Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
The Manchus refer to a group of influential people originating from the Northern parts of China Known as Manchuria, and they were thought to be barbaric. This group of people had managed to conquer China and established a dynasty known as the Qing dynasty. It seemed strange that such a small population would conquer a large population like the Hans Chinese and as a result this humiliated the Hans Chinese. The Chinese kingdom was surmounted by one hundred and twenty thousand Manchus. Their strong point was the fact that they had a military that was brilliant, disciplined, united as well as a well prepared military. The Manchus took advantage of the fact that the Ming dynasty was collapsing due to the rebellion taking place in the year 1644. They then resorted to collaborating with a Ming loyalist and gained entrance into Beijing in June and completed their conquest in 1673 (SACU 1). The dynasty formed was known as the Qing dynasty and though it was coupled by a myriad of problems initially, it lasted for two and a half centuries. They however got support from the Chinese scholars officials as they approved the Confucian system of government. Their rulership was such that for every two officials, one was Chinese while the other one was Manchu. Under the leadership of Qing Kangxi and his grandson Qianlong’s, China was successful economically and also experienced an increase in its population. Nevertheless, the economy declined in later years leading to a series of rebellions and consequently leading to the end of the Qing dynasty in the early twentieth century (SACU 1). The Tributary System refers to the conventional way that the Chinese managed their foreign relations. In this case they established rules and controlled the manner in which alien countries entered into foreign relations with China. The countries engaging with China in the tributary system were expected to be compliant in issues regarding politics, defence, economy and diplomacy with regards to China. In order for alien countries to be given access of trading in China their rulers had to pay homage to the Chinese Emperor. Once the rulers of these foreign countries paid homage to the Emperor they were given gifts which included local, uncommon and valuable goods. The alien leaders would then gain a status and given a seal and products worth more than they had brought to China. Consequently, the alien leader could trade in China so long as this association was maintained (Fairbank & Ssu- yu 50). The advantage of this system is that the alien leaders’ economies got to improve their economy and that’s why they could agree to such an agreement. To the Chinese it meant re-affirmation to the world that they are the centre of civilization and that their leader is supreme as well as a global ruler and given power by heaven. Largely, this system was a measure of Confucian ideals that consisted of a chain of command, that was traditional, and put an emphasis on habitual and moral actions, and the emperor was portrayed as a supreme being. This scheme reached its height in the Ming dynasty that took place in 1368 to 1644. The expansion of these tributaries included places like Java, Sumatra, Sri Lanka, Bengal, South and South East Asia. The loosers were the strong countries that had to pay homage to China making them feel weak (Fairbank & Ssu- yu 50). Fairbank ,John, and Ssu- yu Teng. “On The Ching Tributary System,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 6(2) June (1941): 41- 60 SACU (Society for Anglo- Chinese Understanding), Barbarian Emperors. 15 June 2002. 12 May. 2011.	<urn:uuid:1219c8b2-5eef-44bc-aaa7-d5e5b7dcdaa6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/dynasties-in-china/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00008.warc.gz	en	0.984933	753	4	4	[ -0.5175807476043701, 0.21426625549793243, 0.2799009382724762, 0.22917667031288147, 0.1398564577102661, -0.18610498309135437, 0.6413920521736145, -0.07518424093723297, -0.19660475850105286, -0.11669950187206268, 0.46813109517097473, -0.103325754404068, 0.5736652612686157, 0.2465780377388000...	1	The Manchus refer to a group of influential people originating from the Northern parts of China Known as Manchuria, and they were thought to be barbaric. This group of people had managed to conquer China and established a dynasty known as the Qing dynasty. It seemed strange that such a small population would conquer a large population like the Hans Chinese and as a result this humiliated the Hans Chinese. The Chinese kingdom was surmounted by one hundred and twenty thousand Manchus. Their strong point was the fact that they had a military that was brilliant, disciplined, united as well as a well prepared military. The Manchus took advantage of the fact that the Ming dynasty was collapsing due to the rebellion taking place in the year 1644. They then resorted to collaborating with a Ming loyalist and gained entrance into Beijing in June and completed their conquest in 1673 (SACU 1). The dynasty formed was known as the Qing dynasty and though it was coupled by a myriad of problems initially, it lasted for two and a half centuries. They however got support from the Chinese scholars officials as they approved the Confucian system of government. Their rulership was such that for every two officials, one was Chinese while the other one was Manchu. Under the leadership of Qing Kangxi and his grandson Qianlong’s, China was successful economically and also experienced an increase in its population. Nevertheless, the economy declined in later years leading to a series of rebellions and consequently leading to the end of the Qing dynasty in the early twentieth century (SACU 1). The Tributary System refers to the conventional way that the Chinese managed their foreign relations. In this case they established rules and controlled the manner in which alien countries entered into foreign relations with China. The countries engaging with China in the tributary system were expected to be compliant in issues regarding politics, defence, economy and diplomacy with regards to China. In order for alien countries to be given access of trading in China their rulers had to pay homage to the Chinese Emperor. Once the rulers of these foreign countries paid homage to the Emperor they were given gifts which included local, uncommon and valuable goods. The alien leaders would then gain a status and given a seal and products worth more than they had brought to China. Consequently, the alien leader could trade in China so long as this association was maintained (Fairbank & Ssu- yu 50). The advantage of this system is that the alien leaders’ economies got to improve their economy and that’s why they could agree to such an agreement. To the Chinese it meant re-affirmation to the world that they are the centre of civilization and that their leader is supreme as well as a global ruler and given power by heaven. Largely, this system was a measure of Confucian ideals that consisted of a chain of command, that was traditional, and put an emphasis on habitual and moral actions, and the emperor was portrayed as a supreme being. This scheme reached its height in the Ming dynasty that took place in 1368 to 1644. The expansion of these tributaries included places like Java, Sumatra, Sri Lanka, Bengal, South and South East Asia. The loosers were the strong countries that had to pay homage to China making them feel weak (Fairbank & Ssu- yu 50). Fairbank ,John, and Ssu- yu Teng. “On The Ching Tributary System,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 6(2) June (1941): 41- 60 SACU (Society for Anglo- Chinese Understanding), Barbarian Emperors. 15 June 2002. 12 May. 2011.	779	ENGLISH	1
You will see a replica of a 'sawing rack' next to the Lommel-Kattenbos barn. It was used for sawing tree trunks. How did that work? First, a tree had to be felled, before its trunk came to the sawing rack. How did the process from tree to shelf work in the past in the Kempen region, and which craftsmen played a role? Tree cultivation and forestry The Kempen forest stock began to decrease sharply from the eleventh century. The causes were population growth, the use of fertile forestland as agricultural land and frequent use of wood. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the forests remained sparce in the Kempen region. Then there were government measures to promote afforestation. In 1794, sixty-seven hectares was woodland in the Lommel municipality, not even one per cent of the total area. In addition, there were small parcels with low-level scrub wood, with trees such as oak, birch, willow and elder, and the edges around some fields and hay meadows were planted with timber crops. Felling/grubbing out/cutting down trees There were three methods of tree felling: with axes and felling wedges, using a felling saw or digging a pit and detaching the roots. The woodcutter had to estimate whether there was enough space to drop the tree in its full length at one time or not, and in what direction it had to be felled. A good woodcutter could fell and clear two to three trees a day. Woodcutters usually felled trees in winter because the ground was more likely to be firm enough then. Woodworkers developed a range of tools and implements for lifting heavy tree trunks. The crane was one widely used construction. The crane 'frame' consisted of a wooden beam with an elongated opening in the middle, with rows of holes in each sidewall at stepped heights. The crane arm rested on two rods that stuck through the frame next to each other but at different heights. They could then attach the load, for example a tree trunk, to the arm with chains. By moving the two rods alternately a hole higher, the load was incrementally raised higher and higher. They often used two cranes to lift a whole tree trunk. The woodworkers had to remove the bark from deciduous trees immediately after felling to prevent insects from destroying the wood. However, the opposite was necessary with coniferous trees; they had to keep the bark on the trunk for as long as possible. Otherwise, the resin would drain out, causing the wood to become porous and lose its resilience and weight-bearing capacity. To remove the bark from the tree, the woodworker could use a saw (trimming) or axe (adzing). Transporting the timber Sawing the timber often occurred at the place of use. Apart from when they felled the wood on site, the woodworkers had to carry the trunks to the place of use. They had several useful tools for that such as the lever, crane, roller, wooden screw jack, jack, capstan, windlass, winch, tackles, tree trunk trolley, etc. And they could transport the trunks by water if there was a waterway going in the right direction. Other solutions were using horses to drag the trunks or sawing them into shorter lengths and carrying them on carts. The sawing rack Some woodworkers were sawing specialists and they travelled around to offer their services. Others sawed for themselves the wood they were going to work on. The sawing rack was either a fixed installation that was on the ground above a pit, (sometimes called a sawpit), some of which were under a roof, or it was a movable installation consisting of two man-height trestles with height-adjustable crossbeams. A sawpit had the great advantage that the people sawing the wood did not have to lift the tree trunk. Yet in many cases, they used a movable sawing rack so that they could saw the timber on the construction or felling site. They laid the trunk low on the ground on trestles, which they raised in steps. And they eventually got the trunk onto the sawing rack that way. Two men - one above and one under the trunk - used a long two-man ripsaw to saw the trunk lengthwise, and to remove offcuts (trimming the round trunk on four sides straight to make a square beam). The two-man ripsaw Woodworkers only had the possibility to use a saw long enough to cut through the length of thick tree trunks since the seventeenth century. The two-man rip saw was about 2.2 meters long and only came into use then. Before that, woodworkers could only cut trunks with axes or cleave them. The man standing above the pit or on top of the sawing rack pulled the ripsaw upwards. He did that using the upper handle, a piece of iron about 45 centimetres long with a ring that carried an inserted wooden handle perpendicular to the saw blade. The man standing in the pit or under the sawing rack pulled the ripsaw downwards. He was the one that became covered in sawdust. His handle was a wooden block with a slot in which he could clamp the saw blade with a wedge. The wooden block had two sticks in it that served as a handle. Sawing timber was hard labour. To cut an ash trunk one and a half meters in circumference and five meters long took them about twelve hours! The carpenter needed a lot of space and tools for his work. He worked a lot outdoors, for example on house construction or repair work. But he needed a workshop for the preparatory work. For example, he would make the joints of the timber framework there. Although, certainly a lot of the work was done on the spot when building a house. For that, the carpenter had to bring the necessary tools, such as a hammer, saw, chisel, axe, drawknife, hand drill and a supply of nails. In addition, he also needed a ladder and possibly a number of trestles. He would probably use a handcart or cart to transport it all. A full workshop The carpenter's workshop was full of tools and wood spread out all over the space. Carpenters had one or more very long workbenches to work the wood. A vice could fit on the edge for clamping the wood. The carpenter's tools mainly hung on the walls. They had wooden bars fixed a few centimetres off the wall so that tools hung between them and the walls. Typically, those would include hammers, hand drills and set squares. Round tools such as chisels went backwards in holes in a wooden bar. Another method of hanging tools on a wall was using two nails hammered in next to each other with the tool suspended between them. Larger tools were probably spread around the workshop. The carpenter stored the wood between the ceiling and beams, which hung a little bit lower. Usually, he only bought the wood when he got an assignment, so his stock was limited. Besides the wood, he would store his ladder there too.	<urn:uuid:7e731f3e-8fcf-4419-af39-4f09f1cb91d4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bokrijk.be/en/bkrk/wood/from-tree-to-shelf	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00546.warc.gz	en	0.982539	1,504	4.0625	4	[ 0.06249324977397919, 0.007138556335121393, 0.07270956039428711, -0.38985204696655273, 0.23894156515598297, -0.18666282296180725, -0.07176912575960159, -0.035967063158750534, 0.034148044884204865, 0.06698033213615417, 0.2868117094039917, -0.5804598331451416, -0.043225616216659546, 0.4822437...	1	You will see a replica of a 'sawing rack' next to the Lommel-Kattenbos barn. It was used for sawing tree trunks. How did that work? First, a tree had to be felled, before its trunk came to the sawing rack. How did the process from tree to shelf work in the past in the Kempen region, and which craftsmen played a role? Tree cultivation and forestry The Kempen forest stock began to decrease sharply from the eleventh century. The causes were population growth, the use of fertile forestland as agricultural land and frequent use of wood. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the forests remained sparce in the Kempen region. Then there were government measures to promote afforestation. In 1794, sixty-seven hectares was woodland in the Lommel municipality, not even one per cent of the total area. In addition, there were small parcels with low-level scrub wood, with trees such as oak, birch, willow and elder, and the edges around some fields and hay meadows were planted with timber crops. Felling/grubbing out/cutting down trees There were three methods of tree felling: with axes and felling wedges, using a felling saw or digging a pit and detaching the roots. The woodcutter had to estimate whether there was enough space to drop the tree in its full length at one time or not, and in what direction it had to be felled. A good woodcutter could fell and clear two to three trees a day. Woodcutters usually felled trees in winter because the ground was more likely to be firm enough then. Woodworkers developed a range of tools and implements for lifting heavy tree trunks. The crane was one widely used construction. The crane 'frame' consisted of a wooden beam with an elongated opening in the middle, with rows of holes in each sidewall at stepped heights. The crane arm rested on two rods that stuck through the frame next to each other but at different heights. They could then attach the load, for example a tree trunk, to the arm with chains. By moving the two rods alternately a hole higher, the load was incrementally raised higher and higher. They often used two cranes to lift a whole tree trunk. The woodworkers had to remove the bark from deciduous trees immediately after felling to prevent insects from destroying the wood. However, the opposite was necessary with coniferous trees; they had to keep the bark on the trunk for as long as possible. Otherwise, the resin would drain out, causing the wood to become porous and lose its resilience and weight-bearing capacity. To remove the bark from the tree, the woodworker could use a saw (trimming) or axe (adzing). Transporting the timber Sawing the timber often occurred at the place of use. Apart from when they felled the wood on site, the woodworkers had to carry the trunks to the place of use. They had several useful tools for that such as the lever, crane, roller, wooden screw jack, jack, capstan, windlass, winch, tackles, tree trunk trolley, etc. And they could transport the trunks by water if there was a waterway going in the right direction. Other solutions were using horses to drag the trunks or sawing them into shorter lengths and carrying them on carts. The sawing rack Some woodworkers were sawing specialists and they travelled around to offer their services. Others sawed for themselves the wood they were going to work on. The sawing rack was either a fixed installation that was on the ground above a pit, (sometimes called a sawpit), some of which were under a roof, or it was a movable installation consisting of two man-height trestles with height-adjustable crossbeams. A sawpit had the great advantage that the people sawing the wood did not have to lift the tree trunk. Yet in many cases, they used a movable sawing rack so that they could saw the timber on the construction or felling site. They laid the trunk low on the ground on trestles, which they raised in steps. And they eventually got the trunk onto the sawing rack that way. Two men - one above and one under the trunk - used a long two-man ripsaw to saw the trunk lengthwise, and to remove offcuts (trimming the round trunk on four sides straight to make a square beam). The two-man ripsaw Woodworkers only had the possibility to use a saw long enough to cut through the length of thick tree trunks since the seventeenth century. The two-man rip saw was about 2.2 meters long and only came into use then. Before that, woodworkers could only cut trunks with axes or cleave them. The man standing above the pit or on top of the sawing rack pulled the ripsaw upwards. He did that using the upper handle, a piece of iron about 45 centimetres long with a ring that carried an inserted wooden handle perpendicular to the saw blade. The man standing in the pit or under the sawing rack pulled the ripsaw downwards. He was the one that became covered in sawdust. His handle was a wooden block with a slot in which he could clamp the saw blade with a wedge. The wooden block had two sticks in it that served as a handle. Sawing timber was hard labour. To cut an ash trunk one and a half meters in circumference and five meters long took them about twelve hours! The carpenter needed a lot of space and tools for his work. He worked a lot outdoors, for example on house construction or repair work. But he needed a workshop for the preparatory work. For example, he would make the joints of the timber framework there. Although, certainly a lot of the work was done on the spot when building a house. For that, the carpenter had to bring the necessary tools, such as a hammer, saw, chisel, axe, drawknife, hand drill and a supply of nails. In addition, he also needed a ladder and possibly a number of trestles. He would probably use a handcart or cart to transport it all. A full workshop The carpenter's workshop was full of tools and wood spread out all over the space. Carpenters had one or more very long workbenches to work the wood. A vice could fit on the edge for clamping the wood. The carpenter's tools mainly hung on the walls. They had wooden bars fixed a few centimetres off the wall so that tools hung between them and the walls. Typically, those would include hammers, hand drills and set squares. Round tools such as chisels went backwards in holes in a wooden bar. Another method of hanging tools on a wall was using two nails hammered in next to each other with the tool suspended between them. Larger tools were probably spread around the workshop. The carpenter stored the wood between the ceiling and beams, which hung a little bit lower. Usually, he only bought the wood when he got an assignment, so his stock was limited. Besides the wood, he would store his ladder there too.	1,483	ENGLISH	1
There was a time when many little girls, as they grew up, would dream of being a princess, living in a palace, and marrying a handsome prince. For Elizabeth, daughter of the Duke and Duchess of York, however, this was not a dream but reality. Born on April 21, 1926, Elizabeth was third in line for the throne after her uncle, Edward, the Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Despite this position, however, there was little prospect that she would ever become the queen of England. Edward was young and healthy. He was expected to marry and have children who would precede Elizabeth in the line of succession. Elizabeth’s upbringing was very conventional for the time. Her mother, when asked what she considered to be her main duty replied: “Bringing up my children.” The family lived at 145 Piccadilly, in London. This was a typical town house for aristocrats, with 25 bedrooms and a staff of servants. “Lilibet” was a bright and interesting child with a pleasing and generous nature and a lifelong interest in animals, especially horses and dogs. Her parents instilled in her a strong sense of duty from an early age. Her sister and only sibling, Margaret Rose, was born in August 1930. The girls were given a broad and conventional home-based education. Edward became king in 1936, but even before he could be crowned, he provoked a massive constitutional crisis. His desire to marry American divorcee, Wallis Simpson, was strongly opposed by the entire royal family, the Church of England and almost all British politicians. He abdicated, which meant giving up the throne, in December 1936. As next in line, Elizabeth’s father, the Duke of York, became King George VI. This new role was unsought and unwelcome. The king lacked the charm and charisma of his older brother, and a speech impediment had earned him the nickname: “the stuttering Duke of York.” Elizabeth’s teenage years were dominated by the Second World War, and in May 1940, the princesses were moved from Buckingham Palace to Windsor Castle for safety reasons. The Palace itself was bombed on nine occasions. On October 13th Elizabeth gave her first radio broadcast. Carefully scripted and intended to boost morale at a time of national crisis, the message was aimed at the children of the British empire. In 1946 the 20-year-old heir to the throne was faced with the question of whom she would marry. It was “unthinkable” that she would remain unmarried, but the only man with whom she had had any serious romantic relationship was Prince Philip of Greece. They had met during a royal visit to Dartmouth Royal Naval College in 1939. The royal wedding took place on November 20, 1947, but not all were happy with Elizabeth’s choice of a husband. Although of royal birth, Philip was a Greek, and his four sisters had married Germans. This association with former enemies did not go down well in some quarters, despite the fact that Philip had served with distinction in the Royal Navy. Nevertheless, the young couple were very much in love. Crawfie, Elizabeth’s former governess, had ventured to offer the younger woman some advice on the subject of matrimony: “When you marry, you must not expect the honeymoon to last forever. Sooner or later you will meet the stresses and strains of everyday life. You must not expect your husband to be constantly at your side” . . . (The Queen—A Biography of Elizabeth II by Ben Pimlott. Page 139). In 1949 Prince Philip was appointed second in command of HMS Chequers, based at Malta, where the royal couple lived for two years. This is commonly regarded as one of the happiest periods in Elizabeth’s life. With two young children, Charles born in 1948 and Anne in 1950, the Princess experienced a “normal” married life. Elizabeth’s father, the king, however, experienced declining health. Suffering from several smoking-related diseases, including lung cancer, he died on February 6, 1952. Elizabeth and Philip, who were paying a royal visit to Kenya, hurried back to London. The Coronation of the new Queen Elizabeth took place on June 2, 1953. The event was a lavish and majestic spectacle and was shown live on television. The queen, being a deeply religious woman, decided that the moment of anointing, however, was too sacred to be shown. From the outset, Elizabeth was held in high esteem and affection, not only in the United Kingdom but throughout the Commonwealth. Her strong sense of dedication had been revealed a few years earlier in a speech she gave in South Africa on her 21st birthday. She read with dignity and earnestness from the prepared script, giving a deeper meaning to the words than even her speech writer had intended: “I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great Imperial family to which we all belong, but I shall not have the strength to carry out this resolution alone unless you join in with me, as I now invite you to do. I know that your support will be unfailingly given. God help me to make good my vow and God bless all of you who are willing to share in it.” Throughout her reign, Queen Elizabeth has consistently demonstrated her profound sense of responsibility to the nation, as did her father and mother before her. Michael Mann, the Dean of Windsor and former Bishop of Dudley, wrote: “The one lesson that the abdication of Edward VIII burnt deep into the souls of the present Queen and Queen Mother was that you never, never abdicate your duty. The Queen has always seen that with privilege goes responsibility” (quoted by Douglas Keay, The Queen, 1991). The role of monarch is not always an easy one. Some decisions are very difficult and emotionally charged. Royal marriages require the personal approval of the monarch. Early in her reign, Elizabeth was asked to approve a marriage request from her sister Margaret. She wished to marry the much-decorated, Battle of Britain pilot Peter Townsend. As head of the Church of England, however, the queen decided to uphold the position of the Church that members of the royal family should not marry anyone who has been divorced. This decision to put duty before personal happiness became a defining feature of her reign. Ten years after Anne’s birth, two more children were born to the queen: Prince Andrew in 1960 and Prince Edward in 1964. The decade of the 1960s saw a diminishing interest in the royal family by the media and general population. The queen’s Christmas broadcast, which was once watched by half of the U.K. population, fell steadily in the ratings. Despite this trend, the 1977 Silver Jubilee celebrations were regarded as a spectacular success. Elizabeth’s personal popularity remained high and her numerous overseas visits were generally well received. Queen Elizabeth has demonstrated a remarkable resiliency despite the negative publicity several other members of the royal family have generated. The year 1992 could well be described as one of the lowest points in the Queen’s reign. Three marriage failures among the younger generation of royals was followed by a disastrous fire at Windsor Castle. This prompted her to describe this year as her personal annus horribilis. Early in the year, an official announcement was made that the queen’s second son, Andrew, would separate from his wife, the Duchess of York (Sarah Ferguson). Not long after this, Princess Anne began divorce proceedings against Mark Phillips. As if these events were not bad enough, the marital problems of Prince Charles and Princess Diana received huge adverse publicity by the publication of Andrew Morton’s book Diana: Her True Story. Finally, in November, Windsor Castle suffered a damaging fire which created much initial sympathy for the “shocked and devastated” queen. There was, however, a dramatic change in the public mood when it was revealed that the 20- to 40-million-pound repair bill for the uninsured castle would be covered by the tax payer. Why should not the queen, perhaps the wealthiest person in the country, who did not even pay tax, cover the cost herself, her subjects wondered? Despite controversies of this sort that have impacted Queen Elizabeth in recent years, history will probably record that her reign has been one of the most successful in British history.	<urn:uuid:6de9dbfc-6e69-4c29-abbc-7210858fb578>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.vision.org/biography-queen-elizabeth-ii-duty-comes-first-456	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00284.warc.gz	en	0.984946	1,762	3.265625	3	[ -0.25121116638183594, 0.345893532037735, 0.6430519819259644, -0.09995077550411224, 0.025883765891194344, 0.05495113879442215, 0.015529283322393894, -0.177820086479187, 0.025587767362594604, 0.15518328547477722, 0.20611542463302612, 0.10095815360546112, 0.2881888747215271, -0.02466299384832...	2	There was a time when many little girls, as they grew up, would dream of being a princess, living in a palace, and marrying a handsome prince. For Elizabeth, daughter of the Duke and Duchess of York, however, this was not a dream but reality. Born on April 21, 1926, Elizabeth was third in line for the throne after her uncle, Edward, the Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Despite this position, however, there was little prospect that she would ever become the queen of England. Edward was young and healthy. He was expected to marry and have children who would precede Elizabeth in the line of succession. Elizabeth’s upbringing was very conventional for the time. Her mother, when asked what she considered to be her main duty replied: “Bringing up my children.” The family lived at 145 Piccadilly, in London. This was a typical town house for aristocrats, with 25 bedrooms and a staff of servants. “Lilibet” was a bright and interesting child with a pleasing and generous nature and a lifelong interest in animals, especially horses and dogs. Her parents instilled in her a strong sense of duty from an early age. Her sister and only sibling, Margaret Rose, was born in August 1930. The girls were given a broad and conventional home-based education. Edward became king in 1936, but even before he could be crowned, he provoked a massive constitutional crisis. His desire to marry American divorcee, Wallis Simpson, was strongly opposed by the entire royal family, the Church of England and almost all British politicians. He abdicated, which meant giving up the throne, in December 1936. As next in line, Elizabeth’s father, the Duke of York, became King George VI. This new role was unsought and unwelcome. The king lacked the charm and charisma of his older brother, and a speech impediment had earned him the nickname: “the stuttering Duke of York.” Elizabeth’s teenage years were dominated by the Second World War, and in May 1940, the princesses were moved from Buckingham Palace to Windsor Castle for safety reasons. The Palace itself was bombed on nine occasions. On October 13th Elizabeth gave her first radio broadcast. Carefully scripted and intended to boost morale at a time of national crisis, the message was aimed at the children of the British empire. In 1946 the 20-year-old heir to the throne was faced with the question of whom she would marry. It was “unthinkable” that she would remain unmarried, but the only man with whom she had had any serious romantic relationship was Prince Philip of Greece. They had met during a royal visit to Dartmouth Royal Naval College in 1939. The royal wedding took place on November 20, 1947, but not all were happy with Elizabeth’s choice of a husband. Although of royal birth, Philip was a Greek, and his four sisters had married Germans. This association with former enemies did not go down well in some quarters, despite the fact that Philip had served with distinction in the Royal Navy. Nevertheless, the young couple were very much in love. Crawfie, Elizabeth’s former governess, had ventured to offer the younger woman some advice on the subject of matrimony: “When you marry, you must not expect the honeymoon to last forever. Sooner or later you will meet the stresses and strains of everyday life. You must not expect your husband to be constantly at your side” . . . (The Queen—A Biography of Elizabeth II by Ben Pimlott. Page 139). In 1949 Prince Philip was appointed second in command of HMS Chequers, based at Malta, where the royal couple lived for two years. This is commonly regarded as one of the happiest periods in Elizabeth’s life. With two young children, Charles born in 1948 and Anne in 1950, the Princess experienced a “normal” married life. Elizabeth’s father, the king, however, experienced declining health. Suffering from several smoking-related diseases, including lung cancer, he died on February 6, 1952. Elizabeth and Philip, who were paying a royal visit to Kenya, hurried back to London. The Coronation of the new Queen Elizabeth took place on June 2, 1953. The event was a lavish and majestic spectacle and was shown live on television. The queen, being a deeply religious woman, decided that the moment of anointing, however, was too sacred to be shown. From the outset, Elizabeth was held in high esteem and affection, not only in the United Kingdom but throughout the Commonwealth. Her strong sense of dedication had been revealed a few years earlier in a speech she gave in South Africa on her 21st birthday. She read with dignity and earnestness from the prepared script, giving a deeper meaning to the words than even her speech writer had intended: “I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great Imperial family to which we all belong, but I shall not have the strength to carry out this resolution alone unless you join in with me, as I now invite you to do. I know that your support will be unfailingly given. God help me to make good my vow and God bless all of you who are willing to share in it.” Throughout her reign, Queen Elizabeth has consistently demonstrated her profound sense of responsibility to the nation, as did her father and mother before her. Michael Mann, the Dean of Windsor and former Bishop of Dudley, wrote: “The one lesson that the abdication of Edward VIII burnt deep into the souls of the present Queen and Queen Mother was that you never, never abdicate your duty. The Queen has always seen that with privilege goes responsibility” (quoted by Douglas Keay, The Queen, 1991). The role of monarch is not always an easy one. Some decisions are very difficult and emotionally charged. Royal marriages require the personal approval of the monarch. Early in her reign, Elizabeth was asked to approve a marriage request from her sister Margaret. She wished to marry the much-decorated, Battle of Britain pilot Peter Townsend. As head of the Church of England, however, the queen decided to uphold the position of the Church that members of the royal family should not marry anyone who has been divorced. This decision to put duty before personal happiness became a defining feature of her reign. Ten years after Anne’s birth, two more children were born to the queen: Prince Andrew in 1960 and Prince Edward in 1964. The decade of the 1960s saw a diminishing interest in the royal family by the media and general population. The queen’s Christmas broadcast, which was once watched by half of the U.K. population, fell steadily in the ratings. Despite this trend, the 1977 Silver Jubilee celebrations were regarded as a spectacular success. Elizabeth’s personal popularity remained high and her numerous overseas visits were generally well received. Queen Elizabeth has demonstrated a remarkable resiliency despite the negative publicity several other members of the royal family have generated. The year 1992 could well be described as one of the lowest points in the Queen’s reign. Three marriage failures among the younger generation of royals was followed by a disastrous fire at Windsor Castle. This prompted her to describe this year as her personal annus horribilis. Early in the year, an official announcement was made that the queen’s second son, Andrew, would separate from his wife, the Duchess of York (Sarah Ferguson). Not long after this, Princess Anne began divorce proceedings against Mark Phillips. As if these events were not bad enough, the marital problems of Prince Charles and Princess Diana received huge adverse publicity by the publication of Andrew Morton’s book Diana: Her True Story. Finally, in November, Windsor Castle suffered a damaging fire which created much initial sympathy for the “shocked and devastated” queen. There was, however, a dramatic change in the public mood when it was revealed that the 20- to 40-million-pound repair bill for the uninsured castle would be covered by the tax payer. Why should not the queen, perhaps the wealthiest person in the country, who did not even pay tax, cover the cost herself, her subjects wondered? Despite controversies of this sort that have impacted Queen Elizabeth in recent years, history will probably record that her reign has been one of the most successful in British history.	1,781	ENGLISH	1
