi means 'Half or Middle Waters." It don't make sense. Translated, Abitibiwinni means Middle Waters Dirty. It should be written as "Ga-mi A-bi-ta-bi Winne" which means Lake Abitibi Is Dirty. Too many Ojibway People use "winni" to describe themselves. It was whites that initiated it. That has to stop. In Ojibway, Wini or Winne, means Dirty. After Ojibway leaders learned those evil people mentioned in Seven Fires Prophecy had invaded in very eary 16th century, they sent 10,000's of their soldiers and their families west, to fight those white invaders. They were led by ogima Sagima. He led large numbers of Ojibway's to Ottawa River from Manitoulin Island, then sailed up river. They scattered about between James Bay, Lake Superior, Lake Huron and Obedjiwan, Quebec. They eventually colonized St. Lawrence River Valley. One of their descendants are from Abitibi First Nation of Ontario.	<urn:uuid:1de359ae-2001-4988-8ca2-6f7c537b7e6e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.anishinabe-history.com/first-nation/abitibi.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00408.warc.gz	en	0.982483	501	3.359375	3	[ -0.20322245359420776, 0.07057740539312363, -0.006830753292888403, -0.17098277807235718, -0.29535430669784546, -0.08878760784864426, 0.5774149894714355, -0.019493509083986282, -0.27043870091438293, 0.20577901601791382, 0.036619894206523895, -0.9133327603340149, 0.2732594311237335, 0.4149608...	3	Abitibi First Nation Located adjacent to a large lake with a same name, is an Ojibway community known as Abitibi First Nation. According to 2016's census, their on-Reserve population is 144. They have 63 dwellings with 56 lived in. Average household size is 2.5 persons per household. Ojibway Language is no longer spoken at Abitibi First Nation. In 1972, they decided to establish two communities. One at Lake Abitibi and another near Amos, Quebec. On June 7, 1906 their leaders signed Treaty 9 at Lake Abitibi, in Quebec. Apparently some kind of predicament followed because Treaty 9 was intended only for Ojibway People in Ontario yet much of Abitibi First Nation Territory was in Quebec. These Ojibway Peoples district extends to James Bay. They used Abitibi River (A-bi-ta Sip-pi in Ojibway) to reach James Bay. Their district extends east to central Quebec, where O-bed-jiw-an is located. To their west, their district extends well past Timmins, Ontario. Lake Nipissing was possibly their districts southern boundary. However, Lake Abitibi was their main location. In Quebec, they use "Abitibiwinni" which is a no, no. Abitibi means 'Half or Middle Waters." It don't make sense. Translated, Abitibiwinni means Middle Waters Dirty. It should be written as "Ga-mi A-bi-ta-bi Winne" which means Lake Abitibi Is Dirty. Too many Ojibway People use "winni" to describe themselves. It was whites that initiated it. That has to stop. In Ojibway, Wini or Winne, means Dirty. After Ojibway leaders learned those evil people mentioned in Seven Fires Prophecy had invaded in very eary 16th century, they sent 10,000's of their soldiers and their families west, to fight those white invaders. They were led by ogima Sagima. He led large numbers of Ojibway's to Ottawa River from Manitoulin Island, then sailed up river. They scattered about between James Bay, Lake Superior, Lake Huron and Obedjiwan, Quebec. They eventually colonized St. Lawrence River Valley. One of their descendants are from Abitibi First Nation of Ontario.	529	ENGLISH	1
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Boston Massacre, (March 5, 1770), skirmish between British troops and a crowd in Boston, Massachusetts. Widely publicized, it contributed to the unpopularity of the British regime in much of colonial North America in the years before the American Revolution. In 1767, in an attempt to recoup the considerable treasure expended in the defense of its North American colonies during the French and Indian War (1754–63), the British Parliament enacted strict provisions for the collection of revenue duties in the colonies. Those duties were part of a series of four acts that became known as the Townshend Acts, which also were intended to assert Parliament’s authority over the colonies, in marked contrast to the policy of salutary neglect that had been practiced by the British government during the early to mid-18th century. The imposition of those duties—on lead, glass, paper, paint, and tea upon their arrival in colonial ports—met with angry opposition from many colonists in Massachusetts. In addition to organized boycotts of those goods, the colonial response took the form of harassment of British officials and vandalism. Parliament answered British colonial authorities’ request for protection by dispatching the14th and 29th regiments of the British army to Boston, where they arrived in October 1768. The presence of those troops, however, heightened the tension in an already anxious environment. The killing of Christopher Seider and the end of the rope Early in 1770, with the effectiveness of the boycott uneven, colonial radicals, many of them members of the Sons of Liberty, began directing their ire against those businesses that had ignored the boycott. The radicals posted signs (large hands emblazoned with the word importer) on the establishments of boycott-violating merchants and berated their customers. On February 22, when Ebenezer Richardson, who was known to the radicals as an informer, tried to take down one of those signs from the shop of his neighbour Theophilus Lillie, he was set upon by a group of boys. The boys drove Richardson back into his own nearby home, from which he emerged to castigate his tormentors, drawing a hail of stones that broke Richardson’s door and front window. Richardson and George Wilmont, who had come to his defense, armed themselves with muskets and accosted the boys who had entered Richardson’s backyard. Richardson fired, hitting 11-year-old Christopher Seider (or Snyder or Snider; sources differ on his last name), who died later that night. Seemingly, only the belief that Richardson would be brought to justice in court prevented the crowd from taking immediate vengeance upon him. With tensions running high in the wake of Seider’s funeral, brawls broke out between soldiers and rope makers in Boston’s South End on March 2 and 3. On March 4 British troops searched the rope works owned by John Gray for a sergeant who was believed to have been murdered. Gray, having heard that British troops were going to attack his workers on Monday, March 5, consulted with Col. William Dalrymple, the commander of the 14th Regiment. Both men agreed to restrain those in their charge, but rumours of an imminent encounter flew. From mob to “massacre” On the morning of March 5 someone posted a handbill ostensibly from the British soldiers promising that they were determined to defend themselves. That night a crowd of Bostonians roamed the streets, their anger fueled by rumours that soldiers were preparing to cut down the so-called Liberty Tree (an elm tree in what was then South Boston from which effigies of men who had favoured the Stamp Act had been hung and on the trunk of which was a copper-plated sign that read “The Tree of Liberty”) and that a soldier had attacked an oysterman. One element of the crowd stormed the barracks of the 29th Regiment but was repulsed. Bells rang out an alarm and the crowd swelled, but the soldiers remained in their barracks, though the crowd pelted the barracks with snowballs. Meanwhile, the single sentry posted outside the Customs House became the focus of the rage for a crowd of 50–60 people. Informed of the sentry’s situation by a British sympathizer, Capt. Thomas Preston marched seven soldiers with fixed bayonets through the crowd in an attempt to rescue the sentry. Emboldened by the knowledge that the Riot Act had not been read—and that the soldiers could not fire their weapons until it had been read and then only if the crowd failed to disperse within an hour—the crowd taunted the soldiers and dared them to shoot (“provoking them to it by the most opprobrious language,” according to Thomas Gage, commander in chief of the British army in America). Meanwhile, they pelted the troops with snow, ice, and oyster shells. In the confusion, one of the soldiers, who were then trapped by the patriot mob near the Customs House, was jostled and, in fear, discharged his musket. Other soldiers, thinking they had heard the command to fire, followed suit. Three crowd members—including Crispus Attucks, a black sailor who likely was a former slave—were shot and died almost immediately. Two of the eight others who were wounded died later. Hoping to prevent further violence, Lieut. Gov. Thomas Hutchinson, who had been summoned to the scene and arrived shortly after the shooting had taken place, ordered Preston and his contingent back to their barracks, where other troops had their guns trained on the crowd. Hutchinson then made his way to the balcony of the Old State House, from which he ordered the other troops back into the barracks and promised the crowd that justice would be done, calming the growing mob and bringing an uneasy peace to the city.	<urn:uuid:a21f9ad9-a25f-4f4a-b7bb-b13a82f51e10>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.britannica.com/event/Boston-Massacre	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00544.warc.gz	en	0.984805	1,242	4.3125	4	[ -0.1440940797328949, -0.1312112808227539, 0.5983831882476807, -0.22598186135292053, 0.04083336889743805, -0.05417987331748009, 0.04094461351633072, 0.08306585252285004, -0.4409106969833374, 0.20048435032367706, -0.15168091654777527, -0.07400976121425629, -0.10817013680934906, 0.33821880817...	1	Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Boston Massacre, (March 5, 1770), skirmish between British troops and a crowd in Boston, Massachusetts. Widely publicized, it contributed to the unpopularity of the British regime in much of colonial North America in the years before the American Revolution. In 1767, in an attempt to recoup the considerable treasure expended in the defense of its North American colonies during the French and Indian War (1754–63), the British Parliament enacted strict provisions for the collection of revenue duties in the colonies. Those duties were part of a series of four acts that became known as the Townshend Acts, which also were intended to assert Parliament’s authority over the colonies, in marked contrast to the policy of salutary neglect that had been practiced by the British government during the early to mid-18th century. The imposition of those duties—on lead, glass, paper, paint, and tea upon their arrival in colonial ports—met with angry opposition from many colonists in Massachusetts. In addition to organized boycotts of those goods, the colonial response took the form of harassment of British officials and vandalism. Parliament answered British colonial authorities’ request for protection by dispatching the14th and 29th regiments of the British army to Boston, where they arrived in October 1768. The presence of those troops, however, heightened the tension in an already anxious environment. The killing of Christopher Seider and the end of the rope Early in 1770, with the effectiveness of the boycott uneven, colonial radicals, many of them members of the Sons of Liberty, began directing their ire against those businesses that had ignored the boycott. The radicals posted signs (large hands emblazoned with the word importer) on the establishments of boycott-violating merchants and berated their customers. On February 22, when Ebenezer Richardson, who was known to the radicals as an informer, tried to take down one of those signs from the shop of his neighbour Theophilus Lillie, he was set upon by a group of boys. The boys drove Richardson back into his own nearby home, from which he emerged to castigate his tormentors, drawing a hail of stones that broke Richardson’s door and front window. Richardson and George Wilmont, who had come to his defense, armed themselves with muskets and accosted the boys who had entered Richardson’s backyard. Richardson fired, hitting 11-year-old Christopher Seider (or Snyder or Snider; sources differ on his last name), who died later that night. Seemingly, only the belief that Richardson would be brought to justice in court prevented the crowd from taking immediate vengeance upon him. With tensions running high in the wake of Seider’s funeral, brawls broke out between soldiers and rope makers in Boston’s South End on March 2 and 3. On March 4 British troops searched the rope works owned by John Gray for a sergeant who was believed to have been murdered. Gray, having heard that British troops were going to attack his workers on Monday, March 5, consulted with Col. William Dalrymple, the commander of the 14th Regiment. Both men agreed to restrain those in their charge, but rumours of an imminent encounter flew. From mob to “massacre” On the morning of March 5 someone posted a handbill ostensibly from the British soldiers promising that they were determined to defend themselves. That night a crowd of Bostonians roamed the streets, their anger fueled by rumours that soldiers were preparing to cut down the so-called Liberty Tree (an elm tree in what was then South Boston from which effigies of men who had favoured the Stamp Act had been hung and on the trunk of which was a copper-plated sign that read “The Tree of Liberty”) and that a soldier had attacked an oysterman. One element of the crowd stormed the barracks of the 29th Regiment but was repulsed. Bells rang out an alarm and the crowd swelled, but the soldiers remained in their barracks, though the crowd pelted the barracks with snowballs. Meanwhile, the single sentry posted outside the Customs House became the focus of the rage for a crowd of 50–60 people. Informed of the sentry’s situation by a British sympathizer, Capt. Thomas Preston marched seven soldiers with fixed bayonets through the crowd in an attempt to rescue the sentry. Emboldened by the knowledge that the Riot Act had not been read—and that the soldiers could not fire their weapons until it had been read and then only if the crowd failed to disperse within an hour—the crowd taunted the soldiers and dared them to shoot (“provoking them to it by the most opprobrious language,” according to Thomas Gage, commander in chief of the British army in America). Meanwhile, they pelted the troops with snow, ice, and oyster shells. In the confusion, one of the soldiers, who were then trapped by the patriot mob near the Customs House, was jostled and, in fear, discharged his musket. Other soldiers, thinking they had heard the command to fire, followed suit. Three crowd members—including Crispus Attucks, a black sailor who likely was a former slave—were shot and died almost immediately. Two of the eight others who were wounded died later. Hoping to prevent further violence, Lieut. Gov. Thomas Hutchinson, who had been summoned to the scene and arrived shortly after the shooting had taken place, ordered Preston and his contingent back to their barracks, where other troops had their guns trained on the crowd. Hutchinson then made his way to the balcony of the Old State House, from which he ordered the other troops back into the barracks and promised the crowd that justice would be done, calming the growing mob and bringing an uneasy peace to the city.	1,244	ENGLISH	1
Help Now > FREE Catholic School Enroll Now Saint Ambrose, also known as Aurelius Ambrosius, is one of the four original doctors of the Church. He was the Bishop of Milan and became one of the most important theological figure of the 4th century. Ambrose was born around 340 AD to a Roman Christian family. He grew up with his siblings, Satyrus and Marcellina, in Trier, Belgic Gaul (present-day Germany). It is believed by many that when Ambrose was just an infant, a swarm of bees landed on his face and left behind a drop of honey. To his father, this was a sign that Ambrose would become someone great with a wonderful sense for speaking. After Ambrose's father passed away, he was educated in Rome, where he studied law, literature and rhetoric. Ambrose received a place on the council, like his father, and was made consular prefect, or the Governor, of Liguria and Emilia around 372. Ambrose?s headquarters were in Milan, the then second capital of Italy. Ambrose remained Governor until 374 when he became the Bishop of Milan. After the former Bishop of Milan died, Ambrose attended the election to prevent any uproars between the Nicene Church and the Arians. While giving an address, the assembly began calling for him to become the next bishop. Ambrose was known for his Nicene beliefs, but Arians also favored him because he had previously shown charity in theological matters. However, being neither baptized or trained in theology, Ambrose refused to become the next bishop. He ran and attempted to hide, but his colleague gave him up. Within a week's time, Ambrose was baptized, ordained and duly consecrated bishop of Milan on December 7, 374. As bishop, he donated all of his land and gave his money to the poor. This made him widely popular and often times more politically powerful than even the emperor. He studied theology with Simplician, a presbyter of Rome. Using his new education, along with his knowledge of Greek, he took the time to study the Old Testament and Greek authors. He used all of this while preaching; his abilities impressed Augustine of Hippo, who previously thought poorly of Christian preachers. After meeting Ambrose, Augustine reevaluated himself and was forever changed. In 387, Ambrose baptized Augustine, who he had a great influence on. St. Monica, Augustine's mother, loved Ambrose "as an angel of God who uprooted her son from his former ways and led him to his convictions of Christ." According to legend, Ambrose tried to put an end to Arianism in Milan. He often attempted to theologically dispute their propositions. The Arians appealed to many high position leaders, but Ambrose was able to stay one step ahead. The Arians increasing strength proved troublesome for Ambrose. Around 386, the Emperor Valentinian II and his mother, Justine, along with many other people, including clergy, laypersons, and military, professed Arianism. They demanded some of the churches in Milan be dedicated to them, one in the city and one in the suburbs. Ambrose refused and was ordered to appear in front of the council, where he then spoke eloquently in defense of the Church. He is quoted with stating: If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist; but I will never betray the church of Christ. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage: but God alone can appease it. The imperial court did not like Ambrose's religious principles, but he was sought out to help and speak to Magnus Maximus to prevent him from descending upon Italy. Ambrose was successful. During a second attempt, the embassy was not successful and Milan was taken. Justine and Valentinian II fled, but Ambrose stayed. He is credited with doing a great service to the sufferers during this time. In 385, Ambrose once again refused handing over the Portian basilica to Valentinian II, this time to be used by Arian troops. A year later, Ambrose was again ordered to hand over the church for Arian use. Ambrose and his congregation barricaded themselves within the church walls until the imperial order rescinded. After Theodosius I, emperor of the East, married Justine, Ambrose had him excommunicated for the massacre of 7,000 people. The emperor did several months? worth of public penance. In his later years, Ambrose retired in Bologna and assisted in the transferring of saints Vitalis and Agricola's relics. Two years after Theodosius died, after he acquired the possession of the Roman empire, Ambrose passed away on April 4, 397. He was succeeded as bishop of Milan by Simplician. Ambrose's body remains in the church of St. Ambrogio in Milan, along with the bodies of Saints Gervase and Protase. St. Ambrose was generous to the poor. He considered them not a group of outsiders, but rather those of the united people. To him, giving to the poor was just a repayment of God's resources, which were intended for everyone equally. He introduced reforms in the order and manner of public worship. He was known for his "liturgical flexibility that kept in mind that liturgy was a tool to serve people in worshiping God, and ought not to become a rigid entity that is invariable from place to place." Ambrose is credited with advising Augustine of Hippo to follow local liturgical customs. "When I am at Rome, I fast on a Saturday; when I am at Milan, I do not. Follow the custom of the church where you are," he stated. This advice remains today, and is translated in English as the saying, "When in Rome, do as the Romans do." Some believe Ambrose was a Christian Universalist, based on interpretations of his writing. The Theological treatises of Ambrose had great influences on Popes Damasus, Siricius and Leo XIII. Ambrose studied largely on the virginity of Mary and her role as Mother of God. He viewed celibacy as superior to marriage and saw Mary as virginity's model. Ambrose authored many of the Church's important writings and hymns. He is credited with composing the repertory Ambrosian chant, also known as the Antiphonal Chant. He is also credited with composing the hymn "Te Deum," which is believed to have been written when he baptized Augustine of Hippo. St. Ambrose is the Confessor and Doctor of the Church. He is the patron saint of bee keepers, beggars, learning and Milan, and his feast day is celebrated on December 7. St. Padre Pio Find SaintsPopular Saints Saints by Alphabet Saint of the Day Saint Feast Days by Month Patron Saints by Alphabet FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	<urn:uuid:9c3472b4-fdbf-4de6-ad9b-8c92836de92d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=16	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00177.warc.gz	en	0.984303	1,591	3.484375	3	[ 0.12015218287706375, 0.31837499141693115, -0.03864973038434982, 0.034282539039850235, -0.0469062402844429, -0.42981064319610596, -0.3081609010696411, 0.4900009334087372, 0.013347556814551353, -0.5944522619247437, 0.05848940461874008, -0.5796723961830139, 0.0034395959228277206, 0.4079784154...	1	Help Now > FREE Catholic School Enroll Now Saint Ambrose, also known as Aurelius Ambrosius, is one of the four original doctors of the Church. He was the Bishop of Milan and became one of the most important theological figure of the 4th century. Ambrose was born around 340 AD to a Roman Christian family. He grew up with his siblings, Satyrus and Marcellina, in Trier, Belgic Gaul (present-day Germany). It is believed by many that when Ambrose was just an infant, a swarm of bees landed on his face and left behind a drop of honey. To his father, this was a sign that Ambrose would become someone great with a wonderful sense for speaking. After Ambrose's father passed away, he was educated in Rome, where he studied law, literature and rhetoric. Ambrose received a place on the council, like his father, and was made consular prefect, or the Governor, of Liguria and Emilia around 372. Ambrose?s headquarters were in Milan, the then second capital of Italy. Ambrose remained Governor until 374 when he became the Bishop of Milan. After the former Bishop of Milan died, Ambrose attended the election to prevent any uproars between the Nicene Church and the Arians. While giving an address, the assembly began calling for him to become the next bishop. Ambrose was known for his Nicene beliefs, but Arians also favored him because he had previously shown charity in theological matters. However, being neither baptized or trained in theology, Ambrose refused to become the next bishop. He ran and attempted to hide, but his colleague gave him up. Within a week's time, Ambrose was baptized, ordained and duly consecrated bishop of Milan on December 7, 374. As bishop, he donated all of his land and gave his money to the poor. This made him widely popular and often times more politically powerful than even the emperor. He studied theology with Simplician, a presbyter of Rome. Using his new education, along with his knowledge of Greek, he took the time to study the Old Testament and Greek authors. He used all of this while preaching; his abilities impressed Augustine of Hippo, who previously thought poorly of Christian preachers. After meeting Ambrose, Augustine reevaluated himself and was forever changed. In 387, Ambrose baptized Augustine, who he had a great influence on. St. Monica, Augustine's mother, loved Ambrose "as an angel of God who uprooted her son from his former ways and led him to his convictions of Christ." According to legend, Ambrose tried to put an end to Arianism in Milan. He often attempted to theologically dispute their propositions. The Arians appealed to many high position leaders, but Ambrose was able to stay one step ahead. The Arians increasing strength proved troublesome for Ambrose. Around 386, the Emperor Valentinian II and his mother, Justine, along with many other people, including clergy, laypersons, and military, professed Arianism. They demanded some of the churches in Milan be dedicated to them, one in the city and one in the suburbs. Ambrose refused and was ordered to appear in front of the council, where he then spoke eloquently in defense of the Church. He is quoted with stating: If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist; but I will never betray the church of Christ. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage: but God alone can appease it. The imperial court did not like Ambrose's religious principles, but he was sought out to help and speak to Magnus Maximus to prevent him from descending upon Italy. Ambrose was successful. During a second attempt, the embassy was not successful and Milan was taken. Justine and Valentinian II fled, but Ambrose stayed. He is credited with doing a great service to the sufferers during this time. In 385, Ambrose once again refused handing over the Portian basilica to Valentinian II, this time to be used by Arian troops. A year later, Ambrose was again ordered to hand over the church for Arian use. Ambrose and his congregation barricaded themselves within the church walls until the imperial order rescinded. After Theodosius I, emperor of the East, married Justine, Ambrose had him excommunicated for the massacre of 7,000 people. The emperor did several months? worth of public penance. In his later years, Ambrose retired in Bologna and assisted in the transferring of saints Vitalis and Agricola's relics. Two years after Theodosius died, after he acquired the possession of the Roman empire, Ambrose passed away on April 4, 397. He was succeeded as bishop of Milan by Simplician. Ambrose's body remains in the church of St. Ambrogio in Milan, along with the bodies of Saints Gervase and Protase. St. Ambrose was generous to the poor. He considered them not a group of outsiders, but rather those of the united people. To him, giving to the poor was just a repayment of God's resources, which were intended for everyone equally. He introduced reforms in the order and manner of public worship. He was known for his "liturgical flexibility that kept in mind that liturgy was a tool to serve people in worshiping God, and ought not to become a rigid entity that is invariable from place to place." Ambrose is credited with advising Augustine of Hippo to follow local liturgical customs. "When I am at Rome, I fast on a Saturday; when I am at Milan, I do not. Follow the custom of the church where you are," he stated. This advice remains today, and is translated in English as the saying, "When in Rome, do as the Romans do." Some believe Ambrose was a Christian Universalist, based on interpretations of his writing. The Theological treatises of Ambrose had great influences on Popes Damasus, Siricius and Leo XIII. Ambrose studied largely on the virginity of Mary and her role as Mother of God. He viewed celibacy as superior to marriage and saw Mary as virginity's model. Ambrose authored many of the Church's important writings and hymns. He is credited with composing the repertory Ambrosian chant, also known as the Antiphonal Chant. He is also credited with composing the hymn "Te Deum," which is believed to have been written when he baptized Augustine of Hippo. St. Ambrose is the Confessor and Doctor of the Church. He is the patron saint of bee keepers, beggars, learning and Milan, and his feast day is celebrated on December 7. St. Padre Pio Find SaintsPopular Saints Saints by Alphabet Saint of the Day Saint Feast Days by Month Patron Saints by Alphabet FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	1,640	ENGLISH	1
Setting SMART Goals When I talk with my students about goal-setting, I encourage them to think hard about their goals and really hone in on what it will take to reach that goal. I encourage them to create SMART goals, along with an action plan. Often, our thought process is general and vague - this leads us to set goals that we aren't going to meet, which is why people often give up on their New Year's resolutions. "Saving money" and "losing weight" are common goals that many people have, but these are example of non-SMART goals. Likewise, many students set non-SMART goals when it comes to their academics. SMART is an acronym that can help students set personal and academic goals. I break it down here: Specific: A goal of “getting good grades” is too general. Instead, specify what exactly will be accomplished. What grade are you shooting for? In what class? A SMART goal would instead look like “Raising my Geometry grade from a B- to a B by next semester.” Measurable: Establish criteria for how a goal is to be achieved. If you have a measurable goal, it will be clear when you have met it. To have a goal to “be nicer” you won’t know when that goal is met. But if you say, “Talk to a new student each day” you will know. Action-Oriented: Be proactive in order to attain your goals. Think about that goal and the steps you will take every day to reach it. Realistic: Strive for an attainable goal. If you want to be captain of the basketball team, but you have never touched a basketball, think about a goal you should set before that. Timely: Allow reasonable time to complete each goal and create a timeframe that keeps you on track. Of course, in order to follow up with these goals, you need to create an action plan. One of my students had a goal of getting above a 500 (signaling college readiness) on the SAT - so one of her action items was to stay after school and work with a teacher and other students on extra practice SAT problems. This action step was just as important as the goal itself! Staying motivated to reach your goals is difficult - one way to help with that is to keep track of your progress as you go. If you want to get better at something, you have to put the work in. Making a daily commitment to your goal will help you in the long-run. A great way is to keep track of your goals on a calendar. Write down your goal and cross out every day that you work on it. By the end of the month or the year, you can see how many days you put in - with the hope that you didn't miss any!	<urn:uuid:e2d439cd-c5b6-4e7c-b350-fe54a210d2af>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wyzant.com/resources/blogs/320829/setting_smart_goals	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00536.warc.gz	en	0.980099	598	3.671875	4	[ -0.19619989395141602, -0.2669542133808136, 0.3912949562072754, -0.6739426851272583, -0.3996429741382599, 0.18944059312343597, 0.3845122456550598, 0.11438856273889542, 0.060985174030065536, 0.06120242550969124, 0.1553480476140976, -0.2445341795682907, 0.09351004660129547, 0.3341047167778015...	2	Setting SMART Goals When I talk with my students about goal-setting, I encourage them to think hard about their goals and really hone in on what it will take to reach that goal. I encourage them to create SMART goals, along with an action plan. Often, our thought process is general and vague - this leads us to set goals that we aren't going to meet, which is why people often give up on their New Year's resolutions. "Saving money" and "losing weight" are common goals that many people have, but these are example of non-SMART goals. Likewise, many students set non-SMART goals when it comes to their academics. SMART is an acronym that can help students set personal and academic goals. I break it down here: Specific: A goal of “getting good grades” is too general. Instead, specify what exactly will be accomplished. What grade are you shooting for? In what class? A SMART goal would instead look like “Raising my Geometry grade from a B- to a B by next semester.” Measurable: Establish criteria for how a goal is to be achieved. If you have a measurable goal, it will be clear when you have met it. To have a goal to “be nicer” you won’t know when that goal is met. But if you say, “Talk to a new student each day” you will know. Action-Oriented: Be proactive in order to attain your goals. Think about that goal and the steps you will take every day to reach it. Realistic: Strive for an attainable goal. If you want to be captain of the basketball team, but you have never touched a basketball, think about a goal you should set before that. Timely: Allow reasonable time to complete each goal and create a timeframe that keeps you on track. Of course, in order to follow up with these goals, you need to create an action plan. One of my students had a goal of getting above a 500 (signaling college readiness) on the SAT - so one of her action items was to stay after school and work with a teacher and other students on extra practice SAT problems. This action step was just as important as the goal itself! Staying motivated to reach your goals is difficult - one way to help with that is to keep track of your progress as you go. If you want to get better at something, you have to put the work in. Making a daily commitment to your goal will help you in the long-run. A great way is to keep track of your goals on a calendar. Write down your goal and cross out every day that you work on it. By the end of the month or the year, you can see how many days you put in - with the hope that you didn't miss any!	571	ENGLISH	1
Blood on the walls. 300 to 500 guests. Three days of partying. Vikings made a blast when they celebrated Midwinter Blot. The English word Christmas is closely related to the Christian faith. The Scandinavian word for the same holiday is Jul. The use of that word–or rather Jól–can be traced back to before Christianity came to the North. And back to before the Vikings. So how did the Vikings celebrate Christmas (or Jól)? According to this article (in Norwegian) Vikings probably celebrated Jól when the days turned longer–when the gods brought the sun back–and it was celebrated as a blót and a large party. Blót was a sacrifice of animals. Everyone brought sprigs and sprayed the walls–inside and out–with the blood of the sacrificed animals. People were sprayed too. Toasts were made to Odin for victory and power, to Njord and Frøy for a good farming year and for peace, and to Brage in the memory of lost friends. Blóts were also held at Midsummer and on other important days. The party was probably held by the chieftain who invited all the local farmers to a potluck–everyone brought something to the party–and 300 to 500 people would party for three days. Meat and beer were central to the party. The meat was boiled on fireplaces at the center of the party and the beer was poured generously. Poems and songs The Vikings were an oral people. They did not write down their stories, they told them to each other. Parties like Jól would be a perfect time to captivate hundreds of people with tales of the gods and of conquests and great achievements. Long and great poems would be told of kings, queens, jarls, and chieftains. Music and songs would also be a central part of the party. The Jól party was probably held around the shortest days and longest nights of the year. In Scandinavia that meant very short days (in some areas to the far north there were no days at all) and very long nights. If one prayed to the gods they might turn the season around and grant longer days again. We know today that the longer days will come back every Winter, but for the Vikings, there was always the fear of the Fimbulvinter, the harsh Winter that comes before the end of the world.	<urn:uuid:ff3023e8-63af-4252-8b77-b195a3e3234b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thyradaneauthor.com/2019/12/28/how-did-vikings-celebrate-christmas/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00333.warc.gz	en	0.981088	504	3.90625	4	[ 0.06343939900398254, 0.5105176568031311, -0.11930491775274277, -0.24678950011730194, -0.08938953280448914, 0.061525292694568634, -0.13944153487682343, 0.26494893431663513, 0.08660034090280533, 0.09940261393785477, 0.14130063354969025, 0.22284919023513794, 0.02544938027858734, 0.03682293742...	14	Blood on the walls. 300 to 500 guests. Three days of partying. Vikings made a blast when they celebrated Midwinter Blot. The English word Christmas is closely related to the Christian faith. The Scandinavian word for the same holiday is Jul. The use of that word–or rather Jól–can be traced back to before Christianity came to the North. And back to before the Vikings. So how did the Vikings celebrate Christmas (or Jól)? According to this article (in Norwegian) Vikings probably celebrated Jól when the days turned longer–when the gods brought the sun back–and it was celebrated as a blót and a large party. Blót was a sacrifice of animals. Everyone brought sprigs and sprayed the walls–inside and out–with the blood of the sacrificed animals. People were sprayed too. Toasts were made to Odin for victory and power, to Njord and Frøy for a good farming year and for peace, and to Brage in the memory of lost friends. Blóts were also held at Midsummer and on other important days. The party was probably held by the chieftain who invited all the local farmers to a potluck–everyone brought something to the party–and 300 to 500 people would party for three days. Meat and beer were central to the party. The meat was boiled on fireplaces at the center of the party and the beer was poured generously. Poems and songs The Vikings were an oral people. They did not write down their stories, they told them to each other. Parties like Jól would be a perfect time to captivate hundreds of people with tales of the gods and of conquests and great achievements. Long and great poems would be told of kings, queens, jarls, and chieftains. Music and songs would also be a central part of the party. The Jól party was probably held around the shortest days and longest nights of the year. In Scandinavia that meant very short days (in some areas to the far north there were no days at all) and very long nights. If one prayed to the gods they might turn the season around and grant longer days again. We know today that the longer days will come back every Winter, but for the Vikings, there was always the fear of the Fimbulvinter, the harsh Winter that comes before the end of the world.	495	ENGLISH	1
Andrew Jackson, an Ideal President for America Andrew Jackson, seventh president of the United States of America, can be debated as either a good president or bad president. But if one were to weigh out the positives and negatives of Andrew Jackson’s presidency, one would realize that his positives outweigh his negatives for a variety of historic facts. Andrew Jackson was a good president because he represented the majority of America’s people by being a common, prevented a civil war when South Carolina threatened to secede from the nation, and because he technically found or instigated the two major parties used in America today (Democratic and Republican). Many Jackson oppositionists despise him because of he is a hypocrite, however America was founded on hypocrisy so as an American leader it is justified to be a hypocrite. Jackson was a common man meaning that he was not part of the rich and elite group. He had a “rags to riches” story. He was the first president to represent the majority of the American people by being a common man. Starting off, Jackson was poor and uneducated which is why many people voted for him because he had a similar lifestyle as them and they knew that he understood the general problems they had. Additionally, Jackson was a war hero of 1812 in which he took control of militia forces. These combinations in a man illuminated a perfectly suitable person to run their nation. A major victory in Jackson’s career was when he essentially prevented a civil war in the United States. Jackson was a huge supporter of unity and when South Carolina wanted to secede from the nation during the nullification crisis of 1932, Jackson was in shock. South Carolina complained that the tariffs were too high and unjustified. South Carolina threatened to secede from the nation. Jackson proclaimed that leaving the nation was unconstitutional and that they would simply be overpowered by the US military. As an end result, Jackson made a compromise by lowering the tariffs just enough to keep South Carolina from seceding. This action prevented a civil war by keeping both sides concerning the crisis content. Jackson is very important because he created or instigated the two dominant political parties we use today (democratic and republican). The beliefs in these parties switched several times in history but initially Jackson was a democrat. The major beliefs in democrats in the 1820s-1850s were the beliefs in a small national government, pro states’ rights, and a strict interpretation of the constitution. The republicans (initially known as the Whigs) essentially opposed all of Jackson’s beliefs and therefore had more or less the complete opposite beliefs of the democrats. By starting these two political parties, he started the way people would categorize political candidates throughout the rest of American history. There are many who are against Andrew Jackson because he is a hypocrite. An example of this is how Jackson states he is against slavery but still owned slaves. One has to understand that America was founded on hypocrisy. Essentially what Jackson is trying to do is to make compromises on situations so he can support both sides of an argument to represent as many people as possible. Conclusively Jackson was a great president because he represented the people of America by being a common man, overcame huge obstacles such as keeping South Carolina from seceding, and by forming the two most popular political parties used in America today, the Democrats and the Republicans. Those who argue that Jackson was a bad president simply because he was a hypocrite give an invalid point because America was founded on hypocrisy.	<urn:uuid:528919b5-5c8d-46d6-9cc5-4c0d81222ecf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://farmersfeastmanitoba.com/andrew-jackson-an-ideal-president-for-america/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00448.warc.gz	en	0.984424	716	3.8125	4	[ -0.2020726352930069, 0.27022039890289307, 0.2926572859287262, -0.17013752460479736, 0.013562587089836597, 0.57464599609375, 0.3025659918785095, 0.03107200190424919, 0.06172502785921097, 0.10682327300310135, -0.002800398040562868, 0.26688623428344727, 0.14134030044078827, 0.1402292251586914...	1	Andrew Jackson, an Ideal President for America Andrew Jackson, seventh president of the United States of America, can be debated as either a good president or bad president. But if one were to weigh out the positives and negatives of Andrew Jackson’s presidency, one would realize that his positives outweigh his negatives for a variety of historic facts. Andrew Jackson was a good president because he represented the majority of America’s people by being a common, prevented a civil war when South Carolina threatened to secede from the nation, and because he technically found or instigated the two major parties used in America today (Democratic and Republican). Many Jackson oppositionists despise him because of he is a hypocrite, however America was founded on hypocrisy so as an American leader it is justified to be a hypocrite. Jackson was a common man meaning that he was not part of the rich and elite group. He had a “rags to riches” story. He was the first president to represent the majority of the American people by being a common man. Starting off, Jackson was poor and uneducated which is why many people voted for him because he had a similar lifestyle as them and they knew that he understood the general problems they had. Additionally, Jackson was a war hero of 1812 in which he took control of militia forces. These combinations in a man illuminated a perfectly suitable person to run their nation. A major victory in Jackson’s career was when he essentially prevented a civil war in the United States. Jackson was a huge supporter of unity and when South Carolina wanted to secede from the nation during the nullification crisis of 1932, Jackson was in shock. South Carolina complained that the tariffs were too high and unjustified. South Carolina threatened to secede from the nation. Jackson proclaimed that leaving the nation was unconstitutional and that they would simply be overpowered by the US military. As an end result, Jackson made a compromise by lowering the tariffs just enough to keep South Carolina from seceding. This action prevented a civil war by keeping both sides concerning the crisis content. Jackson is very important because he created or instigated the two dominant political parties we use today (democratic and republican). The beliefs in these parties switched several times in history but initially Jackson was a democrat. The major beliefs in democrats in the 1820s-1850s were the beliefs in a small national government, pro states’ rights, and a strict interpretation of the constitution. The republicans (initially known as the Whigs) essentially opposed all of Jackson’s beliefs and therefore had more or less the complete opposite beliefs of the democrats. By starting these two political parties, he started the way people would categorize political candidates throughout the rest of American history. There are many who are against Andrew Jackson because he is a hypocrite. An example of this is how Jackson states he is against slavery but still owned slaves. One has to understand that America was founded on hypocrisy. Essentially what Jackson is trying to do is to make compromises on situations so he can support both sides of an argument to represent as many people as possible. Conclusively Jackson was a great president because he represented the people of America by being a common man, overcame huge obstacles such as keeping South Carolina from seceding, and by forming the two most popular political parties used in America today, the Democrats and the Republicans. Those who argue that Jackson was a bad president simply because he was a hypocrite give an invalid point because America was founded on hypocrisy.	713	ENGLISH	1