1885 was a time of transition for bridge design when the first bridge was opened to carry Carleton Street across the Saint John River in Fredericton. The strength of columns had traditionally been judged on the basis of some old lab tests, for example, but there were still “glaring discrepancies and contradictions [in the] rules and tables in common use by builders”. The proper design of beams was also poorly understood and, by 1872, many designers still viewed mathematical models for bending as unreliable. Furthermore, bridge design had been strictly in the hands of bridge builders. Owners had little control over the strength or functionality of the builders’ designs. This began to change in about 1880 when a “specification disease” broke out and owners began to take greater responsibility. The early days of bridge building were also shaped by the materials that were available. Timber and masonry were the only bridge materials before the introduction of iron. Steel did not come into common use until the 1880s when the industry was forced away from iron by some spectacular bridge collapses. Several bridge configurations became popular in the early days, and one of those was the Burr truss which combined a timber arch with a timber truss. Theodore Burr’s design was not ‘engineered’ in the modern sense. However, it had worked before and so it was repeated over and over again and became common. Many of the Burr trusses in New Brunswick were covered bridges, so the passerby might not be aware of how they were put together and how common they were. And so, in 1884, New Brunswick’s Premier Andrew Blair determined to build a bridge at Carleton Street to link the city to Alexander Gibson’s industrial and railway empire across the river. There was a torrent of opposition to Blair’s plan, with some people arguing that it would ruin the ferry operators. Others worried that it would divert traffic away from the city core, or that it would simply wash away with the spring floods. Blair was determined to build the bridge at the earliest opportunity, however, and called tenders in the fall of 1884 before funds had been approved by the legislature. He then snubbed the federal government and went ahead without their approval to build over a navigable waterway. The project was mocked as ‘Blair’s Paper Bridge’. In 1885, Mary Pengilly published Fredricton Bridge, A Prophetic Warning which she was inspired to write “[upon] reading of the proposed bridge in the St. John papers brought to me by my son while imprisoned in the Provincial Lunatic Asylum.” In her view, “the proposed Bridge brings so forcibly to mind that time of dread and anxiety for the safety of Fredricton, that I cannot refrain from giving expression to my thought and feelings on the subject. If the people of Fredricton would consider this matter in a natural and impartial manner, they would not for the sake of money that would necessarily be expended at that time, run the risk of destroying the city by placing a bridge where, if built with sufficient strength to resist the force of the ice in ordinary seasons might in a time like the Spring of ’78, hold the ice and assist in forming a dam that could not fail to flood the city, if it did not sweep it entirely away.” Design methods were in transition, and Premier Blair wanted the bridge built quickly. It is therefore no slur to wonder what it meant that the bridge was designed by Alfred Haines, with the superstructure being engineered by A.G. Beckwith, and the completed design being constructed by Simmons and Burpee. Alfred Haines was from Saint Mary’s and was a second generation bridge builder with several structures to his credit. He was not an engineer, but was accepted for the project because he was on provincial staff as an inspector and associated with engineers who were clever and knew about bridges. A.G. Beckwith was a city engineer in Fredericton. My guess is that Haines and Beckwith did a conceptual layout and that Haines determined the sizes of some timbers based on experience and judgment. Haines probably outlined the piers (substructures), since Beckwith is specifically credited with engineering the superstructures (spans). Simmons and Burpee would then have devised whatever other details were required. Carleton Street was extended to the waterfront and construction began. Stone for the piers was brought from Spoon Island, and the bridge was opened on November 27, 1885, only two years after it had been proposed. It included a swing span for the passage of boats. Small fires often broke out on the bridge deck, and were usually blamed on discarded cigars. There was a full time attendant who kept the deck clear of combustibles, so that fires were usually small and easily extinguished. One such fire started on Saturday evening, July 15, 1905 and, within only a couple of hours, two spans were destroyed and fallen into the river. These two spans were replaced using steel trusses and, over the next couple of years, other spans were replaced until all of the Burr trusses were gone in 1909. This modified bridge was torn down in 1982 when the Westmorland Street Bridge opened. The piers remain in the river. Fredericton’s First Bridge across the Saint John River This post has already been read 2941 times!Follow Us on Social Media	<urn:uuid:365eadee-8e8f-40be-a62b-dfd97d912290>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mynewbrunswick.ca/frederictons-first-bridge/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00273.warc.gz	en	0.986977	1,130	3.578125	4	[ -0.2872121334075928, 0.1469758003950119, 0.3517666161060333, 0.0337829664349556, -0.3945954442024231, 0.2532283663749695, -0.33208566904067993, 0.22751785814762115, -0.26693516969680786, 0.1568380743265152, 0.13197526335716248, -0.015463542193174362, 0.00007820292375981808, -0.028504816815...	1	1885 was a time of transition for bridge design when the first bridge was opened to carry Carleton Street across the Saint John River in Fredericton. The strength of columns had traditionally been judged on the basis of some old lab tests, for example, but there were still “glaring discrepancies and contradictions [in the] rules and tables in common use by builders”. The proper design of beams was also poorly understood and, by 1872, many designers still viewed mathematical models for bending as unreliable. Furthermore, bridge design had been strictly in the hands of bridge builders. Owners had little control over the strength or functionality of the builders’ designs. This began to change in about 1880 when a “specification disease” broke out and owners began to take greater responsibility. The early days of bridge building were also shaped by the materials that were available. Timber and masonry were the only bridge materials before the introduction of iron. Steel did not come into common use until the 1880s when the industry was forced away from iron by some spectacular bridge collapses. Several bridge configurations became popular in the early days, and one of those was the Burr truss which combined a timber arch with a timber truss. Theodore Burr’s design was not ‘engineered’ in the modern sense. However, it had worked before and so it was repeated over and over again and became common. Many of the Burr trusses in New Brunswick were covered bridges, so the passerby might not be aware of how they were put together and how common they were. And so, in 1884, New Brunswick’s Premier Andrew Blair determined to build a bridge at Carleton Street to link the city to Alexander Gibson’s industrial and railway empire across the river. There was a torrent of opposition to Blair’s plan, with some people arguing that it would ruin the ferry operators. Others worried that it would divert traffic away from the city core, or that it would simply wash away with the spring floods. Blair was determined to build the bridge at the earliest opportunity, however, and called tenders in the fall of 1884 before funds had been approved by the legislature. He then snubbed the federal government and went ahead without their approval to build over a navigable waterway. The project was mocked as ‘Blair’s Paper Bridge’. In 1885, Mary Pengilly published Fredricton Bridge, A Prophetic Warning which she was inspired to write “[upon] reading of the proposed bridge in the St. John papers brought to me by my son while imprisoned in the Provincial Lunatic Asylum.” In her view, “the proposed Bridge brings so forcibly to mind that time of dread and anxiety for the safety of Fredricton, that I cannot refrain from giving expression to my thought and feelings on the subject. If the people of Fredricton would consider this matter in a natural and impartial manner, they would not for the sake of money that would necessarily be expended at that time, run the risk of destroying the city by placing a bridge where, if built with sufficient strength to resist the force of the ice in ordinary seasons might in a time like the Spring of ’78, hold the ice and assist in forming a dam that could not fail to flood the city, if it did not sweep it entirely away.” Design methods were in transition, and Premier Blair wanted the bridge built quickly. It is therefore no slur to wonder what it meant that the bridge was designed by Alfred Haines, with the superstructure being engineered by A.G. Beckwith, and the completed design being constructed by Simmons and Burpee. Alfred Haines was from Saint Mary’s and was a second generation bridge builder with several structures to his credit. He was not an engineer, but was accepted for the project because he was on provincial staff as an inspector and associated with engineers who were clever and knew about bridges. A.G. Beckwith was a city engineer in Fredericton. My guess is that Haines and Beckwith did a conceptual layout and that Haines determined the sizes of some timbers based on experience and judgment. Haines probably outlined the piers (substructures), since Beckwith is specifically credited with engineering the superstructures (spans). Simmons and Burpee would then have devised whatever other details were required. Carleton Street was extended to the waterfront and construction began. Stone for the piers was brought from Spoon Island, and the bridge was opened on November 27, 1885, only two years after it had been proposed. It included a swing span for the passage of boats. Small fires often broke out on the bridge deck, and were usually blamed on discarded cigars. There was a full time attendant who kept the deck clear of combustibles, so that fires were usually small and easily extinguished. One such fire started on Saturday evening, July 15, 1905 and, within only a couple of hours, two spans were destroyed and fallen into the river. These two spans were replaced using steel trusses and, over the next couple of years, other spans were replaced until all of the Burr trusses were gone in 1909. This modified bridge was torn down in 1982 when the Westmorland Street Bridge opened. The piers remain in the river. Fredericton’s First Bridge across the Saint John River This post has already been read 2941 times!Follow Us on Social Media	1,120	ENGLISH	1
Benedictine laws created in 529 AD by St. Benedictine governed monasteries in the middle ages. The middle ages also saw the establishment of various monk orders with the main ones being Carthusians, Benedictines and Cistercians. The orders differed based on how they observed their religious rituals and the strictness with which they implemented their laws and regulations. In the wake of the 12th century, there were about 420 monasteries in England but in the centuries that followed, fewer monasteries were built in England and most parts of Europe. Middle Ages monasticism was established by the traditions of Saint Anthony. In 270AD Anthony a young Christian man, aged 20 years and born in Egypt chose to donate his possessions and to live in a desert. He lived in solitude most of his life where he prayed and undertook manual jobs to earn a living. His way of living was soon perceived as holy and people came to stay close to him and to imitate his ways. Most people of this time saw this way of living as an opportunity to demonstrate their faith and loyalty to God, because martyrdom was no longer a possibility. In the wake of the 5th century, this form of lifestyle in which people lived together in pious isolation caught up in the Western world and in Europe in particular. Like most forms of organizations, the monastic factions began to split into orders and sects. One reason for these divisions was that the Church itself was divided and issued differing instructions to the monks who were affiliated to them. The different monk sects travelled across Europe establishing monasteries and spreading the gospel to the non-believers. The monks also sought to make changes in the Church to heal the divisions that were fast threatening the Church. The monks in the middle ages were also very instrumental as a source of education. St. Benedict of Nursia was able was able to unite the different monk sects and to bring order to the monasteries in the Middle Ages. He established the Benedictine Rule after seeking to reform not just the monastic movement but also the Church. As a young monk in Rome, he witnessed the corruption of the Church and of the city and was inspired to change this. He moved away from the city and went to the desert, subsequently attracting a following. He organized his followers into communities at Subiaco but was later chased by the clergy there. Before his death he organized his new society at Monte Cassino where he established the Benedictine Rule for his followers to observe. The rules regulated many monastic communities and they placed the abbot in charge of the community. The abbot was a life leader and the monk was not allowed to leave his community nor was he expected to be disobedient. As the popularity of monks and monasteries grew, monks became very influential figures in the middle ages society. Not only were they educated by they also demonstrated skills in agriculture and manual labor, as this is what they did within the monasteries. However, the labor they undertook was not the forced and undignified type imposed in the previous centuries by the barbarians and Romans. As time went by the influential families in the medieval era began establishing their own monasteries within their estates. The abbots who were designated to oversee these monasteries were related, directly or in directly to the family that owned the monastery. As such, the abbots administered the monasteries in the interest of the owners. This resulted into the rapid integration of the monasteries into the power structure of the medieval society. Structure and Hierarchy Every monastery sought to establish an independent and self-reliant community in which the monks did not require to go out to get anything. Although most monasteries started out small, they rapidly grew in terms of wealth and the number of people who would join the monastic community. The monasteries would grow to cover many acres of land and monumental walls would surround them. The power structure existent in society in general was also present within the monasteries. An abbot governed the monasteries in the middle ages; the abbot owed some allegiance to a local lord or a higher authority such as the church. The monks, who entered the monasteries first as students, would rise to prominent positions to become callers, tutors, doctors or archivists. The rapid rise in position would also come with increased wealth. The claustral prior was the second in command to the abbot and bore the responsibility of managing the internal affairs of the monasteries. It was possible for an abbot to come into the monastery as landless nobility who utilized the church for purposes of establishing a social movement. The main building of the monasteries in the middle ages was grouped within an interior court, also known as a cloister. The cloister comprised of the church, the dining room, a dormitory, kitchen, and a chapter house where business transactions took place. The monasteries also featured a school, a hospital, library, laundry areas and a guestroom for hosting visitors such. Beyond the court, were the gardens, grain fields and a mill that served as a source of subsistence for the monastery. Life in the monasteries involved regular periods of worship, studying and labor. Days were managed into eight different activities all of which began and ended with worship in the church. The initial church service was at about two in the morning while the last one took place at sunset. During the day they would spent a couple of hours studying the bible, praying, and meditating in private. The rest of the hours were spent in manual labor within the monastery and in the gardens. Monasteries in the middle ages were used for several activities: - The monastery was used as a source of refuge for pilgrims. At this time in Europe, there were almost no inns for travelers. - The monastery engaged in social work that involved feeding the hungry and caring for the sick. - The medieval monasteries offered education mainly to boys who were looking for a life of priesthood and those who were looking to enter other professions. - The monasteries were also in charge of copying, by hand, the manuscripts of classical writers in an effort to preserve these manuscripts. They also penned down the Bible in Latin and distributed copies to the community. They record events that took place during this time and these served as a good source of middle ages historical records.	<urn:uuid:01ca8a42-2a7e-413d-ac01-66c5303bd08f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefinertimes.com/Middle-Ages/monasteries-in-the-middle-ages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00465.warc.gz	en	0.987246	1,311	4.125	4	[ -0.03698117285966873, 0.08277083188295364, -0.12738309800624847, -0.5595912933349609, -0.039767131209373474, 0.06908944249153137, -0.28177788853645325, -0.39192938804626465, 0.2551642656326294, 0.2371174693107605, -0.2983156740665436, -0.14954012632369995, -0.12743458151817322, 0.077233530...	12	Benedictine laws created in 529 AD by St. Benedictine governed monasteries in the middle ages. The middle ages also saw the establishment of various monk orders with the main ones being Carthusians, Benedictines and Cistercians. The orders differed based on how they observed their religious rituals and the strictness with which they implemented their laws and regulations. In the wake of the 12th century, there were about 420 monasteries in England but in the centuries that followed, fewer monasteries were built in England and most parts of Europe. Middle Ages monasticism was established by the traditions of Saint Anthony. In 270AD Anthony a young Christian man, aged 20 years and born in Egypt chose to donate his possessions and to live in a desert. He lived in solitude most of his life where he prayed and undertook manual jobs to earn a living. His way of living was soon perceived as holy and people came to stay close to him and to imitate his ways. Most people of this time saw this way of living as an opportunity to demonstrate their faith and loyalty to God, because martyrdom was no longer a possibility. In the wake of the 5th century, this form of lifestyle in which people lived together in pious isolation caught up in the Western world and in Europe in particular. Like most forms of organizations, the monastic factions began to split into orders and sects. One reason for these divisions was that the Church itself was divided and issued differing instructions to the monks who were affiliated to them. The different monk sects travelled across Europe establishing monasteries and spreading the gospel to the non-believers. The monks also sought to make changes in the Church to heal the divisions that were fast threatening the Church. The monks in the middle ages were also very instrumental as a source of education. St. Benedict of Nursia was able was able to unite the different monk sects and to bring order to the monasteries in the Middle Ages. He established the Benedictine Rule after seeking to reform not just the monastic movement but also the Church. As a young monk in Rome, he witnessed the corruption of the Church and of the city and was inspired to change this. He moved away from the city and went to the desert, subsequently attracting a following. He organized his followers into communities at Subiaco but was later chased by the clergy there. Before his death he organized his new society at Monte Cassino where he established the Benedictine Rule for his followers to observe. The rules regulated many monastic communities and they placed the abbot in charge of the community. The abbot was a life leader and the monk was not allowed to leave his community nor was he expected to be disobedient. As the popularity of monks and monasteries grew, monks became very influential figures in the middle ages society. Not only were they educated by they also demonstrated skills in agriculture and manual labor, as this is what they did within the monasteries. However, the labor they undertook was not the forced and undignified type imposed in the previous centuries by the barbarians and Romans. As time went by the influential families in the medieval era began establishing their own monasteries within their estates. The abbots who were designated to oversee these monasteries were related, directly or in directly to the family that owned the monastery. As such, the abbots administered the monasteries in the interest of the owners. This resulted into the rapid integration of the monasteries into the power structure of the medieval society. Structure and Hierarchy Every monastery sought to establish an independent and self-reliant community in which the monks did not require to go out to get anything. Although most monasteries started out small, they rapidly grew in terms of wealth and the number of people who would join the monastic community. The monasteries would grow to cover many acres of land and monumental walls would surround them. The power structure existent in society in general was also present within the monasteries. An abbot governed the monasteries in the middle ages; the abbot owed some allegiance to a local lord or a higher authority such as the church. The monks, who entered the monasteries first as students, would rise to prominent positions to become callers, tutors, doctors or archivists. The rapid rise in position would also come with increased wealth. The claustral prior was the second in command to the abbot and bore the responsibility of managing the internal affairs of the monasteries. It was possible for an abbot to come into the monastery as landless nobility who utilized the church for purposes of establishing a social movement. The main building of the monasteries in the middle ages was grouped within an interior court, also known as a cloister. The cloister comprised of the church, the dining room, a dormitory, kitchen, and a chapter house where business transactions took place. The monasteries also featured a school, a hospital, library, laundry areas and a guestroom for hosting visitors such. Beyond the court, were the gardens, grain fields and a mill that served as a source of subsistence for the monastery. Life in the monasteries involved regular periods of worship, studying and labor. Days were managed into eight different activities all of which began and ended with worship in the church. The initial church service was at about two in the morning while the last one took place at sunset. During the day they would spent a couple of hours studying the bible, praying, and meditating in private. The rest of the hours were spent in manual labor within the monastery and in the gardens. Monasteries in the middle ages were used for several activities: - The monastery was used as a source of refuge for pilgrims. At this time in Europe, there were almost no inns for travelers. - The monastery engaged in social work that involved feeding the hungry and caring for the sick. - The medieval monasteries offered education mainly to boys who were looking for a life of priesthood and those who were looking to enter other professions. - The monasteries were also in charge of copying, by hand, the manuscripts of classical writers in an effort to preserve these manuscripts. They also penned down the Bible in Latin and distributed copies to the community. They record events that took place during this time and these served as a good source of middle ages historical records.	1,315	ENGLISH	1
The Hindu epic Mahabharata, the Harivamsha and the Puranas mention Yadu as the eldest son of king Yayati and his queen Devayani. The prince of King Yayati, Yadu was a self-respecting and a very established ruler. According to the Vishnu Purana, the Bhagavata Purana and the Garuda Purana, Yadu had four sons, while according to the rest of the Puranas he had five sons. The kings between Budha and Yayati were known as Somavanshi. According to a narrative found in the Mahabharata, and the Vishnu Purana, Yadu refused to exchange his years of youth with his father Yayati. So he was cursed by Yayati that none of Yadu's progeny shall possess the dominion under his father's command. Thereby, he could not have carried on the same dynasty, called Somavamshi. Notably, the only remaining dynasty of King Puru was entitled to be known as Somavamshi. Thereby King Yadu ordered that the future generations of his would be known as Yadavas and the dynasty would be known as Yaduvanshi. The generations of Yadu had unprecedented growth and got divided into two branches. Sahasrajit's descendants were named after his grandson, Haihaya, and were known as the Haihayas. King Kroshtu's descendants were often referred to as the Yadavas. According to P. L. Bhargava, when the original territory was partitioned between Sahasrajit and Kroshta, the former received the part lying to the western bank of the river Sindhu and the latter received the territory situated along the east bank of the river. Several Chandravanshi castes and communities in modern India, such as the Sainis of Punjab Province, Yadav or Ahir, Ayar Chudasama, Jadeja, Bhatti Rajputs, and Jadaun claim descent from Yadu.	<urn:uuid:671ebf21-8d3f-4436-b010-2c55716e6c8a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://dir.md/wiki/Yaduvanshi?host=en.wikipedia.org	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00209.warc.gz	en	0.988951	421	3.59375	4	[ -0.17589567601680756, 0.4542028605937958, -0.22074948251247406, -0.08416596055030823, -0.21292804181575775, -0.3617817163467407, 0.15795837342739105, -0.278737872838974, 0.14065462350845337, 0.4230290651321411, 0.0018979585729539394, -0.7852611541748047, 0.1706639975309372, 0.0030070513021...	1	The Hindu epic Mahabharata, the Harivamsha and the Puranas mention Yadu as the eldest son of king Yayati and his queen Devayani. The prince of King Yayati, Yadu was a self-respecting and a very established ruler. According to the Vishnu Purana, the Bhagavata Purana and the Garuda Purana, Yadu had four sons, while according to the rest of the Puranas he had five sons. The kings between Budha and Yayati were known as Somavanshi. According to a narrative found in the Mahabharata, and the Vishnu Purana, Yadu refused to exchange his years of youth with his father Yayati. So he was cursed by Yayati that none of Yadu's progeny shall possess the dominion under his father's command. Thereby, he could not have carried on the same dynasty, called Somavamshi. Notably, the only remaining dynasty of King Puru was entitled to be known as Somavamshi. Thereby King Yadu ordered that the future generations of his would be known as Yadavas and the dynasty would be known as Yaduvanshi. The generations of Yadu had unprecedented growth and got divided into two branches. Sahasrajit's descendants were named after his grandson, Haihaya, and were known as the Haihayas. King Kroshtu's descendants were often referred to as the Yadavas. According to P. L. Bhargava, when the original territory was partitioned between Sahasrajit and Kroshta, the former received the part lying to the western bank of the river Sindhu and the latter received the territory situated along the east bank of the river. Several Chandravanshi castes and communities in modern India, such as the Sainis of Punjab Province, Yadav or Ahir, Ayar Chudasama, Jadeja, Bhatti Rajputs, and Jadaun claim descent from Yadu.	414	ENGLISH	1
The Atlanta Exposition Address The chapter begins by telling the reader that Booker T. Washington, the author, was in the Atlanta Exposition representing the Negro enterprise and Negro civilization. He then describes how he gave a brief speech to the white and black community, and then continues by writing about some personal experiences and his point of view on some particular issues. Some of these experiences and issues include the outcome of his speech, how he meets and thinks about the President of the United States, the invitation to be a judge in an educational contest, the Negro ministry, and voting. In this chapter, Booker T. Washington?s main theme is how two different races can live together in order to achieve progress. In his persuasive speech, he tries to convince black and white people that they should give their best for the prosperity of the South. He also tries to persuade people to make friends, no matter what their skin color or place of birth is. He emphasizes that if two different races can get to the point where they can trust each other, then they will be surrounded by the most patient, faithful, law-abiding, and unresentful people that the world has ever seen. The fact that Up From Slavery is an autobiography clearly indicates that the book?s point of view is in first person. The reader can make sure of this by noticing that Booker T. Washington, the author, is the one who tells the reader what is going on, what he thinks about life, what his feelings are, and what he thinks about other people. In this chapter the reader can encounter some insights that will evoke feelings. In other words, a great deal of emotion is involved. An example of these insights would be when Booker T. Washington, the next day of the Atlanta Exposition, was surprised to find himself pointed out and surrounded by a crowd of men who whished to shake his hand. In order for the reader to feel something, he needs to understand that the author was black, and in that time, black people used to be slaves. The reader needs to know the author had never felt something like that in his life. By being black, nobody cared about him before until that moment. I think that in this chapter there are some very interesting and brilliant ideas. I actually thought that black people were illiterate, but now I know I?m wrong. I thought that they were illiterate because, just as the author described the Negro ministry, a race with a few years out of slavery had no time or opportunity to educate themselves. I really think that Booker T. Washington was an honest, sincere, and extremely smart person. In order to think about life they way he did, that requires wisdom and not everyone has it.	<urn:uuid:02367730-e479-44ff-9520-49c3058c7d60>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essay.ua-referat.com/The_Atlanta_Exposition_Address	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00387.warc.gz	en	0.982779	554	3.46875	3	[ -0.42582398653030396, 0.4131826162338257, -0.08490011096000671, 0.36929476261138916, -0.3497881293296814, 0.39191728830337524, 0.44082900881767273, -0.0933220311999321, -0.2262454479932785, -0.17227919399738312, 0.153483584523201, 0.07829859852790833, -0.08150514215230942, 0.29784601926803...	2	The Atlanta Exposition Address The chapter begins by telling the reader that Booker T. Washington, the author, was in the Atlanta Exposition representing the Negro enterprise and Negro civilization. He then describes how he gave a brief speech to the white and black community, and then continues by writing about some personal experiences and his point of view on some particular issues. Some of these experiences and issues include the outcome of his speech, how he meets and thinks about the President of the United States, the invitation to be a judge in an educational contest, the Negro ministry, and voting. In this chapter, Booker T. Washington?s main theme is how two different races can live together in order to achieve progress. In his persuasive speech, he tries to convince black and white people that they should give their best for the prosperity of the South. He also tries to persuade people to make friends, no matter what their skin color or place of birth is. He emphasizes that if two different races can get to the point where they can trust each other, then they will be surrounded by the most patient, faithful, law-abiding, and unresentful people that the world has ever seen. The fact that Up From Slavery is an autobiography clearly indicates that the book?s point of view is in first person. The reader can make sure of this by noticing that Booker T. Washington, the author, is the one who tells the reader what is going on, what he thinks about life, what his feelings are, and what he thinks about other people. In this chapter the reader can encounter some insights that will evoke feelings. In other words, a great deal of emotion is involved. An example of these insights would be when Booker T. Washington, the next day of the Atlanta Exposition, was surprised to find himself pointed out and surrounded by a crowd of men who whished to shake his hand. In order for the reader to feel something, he needs to understand that the author was black, and in that time, black people used to be slaves. The reader needs to know the author had never felt something like that in his life. By being black, nobody cared about him before until that moment. I think that in this chapter there are some very interesting and brilliant ideas. I actually thought that black people were illiterate, but now I know I?m wrong. I thought that they were illiterate because, just as the author described the Negro ministry, a race with a few years out of slavery had no time or opportunity to educate themselves. I really think that Booker T. Washington was an honest, sincere, and extremely smart person. In order to think about life they way he did, that requires wisdom and not everyone has it.	548	ENGLISH	1
In 1914, all of Europe was thrown into war, while Woodrow Wilson, President of America, decided to take a stand. He took a neutral stand point along with his fellow Americans. The basic response of the American President was mainly influenced with the aspect that the American opinion about the war was mixed at that point of time and there were no eminent threats of America from the war due to geographical reasons. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! The speaker Jennifer Keene (2005) has really emphasized on America’s path to the war, and how the stance of America changed and ultimately it became a clash between America and Germany. Initially America had alienated itself from the war, both economically and militarily and they also banned private loans to different allocations at that point of time. But the decision could not be prolonged as there were indications of a recession in the year 1915 and it were literally then the War started to come into the American shores. At that point of time both Britain and Germany were trying hard to disrupt the trade links of both the countries and USA hoped to break into the situation at the Western front. Stanbridge (2002) noted that Britain at that time had blocked the Northern Sea and American shipswere not being able to continue trades with Germany, hence the American capitalists were only trading with Britain and other allied countries. It prompted Germany to try to disrupt all the trade links between America and Britain and they started to use their U-boats successfully. Wilson wanted that Germany should follow certain guidelines in the aspect of submarine warfare. The speaker said that Wilson said that it was important for Germany to follow the international rules, which is while attacking a ship they would have to make them known to the enemy and give the crew adequate time to evacuate the ship and only after that they could sink the cargo of the ship. However, according to Rath (2002), at that point of time the U-boats were not as strong at it later became, they were fragile vessels and if they initially gave away their presence, it was easy for the ships to fire upon these U-boats and sink them into water. So the talks of Wilson did not work. At 1915, Lusitania, a British passenger ship was sunk near the coast of Ireland. In the tragedy, one hundred and twenty eight Americans lost their lives. Here Germany emphasized a fact that the ship was carrying ammunitions and it was not really good to put women and children in front of these ammunitions. It was the cue for Wilson to stand away from his idea of neutrality. Historically this was the event that prompted America into the War and ultimately confronted Germany in the World War I. The speaker, Jennifer Keene (2005) pointed out that the war was not only about clearing the barriers of trading only; it was about the rights of neutrals. The neutrals, in the time of war can go any where they want or trade with any one they wish. But Germany never respected those aspects and hence the sinking of Lusitania happened. After that Germany involved into a number of pledges and they said that they would not be part of any controversial sinking, they said that they would not attack any other merchant or passenger ships. The situation got changed in 1917, when Germany decided to go for unconditional submarine warfare. It was the final cause of the confrontation between USA and Germany. Here the speaker also mentioned the importance of the ‘Zimmerman Telegram’ which was intercepted by the British forces. Wilson got hold of it and he understood that their national honor was at stake as Germany had decided to violate the national rights in the case. In 1917 he finally went to the Congress and ultimately declared war on Germany and United States became actively involved in World War I. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:2c7fe399-6d55-4a0d-b624-631d45f778a6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/american-entry-into-w-w-one.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00367.warc.gz	en	0.988757	808	3.359375	3	[ -0.1466287225484848, 0.1800566017627716, 0.06992116570472717, -0.08695264160633087, 0.2848951816558838, 0.1731567531824112, -0.10062208771705627, 0.3886958956718445, 0.03605702519416809, -0.04348124563694, 0.1903275102376938, 0.13372306525707245, -0.09397797286510468, 0.5578116178512573, ...	1	In 1914, all of Europe was thrown into war, while Woodrow Wilson, President of America, decided to take a stand. He took a neutral stand point along with his fellow Americans. The basic response of the American President was mainly influenced with the aspect that the American opinion about the war was mixed at that point of time and there were no eminent threats of America from the war due to geographical reasons. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! The speaker Jennifer Keene (2005) has really emphasized on America’s path to the war, and how the stance of America changed and ultimately it became a clash between America and Germany. Initially America had alienated itself from the war, both economically and militarily and they also banned private loans to different allocations at that point of time. But the decision could not be prolonged as there were indications of a recession in the year 1915 and it were literally then the War started to come into the American shores. At that point of time both Britain and Germany were trying hard to disrupt the trade links of both the countries and USA hoped to break into the situation at the Western front. Stanbridge (2002) noted that Britain at that time had blocked the Northern Sea and American shipswere not being able to continue trades with Germany, hence the American capitalists were only trading with Britain and other allied countries. It prompted Germany to try to disrupt all the trade links between America and Britain and they started to use their U-boats successfully. Wilson wanted that Germany should follow certain guidelines in the aspect of submarine warfare. The speaker said that Wilson said that it was important for Germany to follow the international rules, which is while attacking a ship they would have to make them known to the enemy and give the crew adequate time to evacuate the ship and only after that they could sink the cargo of the ship. However, according to Rath (2002), at that point of time the U-boats were not as strong at it later became, they were fragile vessels and if they initially gave away their presence, it was easy for the ships to fire upon these U-boats and sink them into water. So the talks of Wilson did not work. At 1915, Lusitania, a British passenger ship was sunk near the coast of Ireland. In the tragedy, one hundred and twenty eight Americans lost their lives. Here Germany emphasized a fact that the ship was carrying ammunitions and it was not really good to put women and children in front of these ammunitions. It was the cue for Wilson to stand away from his idea of neutrality. Historically this was the event that prompted America into the War and ultimately confronted Germany in the World War I. The speaker, Jennifer Keene (2005) pointed out that the war was not only about clearing the barriers of trading only; it was about the rights of neutrals. The neutrals, in the time of war can go any where they want or trade with any one they wish. But Germany never respected those aspects and hence the sinking of Lusitania happened. After that Germany involved into a number of pledges and they said that they would not be part of any controversial sinking, they said that they would not attack any other merchant or passenger ships. The situation got changed in 1917, when Germany decided to go for unconditional submarine warfare. It was the final cause of the confrontation between USA and Germany. Here the speaker also mentioned the importance of the ‘Zimmerman Telegram’ which was intercepted by the British forces. Wilson got hold of it and he understood that their national honor was at stake as Germany had decided to violate the national rights in the case. In 1917 he finally went to the Congress and ultimately declared war on Germany and United States became actively involved in World War I. Most popular orders	831	ENGLISH	1
The effects when it was taken away from them. The Allied air raids were not ethical because they were an act of genocide towards innocent people. The bombing happened in the city of Dresden, Germany. According to history.com, “Dresden was neither important to German wartime production nor a major industrial center”(history.com Staff). Innocent and uninvolved citizens were killed for no legitimate reason except to prove to a point. “An estimated at somewhere between 35,000 and 135,000 were dead”(history.com staff). Killing all of these civilians was not only unethical but unnecessary. The Allied air raids were not ethical because they were just an attempt to terrorize Germany to the extent to get an early surrender from the Nazis. 2. Theft is never right because you can always get what you want or need without stealing. If the world tolerated stealing like Liesel did, no one would ever care for anything because it might be stolen. “She hated questions like that. They forced her to admit an ugly truth, to reveal her own filthy, thieving nature. ‘Because I stole again'”(Zusak, 127). When Liesel stole a book from the book burning, she felt so guilty that she confessed what she did. Stealing that book was very dangerous for her foster family, especially during that time, and she knew what she was doing was wrong. Theft is never right because it effects not only the people around you, but yourself also. 3. Social media is a current societal trends that is dangerous. Social media has the power to control the user in many ways. “But in the social network world, it seems that any kind of comparison is linked to depressive symptoms”(Walton). Social media makes people want to compare or measure up to others, and trying so hard to be like another can lead to depression. “Their recent follow-up study found that when people stop using, they also undergo small but measurable physiological effects” (Walton). Social media is also addictive, people have had physiological effects when it was taken away from them. Social media is a current trends that is dangerous because people find them selves comparing themselves to one another, and it may also be addictive.	<urn:uuid:78f8c9e5-630e-4555-b429-368bd0b02f53>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://learnwaystoearnonline.com/the-effects-when-it-was-taken-away-from-them/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00033.warc.gz	en	0.985018	462	3.40625	3	[ -0.14866475760936737, 0.4185563921928406, -0.1031637117266655, -0.053951945155858994, 0.5636809468269348, 0.061664074659347534, 0.2917361855506897, 0.322374552488327, 0.029562728479504585, -0.15366674959659576, 0.4025208652019501, 0.262799471616745, 0.10525336861610413, 0.23041999340057373...	1	The effects when it was taken away from them. The Allied air raids were not ethical because they were an act of genocide towards innocent people. The bombing happened in the city of Dresden, Germany. According to history.com, “Dresden was neither important to German wartime production nor a major industrial center”(history.com Staff). Innocent and uninvolved citizens were killed for no legitimate reason except to prove to a point. “An estimated at somewhere between 35,000 and 135,000 were dead”(history.com staff). Killing all of these civilians was not only unethical but unnecessary. The Allied air raids were not ethical because they were just an attempt to terrorize Germany to the extent to get an early surrender from the Nazis. 2. Theft is never right because you can always get what you want or need without stealing. If the world tolerated stealing like Liesel did, no one would ever care for anything because it might be stolen. “She hated questions like that. They forced her to admit an ugly truth, to reveal her own filthy, thieving nature. ‘Because I stole again'”(Zusak, 127). When Liesel stole a book from the book burning, she felt so guilty that she confessed what she did. Stealing that book was very dangerous for her foster family, especially during that time, and she knew what she was doing was wrong. Theft is never right because it effects not only the people around you, but yourself also. 3. Social media is a current societal trends that is dangerous. Social media has the power to control the user in many ways. “But in the social network world, it seems that any kind of comparison is linked to depressive symptoms”(Walton). Social media makes people want to compare or measure up to others, and trying so hard to be like another can lead to depression. “Their recent follow-up study found that when people stop using, they also undergo small but measurable physiological effects” (Walton). Social media is also addictive, people have had physiological effects when it was taken away from them. Social media is a current trends that is dangerous because people find them selves comparing themselves to one another, and it may also be addictive.	457	ENGLISH	1
Atlas bears, also known as the African bear (Ursus arctos crowtheri) is an extinct species of bear that was native to Africa. The bear gets its name because it mainly lived in the Atlas Mountain and areas surrounding Morroco, Libya, and Algeria. However, fossils of the bear have been found in caves throughout North Africa. The Atlas bear lived in mountains and forested terrain. Atlas bears had brownish-black fur and a black muzzle. The fur on the chest and stomach area was an orange-red color. The length of its fur was 4-5 inches long. It is also believed that these bears were stouter and thicker than American black bears and they had shorter claws and muzzles. Atlas bears were described as being about 9 feet long and weighed up to 1000 pounds. Atlas bears ate mostly roots, nuts, and acorns. It is believed to have been an omnivorous mammal given the fact that most modern bears are. Atlas bears became extinct after the Roman Empire invaded North Africa. The bears were hunted for sport and most were killed. Bears were also used as executioners. Bears also were used in the arenas to fight against gladiators, lions, tigers and other animals. Interesting Facts About Atlas Bears - The Atlas Bear was classified as subspecies Ursus arctos crowtheri by Swiss naturalist Heinrich Rudolf Schinz in 1844. - Atlas bears are the only species of bears that were endemic to Africa. - The Atlas Bear is believed to have become extinct in the 1870s.	<urn:uuid:93ba4ab1-c468-4682-8c82-f4054a107b10>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://collegiannews.com/atlas-bears/507860/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00070.warc.gz	en	0.985408	331	3.5	4	[ -0.09901341050863266, 0.16339750587940216, -0.006301237270236015, 0.39979588985443115, 0.10200587660074234, 0.03901666775345802, 0.4064430594444275, 0.11913016438484192, -0.2198106050491333, 0.09210307896137238, 0.20008113980293274, -0.9153268337249756, 0.3205382525920868, -0.0424263477325...	2	Atlas bears, also known as the African bear (Ursus arctos crowtheri) is an extinct species of bear that was native to Africa. The bear gets its name because it mainly lived in the Atlas Mountain and areas surrounding Morroco, Libya, and Algeria. However, fossils of the bear have been found in caves throughout North Africa. The Atlas bear lived in mountains and forested terrain. Atlas bears had brownish-black fur and a black muzzle. The fur on the chest and stomach area was an orange-red color. The length of its fur was 4-5 inches long. It is also believed that these bears were stouter and thicker than American black bears and they had shorter claws and muzzles. Atlas bears were described as being about 9 feet long and weighed up to 1000 pounds. Atlas bears ate mostly roots, nuts, and acorns. It is believed to have been an omnivorous mammal given the fact that most modern bears are. Atlas bears became extinct after the Roman Empire invaded North Africa. The bears were hunted for sport and most were killed. Bears were also used as executioners. Bears also were used in the arenas to fight against gladiators, lions, tigers and other animals. Interesting Facts About Atlas Bears - The Atlas Bear was classified as subspecies Ursus arctos crowtheri by Swiss naturalist Heinrich Rudolf Schinz in 1844. - Atlas bears are the only species of bears that were endemic to Africa. - The Atlas Bear is believed to have become extinct in the 1870s.	330	ENGLISH	1
1 . Difficulty: Does grow older (grade) or perhaps gender influence the benefits of browsing correctly a paragraph consisting of words with jumbled textual content? 2 . Hypothesis…...Read What changes took place during the Renaissance and why would these improvements happen? The Renaissance that was known as the ‘time of rebirth' took place inside the 15th hundred years. It was shortly after the Bubonic plague and a result of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1463. During this time period, many changes came about as a result of influence of Classical Greeks, Romans, as well as the Church. An extra contribution is that many prosperous merchants and scientists were thirsty and curious to enhance their expertise. Some of the discoveries that surfaced were the development of art, clinical discoveries, buildings and religion. Many of the changes that occurred were because of previous elements from the Ancient, and especially in the Black Loss of life. During the Renaissance, there was an immense transform with householder's beliefs regarding religion. Soon after the Plague, individuals started to realise that religion has not been a key point, or perhaps factor to life. This was found, for example , when the people who nonetheless dedicated their very own lives for the Church continue to died nevertheless from the Black Death, or perhaps the bubonic problem. Paintings inside the Renaissance as well suggested the art works that had been no longer in relation to the subject of religion Also, you observe changes in someones belief in religion was when Martin Luther, 1517, began that which was known to be the reformation. This included his 95 theses of which rebuked the Roman Catholic Chapel, and in particular, Pere Alexander VI. It was meant to be him, whom introduced the scrolls called indulgences, which cleared people of all their sins. However , it was an intentional way to cheat individuals that were wanting forgiveness into giving funds to the house of worship. It rapidly became obvious that the Pope's behaviour was obviously a disgrace, when he did not follow the conduct that he had guaranteed to follow, when ever becoming a pere. Many people began to realize these conspiracies of the Church when there was an increase in education which meant that people could now...	<urn:uuid:aaaf63c4-655d-43e0-813c-154beee54995>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://anniebrewerwrites.com/what-changes-took-place/35692-what-adjustments-took-place-during-the-renaissance.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00492.warc.gz	en	0.990014	448	3.375	3	[ -0.13225257396697998, 0.2098757028579712, 0.23149488866329193, 0.11691844463348389, -0.27331259846687317, 0.00046087129157967865, -0.08523724973201752, 0.4313545525074005, 0.006984388921409845, 0.11042692512273788, -0.035617925226688385, -0.24757233262062073, 0.015818394720554352, 0.039787...	1	1 . Difficulty: Does grow older (grade) or perhaps gender influence the benefits of browsing correctly a paragraph consisting of words with jumbled textual content? 2 . Hypothesis…...Read What changes took place during the Renaissance and why would these improvements happen? The Renaissance that was known as the ‘time of rebirth' took place inside the 15th hundred years. It was shortly after the Bubonic plague and a result of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1463. During this time period, many changes came about as a result of influence of Classical Greeks, Romans, as well as the Church. An extra contribution is that many prosperous merchants and scientists were thirsty and curious to enhance their expertise. Some of the discoveries that surfaced were the development of art, clinical discoveries, buildings and religion. Many of the changes that occurred were because of previous elements from the Ancient, and especially in the Black Loss of life. During the Renaissance, there was an immense transform with householder's beliefs regarding religion. Soon after the Plague, individuals started to realise that religion has not been a key point, or perhaps factor to life. This was found, for example , when the people who nonetheless dedicated their very own lives for the Church continue to died nevertheless from the Black Death, or perhaps the bubonic problem. Paintings inside the Renaissance as well suggested the art works that had been no longer in relation to the subject of religion Also, you observe changes in someones belief in religion was when Martin Luther, 1517, began that which was known to be the reformation. This included his 95 theses of which rebuked the Roman Catholic Chapel, and in particular, Pere Alexander VI. It was meant to be him, whom introduced the scrolls called indulgences, which cleared people of all their sins. However , it was an intentional way to cheat individuals that were wanting forgiveness into giving funds to the house of worship. It rapidly became obvious that the Pope's behaviour was obviously a disgrace, when he did not follow the conduct that he had guaranteed to follow, when ever becoming a pere. Many people began to realize these conspiracies of the Church when there was an increase in education which meant that people could now...	461	ENGLISH	1
Music has the capability to control our emotions and feeling whether we realize it or not. It’s also allows us to release emotions either by making our own music, listening to it, or singing and dancing. For our class today, we brought in small personal drums that the students could play on and experience. We learned that many of our students had never even had the opportunity to try out a drum before! We asked the students holding the drums to demonstrate how they would play if they were feeling happy. Then they passed it to the next person and we asked that they play if they were feeling sad. We did this two more times with them feeling frustrated and excited. All the tempos and beats were clearly varied and different depending on the mood. We didn’t have to teach the students how they should play based on a different mood, but this is something they knew and were able to recognize based on how well they understand their feelings. We also had a recent donation of old instruments, native to Thailand and the east Asian area. We passed these out and asked the students to guess where they came from, what they were made out of, and what instruments we have that are similar in America. This was a really cool way to expose students to the various instruments in the world, but also for them to see that we all are similar in some ways. Many of our students play an instrument, or more than one, and they were able to see the similarities of the instruments they play compared to these and if they could play them. We wanted to teach our classes how to notice the effect music has on them. We handed each student a little blank booklet and colored pencils. Next, we played various kinds of music that would generally cause different kinds of feelings. We asked that while each piece of music was being played, that they would draw how they felt in that moment. It could be a picture or a memory, or just colors and scribble on the page. We really just wanted them to be able to have a visual way to see their feelings and display them other than words or writing. We asked what colors they would normally use if they were feeling sad, happy, etc. They answered with blues and greens for sad or calm and reds and oranges for happy or excited, and we asked them to keep this in mind as they were drawing out their emotions to get their point across better. Our classes did such a great job with this project. They were able to show their various states-of-mind during each song we played, and each students interpretation was different. They were also able to stand up and explain to the class why they felt this way and how they demonstrated this on the paper. I think this was a really cool way to teach kids that they don’t have to keep their feelings in. They have a way to release what they are feeling even if it’s not through words, but it’s through colors and drawing and images. Julie Shaffer is a new docent at Woodmere Art Museum in Philadelphia. This is her second semester volunteering with Art Sphere. She loves yoga, post-modern fiction, and art history and … Continue reading Let Us Join Hands to Honor MLK, Jr. At the Fishtown Library Lunchtime Literacy session this week, we asked our young friends to suspend reality for the moment and enter the realm of imaginary and fantastical animals. Have … Continue reading Unicorns, Laminas, and Whatever You Can Imagine. We began our fist class at Southwark this week. Our theme for this semester is music and meditation, as well as combining this with teaching literacy and unity. Music is … Continue reading Unison of Music + Art Which famous Philadelphian woman was the first African American to perform at the Metropolitan Opera? Marian Anderson! She was born in 1897 in South Philadelphia. Hard-working and respectable, her mother was … Continue reading Famous African American Musicians from Philadelphia: Who Do You Know? This past Wednesday’s art class was all about our favorite artist..ourselves! With this being my first time teaching with Art Sphere I wanted to get to know my students better, … Continue reading Learning About Our Favorite Artist…Ourselves! This was our breakthrough assignment since coming back from the New Year and I wanted to have a “home” welcoming party. The students at Towey we’re really creative with how … Continue reading Home Designing at Towey Music has the awesome ability and effect to shift our mood or enable us to recall fond memories. “When you listen to music you also work better, you can … Continue reading Literacy through Music Research Color Wheel 2.0 . . . (point two point oh). What do you get when you take a trifold board with a six-part pie graph drawn on it and add … Continue reading Rolling into 2020, in Colorful Style For the first lesson of the New Year, we had the students at Towey work on an art project called God eyes, which was used by Indians in western Mexico … Continue reading New Year (God Eyes Project & Designing Names)	<urn:uuid:420c7c5d-9bda-4e92-99ef-8700b2a124ec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artsphere.org/blog/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00020.warc.gz	en	0.982643	1,056	3.84375	4	[ -0.04085617884993553, -0.08509975671768188, 0.8048906326293945, -0.3574867248535156, -0.6099583506584167, 0.4243265986442566, 0.2376483976840973, -0.28374555706977844, 0.03795932978391647, -0.33465635776519775, 0.36600393056869507, 0.12835824489593506, -0.03339339420199394, 0.1090190112590...	1	Music has the capability to control our emotions and feeling whether we realize it or not. It’s also allows us to release emotions either by making our own music, listening to it, or singing and dancing. For our class today, we brought in small personal drums that the students could play on and experience. We learned that many of our students had never even had the opportunity to try out a drum before! We asked the students holding the drums to demonstrate how they would play if they were feeling happy. Then they passed it to the next person and we asked that they play if they were feeling sad. We did this two more times with them feeling frustrated and excited. All the tempos and beats were clearly varied and different depending on the mood. We didn’t have to teach the students how they should play based on a different mood, but this is something they knew and were able to recognize based on how well they understand their feelings. We also had a recent donation of old instruments, native to Thailand and the east Asian area. We passed these out and asked the students to guess where they came from, what they were made out of, and what instruments we have that are similar in America. This was a really cool way to expose students to the various instruments in the world, but also for them to see that we all are similar in some ways. Many of our students play an instrument, or more than one, and they were able to see the similarities of the instruments they play compared to these and if they could play them. We wanted to teach our classes how to notice the effect music has on them. We handed each student a little blank booklet and colored pencils. Next, we played various kinds of music that would generally cause different kinds of feelings. We asked that while each piece of music was being played, that they would draw how they felt in that moment. It could be a picture or a memory, or just colors and scribble on the page. We really just wanted them to be able to have a visual way to see their feelings and display them other than words or writing. We asked what colors they would normally use if they were feeling sad, happy, etc. They answered with blues and greens for sad or calm and reds and oranges for happy or excited, and we asked them to keep this in mind as they were drawing out their emotions to get their point across better. Our classes did such a great job with this project. They were able to show their various states-of-mind during each song we played, and each students interpretation was different. They were also able to stand up and explain to the class why they felt this way and how they demonstrated this on the paper. I think this was a really cool way to teach kids that they don’t have to keep their feelings in. They have a way to release what they are feeling even if it’s not through words, but it’s through colors and drawing and images. Julie Shaffer is a new docent at Woodmere Art Museum in Philadelphia. This is her second semester volunteering with Art Sphere. She loves yoga, post-modern fiction, and art history and … Continue reading Let Us Join Hands to Honor MLK, Jr. At the Fishtown Library Lunchtime Literacy session this week, we asked our young friends to suspend reality for the moment and enter the realm of imaginary and fantastical animals. Have … Continue reading Unicorns, Laminas, and Whatever You Can Imagine. We began our fist class at Southwark this week. Our theme for this semester is music and meditation, as well as combining this with teaching literacy and unity. Music is … Continue reading Unison of Music + Art Which famous Philadelphian woman was the first African American to perform at the Metropolitan Opera? Marian Anderson! She was born in 1897 in South Philadelphia. Hard-working and respectable, her mother was … Continue reading Famous African American Musicians from Philadelphia: Who Do You Know? This past Wednesday’s art class was all about our favorite artist..ourselves! With this being my first time teaching with Art Sphere I wanted to get to know my students better, … Continue reading Learning About Our Favorite Artist…Ourselves! This was our breakthrough assignment since coming back from the New Year and I wanted to have a “home” welcoming party. The students at Towey we’re really creative with how … Continue reading Home Designing at Towey Music has the awesome ability and effect to shift our mood or enable us to recall fond memories. “When you listen to music you also work better, you can … Continue reading Literacy through Music Research Color Wheel 2.0 . . . (point two point oh). What do you get when you take a trifold board with a six-part pie graph drawn on it and add … Continue reading Rolling into 2020, in Colorful Style For the first lesson of the New Year, we had the students at Towey work on an art project called God eyes, which was used by Indians in western Mexico … Continue reading New Year (God Eyes Project & Designing Names)	1,040	ENGLISH	1
James Watt is the Scottish engineer and inventor who literally changed the world. His improvements to the steam engine drove the Industrial Revolution. His success was so great that the internationally recognised SI (Système international (d’unités)) unit of power was named the Watt in his honour. The year 2019 marked the 200th anniversary of Watt’s death and the 250th anniversary of Watt’s patent (to use a separate condenser to improve the efficiency of a steam engine.). You’ll find out more about Watt’s life below. - Click here to see a gallery of pictures of images used across this site - See an archive list of events that took place in 2019 - Read our press release about the celebrations in 2019 - See a map of locations linked with James Watt - Check out our page of links of useful Watt articles. 19 January 1736 – James Watt was born in William Street, Greenock – the son of a prosperous shipbuilder. A family anecdote was that young “Jamie” (as friends called him) was fascinated by the sight of a steaming kettle. Sadly, his father’s firm hit problems and his mother died when he was just 17 years old. Watt realised he had to make his own fortune. 1755 – James set off for London to make mathematical instruments, returning to Scotland a year later. He struggled to find work and eventually was employed by university professors repairing academic instruments. For the next six years, he ran a business manufacturing musical instruments and toys at Glasgow University. 1758 – Watt was introduced to John (later Professor) Robison – and the science of steam. 1763 – Glasgow University asked Watt to repair one of its Newcomen steam engines, which Watt realised were terribly inefficient. He also teamed up with another University Professor, Joseph Black. 1764 – Watt married his cousin, Margaret Miller. 1765 – Out walking on Glasgow Green, Watt had his eureka moment. He realised that having a separate chamber for steam to condense would make a steam engine run faster and use less fuel. However, turning his idea into a working engine was more problematic. Watt was also deeply in debt. Black introduced Watt to John Roebuck – an industrialist who helped found the Carron Iron Works in Falkirk. Roebuck was based at Kinneil House, near Bo’ness. Roebuck paid off Watt’s debts in return for a two-thirds share of Watt’s invention. He also built him a cottage workshop beside Kinneil House to carry out his experiments away from the prying eyes of local people. 1769 – the idea of using a separate condenser to power a steam engine was patented. However, Watt struggled to get a working model constructed. 1773 – Watt’s constant supporter, his wife Margaret, known as “Peggy, died in childbirth. The couple had two other children. 1773 – His backer, John Roebuck, went bankrupt and was forced to pass on his interests in the steam engine patent to one of his associates, industrialist Matthew Boulton of Birmingham. 1774 – Watt, at the age of 38, moved to Birmingham to partner up with Boulton at a factory in the Soho area. Watt’s new English partner had the precision engineering to perfect Watt’s improved steam engine. Orders for improved steam engines rolled in, initially from collieries. 1776 – Watt married again, this time to Ann MacGregor and the couple had a further two children. 1781 – Boulton suggested other applications for their improved steam engines – such as flour, cotton and iron mills. 1784 – Watt made further improvements to the steam engine and patented a steam locomotive. 1800 – Boulton and Watt, now very wealthy and very famous, retired and handed over their business to their sons. Watt continued to invent other things before and after his retirement – including several machines for copying sculptures and medallions. 1816 – Watt made his last trip to his hometown in Greenock, arriving – appropriately – on a paddle-steamer. 1819 – August 19, Watt died, aged 83, at his home “Heathfield” in Handsworth, now part of Birmingham. He was buried alongside his business partner, Matthew Boulton, at St Mary’s Church, Handsworth. During his lifetime, James Watt was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. He was elected to the Society of Civil Engineers (Smeatonians) and was made an Honorary Doctor of Laws at Glasgow University. He was also elected a Foreign Member of the Academie des Sciences in Paris. He is widely credited as being a driving force behind the Industrial Revolution. 1882 – a unit measuring electrical and mechanical power was named a “Watt” in honour of the Scottish inventor. 2009 – the Bank of England announced that Boulton and Watt would appear on a new £50 note – the first time two people would feature on the back of an English banknote. 2011 – Watt was one of the first inductees into the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame. New inductees are announced each year at the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland (IESIS) James Watt Dinner 2019 marked the 200th anniversary of Watt’s death and the 250th anniversary of the granting of his patent for a new type of steam engine. The New Scientist magazine said the improvements devised by Watt “converted it (the steam engine) from a prime mover of marginal efficiency into the mechanical workhorse of the Industrial Revolution”.	<urn:uuid:362d40bc-2349-4d24-bef9-9cd0e34f7d9a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jameswatt.scot/about/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00380.warc.gz	en	0.980322	1,193	3.484375	3	[ -0.22832930088043213, 0.28239065408706665, 0.8005882501602173, -0.15618762373924255, -0.2725670635700226, -0.042358510196208954, -0.08315891027450562, 0.055925603955984116, -0.0633675828576088, 0.12796004116535187, -0.14321772754192352, -0.18360164761543274, 0.3084234297275543, -0.00514535...	18	James Watt is the Scottish engineer and inventor who literally changed the world. His improvements to the steam engine drove the Industrial Revolution. His success was so great that the internationally recognised SI (Système international (d’unités)) unit of power was named the Watt in his honour. The year 2019 marked the 200th anniversary of Watt’s death and the 250th anniversary of Watt’s patent (to use a separate condenser to improve the efficiency of a steam engine.). You’ll find out more about Watt’s life below. - Click here to see a gallery of pictures of images used across this site - See an archive list of events that took place in 2019 - Read our press release about the celebrations in 2019 - See a map of locations linked with James Watt - Check out our page of links of useful Watt articles. 19 January 1736 – James Watt was born in William Street, Greenock – the son of a prosperous shipbuilder. A family anecdote was that young “Jamie” (as friends called him) was fascinated by the sight of a steaming kettle. Sadly, his father’s firm hit problems and his mother died when he was just 17 years old. Watt realised he had to make his own fortune. 1755 – James set off for London to make mathematical instruments, returning to Scotland a year later. He struggled to find work and eventually was employed by university professors repairing academic instruments. For the next six years, he ran a business manufacturing musical instruments and toys at Glasgow University. 1758 – Watt was introduced to John (later Professor) Robison – and the science of steam. 1763 – Glasgow University asked Watt to repair one of its Newcomen steam engines, which Watt realised were terribly inefficient. He also teamed up with another University Professor, Joseph Black. 1764 – Watt married his cousin, Margaret Miller. 1765 – Out walking on Glasgow Green, Watt had his eureka moment. He realised that having a separate chamber for steam to condense would make a steam engine run faster and use less fuel. However, turning his idea into a working engine was more problematic. Watt was also deeply in debt. Black introduced Watt to John Roebuck – an industrialist who helped found the Carron Iron Works in Falkirk. Roebuck was based at Kinneil House, near Bo’ness. Roebuck paid off Watt’s debts in return for a two-thirds share of Watt’s invention. He also built him a cottage workshop beside Kinneil House to carry out his experiments away from the prying eyes of local people. 1769 – the idea of using a separate condenser to power a steam engine was patented. However, Watt struggled to get a working model constructed. 1773 – Watt’s constant supporter, his wife Margaret, known as “Peggy, died in childbirth. The couple had two other children. 1773 – His backer, John Roebuck, went bankrupt and was forced to pass on his interests in the steam engine patent to one of his associates, industrialist Matthew Boulton of Birmingham. 1774 – Watt, at the age of 38, moved to Birmingham to partner up with Boulton at a factory in the Soho area. Watt’s new English partner had the precision engineering to perfect Watt’s improved steam engine. Orders for improved steam engines rolled in, initially from collieries. 1776 – Watt married again, this time to Ann MacGregor and the couple had a further two children. 1781 – Boulton suggested other applications for their improved steam engines – such as flour, cotton and iron mills. 1784 – Watt made further improvements to the steam engine and patented a steam locomotive. 1800 – Boulton and Watt, now very wealthy and very famous, retired and handed over their business to their sons. Watt continued to invent other things before and after his retirement – including several machines for copying sculptures and medallions. 1816 – Watt made his last trip to his hometown in Greenock, arriving – appropriately – on a paddle-steamer. 1819 – August 19, Watt died, aged 83, at his home “Heathfield” in Handsworth, now part of Birmingham. He was buried alongside his business partner, Matthew Boulton, at St Mary’s Church, Handsworth. During his lifetime, James Watt was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. He was elected to the Society of Civil Engineers (Smeatonians) and was made an Honorary Doctor of Laws at Glasgow University. He was also elected a Foreign Member of the Academie des Sciences in Paris. He is widely credited as being a driving force behind the Industrial Revolution. 1882 – a unit measuring electrical and mechanical power was named a “Watt” in honour of the Scottish inventor. 2009 – the Bank of England announced that Boulton and Watt would appear on a new £50 note – the first time two people would feature on the back of an English banknote. 2011 – Watt was one of the first inductees into the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame. New inductees are announced each year at the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland (IESIS) James Watt Dinner 2019 marked the 200th anniversary of Watt’s death and the 250th anniversary of the granting of his patent for a new type of steam engine. The New Scientist magazine said the improvements devised by Watt “converted it (the steam engine) from a prime mover of marginal efficiency into the mechanical workhorse of the Industrial Revolution”.	1,208	ENGLISH	1
After the last hopes and efforts of the Cherokees had been defeated and they were on their way out of the state to their designated reservation in Oklahoma, the state of Georgia got busy redistributing their land to white settlers within the state. According to a law passed on 26 December 1831, the former Cherokee territory in North Georgia officially became the county of Cherokee. It was one HUGE county stretching completely across the width of the state’s border with Tennessee in the north and narrowing slightly as it approached what is now the Atlanta area. Another law passed on 3 December 1832 divided this monster county into 10 smaller counties, but that was only the first division. I couldn’t find an official count of the total number of counties that eventually were made from the first Cherokee, but, by my count, there were at least 25. If you look at a current Georgia map with county lines, the original Cherokee-derived counties form a huge triangle from Dade in the northwest to Carroll in the southwest, then up to Rabun in the northeast. There was an amazing amount of land to be surveyed and divided into sections, districts, and lots, and my hat is off to the men who took on this job, particularly to those who surveyed and plotted the areas like ours where mountains and highlands and many waterways made doing their jobs a real challenge. They did it all on horseback in all kinds of weather, but they seem to have had what it took. (See the accompanying diagram, created at the time, which shows the layout of the Cherokee Territory at the time of these surveys with some of the current counties added to help explain the size and location of the area.) In the reference portion of the book on this lottery that we have in the library are drawings of each individual section of land showing all these geographic features and they are surprisingly accurate. Even more surprising is that the final “official” maps are all the work of one man, James F. Smith, who must have labored night and day for months on end to get the 60 maps he had to draw completed in time for use in the lottery. An additional complication, and one of the reasons that the Cherokee removal was demanded by the white population of the state, was that gold had recently been discovered in the Cherokee lands around Dahlonega, and the locals were more than anxious to get their hands on this land. Because of the value of these lots, the state treated them differently and held a separate lottery for the “gold lots” a little later after the regular Cherokee lottery. As indicated on the diagram, the “gold lots” are designated by dots in the appropriate areas which are far more extensive than the gold discoveries ever were. Actually, significant amounts of gold were only ever found in the Lumpkin County (Dahlonega) area and even that played out after only a few years, so all the hullabaloo about the gold lots was really much ado about very little, but people didn’t know that in 1832. Our focus here will be the “regular” land lots awarded in the Cherokee lottery and, especially, those that became Dade County. Next time: The “Fortunate Drawers” and white settlement begins.	<urn:uuid:1b09fe13-2600-4d09-ac16-e3c2793d82e0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dadeplanet.com/single-post/2019/12/09/The-1832-Land-Lottery-How-We-Went-from-Cherokee-to-Dade-Part-I-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00294.warc.gz	en	0.984592	668	3.390625	3	[ -0.5247883796691895, -0.21034568548202515, 0.19911596179008484, 0.21281662583351135, -0.22526134550571442, -0.23976528644561768, 0.39678680896759033, -0.4244290888309479, -0.08688409626483917, 0.01667746901512146, 0.03983989730477333, 0.12810471653938293, 0.1515994668006897, 0.357945054769...	3	After the last hopes and efforts of the Cherokees had been defeated and they were on their way out of the state to their designated reservation in Oklahoma, the state of Georgia got busy redistributing their land to white settlers within the state. According to a law passed on 26 December 1831, the former Cherokee territory in North Georgia officially became the county of Cherokee. It was one HUGE county stretching completely across the width of the state’s border with Tennessee in the north and narrowing slightly as it approached what is now the Atlanta area. Another law passed on 3 December 1832 divided this monster county into 10 smaller counties, but that was only the first division. I couldn’t find an official count of the total number of counties that eventually were made from the first Cherokee, but, by my count, there were at least 25. If you look at a current Georgia map with county lines, the original Cherokee-derived counties form a huge triangle from Dade in the northwest to Carroll in the southwest, then up to Rabun in the northeast. There was an amazing amount of land to be surveyed and divided into sections, districts, and lots, and my hat is off to the men who took on this job, particularly to those who surveyed and plotted the areas like ours where mountains and highlands and many waterways made doing their jobs a real challenge. They did it all on horseback in all kinds of weather, but they seem to have had what it took. (See the accompanying diagram, created at the time, which shows the layout of the Cherokee Territory at the time of these surveys with some of the current counties added to help explain the size and location of the area.) In the reference portion of the book on this lottery that we have in the library are drawings of each individual section of land showing all these geographic features and they are surprisingly accurate. Even more surprising is that the final “official” maps are all the work of one man, James F. Smith, who must have labored night and day for months on end to get the 60 maps he had to draw completed in time for use in the lottery. An additional complication, and one of the reasons that the Cherokee removal was demanded by the white population of the state, was that gold had recently been discovered in the Cherokee lands around Dahlonega, and the locals were more than anxious to get their hands on this land. Because of the value of these lots, the state treated them differently and held a separate lottery for the “gold lots” a little later after the regular Cherokee lottery. As indicated on the diagram, the “gold lots” are designated by dots in the appropriate areas which are far more extensive than the gold discoveries ever were. Actually, significant amounts of gold were only ever found in the Lumpkin County (Dahlonega) area and even that played out after only a few years, so all the hullabaloo about the gold lots was really much ado about very little, but people didn’t know that in 1832. Our focus here will be the “regular” land lots awarded in the Cherokee lottery and, especially, those that became Dade County. Next time: The “Fortunate Drawers” and white settlement begins.	663	ENGLISH	1
Scientists have been able to teach bees to do all kinds of things, like tug on a rope or count to four. But so far these skills have largely fallen into the realm of what scientists might expect is possible. So to really put bees to the test, and figure out exactly how much they can learn, researchers recently taught them a skill they would never need in their natural environment: playing 'soccer.' "This was an attempt to kind of test the limits of bees' cognitive capacity," said Clint J. Perry, a cognitive neuroethologist (he studies animal brains) at Queen Mary University London, who worked on the experiment. "There are no flowers that exist that require a bee to bring a ball into it in order to get a reward." The results were published in a study in Science Thursday. In the experiment, bumblebees learned to manipulate a little ball into a "goal," and when they did it, they'd get a reward: sugar water. Their behavior was compared to a control group of bees that did not get any training, and the difference was night and day, according to the study. When taught how to move the ball, and that it would trigger a reward, after just a few demonstrations the bees would start to solve the puzzle on their own. Control bees never quite figured it out: Overall, the bees picked up the skill effortlessly, and even showed some ingenuity in how they solved the puzzle—something that's never been shown in insects before. It's a remarkable demonstration of how powerful a bee's sesame-seed-sized brain really is, and how incredible these important pollinators are. Perry and his colleagues tested out a few different ways of teaching the bees. First, they used a really simple design (just one ball on a flat surface with a center "goal") and used a small puppet bee to demonstrate the desired behavior. After 10 to 20 demonstrations, all bees that watched this technique were able to perform the behavior to get the reward. "But we wanted to know what elements of the demonstrations the bees were paying attention to," Perry told me. "Was it social? Was it the movement of the ball? Maybe they didn't care about the model bee. I mean it looked like a bee to us, but it wouldn't fool us, so was it fooling them?" To test this, the researchers did two more versions of the experiment, this time using a more complicated stage with three balls. In one experiment, they had a fellow live bumblebee that had already been trained to solve the puzzle demonstrate for a naive bee. In another experiment, the researchers used a magnet to manipulate the ball from underneath the platform, kind of like a ghost bee was moving it, to try to teach the naive bees the trick. The bees that watched a live demonstration had more successful trials and took less time to solve the puzzle than the ones with the "ghost" demonstrations, which shows that having a fellow bee teach them is a more effective way of learning. The researchers also tested if the bees were simply copying behavior or really putting two and two together. They had all the demonstrators (whether live bee or "ghost") always use the ball furthest away from the target when training, but noticed that the student bees would often go for the closest ball when it was their turn. "If the bees were simply copying what they observed, they should have moved the furthest ball, but in almost every instance they moved the closest ball," Perry said. "This shows a behavioral flexibility that is unprecedented in insects." Get six of our favorite Motherboard stories every day by signing up for our newsletter .	<urn:uuid:b24f6817-1203-4c3b-a70c-e5e2860addf8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/bm39p4/scientists-used-a-little-bee-puppet-to-teach-real-bees-how-to-play-bee-soccer	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00376.warc.gz	en	0.981884	743	3.71875	4	[ -0.1218176782131195, -0.14117860794067383, 0.14400973916053772, -0.4083704948425293, -0.1152273416519165, 0.5062284469604492, 0.3761729300022125, 0.36552631855010986, -0.002195402281358838, 0.36997270584106445, 0.06457836180925369, -0.17564338445663452, -0.09230862557888031, 0.106752112507...	5	Scientists have been able to teach bees to do all kinds of things, like tug on a rope or count to four. But so far these skills have largely fallen into the realm of what scientists might expect is possible. So to really put bees to the test, and figure out exactly how much they can learn, researchers recently taught them a skill they would never need in their natural environment: playing 'soccer.' "This was an attempt to kind of test the limits of bees' cognitive capacity," said Clint J. Perry, a cognitive neuroethologist (he studies animal brains) at Queen Mary University London, who worked on the experiment. "There are no flowers that exist that require a bee to bring a ball into it in order to get a reward." The results were published in a study in Science Thursday. In the experiment, bumblebees learned to manipulate a little ball into a "goal," and when they did it, they'd get a reward: sugar water. Their behavior was compared to a control group of bees that did not get any training, and the difference was night and day, according to the study. When taught how to move the ball, and that it would trigger a reward, after just a few demonstrations the bees would start to solve the puzzle on their own. Control bees never quite figured it out: Overall, the bees picked up the skill effortlessly, and even showed some ingenuity in how they solved the puzzle—something that's never been shown in insects before. It's a remarkable demonstration of how powerful a bee's sesame-seed-sized brain really is, and how incredible these important pollinators are. Perry and his colleagues tested out a few different ways of teaching the bees. First, they used a really simple design (just one ball on a flat surface with a center "goal") and used a small puppet bee to demonstrate the desired behavior. After 10 to 20 demonstrations, all bees that watched this technique were able to perform the behavior to get the reward. "But we wanted to know what elements of the demonstrations the bees were paying attention to," Perry told me. "Was it social? Was it the movement of the ball? Maybe they didn't care about the model bee. I mean it looked like a bee to us, but it wouldn't fool us, so was it fooling them?" To test this, the researchers did two more versions of the experiment, this time using a more complicated stage with three balls. In one experiment, they had a fellow live bumblebee that had already been trained to solve the puzzle demonstrate for a naive bee. In another experiment, the researchers used a magnet to manipulate the ball from underneath the platform, kind of like a ghost bee was moving it, to try to teach the naive bees the trick. The bees that watched a live demonstration had more successful trials and took less time to solve the puzzle than the ones with the "ghost" demonstrations, which shows that having a fellow bee teach them is a more effective way of learning. The researchers also tested if the bees were simply copying behavior or really putting two and two together. They had all the demonstrators (whether live bee or "ghost") always use the ball furthest away from the target when training, but noticed that the student bees would often go for the closest ball when it was their turn. "If the bees were simply copying what they observed, they should have moved the furthest ball, but in almost every instance they moved the closest ball," Perry said. "This shows a behavioral flexibility that is unprecedented in insects." Get six of our favorite Motherboard stories every day by signing up for our newsletter .	736	ENGLISH	1