\|South China Sea raid\| \|Part of Pacific Theater of World War II\| Smoke rising from Saigon after facilities and ships in the city were attacked by United States Navy aircraft on 12 January 1945 \|Commanders and leaders\| William Halsey Jr.\| John S. McCain Sr. \|Casualties and losses\| Aircraft losses between 3 and 25 January: Losses between 3 and 25 January: \|Hundreds of civilians killed and wounded\| The South China Sea raid (designated Operation Gratitude) was an operation conducted by the United States Third Fleet between 10 and 20 January 1945 during the Pacific War of World War II. The raid was undertaken to support the liberation of Luzon in the Philippines, and targeted Japanese warships, supply convoys and aircraft in the region. After attacking airfields and shipping at Formosa and Luzon, the Third Fleet entered the South China Sea during the night of 9–10 January. Aircraft flying from its aircraft carriers attacked Japanese shipping off French Indochina on 12 January, sinking 44 vessels. The fleet then sailed north and attacked Formosa again on 15 January. Further raids were conducted against Hong Kong, Canton and Hainan the next day. The Third Fleet departed the South China Sea on 20 January and, after making further attacks on Formosa and the Ryukyu Islands, returned to its base on 25 January. The Third Fleet's operations in the South China Sea were highly successful. It destroyed a large number of Japanese ships and aircraft, while losing relatively few of its own aircraft. Historians have judged the destruction of cargo vessels and oil tankers to have been the most important result of the raid, as these losses contributed to closing a supply route which was vital to the Japanese war effort. Subsequent attacks by Allied aircraft and warships forced the Japanese to cease sending ships into the South China Sea after March 1945. During 1941 and the first months of 1942, Japan conquered or established de facto rule over almost the entire South China Sea region. Control of the sea was vital to the Japanese economy and war effort, as it was the conduit through which essential supplies of oil and other natural resources passed from occupied Malaya, Borneo and the Dutch East Indies. The situation in French Indochina was particularly complex. After a short military confrontation in September 1940 the colonial government, which was loyal to the Vichy French collaborationist regime, permitted the Japanese to use ports and airfields in northern Indochina. In July 1941 the Japanese occupied southern Indochina and established airfields as well as an important naval base at Cam Ranh Bay. The French authorities remained in place as a puppet government. After the liberation of France in 1944, the colonial government sought to make contact with the new Free French government in Paris, and began preparations to stage an uprising against the Japanese. The Japanese also developed plans in 1944 to forcibly disarm the French forces and formally take over Indochina, and their intelligence services rapidly learned of the French authorities' intentions. As the war turned against Japan, convoys of ships passing through the South China Sea frequently came under attack from Allied submarines and – by late 1944 – aircraft. These attacks were guided by information gained from signals intelligence and long-range air patrols, supplemented by reports from coast watchers along the Chinese coast and other observers in Asian ports. The United States Army Air Forces' (USAAF) Fourteenth Air Force, which was stationed in China, regularly attacked Japanese shipping in the South China Sea area. The command also made periodic attacks on Japanese-held ports in southern China and military installations in Indochina. The Allied clandestine services undertook few activities in Indochina until the second quarter of 1945. While losses of oil tankers and freighters were increasingly heavy, the Japanese Government continued to order ships to make the voyage through the South China Sea. In an attempt to limit losses, convoys and individual ships took routes well away from the established sea lanes, or sailed close to the shore and operated only at night. The United States began the liberation of the Philippines on 25 October 1944, with a landing at Leyte island in the central Philippines. After a base was established at Leyte, American forces landed at Mindoro island on 13 December. This operation was conducted to secure airfields that could be used to attack Japanese shipping in the South China Sea and support the largest element of the liberation of the Philippines, a landing at Lingayen Gulf in north-western Luzon that was scheduled for 9 January 1945. The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) suffered heavy losses in its attempt to attack the Allied fleet during the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944 which, when combined with the losses during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, left it unable to conduct further major battles. However, it remained capable of raiding Allied positions. During late 1944 Admiral William Halsey Jr., the commander of the United States Third Fleet, sought to conduct a raid into the South China Sea and led the development of plans for such an operation. On 21 November he asked Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the head of the United States Pacific Fleet, for permission to begin the attack but was turned down. In December 1944 the United States Navy's high command became concerned that the IJN would attempt to cut the supply line to the planned beachhead at Lingayen Gulf. On 26 December a Japanese naval force operating from Cam Ranh Bay shelled the Allied beachhead at Mindoro, but inflicted no damage. One of the Japanese destroyers involved in this operation was sunk, and all of the remaining ships were damaged by Allied air and naval attacks before returning to Cam Ranh Bay. As further Japanese raids were expected, senior US Navy officers believed that it was necessary to destroy the IJN's remaining mobile forces, which were thought to be split between Cam Ranh Bay and the Inland Sea in Japan. At this time the Inland Sea was beyond the range of the USAAF's heavy bombers, meaning that an attack into the South China Sea was the only viable option for striking the IJN. The US Navy's intelligence service believed that the Japanese force based at Cam Ranh Bay was built around the two Ise-class battleships. Halsey and Nimitz discussed the proposed South China Sea raid during a meeting held around Christmas 1944 at the US Navy anchorage which had been established at Ulithi atoll in the Caroline Islands. On 28 December Nimitz gave Halsey permission to launch the attack once his fleet was no longer needed to directly support the Lingayen Gulf landings and "if major Japanese fleet units were sighted" in the area. Halsey issued the pre-prepared plans for the operation to his subordinates the same day. Its goals were to attack the Japanese fleet and shipping. In addition, the Americans believed that the presence of a powerful force in the South China Sea would discourage any further IJN operations in the area. While the Fourteenth Air Force was directed to attack Japanese shipping and airfields at Hong Kong in support of the invasion of Luzon, it was not informed of the plans for the Third Fleet to enter the South China Sea. The Fourteenth Air Force was also not briefed on the Fleet's operations during the South China Sea raid, and no attempts were made to coordinate the two forces' activities during this period. The plans for the raid specified that the Third Fleet would enter the South China Sea via the Luzon Strait before proceeding south-west. The fleet's aircraft carriers would attack Japanese positions on Formosa, and provide support for the landings at Lingayen Gulf on 9 January. Three submarines from the Seventh Fleet were to take up station in the South China Sea to rescue the aircrew of any American aircraft which were forced to ditch. This plan would require the Third Fleet to operate near a large number of Japanese airfields from which attacks could be mounted against the ships. Allied intelligence estimated that about 300 aircraft were usually stationed at Formosa; around 500 were in southern China and northern Indochina, a further 170 in southern Indochina, Burma and Thailand and 280 in the Dutch East Indies. While most of these were Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (IJAAF) aircraft, which were less effective against warships than IJN aircraft, there was a risk that kamikaze tactics would be employed. In addition, weather conditions were expected to be hazardous as the South China Sea is frequently affected by typhoons during January. As of January 1945, the Third Fleet was built around the Fast Carrier Task Force, which was the main US Navy strike force in the Pacific. Control of this force alternated at regular intervals between the Third and Fifth Fleets (commanded by Halsey and Admiral Raymond A. Spruance respectively), with its designation also changing from Task Force 38 to Task Force 58. As Task Force 38 it was commanded by Vice Admiral John S. McCain Sr. In January 1945 Task Force 38 was organized into three fast carrier task groups and a night carrier group. The fast carrier groups were Task Group 38.1 with four aircraft carriers, two battleships, six cruisers and 25 destroyers; Task Group 38.2 with four carriers, three battleships, five cruisers and 24 destroyers; and Task Group 38.3, which comprised four carriers, three battleships, five cruisers and 17 destroyers. The night carrier group, Task Group 38.5, had two carriers and six destroyers, and operated with Task Group 38.2 during the day. These carrier groups embarked around 900 aircraft in total. The other major element of the fleet was a logistics force designated Task Group 30.8, which comprised a varying number of tankers and ammunition ships, several escort carriers transporting replacement aircraft for Task Force 38, and a large number of escorting destroyers. In addition, the fleet was assigned an anti-submarine hunter-killer force designated Task Group 30.7, which comprised an escort carrier and three destroyer escorts and typically operated in support of Task Group 30.8. Despite the American concerns, the IJN was not about to attack the Allied supply lines and Cam Ranh Bay was not a major fleet base. As of 1 January 1945, both the Ise-class battleships and the small number of other Japanese warships in the region were stationed at or near Singapore, and only escort vessels operated from Cam Ranh Bay. While large numbers of aircraft were located in Japanese-held territories bordering the South China Sea in January 1945, relatively few trained pilots were available to operate them. At this time the Imperial General Headquarters was considering a major offensive against the supply line to Lingayen Gulf, but on 20 January 1945 it decided to concentrate Japan's defensive efforts on the area around the home islands and only conduct delaying actions elsewhere. As a result, the Japanese forces in the South China Sea region at the time of the raid were focused on preparing to resist future Allied attacks. The Japanese believed that US forces could potentially land in Indochina once the liberation of the Philippines was complete, and were also concerned about possible attacks on the area by the British-led South East Asia Command. In an effort to better coordinate the Japanese forces in the South East Asia region, all Imperial Japanese Army and Navy units were placed under the overall control of the Southern Expionary Army Group in January 1945. This command was led by Gensui Count Hisaichi Terauchi from his headquarters in Singapore. Despite these preparations, the Japanese remained unable to counter powerful attacks against shipping in the South China Sea. While the Navy's convoy escort forces had been expanded during 1944, they remained inadequate. The most common type of escort vessel, the Kaibōkan, was vulnerable to air attack as a result of their slow speed and weak anti-aircraft armament. The IJN also assigned few fighter aircraft to protect convoys in the South China Sea and, due to the interservice rivalry which badly hindered the Japanese war effort, rejected an offer from the Army to provide additional fighters for this purpose just before the Third Fleet's attacks on French Indochina. The Third Fleet sailed from Ulithi on 30 December 1944. On 3 and 4 January its aircraft carriers struck Japanese airfields on Formosa, Okinawa and nearby islands in an attempt to prevent them from being used to attack the Allied forces at Lingayen Gulf. In addition, its strike aircraft attacked Japanese shipping at Formosa, sinking at least three merchant vessels and damaging four frigates. Acting on a request from General Douglas MacArthur, the commander of the South West Pacific Area, the fleet struck airfields on Luzon on 6 and 7 January. At around this time Vice-Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid, the commander of the Seventh Fleet which was responsible for the Lingayen Gulf landings, asked Halsey to operate west of Luzon to provide air cover during the initial period of the invasion. Halsey believed it would be inappropriate for his force to operate in such a passive role, and instead ordered further strikes on the Japanese airfields in southern Formosa which posed the greatest threat to Kinkaid's command. These took place on 9 January. During the morning of 9 January, Nimitz released the Third Fleet from directly covering the Lingayen Gulf area, and authorized it to enter the South China Sea. Once all the strike aircraft had landed that afternoon Halsey issued orders to execute the planned attack into the South China Sea. During the fleet's operations from 3 to 9 January it destroyed more than 150 Japanese aircraft, but lost 86 of its own, including 46 in accidents. During the night of 9–10 January the main body of the Third Fleet, including Task Group 30.7, sailed through the Bashi Channel in the northern part of the Luzon Strait. Task Group 30.8 was reduced to six fast tankers, two escort carriers and escorting warships, and reached the South China Sea via the Balintang Channel off the northern coast of Luzon. Neither force was detected by the Japanese, though night fighters operating from the light aircraft carrier USS Independence shot down three transport aircraft that were flying to Formosa from Luzon. The fleet also received a report that a large Japanese convoy of around 100 ships was sailing along the southern coast of China towards Formosa during the night of 9–10 January, but Halsey decided to not attack it as doing so would disclose that his force was in the South China Sea and possibly prompt the IJN to withdraw its battleships from the area. While it was planned to refuel the fleet's destroyers on 10 January, this was frustrated by bad weather. Instead, the destroyers were refueled during 11 January as the fleet proceeded south-west. Once the destroyers were refueled, the Third Fleet was reorganized for combat. Two heavy cruisers and five destroyers were transferred from Task Group 38.1 to Task Group 38.2. The latter task group, under the command of Rear Admiral Gerald F. Bogan, was intended to launch air attacks against Cam Ranh Bay from its three large fleet carriers and single light carrier on the morning of 12 January. The Task Group's two battleships, accompanied by destroyers and cruisers, would then bombard the area and finish off ships which were damaged in the air attacks. The choice of targets was informed by intelligence passed on to the Allies by two networks of agents in Indochina. The Third Fleet remained undetected by Japanese forces on 10 and 11 January. Task Group 38.2 began its approach to Cam Ranh Bay at 2 pm on 11 January. It was followed by Task Groups 38.1 and 38.3, which launched fighter aircraft to provide a combat air patrol over the fleet. Task Group 30.8 remained in the central South China Sea. Before dawn on 12 January, Task Group 38.5 launched aircraft to search for Japanese ships in the Cam Ranh Bay area. The crews of these aircraft radioed back the location of Japanese ships, and conducted an intensive search for the two Ise-class battleships and any other capital ships. When none were located it was believed that the warships had been hidden from view by camouflage; it took several months for the US Navy to learn that they had not been in the area. By 6 am on 12 January Task Group 38.2 was within 50 miles (80 km) of Cam Ranh Bay. It and the other two task groups began launching their first strikes of the day at 07:31 am, about half an hour before sunrise. The Japanese had still not detected the Third Fleet's approach, and were unprepared for an attack. The American airmen achieved considerable success against Japanese convoys. Two waves of aircraft from Task Group 38.3 attacked a convoy of 10 ships escorted by the seven warships of the 101st Flotilla near Qui Nhơn in central Indochina and sank four fully loaded oil tankers, three freighters, the light cruiser Kashii and three small escort vessels. Another convoy was located and struck near Cape Padaran in southern Indochina, resulting in the loss of a tanker, two destroyer escorts and a patrol boat. A convoy comprising seven vessels was also attacked near Cape St. Jacques in southern Indochina, leading to two freighters, three tankers, three destroyer escorts and a landing craft being sunk or forced to beach. American aircraft also struck Japanese shipping in the Saigon area. Two freighters and a tanker were sunk at Saigon, and another tanker was destroyed off the coast. The disarmed French cruiser Lamotte-Picquet was mistakenly attacked and sunk at Saigon, despite flying the French flag. A large number of other ships were damaged in the Saigon area, including five freighters, two tankers, three landing craft, two to four destroyer escorts, a minesweeper and a patrol boat. Several of these ships were beached, and destroyed by a storm later in the month. Other Third Fleet aircraft were used to maintain a combat air patrol over the area between Tourane in central Indochina and Saigon and attack airfields, docks and oil storage facilities. The railway station at Nha Trang and a bridge on the line between Saigon and Bien Hoa were also damaged. The surface strike group, which had separated from Task Group 38.2 at 6:40 am and comprised two battleships, two heavy cruisers, three light cruisers and twelve destroyers, did not locate any Japanese ships. The attacks on 12 January were highly successful. A total of 46 Japanese ships were sunk, including 33 merchant vessels with a combined tonnage of 142,285 tons. Twelve of these merchants were tankers. The 13 warships sunk were the light cruiser Kashii, two destroyers, seven coast defense vessels, one patrol boat, one minelayer and a military transport. While few Japanese aircraft were operational, the American airmen shot down 15 aircraft and destroyed 20 floatplanes at Cam Ranh Bay and another 77 aircraft at various airfields. The Third Fleet lost 23 aircraft. The French colonial government refused to hand over the downed American airmen its forces captured to the Japanese military, and provided them with escorts to the Chinese border. Civilians also rescued American airmen and helped them to escape. As a result, almost all of the US Navy aircrew from planes shot down over Indochina eventually returned to the United States via China. At 7:31 pm on 12 January, the Third Fleet reversed course and sailed north-east to meet up with Task Group 30.8. This course was maintained the next day in order to evade a typhoon and Japanese search aircraft. Heavy seas made fuelling difficult, though all of the destroyers were eventually refueled on 13 January. On that day, Fleet Admiral Ernest King, the Chief of Naval Operations, directed the Third Fleet to remain "in a strategic position to intercept enemy forces approaching the Lingayen Gulf area from either the north or the south". In passing this order on to Halsey, Nimitz authorized him to attack the Hong Kong area if more worthwhile targets could not be located. On 14 January the American warships continued to refuel, despite the bad weather. All of the major warships were eventually topped up to at least 60 per cent of their fuel capacity. This consumed most of Task Group 30.8's supplies, and it later separated from the fleet to rendezvous with relief tankers near Mindoro. After fuelling was completed the Third Fleet sailed north to attack Formosa. Weather conditions continued to be bad, and at 3:00 am on 15 January McCain recommended to Halsey that the strikes be cancelled and the fleet sail south. Even so, Halsey decided to continue north and execute the attack. In addition, he ordered aircraft to be launched during 15 January to reconnoiter Amoy, Hainan island, Hong Kong, the Pescadores Islands and Swatow in search of the Ise-class battleships. The newly designated night carrier USS Enterprise flew off search aircraft at 4:00 am that morning. Strikes were launched from the aircraft carriers beginning at 7:30 am on 15 January; at this time the Third Fleet was about 255 miles (410 km) east-south-east of Hong Kong and 170 miles (270 km) south-west of Formosa. Ten fighter sweeps were dispatched to Formosa, and a further six to airfields on the coast of mainland China. In addition, eight raids were launched against shipping in the Takao and Toshien regions of Formosa. While large numbers of ships were located, these strikes were largely frustrated by bad weather and heavy anti-aircraft fire. The destroyer Hatakaze and No.1-class landing ship T.14 were sunk at Takao City and a tanker was damaged and forced aground. Several of the strikes were diverted to Mako in the Pescadores Islands, where weather conditions were better, and these aircraft sank the destroyer Tsuga. A weather station and radio facilities in the Pratas Islands were also attacked by aircraft operating from Enterprise. The American pilots claimed to have shot down 16 Japanese aircraft and destroyed another 18 on the ground during the day; 12 US Navy aircraft were lost in combat and accidents. At 4:44 pm the carriers changed course to reach the position from which Hong Kong and other locations in southern China were to be attacked the next day. The British colony of Hong Kong had been captured by Japanese forces in December 1941, and became a significant naval and logistics base. USAAF units based in China attacked the Hong Kong area from October 1942. Most of these raids involved a small number of aircraft, and typically targeted Japanese cargo ships which had been reported by Chinese guerrillas. By January 1945 the city was being regularly raided by the USAAF. The Third Fleet's first raids for 16 January began to be launched at 7:32 am. The day's operations were focused on Hong Kong, which was struck by 138 aircraft during the morning and a further 158 in the afternoon. The raiders sunk five large tankers and an IJN oiler, and damaged several other ships. The tankers formed part of Convoy Hi 87 which had been diverted from its journey south in an attempt to avoid the Third Fleet. In addition, Kai Tak Airport was badly damaged, and all the aircraft on the ground there at the time were destroyed. Widespread damage was also inflicted on the Kowloon and Taikoo docks. Several less important targets, including the dockyard in Aberdeen and trains on the Kowloon–Canton Railway, were struck by pilots who had been authorized to engage targets of opportunity. The village of Hung Hom, which was located near the Kowloon docks, was heavily bombed and hundreds of civilians were killed or wounded. Stanley Internment Camp was also hit by a bomb that killed 14 of the Allied civilians imprisoned there. The Fourteenth Air Force's 118th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron conducted an attack on shipping at Hong Kong on 16 January which was not coordinated with the US Navy's raids. These were the largest air attacks conducted on Hong Kong during World War II. The Japanese garrison at Hong Kong strongly resisted the raid, using particularly effective anti-aircraft tactics which the Americans had not previously encountered. A US Navy report described the gunfire the aircraft faced as having been "intense to unbelievable". The TBF Avenger torpedo bombers dispatched against Hong Kong suffered particularly heavy losses as their low-level attack runs were vulnerable to anti-aircraft fire. As the Avengers' torpedoes were set to run too deep these attacks achieved little. The Portuguese colony of Macau was also struck. While Portugal was neutral, the colony's government had been forced to accept the presence of Japanese "advisers" since 1943 and had traded weapons for food supplies. The raid's main target was a stockpile of aviation fuel at the Macau Naval Aviation Center which the Allies had learned from local agents was to be sold to the Japanese. The fort of Dona Maria II ( ) was also attacked, possibly to destroy a radio station located within or near it, and some damage was inflicted on civilian areas and the city's harbor. Two soldiers and several civilians were killed. Macau's garrison had no effective anti-aircraft weapons, and did not fire on the American aircraft. Writing in 2016, historian Geoffrey C. Gunn stated that it was unclear why Macau was attacked given that the US Government's policy was to respect Macau's neutrality and the gains from destroying the fuel stocks were more than outweighed by the likely diplomatic repercussions. He judged that US Naval intelligence was unaware of the policy towards the colony. Other attacks were conducted against locations in southern China during 16 January. Strikes were made on the city of Canton, and two raids and two fighter sweeps were conducted against locations in Hainan. In addition, fighter aircraft attacked airfields along the Chinese coast between the Leizhou Peninsula in the west to Swatow in the east, but encountered few Japanese aircraft. American casualties on 16 January were 22 aircraft shot down in combat and 27 lost in accidents. The Japanese claimed to have downed 10 aircraft over Hong Kong alone. The US Navy pilots reported destroying 13 Japanese aircraft. At least four American airmen were taken prisoner after their planes were shot down near Hong Kong, and a further seven evaded capture and eventually reached Allied-held regions of China. One of the American prisoners was later murdered by a lethal injection at the Ōfuna prisoner of war camp in Japan. After completing its strikes on 16 January, the Third Fleet turned south to refuel. Because weather conditions were particularly bad the next day, fuelling was not completed. The weather worsened on 18 January, making fuelling operations impossible. During this period Japanese propaganda radio broadcasts claimed that the fleet had been "bottled up", and would be destroyed when it tried to leave the South China Sea. As his meteorologists expected bad weather to continue into 19 January, Halsey decided to depart the South China Sea via the Surigao Strait in the central Philippines rather than sail north around Luzon. But when Nimitz learned of this he requested that the Third Fleet use the Luzon Strait, though Halsey was given discretion to make the final decision on his force's route. Nimitz's reasoning was that if the fleet sailed through the central Philippines its departure would be reported by Japanese forces on bypassed islands, possibly leading to the IJN attempting a raid against the Allied supply lines. In addition, a northerly passage would leave the Third Fleet better placed to undertake its next assignments, which included attacking Formosa again and reconnoitering the Ryukyu Islands. Halsey chose to follow Nimitz's request. His fleet completed fuelling on 19 January, and proceeded north towards the Balintang Channel; Task Group 30.8 separated from the main body, however, and subsequently passed through the Surigao Strait. During 20 January the fleet sailed east through the Balintang Channel, with a division of destroyers patrolling well ahead of the carrier task groups. A large number of Japanese aircraft were detected by radar during this period, and 15 which were evacuating IJAAF personnel from Luzon were shot down. No attack was made against the American force. The Third Fleet exited the Balintang Channel at 22:00 that night. After departing the South China Sea, the Third Fleet proceeded to its next assignments. It attacked airfields and harbors on Formosa again on 21 January, with ten merchant ships being sunk at Takao. But a Japanese aircraft struck the light aircraft carrier USS Langley with two small bombs and the fleet carrier Ticonderoga was badly damaged by two kamikazes. The destroyer Maddox was also hit by a kamikaze but suffered little damage. In addition, McCain's flagship Hancock suffered considerable damage when a bomb fell from a TBF Avenger which had just landed and exploded on her flight deck. Hancock and Ticonderoga were detached from the fleet, and proceeded to Ulithi for repairs. On 22 January the remaining carriers struck the Ryukyu Islands. The main goal of this operation was to gain photographic coverage of Okinawa to help plan an invasion of the island, and airfields and shipping were also attacked. Once this task was completed, the fleet turned south for Ulithi in the evening of 22 January, and arrived there on 25 January. The next day Halsey handed command over to Spruance, and it became the Fifth Fleet. The South China Sea raid was considered a success. During its operations in the South China Sea between 10 and 20 January, the Third Fleet sailed 3,800 miles (6,100 km) without suffering heavy casualties or a serious mishap. Nimitz later stated that "the sortie into the South China Sea was well-conceived and brilliantly executed" and praised the planning for the fleet's logistical support. He regretted that Japanese capital ships had not been located and attacked. In 1995 the historian John Prados wrote that the Japanese "convoy losses off French Indochina were the most significant outcome of Operation Gratitude". Similarly, Mark P. Parillo judged in 1993 that the destruction of 25 oil tankers during the raid "spelled doom for any long-term Japanese resistance". The Japanese high command believed that the raid had been conducted in preparation for an invasion of south China. In response, five additional infantry divisions were assigned to the defense of this area. Three of these divisions were released for other operations in March 1945 after the American invasion of Iwo Jima was interpreted as evidence that the Hong Kong-Canton area would be bypassed rather than attacked. The South China Sea raid also contributed to the Japanese takeover of Indochina. The commander of the Imperial Japanese Army forces in Indochina, Lieutenant General Yuitsu Tsuchihashi, believed that the raid was the precursor an Allied invasion of the area. In reality, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had decided that the US would not participate in the liberation of Indochina and there were no plans for such an operation. As part of efforts to prepare for an Allied invasion and pre-empt the French uprising, on 26 February the Japanese Government authorized the military command in Indochina to execute the takeover plans once preparations were complete. This occurred on 9 March, with the Japanese forces attacking and rapidly defeating most of the French garrisons. The Japanese subsequently installed Emperor Bao Dai to rule over the puppet Empire of Vietnam, Kingdom of Cambodia and Kingdom of Laos. The Portuguese Government lodged a protest over the US Navy's violation of Macau's neutrality shortly after the raid on 16 January, and the US Government apologized for the incident on 20 January. An official court of inquiry was held, and in 1950 the United States provided Portugal with a $20.3 million compensation payment for the damage caused to Macau's harbor on 16 January and other accidental raids on 11 and 25 June 1945. Allied air and naval attacks against Japanese shipping in the South China Sea were expanded during early 1945 as additional USAAF units moved into bases in the Philippines. Land-based patrol aircraft and medium bombers operated over the sea from liberated areas of the Philippines and Dutch East Indies from February. While Allied submarines and these aircraft failed to prevent the escape of the Ise-class battleships when they sailed from Singapore to Japan during Operation Kita in mid-February, the medium bombers were sinking large numbers of Japanese merchant ships by the end of the month. Medium and heavy bombers also raided Japanese-held ports across the South China Sea area. As a result of the air and submarine attacks, the Japanese ceased sending ships through the South China Sea in April 1945.	<urn:uuid:fa8237cd-1664-4c30-910c-a117a44edc98>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://en.wikibedia.ru/wiki/South_China_Sea_raid	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00384.warc.gz	en	0.982172	6,693	3.609375	4	[ 0.013031404465436935, -0.09742717444896698, 0.07019203901290894, -0.8600795865058899, 0.17284101247787476, 0.05686153843998909, -0.07461501657962799, 0.06392879784107208, -0.130834698677063, 0.06004353612661362, 0.45664918422698975, -0.2134990692138672, 0.2861950993537903, 0.71359717845916...	1	\|South China Sea raid\| \|Part of Pacific Theater of World War II\| Smoke rising from Saigon after facilities and ships in the city were attacked by United States Navy aircraft on 12 January 1945 \|Commanders and leaders\| William Halsey Jr.\| John S. McCain Sr. \|Casualties and losses\| Aircraft losses between 3 and 25 January: Losses between 3 and 25 January: \|Hundreds of civilians killed and wounded\| The South China Sea raid (designated Operation Gratitude) was an operation conducted by the United States Third Fleet between 10 and 20 January 1945 during the Pacific War of World War II. The raid was undertaken to support the liberation of Luzon in the Philippines, and targeted Japanese warships, supply convoys and aircraft in the region. After attacking airfields and shipping at Formosa and Luzon, the Third Fleet entered the South China Sea during the night of 9–10 January. Aircraft flying from its aircraft carriers attacked Japanese shipping off French Indochina on 12 January, sinking 44 vessels. The fleet then sailed north and attacked Formosa again on 15 January. Further raids were conducted against Hong Kong, Canton and Hainan the next day. The Third Fleet departed the South China Sea on 20 January and, after making further attacks on Formosa and the Ryukyu Islands, returned to its base on 25 January. The Third Fleet's operations in the South China Sea were highly successful. It destroyed a large number of Japanese ships and aircraft, while losing relatively few of its own aircraft. Historians have judged the destruction of cargo vessels and oil tankers to have been the most important result of the raid, as these losses contributed to closing a supply route which was vital to the Japanese war effort. Subsequent attacks by Allied aircraft and warships forced the Japanese to cease sending ships into the South China Sea after March 1945. During 1941 and the first months of 1942, Japan conquered or established de facto rule over almost the entire South China Sea region. Control of the sea was vital to the Japanese economy and war effort, as it was the conduit through which essential supplies of oil and other natural resources passed from occupied Malaya, Borneo and the Dutch East Indies. The situation in French Indochina was particularly complex. After a short military confrontation in September 1940 the colonial government, which was loyal to the Vichy French collaborationist regime, permitted the Japanese to use ports and airfields in northern Indochina. In July 1941 the Japanese occupied southern Indochina and established airfields as well as an important naval base at Cam Ranh Bay. The French authorities remained in place as a puppet government. After the liberation of France in 1944, the colonial government sought to make contact with the new Free French government in Paris, and began preparations to stage an uprising against the Japanese. The Japanese also developed plans in 1944 to forcibly disarm the French forces and formally take over Indochina, and their intelligence services rapidly learned of the French authorities' intentions. As the war turned against Japan, convoys of ships passing through the South China Sea frequently came under attack from Allied submarines and – by late 1944 – aircraft. These attacks were guided by information gained from signals intelligence and long-range air patrols, supplemented by reports from coast watchers along the Chinese coast and other observers in Asian ports. The United States Army Air Forces' (USAAF) Fourteenth Air Force, which was stationed in China, regularly attacked Japanese shipping in the South China Sea area. The command also made periodic attacks on Japanese-held ports in southern China and military installations in Indochina. The Allied clandestine services undertook few activities in Indochina until the second quarter of 1945. While losses of oil tankers and freighters were increasingly heavy, the Japanese Government continued to order ships to make the voyage through the South China Sea. In an attempt to limit losses, convoys and individual ships took routes well away from the established sea lanes, or sailed close to the shore and operated only at night. The United States began the liberation of the Philippines on 25 October 1944, with a landing at Leyte island in the central Philippines. After a base was established at Leyte, American forces landed at Mindoro island on 13 December. This operation was conducted to secure airfields that could be used to attack Japanese shipping in the South China Sea and support the largest element of the liberation of the Philippines, a landing at Lingayen Gulf in north-western Luzon that was scheduled for 9 January 1945. The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) suffered heavy losses in its attempt to attack the Allied fleet during the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944 which, when combined with the losses during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, left it unable to conduct further major battles. However, it remained capable of raiding Allied positions. During late 1944 Admiral William Halsey Jr., the commander of the United States Third Fleet, sought to conduct a raid into the South China Sea and led the development of plans for such an operation. On 21 November he asked Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the head of the United States Pacific Fleet, for permission to begin the attack but was turned down. In December 1944 the United States Navy's high command became concerned that the IJN would attempt to cut the supply line to the planned beachhead at Lingayen Gulf. On 26 December a Japanese naval force operating from Cam Ranh Bay shelled the Allied beachhead at Mindoro, but inflicted no damage. One of the Japanese destroyers involved in this operation was sunk, and all of the remaining ships were damaged by Allied air and naval attacks before returning to Cam Ranh Bay. As further Japanese raids were expected, senior US Navy officers believed that it was necessary to destroy the IJN's remaining mobile forces, which were thought to be split between Cam Ranh Bay and the Inland Sea in Japan. At this time the Inland Sea was beyond the range of the USAAF's heavy bombers, meaning that an attack into the South China Sea was the only viable option for striking the IJN. The US Navy's intelligence service believed that the Japanese force based at Cam Ranh Bay was built around the two Ise-class battleships. Halsey and Nimitz discussed the proposed South China Sea raid during a meeting held around Christmas 1944 at the US Navy anchorage which had been established at Ulithi atoll in the Caroline Islands. On 28 December Nimitz gave Halsey permission to launch the attack once his fleet was no longer needed to directly support the Lingayen Gulf landings and "if major Japanese fleet units were sighted" in the area. Halsey issued the pre-prepared plans for the operation to his subordinates the same day. Its goals were to attack the Japanese fleet and shipping. In addition, the Americans believed that the presence of a powerful force in the South China Sea would discourage any further IJN operations in the area. While the Fourteenth Air Force was directed to attack Japanese shipping and airfields at Hong Kong in support of the invasion of Luzon, it was not informed of the plans for the Third Fleet to enter the South China Sea. The Fourteenth Air Force was also not briefed on the Fleet's operations during the South China Sea raid, and no attempts were made to coordinate the two forces' activities during this period. The plans for the raid specified that the Third Fleet would enter the South China Sea