What was Finland's position in World War Two? Apparently, they were fighting against the Soviet Union, but not as Nazi Germany's ally. Are there reasons for this, and were they actually on Germany's side? The USSR attacked Finland in 1939, which ended in a stalemate (1940). This was an embarrassment to the USSR, but the treaty gave the USSR 10% of Finnish territory. Finland sought to bolster its military strength with treaties and alliances. Great Britain and the USA were allied with the USSR against Hitler at the time and therefore would not help. Finland turned to Germany (the enemy of my enemy is my friend...), which sent troops to Finland. In June of 1941 the USSR launched air-raids against Finland, which in turn declared war on the USSR and allowed German troops stationed within Finland to take offensive action. In the south the Finns and Germans re-took their territory. When they started going beyond reclaiming land, the UK demonstrated its support of the USSR with its Raid on Kirkenes and Petsamo. In December 1941 Finland took up defensive positions, which resulted in relative calm for several years. On 16 March 1944, the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, called for Finland to disassociate itself from Nazi Germany. On 9 June 1944, the Red Army launched a massive attack against Finland. The USSR pushed the Finns back to where the previous truce had occurred (-10% land for Finland). The dire situation in 1944 had led to Finnish president Risto Ryti giving Germany his personal guarantee that Finland would not negotiate peace with the Soviet Union for as long as he was the president. In exchange Germany delivered weapons to the Finns. After the Soviet invasion was halted; however, Ryti resigned. The USSR was then in a race to Berlin and couldn't be bothered with Finland. In Sept 1944, peace was made and the Moscow armistice signed, which bound Finland to drive German forces from Finland. Finland tried to drive the Germans in a friendly fashion; agreeing to let the Germans leave peaceably. The Soviets refused to accept that, and so Finnish troops attacked the Germans, who proceeded to burn most of the houses in the Northern half of Finland (1-2k casualties on each side, and 100,000 people lost their homes). Note: Finland protected its Jews against the Nazi's antisemitism. Finland to an extent played both sides. This article pretty well covers things. The combination of difficult terrain and well trained, well equipped soldiers helped the Finns ensure their independence. They did lose a fair chunk of territory to the Soviets but succeeded in staying masters of their own affairs and allegiances. Joe Hobbit summarises the bulk of the war, but it is important to note that during the Winter War (1940), the Soviets were collaborating with Germany, and not yet allies with UK or France. In fact, UK and France tried to send military support to Finland, and many volunteers actually fought alongside the Finns. Basically, Finland was caught in the middle of events much larger than themselves. They wanted to defend themselves, and allied with whoever was opposed to the Soviets at the time. Finland had lost "11% of its territory and 30% of its economic power" (e.g. the Petsamo nickel mines to the Soviet Union in the "Winter War" of 1939-1940. The German invasion of the Soviet Union offered Finland a chance to get these back. Finnish troops advanced to the pre (Winter) war boundary, but no further. Finland wasn't pro Nazi Germany. But "the enemy of my enemy is my friend." Finland had a military treaty with Germany and they commonly prepared operation Barbarossa (invasion in the USSR). German army prepared positions on Finnish territory and Finnish army started mobilization 15 June, a week before the invasion in the USSR had started. 10 July 1941 Finnish army together with German troops stationed in the Finnish territory began offensive in the USSR. On the occupied territories Finnish administration created concentration camps for Slavic-speaking population and performed ethnic cleanings. On the other hand Permic and Ugic-speaking peoples were respected. Jewish POWS and Soviet citizens were separated in special camps for Jews with moderate regime. They were planned to be transferred to Germany about which they were informed, although only a minority of POWs were actually transferred to Gestapo (mostly Communists irrespective of ethnicity). In the Soviet territory Finnish troops also participated in the siege of Leningrad. In 1944 after the armistice with the USSR Finland declared war on Germany and expelled German troops.	<urn:uuid:a84234d7-9593-4146-a9e9-3f716870bacf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/503/what-was-finlands-position-in-world-war-two	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00497.warc.gz	en	0.980741	949	3.421875	3	[ -0.28841274976730347, 0.1792600452899933, 0.1201387494802475, -0.017035000026226044, -0.006528235971927643, 0.12661394476890564, 0.35751497745513916, 0.04231070354580879, -0.2160254418849945, -0.0387994758784771, 0.2637336254119873, -0.38759779930114746, 0.45596134662628174, 0.702353298664...	8	What was Finland's position in World War Two? Apparently, they were fighting against the Soviet Union, but not as Nazi Germany's ally. Are there reasons for this, and were they actually on Germany's side? The USSR attacked Finland in 1939, which ended in a stalemate (1940). This was an embarrassment to the USSR, but the treaty gave the USSR 10% of Finnish territory. Finland sought to bolster its military strength with treaties and alliances. Great Britain and the USA were allied with the USSR against Hitler at the time and therefore would not help. Finland turned to Germany (the enemy of my enemy is my friend...), which sent troops to Finland. In June of 1941 the USSR launched air-raids against Finland, which in turn declared war on the USSR and allowed German troops stationed within Finland to take offensive action. In the south the Finns and Germans re-took their territory. When they started going beyond reclaiming land, the UK demonstrated its support of the USSR with its Raid on Kirkenes and Petsamo. In December 1941 Finland took up defensive positions, which resulted in relative calm for several years. On 16 March 1944, the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, called for Finland to disassociate itself from Nazi Germany. On 9 June 1944, the Red Army launched a massive attack against Finland. The USSR pushed the Finns back to where the previous truce had occurred (-10% land for Finland). The dire situation in 1944 had led to Finnish president Risto Ryti giving Germany his personal guarantee that Finland would not negotiate peace with the Soviet Union for as long as he was the president. In exchange Germany delivered weapons to the Finns. After the Soviet invasion was halted; however, Ryti resigned. The USSR was then in a race to Berlin and couldn't be bothered with Finland. In Sept 1944, peace was made and the Moscow armistice signed, which bound Finland to drive German forces from Finland. Finland tried to drive the Germans in a friendly fashion; agreeing to let the Germans leave peaceably. The Soviets refused to accept that, and so Finnish troops attacked the Germans, who proceeded to burn most of the houses in the Northern half of Finland (1-2k casualties on each side, and 100,000 people lost their homes). Note: Finland protected its Jews against the Nazi's antisemitism. Finland to an extent played both sides. This article pretty well covers things. The combination of difficult terrain and well trained, well equipped soldiers helped the Finns ensure their independence. They did lose a fair chunk of territory to the Soviets but succeeded in staying masters of their own affairs and allegiances. Joe Hobbit summarises the bulk of the war, but it is important to note that during the Winter War (1940), the Soviets were collaborating with Germany, and not yet allies with UK or France. In fact, UK and France tried to send military support to Finland, and many volunteers actually fought alongside the Finns. Basically, Finland was caught in the middle of events much larger than themselves. They wanted to defend themselves, and allied with whoever was opposed to the Soviets at the time. Finland had lost "11% of its territory and 30% of its economic power" (e.g. the Petsamo nickel mines to the Soviet Union in the "Winter War" of 1939-1940. The German invasion of the Soviet Union offered Finland a chance to get these back. Finnish troops advanced to the pre (Winter) war boundary, but no further. Finland wasn't pro Nazi Germany. But "the enemy of my enemy is my friend." Finland had a military treaty with Germany and they commonly prepared operation Barbarossa (invasion in the USSR). German army prepared positions on Finnish territory and Finnish army started mobilization 15 June, a week before the invasion in the USSR had started. 10 July 1941 Finnish army together with German troops stationed in the Finnish territory began offensive in the USSR. On the occupied territories Finnish administration created concentration camps for Slavic-speaking population and performed ethnic cleanings. On the other hand Permic and Ugic-speaking peoples were respected. Jewish POWS and Soviet citizens were separated in special camps for Jews with moderate regime. They were planned to be transferred to Germany about which they were informed, although only a minority of POWs were actually transferred to Gestapo (mostly Communists irrespective of ethnicity). In the Soviet territory Finnish troops also participated in the siege of Leningrad. In 1944 after the armistice with the USSR Finland declared war on Germany and expelled German troops.	987	ENGLISH	1
In 1939, another war that would encompass the world began in Europe. World War II began as a conflict of beliefs concerning government among countries in Europe. The United States stayed on the sidelines, unwilling to become involved in the war until Japan attacked a Pacific Fleet of the United States Navy at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The American Revolution was the colonists' fight for freedom in the New World. It involved the help of spies, women, and people from other countries. The colonists fought against a giant, and they won their freedom from Great Britain against all odds. After winning the impossible, the colonists had a new battle to fight: setting up a new government and nation. Great Britain passed the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts, which made colonists angry. Eventually they boycotted and refused to purchase British goods. Great Britain sent soldiers to the colonies, which caused conflict like the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party. "Common Sense" by Thomas Paine helped convince people that they were no longer British citizens. The foundation for the American Revolution had been laid. When President James Madison declared war on Great Britain for a second time, the War of 1812 began. Problems started when America sent ships out to sea to trade with other countries. The war eventually ended, and the Treaty of Ghent was signed. America earned the respect of the British as a free, independent nation. During the 1800s, the United States was in conflict over slavery. Though compromises were made, neither side was pleased. Abolitionists and pro-slavery people engaged in conflicts and often deadly clashes. With South Carolina and other southern states seceding, war was inevitable. When Adolf Hitler began raising his army, one of the first people who sounded the alarm was Winston Churchill. After France fell to Hitler, Churchill held strong and worked to build up his army. Time and time again, Hitler offered a peace deal to Churchill in hopes that Churchill would leave him alone and back out of the war. Each time Churchill refused, knowing that it was a danger to let Hitler take over Europe. The Cold War was a different kind of war that lasted for more than 40 years. Countries did not shoot at one another, but they spied on and competed against one another. It was a war of beliefs as the United States believed in democracy and the Soviet Union advocated communism.	<urn:uuid:47685039-9671-4dee-8500-29781d898cf3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biguniverse.com/library/books/world-war-ii	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00391.warc.gz	en	0.980329	479	3.9375	4	[ -0.12425936013460159, 0.15216274559497833, 0.33473217487335205, -0.11886515468358994, -0.21992844343185425, 0.0969131663441658, -0.01987866312265396, 0.24183762073516846, 0.14924390614032745, -0.011923118494451046, 0.2607816159725189, 0.012769699096679688, 0.0540149062871933, 0.52659195661...	1	In 1939, another war that would encompass the world began in Europe. World War II began as a conflict of beliefs concerning government among countries in Europe. The United States stayed on the sidelines, unwilling to become involved in the war until Japan attacked a Pacific Fleet of the United States Navy at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The American Revolution was the colonists' fight for freedom in the New World. It involved the help of spies, women, and people from other countries. The colonists fought against a giant, and they won their freedom from Great Britain against all odds. After winning the impossible, the colonists had a new battle to fight: setting up a new government and nation. Great Britain passed the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts, which made colonists angry. Eventually they boycotted and refused to purchase British goods. Great Britain sent soldiers to the colonies, which caused conflict like the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party. "Common Sense" by Thomas Paine helped convince people that they were no longer British citizens. The foundation for the American Revolution had been laid. When President James Madison declared war on Great Britain for a second time, the War of 1812 began. Problems started when America sent ships out to sea to trade with other countries. The war eventually ended, and the Treaty of Ghent was signed. America earned the respect of the British as a free, independent nation. During the 1800s, the United States was in conflict over slavery. Though compromises were made, neither side was pleased. Abolitionists and pro-slavery people engaged in conflicts and often deadly clashes. With South Carolina and other southern states seceding, war was inevitable. When Adolf Hitler began raising his army, one of the first people who sounded the alarm was Winston Churchill. After France fell to Hitler, Churchill held strong and worked to build up his army. Time and time again, Hitler offered a peace deal to Churchill in hopes that Churchill would leave him alone and back out of the war. Each time Churchill refused, knowing that it was a danger to let Hitler take over Europe. The Cold War was a different kind of war that lasted for more than 40 years. Countries did not shoot at one another, but they spied on and competed against one another. It was a war of beliefs as the United States believed in democracy and the Soviet Union advocated communism.	489	ENGLISH	1
According to the legend, Rome was founded in 753BC by twin brothers called Romulus and Remus. The babies were raised by a she-wolf, having been abandoned by their uncle on the banks of the River Tiber. They were eventually rescued by a shepherd. By 509BC the original Etruscan inhabitants of Rome had been driven out, and by 275BC Rome controlled most of Italy. The Phoenicians were great rivals of Rome, and they were finally defeated by the Romans in the Punic Wars (261 – 146BC). After this, the Romans were able to extend their empire with little organized resistance. The Celts, the Seleucid kings, the Greeks and the Egyptians all fell before Roman power. Only the Parthians in the east and the Germanic tribes in northwest Europe defied the mighty Roman army. At its peak, the Roman army extended all around the Mediterranean Sea and most of the rest of Europe. Much of what is now England and France, Belgium and the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, part of Germany, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Israel, Syria, Arabia, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco was ruled by the Romans from their base in Italy. A huge army was needed to maintain control over these regions, and the costs were tremendous. There were continual minor wars and skirmishes along the edges of the Empire, which meant that large garrisons of soldiers had to be maintained.	<urn:uuid:3fdf3517-68bf-431c-a68c-714687c999dc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://giftedminds.com.ng/blog/how-was-rome-founded/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00213.warc.gz	en	0.989236	302	3.578125	4	[ -0.4133428931236267, 0.44556018710136414, 0.37227708101272583, 0.08504439890384674, -0.5057697296142578, -0.31591227650642395, -0.3867112100124359, 0.3037184774875641, -0.003177039325237274, -0.1520232856273651, 0.1609451323747635, -0.6028897762298584, 0.0012829862534999847, 0.233529537916...	2	According to the legend, Rome was founded in 753BC by twin brothers called Romulus and Remus. The babies were raised by a she-wolf, having been abandoned by their uncle on the banks of the River Tiber. They were eventually rescued by a shepherd. By 509BC the original Etruscan inhabitants of Rome had been driven out, and by 275BC Rome controlled most of Italy. The Phoenicians were great rivals of Rome, and they were finally defeated by the Romans in the Punic Wars (261 – 146BC). After this, the Romans were able to extend their empire with little organized resistance. The Celts, the Seleucid kings, the Greeks and the Egyptians all fell before Roman power. Only the Parthians in the east and the Germanic tribes in northwest Europe defied the mighty Roman army. At its peak, the Roman army extended all around the Mediterranean Sea and most of the rest of Europe. Much of what is now England and France, Belgium and the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, part of Germany, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Israel, Syria, Arabia, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco was ruled by the Romans from their base in Italy. A huge army was needed to maintain control over these regions, and the costs were tremendous. There were continual minor wars and skirmishes along the edges of the Empire, which meant that large garrisons of soldiers had to be maintained.	310	ENGLISH	1
Home History A Global History of Child Death: Mortality, Burial, and Parental Attitudes Indigenous Peoples of the World. Symbolism in Grief From a modern Western perspective the mortuary practices of many indigenous groups around the world are among the most diverse. Indigenous peoples, as defined by the World Bank, are closely attached to ancestral territories and their natural resources, and are generally subsistence oriented. Indigenous peoples often are also the non-dominant groups in a society. Despite cultural evolution of surrounding groups, indigenous groups might eschew modern mortuary practices for their own traditional, mourning customs. The practices of indigenous peoples provide a window into the historic continuity of certain behaviors that precede colonialism or settlement by more dominant groups.1 Native North Americans Religious beliefs play an essential role in mortuary behavior and mourning rituals for the great majority of the cultures discussed in this book. For peoples who have been the target of missionary expeditions, these behaviors and rituals can be confounded by traditional, indigenous beliefs and those of the adopted religions. In one example, Quincy Newell discusses how baptized Indians in California, between 1776 and 1821, approached major rituals accorded with birth, marriage, and death at Mission San Francisco. While over 600 Indians were baptized at the Mission, only some completely embraced the Catholic religion. Few children lived past the age of two at the Mission. Disease in the crowded and unsanitary conditions, lack of dietary variety, and stress of acclimating to an unfamiliar culture were all cited as causes of the high mortality of both children and adults. Preferences for cremation or burial and other practices varied among Indians, but like the Apache (described below) mourning rituals of Indians at the Mission were elaborately violent affairs; belongings of the deceased were destroyed, mourners blackened their faces and cut their hair, although these practices were likely forbidden by the priests.2 Because they were considered too young to understand the sacraments, children did not receive penitence and extreme unction before death. Therefore, parents took their ill or dying children from the Mission to their native land. This practice indicated that in times of distress and death some Indians sought comfort with the familiar; their traditional cures for illness, customary mourning ceremonies, and burial in the land where they or their parents were born.3 Kiowa-Apaches have been noted to have extreme fear of ghosts. Accordingly, for them death was a traumatic experience. They believed that deceased ancestors came to escort them to the afterlife. Reaction to a death of a close relative was tempestuous; clothes were torn, naked bodies exposed, and perhaps even a finger was cut off. (Similarly, women in some aboriginal tribes will cut off fingers to represent those who died as a form of grieving). The ghosts of children, however, caused little concern “because of their innocence and lack of rancor”. Consequently, children’s deaths did not activate the same violent reaction as for those of adults. Despite the lack of fear of child ghosts, it was believed that children should be protected as they were vulnerable to a ghostly attack. Children were taught to look away from whirlwinds (thought to carry spirits), kept from funerals, and forbidden to touch a corpse. A newly mobile child’s footprints were rubbed out, and if a child were left alone, a stick would be laid across his or her cradle.4 The burial practices of many tribes indicated concern for their young at death. For example, the Anasazi left many burial sites of infants. Infants were found wrapped in Yucca fibers and fur, and were buried carefully in their cradles where mourners left baskets, sandals and beads. Similarly, in the southwestern and southern United States, the Basketmakers (a group of hunters and gathers who lived in caves between 100—700 AD), often buried their infants (including fetuses) and young children in masses of soft fibers made from the leaves of Yucca plants or shrouded in fur, skin or feather-cloth blankets. These wrappings were used for both the living and the dead. Like the Anasazi, babies were left with grave goods. Generally the bodies were left in pits commonly used for storage, but some were left on the floor of a cave or placed in a crevice.5 Other tribes, such as the Muskogean of the southeastern United States, buried their children in Pithoi (burial jars). A desiccated three year old Pueblo child was found on an elaborate cradle- board with a cotton wood-bark sunshade placed on his head and adorned with a bracelet around the wrist. This burial was considered unusual, as other burials of the time were less extravagant and did not have grave coverings. Archaeologists infer that the child may have been disabled, perhaps unable to walk, because of the placement of the toddler on a cradleboard.6 Usually only infants were buried on a cradleboard or in a grass nest, while others were placed in twined bags or, more often, in an animal fur shroud. Babies of many native peoples were often believed to be reincarnations of ancestors. Therefore, these children were never hit, or else it was thought that the soul of an offended ancestor would depart the body and leave behind a dead child. In another example, Huron and Meskwaki mothers buried dead infants beside footpaths in the belief that the spirit would be reincarnated by entering the body of a woman passing.7 These beliefs also were evident in naming practices (discussed further in Chapter 8). \|< Prev\|\|CONTENTS\|\|Next >\|	<urn:uuid:4301c73b-e9ce-4f27-955d-b220d0587cc7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://m.ebrary.net/89420/history/indigenous_peoples_world_symbolism_grief	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00192.warc.gz	en	0.98096	1,150	3.265625	3	[ 0.1858440637588501, 0.3112904131412506, 0.5038659572601318, -0.09637617319822311, -0.3277187943458557, 0.14594438672065735, 0.22781896591186523, -0.013901136815547943, -0.07843855023384094, -0.14192724227905273, 0.1683017760515213, 0.11713560670614243, -0.21600179374217987, 0.2572524249553...	1	Home History A Global History of Child Death: Mortality, Burial, and Parental Attitudes Indigenous Peoples of the World. Symbolism in Grief From a modern Western perspective the mortuary practices of many indigenous groups around the world are among the most diverse. Indigenous peoples, as defined by the World Bank, are closely attached to ancestral territories and their natural resources, and are generally subsistence oriented. Indigenous peoples often are also the non-dominant groups in a society. Despite cultural evolution of surrounding groups, indigenous groups might eschew modern mortuary practices for their own traditional, mourning customs. The practices of indigenous peoples provide a window into the historic continuity of certain behaviors that precede colonialism or settlement by more dominant groups.1 Native North Americans Religious beliefs play an essential role in mortuary behavior and mourning rituals for the great majority of the cultures discussed in this book. For peoples who have been the target of missionary expeditions, these behaviors and rituals can be confounded by traditional, indigenous beliefs and those of the adopted religions. In one example, Quincy Newell discusses how baptized Indians in California, between 1776 and 1821, approached major rituals accorded with birth, marriage, and death at Mission San Francisco. While over 600 Indians were baptized at the Mission, only some completely embraced the Catholic religion. Few children lived past the age of two at the Mission. Disease in the crowded and unsanitary conditions, lack of dietary variety, and stress of acclimating to an unfamiliar culture were all cited as causes of the high mortality of both children and adults. Preferences for cremation or burial and other practices varied among Indians, but like the Apache (described below) mourning rituals of Indians at the Mission were elaborately violent affairs; belongings of the deceased were destroyed, mourners blackened their faces and cut their hair, although these practices were likely forbidden by the priests.2 Because they were considered too young to understand the sacraments, children did not receive penitence and extreme unction before death. Therefore, parents took their ill or dying children from the Mission to their native land. This practice indicated that in times of distress and death some Indians sought comfort with the familiar; their traditional cures for illness, customary mourning ceremonies, and burial in the land where they or their parents were born.3 Kiowa-Apaches have been noted to have extreme fear of ghosts. Accordingly, for them death was a traumatic experience. They believed that deceased ancestors came to escort them to the afterlife. Reaction to a death of a close relative was tempestuous; clothes were torn, naked bodies exposed, and perhaps even a finger was cut off. (Similarly, women in some aboriginal tribes will cut off fingers to represent those who died as a form of grieving). The ghosts of children, however, caused little concern “because of their innocence and lack of rancor”. Consequently, children’s deaths did not activate the same violent reaction as for those of adults. Despite the lack of fear of child ghosts, it was believed that children should be protected as they were vulnerable to a ghostly attack. Children were taught to look away from whirlwinds (thought to carry spirits), kept from funerals, and forbidden to touch a corpse. A newly mobile child’s footprints were rubbed out, and if a child were left alone, a stick would be laid across his or her cradle.4 The burial practices of many tribes indicated concern for their young at death. For example, the Anasazi left many burial sites of infants. Infants were found wrapped in Yucca fibers and fur, and were buried carefully in their cradles where mourners left baskets, sandals and beads. Similarly, in the southwestern and southern United States, the Basketmakers (a group of hunters and gathers who lived in caves between 100—700 AD), often buried their infants (including fetuses) and young children in masses of soft fibers made from the leaves of Yucca plants or shrouded in fur, skin or feather-cloth blankets. These wrappings were used for both the living and the dead. Like the Anasazi, babies were left with grave goods. Generally the bodies were left in pits commonly used for storage, but some were left on the floor of a cave or placed in a crevice.5 Other tribes, such as the Muskogean of the southeastern United States, buried their children in Pithoi (burial jars). A desiccated three year old Pueblo child was found on an elaborate cradle- board with a cotton wood-bark sunshade placed on his head and adorned with a bracelet around the wrist. This burial was considered unusual, as other burials of the time were less extravagant and did not have grave coverings. Archaeologists infer that the child may have been disabled, perhaps unable to walk, because of the placement of the toddler on a cradleboard.6 Usually only infants were buried on a cradleboard or in a grass nest, while others were placed in twined bags or, more often, in an animal fur shroud. Babies of many native peoples were often believed to be reincarnations of ancestors. Therefore, these children were never hit, or else it was thought that the soul of an offended ancestor would depart the body and leave behind a dead child. In another example, Huron and Meskwaki mothers buried dead infants beside footpaths in the belief that the spirit would be reincarnated by entering the body of a woman passing.7 These beliefs also were evident in naming practices (discussed further in Chapter 8). \|< Prev\|\|CONTENTS\|\|Next >\|	1,166	ENGLISH	1
An engaging look into the wide variety of homes commonly used by different cultures around the world. This book has a reading level of 1.9 and a word count of 294. This book gives kids a chance to meet other kids from different cultures around the world. Reads at a level of 1.9 and has a word count of 294. A look at some of the most important and interesting destinations from around the world. Reads at a level of 1.9 with a word count of 287. A great way for your kids to learn about the variety and manner in which many holidays are celebrated around the world. This book has a reading level of 1.7 and a word count of 195. The Mayas, Incas, and Aztecs were three groups of people found living in the ancient Americas. These three groups had similarities, including farming, the worshipping of gods, and skillful, imaginative art. All three civilizations ended when Spanish explorers moved into the Americas. Moctezuma was the most famous leader of the powerful Aztec empire. The Aztecs were expert warriors. Most of central Mexico was under their rule at one time. Moctezuma was elected as the ruler of the empire. He was a fair leader who believed in strictly following the laws. He ruled for 17 years until the fall of the Aztec empire. Mansa Musa was the king of Mali. Located in western Africa, Mali became one of the largest empires during Musa's reign. He helped his empire grow in size and culture by encouraging arts, literature, and architecture. He improved trade with the Arab and opened up other trade routes. During Musa's reign, he made Mali a powerful and wealthy state. Mesopotamia was located in the Middle East. It was made up of empires such as the Babylonian Empire, Assyrian Empire, Persian Empire, and Phoenician Empire. The Mesopotamians made many contributions to the world, including creating the wheel and glass, using irrigation to farm, creating an alphabet, and developing a calendar system. Each empire made contributions and influenced the world as it exists today. Hammurabi was a king of Babylon, but he wanted to rule the entire area of Mesopotamia. After only five years of being king, Hammurabi reached his goal. During his reign, Hammurabi did many things to improve and influence both the culture and government of Mesopotamia. China is the third largest country in the world. China is known for its silk, the Great Wall, and its rich history of dynasties and kings. The Chinese culture has changed greatly over the years, but the Chinese people still celebrate the great changes in their culture and nation. Confucius was a philosopher who devoted his life to relieving the suffering he saw. His philosophy stressed the natural order of a moral, just, society. After his death, his followers shared his teachings, influencing future generations. Africa, the second largest continent on Earth, is home to the largest desert and the longest river in the world. Savannas, which are large areas of grass and trees, cover much of Africa. Trade routes gave rise to ancient kingdoms such as the Kush and Aksum. With these and other great kingdoms in Africa, the continent has a rich history in culture, trade, and tradition. The Greek culture is rich in arts, philosophy, and government. Various civilizations contributed to the Greek culture. The Greeks saw the rise of city-states, as well as the first democratic form of government. Greek gods and Greek wars also influenced the culture. Through these influences, a great nation and culture was developed. Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher who helped shape Greek beliefs. Socrates believed his purpose in life was to gain wisdom and find the truth by asking questions. Socrates made many people over his methods of teaching. He was arrested and sentenced to death. But, many of Socrates's ideas and beliefs can still be found today. India's history is closely tied to its location. Because it is between the East and the West, it has been invaded and overtaken multiple times. Each culture that came made a lasting contribution in some way. India has made many transformations of its history, twice splitting into many separate kingdoms. By the early 1800's Great Britain moved into India. Schools and hospitals were built and roads were paved. However, the Indians did not like living under British rule and they fought and gained their independence in 1947. Siddhartha Gautama was born to the king of a tribe in Northern India. An astrologer told his father that Gautama would either become a king or he would leave his riches behind to save humanity. His father sheltered him from all of the poverty in the streets. When Gautama finally left his palace he saw the suffering of people and wanted to change the world. He started the religion called Buddhism. Ancient Rome was a city of rich history that influenced other in many ways, including architecture, politics, and language. Rome was the first republic, allowing people to vote and elect officials, instead of having kings. Even though the Roman Empire ended in A.D. 476, its legacy still lives on today. Hatshepsut was a young woman who became the first female pharaoh of Egypt. When her father, Thutmose I, died, Hatshepsut was the only heir. Since she was female, leaders were afraid to make her Pharaoh. She declared herself Pharaoh in 1501 B.C. and ruled Egypt for about 20 years. Ancient Egyptian civilizations first began along the Nile River when nomads grew tired of the dangers of traveling and settled into villages for safety. With a gift for building, they began to create their own bricks and later discovered a way to build from stone; this lead to the construction of the great pyramids. Pharaohs ruled the society and were highly respected. Because of its location Pharaohs had a difficult time protecting the land from intruders and Egypt was eventually conquered by the Roman Empire. Phillis Wheatley was the first black person in America to have a book published, opening the door for other black writers and female authors. She was kidnapped and brought to the colonies as a child and served as a slave to a family in Boston. Phillis learned to read and write at a young age. The American Indian culture consisted of specific customs and traditions that regulated everything from who would lead the tribes to who would marry within the tribes. They kept precise, detailed accounts of their tribal histories because they foresaw the importance of passing down their histories. Pocahontas was the daughter of the great Chief Powhatan. Pocahontas was instrumental in helping Jamestown settlers survive a difficult winter and literally keeping peace between two diverse cultures. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830 with the intent of moving five large tribes to Indian Territory. The tribes could either move to the reservations or assimilate. As settlers kept moving west, more and more tribes were encountered, and all ultimately found themselves going to reservations. This new way of life was a vast change for the Indians. Take a trip to the world market for an exciting way to learn about standard measurement! This title takes young readers to markets around the world, showing them how to measure common food items with standard measurements. Some things are measured by length! Some things are measured by weight! Children will learn these and other measurement techniques through vibrant images, fun examples, and simple mathematical charts, enhancing their mathematical and STEM skills. Find shapes all around the globe! This book takes young readers to various cities around the world to encourage them to practice geometry through early STEM themes and find two-dimensional shapes everywhere they go. Go to Paris to find circles in clocks! Go to Chicago to find rectangles in skyscrapers! Children will find these, triangles, parallel lines, and more in this engaging reader.	<urn:uuid:a7599272-84de-4b3e-80bf-4f8e8bf3329e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biguniverse.com/library/books?category%3AGenre=Cultural%2FDiversity&category%3ALanguage=English+%28US%29&page=3&publisher=Teacher+Created+Materials	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00330.warc.gz	en	0.982331	1,623	3.578125	4	[ 0.06173468381166458, 0.4210032820701599, 0.47168707847595215, -0.013045967556536198, -0.34275901317596436, -0.1173686534166336, 0.07551392912864685, 0.16338469088077545, -0.10829173028469086, 0.07225396484136581, 0.23738060891628265, -0.04551597684621811, -0.020786227658391, 0.282823443412...	1	An engaging look into the wide variety of homes commonly used by different cultures around the world. This book has a reading level of 1.9 and a word count of 294. This book gives kids a chance to meet other kids from different cultures around the world. Reads at a level of 1.9 and has a word count of 294. A look at some of the most important and interesting destinations from around the world. Reads at a level of 1.9 with a word count of 287. A great way for your kids to learn about the variety and manner in which many holidays are celebrated around the world. This book has a reading level of 1.7 and a word count of 195. The Mayas, Incas, and Aztecs were three groups of people found living in the ancient Americas. These three groups had similarities, including farming, the worshipping of gods, and skillful, imaginative art. All three civilizations ended when Spanish explorers moved into the Americas. Moctezuma was the most famous leader of the powerful Aztec empire. The Aztecs were expert warriors. Most of central Mexico was under their rule at one time. Moctezuma was elected as the ruler of the empire. He was a fair leader who believed in strictly following the laws. He ruled for 17 years until the fall of the Aztec empire. Mansa Musa was the king of Mali. Located in western Africa, Mali became one of the largest empires during Musa's reign. He helped his empire grow in size and culture by encouraging arts, literature, and architecture. He improved trade with the Arab and opened up other trade routes. During Musa's reign, he made Mali a powerful and wealthy state. Mesopotamia was located in the Middle East. It was made up of empires such as the Babylonian Empire, Assyrian Empire, Persian Empire, and Phoenician Empire. The Mesopotamians made many contributions to the world, including creating the wheel and glass, using irrigation to farm, creating an alphabet, and developing a calendar system. Each empire made contributions and influenced the world as it exists today. Hammurabi was a king of Babylon, but he wanted to rule the entire area of Mesopotamia. After only five years of being king, Hammurabi reached his goal. During his reign, Hammurabi did many things to improve and influence both the culture and government of Mesopotamia. China is the third largest country in the world. China is known for its silk, the Great Wall, and its rich history of dynasties and kings. The Chinese culture has changed greatly over the years, but the Chinese people still celebrate the great changes in their culture and nation. Confucius was a philosopher who devoted his life to relieving the suffering he saw. His philosophy stressed the natural order of a moral, just, society. After his death, his followers shared his teachings, influencing future generations. Africa, the second largest continent on Earth, is home to the largest desert and the longest river in the world. Savannas, which are large areas of grass and trees, cover much of Africa. Trade routes gave rise to ancient kingdoms such as the Kush and Aksum. With these and other great kingdoms in Africa, the continent has a rich history in culture, trade, and tradition. The Greek culture is rich in arts, philosophy, and government. Various civilizations contributed to the Greek culture. The Greeks saw the rise of city-states, as well as the first democratic form of government. Greek gods and Greek wars also influenced the culture. Through these influences, a great nation and culture was developed. Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher who helped shape Greek beliefs. Socrates believed his purpose in life was to gain wisdom and find the truth by asking questions. Socrates made many people over his methods of teaching. He was arrested and sentenced to death. But, many of Socrates's ideas and beliefs can still be found today. India's history is closely tied to its location. Because it is between the East and the West, it has been invaded and overtaken multiple times. Each culture that came made a lasting contribution in some way. India has made many transformations of its history, twice splitting into many separate kingdoms. By the early 1800's Great Britain moved into India. Schools and hospitals were built and roads were paved. However, the Indians did not like living under British rule and they fought and gained their independence in 1947. Siddhartha Gautama was born to the king of a tribe in Northern India. An astrologer told his father that Gautama would either become a king or he would leave his riches behind to save humanity. His father sheltered him from all of the poverty in the streets. When Gautama finally left his palace he saw the suffering of people and wanted to change the world. He started the religion called Buddhism. Ancient Rome was a city of rich history that influenced other in many ways, including architecture, politics, and language. Rome was the first republic, allowing people to vote and elect officials, instead of having kings. Even though the Roman Empire ended in A.D. 476, its legacy still lives on today. Hatshepsut was a young woman who became the first female pharaoh of Egypt. When her father, Thutmose I, died, Hatshepsut was the only heir. Since she was female, leaders were afraid to make her Pharaoh. She declared herself Pharaoh in 1501 B.C. and ruled Egypt for about 20 years. Ancient Egyptian civilizations first began along the Nile River when nomads grew tired of the dangers of traveling and settled into villages for safety. With a gift for building, they began to create their own bricks and later discovered a way to build from stone; this lead to the construction of the great pyramids. Pharaohs ruled the society and were highly respected. Because of its location Pharaohs had a difficult time protecting the land from intruders and Egypt was eventually conquered by the Roman Empire. Phillis Wheatley was the first black person in America to have a book published, opening the door for other black writers and female authors. She was kidnapped and brought to the colonies as a child and served as a slave to a family in Boston. Phillis learned to read and write at a young age. The American Indian culture consisted of specific customs and traditions that regulated everything from who would lead the tribes to who would marry within the tribes. They kept precise, detailed accounts of their tribal histories because they foresaw the importance of passing down their histories. Pocahontas was the daughter of the great Chief Powhatan. Pocahontas was instrumental in helping Jamestown settlers survive a difficult winter and literally keeping peace between two diverse cultures. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830 with the intent of moving five large tribes to Indian Territory. The tribes could either move to the reservations or assimilate. As settlers kept moving west, more and more tribes were encountered, and all ultimately found themselves going to reservations. This new way of life was a vast change for the Indians. Take a trip to the world market for an exciting way to learn about standard measurement! This title takes young readers to markets around the world, showing them how to measure common food items with standard measurements. Some things are measured by length! Some things are measured by weight! Children will learn these and other measurement techniques through vibrant images, fun examples, and simple mathematical charts, enhancing their mathematical and STEM skills. Find shapes all around the globe! This book takes young readers to various cities around the world to encourage them to practice geometry through early STEM themes and find two-dimensional shapes everywhere they go. Go to Paris to find circles in clocks! Go to Chicago to find rectangles in skyscrapers! Children will find these, triangles, parallel lines, and more in this engaging reader.	1,639	ENGLISH	1