via the Luzon Strait before proceeding south-west. The fleet's aircraft carriers would attack Japanese positions on Formosa, and provide support for the landings at Lingayen Gulf on 9 January. Three submarines from the Seventh Fleet were to take up station in the South China Sea to rescue the aircrew of any American aircraft which were forced to ditch. This plan would require the Third Fleet to operate near a large number of Japanese airfields from which attacks could be mounted against the ships. Allied intelligence estimated that about 300 aircraft were usually stationed at Formosa; around 500 were in southern China and northern Indochina, a further 170 in southern Indochina, Burma and Thailand and 280 in the Dutch East Indies. While most of these were Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (IJAAF) aircraft, which were less effective against warships than IJN aircraft, there was a risk that kamikaze tactics would be employed. In addition, weather conditions were expected to be hazardous as the South China Sea is frequently affected by typhoons during January. As of January 1945, the Third Fleet was built around the Fast Carrier Task Force, which was the main US Navy strike force in the Pacific. Control of this force alternated at regular intervals between the Third and Fifth Fleets (commanded by Halsey and Admiral Raymond A. Spruance respectively), with its designation also changing from Task Force 38 to Task Force 58. As Task Force 38 it was commanded by Vice Admiral John S. McCain Sr. In January 1945 Task Force 38 was organized into three fast carrier task groups and a night carrier group. The fast carrier groups were Task Group 38.1 with four aircraft carriers, two battleships, six cruisers and 25 destroyers; Task Group 38.2 with four carriers, three battleships, five cruisers and 24 destroyers; and Task Group 38.3, which comprised four carriers, three battleships, five cruisers and 17 destroyers. The night carrier group, Task Group 38.5, had two carriers and six destroyers, and operated with Task Group 38.2 during the day. These carrier groups embarked around 900 aircraft in total. The other major element of the fleet was a logistics force designated Task Group 30.8, which comprised a varying number of tankers and ammunition ships, several escort carriers transporting replacement aircraft for Task Force 38, and a large number of escorting destroyers. In addition, the fleet was assigned an anti-submarine hunter-killer force designated Task Group 30.7, which comprised an escort carrier and three destroyer escorts and typically operated in support of Task Group 30.8. Despite the American concerns, the IJN was not about to attack the Allied supply lines and Cam Ranh Bay was not a major fleet base. As of 1 January 1945, both the Ise-class battleships and the small number of other Japanese warships in the region were stationed at or near Singapore, and only escort vessels operated from Cam Ranh Bay. While large numbers of aircraft were located in Japanese-held territories bordering the South China Sea in January 1945, relatively few trained pilots were available to operate them. At this time the Imperial General Headquarters was considering a major offensive against the supply line to Lingayen Gulf, but on 20 January 1945 it decided to concentrate Japan's defensive efforts on the area around the home islands and only conduct delaying actions elsewhere. As a result, the Japanese forces in the South China Sea region at the time of the raid were focused on preparing to resist future Allied attacks. The Japanese believed that US forces could potentially land in Indochina once the liberation of the Philippines was complete, and were also concerned about possible attacks on the area by the British-led South East Asia Command. In an effort to better coordinate the Japanese forces in the South East Asia region, all Imperial Japanese Army and Navy units were placed under the overall control of the Southern Expionary Army Group in January 1945. This command was led by Gensui Count Hisaichi Terauchi from his headquarters in Singapore. Despite these preparations, the Japanese remained unable to counter powerful attacks against shipping in the South China Sea. While the Navy's convoy escort forces had been expanded during 1944, they remained inadequate. The most common type of escort vessel, the Kaibōkan, was vulnerable to air attack as a result of their slow speed and weak anti-aircraft armament. The IJN also assigned few fighter aircraft to protect convoys in the South China Sea and, due to the interservice rivalry which badly hindered the Japanese war effort, rejected an offer from the Army to provide additional fighters for this purpose just before the Third Fleet's attacks on French Indochina. The Third Fleet sailed from Ulithi on 30 December 1944. On 3 and 4 January its aircraft carriers struck Japanese airfields on Formosa, Okinawa and nearby islands in an attempt to prevent them from being used to attack the Allied forces at Lingayen Gulf. In addition, its strike aircraft attacked Japanese shipping at Formosa, sinking at least three merchant vessels and damaging four frigates. Acting on a request from General Douglas MacArthur, the commander of the South West Pacific Area, the fleet struck airfields on Luzon on 6 and 7 January. At around this time Vice-Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid, the commander of the Seventh Fleet which was responsible for the Lingayen Gulf landings, asked Halsey to operate west of Luzon to provide air cover during the initial period of the invasion. Halsey believed it would be inappropriate for his force to operate in such a passive role, and instead ordered further strikes on the Japanese airfields in southern Formosa which posed the greatest threat to Kinkaid's command. These took place on 9 January. During the morning of 9 January, Nimitz released the Third Fleet from directly covering the Lingayen Gulf area, and authorized it to enter the South China Sea. Once all the strike aircraft had landed that afternoon Halsey issued orders to execute the planned attack into the South China Sea. During the fleet's operations from 3 to 9 January it destroyed more than 150 Japanese aircraft, but lost 86 of its own, including 46 in accidents. During the night of 9–10 January the main body of the Third Fleet, including Task Group 30.7, sailed through the Bashi Channel in the northern part of the Luzon Strait. Task Group 30.8 was reduced to six fast tankers, two escort carriers and escorting warships, and reached the South China Sea via the Balintang Channel off the northern coast of Luzon. Neither force was detected by the Japanese, though night fighters operating from the light aircraft carrier USS Independence shot down three transport aircraft that were flying to Formosa from Luzon. The fleet also received a report that a large Japanese convoy of around 100 ships was sailing along the southern coast of China towards Formosa during the night of 9–10 January, but Halsey decided to not attack it as doing so would disclose that his force was in the South China Sea and possibly prompt the IJN to withdraw its battleships from the area. While it was planned to refuel the fleet's destroyers on 10 January, this was frustrated by bad weather. Instead, the destroyers were refueled during 11 January as the fleet proceeded south-west. Once the destroyers were refueled, the Third Fleet was reorganized for combat. Two heavy cruisers and five destroyers were transferred from Task Group 38.1 to Task Group 38.2. The latter task group, under the command of Rear Admiral Gerald F. Bogan, was intended to launch air attacks against Cam Ranh Bay from its three large fleet carriers and single light carrier on the morning of 12 January. The Task Group's two battleships, accompanied by destroyers and cruisers, would then bombard the area and finish off ships which were damaged in the air attacks. The choice of targets was informed by intelligence passed on to the Allies by two networks of agents in Indochina. The Third Fleet remained undetected by Japanese forces on 10 and 11 January. Task Group 38.2 began its approach to Cam Ranh Bay at 2 pm on 11 January. It was followed by Task Groups 38.1 and 38.3, which launched fighter aircraft to provide a combat air patrol over the fleet. Task Group 30.8 remained in the central South China Sea. Before dawn on 12 January, Task Group 38.5 launched aircraft to search for Japanese ships in the Cam Ranh Bay area. The crews of these aircraft radioed back the location of Japanese ships, and conducted an intensive search for the two Ise-class battleships and any other capital ships. When none were located it was believed that the warships had been hidden from view by camouflage; it took several months for the US Navy to learn that they had not been in the area. By 6 am on 12 January Task Group 38.2 was within 50 miles (80 km) of Cam Ranh Bay. It and the other two task groups began launching their first strikes of the day at 07:31 am, about half an hour before sunrise. The Japanese had still not detected the Third Fleet's approach, and were unprepared for an attack. The American airmen achieved considerable success against Japanese convoys. Two waves of aircraft from Task Group 38.3 attacked a convoy of 10 ships escorted by the seven warships of the 101st Flotilla near Qui Nhơn in central Indochina and sank four fully loaded oil tankers, three freighters, the light cruiser Kashii and three small escort vessels. Another convoy was located and struck near Cape Padaran in southern Indochina, resulting in the loss of a tanker, two destroyer escorts and a patrol boat. A convoy comprising seven vessels was also attacked near Cape St. Jacques in southern Indochina, leading to two freighters, three tankers, three destroyer escorts and a landing craft being sunk or forced to beach. American aircraft also struck Japanese shipping in the Saigon area. Two freighters and a tanker were sunk at Saigon, and another tanker was destroyed off the coast. The disarmed French cruiser Lamotte-Picquet was mistakenly attacked and sunk at Saigon, despite flying the French flag. A large number of other ships were damaged in the Saigon area, including five freighters, two tankers, three landing craft, two to four destroyer escorts, a minesweeper and a patrol boat. Several of these ships were beached, and destroyed by a storm later in the month. Other Third Fleet aircraft were used to maintain a combat air patrol over the area between Tourane in central Indochina and Saigon and attack airfields, docks and oil storage facilities. The railway station at Nha Trang and a bridge on the line between Saigon and Bien Hoa were also damaged. The surface strike group, which had separated from Task Group 38.2 at 6:40 am and comprised two battleships, two heavy cruisers, three light cruisers and twelve destroyers, did not locate any Japanese ships. The attacks on 12 January were highly successful. A total of 46 Japanese ships were sunk, including 33 merchant vessels with a combined tonnage of 142,285 tons. Twelve of these merchants were tankers. The 13 warships sunk were the light cruiser Kashii, two destroyers, seven coast defense vessels, one patrol boat, one minelayer and a military transport. While few Japanese aircraft were operational, the American airmen shot down 15 aircraft and destroyed 20 floatplanes at Cam Ranh Bay and another 77 aircraft at various airfields. The Third Fleet lost 23 aircraft. The French colonial government refused to hand over the downed American airmen its forces captured to the Japanese military, and provided them with escorts to the Chinese border. Civilians also rescued American airmen and helped them to escape. As a result, almost all of the US Navy aircrew from planes shot down over Indochina eventually returned to the United States via China. At 7:31 pm on 12 January, the Third Fleet reversed course and sailed north-east to meet up with Task Group 30.8. This course was maintained the next day in order to evade a typhoon and Japanese search aircraft. Heavy seas made fuelling difficult, though all of the destroyers were eventually refueled on 13 January. On that day, Fleet Admiral Ernest King, the Chief of Naval Operations, directed the Third Fleet to remain "in a strategic position to intercept enemy forces approaching the Lingayen Gulf area from either the north or the south". In passing this order on to Halsey, Nimitz authorized him to attack the Hong Kong area if more worthwhile targets could not be located. On 14 January the American warships continued to refuel, despite the bad weather. All of the major warships were eventually topped up to at least 60 per cent of their fuel capacity. This consumed most of Task Group 30.8's supplies, and it later separated from the fleet to rendezvous with relief tankers near Mindoro. After fuelling was completed the Third Fleet sailed north to attack Formosa. Weather conditions continued to be bad, and at 3:00 am on 15 January McCain recommended to Halsey that the strikes be cancelled and the fleet sail south. Even so, Halsey decided to continue north and execute the attack. In addition, he ordered aircraft to be launched during 15 January to reconnoiter Amoy, Hainan island, Hong Kong, the Pescadores Islands and Swatow in search of the Ise-class battleships. The newly designated night carrier USS Enterprise flew off search aircraft at 4:00 am that morning. Strikes were launched from the aircraft carriers beginning at 7:30 am on 15 January; at this time the Third Fleet was about 255 miles (410 km) east-south-east of Hong Kong and 170 miles (270 km) south-west of Formosa. Ten fighter sweeps were dispatched to Formosa, and a further six to airfields on the coast of mainland China. In addition, eight raids were launched against shipping in the Takao and Toshien regions of Formosa. While large numbers of ships were located, these strikes were largely frustrated by bad weather and heavy anti-aircraft fire. The destroyer Hatakaze and No.1-class landing ship T.14 were sunk at Takao City and a tanker was damaged and forced aground. Several of the strikes were diverted to Mako in the Pescadores Islands, where weather conditions were better, and these aircraft sank the destroyer Tsuga. A weather station and radio facilities in the Pratas Islands were also attacked by aircraft operating from Enterprise. The American pilots claimed to have shot down 16 Japanese aircraft and destroyed another 18 on the ground during the day; 12 US Navy aircraft were lost in combat and accidents. At 4:44 pm the carriers changed course to reach the position from which Hong Kong and other locations in southern China were to be attacked the next day. The British colony of Hong Kong had been captured by Japanese forces in December 1941, and became a significant naval and logistics base. USAAF units based in China attacked the Hong Kong area from October 1942. Most of these raids involved a small number of aircraft, and typically targeted Japanese cargo ships which had been reported by Chinese guerrillas. By January 1945 the city was being regularly raided by the USAAF. The Third Fleet's first raids for 16 January began to be launched at 7:32 am. The day's operations were focused on Hong Kong, which was struck by 138 aircraft during the morning and a further 158 in the afternoon. The raiders sunk five large tankers and an IJN oiler, and damaged several other ships. The tankers formed part of Convoy Hi 87 which had been diverted from its journey south in an attempt to avoid the Third Fleet. In addition, Kai Tak Airport was badly damaged, and all the aircraft on the ground there at the time were destroyed. Widespread damage was also inflicted on the Kowloon and Taikoo docks. Several less important targets, including the dockyard in Aberdeen and trains on the Kowloon–Canton Railway, were struck by pilots who had been authorized to engage targets of opportunity. The village of Hung Hom, which was located near the Kowloon docks, was heavily bombed and hundreds of civilians were killed or wounded. Stanley Internment Camp was also hit by a bomb that killed 14 of the Allied civilians imprisoned there. The Fourteenth Air Force's 118th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron conducted an attack on shipping at Hong Kong on 16 January which was not coordinated with the US Navy's raids. These were the largest air attacks conducted on Hong Kong during World War II. The Japanese garrison at Hong Kong strongly resisted the raid, using particularly effective anti-aircraft tactics which the Americans had not previously encountered. A US Navy report described the gunfire the aircraft faced as having been "intense to unbelievable". The TBF Avenger torpedo bombers dispatched against Hong Kong suffered particularly heavy losses as their low-level attack runs were vulnerable to anti-aircraft fire. As the Avengers' torpedoes were set to run too deep these attacks achieved little. The Portuguese colony of Macau was also struck. While Portugal was neutral, the colony's government had been forced to accept the presence of Japanese "advisers" since 1943 and had traded weapons for food supplies. The raid's main target was a stockpile of aviation fuel at the Macau Naval Aviation Center which the Allies had learned from local agents was to be sold to the Japanese. The fort of Dona Maria II ( ) was also attacked, possibly to destroy a radio station located within or near it, and some damage was inflicted on civilian areas and the city's harbor. Two soldiers and several civilians were killed. Macau's garrison had no effective anti-aircraft weapons, and did not fire on the American aircraft. Writing in 2016, historian Geoffrey C. Gunn stated that it was unclear why Macau was attacked given that the US Government's policy was to respect Macau's neutrality and the gains from destroying the fuel stocks were more than outweighed by the likely diplomatic repercussions. He judged that US Naval intelligence was unaware of the policy towards the colony. Other attacks were conducted against locations in southern China during 16 January. Strikes were made on the city of Canton, and two raids and two fighter sweeps were conducted against locations in Hainan. In addition, fighter aircraft attacked airfields along the Chinese coast between the Leizhou Peninsula in the west to Swatow in the east, but encountered few Japanese aircraft. American casualties on 16 January were 22 aircraft shot down in combat and 27 lost in accidents. The Japanese claimed to have downed 10 aircraft over Hong Kong alone. The US Navy pilots reported destroying 13 Japanese aircraft. At least four American airmen were taken prisoner after their planes were shot down near Hong Kong, and a further seven evaded capture and eventually reached Allied-held regions of China. One of the American prisoners was later murdered by a lethal injection at the Ōfuna prisoner of war camp in Japan. After completing its strikes on 16 January, the Third Fleet turned south to refuel. Because weather conditions were particularly bad the next day, fuelling was not completed. The weather worsened on 18 January, making fuelling operations impossible. During this period Japanese propaganda radio broadcasts claimed that the fleet had been "bottled up", and would be destroyed when it tried to leave the South China Sea. As his meteorologists expected bad weather to continue into 19 January, Halsey decided to depart the South China Sea via the Surigao Strait in the central Philippines rather than sail north around Luzon. But when Nimitz learned of this he requested that the Third Fleet use the Luzon Strait, though Halsey was given discretion to make the final decision on his force's route. Nimitz's reasoning was that if the fleet sailed through the central Philippines its departure would be reported by Japanese forces on bypassed islands, possibly leading to the IJN attempting a raid against the Allied supply lines. In addition, a northerly passage would leave the Third Fleet better placed to undertake its next assignments, which included attacking Formosa again and reconnoitering the Ryukyu Islands. Halsey chose to follow Nimitz's request. His fleet completed fuelling on 19 January, and proceeded north towards the Balintang Channel; Task Group 30.8 separated from the main body, however, and subsequently passed through the Surigao Strait. During 20 January the fleet sailed east through the Balintang Channel, with a division of destroyers patrolling well ahead of the carrier task groups. A large number of Japanese aircraft were detected by radar during this period, and 15 which were evacuating IJAAF personnel from Luzon were shot down. No attack was made against the American force. The Third Fleet exited the Balintang Channel at 22:00 that night. After departing the South China Sea, the Third Fleet proceeded to its next assignments. It attacked airfields and harbors on Formosa again on 21 January, with ten merchant ships being sunk at Takao. But a Japanese aircraft struck the light aircraft carrier USS Langley with two small bombs and the fleet carrier Ticonderoga was badly damaged by two kamikazes. The destroyer Maddox was also hit by a kamikaze but suffered little damage. In addition, McCain's flagship Hancock suffered considerable damage when a bomb fell from a TBF Avenger which had just landed and exploded on her flight deck. Hancock and Ticonderoga were detached from the fleet, and proceeded to Ulithi for repairs. On 22 January the remaining carriers struck the Ryukyu Islands. The main goal of this operation was to gain photographic coverage of Okinawa to help plan an invasion of the island, and airfields and shipping were also attacked. Once this task was completed, the fleet turned south for Ulithi in the evening of 22 January, and arrived there on 25 January. The next day Halsey handed command over to Spruance, and it became the Fifth Fleet. The South China Sea raid was considered a success. During its operations in the South China Sea between 10 and 20 January, the Third Fleet sailed 3,800 miles (6,100 km) without suffering heavy casualties or a serious mishap. Nimitz later stated that "the sortie into the South China Sea was well-conceived and brilliantly executed" and praised the planning for the fleet's logistical support. He regretted that Japanese capital ships had not been located and attacked. In 1995 the historian John Prados wrote that the Japanese "convoy losses off French Indochina were the most significant outcome of Operation Gratitude". Similarly, Mark P. Parillo judged in 1993 that the destruction of 25 oil tankers during the raid "spelled doom for any long-term Japanese resistance". The Japanese high command believed that the raid had been conducted in preparation for an invasion of south China. In response, five additional infantry divisions were assigned to the defense of this area. Three of these divisions were released for other operations in March 1945 after the American invasion of Iwo Jima was interpreted as evidence that the Hong Kong-Canton area would be bypassed rather than attacked. The South China Sea raid also contributed to the Japanese takeover of Indochina. The commander of the Imperial Japanese Army forces in Indochina, Lieutenant General Yuitsu Tsuchihashi, believed that the raid was the precursor an Allied invasion of the area. In reality, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had decided that the US would not participate in the liberation of Indochina and there were no plans for such an operation. As part of efforts to prepare for an Allied invasion and pre-empt the French uprising, on 26 February the Japanese Government authorized the military command in Indochina to execute the takeover plans once preparations were complete. This occurred on 9 March, with the Japanese forces attacking and rapidly defeating most of the French garrisons. The Japanese subsequently installed Emperor Bao Dai to rule over the puppet Empire of Vietnam, Kingdom of Cambodia and Kingdom of Laos. The Portuguese Government lodged a protest over the US Navy's violation of Macau's neutrality shortly after the raid on 16 January, and the US Government apologized for the incident on 20 January. An official court of inquiry was held, and in 1950 the United States provided Portugal with a $20.3 million compensation payment for the damage caused to Macau's harbor on 16 January and other accidental raids on 11 and 25 June 1945. Allied air and naval attacks against Japanese shipping in the South China Sea were expanded during early 1945 as additional USAAF units moved into bases in the Philippines. Land-based patrol aircraft and medium bombers operated over the sea from liberated areas of the Philippines and Dutch East Indies from February. While Allied submarines and these aircraft failed to prevent the escape of the Ise-class battleships when they sailed from Singapore to Japan during Operation Kita in mid-February, the medium bombers were sinking large numbers of Japanese merchant ships by the end of the month. Medium and heavy bombers also raided Japanese-held ports across the South China Sea area. As a result of the air and submarine attacks, the Japanese ceased sending ships through the South China Sea in April 1945.	7,116	ENGLISH	1
This is the grave of George Clinton. Born in 1739 in Little Britain, New York, Clinton’s father was a farmer involved in local politics. Although just a kid, Clinton readily joined the fight in the French and Indian War. First, he signed up with a privateer in the Caribbean, raiding French ships. Then he joined the colonial militia. His father was a colonel in the militia, which surely didn’t hurt. George rose to the rank of lieutenant during his time, was involved in some important battles and raids, and was a useful soldier. George definitely built upon his father’s work. His father was an excellent surveyor at a time that was a crucial skill. New York’s governor wanted to offer him the position of New York City’s sheriff as a reward for his work. He turned it down, but instead the governor gave young George a position in the Ulster County Court of Common Pleas, which he would hold for merely the next 52 years. Clinton joined the New York State Assembly, supported the Patriot cause when the Revolution broke out, and was named brigadier general in the New York militia upon the breakout of war. One of his ideas was to stretch a giant chain across the Hudson River so British ships couldn’t float very far past the New York City. Not sure how that worked out in the field. He then joined the Continental Army. He remained technically active through the war but was also elected New York’s governor in 1777. Reelected five times, he remained in the office until 1795. He was most known for his hatred of Tories and his vigor in seizing their lands. He was close to George Washington and was a leading star of the new nation. Clinton was initially a big supporter of the Constitution and backer of Alexander Hamilton’s ideas. But he soon became disturbed by Hamilton taking the power to raise tariffs out of the states’ hands and put it in federal hands. After all, tariffs was what New York ran upon. He probably was “Cato” writing the major anti-Federalist papers to urge the rejection of the Constitution. When that failed, he was a big supporter of the Bill of Rights. Even as the Democratic-Republican Party was just coming together, Clinton was seen as a natural leader. Opponents of the Federalists wanted Clinton to be Washington’s VP in both 1788 and 1792, as they detested John Adams and what they saw as his cozying up to monarchy. He finally stepped down from the governor’s position in 1795. He wanted to stay out of politics, rejecting efforts to be the VP candidate in 1796. He did stay out briefly, but of course returned to the state legislature and then became governor against in 1801. Finally, Thomas Jefferson selected Clinton to be his VP for the 1804 election, replacing Burr, who was close to Clinton but who was untenable by this point. Needing a New Yorker, the Virginian turned to the next best thing to Burr. Madison kept him on the role. As was normal, he didn’t really do much as vice-president. He really wanted to be president and decided to run against Madison in 1808, but Jefferson and Madison were more powerful in the party and he was more convenient in the secondary role. But Clinton was angry. So he took it out on Madison. He had real supporters in Congress who wanted to break the Virginia dynasty. Clinton and his supporters managed to get Albert Gallatin rejected for Secretary of State and, even more significantly, got to case the tie-breaking vote to kill the renewal of the Bank of the United States. But he died in office in 1812. He was 72 years old. George Clinton is buried in Old Dutch Churchyard, Kingston, New York. This didn’t happen until 1908. He was initially buried in Washington, D.C. I’m not sure of the story for why he was moved. Naturally, you may be wondering why I took this picture at night. I actually wasn’t looking for this grave. I was in Kingston to see the great band from Niger, Tal National. I had a little time to kill so I took a short walk around town. I was walking past the big church, saw a giant grave next to the sidewalk, peaked over, and, hey, it’s George Clinton! Shows that sometimes graves find you, and not only when you die either. If you would like this post to visit the graves of other 19th century vice-presidents, you can donate to cover the required expenses here. John C. Calhoun is buried in Charleston, South Carolina while Richard Johnson is buried in Frankfort, Kentucky. And who is not excited about Richard Johnson blogging? Previous posts in this series are archived here.	<urn:uuid:ab5c401d-4af1-495d-b63d-927f044fbe3d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.lawyersgunsmoneyblog.com/2018/11/erik-visits-american-grave-part-358	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00497.warc.gz	en	0.985469	997	3.4375	3	[ -0.15797163546085358, 0.32443904876708984, 0.658481240272522, 0.15202754735946655, -0.33915820717811584, 0.2385164350271225, 0.46259427070617676, 0.008204102516174316, -0.2670662999153137, 0.1201535239815712, -0.012172224000096321, 0.5430358648300171, 0.001907820231281221, 0.64088225364685...	3	This is the grave of George Clinton. Born in 1739 in Little Britain, New York, Clinton’s father was a farmer involved in local politics. Although just a kid, Clinton readily joined the fight in the French and Indian War. First, he signed up with a privateer in the Caribbean, raiding French ships. Then he joined the colonial militia. His father was a colonel in the militia, which surely didn’t hurt. George rose to the rank of lieutenant during his time, was involved in some important battles and raids, and was a useful soldier. George definitely built upon his father’s work. His father was an excellent surveyor at a time that was a crucial skill. New York’s governor wanted to offer him the position of New York City’s sheriff as a reward for his work. He turned it down, but instead the governor gave young George a position in the Ulster County Court of Common Pleas, which he would hold for merely the next 52 years. Clinton joined the New York State Assembly, supported the Patriot cause when the Revolution broke out, and was named brigadier general in the New York militia upon the breakout of war. One of his ideas was to stretch a giant chain across the Hudson River so British ships couldn’t float very far past the New York City. Not sure how that worked out in the field. He then joined the Continental Army. He remained technically active through the war but was also elected New York’s governor in 1777. Reelected five times, he remained in the office until 1795. He was most known for his hatred of Tories and his vigor in seizing their lands. He was close to George Washington and was a leading star of the new nation. Clinton was initially a big supporter of the Constitution and backer of Alexander Hamilton’s ideas. But he soon became disturbed by Hamilton taking the power to raise tariffs out of the states’ hands and put it in federal hands. After all, tariffs was what New York ran upon. He probably was “Cato” writing the major anti-Federalist papers to urge the rejection of the Constitution. When that failed, he was a big supporter of the Bill of Rights. Even as the Democratic-Republican Party was just coming together, Clinton was seen as a natural leader. Opponents of the Federalists wanted Clinton to be Washington’s VP in both 1788 and 1792, as they detested John Adams and what they saw as his cozying up to monarchy. He finally stepped down from the governor’s position in 1795. He wanted to stay out of politics, rejecting efforts to be the VP candidate in 1796. He did stay out briefly, but of course returned to the state legislature and then became governor against in 1801. Finally, Thomas Jefferson selected Clinton to be his VP for the 1804 election, replacing Burr, who was close to Clinton but who was untenable by this point. Needing a New Yorker, the Virginian turned to the next best thing to Burr. Madison kept him on the role. As was normal, he didn’t really do much as vice-president. He really wanted to be president and decided to run against Madison in 1808, but Jefferson and Madison were more powerful in the party and he was more convenient in the secondary role. But Clinton was angry. So he took it out on Madison. He had real supporters in Congress who wanted to break the Virginia dynasty. Clinton and his supporters managed to get Albert Gallatin rejected for Secretary of State and, even more significantly, got to case the tie-breaking vote to kill the renewal of the Bank of the United States. But he died in office in 1812. He was 72 years old. George Clinton is buried in Old Dutch Churchyard, Kingston, New York. This didn’t happen until 1908. He was initially buried in Washington, D.C. I’m not sure of the story for why he was moved. Naturally, you may be wondering why I took this picture at night. I actually wasn’t looking for this grave. I was in Kingston to see the great band from Niger, Tal National. I had a little time to kill so I took a short walk around town. I was walking past the big church, saw a giant grave next to the sidewalk, peaked over, and, hey, it’s George Clinton! Shows that sometimes graves find you, and not only when you die either. If you would like this post to visit the graves of other 19th century vice-presidents, you can donate to cover the required expenses here. John C. Calhoun is buried in Charleston, South Carolina while Richard Johnson is buried in Frankfort, Kentucky. And who is not excited about Richard Johnson blogging? Previous posts in this series are archived here.	1,000	ENGLISH	1
Aristophanes, son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion (Latin: Cydathenaeum),was a comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete. These, together with fragments of some of his other plays, provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, and are used to define it.Also known as the Father of Comedy and the Prince of Ancient Comedy, Aristophanes has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author. His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; Plato singled out Aristophanes' play The Clouds as slander that contributed to the trial and subsequent condemning to death of Socrates although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher. His second play, The Babylonians (now lost), was denounced by the demagogue Cleon as a slander against the Athenian polis. It is possible that the case was argued in court but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristophanes caricatured Cleon mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especially The Knights, the first of many plays that he directed himself. "In my opinion," he says through the Chorus in that play, "the author-director of comedies has the hardest job of all." (font: Wikipedia) Acerca de Aristophanes Often referred to as the father of comedy, Aristophanes was an ancient Greek comedic playwright who was active in ancient Athens during the fourth century BCE, both during and after the Peloponnesian War. His surviving plays collectively represent most of the extant examples of the genre known as Old Comedy and serve as a foundation for future dramatic comedy in Western dramatic literature. Aristophanes' works are most notable for their political satire, and he often ridiculed public figures, including, most famously, Socrates, in his play The Clouds. Aristophanes is also recognized for his realistic representations of daily life in Athens, and his works provide an important source to understand the social reality of life in Ancient Greece. Aristophanes died sometime after 386 BCE of unknown causes.	<urn:uuid:f8fc645e-4e65-4a36-b444-2f6a86649cdb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bajalibros.com/US/The-Frogs-Aristophanes-eBook-1247468?q=Ficci%C3%B3n	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00358.warc.gz	en	0.98556	442	3.625	4	[ -0.09712450206279755, 0.09058142453432083, 0.35947519540786743, -0.5064976811408997, -0.18680623173713684, 0.016634609550237656, 0.03779347240924835, 0.18041878938674927, -0.3527706563472748, -0.25726068019866943, -0.2843951880931854, -0.11328624933958054, 0.0892874002456665, 0.25547629594...	1	Aristophanes, son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion (Latin: Cydathenaeum),was a comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete. These, together with fragments of some of his other plays, provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, and are used to define it.Also known as the Father of Comedy and the Prince of Ancient Comedy, Aristophanes has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author. His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; Plato singled out Aristophanes' play The Clouds as slander that contributed to the trial and subsequent condemning to death of Socrates although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher. His second play, The Babylonians (now lost), was denounced by the demagogue Cleon as a slander against the Athenian polis. It is possible that the case was argued in court but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristophanes caricatured Cleon mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especially The Knights, the first of many plays that he directed himself. "In my opinion," he says through the Chorus in that play, "the author-director of comedies has the hardest job of all." (font: Wikipedia) Acerca de Aristophanes Often referred to as the father of comedy, Aristophanes was an ancient Greek comedic playwright who was active in ancient Athens during the fourth century BCE, both during and after the Peloponnesian War. His surviving plays collectively represent most of the extant examples of the genre known as Old Comedy and serve as a foundation for future dramatic comedy in Western dramatic literature. Aristophanes' works are most notable for their political satire, and he often ridiculed public figures, including, most famously, Socrates, in his play The Clouds. Aristophanes is also recognized for his realistic representations of daily life in Athens, and his works provide an important source to understand the social reality of life in Ancient Greece. Aristophanes died sometime after 386 BCE of unknown causes.	448	ENGLISH	1
Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays. Aristotle Education and Plato Through the life of Aristotle, one would wonder how a mere thought of philosophy could impact the way education is practiced today as we know it. Aristotle’s way of life reflected the way he thought and what he wrote for people to view and educate upon today. He has many philosophies that are brought right into the classroom today without anyone knowing they are. His philosophies are truly remarkable. When a person creates something or teaches something, the philosophies brought in the classroom become so innate that people who use it don’t even know it exists. Realism is an educational philosophy, which stresses knowledge that develops from one’s own senses. Under this philosophy the idea exists that there is a real world not constructed by human minds, that can be known by one’s own mind. It is through experiencing the world around everyone in which one learns the guiding principles and social conduct of life. Reality is what one experiences in the physical world. Therefore, everything one can learn and know comes from experiencing the world around us. Aristotle is considered by most to be one of the greatest pagan philosophers. He was born in a Grecian colony at Stagira, 384 B.C.E. At birth he was born into a set life. His father, Nicomachus, had a position under the King Amyntas of Macedonia as court physician. Therefore, this could relate to how his education started off. It was thought that his ancestors held the same position under the King because this way the area of court physician could become hereditary. As physician, Aristotle was taught in the area of medicines and was also trained for the position of court physician. It was here that he was clearly educated with a developing mind to entertain the many questions that arose in his head and the direction he would take to answer them. It is also clear that with each time Aristotle traveled from one place to another, it had some sort of impact on him: his thinking, his writings, and the way that philosophy is viewed today. With each place he traveled to, he was able to gain, share, teach, and experience the knowledge of philosophy. It was from when he was eighteen till he was about thirty-seven that he studied under the guidance of Plato as his pupil in Athens. He was held as a distinguished student among the group that studied with him in the Grove of Academus. The only problem that seemed to arise in his years of study was his relation with his teacher. Now these instances are not clear but it is known that both Aristotle and Plato had each their own ideas about certain views and philosophies. Therefore, it is only nature for them to bump heads a little in arguments over whether either side was justifiable with their ideas, beliefs, and/or views. There was still no reason to believe that the two did not have any form a friendship, since they both had such high views toward life. Legend reflected poorly and unfavorably upon Aristotle but legend has not been viewed that way as it is today. But it was shown even after Plato’s death in 347 B.C.E. that Aristotle still held Plato in high respects. He never gave any lack of cordial appreciation to him, when all people expected him to do once he died. The death of someone important in his life probably also affected the way he thought about certain ideas. After his teacher’s death, Aristotle went to Atarneus in Asia Minor where he met with the ruler, Hermias. There he would be married to Hermias’ adopted daughter Pythias. This may not seem relevant to how it influenced realism in education, but if one were to think about it, how can marriage not change the way someone thinks in some sort of way? A few years passed, Hermias was murdered due to rebellion and King Philip II of Macedon called upon Aristotle to return to Stagira. It was here that he would become the tutor of Alexander the Great, who was only thirteen years old. This had a great impact on history, as people know it. Aristotle taught him the knowledge of ethics and politics, as well as many secrets of philosophy in which many people probably would have trouble comprehending. Alexander the Great profited from the knowledge passed on from Aristotle along with Aristotle influencing the mind of the young prince to his benefit, and that is how history was affected by this contact between these two people. Once Alexander took the throne, Aristotle returned to Athens and there opened a school of philosophy. Later he followed in the footsteps of his teacher, Plato. He formed a school, Lyceum, in a gymnasium, where he gave regular instruction in philosophy. It was here that for thirteen years (335-322B.C.E.) as a teacher at the Lyceum, he came up with the greater number of his writings. He came up with “dialogues”, which were writings that Aristotle frequently wrote that are still read today and were then by his pupils. When teaching at the Lyceum, Aristotle had a habit of walking about as he taught. It was in connection with this that his followers became known in later years as the peripatetics, meaning, “to walk about.” Besides, he composed the several treatises on physics, metaphysics, and so forth, in which the exposition is a language more technical than in the “dialogues”. These writings show how much of a great influence they have, such as the way they impacted Alexander whom later became known as Alexander the Great. They show in particular how he succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he spared neither pains nor expense in pursuing, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural Phenomena. When Alexander’s death became known at Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the Lamian war; Aristotle was obliged to share in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of impiety, which had been brought against Anaxagoras and Socrates, was now, with even less reason, brought against him. He left the city, saying (according to many ancient authorities) that he would not give the Athenians a chance to sin a third time against Philosophy. He took up his residence at his country house, at Chalcis, in Euboea, and there he died the following year, 322B.C.E. His death was due to a disease from which he had long suffered. The story that his death was due to hemlock poisoning, as well as the legend, saying they he threw himself into the sea are absolutely without historical foundation. There are numerous ways that the theories, philosophies, ethics, writings, and styles of teaching of Aristotle have influenced education today and most likely will continue to in the future. Aristotle believed strongly in the importance of an education that studies the real world and then draws conclusions and gains knowledge through analytical exercises. With practically everything that is done today and taught today, there is some relevant relation to that of Aristotle and his beliefs. Through some of Aristotle’s books of Politics, one is able to see how education could be influenced and affected by what Aristotle says in his writings. Aristotle’s ethical theory is expressed through many aspects. Aristotle tends to express his feeling towards virtue in a way where it can go two ways. He talks of how virtue is divided into moral and intellectual virtue. Excellence of character deals with the “good life” and happiness. People are concerned with their character and getting the golden mean, which is true happiness, in life. One whom educates would be affected by this golden mean because they must learn to stray away from this aspect. They have to learn to educate for the sole purpose of those who are being taught to thrive as to what they are being taught. In a way, all these are interrelated with each other. Aristotle also explains the relation between ethics and politics, which leads to the implication for nature of morality and well living. Virtue, to Aristotle, is interpreted as the excellence of an object and that the object will perform it’s function effectively. This goes for people as well. For example a “virtuous” educator will successfully teach their students information they need to comprehend in order to go forward with their education. Aristotle divides human virtue into two types. One is moral virtue and the other is intellectual virtue. Although, it is hard to give an exact definition of each type, one would hope that an educator of today would lean toward the more moral virtuous side. Virtue is also a state of character that is concerned with choice with the golden mean. This leads to discussing the mean according to Aristotle. People who are morally virtuous are always making their decisions according to the golden mean. Of course not everyone is the same, different people have different means. This brings about the point that the good life is a life of happiness. Aristotle says such a life can be achieved by excellence in the two areas of virtue, but people are all aiming at some type of good in life. Some just may have higher expectations in their goal. People with virtual excellence want to have the good life that, according to them, is the excellence of character. The good life is referred to as being happy with life. Happiness must have two concepts included to fit Aristotle’s definition. Someone must exercise his or her thought of reason. He calls this “activity of soul.” Happiness also must have quality in the performance of the virtue, and it is the chief goal that everyone wishes to accomplish. Aristotle argued that the goal of human beings is happiness, and that we achieve happiness when we fulfill our function, or purpose of life. Therefore, it is necessary to determine what our function is. The function of a thing is what it can alone do, or what it can do best. This here is a key point in which an educator must understand. This key point of understanding is one of the most influential things Aristotle elaborates upon in my opinion. When he implies that the function is what one can do best, he implies that if someone is best at teaching, than they are to teach as their purpose in life. As a result of this function, they would than achieve happiness, but only if they were to do it in a virtuous way would they achieve happiness. Happiness is something that must be aligned with perfect virtue. This also goes along with the excellence of character. If someone is to have excellence of character he or she want or try to be happy and have the good life. If they achieve this then they will have the excellence of character. Some of these aspects are interrelated with each other. For instance, happiness is an activity of the soul that is along side of perfect virtue. Aristotle also says that virtue must be a state of character because of a person’s desire to act in a way that would ensure that golden mean. Virtue, excellence, the mean, the good life, happiness, and character are all interrelated within each other to be happy with life and achieve the golden mean. With all of this intertwined, the influence placed upon education, as a whole, is how an educator actually teaches. One may not realize it, but just think about what Aristotle shows through his views. Don’t people go to school to learn morals, virtues, build character, find what they wish to do with their life, what they find to be enjoyable in life, etc. Every single thing an educator does to a student, as a whole, is based upon Aristotle ethics and politics with happiness. Another aspect in which Aristotle influenced education today is his views on realism. According to a realist’s point of view, the purpose of education would be to learn behavior in our society and guidelines to live our lives by. Throughout its long varied history, realism has had a common theme, which is called the principle or thesis of independence. This theme holds that reality, knowledge, and value exists independently of the human mind. This means that realism rejects the idealist view that only ideas are real. Matter exists even though there is no mind to perceive them, such as the classic question about the tree falling in the woods. To the realist, matter is certainly an independent reality, however, the realist also considers ideas to be part of the thesis. The role of the educator would be more of a guide or advisor to the students rather than an actual teacher. The whole idea of a realist is to learn by experience, so the students need a guide than a teacher so they can encounter it for themselves. Doing this, the students can determine what kind of knowledge they are inquiring, and how they can apply it to their lives. Therefore, an educator’s responsibility would be to teach students to learn from the world around them, not just out of books and from history. While performing this role, the educator needs to present the subject in a exceedingly organized and precise manner. While the educators are explaining how to learn from the real world, they might use many different kinds of methods from outside the classroom, such as field trips. This would let the students practice this knowledge themselves without have an adult stand up in front of a class and lecture about it. A realist would also present their material in a systematic and organized way and would also teach that these are clearly defined criteria for making judgments in art, economics, politics, etc. The children need to learn through trial and error, and experiencing joy and pain from naturally occurring experiences in their lives. Realists also like to examine physical characteristics of an object. They like to know the base of the subject and debate over its physical characteristics, rather than debate whether it exists or not. Many realists do like structure in their view of education. A realist educator needs to use lectures, demonstrations, sensory experiences, and teaching machines during their class. They usually approve of competencies, performance based teaching, and accountability. With this idea of using field experience instead of classroom lectures brings many controversial issues. A weakness in realism is that the curriculum for the class must be one that is rich in ideas for the conceptions to be tested. An educator must also be able to classify and categorize characteristics with similarities and differences. Others also say that the curriculum has to be organized in separate subjects in order to create an efficient and effective way of learning about our real world. Realism also fails to deal with social change quite frequently, being that no one knows what will be tomorrow, so therefore it is more of a teaching based upon the present and past. Being more in the outside world than in the classroom would make a student more universally aware, and maybe have more common sense, but not as truer book smarts. This question raises another idea of which student would be more effective, one who spends all their time in the classroom, or one who is working out in the work field? Should we even be going to school, or should we all just study all that is around us to be more educated. This is a question, which may never be answered, but according to a realist, the answer lies in the real world. For in the real world you can learn anything, more than you ever could in a classroom. In discussing Aristotle’s ethical theory, I found that he saw virtue as the excellence of an object and that the object will perform its function effectively. He also talked of the two types that people are classified into. Morally virtuous people base their life on finding the golden mean. Aristotle argues how the good life is a life of happiness and that everyone is aiming for that. Happiness, explained by Aristotle, is the chief good desirable to everyone. Excellence of character is achieved when someone has taken part in the good life and is truly happy. It was shown how all of these aspects are interrelated with each other in the sense that they all need each other to discuss a theory. Also, his realist point of view ties in to what the real world experience has to offer. Yes, ethics should be taught in class, but the outside world can not be ignored. Realism is a fundamental aspect to teaching and to a student’s life whether able to be noticed or not. Aristotle talked of many things that people have and will continue to discuss for years to come. Aristotle (384-322 BCE): General Introduction. 2006. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. May 1st 2007 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristotl.htm>. Aristotle 384 BC – 322 BC. February 1999. JOC/EFR. May 1st 2007 <http://www.groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Aristotle.html> Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.). 1994-2007. Regents of the University of California. May 1st 2007 <http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/aristotle.html> Ross, David. Aristotle. New York: Routledge, 1996. Lear, Johnathan. Aristotle: the desire to understand. The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambrige, United Kingdom: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1999. We have over 500 professional writers ready to help! Cite This Work To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: Related ServicesView all DMCA / Removal Request If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please:	<urn:uuid:677c380f-01b3-4d7c-bb1c-44d2fc2c9181>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ukessays.com/essays/philosophy/aristotle-education-plato.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00513.warc.gz	en	0.98302	3,651	3.53125	4	[ 0.3189319670200348, 0.267164021730423, 0.1809285581111908, -0.2156347930431366, -0.4852946996688843, -0.022740470245480537, 0.5733805894851685, 0.40769779682159424, -0.04096359759569168, 0.007965723983943462, -0.06205548346042633, -0.13527655601501465, 0.03871770203113556, 0.44722145795822...	1	Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays. Aristotle Education and Plato Through the life of Aristotle, one would wonder how a mere thought of philosophy could impact the way education is practiced today as we know it. Aristotle’s way of life reflected the way he thought and what he wrote for people to view and educate upon today. He has many philosophies that are brought right into the classroom today without anyone knowing they are. His philosophies are truly remarkable. When a person creates something or teaches something, the philosophies brought in the classroom become so innate that people who use it don’t even know it exists. Realism is an educational philosophy, which stresses knowledge that develops from one’s own senses. Under this philosophy the idea exists that there is a real world not constructed by human minds, that can be known by one’s own mind. It is through experiencing the world around everyone in which one learns the guiding principles and social conduct of life. Reality is what one experiences in the physical world. Therefore, everything one can learn and know comes from experiencing the world around us. Aristotle is considered by most to be one of the greatest pagan philosophers. He was born in a Grecian colony at Stagira, 384 B.C.E. At birth he was born into a set life. His father, Nicomachus, had a position under the King Amyntas of Macedonia as court physician. Therefore, this could relate to how his education started off. It was thought that his ancestors held the same position under the King because this way the area of court physician could become hereditary. As physician, Aristotle was taught in the area of medicines and was also trained for the position of court physician. It was here that he was clearly educated with a developing mind to entertain the many questions that arose in his head and the direction he would take to answer them. It is also clear that with each time Aristotle traveled from one place to another, it had some sort of impact on him: his thinking, his writings, and the way that philosophy is viewed today. With each place he traveled to, he was able to gain, share, teach, and experience the knowledge of philosophy. It was from when he was eighteen till he was about thirty-seven that he studied under the guidance of Plato as his pupil in Athens. He was held as a distinguished student among the group that studied with him in the Grove of Academus. The only problem that seemed to arise in his years of study was his relation with his teacher. Now these instances are not clear but it is known that both Aristotle and Plato had each their own ideas about certain views and philosophies. Therefore, it is only nature for them to bump heads a little in arguments over whether either side was justifiable with their ideas, beliefs, and/or views. There was still no reason to believe that the two did not have any form a friendship, since they both had such high views toward life. Legend reflected poorly and unfavorably upon Aristotle but legend has not been viewed that way as it is today. But it was shown even after Plato’s death in 347 B.C.E. that Aristotle still held Plato in high respects. He never gave any lack of cordial appreciation to him, when all people expected him to do once he died. The death of someone important in his life probably also affected the way he thought about certain ideas. After his teacher’s death, Aristotle went to Atarneus in Asia Minor where he met with the ruler, Hermias. There he would be married to Hermias’ adopted daughter Pythias. This may not seem relevant to how it influenced realism in education, but if one were to think about it, how can marriage not change the way someone thinks in some sort of way? A few years passed, Hermias was murdered due to rebellion and King Philip II of Macedon called upon Aristotle to return to Stagira. It was here that he would become the tutor of Alexander the Great, who was only thirteen years old. This had a great impact on history, as people know it. Aristotle taught him the knowledge of ethics and politics, as well as many secrets of philosophy in which many people probably would have trouble comprehending. Alexander the Great profited from the knowledge passed on from Aristotle along with Aristotle influencing the mind of the young prince to his benefit, and that is how history was affected by this contact between these two people. Once Alexander took the throne, Aristotle returned to Athens and there opened a school of philosophy. Later he followed in the footsteps of his teacher, Plato. He formed a school, Lyceum, in a gymnasium, where he gave regular instruction in philosophy. It was here that for thirteen years (335-322B.C.E.) as a teacher at the Lyceum, he came up with the greater number of his writings. He came up with “dialogues”, which were writings that Aristotle frequently wrote that are still read today and were then by his pupils. When teaching at the Lyceum, Aristotle had a habit of walking about as he taught. It was in connection with this that his followers became known in later years as the peripatetics, meaning, “to walk about.” Besides, he composed the several treatises on physics, metaphysics, and so forth, in which the exposition is a language more technical than in the “dialogues”. These writings show how much of a great influence they have, such as the way they impacted Alexander whom later became known as Alexander the Great. They show in particular how he succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he spared neither pains nor expense in pursuing, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural Phenomena. When Alexander’s death became known at Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the Lamian war; Aristotle was obliged to share in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of impiety, which had been brought against Anaxagoras and Socrates, was now, with even less reason, brought against him. He left the city, saying (according to many ancient authorities) that he would not give the Athenians a chance to sin a third time against Philosophy. He took up his residence at his country house, at Chalcis, in Euboea, and there he died the following year, 322B.C.E. His death was due to a disease from which he had long suffered. The story that his death was due to hemlock poisoning, as well as the legend, saying they he threw himself into the sea are absolutely without historical foundation. There are numerous ways that the theories, philosophies, ethics, writings, and styles of teaching of Aristotle have influenced education today and most likely will continue to in the future. Aristotle believed strongly in the importance of an education that studies the real world and then draws conclusions and gains knowledge through analytical exercises. With practically everything that is done today and taught today, there is some relevant relation to that of Aristotle and his beliefs. Through some of Aristotle’s books of Politics, one is able to see how education could be influenced and affected by what Aristotle says in his writings. Aristotle’s ethical theory is expressed through many aspects. Aristotle tends to express his feeling towards virtue in a way where it can go two ways. He talks of how virtue is divided into moral and intellectual virtue. Excellence of character deals with the “good life” and happiness. People are concerned with their character and getting the golden mean, which is true happiness, in life. One whom educates would be affected by this golden mean because they must learn to stray away from this aspect. They have to learn to educate for the sole purpose of those who are being taught to thrive as to what they are being taught. In a way, all these are interrelated with each other. Aristotle also explains the relation between ethics and politics, which leads to the implication for nature of morality and well living. Virtue, to Aristotle, is interpreted as the excellence of an object and that the object will perform it’s function effectively. This goes for people as well. For example a “virtuous” educator will successfully teach their students information they need to comprehend in order to go forward with their education. Aristotle divides human virtue into two types. One is moral virtue and the other is intellectual virtue. Although, it is hard to give an exact definition of each type, one would hope that an educator of today would lean toward the more moral virtuous side. Virtue is also a state of character that is concerned with choice with the golden mean. This leads to discussing the mean according to Aristotle. People who are morally virtuous are always making their decisions according to the golden mean. Of course not everyone is the same, different people have different means. This brings about the point that the good life is a life of happiness. Aristotle says such a life can be achieved by excellence in the two areas of virtue, but people are all aiming at some type of good in life. Some just may have higher expectations in their goal. People with virtual excellence want to have the good life that, according to them, is the excellence of character. The good life is referred to as being happy with life. Happiness must have two concepts included to fit Aristotle’s definition. Someone must exercise his or her thought of reason. He calls this “activity of soul.” Happiness also must have quality in the performance of the virtue, and it is the chief goal that everyone wishes to accomplish. Aristotle argued that the goal of human beings is happiness, and that we achieve happiness when we fulfill our function, or purpose of life. Therefore, it is necessary to determine what our function is. The function of a thing is what it can alone do, or what it can do best. This here is a key point in which an educator must understand. This key point of understanding is one of the most influential things Aristotle elaborates upon in my opinion. When he implies that the function is what one can do best, he implies that if someone is best at teaching, than they are to teach as their purpose in life. As a result of this function, they would than achieve happiness, but only if they were to do it in a virtuous way would they achieve happiness. Happiness is something that must be aligned with perfect virtue. This also goes along with the excellence of character. If someone is to have excellence of character he or she want or try to be happy and have the good life. If they achieve this then they will have the excellence of character. Some of these aspects are interrelated with each other. For instance, happiness is an activity of the soul that is along side of perfect virtue. Aristotle also says that virtue must be a state of character because of a person’s desire to act in a way that would ensure that golden mean. Virtue, excellence, the mean, the good life, happiness, and character are all interrelated within each other to be happy with life and achieve the golden mean. With all of this intertwined, the influence placed upon education, as a whole, is how an educator actually teaches. One may not realize it, but just think about what Aristotle shows through his views. Don’t people go to school to learn morals, virtues, build character, find what they wish to do with their life, what they find to be enjoyable in life, etc. Every single thing an educator does to a student, as a whole, is based upon Aristotle ethics and politics with happiness. Another aspect in which Aristotle influenced education today is his views on realism. According to a realist’s point of view, the purpose of education would be to learn behavior in our society and guidelines to live our lives by. Throughout its long varied history, realism has had a common theme, which is called the principle or thesis of independence. This theme holds that reality, knowledge, and value exists independently of the human mind. This means that realism rejects the idealist view that only ideas are real. Matter exists even though there is no mind to perceive them, such as the classic question about the tree falling in the woods. To the realist, matter is certainly an independent reality, however, the realist also considers ideas to be part of the thesis. The role of the educator would be more of a guide or advisor to the students rather than an actual teacher. The whole idea of a realist is to learn by experience, so the students need a guide than a teacher so they can encounter it for themselves. Doing this, the students can determine what kind of knowledge they are inquiring, and how they can apply it to their lives. Therefore, an educator’s responsibility would be to teach students to learn from the world around them, not just out of books and from history. While performing this role, the educator needs to present the subject in a exceedingly organized and precise manner. While the educators are explaining how to learn from the real world, they might use many different kinds of methods from outside the classroom, such as field trips. This would let the students practice this knowledge themselves without have an adult stand up in front of a class and lecture about it. A realist would also present their material in a systematic and organized way and would also teach that these are clearly defined criteria for making judgments in art, economics, politics, etc. The children need to learn through trial and error, and experiencing joy and pain from naturally occurring experiences in their lives. Realists also like to examine physical characteristics of an object. They like to know the base of the subject and debate over its physical characteristics, rather than debate whether it exists or not. Many realists do like structure in their view of education. A realist educator needs to use lectures, demonstrations, sensory experiences, and teaching machines during their class. They usually approve of competencies, performance based teaching, and accountability. With this idea of using field experience instead of classroom lectures brings many controversial issues. A weakness in realism is that the curriculum for the class must be one that is rich in ideas for the conceptions to be tested. An educator must also be able to classify and categorize characteristics with similarities and differences. Others also say that the curriculum has to be organized in separate subjects in order to create an efficient and effective way of learning about our real world. Realism also fails to deal with social change quite frequently, being that no one knows what will be tomorrow, so therefore it is more of a teaching based upon the present and past. Being more in the outside world than in the classroom would make a student more universally aware, and maybe have more common sense, but not as truer book smarts. This question raises another idea of which student would be more effective, one who spends all their time in the classroom, or one who is working out in the work field? Should we even be going to school, or should we all just study all that is around us to be more educated. This is a question, which may never be answered, but according to a realist, the answer lies in the real world. For in the real world you can learn anything, more than you ever could in a classroom. In discussing Aristotle’s ethical theory, I found that he saw virtue as the excellence of an object and that the object will perform its function effectively. He also talked of the two types that people are classified into. Morally virtuous people base their life on finding the golden mean. Aristotle argues how the good life is a life of happiness and that everyone is aiming for that. Happiness, explained by Aristotle, is the chief good desirable to everyone. Excellence of character is achieved when someone has taken part in the good life and is truly happy. It was shown how all of these aspects are interrelated with each other in the sense that they all need each other to discuss a theory. Also, his realist point of view ties in to what the real world experience has to offer. Yes, ethics should be taught in class, but the outside world can not be ignored. Realism is a fundamental aspect to teaching and to a student’s life whether able to be noticed or not. Aristotle talked of many things that people have and will continue to discuss for years to come. Aristotle (384-322 BCE): General Introduction. 2006. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. May 1st 2007 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristotl.htm>. Aristotle 384 BC – 322 BC. February 1999. JOC/EFR. May 1st 2007 <http://www.groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Aristotle.html> Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.). 1994-2007. Regents of the University of California. May 1st 2007 <http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/aristotle.html> Ross, David. Aristotle. New York: Routledge, 1996. Lear, Johnathan. Aristotle: the desire to understand. The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambrige, United Kingdom: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1999. We have over 500 professional writers ready to help! Cite This Work To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: Related ServicesView all DMCA / Removal Request If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please:	3,619	ENGLISH	1
Ancient Women Healers Women Healers in Ancient Times Before the dawn of history, medicine was probably women's work. Many archaeologists and anthropologists believe that women were the first healers. We can imagine a tribe of people living in caves and other crude shelters, going out to hunt animals or gather roots and berries for food. This is how prehistoric people spent most of their time—looking for food. The hunters were usually men and boys, because males have greater physical strength. Women were more likely to gather edible plants. Over many centuries, as they learned which plants were good to eat, the women also learned that some were good for treating sickness. They found that chewing the bark of a certain tree or brewing a tea from, a particular plant's leaves could help the symptoms of some diseases. In fact, many modern drugs come from plants. The bark of the cinchona tree produces quinine, a drug for treating malaria. The foxglove plant yields a compound called digitalis, which is used for heart conditions. When a prehistoric woman gave birth, she undoubtedly was helped and tended by other women. When children fell ill, they probably were treated and nursed by their mother or other women in the household. If an older male broke a limb or was wounded while hunting, the women of the household were there to treat the injuries. In this way, women probably served as the first physicians, surgeons, and nurses in prehistoric times, and they passed their medical wisdom on from one generation to the next. The first historical record of medical treatment is almost five thousand years old and comes from ancient Egypt. The Egyptians recognized many diseases, from cancer to tuberculosis, developed drugs in the form of salves and potions, and even performed minor surgical operations. They recorded their medical knowledge on papyrus scrolls. Women physicians practiced in ancient Egypt. Many of them specialized in obstetrics and gynecology. One of Egypt's great medical schools was located at the Temple of Sal's and was devoted to the training of women doctors. Because the causes of many diseases were beyond the understanding of people long ago, the early physicians relied on religion and magic as much as medicine for treatment and cures. Therefore, many medical schools and treatment centers were located in temples. Western medicine, which relied more on reason than on magic, began in ancient Greece. The most famous Greek healers of legend are Asclepius, the Greek god of healing, his daughters Hygeia, who represented prevention, and Panacea, who represented cure. Temples of healing were dedicated to this Greek family, and the snake-entwined staff each member carried is still the symbol of medicine today. Gradually, women were removed from the practice of medicine in Greece. By the fourth century B.C., women of Athens were forbidden to practice medicine. As a result, many women, reluctant to see male doctors, suffered needless deaths from complicated childbirths and gynecological problems. A Greek woman named Agnodice decided to remedy this by becoming a physician. She disguised herself as a man, attended medical school, and began practicing obstetrics and gynecology. She was very popular with her women patients. But one day, her disguise was uncovered by the male authorities and she was brought to trial for breaking the law. She could have been sentenced to death, but the women of Athens rose up in protest. Not only was Agnodice acquitted, but the law was changed and women were once again allowed to practice medicine. Historians do not know much about the women healers of ancient Rome until the Christian era began. The most famous early Roman healer was a woman named Fabiola, who lived in the fourth century. She was born into a wealthy Roman family, but at age twenty, she converted to Christianity, and became a follower of St. Jerome. Fabiola dedicated her life to caring for the sick and destitute. She and her friend Paula are credited with founding the first public hospital in Europe. The fall of the Roman Empire brought about the Dark Ages in Europe. During that time, the little medical learning and healing that existed was kept alive and performed in monasteries and convents. A famous woman musician, mystic, and writer on medicine named Hildegarde Bingen came from a convent in Germany. She was born in 1098 and lived more than eighty years. Because of her writings and miraculous cures, her fame spread throughout Europe. As the Dark Ages ended, universities sprang up. The university at Salerno in Italy was home to the most famous woman physician of medieval times, Trotula. She was married to another famous doctor, and their sons also became physicians. Trotula was on the faculty of the university and specialized in gynecology and obstetrics. The textbook that she wrote on these subjects in the eleventh century was used for hundreds of years. In Europe during late Middle Ages, church doctrine made life very difficult for women healers. Most of these women were midwives who treated patients with medicines made from plants. Because of their special knowledge, the women often were suspected of being in league with the devil. Historians believe that many women who practiced the healing arts during the Middle Ages came to tragic ends. They were condemned as witches and burned at the stake. With the Renaissance, which began in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, modern science was born. By the 1700s, medicine had become a respectable profession, and men began to take over the role of midwife. At first, women midwives—and women patients—objected to the idea of "men midwives." But by the 1800s, assisting at births had become an accepted job of doctors. And all doctors by that time were men. The tasks women could perform were reduced in many areas, not just medicine, as society came to regard women as delicate and not very bright creatures. According to popular belief, education of any kind would be harmful to women, and the study of medicine was unthinkable. Not until the women's movement began in the mid-1800s did women begin to practice medicine again. More detailed information can be found in the "Extraordinary Women of Medicine" Darlene R.Stille, and issued by The Children's Press in the USA. Information should be used just for educational purposes.	<urn:uuid:1a4ee880-3c9c-456b-afbc-b4b17e58ed34>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://for.lib.kherson.ua/en-ancienthealers.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00382.warc.gz	en	0.989633	1,297	3.75	4	[ -0.008412109687924385, 0.4423523545265198, 0.4910928010940552, 0.24640601873397827, -0.3030194640159607, -0.2622412443161011, 0.1925642192363739, 0.21251749992370605, -0.21279385685920715, -0.10587310045957565, -0.07514593750238419, -0.4165741205215454, -0.15994933247566223, 0.095896735787...	4	Ancient Women Healers Women Healers in Ancient Times Before the dawn of history, medicine was probably women's work. Many archaeologists and anthropologists believe that women were the first healers. We can imagine a tribe of people living in caves and other crude shelters, going out to hunt animals or gather roots and berries for food. This is how prehistoric people spent most of their time—looking for food. The hunters were usually men and boys, because males have greater physical strength. Women were more likely to gather edible plants. Over many centuries, as they learned which plants were good to eat, the women also learned that some were good for treating sickness. They found that chewing the bark of a certain tree or brewing a tea from, a particular plant's leaves could help the symptoms of some diseases. In fact, many modern drugs come from plants. The bark of the cinchona tree produces quinine, a drug for treating malaria. The foxglove plant yields a compound called digitalis, which is used for heart conditions. When a prehistoric woman gave birth, she undoubtedly was helped and tended by other women. When children fell ill, they probably were treated and nursed by their mother or other women in the household. If an older male broke a limb or was wounded while hunting, the women of the household were there to treat the injuries. In this way, women probably served as the first physicians, surgeons, and nurses in prehistoric times, and they passed their medical wisdom on from one generation to the next. The first historical record of medical treatment is almost five thousand years old and comes from ancient Egypt. The Egyptians recognized many diseases, from cancer to tuberculosis, developed drugs in the form of salves and potions, and even performed minor surgical operations. They recorded their medical knowledge on papyrus scrolls. Women physicians practiced in ancient Egypt. Many of them specialized in obstetrics and gynecology. One of Egypt's great medical schools was located at the Temple of Sal's and was devoted to the training of women doctors. Because the causes of many diseases were beyond the understanding of people long ago, the early physicians relied on religion and magic as much as medicine for treatment and cures. Therefore, many medical schools and treatment centers were located in temples. Western medicine, which relied more on reason than on magic, began in ancient Greece. The most famous Greek healers of legend are Asclepius, the Greek god of healing, his daughters Hygeia, who represented prevention, and Panacea, who represented cure. Temples of healing were dedicated to this Greek family, and the snake-entwined staff each member carried is still the symbol of medicine today. Gradually, women were removed from the practice of medicine in Greece. By the fourth century B.C., women of Athens were forbidden to practice medicine. As a result, many women, reluctant to see male doctors, suffered needless deaths from complicated childbirths and gynecological problems. A Greek woman named Agnodice decided to remedy this by becoming a physician. She disguised herself as a man, attended medical school, and began practicing obstetrics and gynecology. She was very popular with her women patients. But one day, her disguise was uncovered by the male authorities and she was brought to trial for breaking the law. She could have been sentenced to death, but the women of Athens rose up in protest. Not only was Agnodice acquitted, but the law was changed and women were once again allowed to practice medicine. Historians do not know much about the women healers of ancient Rome until the Christian era began. The most famous early Roman healer was a woman named Fabiola, who lived in the fourth century. She was born into a wealthy Roman family, but at age twenty, she converted to Christianity, and became a follower of St. Jerome. Fabiola dedicated her life to caring for the sick and destitute. She and her friend Paula are credited with founding the first public hospital in Europe. The fall of the Roman Empire brought about the Dark Ages in Europe. During that time, the little medical learning and healing that existed was kept alive and performed in monasteries and convents. A famous woman musician, mystic, and writer on medicine named Hildegarde Bingen came from a convent in Germany. She was born in 1098 and lived more than eighty years. Because of her writings and miraculous cures, her fame spread throughout Europe. As the Dark Ages ended, universities sprang up. The university at Salerno in Italy was home to the most famous woman physician of medieval times, Trotula. She was married to another famous doctor, and their sons also became physicians. Trotula was on the faculty of the university and specialized in gynecology and obstetrics. The textbook that she wrote on these subjects in the eleventh century was used for hundreds of years. In Europe during late Middle Ages, church doctrine made life very difficult for women healers. Most of these women were midwives who treated patients with medicines made from plants. Because of their special knowledge, the women often were suspected of being in league with the devil. Historians believe that many women who practiced the healing arts during the Middle Ages came to tragic ends. They were condemned as witches and burned at the stake. With the Renaissance, which began in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, modern science was born. By the 1700s, medicine had become a respectable profession, and men began to take over the role of midwife. At first, women midwives—and women patients—objected to the idea of "men midwives." But by the 1800s, assisting at births had become an accepted job of doctors. And all doctors by that time were men. The tasks women could perform were reduced in many areas, not just medicine, as society came to regard women as delicate and not very bright creatures. According to popular belief, education of any kind would be harmful to women, and the study of medicine was unthinkable. Not until the women's movement began in the mid-1800s did women begin to practice medicine again. More detailed information can be found in the "Extraordinary Women of Medicine" Darlene R.Stille, and issued by The Children's Press in the USA. Information should be used just for educational purposes.	1,293	ENGLISH	1
Equipment for the Temple (1 Kings 7.23-51) 1 King Solomon had a bronze altar made, which was 30 feet square and 15 feet high. 2He also made a round tank of bronze, 7½ feet deep, 15 feet in diameter, and 45 feet in circumference. 3All around the outer edge of the rim of the tank were two rows of decorations, one above the other. The decorations were in the shape of bulls, which had been cast all in one piece with the rest of the tank. 4The tank rested on the backs of twelve bronze bulls that faced outward, three facing in each direction. 5The sides of the tank were 3 inches thick. Its rim was like the rim of a cup, curving outward like the petals of a flower. The tank held about 15,000 gallons. 6 They also made ten basins, five to be placed on the south side of the Temple and five on the north side. They were to be used to rinse the parts of the animals that were burned as sacrifices. The water in the large tank was for the priests to use for washing. 7-8 They made ten gold lampstands according to the usual pattern, and ten tables, and placed them in the main room of the Temple, five lampstands and five tables on each side. They also made a hundred gold bowls. 9They made an inner courtyard for the priests, and also an outer courtyard. The doors in the gates between the courtyards were covered with bronze. 10The tank was placed near the southeast corner of the Temple. 11-16Huram also made pots, shovels, and bowls. He completed all the objects that he had promised King Solomon he would make for the Temple: The two columns The two bowl-shaped capitals on top of the columns The design of interwoven chains on each capital The 400 bronze pomegranates arranged in two rows around the design of each capital The ten carts The ten basins The twelve bulls supporting the tank The pots, shovels, and forks Huram the master metalworker made all these objects out of polished bronze, as King Solomon had commanded, for use in the Temple of the Lord. 17The king had them all made in the foundry between Sukkoth and Zeredah in the Jordan Valley. 18So many objects were made that no one determined the total weight of the bronze used. 19King Solomon also had gold furnishings made for the Temple: the altar and the tables for the bread offered to God; 20the lampstands and the lamps of fine gold that were to burn in front of the Most Holy Place, according to plan; 21the flower decorations, the lamps, and the tongs; 22the lamp snuffers, the bowls, the dishes for incense, and the pans used for carrying live coals. All these objects were made of pure gold. The outer doors of the Temple and the doors to the Most Holy Place were overlaid with gold.	<urn:uuid:4e51f7da-e4dd-427e-81c1-338532156511>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bible.com.au/GNT/2CH/4/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00425.warc.gz	en	0.983426	624	3.375	3	[ 0.08773957937955856, 0.38329148292541504, 0.38049742579460144, -0.1903415322303772, -0.3042932152748108, -0.20274969935417175, 0.20118463039398193, 0.2940351366996765, -0.005546225234866142, 0.31430715322494507, 0.030757088214159012, -0.2932976484298706, 0.3496391475200653, 0.3374955654144...	3	Equipment for the Temple (1 Kings 7.23-51) 1 King Solomon had a bronze altar made, which was 30 feet square and 15 feet high. 2He also made a round tank of bronze, 7½ feet deep, 15 feet in diameter, and 45 feet in circumference. 3All around the outer edge of the rim of the tank were two rows of decorations, one above the other. The decorations were in the shape of bulls, which had been cast all in one piece with the rest of the tank. 4The tank rested on the backs of twelve bronze bulls that faced outward, three facing in each direction. 5The sides of the tank were 3 inches thick. Its rim was like the rim of a cup, curving outward like the petals of a flower. The tank held about 15,000 gallons. 6 They also made ten basins, five to be placed on the south side of the Temple and five on the north side. They were to be used to rinse the parts of the animals that were burned as sacrifices. The water in the large tank was for the priests to use for washing. 7-8 They made ten gold lampstands according to the usual pattern, and ten tables, and placed them in the main room of the Temple, five lampstands and five tables on each side. They also made a hundred gold bowls. 9They made an inner courtyard for the priests, and also an outer courtyard. The doors in the gates between the courtyards were covered with bronze. 10The tank was placed near the southeast corner of the Temple. 11-16Huram also made pots, shovels, and bowls. He completed all the objects that he had promised King Solomon he would make for the Temple: The two columns The two bowl-shaped capitals on top of the columns The design of interwoven chains on each capital The 400 bronze pomegranates arranged in two rows around the design of each capital The ten carts The ten basins The twelve bulls supporting the tank The pots, shovels, and forks Huram the master metalworker made all these objects out of polished bronze, as King Solomon had commanded, for use in the Temple of the Lord. 17The king had them all made in the foundry between Sukkoth and Zeredah in the Jordan Valley. 18So many objects were made that no one determined the total weight of the bronze used. 19King Solomon also had gold furnishings made for the Temple: the altar and the tables for the bread offered to God; 20the lampstands and the lamps of fine gold that were to burn in front of the Most Holy Place, according to plan; 21the flower decorations, the lamps, and the tongs; 22the lamp snuffers, the bowls, the dishes for incense, and the pans used for carrying live coals. All these objects were made of pure gold. The outer doors of the Temple and the doors to the Most Holy Place were overlaid with gold.	650	ENGLISH	1
Главная > Реферат >Остальные работы The Black Death Essay, Research Paper The Black Death had a huge effect on Europe in the Middle Ages. Another name for the Black Death is the plague. This paper is meant to familiarize with the plague and also provide a general idea of what it was like. It will also show some changes that were made because of the plague. It will show how people had to adapt and some measures that were taken against it. Also theories will be shown of how the plague came about. The Black Death was a very deadly disease. All in all the plague lasted from about 1347-1352. There are three different types of the plague that were thought to all work together in causing the Black Death. These three types are called: Bubonic plague, Septicemic plague, and pneumonic plague. Although they were all thought to work together, the Bubonic and Pneumonic were the worst of the three. (Smith 507) The plague was contracted in a few ways. One way was from a host carrier. This is where a flea from an infected rat or other rodent would move to a human host, bite the human, and then regurgitate the infected liquid into the humans bloodstream. This was a very potent way of transportation. This way of transportation is most often associated with the Bubonic plague. Another way of contracting the disease was through airborne particles. The Pneumonic plague worked on the lungs, and was projected airborne by coughing or sneezing. An innocent bystander could then contract the disease by simply breathing. This was the most dangerous way of contraction because there is no way to stop the movement of airborne particle. (Nardo 10) The Plague had many symptoms, which were severe and noticeable. Some of the symptoms are: high fever, rapid pulse, body aches, aching limbs, vomiting of blood, and swelling of lymph nodes in neck, armpits, and groin, which would cause blackish coloring on the skin. This is how the plague got its name the Black Death. The swellings would often burst and death would soon follow. Usually in about 3-4 days after the symptoms show is when death would occur. The symptoms would start to occur usually 1-6 days after infection. So anywhere from about 4-10 days after infection is when death would hit. This is why the plague was so horrible. (Smith 508) The exact origin of the plague is unknown. It is theorized that it came from somewhere in the Gobi dessert in the late 1320’s. From there it moved along caravan routes and by ship. The earliest accounts of the plague were in Lake Balkhash, a Christian community in central Asia. (Knox 1) The plague had profound effects on a lot of different things. The population was probably the one that was most affected. It killed about 1/3 of the entire population of Europe. Scholars theorize this to be a minimum of 25 million people. It also killed about 1/4 of the English population. This loss of people had an immediate affect on a lot of other things as well. Economic and Social institutions underwent many alterations. The Manorial system, which was used for years, was taken down. The landowners had too few workers and held little power because of that. The workers saw this and demanded changes. They eventually won the right to rent or lease the land they worked on. The government tried to institute laws that would keep peasants in their place. This just led to uprisings. By 1400 the entire system was gone. Financial business was disrupted. The debtors, creditors, and their families died. There was no one to collect from. Much construction that was going on had to be put on halt, or altogether stopped. This was mostly because of the lack of numbers of people to do the job. Farms and entire villages died. Universities and schools had to close. 16 out of the 40 professors at Cambridge died. (Knox 1) The culture of Europe was changed. This was obvious because of the change in politics. The 100-year war had to be put on sabbatical. This was because there simply was not enough soldiers on either side to fight. As economic order changed, the value of land decreased. However, the standard of living rose because of some of the effects. A falling population caused higher wages, an oversupply of due to falling population caused the prices to fall, and thus the standard of living rose. This is one of the very few good things that did come out of the plague. (Nardo 15) It is obvious that the art of Europe changed, or was at least affected some by the plague. The tombs of people that were buried are usually very joyous and celebrated the person’s life. They would have portraits of said person in their best clothes, in their best health, and in a position that shows power, usually with a sword and shield. During the plague however things changes. On tombs now were pictures of skeletons and of people decomposing. They were shown in ragged clothes, usually crawling on the ground, and worms coming out of them. This was a very gruesome site, but it reminds of the horror and the loss. Out of this time period though came a very different style of art. It was called Danse Macabre. This means dance of the dead. It would show pictures of skeletons interacting with the living. This form of art is still used today. (Knox 1) There were many different theories at the time of how the plague got there. None of them though were correct. They were without the knowledge of germs and diseases yet and their theories show this. One of the theories is that Jews were poisoning the wells. They thought that it was a massive conspiracy of the Jews to eliminate all Christians. Another theory was that it was God’s wrath. It was said that it was, “To terrify men and drive out the sins”. Also there was a theory that it was an individuals fault. They thought there was corrupted air around a person with the plague, due to a person’s sins and wrongdoings. Lastly there was a theory that involved astronomy. People that believed this said that it was because the conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars in the sign of Aquarius. This caused hot, moist conditions that forced the earth to exhale poisonous gas. It was mostly Professors that came up with this theory. (Nardo 20) Along with the theories for the reason for the plague there was also many theories on how to treat it. They did realize that the plague was contagious. They ordered quarantines in some cases. The quarantines were ineffective though because the rats could still carry the disease. There were also certain sanitation ordinances that were embarked upon the people. In direct response to the theory that Jews were poisoning the wells, many Jews were murdered. The Jews who were accused of this action were burnt for it. Professors offered some advice to the public. They said that people shouldn’t eat poultry, waterfowl, pig, old beef, or fish. They also said not to sleep during the day, not to bath, not to get too much exercise, and not to cook in rainwater. People burnt incense, rang the church bells, fired cannons and experimented with charms and spells from the local talisman to try and rid the plague. Others tried to appeal to God. Groups of people called flagellants traveled from town to town whipping themselves. They would cry, “Spare us Jesus,” and “Forgive us Blessed Mary.” As it is none of these treatments worked. (Knox 1) Europe experienced many changes as a result of the plague. The need for labor saving devices rose because of the lack of people. This caused the inventions of many instruments that are still used today. This time was a time of “sudden and impressive” advances in the field of technology. The printing press was invented during this time. Maritime transport need less crew workers and then had more room for cargo. Medicine increased out of necessity. There were better, smarter doctors. They started implementing hands on studies, which helped a lot. (Nardo 25) The view of the church was changed at this time. Europeans believed priests and bishops were unable to intercede with God and stop the plague. Thus the Church suffered a lot. Many people started to believe they could have a personal relationship with God without the need of a priest. Good deeds increased at this time also. Charity was given to hospitals, monasteries and the poor. (Knox 1) The plague finally started to die down in about 1351. It would recur a couple of times over the years in Europe and a few other continents. Never though with such force or magnitude. So for all intents and purposes the plague left just as it had come, mysteriously. Not quite as mysteriously though it left a lasting impression on Europe and the rest of the world. (Nardo 166) Dr. Knox, Ellis. “The Black Death.” Online 25 Oct. 2000. http://history.idbsu.edu/westciv/plague Nardo, Don. The Black Death. San Diego, CA: Green Haven Press, Inc., 1999. Smith, Dale. “Plague” The World Book Encyclopedia. 1998 ed. - The Black Cat Essay, Research Paper The Black Cat, an intriguing, questioning, and unnerving swim throughout the complexity ... and the cat build and therefore the wife dies an untimely death. The man ... in her brain. She fell dead upon the spot without a groan. ... - The Black Death Essay, Research Paper virulence that the course of human history changed ... Gottlieb, Beatrice. The Family in the Western World: From the Black Death to the Industrial Age ... - Black Death Essay, Research Paper THE BLACK DEATH BY XXXXXXXXXX A RESEARCH PAPER No one was exempt ... that turned black. Though most people associate the Black Death with the middle ... ages, forms of the Bubonic ... - The Paradoxical Thomas Essay, Research Paper The Paradoxical Thomas Dylan Thomas outer ... passion of the allusion to death. The heavy r consonant sounds capture death, while the bright ... he makes the most obvious allusion in the poem Curse, bless, me now ... - The Harlem Renaissance Essay, Research Paper The Harlem Renaissance Until the first part of the Twentieth ... the black middle-class on the streets, where a great majority of black ... the characters. On the other hand, the universal theme of nature, love and death ...	<urn:uuid:3e4f000a-1518-480f-9de6-aa4b5a7b7df0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://works.doklad.ru/view/6M20q0uUWSw.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00467.warc.gz	en	0.981544	2,245	3.5	4	[ -0.1314111053943634, 0.14653407037258148, 0.0974048376083374, 0.3592318892478943, 0.2645498514175415, -0.43142169713974, 0.5881001949310303, 0.2314986288547516, -0.06266355514526367, -0.2512373924255371, -0.03758733719587326, -0.29371264576911926, -0.3203713297843933, 0.11104041337966919, ...	2	Главная > Реферат >Остальные работы The Black Death Essay, Research Paper The Black Death had a huge effect on Europe in the Middle Ages. Another name for the Black Death is the plague. This paper is meant to familiarize with the plague and also provide a general idea of what it was like. It will also show some changes that were made because of the plague. It will show how people had to adapt and some measures that were taken against it. Also theories will be shown of how the plague came about. The Black Death was a very deadly disease. All in all the plague lasted from about 1347-1352. There are three different types of the plague that were thought to all work together in causing the Black Death. These three types are called: Bubonic plague, Septicemic plague, and pneumonic plague. Although they were all thought to work together, the Bubonic and Pneumonic were the worst of the three. (Smith 507) The plague was contracted in a few ways. One way was from a host carrier. This is where a flea from an infected rat or other rodent would move to a human host, bite the human, and then regurgitate the infected liquid into the humans bloodstream. This was a very potent way of transportation. This way of transportation is most often associated with the Bubonic plague. Another way of contracting the disease was through airborne particles. The Pneumonic plague worked on the lungs, and was projected airborne by coughing or sneezing. An innocent bystander could then contract the disease by simply breathing. This was the most dangerous way of contraction because there is no way to stop the movement of airborne particle. (Nardo 10) The Plague had many symptoms, which were severe and noticeable. Some of the symptoms are: high fever, rapid pulse, body aches, aching limbs, vomiting of blood, and swelling of lymph nodes in neck, armpits, and groin, which would cause blackish coloring on the skin. This is how the plague got its name the Black Death. The swellings would often burst and death would soon follow. Usually in about 3-4 days after the symptoms show is when death would occur. The symptoms would start to occur usually 1-6 days after infection. So anywhere from about 4-10 days after infection is when death would hit. This is why the plague was so horrible. (Smith 508) The exact origin of the plague is unknown. It is theorized that it came from somewhere in the Gobi dessert in the late 1320’s. From there it moved along caravan routes and by ship. The earliest accounts of the plague were in Lake Balkhash, a Christian community in central Asia. (Knox 1) The plague had profound effects on a lot of different things. The population was probably the one that was most affected. It killed about 1/3 of the entire population of Europe. Scholars theorize this to be a minimum of 25 million people. It also killed about 1/4 of the English population. This loss of people had an immediate affect on a lot of other things as well. Economic and Social institutions underwent many alterations. The Manorial system, which was used for years, was taken down. The landowners had too few workers and held little power because of that. The workers saw this and demanded changes. They eventually won the right to rent or lease the land they worked on. The government tried to institute laws that would keep peasants in their place. This just led to uprisings. By 1400 the entire system was gone. Financial business was disrupted. The debtors, creditors, and their families died. There was no one to collect from. Much construction that was going on had to be put on halt, or altogether stopped. This was mostly because of the lack of numbers of people to do the job. Farms and entire villages died. Universities and schools had to close. 16 out of the 40 professors at Cambridge died. (Knox 1) The culture of Europe was changed. This was obvious because of the change in politics. The 100-year war had to be put on sabbatical. This was because there simply was not enough soldiers on either side to fight. As economic order changed, the value of land decreased. However, the standard of living rose because of some of the effects. A falling population caused higher wages, an oversupply of due to falling population caused the prices to fall, and thus the standard of living rose. This is one of the very few good things that did come out of the plague. (Nardo 15) It is obvious that the art of Europe changed, or was at least affected some by the plague. The tombs of people that were buried are usually very joyous and celebrated the person’s life. They would have portraits of said person in their best clothes, in their best health, and in a position that shows power, usually with a sword and shield. During the plague however things changes. On tombs now were pictures of skeletons and of people decomposing. They were shown in ragged clothes, usually crawling on the ground, and worms coming out of them. This was a very gruesome site, but it reminds of the horror and the loss. Out of this time period though came a very different style of art. It was called Danse Macabre. This means dance of the dead. It would show pictures of skeletons interacting with the living. This form of art is still used today. (Knox 1) There were many different theories at the time of how the plague got there. None of them though were correct. They were without the knowledge of germs and diseases yet and their theories show this. One of the theories is that Jews were poisoning the wells. They thought that it was a massive conspiracy of the Jews to eliminate all Christians. Another theory was that it was God’s wrath. It was said that it was, “To terrify men and drive out the sins”. Also there was a theory that it was an individuals fault. They thought there was corrupted air around a person with the plague, due to a person’s sins and wrongdoings. Lastly there was a theory that involved astronomy. People that believed this said that it was because the conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars in the sign of Aquarius. This caused hot, moist conditions that forced the earth to exhale poisonous gas. It was mostly Professors that came up with this theory. (Nardo 20) Along with the theories for the reason for the plague there was also many theories on how to treat it. They did realize that the plague was contagious. They ordered quarantines in some cases. The quarantines were ineffective though because the rats could still carry the disease. There were also certain sanitation ordinances that were embarked upon the people. In direct response to the theory that Jews were poisoning the wells, many Jews were murdered. The Jews who were accused of this action were burnt for it. Professors offered some advice to the public. They said that people shouldn’t eat poultry, waterfowl, pig, old beef, or fish. They also said not to sleep during the day, not to bath, not to get too much exercise, and not to cook in rainwater. People burnt incense, rang the church bells, fired cannons and experimented with charms and spells from the local talisman to try and rid the plague. Others tried to appeal to God. Groups of people called flagellants traveled from town to town whipping themselves. They would cry, “Spare us Jesus,” and “Forgive us Blessed Mary.” As it is none of these treatments worked. (Knox 1) Europe experienced many changes as a result of the plague. The need for labor saving devices rose because of the lack of people. This caused the inventions of many instruments that are still used today. This time was a time of “sudden and impressive” advances in the field of technology. The printing press was invented during this time. Maritime transport need less crew workers and then had more room for cargo. Medicine increased out of necessity. There were better, smarter doctors. They started implementing hands on studies, which helped a lot. (Nardo 25) The view of the church was changed at this time. Europeans believed priests and bishops were unable to intercede with God and stop the plague. Thus the Church suffered a lot. Many people started to believe they could have a personal relationship with God without the need of a priest. Good deeds increased at this time also. Charity was given to hospitals, monasteries and the poor. (Knox 1) The plague finally started to die down in about 1351. It would recur a couple of times over the years in Europe and a few other continents. Never though with such force or magnitude. So for all intents and purposes the plague left just as it had come, mysteriously. Not quite as mysteriously though it left a lasting impression on Europe and the rest of the world. (Nardo 166) Dr. Knox, Ellis. “The Black Death.” Online 25 Oct. 2000. http://history.idbsu.edu/westciv/plague Nardo, Don. The Black Death. San Diego, CA: Green Haven Press, Inc., 1999. Smith, Dale. “Plague” The World Book Encyclopedia. 1998 ed. - The Black Cat Essay, Research Paper The Black Cat, an intriguing, questioning, and unnerving swim throughout the complexity ... and the cat build and therefore the wife dies an untimely death. The man ... in her brain. She fell dead upon the spot without a groan. ... - The Black Death Essay, Research Paper virulence that the course of human history changed ... Gottlieb, Beatrice. The Family in the Western World: From the Black Death to the Industrial Age ... - Black Death Essay, Research Paper THE BLACK DEATH BY XXXXXXXXXX A RESEARCH PAPER No one was exempt ... that turned black. Though most people associate the Black Death with the middle ... ages, forms of the Bubonic ... - The Paradoxical Thomas Essay, Research Paper The Paradoxical Thomas Dylan Thomas outer ... passion of the allusion to death. The heavy r consonant sounds capture death, while the bright ... he makes the most obvious allusion in the poem Curse, bless, me now ... - The Harlem Renaissance Essay, Research Paper The Harlem Renaissance Until the first part of the Twentieth ... the black middle-class on the streets, where a great majority of black ... the characters. On the other hand, the universal theme of nature, love and death ...	2,233	ENGLISH	1
By Caroline Simon During World War II, Warsaw was the center of Polish civilization and became “the center of urban resistance to Nazi rule in occupied Europe.” In the summer of 1944, it had the largest uprising the war saw. The uprising did not emerge from thin air, however; there was a long buildup of planning and resistance. In September of 1939, eight Poles began what would become the Polish Underground. Once armed – a crucial feature of Polish resistance – they came to be known as the “Union of Armed Struggle” whose tasks were to “unify the hundreds of smaller resistance groups that had formed in Poland, and to collect intelligence for the Polish government and its allies.” This group later became the Home Army, the home-based counterpart to the Polish Army which fought on the Western front. Its main goal was to restore Poland’s pre-WWII borders and establish it as a democratic republic. By 1944, Poles had seen their country completely overrun by Nazi Germany. Nazi occupiers had targeted the country’s educated elite, murdering and arresting many, as well as sending others to concentration camps. The Zamosc Action of 1941-1943 was a period during which Nazis emptied hundreds of Polish villages by deporting an estimated one hundred thousand Poles to concentration camps in order to establish German colonization. This seemed to Poles like the beginning of a “Final Solution to the Polish problem.” Non-Jewish Poles were keenly aware of what Nazis were doing to Jews. They became worried that they themselves would become the next target for annihilation, particularly after alerting the Allies (Great Britain and the United States) of the situation of the Jews, from which came no help. They sped up resistance, seeing many smaller instances of partisan resistance which sparked the Nazis to transform the area of the Warsaw Ghetto into what was essentially a concentration camp. By July 1944, Poles were aware that the Soviets who had occupied half of their country at the start of the war would likely be the ones to liberate them from the Nazis. This would not be in keeping with their goal of independence. Their only choice was to fight back. On August 1, 1944, the Polish Home Army began the Warsaw Uprising which lasted just over two months. The uprising was met with extraordinary brutality directed at both Home Army officers and civilians. Nazi officials instructed their soldiers to shoot all Poles– men, women, children, Jews, gentiles, the sick, the healthy, the armed, and the unarmed alike. The city was to be physically destroyed as well. After 63 days of fighting, the Poles had not won. They did not defeat the Germans nor affect the Soviets, nor even attract the Allies. What they had done, and what has had a lasting impact on history, was display resistance, solidarity, and Polish pride. Anna Swirszczynska was a typical worker in Warsaw during the war. She was a waitress and a hospital attendant, but today she is known as a poet who not only experienced the Warsaw Uprising of 1944 but willingly took part in it. Swirszczynska’s experience and account of that experience are important today because they show how severely the uprising affected everyday civilians. They are also important because they show that this uprising was truly the effort of a whole nation, not only its soldiers or certain resisters. Swirszczynska provides today’s readers with a personal account of the Warsaw Uprising and gives us a framework in understanding the individual horrors, emotions, and choices she and others faced. In one poem that doubles as a dedication, “To My Daughter,” she states that she was “no heroine darling, / everyone built barricades under fire,” reinforcing the idea that she was a typical helper in the uprising and that she was joined by many others. In this poem, she tells her daughter (and us) one of her motives for writing these poems: to speak about the heroes she saw. Swirszczynska never specifies who these heroes are, but she makes clear that she is compelled to have their stories survive when they likely did not. Swirszczynska aims to humanize those in the uprising– victims and enemies alike. She does this through the lens of terrible inhumanity, making her collection all the more impressive. Some of her poems single out individuals: “The Boy Scout” follows a boy who is sixteen and “between his ribs he has the energy / to fuel a rocket-bomb;” “It Lives One Hour More,” “it” referring to both a mother and her child on a trek to find milk, “Her Death is Sixteen Years Old” takes us through an elongated death of a girl “so brimful of youth / that even her dying is young.” Other poems are more generalized about the uprising itself, which she seeks to lament and which she commemorates by picking apart specific experiences she had or events she witnessed. That is what is important here: Swirszczynska bore witness to the Warsaw Uprising. She saw it, she actively participated in it, and now she seeks to memorialize it properly, ensuring that the survivors and casualties of the uprising are not forgotten. In Swirszczynska’s poem “I Bury the Enemy’s Body,” she takes us through the emotions involved in seeing an enemy soldier dead, reflecting on the wrongs he committed, considering his own humanity, and burying him into the non-discriminatory earth which he stained. She does all of this in the format of speaking directly to the enemy himself. This collection was not meant to humanize just the victims, but the enemies as well, and Swirszczynska shows this in “I Bury the Enemy’s Body.” She writes, “The fear in your eyes / died later than you” which gives us the visual of how she saw him: dead, with eyes open and full of fear, indicating that he was afraid at the time of his death just like anyone else in the uprising must have been. She moves on to write about the horrors he committed in his life, notably writing that “Your submachine gun killed many people,” as if to put the blame on the weapon instead of its wielder since she has already acknowledged that the gun was something he was given, not necessarily something he chose, in the poem’s first line. In her next stanza, she speculatively refers to his kind treatment of his children and that they will mourn him. All of this serves to show the soldiers’ side of things and show that regardless of one’s side in it, everyone here was a victim of the uprising. In the final stanza, Swirszczynska turns our attention to her burial of the enemy. She writes that he stained the earth with blood but “It will receive you / as though you were not its enemy.” The earth does not discriminate between the good and the bad; everyone who died in this uprising wound up in the same place. In the same way that the earth does not discriminate between Nazis and Poles, death did not discriminate. Another powerful poem in Swirszczynska’s collection is “My Lice,” where the author takes us on her journey through streets filled with death, corpses, a vivid reminder of the horrendous loss of life during the uprising. Surrounded by this death, she notes that the lice are still alive. Lice were a product of unhygienic conditions in the close quarters in the ghettos and the city enveloped in battle. She makes clear the striking contrast life and death around her: “I run through streets of corpses / I leap over the corpses / on my breasts under the blouse / move / the warm lice.” It is an unjust picture she paints. While she navigates her way through heaps of death, of people who were once fully functioning humans, meaningless parasites crawl all over her skin– a mere inconvenience to her already unjust life. In this poem, Swirszczynska illustrates that her lice, small and uncomfortable nuisances, are some of her only fellow survivors. Her account of lice is similar to that of Marek Edelman, who describes in the book Being on the Right Side the first time he undressed after the uprising. Barely alive and unwashed since the battle began, with his clothes removed, his skin resembled that of a dead person’s, but his clothes were covered in living, thriving lice. Lice’s survival of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and the Warsaw Uprising forces the reader to consider the cruel injustice that occurred in these two months filled with human beings’ deaths and miseries. The final stanza of “My Lice” creates a parallel that shows the uprising’s inhumanity, as well as that of the war in general. After she has ascertained that the fact of their living binds her and her lice, Swirszczynska states that “when I run out of the city of corpses, / when a living human being / opens the door of a living house to me, / I will fling the blouse into the fire along with the lice, / which, like me, / wanted to live.” Though she has a bond with the lice, she must get rid of them. Though she has a bond with the lice in their mutual desire to live, to move forward and to live, she must get rid of them. To survive, she must be free of lice. The Warsaw Uprising, like the Holocaust and camps and ghettos of World War II, left few survivors. Swirszczynska is a rarity in that she both lived through the uprising and chose to share her experience on such a large platform which is able to reach a wide audience. “I Bury the Enemy’s Body” and “My Lice” portray a range of emotions she felt in a relatively short period of time, and they also give readers a sense of the possible relationships between enemies and victims. Most of all, they show Swirszczynska’s attempt at humanizing the inhumanity she faced in the uprising. I see this as her primary aim in this collection, and she succeeded in portraying many different people as true individuals who tragically came into contact with this uprising. The Warsaw Uprising was initially overshadowed by the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising which only involved Jews as its participants. If for nothing else than the sake of not being forgotten, it is crucial that the Warsaw Uprising is read about, studied, and discussed, and Swirszczynska’s collection of poems provide us with a groundwork for doing so while remembering the human lives that were at stake. Snyder 280 Snyder 281 Snyer, 294. Snyder, 292. Snyder, Timothy. “Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin” Basic Books, 2010, New York. Swirszczynska, Anna. “Building the Barricade.” Krynski, Magnus J. and Maguire, Robert A. June, 1977, New York.	<urn:uuid:d1fd7d07-8bd0-420e-a95d-8d37475d6ec9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://urbanlabsce.eu/the-warsaw-uprising-in-verse/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00444.warc.gz	en	0.981393	2,365	4.0625	4	[ -0.6018445491790771, 0.46586307883262634, -0.20538774132728577, 0.19627058506011963, -0.056737106293439865, 0.24338097870349884, -0.11324786394834518, 0.2224254161119461, -0.6132747530937195, 0.029505372047424316, 0.10959059000015259, 0.12844911217689514, 0.07584050297737122, 0.34167402982...	16	By Caroline Simon During World War II, Warsaw was the center of Polish civilization and became “the center of urban resistance to Nazi rule in occupied Europe.” In the summer of 1944, it had the largest uprising the war saw. The uprising did not emerge from thin air, however; there was a long buildup of planning and resistance. In September of 1939, eight Poles began what would become the Polish Underground. Once armed – a crucial feature of Polish resistance – they came to be known as the “Union of Armed Struggle” whose tasks were to “unify the hundreds of smaller resistance groups that had formed in Poland, and to collect intelligence for the Polish government and its allies.” This group later became the Home Army, the home-based counterpart to the Polish Army which fought on the Western front. Its main goal was to restore Poland’s pre-WWII borders and establish it as a democratic republic. By 1944, Poles had seen their country completely overrun by Nazi Germany. Nazi occupiers had targeted the country’s educated elite, murdering and arresting many, as well as sending others to concentration camps. The Zamosc Action of 1941-1943 was a period during which Nazis emptied hundreds of Polish villages by deporting an estimated one hundred thousand Poles to concentration camps in order to establish German colonization. This seemed to Poles like the beginning of a “Final Solution to the Polish problem.” Non-Jewish Poles were keenly aware of what Nazis were doing to Jews. They became worried that they themselves would become the next target for annihilation, particularly after alerting the Allies (Great Britain and the United States) of the situation of the Jews, from which came no help. They sped up resistance, seeing many smaller instances of partisan resistance which sparked the Nazis to transform the area of the Warsaw Ghetto into what was essentially a concentration camp. By July 1944, Poles were aware that the Soviets who had occupied half of their country at the start of the war would likely be the ones to liberate them from the Nazis. This would not be in keeping with their goal of independence. Their only choice was to fight back. On August 1, 1944, the Polish Home Army began the Warsaw Uprising which lasted just over two months. The uprising was met with extraordinary brutality directed at both Home Army officers and civilians. Nazi officials instructed their soldiers to shoot all Poles– men, women, children, Jews, gentiles, the sick, the healthy, the armed, and the unarmed alike. The city was to be physically destroyed as well. After 63 days of fighting, the Poles had not won. They did not defeat the Germans nor affect the Soviets, nor even attract the Allies. What they had done, and what has had a lasting impact on history, was display resistance, solidarity, and Polish pride. Anna Swirszczynska was a typical worker in Warsaw during the war. She was a waitress and a hospital attendant, but today she is known as a poet who not only experienced the Warsaw Uprising of 1944 but willingly took part in it. Swirszczynska’s experience and account of that experience are important today because they show how severely the uprising affected everyday civilians. They are also important because they show that this uprising was truly the effort of a whole nation, not only its soldiers or certain resisters. Swirszczynska provides today’s readers with a personal account of the Warsaw Uprising and gives us a framework in understanding the individual horrors, emotions, and choices she and others faced. In one poem that doubles as a dedication, “To My Daughter,” she states that she was “no heroine darling, / everyone built barricades under fire,” reinforcing the idea that she was a typical helper in the uprising and that she was joined by many others. In this poem, she tells her daughter (and us) one of her motives for writing these poems: to speak about the heroes she saw. Swirszczynska never specifies who these heroes are, but she makes clear that she is compelled to have their stories survive when they likely did not. Swirszczynska aims to humanize those in the uprising– victims and enemies alike. She does this through the lens of terrible inhumanity, making her collection all the more impressive. Some of her poems single out individuals: “The Boy Scout” follows a boy who is sixteen and “between his ribs he has the energy / to fuel a rocket-bomb;” “It Lives One Hour More,” “it” referring to both a mother and her child on a trek to find milk, “Her Death is Sixteen Years Old” takes us through an elongated death of a girl “so brimful of youth / that even her dying is young.” Other poems are more generalized about the uprising itself, which she seeks to lament and which she commemorates by picking apart specific experiences she had or events she witnessed. That is what is important here: Swirszczynska bore witness to the Warsaw Uprising. She saw it, she actively participated in it, and now she seeks to memorialize it properly, ensuring that the survivors and casualties of the uprising are not forgotten. In Swirszczynska’s poem “I Bury the Enemy’s Body,” she takes us through the emotions involved in seeing an enemy soldier dead, reflecting on the wrongs he committed, considering his own humanity, and burying him into the non-discriminatory earth which he stained. She does all of this in the format of speaking directly to the enemy himself. This collection was not meant to humanize just the victims, but the enemies as well, and Swirszczynska shows this in “I Bury the Enemy’s Body.” She writes, “The fear in your eyes / died later than you” which gives us the visual of how she saw him: dead, with eyes open and full of fear, indicating that he was afraid at the time of his death just like anyone else in the uprising must have been. She moves on to write about the horrors he committed in his life, notably writing that “Your submachine gun killed many people,” as if to put the blame on the weapon instead of its wielder since she has already acknowledged that the gun was something he was given, not necessarily something he chose, in the poem’s first line. In her next stanza, she speculatively refers to his kind treatment of his children and that they will mourn him. All of this serves to show the soldiers’ side of things and show that regardless of one’s side in it, everyone here was a victim of the uprising. In the final stanza, Swirszczynska turns our attention to her burial of the enemy. She writes that he stained the earth with blood but “It will receive you / as though you were not its enemy.” The earth does not discriminate between the good and the bad; everyone who died in this uprising wound up in the same place. In the same way that the earth does not discriminate between Nazis and Poles, death did not discriminate. Another powerful poem in Swirszczynska’s collection is “My Lice,” where the author takes us on her journey through streets filled with death, corpses, a vivid reminder of the horrendous loss of life during the uprising. Surrounded by this death, she notes that the lice are still alive. Lice were a product of unhygienic conditions in the close quarters in the ghettos and the city enveloped in battle. She makes clear the striking contrast life and death around her: “I run through streets of corpses / I leap over the corpses / on my breasts under the blouse / move / the warm lice.” It is an unjust picture she paints. While she navigates her way through heaps of death, of people who were once fully functioning humans, meaningless parasites crawl all over her skin– a mere inconvenience to her already unjust life. In this poem, Swirszczynska illustrates that her lice, small and uncomfortable nuisances, are some of her only fellow survivors. Her account of lice is similar to that of Marek Edelman, who describes in the book Being on the Right Side the first time he undressed after the uprising. Barely alive and unwashed since the battle began, with his clothes removed, his skin resembled that of a dead person’s, but his clothes were covered in living, thriving lice. Lice’s survival of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and the Warsaw Uprising forces the reader to consider the cruel injustice that occurred in these two months filled with human beings’ deaths and miseries. The final stanza of “My Lice” creates a parallel that shows the uprising’s inhumanity, as well as that of the war in general. After she has ascertained that the fact of their living binds her and her lice, Swirszczynska states that “when I run out of the city of corpses, / when a living human being / opens the door of a living house to me, / I will fling the blouse into the fire along with the lice, / which, like me, / wanted to live.” Though she has a bond with the lice, she must get rid of them. Though she has a bond with the lice in their mutual desire to live, to move forward and to live, she must get rid of them. To survive, she must be free of lice. The Warsaw Uprising, like the Holocaust and camps and ghettos of World War II, left few survivors. Swirszczynska is a rarity in that she both lived through the uprising and chose to share her experience on such a large platform which is able to reach a wide audience. “I Bury the Enemy’s Body” and “My Lice” portray a range of emotions she felt in a relatively short period of time, and they also give readers a sense of the possible relationships between enemies and victims. Most of all, they show Swirszczynska’s attempt at humanizing the inhumanity she faced in the uprising. I see this as her primary aim in this collection, and she succeeded in portraying many different people as true individuals who tragically came into contact with this uprising. The Warsaw Uprising was initially overshadowed by the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising which only involved Jews as its participants. If for nothing else than the sake of not being forgotten, it is crucial that the Warsaw Uprising is read about, studied, and discussed, and Swirszczynska’s collection of poems provide us with a groundwork for doing so while remembering the human lives that were at stake. Snyder 280 Snyder 281 Snyer, 294. Snyder, 292. Snyder, Timothy. “Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin” Basic Books, 2010, New York. Swirszczynska, Anna. “Building the Barricade.” Krynski, Magnus J. and Maguire, Robert A. June, 1977, New York.	2,319	ENGLISH	1