A certain stability, or at least consistency, returned to Italy in the middle of the tenth century when Otto, the Saxon King of Germany, claimed the throne of Italy through his wife Adelaide (the daughter, widow and jilter of three previous kings of Italy) and made himself King of the Lombards. Following Charlemagne’s example, he travelled to Rome in 962 and had the pope crown him emperor, thus inaugurating three centuries of rule over Italy by three dynasties of German emperors – Saxon, Salian and Swabian (usually known as Hohenstaufen) – with brief interludes supplied by members of the Welf and Supplinburger families. The gallery consisted of one Lothair, two Fredericks, three Conrads, four Ottos and seven Henrys. The rulers styled themselves rex romanorum et semper augustus (‘king of the Romans and ever emperor’), and the coronations that their realms required indicate both the complexity of their roles and the difficulty in fulfilling separate duties as kings of Germany, kings of Italy and Holy Roman emperors. After being elected by the German princes, they were crowned kings of Germany at Charlemagne’s beloved Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) and became then also known as kings of the Romans. Later they crossed the Alps to receive the iron crown of the Lombards at Pavia, Monza or Milan. The last stage of the process was the journey to Rome, where they were crowned emperors by the pope. The German Empire stretched from the Baltic and the North Sea to the Adriatic and the Tyrrhenian. Such a distance, with a lot of mountains in between, forced emperors to spend long periods on the road. An emperor might be in Italy, quarrelling with the pope over ecclesiastical appointments, when an outbreak of civil war in Germany made him hurry northwards; after settling that crisis, he might have to scuttle back across the Alps to confront the rebellious cities of Lombardy or go even further south to deal with a military threat from Byzantium or the Norman kingdom of Sicily. Even so, emperors managed to find time for outside interests such as campaigning in Poland and participating in four of the Crusades. A predictable consequence of such frenetic activity was the neglect of Italy. The emperors had their judicial and fiscal institutions in Italy; they also had their supporters among the magnates and bishops, whom they relied on for the administration of the cities. Yet the absence of their overlord enfeebled the institutions and the bishops and encouraged magnates to do what they liked to do anyway: plot and switch allegiances. Such a structure was ill-equipped to administer the new Italy of the eleventh century, in which agricultural wealth, the expansion of trade and a rise in population were transforming societies and economies. The growth and prosperity of the cities gave their citizens the desire and self-confidence to run the affairs of their own communes. Unwilling to accept that they should remain loyal to an absentee foreigner with doubtful rights of sovereignty, they were soon electing their own leaders, running their own courts and raising their own militias. The emperors, distracted by incessant wars in Germany, made concessions that left the communes virtually autonomous. By the late eleventh century their rule over the Lombard and Tuscan cities had become almost nominal. Frederick Barbarossa (Redbeard), the Duke of Swabia who became emperor in 1155, was determined to reverse the drift. A relentless warrior, with grandiose notions of his rights and his dignity, he later became renowned as a symbol of Teutonic unity, a hero to German romantics and an inspiration for Adolf Hitler, who code-named his invasion of Russia ‘Operation Barbarossa’. He regarded the Ottos as successors to the Caesars and himself as successor to the Ottos. As he claimed his position to be equivalent to that of Augustus, he considered the kings of France and England to be inferior rulers. As for Italy, he was intent on reclaiming the so-called ‘regalian rights’ which lawyers in Bologna conveniently assured him he possessed. These included the rights to appoint officials in the cities, to receive taxes on fish and salt and to collect money from tolls and customs. He wanted the cash and was determined to get it; he also enjoyed the prestige acquired from the submission of others. The defiance of Milan, the largest Italian city, inspired Barbarossa to invade Italy, which he did half a dozen times. His pretext – and perhaps it was a little more than a pretext – was that he was coming to the rescue of those pro-imperial towns, such as Como and Lodi, which earlier in the century had been devastated by the Milanese. He captured Milan in 1162 and destroyed it. He also obliterated the town of Crema, one of its allies, after besieging it with exceptional brutality: hostages from Crema were tied to the front of his siege towers so that the defendants could not avoid hitting their relatives and fellow citizens with arrows. Barbarossa’s actions led to the foundation of the Lombard League, formed by sixteen cities in 1167 to defend themselves against his imperial armies. An early confrontation was avoided, however, when more urgent matters forced the emperor to return to Germany, and he did not come back at the head of a new army for several years. Despite the defection of a couple of cities, the League won a great victory against him in 1176 at Legnano near Milan, its infantry forcing Barbarossa’s German cavalry from the field. It was a historic moment for the peninsula, perhaps the most united moment between the death of Theodoric and the creation of modern Italy. When patriots of the nineteenth century scoured their history for heroic events to depict, Legnano was a popular choice for literature and painting; it also inspired one of Verdi’s least memorable operas, La battaglia di Legnano, in which the chorus opens the evening with the words His humiliating defeat forced Barbarossa to negotiate, and at the Treaty of Constance in 1183 he conceded the rights of the communes to elect their own leaders, make their own laws and administer their own territories. Concessions made by his opponents were nominal or unimportant: among them were an oath of allegiance and a promise to give a sum of money to future emperors as they proceeded to Rome for their coronations. As the historian Giuliano Procacci noted, ‘the communes recognized the overall sovereignty of the emperor, but kept the sovereign rights they held’. Barbarossa died seven years later, drowned in an Anatolian river on his way to join the Third Crusade, but his Italian ambitions lived on in the person of his grandson, the Emperor Frederick II, who made equally futile attempts to cow the cities of northern Italy. The wars between Barbarossa and the communes were part of a longer and wider struggle between the Holy Roman emperor and the papacy, which had supported the Lombard League. As with so many conflicts on Italian soil, this one thus became internationalized, several popes calling in German and French princes to assist their cause. Competing factions in the Italian communes soon acquired labels of bewildering foreign origin. Papal supporters were known as Guelphs, called after the Bavarian Welf family that produced Otto IV, briefly an emperor in the early thirteenth century, as well as, later and less relevantly, the Hanoverian kings of Great Britain. Their opponents, the pro-imperial Ghibellines, took their appellation from an even more obscure source, the Salian and later Hohenstaufen town of Waiblingen, a name sometimes used to denote members of the house of Swabia. In their endless medieval struggles, however, Italian Guelphs and Ghibellines were motivated far more by local factors than by remote loyalties to popes and German emperors. When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, it was clear that the Franks, who had rescued the papacy from the Lombards, were the senior partners in the alliance. Yet Leo’s successors tried to reverse the roles by claiming the right to choose who would be emperor. By the eleventh century they were insisting that the emperors acknowledge they received their thrones from the pope, who, as Christ’s vicar on earth, was the highest authority in Christendom. Power was involved along with pride and prestige. Gregory VII, pope (1073–85) and later saint, insisted that only he had the right to invest the clergy with abbeys, bishoprics and other ecclesiastical offices: secular rulers who disobeyed him were excommunicated. The Emperor Henry IV, who planned to continue the policy of his father (Henry III) of appointing and dismissing popes as well as bishops, reacted by deposing Gregory and calling him ‘a false monk’. In retaliation the pope excommunicated the emperor and encouraged his subjects to rebel. Alarmed by threats to his rule in Germany, a contrite Henry then apologized to the pope, waiting for three days in the snow outside the castle of Canossa until Gregory finally absolved him from excommunication. Within three years, however, they were again at odds, and Henry was deposed and excommunicated once more. This time he responded by seizing Rome and setting up an anti-pope who crowned him emperor, but he was soon expelled by the real pope’s Norman allies, who burned much of the city. The feud between Henry and Gregory was not a unique one: these medieval centuries abound with examples of emperors dethroning popes and of popes deposing and excommunicating emperors as well as other monarchs. Another ingredient in the dispute between pope and emperor was the status of the Norman kingdom of Sicily. The south of Italy was already very different from the north, more rural and feudal, more ethnically varied, its life determined by the Mediterranean and its peoples in a way unknown to the cities of the Po Valley with their ties to Europe beyond the Alps. Under authoritarian rulers, who liked to direct the economy themselves, and living uncomfortably beside a feudal baronage, the towns had little chance to prosper as their counterparts could do further north; the few that had recently flourished, such as the port of Amalfi with its merchants in Egypt and on the Bosphorus, soon withered. Like the north, the south had its Romans, Lombards and Franks, but it also contained large numbers of Byzantine Greeks and Muslim Arabs as well as a significant Jewish minority. This multicultural, multi-confessional amalgam was unexpectedly welded into a kingdom by a small band of knights from Normandy whose descendants ruled it, flamboyantly and on the whole successfully, for nearly 200 years. Norman adventurers, seeking work as mercenary soldiers, had begun arriving in the south early in the eleventh century. Pope Benedict VIII hired some of them to fight the Byzantines in Apulia, and before long a few of the knights, notably the remarkable Hauteville brothers, were receiving lands from grateful employers. Fearing that these Normans were becoming too strong, a later pope led an army against them but was defeated and taken prisoner by one of the five Hautevilles, Robert Guiscard, in 1053. Making the best of it, the papacy agreed soon afterwards that, in return for recognizing papal sovereignty over the south, Robert Guiscard could call himself ‘Duke of Apulia and Calabria and future Duke of Sicily’. The adjective ‘future’ soon became redundant when the new duke, assisted by his equally talented younger brother Roger, advanced down Calabria and invaded Sicily in 1061. Thereafter, Robert Guiscard concentrated on conquering the mainland north, capturing Bari and ending Byzantine rule there in 1071, while Roger (later known as ‘the Great Count’) overcame the Arabs of Sicily, taking Palermo in 1072 and completing his conquest of the island in 1090. After the deaths of the two brothers, the Great Count’s son, another Roger, united the Hauteville territories and, following the capture of another pope, was recognized as Roger II, King of Sicily. The new king was one of the finest rulers of the Middle Ages, a broadminded and farsighted man of wide culture and much administrative ability. He refused to join the Second Crusade because religious toleration was fundamental to his rule, and he insisted that the laws and customs of the peoples of his kingdom should be respected. Fluent in Greek and Arabic, he presided over the most intellectual and cosmopolitan court in Europe, and the architecture he loved – a blend of Saracen, Norman and Byzantine – is still visible in Palermo, in the Palatine chapel with its mosaics and in the red domes of the church of San Giovanni degli Eremiti. He returned Sicily to the prosperity and influence it had not enjoyed since the days of the ancient Greeks – and to which it would not return again. He made of the Mediterranean’s largest island a microcosm of what the sea might be but very rarely is, a space where cultures, creeds and peoples meet in a climate of mutual tolerance and respect. The popes treated the Normans much as they treated the emperors: cajoling and pleading when they needed them, fighting and trying to depose them when they did not. Robert Guiscard and Roger II both suffered excommunication. When the Hautevilles and the Hohenstaufen (Barbarossa’s family) became dynastically united in 1186, the hostility became almost permanent. Roger was succeeded by his son William I, another talented and successful Hauteville, unjustly known by his foes among the barons as William the Bad, and by his grandson, William II, called ‘the Good’ because he was more lenient to those perennially annoying subjects. Since Barbarossa after Legnano was no longer a threat to Italy, the second William decided to marry his aunt Constance to the emperor’s heir, the future Henry VI; as his own marriage was childless, a son of this union might thus add the crown of Sicily to the titles of King of Germany, King of Italy and Holy Roman emperor. The prospect of an emperor ruling lands both north and south of the expanding papal states naturally alarmed Pope Celestine III, who first promoted a rival claimant (an Hauteville bastard) to the Sicilian throne and then tried to thwart Henry’s plan to have his son Frederick elected King of Germany. He failed when Frederick was chosen by the electors at the age of two in 1196, but the deaths of the boy’s parents before he was four, together with Constance’s choice of the next pope (Innocent III) as her son’s guardian, postponed an inevitable struggle. The infant became the charismatic Frederick II, a monarch whose cultural range makes his fellow rulers of the period seem brutal, boorish and philistine in comparison. Hailed as stupor mundi (‘the amazement of the world’), he was lauded in his time as a linguist, law-giver, builder, soldier, administrator and scientist; as an ornithologist he wrote a masterly book on falconry and dismissed the notion that barnacle geese were hatched from barnacles in the sea – an example of deductive reasoning rather than observation because he had no opportunity of studying the breeding habits of the geese inside the Arctic Circle. Yet the adulation, like the appellation, was excessive. The comparison with contemporary kings may stand, but he was not as wise a ruler or as cultured a man as his maternal grandfather, Roger II. He was justly famous as a champion of religious tolerance, yet his skills as a builder, architect and linguist have been exaggerated. In any case, whatever his talents, he failed to solve the three great inherited problems of his position: relations with the papacy, relations with the Lombard cities, and the relationship between Sicily and the empire. Frederick antagonized the papacy early in his reign by crowning his baby son King of Sicily and, a few years later, making sure he was elected King of Germany. When he himself was crowned emperor in 1220, at the age of twenty-five, he assured the papacy that the crowns would remain legally separated. Yet the assurance did not convince a subsequent pope, Gregory IX, once a friend of St Francis and St Dominic but now a dogmatic and irascible leader of the Church. In 1227 he excommunicated Frederick after an outbreak of plague had forced the emperor to abandon a crusade; when the expedition was resumed a year later, the pope was so enraged that an excommunicant was leading it that he launched an invasion of Sicily while its king and his army were away campaigning triumphantly for Christendom. Frederick soon returned from the Holy Land, where he had crowned himself King of Jerusalem, defeated the papal armies and forced Gregory to come to terms and absolve him from excommunication. The truce between the two men lasted for almost a decade after 1230, but the pope did not relinquish his ambitions to remove the Hohenstaufen from Sicily and to promote a new dynasty for the empire. Frederick’s invasion of Sardinia in 1239 gave him a pretext to excommunicate the emperor once again and build alliances with the pro-Guelph cities of the north. Gregory died in 1241, yet his vendetta was continued, with matching vindictiveness, by a successor, Innocent IV, who deposed Frederick, called him a precursor of the anti-Christ and urged the German electors to supply a new emperor. Stupor mundi may have been unlucky in his relations with the papacy but he was unwise in his dealings with the Lombard cities. Claiming that northern Italy legally belonged to him, he was determined to succeed where Barbarossa, his paternal grandfather, had failed. In 1226 he summoned an imperial assembly to Cremona, most loyal of Ghibelline towns, and announced his intention ‘to restore regalian rights’. His ambitions predictably led to a revival of the Lombard League, and most of the Po Valley cities banded together to resist him for the last quarter-century of his life. Frederick defeated the League at the Battle of Cortenuova in 1237 but then overplayed his hand by demanding an unconditional surrender, which the cities refused to give him; the following year he was humiliated by his failure to capture Brescia after a lengthy siege. Despite military successes in 1240–41, when he captured parts of the Papal States, and in 1246, when he suppressed a rebellion in the south, the campaigns achieved nothing durable. Even more humiliating than Brescia was the siege of Parma in 1248, when the apparently beleaguered garrison unexpectedly stole out of the town and ransacked Frederick’s camp while he was out hunting. The emperor died in 1250 and, after the brief reign of his son Conrad, his southern territories were claimed by his bastard child Manfred. Another talented descendant of the Hautevilles, Manfred was a poet, a scientist and a diplomat wiser than his father in his dealings with northern Italy. Yet Frederick’s death had not halted the papacy’s efforts to eliminate the house of Hohenstaufen and to find a new monarch for the kingdom of Sicily. In 1266, after the entreaties of several popes, Charles of Anjou, a brother of the French king, victoriously invaded: Manfred was killed in battle, and the last male Hohenstaufen, Conrad’s teenage son Conradin, was executed. Charles made himself unpopular in Sicily, chiefly by transferring his capital from Palermo to Naples, and he was ejected by the islanders following the uprising in 1282 known as the Sicilian Vespers. In his place the throne was offered to King Peter of Aragon, whose wife was a daughter of Manfred. Peter’s acceptance and reign may have given some solace to supporters of the Hohenstaufen, but Aragonese rule presaged the long decline of the island. Already cut off from north Africa and the Arab world, it was now detached from France and Italy, although over the centuries the southern mainland – known as ‘continental Sicily’ – was from time to time reunited with island Sicily to be called eventually the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Yet from the end of the thirteenth century the island was effectively an outpost of Spain, tied torpidly to Iberia for over 400 years. Like Sardinia, it received viceroys but little attention from its Hispanic rulers. Frederick’s rule had resulted in the extinction of his dynasty and the impoverishment of Sicily, which had to pay for his wars. Another casualty was the idea of uniting Italy under a single ruler, which is what he wanted and which no one tried to make a reality again for another six centuries. The beneficiaries of his failure were the cities of Tuscany and the north, which could now pursue their cultural and communal development – as well as their local rivalries – without much external interference. The defeat of a cultured monarch of the south thus led to a cultural efflorescence of the north.	<urn:uuid:63e72ecf-25e8-4f43-929d-984a6bdf597a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2019/12/14/italia-germanica-3/?shared=email&msg=fail	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00483.warc.gz	en	0.983708	4,502	3.640625	4	[ -0.5915704369544983, 0.6437348127365112, 0.09781445562839508, 0.0019185056444257498, -0.6560755968093872, -0.07879652082920074, -0.10682724416255951, -0.01835295930504799, -0.0510990284383297, -0.4172312617301941, -0.2514454424381256, -0.41506749391555786, 0.31141042709350586, 0.0906948745...	3	A certain stability, or at least consistency, returned to Italy in the middle of the tenth century when Otto, the Saxon King of Germany, claimed the throne of Italy through his wife Adelaide (the daughter, widow and jilter of three previous kings of Italy) and made himself King of the Lombards. Following Charlemagne’s example, he travelled to Rome in 962 and had the pope crown him emperor, thus inaugurating three centuries of rule over Italy by three dynasties of German emperors – Saxon, Salian and Swabian (usually known as Hohenstaufen) – with brief interludes supplied by members of the Welf and Supplinburger families. The gallery consisted of one Lothair, two Fredericks, three Conrads, four Ottos and seven Henrys. The rulers styled themselves rex romanorum et semper augustus (‘king of the Romans and ever emperor’), and the coronations that their realms required indicate both the complexity of their roles and the difficulty in fulfilling separate duties as kings of Germany, kings of Italy and Holy Roman emperors. After being elected by the German princes, they were crowned kings of Germany at Charlemagne’s beloved Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) and became then also known as kings of the Romans. Later they crossed the Alps to receive the iron crown of the Lombards at Pavia, Monza or Milan. The last stage of the process was the journey to Rome, where they were crowned emperors by the pope. The German Empire stretched from the Baltic and the North Sea to the Adriatic and the Tyrrhenian. Such a distance, with a lot of mountains in between, forced emperors to spend long periods on the road. An emperor might be in Italy, quarrelling with the pope over ecclesiastical appointments, when an outbreak of civil war in Germany made him hurry northwards; after settling that crisis, he might have to scuttle back across the Alps to confront the rebellious cities of Lombardy or go even further south to deal with a military threat from Byzantium or the Norman kingdom of Sicily. Even so, emperors managed to find time for outside interests such as campaigning in Poland and participating in four of the Crusades. A predictable consequence of such frenetic activity was the neglect of Italy. The emperors had their judicial and fiscal institutions in Italy; they also had their supporters among the magnates and bishops, whom they relied on for the administration of the cities. Yet the absence of their overlord enfeebled the institutions and the bishops and encouraged magnates to do what they liked to do anyway: plot and switch allegiances. Such a structure was ill-equipped to administer the new Italy of the eleventh century, in which agricultural wealth, the expansion of trade and a rise in population were transforming societies and economies. The growth and prosperity of the cities gave their citizens the desire and self-confidence to run the affairs of their own communes. Unwilling to accept that they should remain loyal to an absentee foreigner with doubtful rights of sovereignty, they were soon electing their own leaders, running their own courts and raising their own militias. The emperors, distracted by incessant wars in Germany, made concessions that left the communes virtually autonomous. By the late eleventh century their rule over the Lombard and Tuscan cities had become almost nominal. Frederick Barbarossa (Redbeard), the Duke of Swabia who became emperor in 1155, was determined to reverse the drift. A relentless warrior, with grandiose notions of his rights and his dignity, he later became renowned as a symbol of Teutonic unity, a hero to German romantics and an inspiration for Adolf Hitler, who code-named his invasion of Russia ‘Operation Barbarossa’. He regarded the Ottos as successors to the Caesars and himself as successor to the Ottos. As he claimed his position to be equivalent to that of Augustus, he considered the kings of France and England to be inferior rulers. As for Italy, he was intent on reclaiming the so-called ‘regalian rights’ which lawyers in Bologna conveniently assured him he possessed. These included the rights to appoint officials in the cities, to receive taxes on fish and salt and to collect money from tolls and customs. He wanted the cash and was determined to get it; he also enjoyed the prestige acquired from the submission of others. The defiance of Milan, the largest Italian city, inspired Barbarossa to invade Italy, which he did half a dozen times. His pretext – and perhaps it was a little more than a pretext – was that he was coming to the rescue of those pro-imperial towns, such as Como and Lodi, which earlier in the century had been devastated by the Milanese. He captured Milan in 1162 and destroyed it. He also obliterated the town of Crema, one of its allies, after besieging it with exceptional brutality: hostages from Crema were tied to the front of his siege towers so that the defendants could not avoid hitting their relatives and fellow citizens with arrows. Barbarossa’s actions led to the foundation of the Lombard League, formed by sixteen cities in 1167 to defend themselves against his imperial armies. An early confrontation was avoided, however, when more urgent matters forced the emperor to return to Germany, and he did not come back at the head of a new army for several years. Despite the defection of a couple of cities, the League won a great victory against him in 1176 at Legnano near Milan, its infantry forcing Barbarossa’s German cavalry from the field. It was a historic moment for the peninsula, perhaps the most united moment between the death of Theodoric and the creation of modern Italy. When patriots of the nineteenth century scoured their history for heroic events to depict, Legnano was a popular choice for literature and painting; it also inspired one of Verdi’s least memorable operas, La battaglia di Legnano, in which the chorus opens the evening with the words His humiliating defeat forced Barbarossa to negotiate, and at the Treaty of Constance in 1183 he conceded the rights of the communes to elect their own leaders, make their own laws and administer their own territories. Concessions made by his opponents were nominal or unimportant: among them were an oath of allegiance and a promise to give a sum of money to future emperors as they proceeded to Rome for their coronations. As the historian Giuliano Procacci noted, ‘the communes recognized the overall sovereignty of the emperor, but kept the sovereign rights they held’. Barbarossa died seven years later, drowned in an Anatolian river on his way to join the Third Crusade, but his Italian ambitions lived on in the person of his grandson, the Emperor Frederick II, who made equally futile attempts to cow the cities of northern Italy. The wars between Barbarossa and the communes were part of a longer and wider struggle between the Holy Roman emperor and the papacy, which had supported the Lombard League. As with so many conflicts on Italian soil, this one thus became internationalized, several popes calling in German and French princes to assist their cause. Competing factions in the Italian communes soon acquired labels of bewildering foreign origin. Papal supporters were known as Guelphs, called after the Bavarian Welf family that produced Otto IV, briefly an emperor in the early thirteenth century, as well as, later and less relevantly, the Hanoverian kings of Great Britain. Their opponents, the pro-imperial Ghibellines, took their appellation from an even more obscure source, the Salian and later Hohenstaufen town of Waiblingen, a name sometimes used to denote members of the house of Swabia. In their endless medieval struggles, however, Italian Guelphs and Ghibellines were motivated far more by local factors than by remote loyalties to popes and German emperors. When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, it was clear that the Franks, who had rescued the papacy from the Lombards, were the senior partners in the alliance. Yet Leo’s successors tried to reverse the roles by claiming the right to choose who would be emperor. By the eleventh century they were insisting that the emperors acknowledge they received their thrones from the pope, who, as Christ’s vicar on earth, was the highest authority in Christendom. Power was involved along with pride and prestige. Gregory VII, pope (1073–85) and later saint, insisted that only he had the right to invest the clergy with abbeys, bishoprics and other ecclesiastical offices: secular rulers who disobeyed him were excommunicated. The Emperor Henry IV, who planned to continue the policy of his father (Henry III) of appointing and dismissing popes as well as bishops, reacted by deposing Gregory and calling him ‘a false monk’. In retaliation the pope excommunicated the emperor and encouraged his subjects to rebel. Alarmed by threats to his rule in Germany, a contrite Henry then apologized to the pope, waiting for three days in the snow outside the castle of Canossa until Gregory finally absolved him from excommunication. Within three years, however, they were again at odds, and Henry was deposed and excommunicated once more. This time he responded by seizing Rome and setting up an anti-pope who crowned him emperor, but he was soon expelled by the real pope’s Norman allies, who burned much of the city. The feud between Henry and Gregory was not a unique one: these medieval centuries abound with examples of emperors dethroning popes and of popes deposing and excommunicating emperors as well as other monarchs. Another ingredient in the dispute between pope and emperor was the status of the Norman kingdom of Sicily. The south of Italy was already very different from the north, more rural and feudal, more ethnically varied, its life determined by the Mediterranean and its peoples in a way unknown to the cities of the Po Valley with their ties to Europe beyond the Alps. Under authoritarian rulers, who liked to direct the economy themselves, and living uncomfortably beside a feudal baronage, the towns had little chance to prosper as their counterparts could do further north; the few that had recently flourished, such as the port of Amalfi with its merchants in Egypt and on the Bosphorus, soon withered. Like the north, the south had its Romans, Lombards and Franks, but it also contained large numbers of Byzantine Greeks and Muslim Arabs as well as a significant Jewish minority. This multicultural, multi-confessional amalgam was unexpectedly welded into a kingdom by a small band of knights from Normandy whose descendants ruled it, flamboyantly and on the whole successfully, for nearly 200 years. Norman adventurers, seeking work as mercenary soldiers, had begun arriving in the south early in the eleventh century. Pope Benedict VIII hired some of them to fight the Byzantines in Apulia, and before long a few of the knights, notably the remarkable Hauteville brothers, were receiving lands from grateful employers. Fearing that these Normans were becoming too strong, a later pope led an army against them but was defeated and taken prisoner by one of the five Hautevilles, Robert Guiscard, in 1053. Making the best of it, the papacy agreed soon afterwards that, in return for recognizing papal sovereignty over the south, Robert Guiscard could call himself ‘Duke of Apulia and Calabria and future Duke of Sicily’. The adjective ‘future’ soon became redundant when the new duke, assisted by his equally talented younger brother Roger, advanced down Calabria and invaded Sicily in 1061. Thereafter, Robert Guiscard concentrated on conquering the mainland north, capturing Bari and ending Byzantine rule there in 1071, while Roger (later known as ‘the Great Count’) overcame the Arabs of Sicily, taking Palermo in 1072 and completing his conquest of the island in 1090. After the deaths of the two brothers, the Great Count’s son, another Roger, united the Hauteville territories and, following the capture of another pope, was recognized as Roger II, King of Sicily. The new king was one of the finest rulers of the Middle Ages, a broadminded and farsighted man of wide culture and much administrative ability. He refused to join the Second Crusade because religious toleration was fundamental to his rule, and he insisted that the laws and customs of the peoples of his kingdom should be respected. Fluent in Greek and Arabic, he presided over the most intellectual and cosmopolitan court in Europe, and the architecture he loved – a blend of Saracen, Norman and Byzantine – is still visible in Palermo, in the Palatine chapel with its mosaics and in the red domes of the church of San Giovanni degli Eremiti. He returned Sicily to the prosperity and influence it had not enjoyed since the days of the ancient Greeks – and to which it would not return again. He made of the Mediterranean’s largest island a microcosm of what the sea might be but very rarely is, a space where cultures, creeds and peoples meet in a climate of mutual tolerance and respect. The popes treated the Normans much as they treated the emperors: cajoling and pleading when they needed them, fighting and trying to depose them when they did not. Robert Guiscard and Roger II both suffered excommunication. When the Hautevilles and the Hohenstaufen (Barbarossa’s family) became dynastically united in 1186, the hostility became almost permanent. Roger was succeeded by his son William I, another talented and successful Hauteville, unjustly known by his foes among the barons as William the Bad, and by his grandson, William II, called ‘the Good’ because he was more lenient to those perennially annoying subjects. Since Barbarossa after Legnano was no longer a threat to Italy, the second William decided to marry his aunt Constance to the emperor’s heir, the future Henry VI; as his own marriage was childless, a son of this union might thus add the crown of Sicily to the titles of King of Germany, King of Italy and Holy Roman emperor. The prospect of an emperor ruling lands both north and south of the expanding papal states naturally alarmed Pope Celestine III, who first promoted a rival claimant (an Hauteville bastard) to the Sicilian throne and then tried to thwart Henry’s plan to have his son Frederick elected King of Germany. He failed when Frederick was chosen by the electors at the age of two in 1196, but the deaths of the boy’s parents before he was four, together with Constance’s choice of the next pope (Innocent III) as her son’s guardian, postponed an inevitable struggle. The infant became the charismatic Frederick II, a monarch whose cultural range makes his fellow rulers of the period seem brutal, boorish and philistine in comparison. Hailed as stupor mundi (‘the amazement of the world’), he was lauded in his time as a linguist, law-giver, builder, soldier, administrator and scientist; as an ornithologist he wrote a masterly book on falconry and dismissed the notion that barnacle geese were hatched from barnacles in the sea – an example of deductive reasoning rather than observation because he had no opportunity of studying the breeding habits of the geese inside the Arctic Circle. Yet the adulation, like the appellation, was excessive. The comparison with contemporary kings may stand, but he was not as wise a ruler or as cultured a man as his maternal grandfather, Roger II. He was justly famous as a champion of religious tolerance, yet his skills as a builder, architect and linguist have been exaggerated. In any case, whatever his talents, he failed to solve the three great inherited problems of his position: relations with the papacy, relations with the Lombard cities, and the relationship between Sicily and the empire. Frederick antagonized the papacy early in his reign by crowning his baby son King of Sicily and, a few years later, making sure he was elected King of Germany. When he himself was crowned emperor in 1220, at the age of twenty-five, he assured the papacy that the crowns would remain legally separated. Yet the assurance did not convince a subsequent pope, Gregory IX, once a friend of St Francis and St Dominic but now a dogmatic and irascible leader of the Church. In 1227 he excommunicated Frederick after an outbreak of plague had forced the emperor to abandon a crusade; when the expedition was resumed a year later, the pope was so enraged that an excommunicant was leading it that he launched an invasion of Sicily while its king and his army were away campaigning triumphantly for Christendom. Frederick soon returned from the Holy Land, where he had crowned himself King of Jerusalem, defeated the papal armies and forced Gregory to come to terms and absolve him from excommunication. The truce between the two men lasted for almost a decade after 1230, but the pope did not relinquish his ambitions to remove the Hohenstaufen from Sicily and to promote a new dynasty for the empire. Frederick’s invasion of Sardinia in 1239 gave him a pretext to excommunicate the emperor once again and build alliances with the pro-Guelph cities of the north. Gregory died in 1241, yet his vendetta was continued, with matching vindictiveness, by a successor, Innocent IV, who deposed Frederick, called him a precursor of the anti-Christ and urged the German electors to supply a new emperor. Stupor mundi may have been unlucky in his relations with the papacy but he was unwise in his dealings with the Lombard cities. Claiming that northern Italy legally belonged to him, he was determined to succeed where Barbarossa, his paternal grandfather, had failed. In 1226 he summoned an imperial assembly to Cremona, most loyal of Ghibelline towns, and announced his intention ‘to restore regalian rights’. His ambitions predictably led to a revival of the Lombard League, and most of the Po Valley cities banded together to resist him for the last quarter-century of his life. Frederick defeated the League at the Battle of Cortenuova in 1237 but then overplayed his hand by demanding an unconditional surrender, which the cities refused to give him; the following year he was humiliated by his failure to capture Brescia after a lengthy siege. Despite military successes in 1240–41, when he captured parts of the Papal States, and in 1246, when he suppressed a rebellion in the south, the campaigns achieved nothing durable. Even more humiliating than Brescia was the siege of Parma in 1248, when the apparently beleaguered garrison unexpectedly stole out of the town and ransacked Frederick’s camp while he was out hunting. The emperor died in 1250 and, after the brief reign of his son Conrad, his southern territories were claimed by his bastard child Manfred. Another talented descendant of the Hautevilles, Manfred was a poet, a scientist and a diplomat wiser than his father in his dealings with northern Italy. Yet Frederick’s death had not halted the papacy’s efforts to eliminate the house of Hohenstaufen and to find a new monarch for the kingdom of Sicily. In 1266, after the entreaties of several popes, Charles of Anjou, a brother of the French king, victoriously invaded: Manfred was killed in battle, and the last male Hohenstaufen, Conrad’s teenage son Conradin, was executed. Charles made himself unpopular in Sicily, chiefly by transferring his capital from Palermo to Naples, and he was ejected by the islanders following the uprising in 1282 known as the Sicilian Vespers. In his place the throne was offered to King Peter of Aragon, whose wife was a daughter of Manfred. Peter’s acceptance and reign may have given some solace to supporters of the Hohenstaufen, but Aragonese rule presaged the long decline of the island. Already cut off from north Africa and the Arab world, it was now detached from France and Italy, although over the centuries the southern mainland – known as ‘continental Sicily’ – was from time to time reunited with island Sicily to be called eventually the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Yet from the end of the thirteenth century the island was effectively an outpost of Spain, tied torpidly to Iberia for over 400 years. Like Sardinia, it received viceroys but little attention from its Hispanic rulers. Frederick’s rule had resulted in the extinction of his dynasty and the impoverishment of Sicily, which had to pay for his wars. Another casualty was the idea of uniting Italy under a single ruler, which is what he wanted and which no one tried to make a reality again for another six centuries. The beneficiaries of his failure were the cities of Tuscany and the north, which could now pursue their cultural and communal development – as well as their local rivalries – without much external interference. The defeat of a cultured monarch of the south thus led to a cultural efflorescence of the north.	4,499	ENGLISH	1