The "Threat" of Native Americans In this letter dated January 12, 1842, Thomas Falconer writes to his friend Alfred Austin about his experiences with the Santa Fe Expedition. The enormous amount of information contained in the letter, which does not even cover the entirety of his narrative, is visually expressed in the small, cramped handwriting of the text. Falconer was an English lawyer who immigrated to the Republic of Texas in 1840 and joined the Santa Fe Expedition in June 1841 at the invitation of the then-president of Texas, Mirabeau B. Lamar. He was a "guest" and therefore independent of any military force control, unlike the three hundred soldiers who accompanied the expedition. Falconer was told that the purpose of the trip was for trade between Texas and Santa Fe, but he states that this was a lie and the secret goal was to capture Santa Fe. During the expedition, Falconer describes the many misfortunes that befell his party: they are separated multiple times, their horses are stolen, they are deserted by various members of the group, they are attacked several times by Native Americans, they suffer a shortage of food, their camp is accidentally set on fire, and they are captured by Mexicans. This letter was written in his third month of captivity, while still on the journey to Mexico City. Falconer's letter to Austin demonstrates both the white settler experience of danger and violence on the frontier and the white settler mindset of disregard for the rights of native populations. Falconer is clearly a politically-minded individual, as evidenced by his profession as a lawyer, as well as his priorities in his letter-writing. He opens with a request for money from his London accounts, since he cannot get them from Texas or the United States as there is "no American house here." He speaks of the current state of relations between Texas and Mexico and the increasing "uselessness" of Santa Fe as a trading city. He makes suggestions about economic and political decisions that the Texas government could make to improve trade. He even joins the expedition at the invitation of President Lamar, indicating that he is politically very well-connected. In describing the interactions with Native Americans, Falconer does not write of anything beyond violence and attacks, and he consistently cast the expedition party as the victims. While there is no dispute that the Santa Fe Expedition surely did suffer as a result of these attacks, Falconer offers no critical awareness of the fact that Native American lands were being forcibly taken by the very governmental institutions with which Falconer was deeply involved. This follows the treatment of Native Americans in Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House on the Prairie, which depicts the Osage tribe as a threatening presence. When the Native Americans are performing their war cry, for example, Laura describes how listening to it makes her feel: "The shutter was open, and Pa stood in the dark by the window, looking out. He had his gun. Out in the night the drums were beating and the Indians were wildly yelling. Then that terrible sound came again. Laura felt as if she were falling; she couldn't hold on to anything; there was nothing solid anywhere. It seemed a long time before she could see or think or speak. She screamed: 'What is it? What is it? Oh, Pa, what is it?' She was shaking all over and she felt sick in her middle" (291). Frances W. Kaye argues that, considering the historical and cultural context of the Osages, the “terrible sound” that Laura hears was probably not, in fact, a war cry. Rather, it may have been the mourning cry of the Osage women who did not want to leave their land yet again. Kaye suggests that Pa told Laura it was a war cry because it made a better story and fit in well with the narrative of the “Noble Savage” (Kaye 136). The “Noble Savage” is a fierce and sparsely-dressed warrior whose image, threatening in its strength, power, and difference, strikes fear into the Euro-American’s heart. The intense, visceral fear that Laura feels in the excerpted scene reflects the white settlers' fears of Native Americans using that power and revolting against further encroachment through violence. This reaction of violence is exactly what the Santa Fe Expedition deals with during their journey. Falconer describes these episodes in a straightforward manner--"On Sept. 4 we were attacked by Indians about an hour after breakfast"--that gives no insight into the motivations of the Native Americans. To justify the existence of Texas, the purpose of the expedition, and his immigration to western North America, Falconer must buy into the white supremacy and the superiority of white settlers' "claim" to land that has belonged to native peoples for millennia. By Rachel Robinson Kaye, Frances W. “Little Squatter on the Osage Diminished Reserve: Reading Laura Ingalls Wilder’s Kansas Indians.” Great Plains Quarterly 20.2 (Spring 2000): 123-140. Print. Wilder, Laura Ingalls. Little House on the Prairie. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1953. Print.	<urn:uuid:ab99c8f5-0938-4496-b3a0-483bd9dcaadf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://texasheritage.omeka.net/exhibits/show/english-10304-class-exhibit/the--threat--of-native-america	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00246.warc.gz	en	0.981284	1,062	3.3125	3	[ 0.17966431379318237, 0.47834312915802, 0.05659046769142151, 0.29670679569244385, -0.05054844543337822, -0.26947546005249023, 0.2312277853488922, 0.2365984320640564, -0.26628395915031433, -0.15988445281982422, 0.03391208127140999, 0.02175886183977127, 0.08948656171560287, 0.0672715902328491...	1	The "Threat" of Native Americans In this letter dated January 12, 1842, Thomas Falconer writes to his friend Alfred Austin about his experiences with the Santa Fe Expedition. The enormous amount of information contained in the letter, which does not even cover the entirety of his narrative, is visually expressed in the small, cramped handwriting of the text. Falconer was an English lawyer who immigrated to the Republic of Texas in 1840 and joined the Santa Fe Expedition in June 1841 at the invitation of the then-president of Texas, Mirabeau B. Lamar. He was a "guest" and therefore independent of any military force control, unlike the three hundred soldiers who accompanied the expedition. Falconer was told that the purpose of the trip was for trade between Texas and Santa Fe, but he states that this was a lie and the secret goal was to capture Santa Fe. During the expedition, Falconer describes the many misfortunes that befell his party: they are separated multiple times, their horses are stolen, they are deserted by various members of the group, they are attacked several times by Native Americans, they suffer a shortage of food, their camp is accidentally set on fire, and they are captured by Mexicans. This letter was written in his third month of captivity, while still on the journey to Mexico City. Falconer's letter to Austin demonstrates both the white settler experience of danger and violence on the frontier and the white settler mindset of disregard for the rights of native populations. Falconer is clearly a politically-minded individual, as evidenced by his profession as a lawyer, as well as his priorities in his letter-writing. He opens with a request for money from his London accounts, since he cannot get them from Texas or the United States as there is "no American house here." He speaks of the current state of relations between Texas and Mexico and the increasing "uselessness" of Santa Fe as a trading city. He makes suggestions about economic and political decisions that the Texas government could make to improve trade. He even joins the expedition at the invitation of President Lamar, indicating that he is politically very well-connected. In describing the interactions with Native Americans, Falconer does not write of anything beyond violence and attacks, and he consistently cast the expedition party as the victims. While there is no dispute that the Santa Fe Expedition surely did suffer as a result of these attacks, Falconer offers no critical awareness of the fact that Native American lands were being forcibly taken by the very governmental institutions with which Falconer was deeply involved. This follows the treatment of Native Americans in Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House on the Prairie, which depicts the Osage tribe as a threatening presence. When the Native Americans are performing their war cry, for example, Laura describes how listening to it makes her feel: "The shutter was open, and Pa stood in the dark by the window, looking out. He had his gun. Out in the night the drums were beating and the Indians were wildly yelling. Then that terrible sound came again. Laura felt as if she were falling; she couldn't hold on to anything; there was nothing solid anywhere. It seemed a long time before she could see or think or speak. She screamed: 'What is it? What is it? Oh, Pa, what is it?' She was shaking all over and she felt sick in her middle" (291). Frances W. Kaye argues that, considering the historical and cultural context of the Osages, the “terrible sound” that Laura hears was probably not, in fact, a war cry. Rather, it may have been the mourning cry of the Osage women who did not want to leave their land yet again. Kaye suggests that Pa told Laura it was a war cry because it made a better story and fit in well with the narrative of the “Noble Savage” (Kaye 136). The “Noble Savage” is a fierce and sparsely-dressed warrior whose image, threatening in its strength, power, and difference, strikes fear into the Euro-American’s heart. The intense, visceral fear that Laura feels in the excerpted scene reflects the white settlers' fears of Native Americans using that power and revolting against further encroachment through violence. This reaction of violence is exactly what the Santa Fe Expedition deals with during their journey. Falconer describes these episodes in a straightforward manner--"On Sept. 4 we were attacked by Indians about an hour after breakfast"--that gives no insight into the motivations of the Native Americans. To justify the existence of Texas, the purpose of the expedition, and his immigration to western North America, Falconer must buy into the white supremacy and the superiority of white settlers' "claim" to land that has belonged to native peoples for millennia. By Rachel Robinson Kaye, Frances W. “Little Squatter on the Osage Diminished Reserve: Reading Laura Ingalls Wilder’s Kansas Indians.” Great Plains Quarterly 20.2 (Spring 2000): 123-140. Print. Wilder, Laura Ingalls. Little House on the Prairie. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1953. Print.	1,069	ENGLISH	1
By Bhiku Parekh Gandhi (1869-1948) was one of the few men in history to fight simultaneously on moral, religious, political, social, economic, and cultural fronts. During his time as a lawyer in South Africa he developed his strategy of non-violence: the idea of opposing unjust laws by non-violent protest, which he made the basis of his successful struggle against British rule in India. In this Very Short Introduction to Gandhi's life and thought, Bhikhu Parekh outlines both Gandhi's major philosophical insights and the limitations of his thought. He looks at Gandhi's cosmocentric anthropology, his spiritual view of politics, his unique form of liberal communitarianism, and his theories of oppression, non-violent action, and active citizenship. He also considers how the success of Gandhi's principles was limited by his lack of coherent theories of evil, and of state and power, and how his hostility to modern civilization impeded his appreciation of its complexity. Gandhi's life and thought has had an enormous impact both within and outside India, and he continues to be widely revered, as one of the greatest moral and political leaders of the twentieth century. ABOUT THE SERIES: The Very Short Introductions series from Oxford University Press contains hundreds of titles in almost every subject area. These pocket-sized books are the perfect way to get ahead in a new subject quickly. Our expert authors combine facts, analysis, perspective, new ideas, and enthusiasm to make interesting and challenging topics highly readable.	<urn:uuid:57c348f4-f5c2-41e9-a3e3-42e894392431>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://firestorm.coop/products/10713-gandhi.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00401.warc.gz	en	0.980583	308	3.703125	4	[ -0.10235220193862915, 0.8771982192993164, -0.23130103945732117, -0.13497458398342133, -0.5973208546638489, 0.018487565219402313, 0.280688613653183, 0.1248108297586441, 0.11522222310304642, 0.332282155752182, -0.17980708181858063, -0.13647913932800293, 0.21752895414829254, 0.411877900362014...	5	By Bhiku Parekh Gandhi (1869-1948) was one of the few men in history to fight simultaneously on moral, religious, political, social, economic, and cultural fronts. During his time as a lawyer in South Africa he developed his strategy of non-violence: the idea of opposing unjust laws by non-violent protest, which he made the basis of his successful struggle against British rule in India. In this Very Short Introduction to Gandhi's life and thought, Bhikhu Parekh outlines both Gandhi's major philosophical insights and the limitations of his thought. He looks at Gandhi's cosmocentric anthropology, his spiritual view of politics, his unique form of liberal communitarianism, and his theories of oppression, non-violent action, and active citizenship. He also considers how the success of Gandhi's principles was limited by his lack of coherent theories of evil, and of state and power, and how his hostility to modern civilization impeded his appreciation of its complexity. Gandhi's life and thought has had an enormous impact both within and outside India, and he continues to be widely revered, as one of the greatest moral and political leaders of the twentieth century. ABOUT THE SERIES: The Very Short Introductions series from Oxford University Press contains hundreds of titles in almost every subject area. These pocket-sized books are the perfect way to get ahead in a new subject quickly. Our expert authors combine facts, analysis, perspective, new ideas, and enthusiasm to make interesting and challenging topics highly readable.	309	ENGLISH	1
Aim: To create a capsule that can decrease the speed of an egg when dropped, decrease the acceleration and increase the impact time in order to save the egg from breaking. Materials/Equipment: • 4 balloons • 1 metre of string • 2 polystyrene cups • 1 plastic bag • 2 pieces of paper • Sticky tape • Scissors • Pencil • And of course the egg Method (Original design): 1. Firstly, two balloons were blown to a desired size and tied. 2. Then, a polystyrene cup was placed upside down, and another polystyrene cup was stuck on top of it with sticky tape. 3. Afterward, two holes were created in the sides of the bottom cup, so that they were big enough to pull the tied ends of the balloons through it. 4. Next, the ends of the balloons were stuck to the edge of the cups using stick tape. 5. Furthermore, string was attached to the sticky tape, that held the balloons to the cup, which was connected to a plastic bag, that would act as a parachute in the design. 6. Finally, two pieces of paper were scrunched together and placed into the egg along with the egg. Discussion of the features of the capsule and how they helped reduce the impact of the collision: The initial feature that helped the capsule reduce the impact of the collision was the plastic bag. The plastic bag was used as a parachute that helped reduce the impact time and increased the deceleration time. This is because; the plastic bag was full of air that was pushing it upwards. This idea can be related to Newton’s 3rd Law, that states “Every action has an equal and opposite reaction”, as the bag was pushing down on the air around it and the air pushed back onto the bag. The use of the plastic bag as a parachute can also be related to Newton’s 2nd Law, that states the formula F=ma. This is because, the force acting on the mass, the force being gravity and the mass being the capsule, affected the acceleration of how fast the capsule dropped. Therefore, the plastic bag slowed down the rate at which the capsule fell out. Another feature that helped reduce the impact of the collision was the scrunched up paper within the capsule that provided a cushion for the egg to rest on. This is because, the paper would take all the impact of the collision and the egg would remain safe. The final feature of the capsule that reduced the collision was the balloons attached to the sides of the cup. As they took an incredible amount of the impact as they were essentially the first things that came in contact with the ground during the collision. This can be related to Newton’s 1st Law, also known as the ‘Law of Inertia, as it states, “An object at rest will stay egg when dropped, decrease the acceleration and increase the impact time, in order to save the egg from breaking. During the tests conducted at home it was established that the original design did not fulfil the requirements of the aim, however the redesign of the capsule was successful. Redesign: 1. Firstly, four balloons were blown to a desired size and tied. 2. Then, a polystyrene cup was placed upside down, and another polystyrene cup was stuck on top of…	<urn:uuid:e4e90a5b-a270-4b02-90dc-486ecdd66513>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Egg-Drop-616334.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00345.warc.gz	en	0.982609	685	4.28125	4	[ -0.40777668356895447, -0.08667320013046265, 0.13876110315322876, -0.16105717420578003, -0.18061895668506622, 0.5279167890548706, 0.3954241871833801, 0.48518604040145874, 0.1878405660390854, -0.04305381327867508, -0.07041561603546143, -0.13060379028320312, 0.362748920917511, 0.2502833306789...	1	Aim: To create a capsule that can decrease the speed of an egg when dropped, decrease the acceleration and increase the impact time in order to save the egg from breaking. Materials/Equipment: • 4 balloons • 1 metre of string • 2 polystyrene cups • 1 plastic bag • 2 pieces of paper • Sticky tape • Scissors • Pencil • And of course the egg Method (Original design): 1. Firstly, two balloons were blown to a desired size and tied. 2. Then, a polystyrene cup was placed upside down, and another polystyrene cup was stuck on top of it with sticky tape. 3. Afterward, two holes were created in the sides of the bottom cup, so that they were big enough to pull the tied ends of the balloons through it. 4. Next, the ends of the balloons were stuck to the edge of the cups using stick tape. 5. Furthermore, string was attached to the sticky tape, that held the balloons to the cup, which was connected to a plastic bag, that would act as a parachute in the design. 6. Finally, two pieces of paper were scrunched together and placed into the egg along with the egg. Discussion of the features of the capsule and how they helped reduce the impact of the collision: The initial feature that helped the capsule reduce the impact of the collision was the plastic bag. The plastic bag was used as a parachute that helped reduce the impact time and increased the deceleration time. This is because; the plastic bag was full of air that was pushing it upwards. This idea can be related to Newton’s 3rd Law, that states “Every action has an equal and opposite reaction”, as the bag was pushing down on the air around it and the air pushed back onto the bag. The use of the plastic bag as a parachute can also be related to Newton’s 2nd Law, that states the formula F=ma. This is because, the force acting on the mass, the force being gravity and the mass being the capsule, affected the acceleration of how fast the capsule dropped. Therefore, the plastic bag slowed down the rate at which the capsule fell out. Another feature that helped reduce the impact of the collision was the scrunched up paper within the capsule that provided a cushion for the egg to rest on. This is because, the paper would take all the impact of the collision and the egg would remain safe. The final feature of the capsule that reduced the collision was the balloons attached to the sides of the cup. As they took an incredible amount of the impact as they were essentially the first things that came in contact with the ground during the collision. This can be related to Newton’s 1st Law, also known as the ‘Law of Inertia, as it states, “An object at rest will stay egg when dropped, decrease the acceleration and increase the impact time, in order to save the egg from breaking. During the tests conducted at home it was established that the original design did not fulfil the requirements of the aim, however the redesign of the capsule was successful. Redesign: 1. Firstly, four balloons were blown to a desired size and tied. 2. Then, a polystyrene cup was placed upside down, and another polystyrene cup was stuck on top of…	689	ENGLISH	1
As children were evacuated from Germany on Kindertransports in the 1930s, Gertrude Glogower worked to help them build new lives in America. Glogower involved herself in numerous local and national organizations over her lifetime, eventually serving as president of the Detroit section of the National Council of Jewish Women, president of the Detroit JCC in the early 1940s, and national chair of Service to Women and Girls of the USO. She also chaired the board of Detroit’s YWHA, overseeing both regular activities in the city for more than 700 girls and women as well as trips to a camp in the country. But it was in the late 1930s, as chair of both the Committee on German-Jewish Children’s Aid and the Children’s Department of Resettlement Service, that she became involved with helping refugee children. She went on to become a board member and vice president of the National Jewish Welfare Board, for which she became the first woman ever honored with the Frank L. Weil Award in 1952. How to cite this page Jewish Women's Archive. "Gertrude Glogower." (Viewed on January 24, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/people/glogower-gertrude>.	<urn:uuid:ea340a31-6e96-4abd-a08e-d3e387f6b3f6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://qa.jwa.org/people/glogower-gertrude	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00066.warc.gz	en	0.980378	263	3.625	4	[ 0.060930971056222916, 0.4350869059562683, 0.30547237396240234, 0.11670134961605072, 0.05104171484708786, 0.6283003091812134, -0.4650671184062958, 0.17127040028572083, -0.45791980624198914, 0.0905560702085495, 0.20012499392032623, 0.23399125039577484, -0.2514823079109192, 0.3582752346992492...	1	As children were evacuated from Germany on Kindertransports in the 1930s, Gertrude Glogower worked to help them build new lives in America. Glogower involved herself in numerous local and national organizations over her lifetime, eventually serving as president of the Detroit section of the National Council of Jewish Women, president of the Detroit JCC in the early 1940s, and national chair of Service to Women and Girls of the USO. She also chaired the board of Detroit’s YWHA, overseeing both regular activities in the city for more than 700 girls and women as well as trips to a camp in the country. But it was in the late 1930s, as chair of both the Committee on German-Jewish Children’s Aid and the Children’s Department of Resettlement Service, that she became involved with helping refugee children. She went on to become a board member and vice president of the National Jewish Welfare Board, for which she became the first woman ever honored with the Frank L. Weil Award in 1952. How to cite this page Jewish Women's Archive. "Gertrude Glogower." (Viewed on January 24, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/people/glogower-gertrude>.	275	ENGLISH	1
Activist, 1813- 1897 Although millions of African American women were held in bondage over the 250 years that slavery was legal in the United States, Harriet Jacobs (1813-97) is the only one known to have left papers testifying to her life. Harriet Jacobs is now known as the author of Incident in the Life of A Slave Girl, Written by Herself (1861), the most important slave narrative written by an African-American woman. Jacobs is also important because of the role she played as a relief worker among Black Civil War refugees in Alexandria, Virginia and Savannah, Georgia. Throughout most of the twentieth century, Jacob’s autobiography was thought to be a novel by a white writer, and her relief work was unknown. With the 1987 publication of an annotated edition of her book, however, Jacobs became established as the author of the most comprehensive antebellum autobiography by an African American woman. Her autobiography, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, holds a central place in the canon of American literature as the most important slave narrative by an African American woman. Harriet Ann Jacobs, writer, abolitionist and reformer, was born a slave in Edenton, North Carolina in 1813. She was the daughter of two slaves owned by different masters. The story of her life, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself, was published under the pseudonym Linda Brent in 1861. It helped build Northern sentiment for emancipation during the Civil War and was probably the only slave narrative to deal with sexual oppression as well as oppression of race and condition. Harriet visited New Bedford on several occasions as her brother John Jacobs, also a freedom seeker, lived here for a time and worked on ships in the port of New Bedford. The New Bedford Women’s Anti-Slavery Society also supported Harriet’s work through active fundraising and support. During her childhood in Edenton, young Harriet lived with her mother as part of a close-knit family. Her father was a skilled carpenter who was loaned out for hire. Her maternal grandmother, Molly Horniblow, was emancipated by her mistress during the American Revolution, sold back into slavery as a prize of war, and was re-emancipated in 1828. When Harriet’s mother died in 1819, the six-year-old girl was taken into the home of her mistress, Margaret Horniblow, who taught her how to read and write. Harriet was very fond of Miss Horniblow and expected to be emancipated. Instead, when Miss Horniblow died in 1825, she willed Harriet to her three-year old niece, Mary Matilda Norcom. Within three years of moving into the Norcom home, Harriet found herself the object of Dr. Norcom’s unwanted sexual advances and Mrs. Norcom’s vindictive jealousy. Through very intelligent and ingenious technique’s, Harriet continually evaded Dr. Norcom’s sexual advances toward her. He refused to allow her to marry. However, Samuel Sawyer, a lawyer in town, seduced Harriet when she was sixteen years old and she had two children by him, Joseph and Louisa. Harriet’s son Joseph was born in 1829 and her daughter Louisa Matilda was born in 1833. In retaliation, Dr. Norcom sent Harriet to one of his plantations to be broken in as a field hand. Before her children could be sent to join her, Harriet ran away and went into hiding at her grandmother Molly Horniblow’s house where she hid for seven years in a space under the front porch roof. Between 1835 and 1842, Harriet Jacobs wrote to Dr. Norcom telling him that she had escaped to the North in an effort to get him to sell her children. She thought that if he believed she had escaped to freedom and that she would not be returning that he would sell her children, but that never happened. In 1842, Harriet Jacobs escaped from Edenton by boat, traveling eventually to New York, where she went to work as a nursemaid for the family of abolitionist Nathaniel Parker Willis and his wife Cordelia Grinnell Willis. Cordelia was the daughter of the prominent New Bedford Grinnell family. Harriet was sent to New Bedford several times to escape capture by Dr. Norcom who continued to try to re-enslave her until her freedom was bought in 1852. For the next few years, she traveled between New York and Boston, eventually reuniting with her children. During this period, she became active in a circle of anti-slavery feminists and met Amy Post, who, along with Mary Willis, would encourage her to write the story of her life. In order to subvert the continued efforts of Harriet Jacobs’s former owners to re-enslave her, the Willis’s eventually bought Harriet and gave her freedom in 1852. The next year Jacobs began work on Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Horace Greely published some of the autobiography in the New York Tribune. Her account of how she had been sexually abused shocked the American public. However, when her autobiography was completed, she found it difficult to get it published. Harriet Jacobs finally purchased the plates of her book and had it published by a Boston printer “for the author” in 1861. Through the war years, Harriet Jacobs lived in Washington, D.C., assisting contrabands, nursing black troops and teaching. New Bedford women abolitionists supported Harriet’s actions by sending much needed teaching materials and supplies south. After the war, she and her daughter did relief work in Savannah and Edenton. In 1868, they traveled to London to raise funds for an orphanage and home for the aged in Savannah. The year before her death in 1897, she was actively involved in organizing meetings of the National Association of Colored Women in Washington, D. C. She is buried in the Mt. Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, MA.	<urn:uuid:1593368b-64b2-4af5-abb4-deb85f601d16>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nbhistoricalsociety.org/wp/?portfolio=harriet-jacobs-writer	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00448.warc.gz	en	0.98452	1,238	3.4375	3	[ -0.1324821561574936, 0.29616042971611023, 0.5055645704269409, 0.2795441448688507, -0.10998517274856567, 0.12377722561359406, -0.1389041244983673, -0.11391353607177734, -0.2878137528896332, -0.038132037967443466, 0.10979311168193817, 0.3510340452194214, -0.27227842807769775, 0.0957612097263...	10	Activist, 1813- 1897 Although millions of African American women were held in bondage over the 250 years that slavery was legal in the United States, Harriet Jacobs (1813-97) is the only one known to have left papers testifying to her life. Harriet Jacobs is now known as the author of Incident in the Life of A Slave Girl, Written by Herself (1861), the most important slave narrative written by an African-American woman. Jacobs is also important because of the role she played as a relief worker among Black Civil War refugees in Alexandria, Virginia and Savannah, Georgia. Throughout most of the twentieth century, Jacob’s autobiography was thought to be a novel by a white writer, and her relief work was unknown. With the 1987 publication of an annotated edition of her book, however, Jacobs became established as the author of the most comprehensive antebellum autobiography by an African American woman. Her autobiography, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, holds a central place in the canon of American literature as the most important slave narrative by an African American woman. Harriet Ann Jacobs, writer, abolitionist and reformer, was born a slave in Edenton, North Carolina in 1813. She was the daughter of two slaves owned by different masters. The story of her life, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself, was published under the pseudonym Linda Brent in 1861. It helped build Northern sentiment for emancipation during the Civil War and was probably the only slave narrative to deal with sexual oppression as well as oppression of race and condition. Harriet visited New Bedford on several occasions as her brother John Jacobs, also a freedom seeker, lived here for a time and worked on ships in the port of New Bedford. The New Bedford Women’s Anti-Slavery Society also supported Harriet’s work through active fundraising and support. During her childhood in Edenton, young Harriet lived with her mother as part of a close-knit family. Her father was a skilled carpenter who was loaned out for hire. Her maternal grandmother, Molly Horniblow, was emancipated by her mistress during the American Revolution, sold back into slavery as a prize of war, and was re-emancipated in 1828. When Harriet’s mother died in 1819, the six-year-old girl was taken into the home of her mistress, Margaret Horniblow, who taught her how to read and write. Harriet was very fond of Miss Horniblow and expected to be emancipated. Instead, when Miss Horniblow died in 1825, she willed Harriet to her three-year old niece, Mary Matilda Norcom. Within three years of moving into the Norcom home, Harriet found herself the object of Dr. Norcom’s unwanted sexual advances and Mrs. Norcom’s vindictive jealousy. Through very intelligent and ingenious technique’s, Harriet continually evaded Dr. Norcom’s sexual advances toward her. He refused to allow her to marry. However, Samuel Sawyer, a lawyer in town, seduced Harriet when she was sixteen years old and she had two children by him, Joseph and Louisa. Harriet’s son Joseph was born in 1829 and her daughter Louisa Matilda was born in 1833. In retaliation, Dr. Norcom sent Harriet to one of his plantations to be broken in as a field hand. Before her children could be sent to join her, Harriet ran away and went into hiding at her grandmother Molly Horniblow’s house where she hid for seven years in a space under the front porch roof. Between 1835 and 1842, Harriet Jacobs wrote to Dr. Norcom telling him that she had escaped to the North in an effort to get him to sell her children. She thought that if he believed she had escaped to freedom and that she would not be returning that he would sell her children, but that never happened. In 1842, Harriet Jacobs escaped from Edenton by boat, traveling eventually to New York, where she went to work as a nursemaid for the family of abolitionist Nathaniel Parker Willis and his wife Cordelia Grinnell Willis. Cordelia was the daughter of the prominent New Bedford Grinnell family. Harriet was sent to New Bedford several times to escape capture by Dr. Norcom who continued to try to re-enslave her until her freedom was bought in 1852. For the next few years, she traveled between New York and Boston, eventually reuniting with her children. During this period, she became active in a circle of anti-slavery feminists and met Amy Post, who, along with Mary Willis, would encourage her to write the story of her life. In order to subvert the continued efforts of Harriet Jacobs’s former owners to re-enslave her, the Willis’s eventually bought Harriet and gave her freedom in 1852. The next year Jacobs began work on Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Horace Greely published some of the autobiography in the New York Tribune. Her account of how she had been sexually abused shocked the American public. However, when her autobiography was completed, she found it difficult to get it published. Harriet Jacobs finally purchased the plates of her book and had it published by a Boston printer “for the author” in 1861. Through the war years, Harriet Jacobs lived in Washington, D.C., assisting contrabands, nursing black troops and teaching. New Bedford women abolitionists supported Harriet’s actions by sending much needed teaching materials and supplies south. After the war, she and her daughter did relief work in Savannah and Edenton. In 1868, they traveled to London to raise funds for an orphanage and home for the aged in Savannah. The year before her death in 1897, she was actively involved in organizing meetings of the National Association of Colored Women in Washington, D. C. She is buried in the Mt. Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, MA.	1,286	ENGLISH	1