Most people know Christopher Columbus. He was the popular “admiral” who accidentally found certain islands by travelling West from Europe to look for a new route towards Oriental lands. However, he didn’t know that a continent exists along with his destination, blocking his way. He explored the land and built empire for his country, Spain. The admiral had two sons. His only illegitimate son was Hernando while his legitimate son was Diego. The latter followed his father’s path and continued his legacy, and he became the admiral and governor of the Indies. Hernando had another thing in mind, and he became a scholar by creating the biggest printed books collection that ever existed, much like the music maestros of the classical era who created massive art collections through various media. Hernando Columbus’ work Recently, a professor named Edward Wilson-Lee of the University of Cambridge published “The Catalogue of Shipwrecked Books” (2019) – the only book that tackles about the life of Hernando Columbus and his incredible fascination with books. Unlike his father and brother who travelled to different lands to acquire gold, he visited bookshops to find maps and printed books. His primary vision was to build a universal library of books that the Spanish people could use to search for information about any topic in the globe. This ambitious goal would make his ultimate library as the first-ever “database” of information that ever existed. He gathered these books by often travelling to see a lot of bookshops in around 15 biggest European cities and purchased all the latest books that were newly printed. When he died in 1539, Hernando had collected more than 15,000 to 20,000 books. Manuscripts and prints Since Hernando was born in the year of 1488 and the printing press was invented 40 years later and was first utilized to print manuscripts and make books, he just begun hoarding in the year 1509 until he died in 1539 and this placed a lot of pressure on him to get every printed book over the past sixty to eighty years right after Gutenberg introduced the printing press. Furthermore, Hernando always wanted to make his own library that houses all the existing printed books since he wanted to organize every human knowledge per subject and language. Alone, this job seems too much to handle that’s why he paid a lot of readers to help him summarize each book that he bought. Earlier this year, a bulky 2000-page volume was found in Scandinavia entitled “Book of Epitomes” or “El Libro de Los Epítomes.” This book was missing for around 350 years, and it contained the summary of the contents of a lot of books and categorized them into some kind of systematic mechanism. According to Lee, he believes that the majority of the books that were summarized as part of this collection no longer exist today. However, the good news is, it gives a clear idea of the kinds of books. Europeans read for the past 500 years. Hernando Columbus made efforts to uphold the honor of his father by building a “new world” through collecting a massive number of books. 1st and featured image from https://pixabay.com/photos/old-books-book-old-library-436498/	<urn:uuid:b9b9e723-6d1c-4d16-9a3c-d7a30d472ea6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://spokenvision.com/the-fascinating-lost-library-of-hernando-columbus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00210.warc.gz	en	0.983364	691	3.484375	3	[ -0.09900423139333725, 0.029163731262087822, 0.25667136907577515, 0.033444277942180634, -0.06577850133180618, -0.2841954827308655, -0.04802822321653366, 0.27851927280426025, -0.3027230203151703, -0.20658501982688904, -0.07376204431056976, 0.06908930838108063, -0.27442196011543274, 0.5443197...	13	Most people know Christopher Columbus. He was the popular “admiral” who accidentally found certain islands by travelling West from Europe to look for a new route towards Oriental lands. However, he didn’t know that a continent exists along with his destination, blocking his way. He explored the land and built empire for his country, Spain. The admiral had two sons. His only illegitimate son was Hernando while his legitimate son was Diego. The latter followed his father’s path and continued his legacy, and he became the admiral and governor of the Indies. Hernando had another thing in mind, and he became a scholar by creating the biggest printed books collection that ever existed, much like the music maestros of the classical era who created massive art collections through various media. Hernando Columbus’ work Recently, a professor named Edward Wilson-Lee of the University of Cambridge published “The Catalogue of Shipwrecked Books” (2019) – the only book that tackles about the life of Hernando Columbus and his incredible fascination with books. Unlike his father and brother who travelled to different lands to acquire gold, he visited bookshops to find maps and printed books. His primary vision was to build a universal library of books that the Spanish people could use to search for information about any topic in the globe. This ambitious goal would make his ultimate library as the first-ever “database” of information that ever existed. He gathered these books by often travelling to see a lot of bookshops in around 15 biggest European cities and purchased all the latest books that were newly printed. When he died in 1539, Hernando had collected more than 15,000 to 20,000 books. Manuscripts and prints Since Hernando was born in the year of 1488 and the printing press was invented 40 years later and was first utilized to print manuscripts and make books, he just begun hoarding in the year 1509 until he died in 1539 and this placed a lot of pressure on him to get every printed book over the past sixty to eighty years right after Gutenberg introduced the printing press. Furthermore, Hernando always wanted to make his own library that houses all the existing printed books since he wanted to organize every human knowledge per subject and language. Alone, this job seems too much to handle that’s why he paid a lot of readers to help him summarize each book that he bought. Earlier this year, a bulky 2000-page volume was found in Scandinavia entitled “Book of Epitomes” or “El Libro de Los Epítomes.” This book was missing for around 350 years, and it contained the summary of the contents of a lot of books and categorized them into some kind of systematic mechanism. According to Lee, he believes that the majority of the books that were summarized as part of this collection no longer exist today. However, the good news is, it gives a clear idea of the kinds of books. Europeans read for the past 500 years. Hernando Columbus made efforts to uphold the honor of his father by building a “new world” through collecting a massive number of books. 1st and featured image from https://pixabay.com/photos/old-books-book-old-library-436498/	688	ENGLISH	1
Night of the Big Wind In 1839 a windstorm swept across Ireland that went down in legend. Sunday January 6, 1839 dawned as a typical clouding winter morning and became warm enough to start to melt some of the heavy snow that had fallen the night before. Rain began to fall around midday, and the wind began to blow hard by early evening. By Sunday night the wind had reached hurricane-level speeds and continued blowing until just before dawn. With gusts of over 100 knots (185 km/h; 115 mph) it was considered the worst storm to have hit Ireland in 300 years. As the winds blew overnight it began to topple trees, barns and church spires even grass was reportedly torn from hillsides. The thatch was torn off roofs, and rogue winds blasted down chimneys, setting houses on fire when hot embers from hearths were blown throughout cottages while the owners huddled in the darkness. The back wall of the Guinness Brewery collapsed killing 9 horses, and Dublin was described as “a sacked city …the whirlwind of desolation spared neither building, tree nor shrub.” It is estimated that between 250 and 300 people were killed by the storm. There were reports of houses collapsing on people, as well as houses burning to the ground. Somewhere between one fifth and one quarter of the houses of Dublin are said to have suffered damage ranging from broken windows to complete destruction. Along the coast the large storm surge caused flooding that added to the damage caused by the wind. 42 ships were lost, mostly off the west coats, and were one of the major sources of fatalities. The destruction led to continued hardship in the months to come as thousands were made homeless. Winter stores of food and grain intended for feeding both people and livestock were destroyed leading to widespread hunger at a time before the government disaster response programs. In my quick look I saw no estimates as to how many people continued to die in the aftermath of the storm. Known as Gaelic as “Oíche na Gaoithe Móire” people struggled to understand why they had been punished the Night of the Big Wind. One legend says that the Feast of Saint Ceara, which was held on January 5 was also the traditional night for a large gathering of the fairy folk. Storytellers eventually created a tale that it was that year that they decided to leave Ireland, and the storm the following night was the effect of them leaving. Others, noting that the storm occurred on the night of the Epiphany, and saw it as a warning that the Day of Judgment would soon be here. Even the Freemasons became scapegoats as someone is said to have suggested they had somehow unleashed the devil from Hell and failed to contain him. The storm eventually became a milestone in the history of Ireland at a time when birthday were not often officially recorded by civil authorities, and was used to identify whether people were born, before or after the storm. By the early 20th century when the British government began to offer old age pensions it was occasionally used as a measure as to whether someone was old enough to qualify for the pension by asking if they remembered the Night of the Big Wind.	<urn:uuid:a51034e1-a003-4240-bb2a-0f7b25e6a756>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.kilts-n-stuff.com/Blog/night-of-the-big-wind/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00076.warc.gz	en	0.991302	649	3.578125	4	[ -0.07961121946573257, 0.2877616882324219, 0.01506340503692627, 0.06616242974996567, 0.23478730022907257, 0.042681701481342316, 0.3114999830722809, -0.2829418480396271, 0.21053743362426758, -0.4706646800041199, -0.2978801131248474, -0.07692766189575195, 0.09696994721889496, 0.36930540204048...	2	Night of the Big Wind In 1839 a windstorm swept across Ireland that went down in legend. Sunday January 6, 1839 dawned as a typical clouding winter morning and became warm enough to start to melt some of the heavy snow that had fallen the night before. Rain began to fall around midday, and the wind began to blow hard by early evening. By Sunday night the wind had reached hurricane-level speeds and continued blowing until just before dawn. With gusts of over 100 knots (185 km/h; 115 mph) it was considered the worst storm to have hit Ireland in 300 years. As the winds blew overnight it began to topple trees, barns and church spires even grass was reportedly torn from hillsides. The thatch was torn off roofs, and rogue winds blasted down chimneys, setting houses on fire when hot embers from hearths were blown throughout cottages while the owners huddled in the darkness. The back wall of the Guinness Brewery collapsed killing 9 horses, and Dublin was described as “a sacked city …the whirlwind of desolation spared neither building, tree nor shrub.” It is estimated that between 250 and 300 people were killed by the storm. There were reports of houses collapsing on people, as well as houses burning to the ground. Somewhere between one fifth and one quarter of the houses of Dublin are said to have suffered damage ranging from broken windows to complete destruction. Along the coast the large storm surge caused flooding that added to the damage caused by the wind. 42 ships were lost, mostly off the west coats, and were one of the major sources of fatalities. The destruction led to continued hardship in the months to come as thousands were made homeless. Winter stores of food and grain intended for feeding both people and livestock were destroyed leading to widespread hunger at a time before the government disaster response programs. In my quick look I saw no estimates as to how many people continued to die in the aftermath of the storm. Known as Gaelic as “Oíche na Gaoithe Móire” people struggled to understand why they had been punished the Night of the Big Wind. One legend says that the Feast of Saint Ceara, which was held on January 5 was also the traditional night for a large gathering of the fairy folk. Storytellers eventually created a tale that it was that year that they decided to leave Ireland, and the storm the following night was the effect of them leaving. Others, noting that the storm occurred on the night of the Epiphany, and saw it as a warning that the Day of Judgment would soon be here. Even the Freemasons became scapegoats as someone is said to have suggested they had somehow unleashed the devil from Hell and failed to contain him. The storm eventually became a milestone in the history of Ireland at a time when birthday were not often officially recorded by civil authorities, and was used to identify whether people were born, before or after the storm. By the early 20th century when the British government began to offer old age pensions it was occasionally used as a measure as to whether someone was old enough to qualify for the pension by asking if they remembered the Night of the Big Wind.	672	ENGLISH	1
The Battle of the Somme was the main Allied attack on the Western Front in 1916; today, it is primarily remembered for the scale of casualties. It was originally planned as a predominantly French offensive, but the heavy demands on the French army at Verdun meant it became a mainly British operation. Before the attack, the British implemented a week-long bombardment of the German front lines in an attempt to shatter the German defences. The Illustrated London News remarked that “not a roof was left on any of the houses” in the village of Montbauan, near the Somme, and that “all had been shattered by our bombardment”. However, the German trenches were heavily fortified and the bombardment failed to destroy their front-line barbed wire or their robust concrete bunkers. Consequently, the German forces simply went underground and waited for the bombing to cease. On 1 July 1916, 11 British divisions advanced to the German lines and were quickly met with machine-gun fire. By the end of the first day, the British had suffered 60,000 casualties, their largest single loss up to this point in the war. Douglas, Haig, Commander of the British Expeditionary Force, ordered his troops to continue the offensive for the next few days, with little success. The next two months saw an arduous stalemate. On 15 September, Haig renewed the attack with the help of tanks, though they were primitive at this stage and made little impact. However, The Sphere reported that a Canadian regiment had enjoyed some success in capturing the village of Courcelette. Heavy rain soon turned the battlefield into a muddy swamp-like arena and in November the fighting ceased. The British had suffered roughly 420,000 casualties and had only advanced five miles. Today, the Somme Offensive and Haig’s tactics of sending wave after wave of men to “wear down the enemy” are typically considered to have been a naive and senseless response to the demands of trench warfare. The rate of casualties as well as depictions of the battle as a “horrific slaughter” in war poetry have helped to solidify the Somme as one of the greatest atrocities in the First World War. However, in 1916 this was not how the Somme Offensive was perceived. Various articles in The Illustrated London News, and the Great Eight publications, portray the Somme as a glorious Allied victory. The ILN published articles about British war films that depicted the Somme as “an epic of self-sacrifice and gallantry”. Haig himself became a popular figure in the public sphere as a result, “chiefly [because] of the great Battle of the Somme with its remarkable ‘pushes’”.	<urn:uuid:e4824015-44ed-40b7-a234-349384f6ef46>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.illustratedfirstworldwar.com/learning/timeline/1916-2/somme-offensive-begins/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00535.warc.gz	en	0.98334	563	3.953125	4	[ -0.03631126880645752, 0.5173803567886353, 0.16475793719291687, 0.052122440189123154, 0.09802800416946411, -0.09680298715829849, -0.24029487371444702, 0.3713635504245758, 0.06016778200864792, -0.22366909682750702, -0.09774157404899597, -0.6851353645324707, -0.03787876293063164, 0.4206618666...	1	The Battle of the Somme was the main Allied attack on the Western Front in 1916; today, it is primarily remembered for the scale of casualties. It was originally planned as a predominantly French offensive, but the heavy demands on the French army at Verdun meant it became a mainly British operation. Before the attack, the British implemented a week-long bombardment of the German front lines in an attempt to shatter the German defences. The Illustrated London News remarked that “not a roof was left on any of the houses” in the village of Montbauan, near the Somme, and that “all had been shattered by our bombardment”. However, the German trenches were heavily fortified and the bombardment failed to destroy their front-line barbed wire or their robust concrete bunkers. Consequently, the German forces simply went underground and waited for the bombing to cease. On 1 July 1916, 11 British divisions advanced to the German lines and were quickly met with machine-gun fire. By the end of the first day, the British had suffered 60,000 casualties, their largest single loss up to this point in the war. Douglas, Haig, Commander of the British Expeditionary Force, ordered his troops to continue the offensive for the next few days, with little success. The next two months saw an arduous stalemate. On 15 September, Haig renewed the attack with the help of tanks, though they were primitive at this stage and made little impact. However, The Sphere reported that a Canadian regiment had enjoyed some success in capturing the village of Courcelette. Heavy rain soon turned the battlefield into a muddy swamp-like arena and in November the fighting ceased. The British had suffered roughly 420,000 casualties and had only advanced five miles. Today, the Somme Offensive and Haig’s tactics of sending wave after wave of men to “wear down the enemy” are typically considered to have been a naive and senseless response to the demands of trench warfare. The rate of casualties as well as depictions of the battle as a “horrific slaughter” in war poetry have helped to solidify the Somme as one of the greatest atrocities in the First World War. However, in 1916 this was not how the Somme Offensive was perceived. Various articles in The Illustrated London News, and the Great Eight publications, portray the Somme as a glorious Allied victory. The ILN published articles about British war films that depicted the Somme as “an epic of self-sacrifice and gallantry”. Haig himself became a popular figure in the public sphere as a result, “chiefly [because] of the great Battle of the Somme with its remarkable ‘pushes’”.	568	ENGLISH	1
This Day In Literary History On January 15th, 1891, the famous Russian poet Osip Mandelstam was born in Warsaw, Poland. He came from a wealthy Jewish family; his father was a leather merchant. Because of his wealth and position, Osip's father was able to get a special dispensation exempting the family from having to relocate with other Jews to the "pale of settlement" region of Russia. So, not long after Osip was born, the Mandelstams moved to Saint Petersburg. In 1908, at the age of seventeen, Osip Mandelstam entered the Sorbonne (the University of Paris) to study literature and philosophy, but left the following year and went to the University of Heidelberg in Germany. In 1911, Mandelstam decided to finish his education at the University of Saint Petersburg. In order to enroll at the Methodist university, he converted to Methodism, but never practiced the religion. That same year, Mandelstam and several other young poets formed the Poets' Guild. The group, led by Nikolai Gumilyov and Sergei Gorodetsky, would later be known as the Acmeists. Mandelstam wrote their manifesto, The Morning Of Acmeism, in 1913. Acmeism was a Russian poetic movement that served as a counter to the works of Russian symbolist poets of the late 19th and early 20th centuries such as Andrei Bely and Vyacheslav Ivanov. Acmeism stressed compactness of form and clarity of expression. Osip Mandelstam's Acmeist manifesto wouldn't be published until 1919. However, his first poetry collection, The Stone, would be published in 1913, and re-released in an expanded edition in 1916. By 1922, he had married his girlfriend Nadezhda Yakovlevna and moved to Moscow. At that time, his second poetry collection, Tristia, was published. For the next several years, Mandelstam nearly abandoned poetry, as he mostly wrote essays, literary criticism, short prose, and memoirs. He took a job as a translator and translated 19 books in a period of six months. His marriage began to sour and he had affairs, but he and his wife reconciled. Mandelstam started writing poetry again. In November of 1933, he wrote his most famous poem, Stalin Epigram. The poem was a harsh criticism of Soviet dictator Josef Stalin, whom he referred to as the "Kremlin highlander." The poem was likely inspired by the effects of the Holodomor (the Great Famine) which Mandelstam had witnessed while vacationing in Crimea. The Holodomor was caused by Stalin's drive to exterminate the kulaks - the affluent peasant farmers - and collectivize all of Russia's farms. Six months after Stalin Epigram appeared in print, Osip Mandelstam was arrested. Amazingly, he was neither condemned to death nor sent to the Gulag. Instead, he was exiled, along with his wife, to Cherdyn in Northern Ural. After a suicide attempt, his sentence was softened; he was banned from the big cities, but allowed to choose another place of residence. He and his wife chose to move to Voronezh. Unfortunately, this proved to be a temporary reprieve. Although Mandelstam wrote poems glorifying Stalin in 1937, (as was required of him and all Soviet poets) the Great Purge was beginning. The pro-Soviet literary establishment assailed him in print, accusing him of harboring anti-Soviet sentiments. A year later, he and his wife received a government voucher for a vacation not far from Moscow. When they arrived, Mandelstam was arrested again and charged with counter-revolutionary activities. In August of 1938, Osip Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in the Gulag and taken to a transit camp in Vladivostok at the Second River. He died several months later, on December 27th, 1938. The official cause of death was an unspecified illness. In 1956, during the Khrushchev thaw, Mandelstam was officially "rehabilitated" - cleared of the charges brought against him during his 1938 arrest. Thirty years later, he would be cleared of the charges stemming from his first arrest in 1934. Quote Of The Day "Only in Russia is poetry respected - it gets people killed. Is there anywhere else where poetry is so common a motive for murder?" - Osip Mandelstam Today's video features a reading of five of Osip Mandelstam's poems. Enjoy!	<urn:uuid:d282d04e-7f40-4f3a-9be9-902418e3b63a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://internetwritingworkshop.blogspot.com/2020/01/notes-for-january-15th-2020.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00145.warc.gz	en	0.98681	976	4.0625	4	[ -0.2657123804092407, 0.15900647640228271, -0.23087173700332642, -0.20290005207061768, -0.28768807649612427, -0.23000559210777283, 0.02133103832602501, 0.2535482943058014, -0.19939053058624268, -0.02647668682038784, -0.05898953974246979, 0.14158111810684204, -0.055565595626831055, 0.4195256...	2	This Day In Literary History On January 15th, 1891, the famous Russian poet Osip Mandelstam was born in Warsaw, Poland. He came from a wealthy Jewish family; his father was a leather merchant. Because of his wealth and position, Osip's father was able to get a special dispensation exempting the family from having to relocate with other Jews to the "pale of settlement" region of Russia. So, not long after Osip was born, the Mandelstams moved to Saint Petersburg. In 1908, at the age of seventeen, Osip Mandelstam entered the Sorbonne (the University of Paris) to study literature and philosophy, but left the following year and went to the University of Heidelberg in Germany. In 1911, Mandelstam decided to finish his education at the University of Saint Petersburg. In order to enroll at the Methodist university, he converted to Methodism, but never practiced the religion. That same year, Mandelstam and several other young poets formed the Poets' Guild. The group, led by Nikolai Gumilyov and Sergei Gorodetsky, would later be known as the Acmeists. Mandelstam wrote their manifesto, The Morning Of Acmeism, in 1913. Acmeism was a Russian poetic movement that served as a counter to the works of Russian symbolist poets of the late 19th and early 20th centuries such as Andrei Bely and Vyacheslav Ivanov. Acmeism stressed compactness of form and clarity of expression. Osip Mandelstam's Acmeist manifesto wouldn't be published until 1919. However, his first poetry collection, The Stone, would be published in 1913, and re-released in an expanded edition in 1916. By 1922, he had married his girlfriend Nadezhda Yakovlevna and moved to Moscow. At that time, his second poetry collection, Tristia, was published. For the next several years, Mandelstam nearly abandoned poetry, as he mostly wrote essays, literary criticism, short prose, and memoirs. He took a job as a translator and translated 19 books in a period of six months. His marriage began to sour and he had affairs, but he and his wife reconciled. Mandelstam started writing poetry again. In November of 1933, he wrote his most famous poem, Stalin Epigram. The poem was a harsh criticism of Soviet dictator Josef Stalin, whom he referred to as the "Kremlin highlander." The poem was likely inspired by the effects of the Holodomor (the Great Famine) which Mandelstam had witnessed while vacationing in Crimea. The Holodomor was caused by Stalin's drive to exterminate the kulaks - the affluent peasant farmers - and collectivize all of Russia's farms. Six months after Stalin Epigram appeared in print, Osip Mandelstam was arrested. Amazingly, he was neither condemned to death nor sent to the Gulag. Instead, he was exiled, along with his wife, to Cherdyn in Northern Ural. After a suicide attempt, his sentence was softened; he was banned from the big cities, but allowed to choose another place of residence. He and his wife chose to move to Voronezh. Unfortunately, this proved to be a temporary reprieve. Although Mandelstam wrote poems glorifying Stalin in 1937, (as was required of him and all Soviet poets) the Great Purge was beginning. The pro-Soviet literary establishment assailed him in print, accusing him of harboring anti-Soviet sentiments. A year later, he and his wife received a government voucher for a vacation not far from Moscow. When they arrived, Mandelstam was arrested again and charged with counter-revolutionary activities. In August of 1938, Osip Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in the Gulag and taken to a transit camp in Vladivostok at the Second River. He died several months later, on December 27th, 1938. The official cause of death was an unspecified illness. In 1956, during the Khrushchev thaw, Mandelstam was officially "rehabilitated" - cleared of the charges brought against him during his 1938 arrest. Thirty years later, he would be cleared of the charges stemming from his first arrest in 1934. Quote Of The Day "Only in Russia is poetry respected - it gets people killed. Is there anywhere else where poetry is so common a motive for murder?" - Osip Mandelstam Today's video features a reading of five of Osip Mandelstam's poems. Enjoy!	1,025	ENGLISH	1
Confucius decided that he wanted to turn his house into a library. Not for money, but simply to help spread knowledge. This got him a lot of fame and was shortly offered to be the justice minister of Lu. Ren, Li, and the five bonds The Duke had received beautiful women and horses as a gift and spent more time riding horses and hanging out with the women then focusing on the government. Confucius found this out and was furious. He left the city of Lu and wandered off for 13 years. Go clean your room it is a mess Confucius wandered for 13 years, trying to find a government to support his teachings. Although, he could never find a government that was good enough for his teachings, he did spread his thoughts and teaching to people through classes Do unto others as you would have done to yourself. Confucius main three teachings were, Ren, Li, and the 5 bonds. Ren was concern for others, Li was appropriate behavior and the five bonds were ruler to ruled, elder sibling to younger sibling, father to son, husband to wife and friend to friend. Confucius teachings created a perfect society where every one had their own place and knows their role. In this society everyone would do the right thing and set good examples to everyone else. We know these things mainly from his students notes.Confucius spread his teachings all throughout China. His most famous quote it probably the golden rule.	<urn:uuid:7fa8df76-891c-4a3e-9330-a1161a0e734f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/96b4d6b1/unknown-story	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00205.warc.gz	en	0.991644	298	3.65625	4	[ -0.4534139633178711, 0.11269916594028473, 0.340861439704895, -0.3465936481952667, 0.06470882147550583, -0.2022441029548645, 0.5296334028244019, 0.20865042507648468, 0.05405556038022041, 0.04379412904381752, 0.29526111483573914, -0.05634496733546257, 0.3531722128391266, 0.08820328861474991,...	1	Confucius decided that he wanted to turn his house into a library. Not for money, but simply to help spread knowledge. This got him a lot of fame and was shortly offered to be the justice minister of Lu. Ren, Li, and the five bonds The Duke had received beautiful women and horses as a gift and spent more time riding horses and hanging out with the women then focusing on the government. Confucius found this out and was furious. He left the city of Lu and wandered off for 13 years. Go clean your room it is a mess Confucius wandered for 13 years, trying to find a government to support his teachings. Although, he could never find a government that was good enough for his teachings, he did spread his thoughts and teaching to people through classes Do unto others as you would have done to yourself. Confucius main three teachings were, Ren, Li, and the 5 bonds. Ren was concern for others, Li was appropriate behavior and the five bonds were ruler to ruled, elder sibling to younger sibling, father to son, husband to wife and friend to friend. Confucius teachings created a perfect society where every one had their own place and knows their role. In this society everyone would do the right thing and set good examples to everyone else. We know these things mainly from his students notes.Confucius spread his teachings all throughout China. His most famous quote it probably the golden rule.	298	ENGLISH	1
In July, the world will mark 50 years since Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin became the first humans to walk on the moon. But this month marks the anniversary of an almost-forgotten mission that, but for the skill of the astronauts on board, could have become a spectacular disaster for NASA. Author James Donovan tells the story in this excerpt adapted from his new book, Shoot for the Moon: The Space Race and the Extraordinary Voyage of Apollo 11. By March 1966, the Gemini program, designed to perfect techniques that would be required for the Apollo lunar landing, was in full swing. The astronauts loved the two-man spacecraft—essentially a larger version of the Mercury capsule, it granted its pilot almost complete control, and the ability to change orbits. Gemini 8 was an especially ambitious three-day mission, since it would involve the first docking of two spacecraft and an extended spacewalk. It was the first spaceflight for both members of the crew: Neil Armstrong and David Scott. Scott, 33, had become an astronaut in 1963. He had it all: good looks, confidence, a master's in astronautical engineering. He was a fighter pilot's son, a fighter pilot and test pilot himself, and married to the daughter of a retired Air Force general—clearly one of NASA's fair-haired boys, evidenced by the fact that he was the first in his astronaut class chosen to fly in space. Armstrong, 35, would be the mission's command pilot. The former naval aviator and civilian test pilot had been selected as an astronaut in 1962 after being one of the few men selected to fly the rocket-powered X-15, a sleek, black experimental plane designed to explore the limits of an aircraft, and a pilot, at hypersonic speeds and extreme altitudes. He made seven X-15 flights and hoped to fly the Air Force's X-20 Dyna-Soar, an even more ambitious space plane, if it ever became operational. The X-20 program was an aerospace-engineering super-challenge—just the kind of project Armstrong loved and had spent most of his life working toward. Born in a small-town Ohio farmhouse, Armstrong had earned his student pilot's license on his 16th birthday and soloed a few weeks later, all before he learned to drive a car. In 1947, he began studying aeronautical engineering at Purdue on a four-year Navy scholarship, and in 1949 he reported for three years of military duty, earning his wings as a naval aviator. The Korean War broke out in 1950; a year later, his unit was sent to the center of action. Armstrong flew 78 missions in a Grumman F9F Panther, once having to bail out after his jet sustained serious damage on a bombing run. After the war, he finished his degree in 1955 and began work as a research test pilot. He'd been initially unimpressed with NASA's Mercury program, but after John Glenn's orbital flight in 1962, he changed his mind and applied to be an astronaut. Armstrong was quieter and humbler than most high-octane test pilots, but he already had a reputation for quick thinking and coolness under pressure. He would need both for his first flight into space. A lot was at stake. Although the first few Gemini missions had been successes, and the United States was seen as ahead in the space race, CIA spy plane photographs showed that the Soviets were building a monster rocket—one that could only be aiming at the moon. The Americans had much to accomplish before they could attempt lunar landing: rendezvous, docking, spacewalking. And the recent deaths of three astronauts while piloting their jet planes had dredged up familiar arguments about the relative expense and danger of piloted space flight versus robotic missions. The program sorely needed a "nominal" flight that would keep it on schedule and on target. Instead, they nearly had a disaster. The astronauts would be pushed to their limits just to get back to Earth alive. And in the process, Armstrong would cement his reputation as the right man to take NASA's biggest step. The mission started off well. Despite a series of equipment problems in the two weeks before the launch, at 10:41 a.m. on March 16, 1966, Gemini 8 lifted off smoothly. After reaching orbit, Armstrong initiated the first of nine thruster maneuvers—or burns—to catch the target, a modified Agena upper-stage rocket launched 95 minutes earlier and now in a higher orbit. They were aided by Gemini's guidance computer, primitive but effective in determining the locations of the two spacecraft and calculating the best transfer arc. Less than six hours after liftoff, Armstrong braked his ship about 150 feet from the silver-and-white, 26-foot-long Agena, shining in the bright sunlight. Rendezvous was accomplished. After a half-hour of inspecting the Agena for problems, Armstrong slowly approached to within 3 feet using the Gemini's small thruster jets. He received permission to dock, a job that required exquisite timing and a feather-light touch. A few moments later, like a giant shuttlecock nuzzling a huge thermos, his craft's nose eased into a docking collar in the front of the Agena and latched on. "Flight, we are docked. It's…really a smoothie," said Armstrong. In Mission Control, there were cheers, backslapping and handshakes; Armstrong and Scott had just achieved the first docking in space. Flight controllers—and virtually everyone else in NASA—were wary of the Agena. It was a glitch-prone craft; one had exploded shortly after launch five months earlier, during the Gemini 6 mission. They suspected the rocket thrusters might be faulty and had instructed Jim Lovell, acting as CapCom (capsule communicator) at a tracking station on Madagascar, to warn the Gemini 8 crew. Just before Armstrong and Scott passed out of communication range, Lovell told them, "If you run into trouble and the attitude-control system in the Agena goes wild, just…turn it off and take control with the spacecraft." Armstrong and Scott would soon be out of range of the tracking station and incommunicado. They turned up the cockpit lights and pulled out their flight books, then began doing docking chores and checking command links between the two spacecraft. In a little while, they could begin to relax. Gemini 8 had moved into night, and since the lights were on in the cockpit, the crew couldn't see much through their two small windows. After a couple of hours of taking care of Agena operations and general housekeeping, they'd try to sleep. Scott, especially, needed a good rest. He was scheduled to do a two-hour-plus spacewalk the next day. Twenty-seven minutes after uniting with the Agena, Scott looked up at the control panel and noticed that they were in a slow 30-degree left roll. He told Armstrong, who used thrusters to correct it. After a minute or so, the roll started again. Remembering what Lovell had advised, Armstrong told Scott, who had all the Agena controls on his side, to turn off its attitude-control system. Scott did. The roll stabilized, but a few minutes later it began again, this time at a faster rate—then even faster. Armstrong ordered Scott to switch the Agena on and then off again