« AnteriorContinuar » less developed agriculturally and horses in the more developed ones. For example, oxen were preferred to horses in England from 1250 to 1650. Steam.—After nearly two centuries of projection and invention, steam was successfully used for agricultural operations in England in 1832. The system adopted was that of dragging the implements by the aid of pulleys and a cable revolved by a stationary steam engine. This method in improved form is still found in Europe. The movable engine appeared before 1850. In the United States, activity in the invention of steam plows began in 1861, and it was perhaps entirely confined to the use of the traction engine. On the Pacific coast, steam is used quite extensively in the cultivation of wheat, especially on the larger farms. In Germany and Hungary there was about one steam plow to every 10 small plows in 1900. There have also been experiments with electricity as a motor power in agriculture. Plowing.—The first plow was simply a “sharpened piece of wood or the crotched limb of a tree,’’ and was evolved from the hoe. Some of the earliest plows were drawn by two men, while two others kept them in the ground. The form represented on Egyptian monuments (3,000 B. C.) is an improvement on the hooked stick. Chinese historians say that the first plows in China were made 2,737 B. C. The plow described by Homer was a composite piece drawn by oxen or mules. The early Romans had no cast steel or iron, and their implement was essentially like that of the Germans. The first use of metal on a plow is unknown, but before the time of Christ the Romans yoked the steer to one with a “shining share.” The ancient Egyptians and Assyrians had plows pointed or edged with iron. These primitive implements turned no furrow, but simply stirred the ground. Those of the Greeks 2,000 years ago had wheels supporting the beams, and similar forms are found depicted in Saxon manuscripts. The rude primitive plow seems to have been almost universally the first agricultural implement drawn by beasts of burden. The constancy of the type among different peoples is remarkable. Under uncivilized or frontier conditions it nearly always appears, and its persistence is very great. In the United States plows were worked in Virginia as early as 1617. Twelve years after the landing of the Pilgrims, the farmers about Boston had no plows. The first ones used by French settlers in Illinois were of wood with a small point of iron tied on with straps of rawhide. The oxen were yoked to them by the horns. This method of hitching was rivaled only in Saxony and Ireland, where the horses were fastened to the plow with their tails. An attempt was made to abolish this practice in Ireland by act of Parliament in 1634. Arthur Young (1741-1820) mentioned it in his time, however, and Gibbons maintained that it was still to be found in remote parts of Ireland as late as 1896. In England, from one to eight oxen were used in the eleventh century, while four horses or oxen were usual in the seventeenth century. The first plow in California (about 1835) was a crooked branch with an iron toe. On the whole, the American form before 1767 was practically the same as that used by the Romans before the Christian era, and this type was still found in Europe in 1867. It was the only agricultural implement of France in the eleventh century, and of Sicily in 1863. In southern Greece many plows similar to those of the age of Pericles (450 B. C.) are still being used. Many of those in Russia are equally primitive, while the Spanish, South French and Italian forms resemble the Roman type. There was little improvement in the plow during the middle ages, perhaps largely on account of legislative restraint. Many popular prejudices also existed. In England, for example, after the farmers had experimented with iron plows of good construction, they concluded that the iron made the weeds grow; and in America iron plows were supposed to poison the soil and to prevent the growth of crops. It was not until the end of the seventeenth century that plows began to be improved. The moldboard was then made of iron and steel and given its proper form. While the plow was always essentially a wedgeshaped instrument forced through the soil to loosen it, these improvements perfected it so that the draft was reduced by one-third and the implement was also much more complete in its operation on the topsoil, which it gradually loosened, raised and completely turned over to one side. Coulters were known in England at least as early as the eleventh century. Fitzherbert writes of different kinds of plows for different soils in 1534. The date of the first English patent on this implement is 1720. The cast iron plow was first patented in the United States in 1797. A patent on an adjustable cast iron point in 1818 marks the introduction of the most useful economy in plow manufacture, the interchangeability of parts. Modern Plows are practically the same in principle as those described above. The only improvements which have been made are in minor details. The draft and friction have been reduced to a minimum, and forms have been invented which are best suited for different types of soil and for the application of different kinds of motor power. The common hand plow is undoubtedly most widely used, and the small farm rarely ever has any other. It is drawn by two horses. Another widely used form is the sulky plow, having two wheels to carry the beams, and a seat for the driver. Two or three horses are required. The acreage covered depends on the condition of the soil, and varies from one to two acres per day. These are the common forms used by all the large wheat raising countries. Another common type used on large farms is the gang plow, drawn by horses or steam. This is merely a number of common plows combined in one frame. A usual plow in the Red river valley is a gang cutting 16 inches in two furrows, drawn by five horses and turning 250 acres in from four to six weeks. Steam is not used, as mud was found to cut out the plow bearings when it was wet, and the expense of keeping horses is necessitated by other farming operations. In some parts of California, plows are set in gangs of as many as 14. They are drawn by eight mules, and plow three inches deep at the rate of 10 or 15 acres per day. A traction engine with large gangs of plows or discs is often used on the larger farms, accomplishing an enormous amount of work in a little time. Special forms of plows adapted to the use of a stationary engine have been evolved in Europe. The Fowler plow is perhaps the best known and most effective of these. It consists practically of eight turnover plows yoked together, and is capable of plowing 40 acres of land a day and accommodating itself to the most uneven ground. The electric plow of Austria is also worthy of mention. Time of Plowing.—In general, it may be said that in the spring wheat area of the United States, fall plowing slightly	<urn:uuid:348c3073-ffc6-4a93-9f44-214236a00753>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.google.com.mx/books?id=UwxFAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA64&vq=weeds&dq=editions:OCLC727166946&output=html_text&source=gbs_search_r&cad=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00218.warc.gz	en	0.984051	1,512	3.5625	4	[ -0.06509366631507874, -0.037701256573200226, 0.40085288882255554, 0.20800748467445374, -0.2736414670944214, -0.13556228578090668, -0.3859861493110657, 0.043566763401031494, 0.09778765588998795, 0.07073448598384857, 0.03644448518753052, -0.48679572343826294, -0.03259475529193878, 0.08553276...	2	« AnteriorContinuar » less developed agriculturally and horses in the more developed ones. For example, oxen were preferred to horses in England from 1250 to 1650. Steam.—After nearly two centuries of projection and invention, steam was successfully used for agricultural operations in England in 1832. The system adopted was that of dragging the implements by the aid of pulleys and a cable revolved by a stationary steam engine. This method in improved form is still found in Europe. The movable engine appeared before 1850. In the United States, activity in the invention of steam plows began in 1861, and it was perhaps entirely confined to the use of the traction engine. On the Pacific coast, steam is used quite extensively in the cultivation of wheat, especially on the larger farms. In Germany and Hungary there was about one steam plow to every 10 small plows in 1900. There have also been experiments with electricity as a motor power in agriculture. Plowing.—The first plow was simply a “sharpened piece of wood or the crotched limb of a tree,’’ and was evolved from the hoe. Some of the earliest plows were drawn by two men, while two others kept them in the ground. The form represented on Egyptian monuments (3,000 B. C.) is an improvement on the hooked stick. Chinese historians say that the first plows in China were made 2,737 B. C. The plow described by Homer was a composite piece drawn by oxen or mules. The early Romans had no cast steel or iron, and their implement was essentially like that of the Germans. The first use of metal on a plow is unknown, but before the time of Christ the Romans yoked the steer to one with a “shining share.” The ancient Egyptians and Assyrians had plows pointed or edged with iron. These primitive implements turned no furrow, but simply stirred the ground. Those of the Greeks 2,000 years ago had wheels supporting the beams, and similar forms are found depicted in Saxon manuscripts. The rude primitive plow seems to have been almost universally the first agricultural implement drawn by beasts of burden. The constancy of the type among different peoples is remarkable. Under uncivilized or frontier conditions it nearly always appears, and its persistence is very great. In the United States plows were worked in Virginia as early as 1617. Twelve years after the landing of the Pilgrims, the farmers about Boston had no plows. The first ones used by French settlers in Illinois were of wood with a small point of iron tied on with straps of rawhide. The oxen were yoked to them by the horns. This method of hitching was rivaled only in Saxony and Ireland, where the horses were fastened to the plow with their tails. An attempt was made to abolish this practice in Ireland by act of Parliament in 1634. Arthur Young (1741-1820) mentioned it in his time, however, and Gibbons maintained that it was still to be found in remote parts of Ireland as late as 1896. In England, from one to eight oxen were used in the eleventh century, while four horses or oxen were usual in the seventeenth century. The first plow in California (about 1835) was a crooked branch with an iron toe. On the whole, the American form before 1767 was practically the same as that used by the Romans before the Christian era, and this type was still found in Europe in 1867. It was the only agricultural implement of France in the eleventh century, and of Sicily in 1863. In southern Greece many plows similar to those of the age of Pericles (450 B. C.) are still being used. Many of those in Russia are equally primitive, while the Spanish, South French and Italian forms resemble the Roman type. There was little improvement in the plow during the middle ages, perhaps largely on account of legislative restraint. Many popular prejudices also existed. In England, for example, after the farmers had experimented with iron plows of good construction, they concluded that the iron made the weeds grow; and in America iron plows were supposed to poison the soil and to prevent the growth of crops. It was not until the end of the seventeenth century that plows began to be improved. The moldboard was then made of iron and steel and given its proper form. While the plow was always essentially a wedgeshaped instrument forced through the soil to loosen it, these improvements perfected it so that the draft was reduced by one-third and the implement was also much more complete in its operation on the topsoil, which it gradually loosened, raised and completely turned over to one side. Coulters were known in England at least as early as the eleventh century. Fitzherbert writes of different kinds of plows for different soils in 1534. The date of the first English patent on this implement is 1720. The cast iron plow was first patented in the United States in 1797. A patent on an adjustable cast iron point in 1818 marks the introduction of the most useful economy in plow manufacture, the interchangeability of parts. Modern Plows are practically the same in principle as those described above. The only improvements which have been made are in minor details. The draft and friction have been reduced to a minimum, and forms have been invented which are best suited for different types of soil and for the application of different kinds of motor power. The common hand plow is undoubtedly most widely used, and the small farm rarely ever has any other. It is drawn by two horses. Another widely used form is the sulky plow, having two wheels to carry the beams, and a seat for the driver. Two or three horses are required. The acreage covered depends on the condition of the soil, and varies from one to two acres per day. These are the common forms used by all the large wheat raising countries. Another common type used on large farms is the gang plow, drawn by horses or steam. This is merely a number of common plows combined in one frame. A usual plow in the Red river valley is a gang cutting 16 inches in two furrows, drawn by five horses and turning 250 acres in from four to six weeks. Steam is not used, as mud was found to cut out the plow bearings when it was wet, and the expense of keeping horses is necessitated by other farming operations. In some parts of California, plows are set in gangs of as many as 14. They are drawn by eight mules, and plow three inches deep at the rate of 10 or 15 acres per day. A traction engine with large gangs of plows or discs is often used on the larger farms, accomplishing an enormous amount of work in a little time. Special forms of plows adapted to the use of a stationary engine have been evolved in Europe. The Fowler plow is perhaps the best known and most effective of these. It consists practically of eight turnover plows yoked together, and is capable of plowing 40 acres of land a day and accommodating itself to the most uneven ground. The electric plow of Austria is also worthy of mention. Time of Plowing.—In general, it may be said that in the spring wheat area of the United States, fall plowing slightly	1,584	ENGLISH	1
Since his meteoric life and tragic death, Hannibal Barca comes across the centuries as the military commander with few, if any equals. A courageous leader, brilliant tactician, and steadfast soldier in the service of his beloved Carthage, Hannibal existed for one sole purpose: to defeat and, if possible, to eliminate the power of Rome(Livy p. 207). Hannibals destiny was already chosen for him before his own birth. The only thing that couldnt have been foretold was the outcome of his struggles. His father Hamilcar Barca, another fearless commander from Carthage, was in charge during the first Punic War. Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help Hannibal was taken to Spain at the young age of only nine. There he was forced to swear hostility to Rome. From his fathers death to his own death Hannibal was constantly involved in a struggle between Carthage and Rome. Hannibal was placed in the army as soon as his father felt he was old enough to start his vigorous training. He learned to handle arms as skillfully as any soldier does, and he never asked his soldiers to do something that he himself could not do. In 221 BC, Hasdrubal was assassinated, and Hamilcar died in battle in 229 BC. The young Hannibal was given his first command, at the age of twenty-six. Hannibal was now the commander-in-chief, and the Carthaginian government ratified his position. He was a brilliant well-liked leader form the start. The veterans thought that in Hannibal, Hamilcar had returned to life. They noted the same energy in Hannibals face, the same keen glance. He was absolutely fearless in going into danger, very prudent when it was on hand. No amount of labor fatigued him, physically or mentally. He endured heat and cold very well. What time remained over when his tasks were done he gave to rest. Many times the soldiers saw him lying on the ground amid the outposts and the guards, wrapped in a military cloak(Miller et al Livy p. 41). Before the death of Hasdrubal, Carthage had negotiated a treaty with Rome to establish a line of Demarcation on the Ebro River. This treaty led to Hannibals first military action. Saguntum, which was located well south of the line, became the center of Roman ambitions. Saguntums leaders began attacking nearby Cartheginian allies and expelling supporters. The city of Saguntum was well inside the Carthaginian influence, but the Romans demanded that Carthage not take action at Sanguntum. Hannibal ignored Roman demands and decided to take action on the city. Hannibal organized his armies and threw a siege on Saguntum. The city was greatly reduced and Hannibal began his amazing trip over the Alps. According to H. L. Oerter of Miami University, Hannibals journey, including 40 elephants, over and through the Alps into Italy has never been denied. But, there has been no generalized agreement on the route that he followed. It is known that two Greek scholars accompanied Hannibals forces, but their accounts have never been found. A Roman army under the command of General Publius Cornelius Scipio was sent to meet and dispose of Hannibal, but failed to come across the great leader. Scipio did finally meet Hannibal at the Ticinus River. The meeting was accidental. Forces from both sides met, and the Carthaginians came out of the battle victorious. Scipio was badly wounded and nearly lost his life. The Romans retreated to Placentia, where Longus would reinforce them. Fighting on the left bank of the Trebia River the Romans were again soundly defeated. Hannibal advanced to the Arno River by spring. In 217 BC, Hannibal moved on to Perugia and forced the Roman Flaminius into open combat, at the battle of Lake Trasimene. The Carthaginians nearly annihilated Flaminius, killing thousands and forcing others to drown in the lake. Rome sent reinforcements to Flaminius but Carthage intercepted and destroyed them also. That same year Rome elected Quintus Fabius Maximus Cunctators dictator who adopted the Fabian tactic of delay. This tactic only allowed small skirmishes between the two armies. In 216, Hannibal made his move south and seized the army supply depot at Cannae on the Aufidus River. Here, in August, The Battle of Cannae was fought. While the Guals and Iberian infantry of Hannibals center line yielded before the drive of the numerically superior Roman infantry, the Libyan infantry and cavalry of Hannibals flanks stood fast, overlapped the Roman line, an in a rear encircling movement turned to pursue the victorious legionaries(Khalaf p. 2). This great land victory brought the desired effect, but Hannibal did not march on Rome and decided to spend the winter of 216-215 in Capua. Carthaginian fighting strength was beginning to weaken. Realizing this the Romans began to put the strategy suggested by Fabius into operation. Fabiuss suggestions consisted of: to defend the cities loyal to Rome; to try to recover, where opportunity offered it but rather to keep the Carthaginians alert in every theatre of war. Hannibal, due to inferior numbers wasnt able to spread his forces to match the Romans or throw his concentrated strength into a decisive battle, turned the tides from offensive to defensive in Italy. Hannibal gained only minor victories, except for the capture of Tarentum, for the next two years. In 213 Casilinum and Apri were recovered by the Romans, and in 211 Hannibal had to march to Capua to relieve the Roman siege. Despite his hurried march, Capua fell to the Romans before Hannibal could save the city. In that same year Syracuse fell, and in 209 Tarentum had also been recovered by the Romans. Roman success in Spain brought severe blows to Carthaginian power there. To save their territories in Italy, Hasdrubal assembled a force of soldiers from the main Carthaginian army to cross the Alps and come to Hannibals aid. Before the Carthaginian armies could meet, Hasdrubals army was defeated at Metaurus in Italy. Hannibals last hope of making a recovery in Italy was destroyed. Hannibal placed his forces in Bruttium, along with his remaining allies, to resist the Romans for 4 more years. Hannibal had to abandon Italy in 203, in order to save his country from Scipio Africanas. By the time Hannibal had arrived home, Carthage had already negotiated a peace treaty with Rome. When Hannibal arrived they violated the treaty for one last stance against the Romans. According to S. G. Khalaf accounts of the campaigns that followed differ greatly. Both Hannibal and Scipio, in order to link up with their respective Numidian allies, moved up the Bagradas River to the region of Zama Regia. Hannibal was now deficient in cavalry; the mercenary troops of his front line and the African infantry of his second line together were routed, and Scipio, seeing that Hannibals third line, the veteran soldiers, was still intact, reformed his front and brought up the Numinian cavalry of Masinissa, his Numidian ally, in the Carthaginian rear. Hannibal lost 20,00 men in defeat, but he himself escaped Masinissas pursuit. Scipio had won the battle of Zama. A treaty between Rome and Carthage was made within a year after the Battle. Although accused of having misconducted the war, he was made a suffete (a civil magistrate) and kept his military command. Hannibal soon became unpopular with a certain group of Carthaginian nobility and fled to the court of Antiochus at Ephesus, where Ephesus was planning to wage war against the Romans. Inexperienced Ephesus was defeated in his first two battles, and the Romans demanded that Hannibal surrender. When Hannibal heard of this he fled to either of two places: Crete to the court of King Prusias, or he joined the rebel forces in Armenia. Finally the Romans by unknown means got themselves into a position to demand the surrender of Hannibal. Hannibal was unable to escape this time, so he poisoned himself in the village of Libyssa. The year is uncertain, but it was probably 183. Hannibal throughout his life was a military genius. He had a great personality and was very persuasive. It was said that he could get any man to fight for him. Hannibal did what not many could do, defeat the Romans time and time again. His military victories brought him so close to beating the Romans, but he never had the chance to finally destroy Rome. His examples in war have sometimes been applied, with success, to destroy greater evils than he could have imagined or understood, In this sense, so longs as war remains an instrument of policy, he was a creator and not a destroyer(Cottrell p 248).	<urn:uuid:d1211fe7-5ff7-4d9c-b9b7-5ee66b7010d7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://benjaminbarber.org/hannibal-barca/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00481.warc.gz	en	0.982816	1,871	3.6875	4	[ -0.5463158488273621, 0.5828021764755249, 0.3814326226711273, -0.06927285343408585, -0.48194777965545654, -0.39510881900787354, 0.2964479923248291, 0.40716102719306946, 0.11051575839519501, -0.5028773546218872, 0.021340683102607727, -0.6776608228683472, 0.192567378282547, 0.4738113284111023...	1	Since his meteoric life and tragic death, Hannibal Barca comes across the centuries as the military commander with few, if any equals. A courageous leader, brilliant tactician, and steadfast soldier in the service of his beloved Carthage, Hannibal existed for one sole purpose: to defeat and, if possible, to eliminate the power of Rome(Livy p. 207). Hannibals destiny was already chosen for him before his own birth. The only thing that couldnt have been foretold was the outcome of his struggles. His father Hamilcar Barca, another fearless commander from Carthage, was in charge during the first Punic War. Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help Hannibal was taken to Spain at the young age of only nine. There he was forced to swear hostility to Rome. From his fathers death to his own death Hannibal was constantly involved in a struggle between Carthage and Rome. Hannibal was placed in the army as soon as his father felt he was old enough to start his vigorous training. He learned to handle arms as skillfully as any soldier does, and he never asked his soldiers to do something that he himself could not do. In 221 BC, Hasdrubal was assassinated, and Hamilcar died in battle in 229 BC. The young Hannibal was given his first command, at the age of twenty-six. Hannibal was now the commander-in-chief, and the Carthaginian government ratified his position. He was a brilliant well-liked leader form the start. The veterans thought that in Hannibal, Hamilcar had returned to life. They noted the same energy in Hannibals face, the same keen glance. He was absolutely fearless in going into danger, very prudent when it was on hand. No amount of labor fatigued him, physically or mentally. He endured heat and cold very well. What time remained over when his tasks were done he gave to rest. Many times the soldiers saw him lying on the ground amid the outposts and the guards, wrapped in a military cloak(Miller et al Livy p. 41). Before the death of Hasdrubal, Carthage had negotiated a treaty with Rome to establish a line of Demarcation on the Ebro River. This treaty led to Hannibals first military action. Saguntum, which was located well south of the line, became the center of Roman ambitions. Saguntums leaders began attacking nearby Cartheginian allies and expelling supporters. The city of Saguntum was well inside the Carthaginian influence, but the Romans demanded that Carthage not take action at Sanguntum. Hannibal ignored Roman demands and decided to take action on the city. Hannibal organized his armies and threw a siege on Saguntum. The city was greatly reduced and Hannibal began his amazing trip over the Alps. According to H. L. Oerter of Miami University, Hannibals journey, including 40 elephants, over and through the Alps into Italy has never been denied. But, there has been no generalized agreement on the route that he followed. It is known that two Greek scholars accompanied Hannibals forces, but their accounts have never been found. A Roman army under the command of General Publius Cornelius Scipio was sent to meet and dispose of Hannibal, but failed to come across the great leader. Scipio did finally meet Hannibal at the Ticinus River. The meeting was accidental. Forces from both sides met, and the Carthaginians came out of the battle victorious. Scipio was badly wounded and nearly lost his life. The Romans retreated to Placentia, where Longus would reinforce them. Fighting on the left bank of the Trebia River the Romans were again soundly defeated. Hannibal advanced to the Arno River by spring. In 217 BC, Hannibal moved on to Perugia and forced the Roman Flaminius into open combat, at the battle of Lake Trasimene. The Carthaginians nearly annihilated Flaminius, killing thousands and forcing others to drown in the lake. Rome sent reinforcements to Flaminius but Carthage intercepted and destroyed them also. That same year Rome elected Quintus Fabius Maximus Cunctators dictator who adopted the Fabian tactic of delay. This tactic only allowed small skirmishes between the two armies. In 216, Hannibal made his move south and seized the army supply depot at Cannae on the Aufidus River. Here, in August, The Battle of Cannae was fought. While the Guals and Iberian infantry of Hannibals center line yielded before the drive of the numerically superior Roman infantry, the Libyan infantry and cavalry of Hannibals flanks stood fast, overlapped the Roman line, an in a rear encircling movement turned to pursue the victorious legionaries(Khalaf p. 2). This great land victory brought the desired effect, but Hannibal did not march on Rome and decided to spend the winter of 216-215 in Capua. Carthaginian fighting strength was beginning to weaken. Realizing this the Romans began to put the strategy suggested by Fabius into operation. Fabiuss suggestions consisted of: to defend the cities loyal to Rome; to try to recover, where opportunity offered it but rather to keep the Carthaginians alert in every theatre of war. Hannibal, due to inferior numbers wasnt able to spread his forces to match the Romans or throw his concentrated strength into a decisive battle, turned the tides from offensive to defensive in Italy. Hannibal gained only minor victories, except for the capture of Tarentum, for the next two years. In 213 Casilinum and Apri were recovered by the Romans, and in 211 Hannibal had to march to Capua to relieve the Roman siege. Despite his hurried march, Capua fell to the Romans before Hannibal could save the city. In that same year Syracuse fell, and in 209 Tarentum had also been recovered by the Romans. Roman success in Spain brought severe blows to Carthaginian power there. To save their territories in Italy, Hasdrubal assembled a force of soldiers from the main Carthaginian army to cross the Alps and come to Hannibals aid. Before the Carthaginian armies could meet, Hasdrubals army was defeated at Metaurus in Italy. Hannibals last hope of making a recovery in Italy was destroyed. Hannibal placed his forces in Bruttium, along with his remaining allies, to resist the Romans for 4 more years. Hannibal had to abandon Italy in 203, in order to save his country from Scipio Africanas. By the time Hannibal had arrived home, Carthage had already negotiated a peace treaty with Rome. When Hannibal arrived they violated the treaty for one last stance against the Romans. According to S. G. Khalaf accounts of the campaigns that followed differ greatly. Both Hannibal and Scipio, in order to link up with their respective Numidian allies, moved up the Bagradas River to the region of Zama Regia. Hannibal was now deficient in cavalry; the mercenary troops of his front line and the African infantry of his second line together were routed, and Scipio, seeing that Hannibals third line, the veteran soldiers, was still intact, reformed his front and brought up the Numinian cavalry of Masinissa, his Numidian ally, in the Carthaginian rear. Hannibal lost 20,00 men in defeat, but he himself escaped Masinissas pursuit. Scipio had won the battle of Zama. A treaty between Rome and Carthage was made within a year after the Battle. Although accused of having misconducted the war, he was made a suffete (a civil magistrate) and kept his military command. Hannibal soon became unpopular with a certain group of Carthaginian nobility and fled to the court of Antiochus at Ephesus, where Ephesus was planning to wage war against the Romans. Inexperienced Ephesus was defeated in his first two battles, and the Romans demanded that Hannibal surrender. When Hannibal heard of this he fled to either of two places: Crete to the court of King Prusias, or he joined the rebel forces in Armenia. Finally the Romans by unknown means got themselves into a position to demand the surrender of Hannibal. Hannibal was unable to escape this time, so he poisoned himself in the village of Libyssa. The year is uncertain, but it was probably 183. Hannibal throughout his life was a military genius. He had a great personality and was very persuasive. It was said that he could get any man to fight for him. Hannibal did what not many could do, defeat the Romans time and time again. His military victories brought him so close to beating the Romans, but he never had the chance to finally destroy Rome. His examples in war have sometimes been applied, with success, to destroy greater evils than he could have imagined or understood, In this sense, so longs as war remains an instrument of policy, he was a creator and not a destroyer(Cottrell p 248).	1,947	ENGLISH	1
Pacific White-Sided Dolphin Facts: Wild and Captive Animals Wild and Rescued Dolphins Pacific white-sided dolphins are intelligent, playful, and very social animals. They live in large groups and often approach boats. They are interesting animals to observe in the wild. This article tells the story of both the wild dolphins and of two rescued ones named Helen and Hana. The duo were deemed unreleasable and were taken to the Vancouver Aquarium in British Columbia. The rescued dolphins at the aquarium were once a trio. Spinnaker (a male) died in 2012. In 2015, a sudden and tragic illness claimed the life of Hana, despite some very impressive attempts to keep her alive. Helen eventually gained a new companion. Chester was a rescued false killer whale who was also deemed unreleasable. He and Helen occupied the same tank for two years and seemed to develop a friendship. Sadly, Chester died in late 2017, leaving Helen alone again. Unfortunately, dolphins are kept in captivity in other aquariums and marine parks. Sometimes this is necessary because the animal has been injured. The rescued animal may no longer be able to survive in the wild, even after it has been treated. In my opinion, this is the only justification for keeping a dolphin in captivity. The scientific name of the Pacific white-sided dolphin is Lagenorhynchus obliquidens. Like other dolphins, porpoises, and whales, it belongs to the order Cetacea. The animals in this order are often referred to as cetaceans. An Attractive Animal Pacific white-sided dolphins live in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. Although their exact colouration varies, in general the animals have a black back, grey sides with a white or light grey stripe, and a white throat and belly. The dolphin's lips are black. The dorsal fin on the animal's back has a strong backwards curve and sometimes looks hooked. The fin is black on its upper portion and grey on the lower portion. The animal also has a pectoral fin on each side of its body. Some people prefer to call the pectoral fin a flipper, since unlike the fin of a fish it contains bones. The flipper bones resemble a short version of the bones in our upper arm, forearm, and fingers. This reminds us that whales are mammals, like us, and that their distant ancestors were land animals. The dolphin's tail is made of two lobes called flukes. Life in the Wild Pacific white-sided dolphins live in large groups that generally contain from ten to a hundred animals. They have also been observed in "supergroups", which may contain thousands of animals. They are sometimes seen in the company of other dolphin species or of whales. The dolphins frequently approach boats and ride on the bow waves. They are acrobatic and playful animals that often leap out of the water and do somersaults. Like other cetaceans, the dolphins breathe through a blowhole on top of their head and need to come to the surface periodically to obtain oxygen. They can stay submerged for up to six minutes. They communicate with each other by whistles as well as by touch. Evidence suggests that each animal has its own signature whistle. The animals feed on small fish and squid, which they find by echolocation. During this process, a dolphin emits high pitched sounds. The sound waves bounce off objects and return to the dolphin, giving them an impressive amount of information about their environment. This information includes the location of an object as well as its shape, density, speed, and distance. The dolphins are often seen herding fish as they hunt. Pacific white-sided dolphins reach sexual maturity between the ages of seven and ten. The gestation period is twelve months. There seems to be a three to five year interval between births. The Vancouver Aquarium The Vancouver Aquarium is located in Stanley Park, which is located near downtown Vancouver. The aquarium is a non-profit organization dedicated to education, research, and conservation. It actively participates in all these areas. It's a popular institution for schools, tourists, and local people. Like many other facilities that house marine mammals, the aquarium often faces criticism from animal rights activists for keeping intelligent and sentient beings like cetaceans in captivity. The aquarium has evolved over the years, however. Since 1996, it has no longer captured wild cetaceans. Any cetaceans that it has obtained have been either rescued animals that lack the skills to survive in the wild or animals born in other facilities. Some of the rescued animals have come from the aquarium's Marine Mammal Rescue Centre, which helps local animals in distress and releases them back into the wild whenever possible. Another factor that draws the ire of animal rights activists is the death of a cetacean from anything other than old age. There have been a number of these deaths at the aquarium in recent years. The survival of whale and dolphin calves has been a particular problem. I have no doubt that the aquarium staff care deeply for their charges, as I've often observed. It's unnaturał for a marine mammal to spend its life in a restricted area that gives them little to do, however. It's hard to imagine that this doesn't affect their health and resilience. Spinnaker, Hana, and Helen Spinnaker, Hana, and Helen were rescued by a Japanese institution after becoming entangled in fishing nets. They were declared unreleasable due to their injuries. The pectoral fins on the sides of Helen's body were partially amputated as a result of her entanglement in the net. Rumours persist that the dolphins were actually injured in the annual Taiji dolphin drive, a horrible event in which the animals are caught for food and trapped for dolphinaria. The aquarium adamantly denies that this is true and says that Helen was rescued thousands of miles away from Taiji. Spinnaker, the only male in the group, died in 2012 after a lengthy illness. He was about twenty-five when he died. Hana lived for around twenty-one years. Helen is probably a little over thirty years old. The maximum lifespan of Pacific white-sided dolphins is thought to be somewhere in the forties. Helen and Hana performed in shows, as shown in the video below. Like the aquarium's policy on obtaining animals, the cetacean shows have evolved over the years. The animals no longer perform showy and unnatural tricks. The behaviours that they do exhibit during a show are ones that they perform in the wild. In the video below, Helen and Hanna perform at the Vancouver Aquarium. Hana's Illness and Death On Monday, May 18th, 2015, staff members noticed that Hana was behaving abnormally. The aquarium's head veterinarian was contacted. With the assistance of "one of the world's top dolphin radiologists", the vet diagnosed gastrointestinal distention and inflammation. This is a condition that is known to progress rapidly and to be life threatening. As Hana's condition worsened, the vet gathered together dolphin medical experts from around North America. They decided that the only treatment that had any hope of saving Hana's life was to perform the world's first intestinal surgery on a Pacific white-sided dolphin under general anesthesia. Against all odds, Hana survived the surgery, which was performed on the Thursday evening of the week in which her illness was discovered. By Saturday morning she was showing some signs of improvement. Sadly, on Sunday morning her condition began to deteriorate. She died on Sunday evening. The cause of Hana's death was reported to be a gastrointestinal illness. Helen never showed signs of the disorder. A post mortem exam showed that the passageway where Hana's small intestine joined her large intestine was unusually narrow, which is thought to have contributed to her problem. Helen's Life on Her Own Shortly after Hana's death, I visited the aquarium and observed Helen. Every time she was at the water's surface in the shallow pool, she repeatedly lifted her head out of the water with a jerk while opening and closing her mouth. Her behaviour suggested that she had just regurgitated food. Each time I returned to Helen's tank after looking at other animals she was still performing this odd behaviour. It looked very much like the repetitive actions that some captive animals perform under stress. Regurgitation and playing with the regurgitated food is a known indicator of boredom in captive cetaceans. Interestingly, I discovered a YouTube video showing the same behaviour taking place while Hana was alive. Both dolphins were in the small pool, even though the big tank was (presumably) available to them. I find it so sad that even then the dolphins were behaving in a way that suggested that they were bored. The video is shown below. I think that the aquarium is a wonderful educational resource. There is far more to see there than just marine mammals. I also applaud the aquarium's rescue and research efforts. I think that much more needs to be done to support the mammals that live at the aquarium, however. They need to have more space, more enrichment with respect to activities, and a better life. How Could the Problem of Cetaceans in Captivity Be Solved? The problem of eliminating the keeping of cetaceans in captivity or of improving their lives is not as easy as it sounds. The following methods have been suggested with respect to the Vancouver Aquarium's cetacean population. Attrition: Some people have suggested that the aquarium's cetacean population should be removed by attrition. According to this plan, after each animal dies, no replacement would be brought into the aquarium. The problem with this idea is that the last animals would probably have an unhappy existence, since they would have no company. Cetaceans are social animals. Transfer: Another suggestion has been to transfer whales and dolphins to larger facilities which have more animals. This would solve the problem of the lonely lives led by the last Vancouver animals. One possible problem is that in larger captive populations more breeding would occur, potentially increasing the size of the captive population. Still, the transfer could improve the lives of the Vancouver Aquarium cetaceans. Enhanced Habitat: The aquarium's current cetacean habitats could be expanded and enhanced. Getting permission to expand further into Stanley Park—a major and much loved tourist attraction—is always difficult, however. In addition, some people worry that if the aquarium expands it will obtain more cetaceans. This is another controversial topic. From one perspective, obtaining more Pacific white-sided dolphins would be good, since it would create a more natural community for Helen. The dolphins would need much more space to enable them to live a reasonably happy life, however. Rehabilitation and Release: It's been proposed that the cetaceans presently at the aquarium be released into the wild. This is not really a viable option. It would be very difficult to teach a cetacean that has been raised in captivity how to survive in the wild, even if we knew all the things that the animal needed to learn. The Marine Mammal Rescue Centre does rehabilitate and release cetaceans and other marine mammals, but all of these animals were rescued as adults or are able to survive in the wild. While it's true that Helen was rescued as an adult, she was deemed unreleasable in Japan due to her damaged pectoral fins. Other ideas are being investigated to help rescued cetaceans and the problem of keeping them in captivity. One is the use of birth control drugs for captive cetaceans. Another is the creation of large sea pens to protect rescued animals and let them live a somewhat normal life. Chester and Helen In July 2014, the aquarium's Marine Mammal Rescue Centre rescued a young false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens). He was stranded in shallow water on Chesterman Beach in Tofino, Vancouver Island, and was named Chester. He was only four to six weeks old when he was found. Chester was injured, in distress, and abandoned. After receiving intensive care, Chester recovered well. However, he lacked important survival skills that he would normally have learned from his mother and other members of his species. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (a government organization) declared that Chester was unreleasable due to his lack of skills. The Vancouver Aquarium says that false killer whales and Pacific white-sided dolphins have lived together successfully in other facilities. They decided to place Chester in Helen's habitat so that each animal would have company. The original plan was for Chester, Helen, and Hana to live together. The aquarium staff introduced the animals with caution, allowing limited interaction at first, and were prepared to separate them if there was a problem. The animals accepted each other's presence, however. Personal Observations Made Shortly After the Introduction Helen was introduced to Chester in July 2015. Based on my observations made during a visit to the aquarium soon after the introduction, the two animals were already reasonably comfortable with each other's presence in the same tank. They came very close together when being fed but not when they were left on their own. They were still getting to know each other, though. One of the aquarium staff said that the relationship between the two cetaceans was changing daily. It was an exciting time. I was very happy to see that even when Helen voluntarily stayed alone in the smaller tank, she seemed much happier than on my last visit. She didn't exhibit any stereotypical behaviour and even seemed to be looking at visitors with interest. Chester was treated with care after he was placed in the tank. The area right next to the windows of the underground viewing area was roped off and monitored by a staff member during my visit. This prevented Chester from being upset by actions such as people tapping on the glass. Far from being upset, he seemed to be curious about all the people watching him and posed very nicely for photographs. In the video below, Helen and Chester perform at the Vancouver Aquarium. Helen gave a short and simplified performance during my July 2015 visit. It seemed that not much was being asked of her, which was nice to see. The performance was based on her natural behaviours. Chester already followed some instructions. When asked to do so, he opened his mouth to get his tongue patted and teeth rubbed, turned upside down to show his undersurface, and swam to a different trainer łocated nearby. The video above was recorded in January 2016 and shows a more active performance by Helen. On a more recent visit to the aquarium, I saw that Chester had been taught a wider range of behaviours on command, although they were still natural ones. An Unnatural Life Helen and Chester eventually did more more than simply tolerate each other. They often swam beside one other, which is a sign of socialization. Their relationship seemed to be going well. I was happy that each of them had a companion. Their situation was not ideal, however. I was concerned about the amount of space that the animals would have in the future, especially when Chester was fully grown. Two animals is nowhere near a big enough community for either Helen's species or Chester's. Pacific-white sided dolphins form close knit groups in the wild. As some people have said, it's impossible for even the best aquarium or marine park to give cetaceans a truly natural life. In the wild, Pacific white-sided dolphins travel unimpeded for long distances and in large groups in their search for food. They frequently vocalize or interact with each other in some way, creating a rich social life. This situation can't be replicated in captivity. For rescued animals, though, we need to do the best that we can. Chester died in November 2017. His behaviour suddenly changed and he died within a few days of showing symptoms. A necropsy showed that he had an infection caused by a bacterium named Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae. This probably caused his death, although this isn't known for certain. Helen received antibiotics and has shown no signs of Chester's infection. In January 2018, the aquarium announced that they would no longer house captive whales, dolphins, or porpoises, except for providing temporary care for rescued animals. They also announced that their current priority is "doing what is best" for Helen. Her partial flippers mean that she can't be released into the wild. In addition, she has lived in captivity for a long time and is considered to be a senior citizen with respect to the lifespan of her species. The aquarium has said that they would like her to have companionship, but that the situation is "complicated". In June 2019, the aquarium said they hoped to move Helen to a facility that has companions for her by the end of 2019. According to the organization's website, however, Helen is still living there. I hope she is reasonably content. I also hope that if she is finally moved the transfer goes well and that she enjoys her new home. - Facts about the Pacific white-sided dolphin from the Vancouver Aquarium - Lagenorhynchus obliquidens information from the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) - An announcement about Hana's surgery and death from The Globe and Mail - Chester the false killer whale will stay at the aquarium: an article from the Vancouver Sun newspaper - A report about Chester's death from the CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation) - An announcement that the Vancouver Aquarium will no longer keep cetaceans from Global TV BC - Vancouver Aquarium to move last dolphin out from The Star newspaper Questions & Answers © 2015 Linda Crampton	<urn:uuid:68fd8eff-2851-4113-b736-252f943cc3f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://owlcation.com/stem/Pacific-White-Sided-Dolphins-Wild-Rescued-and-Captive	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00113.warc.gz	en	0.980775	3,671	3.375	3	[ -0.06557812541723251, -0.06195605546236038, 0.04024920612573624, 0.06671828031539917, 0.09150348603725433, 0.318653404712677, 0.3013029992580414, 0.3553982079029083, 0.44014060497283936, 0.21712569892406464, 0.27554982900619507, -0.7244319319725037, 0.13021963834762573, 0.34615516662597656...	