in case it was an electrical problem. Meanwhile, he fought the motion with his attitude hand controller on the console between them, with little success. They were spinning in space while connected to a rocket full of fuel, and they could not call anyone for guidance. This was an emergency situation that they had not practiced for and that no one had imagined. Something had to be done and quickly, before the gyrations broke them apart, caused the Agena to rupture or explode, or ripped the Gemini from the adapter section that carried their power and life-sustaining essentials. Oxygen loss and quick death from asphyxiation would almost certainly follow. To make matters worse, Scott noticed that the fuel in one of their control systems was down to 13 percent. Neither of them heard the loud cracking sound that they would have expected one of their own thrusters to make when firing. It had to be the Agena. "We'd better get off," Scott said to Armstrong. "OK, let me see if we can get the rates of rotation down so we don't re-contact. You ready?" Once they undocked, the Agena would be dead to ground control. Scott set the rocket's recording devices so a ground tracking station could pick up its data as it passed overhead and learn why it had malfunctioned. "OK, any time," he said. "We're ready." "Go," said Armstrong, and as Scott hit the undocking switch, he quickly pulled them away from the Agena before the two spacecraft whirligigged into each other. The Gemini rolled even more rapidly and began to tumble end over end. Both men had logged plenty of time on the human centrifuge, a mechanical study in sadism, and that experience proved invaluable to them now. Brilliant sunlight glinted off the spaceship's black nose, then darkness, then sunlight. Soon, it was spinning at a rate estimated to be close to two full revolutions per second. As Armstrong would later put it, with characteristic understatement, "Physiological limits were being approached." Test pilots had a phrase for flights that went bad: gone to worms. This mission had swiftly gone to worms. "Buddy, we've got troubles," Scott said. "I gotta cage my eyeballs," Armstrong said dryly. The two went to work trying to stabilize their craft. About then, they came in range of another tracking station. Coastal Sentry Quebec, a ship in the western Pacific, south of Japan, with limited ability to communicate with Mission Control. The station crew could tell something was amiss. Their telemetry told them the Gemini had undocked, but they had no idea why. They would have only a few minutes to communicate before the spacecraft sped over them and out of range again. "Gemini 8, CSQ CapCom. How do you read?" "We've got serious problems here," Scott said. "We're tumbling end over end up here. We're disengaged from the Agena." The CSQ CapCom could hear Scott, though the violent spinning distorted his speech, and scrambling antenna patterns fragmented the transmission. Voices faded in and out. The station could do nothing but acknowledge and ask what the problem was. "We're rolling up, and we can't turn anything off," Armstrong said. "Continuously increasing in a left roll." They were still spinning in roll, pitch and yaw at more than a revolution per second. Everything that had been loose in the cabin—charts, checklists, flight plan—was bouncing against the walls. Both men were being thrown around, and they were becoming dizzy. They had trouble seeing the overhead dials and switches. Nausea was soon to come, from the contents of their stomachs sloshing around, as was vestibular nystagmus, a sickening, dizzying sensation that would cause an uncontrollable movement of the eyeballs and blurred vision. Both men were seconds away from passing out, and if they did, the chances of recovery would be remote. They could hear Flight Control cutting in from Houston and asking CSQ what was going on, then CSQ trying to explain, and suddenly they passed out of range again for another 15 minutes. Armstrong and Scott knew there was only one option: the re-entry control system and its two separate rings of thrusters in the nose of the spacecraft. "All we have left is the re-entry system," Armstrong said, his voice strained. "Do it," said Scott. There were half a dozen control panels around the interior of the spacecraft. The re-entry control switch was in an awkward spot, right above Armstrong's head. After countless hours in the simulator, each man knew the position of every control by feel; as fighter pilots, they'd always gone through blindfolded cockpit checks, and they carried that into their Gemini training. There were a dozen switches on the plate with the re-entry control switch. Somehow, Armstrong reached up and found the right one. He flicked it on, then threw the switches to activate the engines that would control the Gemini's re-entry into Earth's atmosphere. Armstrong got no response. He asked Scott to give it a try—Scott got no response either. Without a hand controller, they wouldn't make it home. Still whirling and tumbling—the craft's thrusters were turned off, but there was no air to slow the capsule's movements—they started throwing switches again in case one was in the wrong position. Just then, the hand controllers began working. With a delicate pulsing of the thrusters, Armstrong managed to slow down the violent spinning and then, finally, stop it. He turned off the re-entry control system to save fuel—they'd need it, and they had used about 75 percent of it just to stop the spinning. He reactivated his maneuvering thrusters one by one until he found the culprit: number eight, a yaw thruster, was stuck in the on position, probably due to an electrical short. They hadn't heard the thruster popping because it had been on the entire time. The Gemini, not the Agena, had been at fault. A Gemini mission rule dictated that using the re-entry system meant that the mission must be aborted; if these thrusters developed a leak, the crew would not be able to get the craft into position for the critical retrofire that would stabilize it and return them to Earth at the proper angle. Attitude control was essential to re-enter the atmosphere safely. Flight director John Hodge, a silver-haired Englishman known for his imperturbability, knew he had to call an end to the mission. But where? And when? As soon as it was possible, of course, but could they find a prime or secondary recovery site? After their 26-minute ordeal, Armstrong said, "Sorry, partner." He had planned to let Scott take the Gemini's controls later, and the spacewalk Scott had trained long and hard for wouldn't happen. But Scott knew they had no choice. Twenty minutes later, after running through the options with his flight controllers, Hodge made his decision: re-entry in the seventh orbit, less than three hours away. If retrofire occurred as planned, the recovery point would be about 620 miles southeast of Japan. A Navy destroyer began moving at flank speed toward the position. As Gemini 8 passed over Africa, Armstrong was concerned that they'd land in a remote area—and possibly on hard ground. The spacecraft was designed to handle that, but the impact would be excessive, even with their shock-absorbing contour couches, and since they had no control over the landing, it would be impossible to avoid ground obstacles or a steep hill or even a mountain. Scott worried when he saw the Himalayas getting larger below them as they re-entered the atmosphere. But as the craft plummeted to Earth, then activated its parachutes, the two astronauts were relieved to see the blue of water below them. Twenty minutes after they made a hard splashdown in rough seas, three frogmen dropped from an Air Force transport plane and secured the spacecraft. Three hours later, the destroyer winched Gemini 8 on deck. The crew was healthy but worn out after their 10-hour-41-minute flight. There was whispering among some of the newer astronauts that the two had panicked, but no spaceflight veteran thought that. They had followed the book and done what they had to do to survive—and done it superbly. Far from blaming the two, NASA officials commended the crew for their calm performance under extreme conditions. They were especially impressed with the commander. The flight only confirmed what they knew: Armstrong was one cool customer in a crisis. → Excerpted from the book Shoot for the Moon by James Donovan. Copyright © 2019 by James Donovan. Reprinted with permission of Little, Brown and Company. All rights reserved	<urn:uuid:d4607483-2e24-4257-9633-fff7951086c7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newsweek.com/2019/03/22/top-flight-1359355.html?amp=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00172.warc.gz	en	0.982233	3,382	3.5	4	[ -0.330657422542572, 0.23151734471321106, 0.24791580438613892, -0.2922104597091675, -0.8046892881393433, 0.5354480743408203, -0.13089627027511597, 0.15506018698215485, -0.011653823778033257, 0.15333238244056702, 0.24928902089595795, 0.37946438789367676, 0.05635704845190048, 0.48401284217834...	7	In July, the world will mark 50 years since Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin became the first humans to walk on the moon. But this month marks the anniversary of an almost-forgotten mission that, but for the skill of the astronauts on board, could have become a spectacular disaster for NASA. Author James Donovan tells the story in this excerpt adapted from his new book, Shoot for the Moon: The Space Race and the Extraordinary Voyage of Apollo 11. By March 1966, the Gemini program, designed to perfect techniques that would be required for the Apollo lunar landing, was in full swing. The astronauts loved the two-man spacecraft—essentially a larger version of the Mercury capsule, it granted its pilot almost complete control, and the ability to change orbits. Gemini 8 was an especially ambitious three-day mission, since it would involve the first docking of two spacecraft and an extended spacewalk. It was the first spaceflight for both members of the crew: Neil Armstrong and David Scott. Scott, 33, had become an astronaut in 1963. He had it all: good looks, confidence, a master's in astronautical engineering. He was a fighter pilot's son, a fighter pilot and test pilot himself, and married to the daughter of a retired Air Force general—clearly one of NASA's fair-haired boys, evidenced by the fact that he was the first in his astronaut class chosen to fly in space. Armstrong, 35, would be the mission's command pilot. The former naval aviator and civilian test pilot had been selected as an astronaut in 1962 after being one of the few men selected to fly the rocket-powered X-15, a sleek, black experimental plane designed to explore the limits of an aircraft, and a pilot, at hypersonic speeds and extreme altitudes. He made seven X-15 flights and hoped to fly the Air Force's X-20 Dyna-Soar, an even more ambitious space plane, if it ever became operational. The X-20 program was an aerospace-engineering super-challenge—just the kind of project Armstrong loved and had spent most of his life working toward. Born in a small-town Ohio farmhouse, Armstrong had earned his student pilot's license on his 16th birthday and soloed a few weeks later, all before he learned to drive a car. In 1947, he began studying aeronautical engineering at Purdue on a four-year Navy scholarship, and in 1949 he reported for three years of military duty, earning his wings as a naval aviator. The Korean War broke out in 1950; a year later, his unit was sent to the center of action. Armstrong flew 78 missions in a Grumman F9F Panther, once having to bail out after his jet sustained serious damage on a bombing run. After the war, he finished his degree in 1955 and began work as a research test pilot. He'd been initially unimpressed with NASA's Mercury program, but after John Glenn's orbital flight in 1962, he changed his mind and applied to be an astronaut. Armstrong was quieter and humbler than most high-octane test pilots, but he already had a reputation for quick thinking and coolness under pressure. He would need both for his first flight into space. A lot was at stake. Although the first few Gemini missions had been successes, and the United States was seen as ahead in the space race, CIA spy plane photographs showed that the Soviets were building a monster rocket—one that could only be aiming at the moon. The Americans had much to accomplish before they could attempt lunar landing: rendezvous, docking, spacewalking. And the recent deaths of three astronauts while piloting their jet planes had dredged up familiar arguments about the relative expense and danger of piloted space flight versus robotic missions. The program sorely needed a "nominal" flight that would keep it on schedule and on target. Instead, they nearly had a disaster. The astronauts would be pushed to their limits just to get back to Earth alive. And in the process, Armstrong would cement his reputation as the right man to take NASA's biggest step. The mission started off well. Despite a series of equipment problems in the two weeks before the launch, at 10:41 a.m. on March 16, 1966, Gemini 8 lifted off smoothly. After reaching orbit, Armstrong initiated the first of nine thruster maneuvers—or burns—to catch the target, a modified Agena upper-stage rocket launched 95 minutes earlier and now in a higher orbit. They were aided by Gemini's guidance computer, primitive but effective in determining the locations of the two spacecraft and calculating the best transfer arc. Less than six hours after liftoff, Armstrong braked his ship about 150 feet from the silver-and-white, 26-foot-long Agena, shining in the bright sunlight. Rendezvous was accomplished. After a half-hour of inspecting the Agena for problems, Armstrong slowly approached to within 3 feet using the Gemini's small thruster jets. He received permission to dock, a job that required exquisite timing and a feather-light touch. A few moments later, like a giant shuttlecock nuzzling a huge thermos, his craft's nose eased into a docking collar in the front of the Agena and latched on. "Flight, we are docked. It's…really a smoothie," said Armstrong. In Mission Control, there were cheers, backslapping and handshakes; Armstrong and Scott had just achieved the first docking in space. Flight controllers—and virtually everyone else in NASA—were wary of the Agena. It was a glitch-prone craft; one had exploded shortly after launch five months earlier, during the Gemini 6 mission. They suspected the rocket thrusters might be faulty and had instructed Jim Lovell, acting as CapCom (capsule communicator) at a tracking station on Madagascar, to warn the Gemini 8 crew. Just before Armstrong and Scott passed out of communication range, Lovell told them, "If you run into trouble and the attitude-control system in the Agena goes wild, just…turn it off and take control with the spacecraft." Armstrong and Scott would soon be out of range of the tracking station and incommunicado. They turned up the cockpit lights and pulled out their flight books, then began doing docking chores and checking command links between the two spacecraft. In a little while, they could begin to relax. Gemini 8 had moved into night, and since the lights were on in the cockpit, the crew couldn't see much through their two small windows. After a couple of hours of taking care of Agena operations and general housekeeping, they'd try to sleep. Scott, especially, needed a good rest. He was scheduled to do a two-hour-plus spacewalk the next day. Twenty-seven minutes after uniting with the Agena, Scott looked up at the control panel and noticed that they were in a slow 30-degree left roll. He told Armstrong, who used thrusters to correct it. After a minute or so, the roll started again. Remembering what Lovell had advised, Armstrong told Scott, who had all the Agena controls on his side, to turn off its attitude-control system. Scott did. The roll stabilized, but a few minutes later it began again, this time at a faster rate—then even faster. Armstrong ordered Scott to switch the Agena on and then off again in case it was an electrical problem. Meanwhile, he fought the motion with his attitude hand controller on the console between them, with little success. They were spinning in space while connected to a rocket full of fuel, and they could not call anyone for guidance. This was an emergency situation that they had not practiced for and that no one had imagined. Something had to be done and quickly, before the gyrations broke them apart, caused the Agena to rupture or explode, or ripped the Gemini from the adapter section that carried their power and life-sustaining essentials. Oxygen loss and quick death from asphyxiation would almost certainly follow. To make matters worse, Scott noticed that the fuel in one of their control systems was down to 13 percent. Neither of them heard the loud cracking sound that they would have expected one of their own thrusters to make when firing. It had to be the Agena. "We'd better get off," Scott said to Armstrong. "OK, let me see if we can get the rates of rotation down so we don't re-contact. You ready?" Once they undocked, the Agena would be dead to ground control. Scott set the rocket's recording devices so a ground tracking station could pick up its data as it passed overhead and learn why it had malfunctioned. "OK, any time," he said. "We're ready." "Go," said Armstrong, and as Scott hit the undocking switch, he quickly pulled them away from the Agena before the two spacecraft whirligigged into each other. The Gemini rolled even more rapidly and began to tumble end over end. Both men had logged plenty of time on the human centrifuge, a mechanical study in sadism, and that experience proved invaluable to them now. Brilliant sunlight glinted off the spaceship's black nose, then darkness, then sunlight. Soon, it was spinning at a rate estimated to be close to two full revolutions per second. As Armstrong would later put it, with characteristic understatement, "Physiological limits were being approached." Test pilots had a phrase for flights that went bad: gone to worms. This mission had swiftly gone to worms. "Buddy, we've got troubles," Scott said. "I gotta cage my eyeballs," Armstrong said dryly. The two went to work trying to stabilize their craft. About then, they came in range of another tracking station. Coastal Sentry Quebec, a ship in the western Pacific, south of Japan, with limited ability to communicate with Mission Control. The station crew could tell something was amiss. Their telemetry told them the Gemini had undocked, but they had no idea why. They would have only a few minutes to communicate before the spacecraft sped over them and out of range again. "Gemini 8, CSQ CapCom. How do you read?" "We've got serious problems here," Scott said. "We're tumbling end over end up here. We're disengaged from the Agena." The CSQ CapCom could hear Scott, though the violent spinning distorted his speech, and scrambling antenna patterns fragmented the transmission. Voices faded in and out. The station could do nothing but acknowledge and ask what the problem was. "We're rolling up, and we can't turn anything off," Armstrong said. "Continuously increasing in a left roll." They were still spinning in roll, pitch and yaw at more than a revolution per second. Everything that had been loose in the cabin—charts, checklists, flight plan—was bouncing against the walls. Both men were being thrown around, and they were becoming dizzy. They had trouble seeing the overhead dials and switches. Nausea was soon to come, from the contents of their stomachs sloshing around, as was vestibular nystagmus, a sickening, dizzying sensation that would cause an uncontrollable movement of the eyeballs and blurred vision. Both men were seconds away from passing out, and if they did, the chances of recovery would be remote. They could hear Flight Control cutting in from Houston and asking CSQ what was going on, then CSQ trying to explain, and suddenly they passed out of range again for another 15 minutes. Armstrong and Scott knew there was only one option: the re-entry control system and its two separate rings of thrusters in the nose of the spacecraft. "All we have left is the re-entry system," Armstrong said, his voice strained. "Do it," said Scott. There were half a dozen control panels around the interior of the spacecraft. The re-entry control switch was in an awkward spot, right above Armstrong's head. After countless hours in the simulator, each man knew the position of every control by feel; as fighter pilots, they'd always gone through blindfolded cockpit checks, and they carried that into their Gemini training. There were a dozen switches on the plate with the re-entry control switch. Somehow, Armstrong reached up and found the right one. He flicked it on, then threw the switches to activate the engines that would control the Gemini's re-entry into Earth's atmosphere. Armstrong got no response. He asked Scott to give it a try—Scott got no response either. Without a hand controller, they wouldn't make it home. Still whirling and tumbling—the craft's thrusters were turned off, but there was no air to slow the capsule's movements—they started throwing switches again in case one was in the wrong position. Just then, the hand controllers began working. With a delicate pulsing of the thrusters, Armstrong managed to slow down the violent spinning and then, finally, stop it. He turned off the re-entry control system to save fuel—they'd need it, and they had used about 75 percent of it just to stop the spinning. He reactivated his maneuvering thrusters one by one until he found the culprit: number eight, a yaw thruster, was stuck in the on position, probably due to an electrical short. They hadn't heard the thruster popping because it had been on the entire time. The Gemini, not the Agena, had been at fault. A Gemini mission rule dictated that using the re-entry system meant that the mission must be aborted; if these thrusters developed a leak, the crew would not be able to get the craft into position for the critical retrofire that would stabilize it and return them to Earth at the proper angle. Attitude control was essential to re-enter the atmosphere safely. Flight director John Hodge, a silver-haired Englishman known for his imperturbability, knew he had to call an end to the mission. But where? And when? As soon as it was possible, of course, but could they find a prime or secondary recovery site? After their 26-minute ordeal, Armstrong said, "Sorry, partner." He had planned to let Scott take the Gemini's controls later, and the spacewalk Scott had trained long and hard for wouldn't happen. But Scott knew they had no choice. Twenty minutes later, after running through the options with his flight controllers, Hodge made his decision: re-entry in the seventh orbit, less than three hours away. If retrofire occurred as planned, the recovery point would be about 620 miles southeast of Japan. A Navy destroyer began moving at flank speed toward the position. As Gemini 8 passed over Africa, Armstrong was concerned that they'd land in a remote area—and possibly on hard ground. The spacecraft was designed to handle that, but the impact would be excessive, even with their shock-absorbing contour couches, and since they had no control over the landing, it would be impossible to avoid ground obstacles or a steep hill or even a mountain. Scott worried when he saw the Himalayas getting larger below them as they re-entered the atmosphere. But as the craft plummeted to Earth, then activated its parachutes, the two astronauts were relieved to see the blue of water below them. Twenty minutes after they made a hard splashdown in rough seas, three frogmen dropped from an Air Force transport plane and secured the spacecraft. Three hours later, the destroyer winched Gemini 8 on deck. The crew was healthy but worn out after their 10-hour-41-minute flight. There was whispering among some of the newer astronauts that the two had panicked, but no spaceflight veteran thought that. They had followed the book and done what they had to do to survive—and done it superbly. Far from blaming the two, NASA officials commended the crew for their calm performance under extreme conditions. They were especially impressed with the commander. The flight only confirmed what they knew: Armstrong was one cool customer in a crisis. → Excerpted from the book Shoot for the Moon by James Donovan. Copyright © 2019 by James Donovan. Reprinted with permission of Little, Brown and Company. All rights reserved	3,383	ENGLISH	1
The Bantu Authorities Act was one of the major foundations of apartheid in South Africa. It permitted the forced removal of black Africans to government-designated “homelands” (or bantustans). There were a total of twenty such areas, located across South Africa and South West Africa (Namibia) – usually in the less desirable parts of the nation. The South African government liked to pretend that these were independent states – this made it easy to justify spending very little on them, with the result that the black populations living in them lived in squalor and poverty. Those who had work had to travel to and from South Africa proper each day, for work that was poorly paid, and often unsafe and degrading. The bantustans were abolished in 1994, when the era of apartheid finally ended.	<urn:uuid:4bb8edde-bf22-49b0-bb7a-876607d50396>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.thecentrecannothold.net/tag/jul-17/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00030.warc.gz	en	0.986105	170	3.671875	4	[ -0.11051271855831146, 0.3924477696418762, -0.2309023141860962, -0.23507173359394073, 0.25489917397499084, -0.15698570013046265, 0.2957843542098999, -0.06360573321580887, -0.4319467544555664, 0.4652296304702759, 0.20163942873477936, -0.2501237392425537, 0.17400382459163666, 0.43004158139228...	9	The Bantu Authorities Act was one of the major foundations of apartheid in South Africa. It permitted the forced removal of black Africans to government-designated “homelands” (or bantustans). There were a total of twenty such areas, located across South Africa and South West Africa (Namibia) – usually in the less desirable parts of the nation. The South African government liked to pretend that these were independent states – this made it easy to justify spending very little on them, with the result that the black populations living in them lived in squalor and poverty. Those who had work had to travel to and from South Africa proper each day, for work that was poorly paid, and often unsafe and degrading. The bantustans were abolished in 1994, when the era of apartheid finally ended.	168	ENGLISH	1
Forced suicide is a method of execution where the victim is coerced into committing suicide to avoid facing an alternative option they perceive as much worse, such as suffering torture or having friends or family members imprisoned, tortured, or killed. Another common form historically has been deliberately providing a condemned individual with a weapon and a brief period in which to commit honourable suicide if he or she chooses before being executed. Forced suicide was a common means of execution in ancient Greece and Rome. As a mark of respect it was generally reserved for aristocrats sentenced to death; the victims would either drink hemlock or fall on their swords. Economic motivations prompted some suicides in ancient Rome. A person who was condemned to death would forfeit property to the government. People could evade that provision and let the property pass to their heirs by committing suicide prior to arrest. The most well-known forced suicide is that of the philosopher Socrates, who drank hemlock after his trial for allegedly corrupting the youth of Athens. The Stoic philosopher Seneca also killed himself in response to an order by his pupil, the Roman Emperor Nero, who himself was forced to commit suicide at a later date. Other famous forced suicides include those of Brutus, Mark Antony, Emperor Otho, and the Roman General Corbulo. The Hindu practice of sati, in which a recently widowed woman would immolate herself on her husband’s funeral pyre, is not generally considered a type of honor killing. However, the extent up to which Sati was a purely voluntary act or one that was coerced is actively debated. There have been some incidents in recent times, such as the Roop Kanwar case, in which forced sati was suspected. Additional cases are under investigation, though no evidence of forced suicide has yet been found. Japanese seppuku falls into this category. The culture practiced by the samurai expected them to ritually kill themselves if found disloyal, sparing a daimyō or shōgun the indignity of executing a follower. This was especially the case in the Edo period, and Asano Naganori was a clear example. During World War II there were many forced suicides in different military and paramilitary organizations. There is evidence of military failures requiring suicide as a better option than court martial, for example in the Winter War and at the Battle of Stalingrad. Several under Adolf Hitler's regime also committed suicide. Friedrich Paulus was promoted with the implication that he would die in futile military action or commit suicide. Suicide missions, in which volunteers were asked for, are well reported in fiction, but levels of compulsion are hard to assess. After Erwin Rommel, a field marshal in the German Army during the Second World War, lost faith in Germany's ability to win the war and came under suspicion for having taken part in the July 20, 1944 plot to kill Adolf Hitler, he was forced to commit suicide. Due to Rommel's popularity with the German people, Hitler gave him an option to commit suicide with cyanide or face dishonor and retaliation against his family and staff. Since the guilty verdict had already been entered, the option of facing trial was hopeless, and thus, in order to save his family and his honor, he was forced to take cyanide. A forced suicide may be a substitute for an honour killing when a woman violates the namus in conservative Middle Eastern societies. In 2006, the United Nations investigated reports of forced suicides of women in southeastern Turkey.	<urn:uuid:cc86ae95-4d23-41e0-b754-a09fb7819095>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://everything.explained.today/Forced_suicide/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00071.warc.gz	en	0.982875	711	3.625	4	[ -0.5591947436332703, 0.41303229331970215, 0.25966060161590576, -0.11286410689353943, 0.13102462887763977, 0.1479617953300476, 0.46922463178634644, 0.5043596029281616, 0.3304310441017151, -0.345112681388855, 0.0004263225710019469, 0.05899506062269211, -0.11687213182449341, 0.509941935539245...	1	Forced suicide is a method of execution where the victim is coerced into committing suicide to avoid facing an alternative option they perceive as much worse, such as suffering torture or having friends or family members imprisoned, tortured, or killed. Another common form historically has been deliberately providing a condemned individual with a weapon and a brief period in which to commit honourable suicide if he or she chooses before being executed. Forced suicide was a common means of execution in ancient Greece and Rome. As a mark of respect it was generally reserved for aristocrats sentenced to death; the victims would either drink hemlock or fall on their swords. Economic motivations prompted some suicides in ancient Rome. A person who was condemned to death would forfeit property to the government. People could evade that provision and let the property pass to their heirs by committing suicide prior to arrest. The most well-known forced suicide is that of the philosopher Socrates, who drank hemlock after his trial for allegedly corrupting the youth of Athens. The Stoic philosopher Seneca also killed himself in response to an order by his pupil, the Roman Emperor Nero, who himself was forced to commit suicide at a later date. Other famous forced suicides include those of Brutus, Mark Antony, Emperor Otho, and the Roman General Corbulo. The Hindu practice of sati, in which a recently widowed woman would immolate herself on her husband’s funeral pyre, is not generally considered a type of honor killing. However, the extent up to which Sati was a purely voluntary act or one that was coerced is actively debated. There have been some incidents in recent times, such as the Roop Kanwar case, in which forced sati was suspected. Additional cases are under investigation, though no evidence of forced suicide has yet been found. Japanese seppuku falls into this category. The culture practiced by the samurai expected them to ritually kill themselves if found disloyal, sparing a daimyō or shōgun the indignity of executing a follower. This was especially the case in the Edo period, and Asano Naganori was a clear example. During World War II there were many forced suicides in different military and paramilitary organizations. There is evidence of military failures requiring suicide as a better option than court martial, for example in the Winter War and at the Battle of Stalingrad. Several under Adolf Hitler's regime also committed suicide. Friedrich Paulus was promoted with the implication that he would die in futile military action or commit suicide. Suicide missions, in which volunteers were asked for, are well reported in fiction, but levels of compulsion are hard to assess. After Erwin Rommel, a field marshal in the German Army during the Second World War, lost faith in Germany's ability to win the war and came under suspicion for having taken part in the July 20, 1944 plot to kill Adolf Hitler, he was forced to commit suicide. Due to Rommel's popularity with the German people, Hitler gave him an option to commit suicide with cyanide or face dishonor and retaliation against his family and staff. Since the guilty verdict had already been entered, the option of facing trial was hopeless, and thus, in order to save his family and his honor, he was forced to take cyanide. A forced suicide may be a substitute for an honour killing when a woman violates the namus in conservative Middle Eastern societies. In 2006, the United Nations investigated reports of forced suicides of women in southeastern Turkey.	714	ENGLISH	1
Cathy Williams, 1868 The birth of Cathy Williams in 1844 is celebrated on this date. She was a Black domestic worker and a soldier. Born in Independence, MO, she worked as a house slave for William Johnson, a wealthy planter in Jefferson City, until his death. About that time, the Civil War broke out and she was freed by Union soldiers. Thereafter, Williams worked for the Army as a paid servant. While serving the soldiers, she experienced military life first hand, serving a Colonel Benton in Little Rock, AR. She also served a General Sheridan and his staff. The Army recruited her to go Washington D.C., as a cook and laundress. While traveling with the Army, Williams witnessed the Shenandoah Valley raids in Virginia. After leaving Virginia, she traveled to Iowa and St. Louis; When the war ended, Williams, wanting to be independent, enlisted in the Army in November 1866, as William Cathay in the Thirty-Eighth United States Infantry, Company A, (Buffalo Soldiers). She was able to do so because a medical examination was not required at the time. When she enlisted in the Army, women were not allowed to serve as soldiers. So Williams posed as a man and joined the Thirty-Eighth. Of the approximately 3,800 Black infantrymen and cavalrymen who served in the frontier Army between 1866 and 1900, she was the only woman to serve as a Buffalo Soldier, as far as is known. Only her cousin and a friend were aware of her real identity. Company A arrived at Fort Cummings, New Mexico, October 1, 1867, where her company protected miners and traveling immigrants from Apache attacks. In 1868, Williams grew tired of military life so she pretended to be ill. She was examined by a post surgeon who then discovered that she was a woman. She was discharged October 14, 1868, and lived many years after her military service. Cathy Williams died at the age of 82 in Raton, New Mexico. Michael N. Searles, Augusta State University. Cathy Williams: From Slave to Buffalo Soldier, by Phillip Tucker Thomas,	<urn:uuid:360c9f53-52df-41d7-8e24-c41375366f6a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bsmcpanamacity.org/soldier-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00209.warc.gz	en	0.981894	443	3.515625	4	[ -0.15720203518867493, 0.7627454996109009, -0.19716663658618927, 0.460650235414505, -0.3580911159515381, -0.0757947489619255, -0.0799604281783104, -0.07799143344163895, -0.27850914001464844, 0.33248624205589294, 0.20268766582012177, -0.19786545634269714, -0.2765648365020752, 0.0458275452256...	3	Cathy Williams, 1868 The birth of Cathy Williams in 1844 is celebrated on this date. She was a Black domestic worker and a soldier. Born in Independence, MO, she worked as a house slave for William Johnson, a wealthy planter in Jefferson City, until his death. About that time, the Civil War broke out and she was freed by Union soldiers. Thereafter, Williams worked for the Army as a paid servant. While serving the soldiers, she experienced military life first hand, serving a Colonel Benton in Little Rock, AR. She also served a General Sheridan and his staff. The Army recruited her to go Washington D.C., as a cook and laundress. While traveling with the Army, Williams witnessed the Shenandoah Valley raids in Virginia. After leaving Virginia, she traveled to Iowa and St. Louis; When the war ended, Williams, wanting to be independent, enlisted in the Army in November 1866, as William Cathay in the Thirty-Eighth United States Infantry, Company A, (Buffalo Soldiers). She was able to do so because a medical examination was not required at the time. When she enlisted in the Army, women were not allowed to serve as soldiers. So Williams posed as a man and joined the Thirty-Eighth. Of the approximately 3,800 Black infantrymen and cavalrymen who served in the frontier Army between 1866 and 1900, she was the only woman to serve as a Buffalo Soldier, as far as is known. Only her cousin and a friend were aware of her real identity. Company A arrived at Fort Cummings, New Mexico, October 1, 1867, where her company protected miners and traveling immigrants from Apache attacks. In 1868, Williams grew tired of military life so she pretended to be ill. She was examined by a post surgeon who then discovered that she was a woman. She was discharged October 14, 1868, and lived many years after her military service. Cathy Williams died at the age of 82 in Raton, New Mexico. Michael N. Searles, Augusta State University. Cathy Williams: From Slave to Buffalo Soldier, by Phillip Tucker Thomas,	466	ENGLISH	1