2	Pacific White-Sided Dolphin Facts: Wild and Captive Animals Wild and Rescued Dolphins Pacific white-sided dolphins are intelligent, playful, and very social animals. They live in large groups and often approach boats. They are interesting animals to observe in the wild. This article tells the story of both the wild dolphins and of two rescued ones named Helen and Hana. The duo were deemed unreleasable and were taken to the Vancouver Aquarium in British Columbia. The rescued dolphins at the aquarium were once a trio. Spinnaker (a male) died in 2012. In 2015, a sudden and tragic illness claimed the life of Hana, despite some very impressive attempts to keep her alive. Helen eventually gained a new companion. Chester was a rescued false killer whale who was also deemed unreleasable. He and Helen occupied the same tank for two years and seemed to develop a friendship. Sadly, Chester died in late 2017, leaving Helen alone again. Unfortunately, dolphins are kept in captivity in other aquariums and marine parks. Sometimes this is necessary because the animal has been injured. The rescued animal may no longer be able to survive in the wild, even after it has been treated. In my opinion, this is the only justification for keeping a dolphin in captivity. The scientific name of the Pacific white-sided dolphin is Lagenorhynchus obliquidens. Like other dolphins, porpoises, and whales, it belongs to the order Cetacea. The animals in this order are often referred to as cetaceans. An Attractive Animal Pacific white-sided dolphins live in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. Although their exact colouration varies, in general the animals have a black back, grey sides with a white or light grey stripe, and a white throat and belly. The dolphin's lips are black. The dorsal fin on the animal's back has a strong backwards curve and sometimes looks hooked. The fin is black on its upper portion and grey on the lower portion. The animal also has a pectoral fin on each side of its body. Some people prefer to call the pectoral fin a flipper, since unlike the fin of a fish it contains bones. The flipper bones resemble a short version of the bones in our upper arm, forearm, and fingers. This reminds us that whales are mammals, like us, and that their distant ancestors were land animals. The dolphin's tail is made of two lobes called flukes. Life in the Wild Pacific white-sided dolphins live in large groups that generally contain from ten to a hundred animals. They have also been observed in "supergroups", which may contain thousands of animals. They are sometimes seen in the company of other dolphin species or of whales. The dolphins frequently approach boats and ride on the bow waves. They are acrobatic and playful animals that often leap out of the water and do somersaults. Like other cetaceans, the dolphins breathe through a blowhole on top of their head and need to come to the surface periodically to obtain oxygen. They can stay submerged for up to six minutes. They communicate with each other by whistles as well as by touch. Evidence suggests that each animal has its own signature whistle. The animals feed on small fish and squid, which they find by echolocation. During this process, a dolphin emits high pitched sounds. The sound waves bounce off objects and return to the dolphin, giving them an impressive amount of information about their environment. This information includes the location of an object as well as its shape, density, speed, and distance. The dolphins are often seen herding fish as they hunt. Pacific white-sided dolphins reach sexual maturity between the ages of seven and ten. The gestation period is twelve months. There seems to be a three to five year interval between births. The Vancouver Aquarium The Vancouver Aquarium is located in Stanley Park, which is located near downtown Vancouver. The aquarium is a non-profit organization dedicated to education, research, and conservation. It actively participates in all these areas. It's a popular institution for schools, tourists, and local people. Like many other facilities that house marine mammals, the aquarium often faces criticism from animal rights activists for keeping intelligent and sentient beings like cetaceans in captivity. The aquarium has evolved over the years, however. Since 1996, it has no longer captured wild cetaceans. Any cetaceans that it has obtained have been either rescued animals that lack the skills to survive in the wild or animals born in other facilities. Some of the rescued animals have come from the aquarium's Marine Mammal Rescue Centre, which helps local animals in distress and releases them back into the wild whenever possible. Another factor that draws the ire of animal rights activists is the death of a cetacean from anything other than old age. There have been a number of these deaths at the aquarium in recent years. The survival of whale and dolphin calves has been a particular problem. I have no doubt that the aquarium staff care deeply for their charges, as I've often observed. It's unnaturał for a marine mammal to spend its life in a restricted area that gives them little to do, however. It's hard to imagine that this doesn't affect their health and resilience. Spinnaker, Hana, and Helen Spinnaker, Hana, and Helen were rescued by a Japanese institution after becoming entangled in fishing nets. They were declared unreleasable due to their injuries. The pectoral fins on the sides of Helen's body were partially amputated as a result of her entanglement in the net. Rumours persist that the dolphins were actually injured in the annual Taiji dolphin drive, a horrible event in which the animals are caught for food and trapped for dolphinaria. The aquarium adamantly denies that this is true and says that Helen was rescued thousands of miles away from Taiji. Spinnaker, the only male in the group, died in 2012 after a lengthy illness. He was about twenty-five when he died. Hana lived for around twenty-one years. Helen is probably a little over thirty years old. The maximum lifespan of Pacific white-sided dolphins is thought to be somewhere in the forties. Helen and Hana performed in shows, as shown in the video below. Like the aquarium's policy on obtaining animals, the cetacean shows have evolved over the years. The animals no longer perform showy and unnatural tricks. The behaviours that they do exhibit during a show are ones that they perform in the wild. In the video below, Helen and Hanna perform at the Vancouver Aquarium. Hana's Illness and Death On Monday, May 18th, 2015, staff members noticed that Hana was behaving abnormally. The aquarium's head veterinarian was contacted. With the assistance of "one of the world's top dolphin radiologists", the vet diagnosed gastrointestinal distention and inflammation. This is a condition that is known to progress rapidly and to be life threatening. As Hana's condition worsened, the vet gathered together dolphin medical experts from around North America. They decided that the only treatment that had any hope of saving Hana's life was to perform the world's first intestinal surgery on a Pacific white-sided dolphin under general anesthesia. Against all odds, Hana survived the surgery, which was performed on the Thursday evening of the week in which her illness was discovered. By Saturday morning she was showing some signs of improvement. Sadly, on Sunday morning her condition began to deteriorate. She died on Sunday evening. The cause of Hana's death was reported to be a gastrointestinal illness. Helen never showed signs of the disorder. A post mortem exam showed that the passageway where Hana's small intestine joined her large intestine was unusually narrow, which is thought to have contributed to her problem. Helen's Life on Her Own Shortly after Hana's death, I visited the aquarium and observed Helen. Every time she was at the water's surface in the shallow pool, she repeatedly lifted her head out of the water with a jerk while opening and closing her mouth. Her behaviour suggested that she had just regurgitated food. Each time I returned to Helen's tank after looking at other animals she was still performing this odd behaviour. It looked very much like the repetitive actions that some captive animals perform under stress. Regurgitation and playing with the regurgitated food is a known indicator of boredom in captive cetaceans. Interestingly, I discovered a YouTube video showing the same behaviour taking place while Hana was alive. Both dolphins were in the small pool, even though the big tank was (presumably) available to them. I find it so sad that even then the dolphins were behaving in a way that suggested that they were bored. The video is shown below. I think that the aquarium is a wonderful educational resource. There is far more to see there than just marine mammals. I also applaud the aquarium's rescue and research efforts. I think that much more needs to be done to support the mammals that live at the aquarium, however. They need to have more space, more enrichment with respect to activities, and a better life. How Could the Problem of Cetaceans in Captivity Be Solved? The problem of eliminating the keeping of cetaceans in captivity or of improving their lives is not as easy as it sounds. The following methods have been suggested with respect to the Vancouver Aquarium's cetacean population. Attrition: Some people have suggested that the aquarium's cetacean population should be removed by attrition. According to this plan, after each animal dies, no replacement would be brought into the aquarium. The problem with this idea is that the last animals would probably have an unhappy existence, since they would have no company. Cetaceans are social animals. Transfer: Another suggestion has been to transfer whales and dolphins to larger facilities which have more animals. This would solve the problem of the lonely lives led by the last Vancouver animals. One possible problem is that in larger captive populations more breeding would occur, potentially increasing the size of the captive population. Still, the transfer could improve the lives of the Vancouver Aquarium cetaceans. Enhanced Habitat: The aquarium's current cetacean habitats could be expanded and enhanced. Getting permission to expand further into Stanley Park—a major and much loved tourist attraction—is always difficult, however. In addition, some people worry that if the aquarium expands it will obtain more cetaceans. This is another controversial topic. From one perspective, obtaining more Pacific white-sided dolphins would be good, since it would create a more natural community for Helen. The dolphins would need much more space to enable them to live a reasonably happy life, however. Rehabilitation and Release: It's been proposed that the cetaceans presently at the aquarium be released into the wild. This is not really a viable option. It would be very difficult to teach a cetacean that has been raised in captivity how to survive in the wild, even if we knew all the things that the animal needed to learn. The Marine Mammal Rescue Centre does rehabilitate and release cetaceans and other marine mammals, but all of these animals were rescued as adults or are able to survive in the wild. While it's true that Helen was rescued as an adult, she was deemed unreleasable in Japan due to her damaged pectoral fins. Other ideas are being investigated to help rescued cetaceans and the problem of keeping them in captivity. One is the use of birth control drugs for captive cetaceans. Another is the creation of large sea pens to protect rescued animals and let them live a somewhat normal life. Chester and Helen In July 2014, the aquarium's Marine Mammal Rescue Centre rescued a young false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens). He was stranded in shallow water on Chesterman Beach in Tofino, Vancouver Island, and was named Chester. He was only four to six weeks old when he was found. Chester was injured, in distress, and abandoned. After receiving intensive care, Chester recovered well. However, he lacked important survival skills that he would normally have learned from his mother and other members of his species. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (a government organization) declared that Chester was unreleasable due to his lack of skills. The Vancouver Aquarium says that false killer whales and Pacific white-sided dolphins have lived together successfully in other facilities. They decided to place Chester in Helen's habitat so that each animal would have company. The original plan was for Chester, Helen, and Hana to live together. The aquarium staff introduced the animals with caution, allowing limited interaction at first, and were prepared to separate them if there was a problem. The animals accepted each other's presence, however. Personal Observations Made Shortly After the Introduction Helen was introduced to Chester in July 2015. Based on my observations made during a visit to the aquarium soon after the introduction, the two animals were already reasonably comfortable with each other's presence in the same tank. They came very close together when being fed but not when they were left on their own. They were still getting to know each other, though. One of the aquarium staff said that the relationship between the two cetaceans was changing daily. It was an exciting time. I was very happy to see that even when Helen voluntarily stayed alone in the smaller tank, she seemed much happier than on my last visit. She didn't exhibit any stereotypical behaviour and even seemed to be looking at visitors with interest. Chester was treated with care after he was placed in the tank. The area right next to the windows of the underground viewing area was roped off and monitored by a staff member during my visit. This prevented Chester from being upset by actions such as people tapping on the glass. Far from being upset, he seemed to be curious about all the people watching him and posed very nicely for photographs. In the video below, Helen and Chester perform at the Vancouver Aquarium. Helen gave a short and simplified performance during my July 2015 visit. It seemed that not much was being asked of her, which was nice to see. The performance was based on her natural behaviours. Chester already followed some instructions. When asked to do so, he opened his mouth to get his tongue patted and teeth rubbed, turned upside down to show his undersurface, and swam to a different trainer łocated nearby. The video above was recorded in January 2016 and shows a more active performance by Helen. On a more recent visit to the aquarium, I saw that Chester had been taught a wider range of behaviours on command, although they were still natural ones. An Unnatural Life Helen and Chester eventually did more more than simply tolerate each other. They often swam beside one other, which is a sign of socialization. Their relationship seemed to be going well. I was happy that each of them had a companion. Their situation was not ideal, however. I was concerned about the amount of space that the animals would have in the future, especially when Chester was fully grown. Two animals is nowhere near a big enough community for either Helen's species or Chester's. Pacific-white sided dolphins form close knit groups in the wild. As some people have said, it's impossible for even the best aquarium or marine park to give cetaceans a truly natural life. In the wild, Pacific white-sided dolphins travel unimpeded for long distances and in large groups in their search for food. They frequently vocalize or interact with each other in some way, creating a rich social life. This situation can't be replicated in captivity. For rescued animals, though, we need to do the best that we can. Chester died in November 2017. His behaviour suddenly changed and he died within a few days of showing symptoms. A necropsy showed that he had an infection caused by a bacterium named Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae. This probably caused his death, although this isn't known for certain. Helen received antibiotics and has shown no signs of Chester's infection. In January 2018, the aquarium announced that they would no longer house captive whales, dolphins, or porpoises, except for providing temporary care for rescued animals. They also announced that their current priority is "doing what is best" for Helen. Her partial flippers mean that she can't be released into the wild. In addition, she has lived in captivity for a long time and is considered to be a senior citizen with respect to the lifespan of her species. The aquarium has said that they would like her to have companionship, but that the situation is "complicated". In June 2019, the aquarium said they hoped to move Helen to a facility that has companions for her by the end of 2019. According to the organization's website, however, Helen is still living there. I hope she is reasonably content. I also hope that if she is finally moved the transfer goes well and that she enjoys her new home. - Facts about the Pacific white-sided dolphin from the Vancouver Aquarium - Lagenorhynchus obliquidens information from the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) - An announcement about Hana's surgery and death from The Globe and Mail - Chester the false killer whale will stay at the aquarium: an article from the Vancouver Sun newspaper - A report about Chester's death from the CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation) - An announcement that the Vancouver Aquarium will no longer keep cetaceans from Global TV BC - Vancouver Aquarium to move last dolphin out from The Star newspaper Questions & Answers © 2015 Linda Crampton	3,636	ENGLISH	1
This year, my class has been doing rocketry. It is very fun and interesting because you get to learn about rockets including launching and building them. But, through all this fun, you also need to work together with your group and you need to agree on what your rocket is going to look like. First, you need to design your rocket, then you need to build it. Finally, when you feel satisfied with your rocket, you can launch it. But, it takes a lot of work to do that so even though it’s fun, it’s hard work, too. Before we could design and build our rocket, we had to research about what would make a good rocket. We looked at websites, videos, diagrams, and more. We learned about the forces that impact rocket flight such as lift, thrust, weight, and drag. Lift is an upward force that makes the rocket shoot into the sky, for this we used a bike pump. Thrust is used to overcome the weight of the rocket, as it keeps it going through the sky. The air that is inside the rocket after the bike pump shoots it up, creates this. Weight is a force that makes the rocket fall to the ground because of gravity. Drag is a force that opposes the force of thrust. Therefore, thrust must be greater than drag. This helped us design our rocket because after researching, we then knew that we should try to make the rocket as light as possible so that the weight isn’t greater than drag. My group in rocketry had trouble designing our 1st rocket because everyone wanted to do something different. But we chose a design that looked like it would be the most successful and started discussing things like how wide our rocket should be, and what our fins and nose cone should look like. When we actually started designing rocket 1, we realized that we wouldn’t be able to build it like we had talked about. So, we made some changes, and made it more realistic. We had a tall nose cone so that it could cut through the air, a thin body tube so that the air that would push the rocket up was more compressed, and 3 medium sized fins that would make the air deflect off our rocket. When our design was finished, we started building our rocket. To make our body, we took the skinnier PVC pipe and wrapped thick paper around it pretty tightly, but loose enough so that the pipe could come out again. Then we taped the ends of the paper that we had just rolled up together, and our rocket body was finished. To make our fins, we made a fin template that would show what size our fins would be. We made them out of cardboard. Then we measured where our fins would be. We all wanted to glue them on, so we each glued one fin on, and then the person who didn’t get to glue one on, glued the nose cone on. Finally, we hot glued them on to make them stable. Then we had to make our nose cone. We made 2 nose cones out of thick paper and taped them together so that it was taller. Then, we wrapped it in tinfoil so that the air would slide off that rocket more. Lastly, we hot glued it on so that it wouldn’t pop off. And, finally, our 1st rocket was finished! Our finished rocket.	<urn:uuid:40a23bd9-3cd6-449f-9e17-a54bb2d09b94>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://blogs.scarsdaleschools.org/anicassio27/category/science/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00286.warc.gz	en	0.981941	690	3.734375	4	[ -0.33460110425949097, -0.1557450294494629, 0.2041795551776886, -0.1818433403968811, -0.7525925040245056, 0.36902666091918945, -0.1116870567202568, 0.24656721949577332, -0.006353122182190418, -0.11629612743854523, 0.012852625921368599, -0.07733657956123352, 0.22802355885505676, 0.2972717285...	4	This year, my class has been doing rocketry. It is very fun and interesting because you get to learn about rockets including launching and building them. But, through all this fun, you also need to work together with your group and you need to agree on what your rocket is going to look like. First, you need to design your rocket, then you need to build it. Finally, when you feel satisfied with your rocket, you can launch it. But, it takes a lot of work to do that so even though it’s fun, it’s hard work, too. Before we could design and build our rocket, we had to research about what would make a good rocket. We looked at websites, videos, diagrams, and more. We learned about the forces that impact rocket flight such as lift, thrust, weight, and drag. Lift is an upward force that makes the rocket shoot into the sky, for this we used a bike pump. Thrust is used to overcome the weight of the rocket, as it keeps it going through the sky. The air that is inside the rocket after the bike pump shoots it up, creates this. Weight is a force that makes the rocket fall to the ground because of gravity. Drag is a force that opposes the force of thrust. Therefore, thrust must be greater than drag. This helped us design our rocket because after researching, we then knew that we should try to make the rocket as light as possible so that the weight isn’t greater than drag. My group in rocketry had trouble designing our 1st rocket because everyone wanted to do something different. But we chose a design that looked like it would be the most successful and started discussing things like how wide our rocket should be, and what our fins and nose cone should look like. When we actually started designing rocket 1, we realized that we wouldn’t be able to build it like we had talked about. So, we made some changes, and made it more realistic. We had a tall nose cone so that it could cut through the air, a thin body tube so that the air that would push the rocket up was more compressed, and 3 medium sized fins that would make the air deflect off our rocket. When our design was finished, we started building our rocket. To make our body, we took the skinnier PVC pipe and wrapped thick paper around it pretty tightly, but loose enough so that the pipe could come out again. Then we taped the ends of the paper that we had just rolled up together, and our rocket body was finished. To make our fins, we made a fin template that would show what size our fins would be. We made them out of cardboard. Then we measured where our fins would be. We all wanted to glue them on, so we each glued one fin on, and then the person who didn’t get to glue one on, glued the nose cone on. Finally, we hot glued them on to make them stable. Then we had to make our nose cone. We made 2 nose cones out of thick paper and taped them together so that it was taller. Then, we wrapped it in tinfoil so that the air would slide off that rocket more. Lastly, we hot glued it on so that it wouldn’t pop off. And, finally, our 1st rocket was finished! Our finished rocket.	680	ENGLISH	1
This term we have been looking at artists from the Renaissance period, paying particular attention to those who were active during the reign of The Tudors. We have looked at Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Holbein in particular. We have enjoyed using pastels, pencil and water colours to recreate snapshots of some of their most famous paintings. We also used their influence in our own portraits of each other. We really enjoyed studying and interpreting Hans Holbein the Younger's paintings. 'The Ambassadors' even linked with our maths topic on division! Holbein was famous for his portraits of Tudor nobility, most notably his portrait of Henry VIII. We found out his father, Hans Holbein the Elder, was also a Renaissance painter and studied his painting of the nativity 'Kaisheimer Altar: Geburt Christi'. We used this painting as inspiration for our Christmas cards.	<urn:uuid:e8c0424f-45e6-44a2-8c15-4198d5ec09ff>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dukenorfolk.co.uk/art-9/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00126.warc.gz	en	0.987727	182	3.34375	3	[ -0.16140227019786835, 0.3438892960548401, -0.1413654088973999, -0.06567788869142532, -0.09211428463459015, -0.005875675473362207, 0.2080991417169571, 0.2726733684539795, -0.042386237531900406, 0.016722455620765686, -0.08410638570785522, -0.5387301445007324, -0.04404079541563988, 0.23500649...	10	This term we have been looking at artists from the Renaissance period, paying particular attention to those who were active during the reign of The Tudors. We have looked at Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Holbein in particular. We have enjoyed using pastels, pencil and water colours to recreate snapshots of some of their most famous paintings. We also used their influence in our own portraits of each other. We really enjoyed studying and interpreting Hans Holbein the Younger's paintings. 'The Ambassadors' even linked with our maths topic on division! Holbein was famous for his portraits of Tudor nobility, most notably his portrait of Henry VIII. We found out his father, Hans Holbein the Elder, was also a Renaissance painter and studied his painting of the nativity 'Kaisheimer Altar: Geburt Christi'. We used this painting as inspiration for our Christmas cards.	181	ENGLISH	1
101 years ago, today. At 11am, on November 11, 1918, World War 1 ended. Or as many historians claim, phase 1 of WW1 ended. Phase 2 became known as WW2. The following text and photos are about one of the allies main artillery weapons, and the modelling of it by reader Robert Irving, of NSW. The 1916 Vickers 8” Howitzer. The United Kingdom entered WWI with its traditional lack of preparedness. Defence funds had been lavished on the Royal Navy to maintain the ‘Two Fleet’ policy, whereby Britain could deter attack by having a fleet more effective than the combined force of the world’s next two largest navies. The Kaiser wanted a fleet to rival his cousin Edward’s and later cousin Georges. The ensuing arms race drained the tax revenue leaving little in the budget for the army. The army was still equipping itself for mobile warfare after the needs of the Boar War and had a good supply of very mobile light field artillery, very few machine guns and an inadequate inventory of mobile heavy guns. The failure of the Schlieffen plan to take Paris and the channel ports, against stubborn resistance, resulted in the continuous trenches from the channel to Switzerland. German policy was to build a strong defensible line and hold their gains. To this end they employed their normal thorough approach and by 1916 had fortified their numerous layers of trenches with deep concrete dugouts to give protection and a modicum of comfort to their frontline forces. They had also retreated to gain the tactical advantage of high ground where applicable. France and Britain, understandably had an offensive policy and didn’t build strong or comfortable trenches. Break through, then attack with cavalry thinking dominated strategy and tactics . Germany began attacking the Verdun Forts in late February 1916. General Falkenhayns stated objective being to “Bleed France Dry”and this they were close to achieving. The British were rushed into the long planned attack between Serre and Montauban, nine miles of front, to relieve pressure on the French. The French were to attack on the British right flank, though this was scaled down due to the huge losses at Verdun. The British attack plus the diversionary attack at Gommecourt were together, known as the Big Push. This being the first major attack by Field Marshal Kitchener’s Volunteer Army, morale was at peak, despite the average three months the new battalions had spent rotating through front line duty; the sector was a quiet one. In August 1915 the Vickers 8” Howitzer was approved however an order for 50 was not placed until March 1916 and delivery began in July 1916. The Howitzer fired a 91kg, 8” diameter shell a maximum distance of 11,000 yards, it’s trajectory was high and therefore it gave plunging fire, ideal, with appropriate fusing, to penetrate deep dugouts. There were a few makeshift large calibre pieces in operation in June 1916 but these were thinly spread along the nine mile front, they were mainly stopgap weapons made by modifying old naval guns. The Royal Field Artillery staple weapon was the quick firing 18 pounder, firing a projectile weighing 8kg with a range of 6500 yards. The attack was scheduled for the morning of July 1st and preliminary bombardment began one week earlier. Huge stocks of shrapnel and high explosive shell for the 18 pounders were in place, far fewer heavy shells were available. The plan was that the new spigot mortar, firing a basketball sized high explosive projectile, together with the 18 pounders would break up the fields of barbed wire and kill sufficient front line defenders to make the 100yard to one mile crossing of no-mans-land, without cover, survivable. Results on the wire were patchy and on the dugouts feeble at best. Only British forces adjacent to the French sector, with a high density of artillery, had a real chance success, near the villages of Fricourt and Montauban The Attack began at 7.20am on that clearing misty July morning, with the explosion of a large mine under the German front line at Hawthorn ridge near Beaumont Hamel, followed by a series of similar mines at 7.30am. Orders to the first waves of infantrymen were to advance at walking pace with rifles at high port and occupy the German frontline. Later waves were to attack the second and third lines to facilitate a cavalry breakthrough. These orders ignored reports all week, from trench raiders, saying that the dugouts and occupants were intact and only the odd lookouts were killed by the bombardment. Also that the majority of the wire was undamaged. In the first two hours of the attack, most of the 19,000 attackers who died on the first day were dead, or lying mortally wounded, without reaching the German lines. Likewise a further 40,000 casualties had occurred and the trenches were blocked by walking wounded and dead men. The storm of machine gunfire and precisely zeroed German shell fire, cut down attacking companies and battalions in rows that represented the waves leaving the trenches. The Battle of the Somme, as it was later known was doomed on the first day, the squadrons of lancers and hussars remained behind the British trenches unable to take part in the planned big break through. 1st July 1916 had the highest number of casualties for any attack by British forces. By comparison on the first day of the landings in Normandy in 1944, there were 4,500 total allied forces killed. The failure of this attack is attributed by most historians to the lack of sufficient heavy artillery in the preliminary bombardment like the Vickers 8 inch howitzer,. Had the 50 guns been ordered three months earlier, who knows what lives would have been saved on both sides by shortening the war. The model was built to a firm budget for an individual in the U.K. The agreement was to build a fair representation of the Vickers 1916 8” Howitzer with no more than 250 rivets. The final number of rivets was over 500. Construction took just under 900 hours and only the nuts, bolts, two hand wheels and main gears were purchased. The model was not capable of firing having a rifled liner in the barrel (like the original) that did not extend to the breech. The breech was a four segment rotating thread type operated by moving a lever through an arc of 45 degrees. The upper chassis had elevation and traverse mechanisms and the barrel had a spring loaded recoil ability. Rifling the barrel liner was a problem. Testing the single cutter broach showed location and spacing problems. Multi cutter broaching exceeded the pushing power available, even on aluminium. These techniques work well on large production machinery cutting four or five groove barrels. This barrel needed thirty plus grooves. Having seen a toolmaker friends EDM set up I had the idea of making a copper male button to be passed spirally down a steel liner cutting electrically in the electrolyte. It worked splendidly first go and took about 20minutes. (editor’s note… “wow”) The wheels were approximately 7” in diameter, classic traction engine types, with the rims machined from thick walled steel pipe and the spokes laser cut. The chassis, upper and lower, were cut from solid plate rather than fabricated, this was due to budget constraints. The scale of the model was 11:1 and resulted in dimensions of : bore 19mm, overall length 450mm. There were no engineering drawings used for the build only the line drawing shown and lots of web photographs, all of these were of later marks of the 8 inch and some were complicated by being shown in reverse from glass plates. The gun was still in service in 1939 though by then it had pneumatic tyres and lots of refinements. Robert Irving 2019. So, again, thanks to Robert for the photos and historical context of this superb model.	<urn:uuid:38ace72f-ed30-410d-8dca-4c9b961af264>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://johnsmachines.com/2019/11/11/101-years-ago-today/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00021.warc.gz	en	0.982131	1,637	3.484375	3	[ -0.19690737128257751, 0.27130556106567383, 0.41652828454971313, -0.30921679735183716, -0.12286362051963806, 0.12752923369407654, -0.4724372923374176, 0.21043957769870758, -0.1444377303123474, -0.3274315297603607, 0.015109343454241753, -0.4445298910140991, 0.18859639763832092, 0.43036913871...	9	101 years ago, today. At 11am, on November 11, 1918, World War 1 ended. Or as many historians claim, phase 1 of WW1 ended. Phase 2 became known as WW2. The following text and photos are about one of the allies main artillery weapons, and the modelling of it by reader Robert Irving, of NSW. The 1916 Vickers 8” Howitzer. The United Kingdom entered WWI with its traditional lack of preparedness. Defence funds had been lavished on the Royal Navy to maintain the ‘Two Fleet’ policy, whereby Britain could deter attack by having a fleet more effective than the combined force of the world’s next two largest navies. The Kaiser wanted a fleet to rival his cousin Edward’s and later cousin Georges. The ensuing arms race drained the tax revenue leaving little in the budget for the army. The army was still equipping itself for mobile warfare after the needs of the Boar War and had a good supply of very mobile light field artillery, very few machine guns and an inadequate inventory of mobile heavy guns. The failure of the Schlieffen plan to take Paris and the channel ports, against stubborn resistance, resulted in the continuous trenches from the channel to Switzerland. German policy was to build a strong defensible line and hold their gains. To this end they employed their normal thorough approach and by 1916 had fortified their numerous layers of trenches with deep concrete dugouts to give protection and a modicum of comfort to their frontline forces. They had also retreated to gain the tactical advantage of high ground where applicable. France and Britain, understandably had an offensive policy and didn’t build strong or comfortable trenches. Break through, then attack with cavalry thinking dominated strategy and tactics . Germany began attacking the Verdun Forts in late February 1916. General Falkenhayns stated objective being to “Bleed France Dry”and this they were close to achieving. The British were rushed into the long planned attack between Serre and Montauban, nine miles of front, to relieve pressure on the French. The French were to attack on the British right flank, though this was scaled down due to the huge losses at Verdun. The British attack plus the diversionary attack at Gommecourt were together, known as the Big Push. This being the first major attack by Field Marshal Kitchener’s Volunteer Army, morale was at peak, despite the average three months the new battalions had spent rotating through front line duty; the sector was a quiet one. In August 1915 the Vickers 8” Howitzer was approved however an order for 50 was not placed until March 1916 and delivery began in July 1916. The Howitzer fired a 91kg, 8” diameter shell a maximum distance of 11,000 yards, it’s trajectory was high and therefore it gave plunging fire, ideal, with appropriate fusing, to penetrate deep dugouts. There were a few makeshift large calibre pieces in operation in June 1916 but these were thinly spread along the nine mile front, they were mainly stopgap weapons made by modifying old naval guns. The Royal Field Artillery staple weapon was the quick firing 18 pounder, firing a projectile weighing 8kg with a range of 6500 yards. The attack was scheduled for the morning of July 1st and preliminary bombardment began one week earlier. Huge stocks of shrapnel and high explosive shell for the 18 pounders were in place, far fewer heavy shells were available. The plan was that the new spigot mortar, firing a basketball sized high explosive projectile, together with the 18 pounders would break up the fields of barbed wire and kill sufficient front line defenders to make the 100yard to one mile crossing of no-mans-land, without cover, survivable. Results on the wire were patchy and on the dugouts feeble at best. Only British forces adjacent to the French sector, with a high density of artillery, had a real chance success, near the villages of Fricourt and Montauban The Attack began at 7.20am on that clearing misty July morning, with the explosion of a large mine under the German front line at Hawthorn ridge near Beaumont Hamel, followed by a series of similar mines at 7.30am. Orders to the first waves of infantrymen were to advance at walking pace with rifles at high port and occupy the German frontline. Later waves were to attack the second and third lines to facilitate a cavalry breakthrough. These orders ignored reports all week, from trench raiders, saying that the dugouts and occupants were intact and only the odd lookouts were killed by the bombardment. Also that the majority of the wire was undamaged. In the first two hours of the attack, most of the 19,000 attackers who died on the first day were dead, or lying mortally wounded, without reaching the German lines. Likewise a further 40,000 casualties had occurred and the trenches were blocked by walking wounded and dead men. The storm of machine gunfire and precisely zeroed German shell fire, cut down attacking companies and battalions in rows that represented the waves leaving the trenches. The Battle of the Somme, as it was later known was doomed on the first day, the squadrons of lancers and hussars remained behind the British trenches unable to take part in the planned big break through. 1st July 1916 had the highest number of casualties for any attack by British forces. By comparison on the first day of the landings in Normandy in 1944, there were 4,500 total allied forces killed. The failure of this attack is attributed by most historians to the lack of sufficient heavy artillery in the preliminary bombardment like the Vickers 8 inch howitzer,. Had the 50 guns been ordered three months earlier, who knows what lives would have been saved on both sides by shortening the war. The model was built to a firm budget for an individual in the U.K. The agreement was to build a fair representation of the Vickers 1916 8” Howitzer with no more than 250 rivets. The final number of rivets was over 500. Construction took just under 900 hours and only the nuts, bolts, two hand wheels and main gears were purchased. The model was not capable of firing having a rifled liner in the barrel (like the original) that did not extend to the breech. The breech was a four segment rotating thread type operated by moving a lever through an arc of 45 degrees. The upper chassis had elevation and traverse mechanisms and the barrel had a spring loaded recoil ability. Rifling the barrel liner was a problem. Testing the single cutter broach showed location and spacing problems. Multi cutter broaching exceeded the pushing power available, even on aluminium. These techniques work well on large production machinery cutting four or five groove barrels. This barrel needed thirty plus grooves. Having seen a toolmaker friends EDM set up I had the idea of making a copper male button to be passed spirally down a steel liner cutting electrically in the electrolyte. It worked splendidly first go and took about 20minutes. (editor’s note… “wow”) The wheels were approximately 7” in diameter, classic traction engine types, with the rims machined from thick walled steel pipe and the spokes laser cut. The chassis, upper and lower, were cut from solid plate rather than fabricated, this was due to budget constraints. The scale of the model was 11:1 and resulted in dimensions of : bore 19mm, overall length 450mm. There were no engineering drawings used for the build only the line drawing shown and lots of web photographs, all of these were of later marks of the 8 inch and some were complicated by being shown in reverse from glass plates. The gun was still in service in 1939 though by then it had pneumatic tyres and lots of refinements. Robert Irving 2019. So, again, thanks to Robert for the photos and historical context of this superb model.	1,728	ENGLISH	1

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