A brief biography of alexander the great Alexander the great empire In spring he crossed the Dardanelles , leaving Antipater , who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13, men; he himself commanded about 30, foot and over 5, cavalry, of whom nearly 14, were Macedonians and about 7, allies sent by the Greek League. On finding the army adamant , Alexander agreed to turn back. But Alexander had more important concerns—namely, the Persian expedition. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, pitiless slaughter; at the storming of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes Ravi River, Alexander received a severe wound which left him weakened. He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January B. Against overwhelming odds, he led his army to victories across the Persian territories of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt without suffering a single defeat. He was one of the greatest military leaders of all time. Seeing that Homer's Iliad inspired Alexander to dream of becoming a heroic warrior, Aristotle created an abridged version of the tome for Alexander to carry with him on military campaigns. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed or died in prison; accounts vary ; resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections. In November of , Alexander declared himself the king of Persia after capturing Darius and making him a fugitive. At the time of his death, Philip was contemplating invading Persia. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. Alexander's Conquests After securing the throne and getting all of Greece under his control, Alexander turned east to conquer more of the civilized world. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia. While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Darius sent a new offer: he would pay a huge ransom of 10, talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates. He also travelled to Libya to see the oracle of Ammon. When he was reading the letter from his son, a general named Cleander, who aided Polydamus with his mission, "opened him Parmerio up with a sword thrust to his side, then struck him a second blow in the throat…" killing him. Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. What did alexander the great do Indeed, ancient records indicate that the two became estranged later in Alexander's teenage years and at one point his mother was exiled to Epirus. This victory exposed western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hastened to open their gates. Activities Take a ten question quiz about this page. After Alexander died, his empire collapsed and the nations within it battled for power. Alexander could be inspiring and courageous, continued Abernethy. In addition, Persian nobles had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard. He was one of the greatest military leaders of all time. At first this went well, and he actually got in the rear of Alexander's force. He then set out to conquer the massive Persian Empire. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Upon hearing of Darius's death, the Macedonian army assumed that the expedition was over and the war won, but Alexander insisted on pushing farther east. He found that his treasurer, Harpalus , evidently fearing punishment for peculation, had absconded with 6, mercenaries and 5, talents to Greece; arrested in Athens , he escaped and later was murdered in Crete. He reigned as king from BC. He is also said to have sent an expedition to discover the causes of the flooding of the Nile. Alexander the great death In the summer of , the troops of Alexander and Darius once again went head to head in battle at Issus. History Shares Alexander the Great was a king of Macedonia who conquered an empire that stretched from the Balkans to modern-day Pakistan. Some parts of Caria held out, however, until Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Band of Thebes. Alexander the Great was born on July 20, BC. Darius III brought soldiers from all over, and even beyond, his empire. Arrian said that Alexander rebuked Darius in writing and used the attempts of his predecessors to invade Greece as justification for his campaign against him. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30, native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria , Sogdiana , Arachosia , and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry ; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. He quickly garnered the support of the Macedonian army, including the general and troops he had had fought with at Chaeronea. Once Philip II had succeeded in his campaign to unite all the Greek states minus Sparta into the Corinthian League, the alliance between father and son soon disintegrated. Fun Facts about Alexander the Great He was supposedly related to the Greek heroes Hercules from his father's side and Achilles from his mother's side. Alexander's Conquests After securing the throne and getting all of Greece under his control, Alexander turned east to conquer more of the civilized world. They refused to go further and Alexander was forced to turn back. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city ; it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. They fought and conquered each other. Alexander the great biography Here he faced a formidable opponent in Spitamenes, who possessed a smaller army but continued harassing Alexander and even slaughtered a Macedonian unit after Alexander underestimated him. Alexander pursued the defeated Persian forces for 35 miles to Arbela, but Darius escaped with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media. Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he was later mutilated after the Persian manner losing his nose and ears ; in due course he was publicly executed at Ecbatana. Alexander took his act of murder terribly. Yet, despite his military accomplishments, ancient records say that he failed to win the respect of some his subjects and, furthermore, he had some of the people closest to him murdered. Indeed, ancient records indicate that the two became estranged later in Alexander's teenage years and at one point his mother was exiled to Epirus. In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. After the battle, Darius III offered Alexander a ransom for his family and alliance, through marriage, with him. The nature of Alexander the Great. Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Alexander appeased the Macedonian soldiers by killing 13 Persian military leaders. based on 69 review	<urn:uuid:e97fdf2b-ae94-4be4-b039-651cb120921e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://vytovytypacady.whatshanesaid.com/a-brief-biography-of-alexander-the-great381176984pn.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00495.warc.gz	en	0.984687	1,492	3.640625	4	[ 0.08684958517551422, 0.7215491533279419, 0.4065879285335541, 0.08969080448150635, -0.4624965190887451, -0.6092753410339355, 0.18695062398910522, 0.7002055644989014, -0.09991827607154846, -0.22272297739982605, -0.1589943766593933, -0.348958820104599, -0.04377822205424309, 0.1087517216801643...	1	A brief biography of alexander the great Alexander the great empire In spring he crossed the Dardanelles , leaving Antipater , who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13, men; he himself commanded about 30, foot and over 5, cavalry, of whom nearly 14, were Macedonians and about 7, allies sent by the Greek League. On finding the army adamant , Alexander agreed to turn back. But Alexander had more important concerns—namely, the Persian expedition. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, pitiless slaughter; at the storming of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes Ravi River, Alexander received a severe wound which left him weakened. He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January B. Against overwhelming odds, he led his army to victories across the Persian territories of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt without suffering a single defeat. He was one of the greatest military leaders of all time. Seeing that Homer's Iliad inspired Alexander to dream of becoming a heroic warrior, Aristotle created an abridged version of the tome for Alexander to carry with him on military campaigns. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed or died in prison; accounts vary ; resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections. In November of , Alexander declared himself the king of Persia after capturing Darius and making him a fugitive. At the time of his death, Philip was contemplating invading Persia. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. Alexander's Conquests After securing the throne and getting all of Greece under his control, Alexander turned east to conquer more of the civilized world. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia. While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Darius sent a new offer: he would pay a huge ransom of 10, talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates. He also travelled to Libya to see the oracle of Ammon. When he was reading the letter from his son, a general named Cleander, who aided Polydamus with his mission, "opened him Parmerio up with a sword thrust to his side, then struck him a second blow in the throat…" killing him. Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. What did alexander the great do Indeed, ancient records indicate that the two became estranged later in Alexander's teenage years and at one point his mother was exiled to Epirus. This victory exposed western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hastened to open their gates. Activities Take a ten question quiz about this page. After Alexander died, his empire collapsed and the nations within it battled for power. Alexander could be inspiring and courageous, continued Abernethy. In addition, Persian nobles had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard. He was one of the greatest military leaders of all time. At first this went well, and he actually got in the rear of Alexander's force. He then set out to conquer the massive Persian Empire. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Upon hearing of Darius's death, the Macedonian army assumed that the expedition was over and the war won, but Alexander insisted on pushing farther east. He found that his treasurer, Harpalus , evidently fearing punishment for peculation, had absconded with 6, mercenaries and 5, talents to Greece; arrested in Athens , he escaped and later was murdered in Crete. He reigned as king from BC. He is also said to have sent an expedition to discover the causes of the flooding of the Nile. Alexander the great death In the summer of , the troops of Alexander and Darius once again went head to head in battle at Issus. History Shares Alexander the Great was a king of Macedonia who conquered an empire that stretched from the Balkans to modern-day Pakistan. Some parts of Caria held out, however, until Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Band of Thebes. Alexander the Great was born on July 20, BC. Darius III brought soldiers from all over, and even beyond, his empire. Arrian said that Alexander rebuked Darius in writing and used the attempts of his predecessors to invade Greece as justification for his campaign against him. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30, native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria , Sogdiana , Arachosia , and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry ; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. He quickly garnered the support of the Macedonian army, including the general and troops he had had fought with at Chaeronea. Once Philip II had succeeded in his campaign to unite all the Greek states minus Sparta into the Corinthian League, the alliance between father and son soon disintegrated. Fun Facts about Alexander the Great He was supposedly related to the Greek heroes Hercules from his father's side and Achilles from his mother's side. Alexander's Conquests After securing the throne and getting all of Greece under his control, Alexander turned east to conquer more of the civilized world. They refused to go further and Alexander was forced to turn back. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city ; it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. They fought and conquered each other. Alexander the great biography Here he faced a formidable opponent in Spitamenes, who possessed a smaller army but continued harassing Alexander and even slaughtered a Macedonian unit after Alexander underestimated him. Alexander pursued the defeated Persian forces for 35 miles to Arbela, but Darius escaped with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media. Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he was later mutilated after the Persian manner losing his nose and ears ; in due course he was publicly executed at Ecbatana. Alexander took his act of murder terribly. Yet, despite his military accomplishments, ancient records say that he failed to win the respect of some his subjects and, furthermore, he had some of the people closest to him murdered. Indeed, ancient records indicate that the two became estranged later in Alexander's teenage years and at one point his mother was exiled to Epirus. In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. After the battle, Darius III offered Alexander a ransom for his family and alliance, through marriage, with him. The nature of Alexander the Great. Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Alexander appeased the Macedonian soldiers by killing 13 Persian military leaders. based on 69 review	1,518	ENGLISH	1
Conwy Castle (aka Conway Castle), located in North Wales, was built by Edward I of England (r. 1272-1307 CE) from 1283 to 1292 CE to protect and maintain, along with several other castles, his newly acquired dominance in the region. Built on a rock promontory, the castle incorporated the latest defensive design features such as massive round towers, a double courtyard or bailey, and outer barbican defensive walls and towers. Conwy Castle is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Edward I’s Castle Building From 1272 CE Edward I, the new king of England, conquered most of Wales and joined it with the county system present in England. Following the death of Llywelyn, the Prince of Wales, in 1282 CE, the only part of Wales which remained free was the wild mountainous north and here the king built several major castles which included Caernarfon Castle, Harlech Castle, and Conwy Castle. Work began on Conwy Castle in March 1283 CE and would continue over that decade, the vast team of labourers, masons, and craftsmen being supervised by Master James of Saint Georges (c. 1235-1308 CE), the experienced architect and engineer who had previously built castles in Europe and who would be involved in many of Edward’s other Welsh castles. King Edward selected as a suitable site for the castle a high rock perched above the estuary of the River Conwy on the east side and the Gyffin stream on the south side. Easily defended, the castle could then be supplied by the river in times of siege. However, as with his other castles, Conwy's position had a significance beyond mere defensive features as it was also the site of the Cistercian Aberconwy Abbey of Saint Mary, founded there a century before. The abbey was also the burial place of Llywelyn ap Iorworth, the prince who ruled North Wales and who is often called Llywelyn the Great (r. 1195-1240 CE). The Cistercian monks were obliged to move elsewhere (although Edward did pay for the move) and, once again, the English king appropriated a culturally significant site for his own message: a new order had begun. Local limestone and grey sandstone were used (except for finely carved decorative elements), most of which came from a quarry right next to the town, greatly saving on costs as the transport of heavy materials was by far the most expensive part of building a medieval castle. Still, other materials such as lead, steel, iron, tin, and glass came from across the kingdom so that, altogether, the castle cost some 15,000 pounds (over $30 million today) to finish. It was money well spent, though, because Edward needed the castle for his own personal safety in the winter of 1294-5 CE. The Welsh uprising led by Madog ap Llywelyn resulted in an army besieging Conwy, and the castle could not be reinforced until the spring because of heavy floods. Edward was even obliged to share out his personal wine stock as the siege bit hardest in early 1295 CE. This was to be the only time Edward ever stayed at Conwy; perhaps he had bad memories of the siege and had no wish to ever return. In 1301 CE Edward had his son, the future Edward II of England (r. 1307-1327 CE) declared the Prince of Wales, and he received homage from his subjects in a ceremony at Conwy Castle. The castle then went through a period of neglect but was repaired in the second half of the 14th century CE. The castle was famously used as a refuge of last resort by another king, indeed, the next royal person to stay there. This time it was Richard II of England (r. 1377-1399 CE) who, during his fight for the English throne with his cousin Henry Bolingbroke (future King Henry IV of England, r. 1399-1413 CE), used Conwy as his base. Richard was tempted to come out of the castle on 20 August 1399 CE by a traitorous adviser, and the king was promptly imprisoned in the Tower of London and then forced to abdicate by Parliament. The castle would see action again, this time in 1401 CE when it was captured during the Welsh rebellion led by Owain Glyn Dwr (c. 1359 - c. 1415 CE). Layout & Features Conwy Castle was built with a curtain wall punctuated by eight massive circular towers and two fortified gates. The main gate was on the west side of the castle and had a triple arrangement of doors and portcullises, protected on either side by a massive circular tower, built a little further apart than was usual because of the formation of the rock upon which they were built. The gate was further protected by a barbican or semi-independent fortification structure with three towers and an entrance gate at a right angle to the main gate. In addition, the approach to the gate was via a steep stairway and then a drawbridge over a deep ditch. The castle’s second gate, on the east side, also had a double tower arrangement and its own barbican, again with three towers. As both barbicans were lower than the curtain wall behind them, defenders could easily fire down upon anyone attacking the outer defences. The inner courtyard was divided by a cross-wall into two wards (aka baileys). The smaller inner ward (to the east) contained the royal residence, granary, and private chapel, while the outer ward on the west side of the castle was much larger and had the Great Hall (up to 30 metres / 98 ft. in length), main chapel, kitchens, and other domestic buildings, including barracks for the castle’s garrison of 15 crossbowmen. The castle’s main well was located in the southeast corner of the outer ward and was originally 21.7 metres (70 ft.) deep. There was an expensively turfed garden, a fashionable feature of castles of the period and distinct from the kitchen garden where herbs, vines, and vegetables were grown. A small gate and drawbridge connected the two wards. The castle has an unusual set of three latrines on a single floor of one of the lower towers. Finally, the castle was originally covered in white plaster, traces of which remain today, and a number of shields would have been hung from the walls, all to give Edward an even more striking castle with which to impress the locals. The Fortified Town The castle also protected the adjacent walled town of Conwy, which, in turn, protected the castle’s weakest side. A deep ditch was dug out between the castle and town as an extra defensive measure The town fortification walls were added between 1283 and 1287 CE and cost almost as much as the castle did to build. These town walls originally measured some 1,300 metres (1,400 yards) in length and included an impressive 21 towers. One section of wall has the unusual feature of a row of 12 toilets which were built sticking out of the outer facade, an arrangement usually only found in a medieval monastery. Arrow loops (narrow windows) were built into the town walls at varying heights and there was a wall walk all around to give a maximum area of fire by archers. Holes in the walls show that wooden beams would once have supported wooden hoardings to protect archers stood at the top of these walls. The Castle Today Since 1986 CE, Conwy Castle has been listed, along with three other Welsh castles of Edward I (Caernarfon, Harlech and Beaumaris Castle), as a World Heritage Site. UNESCO states that these castles ...are the finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th century military architecture in Europe, as demonstrated through their completeness, pristine state, evidence for organized domestic space, and extraordinary repertory of their medieval architectural form. In addition, "the extensive and detailed contemporary technical, social, and economic documentation of the castles, and the survival of adjacent fortified towns at Caernarfon and Conwy, makes them one of the major references of medieval history" (ibid). Today, Conwy Castle is open to the public and managed by Cadw, the Historic Environment department of the Welsh Assembly Government. The spiral staircases have been restored in the castle’s towers, and it is now possible for visitors to walk a circuit of the castle’s walls. In addition, the once royal apartments are amongst the best-preserved examples in any medieval castle in England and Wales.	<urn:uuid:3363cfec-b8c5-4303-87b4-0a878840c0c1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ancient.eu/Conwy_Castle/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00442.warc.gz	en	0.982615	1,784	3.5	4	[ -0.4710763692855835, -0.024188492447137833, 0.33073949813842773, 0.4232326149940491, -0.09892217814922333, -0.33777710795402527, 0.33026695251464844, -0.18226704001426697, -0.17586329579353333, -0.3394041657447815, 0.02203296683728695, -0.3059169054031372, 0.20673319697380066, 0.3146054148...	6	Conwy Castle (aka Conway Castle), located in North Wales, was built by Edward I of England (r. 1272-1307 CE) from 1283 to 1292 CE to protect and maintain, along with several other castles, his newly acquired dominance in the region. Built on a rock promontory, the castle incorporated the latest defensive design features such as massive round towers, a double courtyard or bailey, and outer barbican defensive walls and towers. Conwy Castle is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Edward I’s Castle Building From 1272 CE Edward I, the new king of England, conquered most of Wales and joined it with the county system present in England. Following the death of Llywelyn, the Prince of Wales, in 1282 CE, the only part of Wales which remained free was the wild mountainous north and here the king built several major castles which included Caernarfon Castle, Harlech Castle, and Conwy Castle. Work began on Conwy Castle in March 1283 CE and would continue over that decade, the vast team of labourers, masons, and craftsmen being supervised by Master James of Saint Georges (c. 1235-1308 CE), the experienced architect and engineer who had previously built castles in Europe and who would be involved in many of Edward’s other Welsh castles. King Edward selected as a suitable site for the castle a high rock perched above the estuary of the River Conwy on the east side and the Gyffin stream on the south side. Easily defended, the castle could then be supplied by the river in times of siege. However, as with his other castles, Conwy's position had a significance beyond mere defensive features as it was also the site of the Cistercian Aberconwy Abbey of Saint Mary, founded there a century before. The abbey was also the burial place of Llywelyn ap Iorworth, the prince who ruled North Wales and who is often called Llywelyn the Great (r. 1195-1240 CE). The Cistercian monks were obliged to move elsewhere (although Edward did pay for the move) and, once again, the English king appropriated a culturally significant site for his own message: a new order had begun. Local limestone and grey sandstone were used (except for finely carved decorative elements), most of which came from a quarry right next to the town, greatly saving on costs as the transport of heavy materials was by far the most expensive part of building a medieval castle. Still, other materials such as lead, steel, iron, tin, and glass came from across the kingdom so that, altogether, the castle cost some 15,000 pounds (over $30 million today) to finish. It was money well spent, though, because Edward needed the castle for his own personal safety in the winter of 1294-5 CE. The Welsh uprising led by Madog ap Llywelyn resulted in an army besieging Conwy, and the castle could not be reinforced until the spring because of heavy floods. Edward was even obliged to share out his personal wine stock as the siege bit hardest in early 1295 CE. This was to be the only time Edward ever stayed at Conwy; perhaps he had bad memories of the siege and had no wish to ever return. In 1301 CE Edward had his son, the future Edward II of England (r. 1307-1327 CE) declared the Prince of Wales, and he received homage from his subjects in a ceremony at Conwy Castle. The castle then went through a period of neglect but was repaired in the second half of the 14th century CE. The castle was famously used as a refuge of last resort by another king, indeed, the next royal person to stay there. This time it was Richard II of England (r. 1377-1399 CE) who, during his fight for the English throne with his cousin Henry Bolingbroke (future King Henry IV of England, r. 1399-1413 CE), used Conwy as his base. Richard was tempted to come out of the castle on 20 August 1399 CE by a traitorous adviser, and the king was promptly imprisoned in the Tower of London and then forced to abdicate by Parliament. The castle would see action again, this time in 1401 CE when it was captured during the Welsh rebellion led by Owain Glyn Dwr (c. 1359 - c. 1415 CE). Layout & Features Conwy Castle was built with a curtain wall punctuated by eight massive circular towers and two fortified gates. The main gate was on the west side of the castle and had a triple arrangement of doors and portcullises, protected on either side by a massive circular tower, built a little further apart than was usual because of the formation of the rock upon which they were built. The gate was further protected by a barbican or semi-independent fortification structure with three towers and an entrance gate at a right angle to the main gate. In addition, the approach to the gate was via a steep stairway and then a drawbridge over a deep ditch. The castle’s second gate, on the east side, also had a double tower arrangement and its own barbican, again with three towers. As both barbicans were lower than the curtain wall behind them, defenders could easily fire down upon anyone attacking the outer defences. The inner courtyard was divided by a cross-wall into two wards (aka baileys). The smaller inner ward (to the east) contained the royal residence, granary, and private chapel, while the outer ward on the west side of the castle was much larger and had the Great Hall (up to 30 metres / 98 ft. in length), main chapel, kitchens, and other domestic buildings, including barracks for the castle’s garrison of 15 crossbowmen. The castle’s main well was located in the southeast corner of the outer ward and was originally 21.7 metres (70 ft.) deep. There was an expensively turfed garden, a fashionable feature of castles of the period and distinct from the kitchen garden where herbs, vines, and vegetables were grown. A small gate and drawbridge connected the two wards. The castle has an unusual set of three latrines on a single floor of one of the lower towers. Finally, the castle was originally covered in white plaster, traces of which remain today, and a number of shields would have been hung from the walls, all to give Edward an even more striking castle with which to impress the locals. The Fortified Town The castle also protected the adjacent walled town of Conwy, which, in turn, protected the castle’s weakest side. A deep ditch was dug out between the castle and town as an extra defensive measure The town fortification walls were added between 1283 and 1287 CE and cost almost as much as the castle did to build. These town walls originally measured some 1,300 metres (1,400 yards) in length and included an impressive 21 towers. One section of wall has the unusual feature of a row of 12 toilets which were built sticking out of the outer facade, an arrangement usually only found in a medieval monastery. Arrow loops (narrow windows) were built into the town walls at varying heights and there was a wall walk all around to give a maximum area of fire by archers. Holes in the walls show that wooden beams would once have supported wooden hoardings to protect archers stood at the top of these walls. The Castle Today Since 1986 CE, Conwy Castle has been listed, along with three other Welsh castles of Edward I (Caernarfon, Harlech and Beaumaris Castle), as a World Heritage Site. UNESCO states that these castles ...are the finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th century military architecture in Europe, as demonstrated through their completeness, pristine state, evidence for organized domestic space, and extraordinary repertory of their medieval architectural form. In addition, "the extensive and detailed contemporary technical, social, and economic documentation of the castles, and the survival of adjacent fortified towns at Caernarfon and Conwy, makes them one of the major references of medieval history" (ibid). Today, Conwy Castle is open to the public and managed by Cadw, the Historic Environment department of the Welsh Assembly Government. The spiral staircases have been restored in the castle’s towers, and it is now possible for visitors to walk a circuit of the castle’s walls. In addition, the once royal apartments are amongst the best-preserved examples in any medieval castle in England and Wales.	1,878	ENGLISH	1
The education reforms of the 1970s occurred in a very different political climate from today's education movements, yet there are still lessons to be learnt from it. The political agitation and mood for change of the 1960s opened the door to a number of movements, many coming from the Vietnam War. Students were not only shocked by the disturbing images of the war on the TV news during this time, but male students were also liable to be conscripted via a lottery process. Socialist Alliance member and student protester during the 1960s Jim McIlroy said the Vietnam War and the conscription process played a key role in encouraging left-wing political organisation. “There’s no doubt that the question of conscription did play a major role in the sharp radicalisation of the student movement in Australia and the United States … Everyone knew someone who was conscripted,” he said. The student movement at the time was quite small, with the largest group on campus being the Democratic Labour Party. However, anti-war and anti-imperialist sentiment was beginning to stir behind the movement. As the war developed the movement grew stronger and left political groups on campus began to develop a life of their own. “Everyone became more aware of the nature of imperialism and that the Vietnamese people were fighting for liberation and their own self-determination, so we began to identify the two processes: what was happening in our own country and what was happening internationally,” McIlroy said. The two major on-campus groups that developed out of this sentiment were Students for a Democratic Society on campuses across Australia and the Maoist Monash University Labor Club in Melbourne. The student movement of the time had a number of goals including Aboriginal rights, women’s liberation, gay rights, environmental protection, student-worker solidarity and student-staff solidarity. Another aim was to fight for education reform to create greater democratic processes. McIlroy said: “Universities were quickly becoming degree factories and this was the beginning of a massive expansion of tertiary education.” “We were very much linked to an international movement which was demanding student power, so the idea [grew] that universities should become organising centres for political activity and that the resources of the university should be made available [to the movement].” “We started to have the demand for student-staff control and student elections of their lecturers. So it was very much to do with radical democracy that these ideas started to spread.” Students began to organise sit-ins and lock-ins, such as the one organised at Melbourne University in 1974 which was attended by 300 students. Students demanded that the Student Representative Council resign over a regulation that would allow universities to exclude students on the basis that they are “troublemakers”. The students argued that this would discriminate on the basis of class and would maintain “the false notion of an ‘ivory tower’ concerned with value free studies” which would transform universities into “merely another instrument in the capitalist productive apparatus”. This protest reflects the way the movements of the 1970s paved the way for challenging the ideology that the working class only consisted of "blue collar workers" and introduced the idea that universities had a role in producing the working class. By the early 1970s, the student movement had reached full fruition. The Gough Whitlam government, after running on a platform for "change" would eventually cave in to growing pressure to introduce, among other reforms, free tertiary education. However, the student movement from its very beginnings extended its political consciousness far beyond just a demand for free education. They led the demand for what was to be seen as legitimate democratic proceedings within tertiary education. “The general impact of radicalisation was that there was the demand for equality and for more opportunities for broader sections of the population, meaning that working class students were demanding free education and working class high school students were demanding access to tertiary education,” Mcilroy said. He said that challenging the notion of education as a private commodity was one of the most important factors in keeping the movement of the 1960s alive. “Education was a big part of it: teach-ins were big during those days. We used to try to challenge the ideological hegemony of the ruling class,” he said. He says that if the students of the 1960s had stopped fighting for change within tertiary education, then the movement of the 1970s would never have gained such momentum. “The major thing that [students now] could learn is tenacity. If students in the '60s had given up and stopped organising small rallies and small protests, then the movement would never have grown,” he said.	<urn:uuid:555d8176-82f1-4f37-98cb-f87f048628a6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/past-education-campaign-lessons-today	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00070.warc.gz	en	0.98314	985	3.359375	3	[ -0.362343966960907, 0.2899744510650635, 0.015972977504134178, -0.05314643681049347, 0.30491331219673157, 0.7650320529937744, -0.5664821863174438, -0.08681007474660873, -0.25140559673309326, 0.35893014073371887, 0.2551287114620209, -0.04132705181837082, -0.1713232398033142, 0.19509513676166...	2	The education reforms of the 1970s occurred in a very different political climate from today's education movements, yet there are still lessons to be learnt from it. The political agitation and mood for change of the 1960s opened the door to a number of movements, many coming from the Vietnam War. Students were not only shocked by the disturbing images of the war on the TV news during this time, but male students were also liable to be conscripted via a lottery process. Socialist Alliance member and student protester during the 1960s Jim McIlroy said the Vietnam War and the conscription process played a key role in encouraging left-wing political organisation. “There’s no doubt that the question of conscription did play a major role in the sharp radicalisation of the student movement in Australia and the United States … Everyone knew someone who was conscripted,” he said. The student movement at the time was quite small, with the largest group on campus being the Democratic Labour Party. However, anti-war and anti-imperialist sentiment was beginning to stir behind the movement. As the war developed the movement grew stronger and left political groups on campus began to develop a life of their own. “Everyone became more aware of the nature of imperialism and that the Vietnamese people were fighting for liberation and their own self-determination, so we began to identify the two processes: what was happening in our own country and what was happening internationally,” McIlroy said. The two major on-campus groups that developed out of this sentiment were Students for a Democratic Society on campuses across Australia and the Maoist Monash University Labor Club in Melbourne. The student movement of the time had a number of goals including Aboriginal rights, women’s liberation, gay rights, environmental protection, student-worker solidarity and student-staff solidarity. Another aim was to fight for education reform to create greater democratic processes. McIlroy said: “Universities were quickly becoming degree factories and this was the beginning of a massive expansion of tertiary education.” “We were very much linked to an international movement which was demanding student power, so the idea [grew] that universities should become organising centres for political activity and that the resources of the university should be made available [to the movement].” “We started to have the demand for student-staff control and student elections of their lecturers. So it was very much to do with radical democracy that these ideas started to spread.” Students began to organise sit-ins and lock-ins, such as the one organised at Melbourne University in 1974 which was attended by 300 students. Students demanded that the Student Representative Council resign over a regulation that would allow universities to exclude students on the basis that they are “troublemakers”. The students argued that this would discriminate on the basis of class and would maintain “the false notion of an ‘ivory tower’ concerned with value free studies” which would transform universities into “merely another instrument in the capitalist productive apparatus”. This protest reflects the way the movements of the 1970s paved the way for challenging the ideology that the working class only consisted of "blue collar workers" and introduced the idea that universities had a role in producing the working class. By the early 1970s, the student movement had reached full fruition. The Gough Whitlam government, after running on a platform for "change" would eventually cave in to growing pressure to introduce, among other reforms, free tertiary education. However, the student movement from its very beginnings extended its political consciousness far beyond just a demand for free education. They led the demand for what was to be seen as legitimate democratic proceedings within tertiary education. “The general impact of radicalisation was that there was the demand for equality and for more opportunities for broader sections of the population, meaning that working class students were demanding free education and working class high school students were demanding access to tertiary education,” Mcilroy said. He said that challenging the notion of education as a private commodity was one of the most important factors in keeping the movement of the 1960s alive. “Education was a big part of it: teach-ins were big during those days. We used to try to challenge the ideological hegemony of the ruling class,” he said. He says that if the students of the 1960s had stopped fighting for change within tertiary education, then the movement of the 1970s would never have gained such momentum. “The major thing that [students now] could learn is tenacity. If students in the '60s had given up and stopped organising small rallies and small protests, then the movement would never have grown,” he said.	951	ENGLISH	1
The Collapse of the Soviet Unionr: The History of the USSR Under Mikhail Gorbachev Publisher: Charles River Editors Date: July 2019 Duration: 2 hours 1 minutes The Cold War moved into one of its most dangerous phases after Brezhnev's death as both sides deployed nuclear weapons within alarming proximity in Europe. A NATO exercise, "Operation Able Archer," almost led to a Soviet miscalculation, and when the Soviets shot down a South Korean airliner in September 1983, claiming it had strayed into Soviet airspace, the Cold War became very tense indeed. After going through three elderly leaders in three years, Mikhail Gorbachev was chosen as the new General Secretary at the relatively youg age of 54 in March 1985. Gorbachev hoped to build the Soviet economy to relieve the persistent shortages of consumer goods it faced, which were caused by enormous military spending of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev tried to introduce some economic reforms, but they were blocked by communist hardliners. Gorbachev then came to the belief that the Soviet economy could not improved without political reform as well. Limited political reforms, such as broadcasting uncensored debates in which politicians openly questioned government policy, backfired when they energized eastern European opposition movements which began to overthrow their communist governments in 1989. Gorbachev was unwilling to reoccupy these eastern European nations and use the Soviet army to put down these revolts. In comparison with other Soviet leaders, Gorbachev was leader of the USSR for a relatively short period, but the changes that took place under his leadership were monumental, including some that were intended and others that were unforeseen. Gorbachev oversaw the end of the Cold War and the peaceful transition away from communism in Central and Eastern Europe, and he ended the war in Afghanistan and many other proxy conflicts in the developing world.	<urn:uuid:83291109-35b6-40cc-bd2f-754a831644f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.audiobooks.com/audiobook/collapse-of-the-soviet-unionr-the-history-of-the-ussr-under-mikhail-gorbachev/394311	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00205.warc.gz	en	0.982041	372	3.578125	4	[ -0.41509050130844116, -0.1273052841424942, 0.34050679206848145, 0.2802417278289795, 0.29832935333251953, -0.0993056669831276, -0.3141009509563446, 0.16118738055229187, -0.5075644254684448, -0.016703883185982704, 0.19024769961833954, -0.0064375377260148525, 0.608191192150116, 0.346051990985...	1	The Collapse of the Soviet Unionr: The History of the USSR Under Mikhail Gorbachev Publisher: Charles River Editors Date: July 2019 Duration: 2 hours 1 minutes The Cold War moved into one of its most dangerous phases after Brezhnev's death as both sides deployed nuclear weapons within alarming proximity in Europe. A NATO exercise, "Operation Able Archer," almost led to a Soviet miscalculation, and when the Soviets shot down a South Korean airliner in September 1983, claiming it had strayed into Soviet airspace, the Cold War became very tense indeed. After going through three elderly leaders in three years, Mikhail Gorbachev was chosen as the new General Secretary at the relatively youg age of 54 in March 1985. Gorbachev hoped to build the Soviet economy to relieve the persistent shortages of consumer goods it faced, which were caused by enormous military spending of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev tried to introduce some economic reforms, but they were blocked by communist hardliners. Gorbachev then came to the belief that the Soviet economy could not improved without political reform as well. Limited political reforms, such as broadcasting uncensored debates in which politicians openly questioned government policy, backfired when they energized eastern European opposition movements which began to overthrow their communist governments in 1989. Gorbachev was unwilling to reoccupy these eastern European nations and use the Soviet army to put down these revolts. In comparison with other Soviet leaders, Gorbachev was leader of the USSR for a relatively short period, but the changes that took place under his leadership were monumental, including some that were intended and others that were unforeseen. Gorbachev oversaw the end of the Cold War and the peaceful transition away from communism in Central and Eastern Europe, and he ended the war in Afghanistan and many other proxy conflicts in the developing world.	402	ENGLISH	1
Khaba was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, who by birth belonged to the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom and he was also called ‘Hor-Khaba’. Though the exact duration of his reign has not been ascertained but historians believe that he ruled around 2670 B.C. His name has been found written in nine stone bowls and many mud seals, which dated back to the Third Dynasty era, excavated from Elephantine, Hierakonpolis, and Quesna in the Nile Delta region. Khaba's exact chronological position in the Turin King list cannot be defined either, due to the absence of any mention of the date of his presence in any inscription. Similarly, the exact whereabouts of Khaba's pyramid or his mortal remains are as of yet undetermined. There are several specific theories on this issue, but none can be proven yet. Many historians claim that the unfinished Layer Pyramid in Zawyet el'Aryan was actually made for the burial of Khaba; while few others believe that the large mastaba near the Layer Pyramid was built as the tomb of this Pharaoh, as the diorite and dolomite vessels bearing his Serekh name and crest are found here. The exact predecessor of Khaba is unknown, as historians hold the ideas that either Sekhemkhet or Sanakht was probably the Pharaoh of Egypt before him, whom he succeeded. Hence, nothing can be known about his parentage or his early life and not even about his marital existence or children are mentioned in any seal or inscription of that time. Consequently, the name of his successor cannot be determined, but either Huni or Qahedjet most likely ascended the throne of Egypt after him; though some Egyptologists now think that actually Huni and Khaba were the names given to the same person. Khaba was the first Egyptian ruler, whose name and crest had been imprinted in golden color on the seals and vessels, a trend that became a regular occurrence thereafter for all kings since the rule of Sneferu in the Fourth Dynasty. Also, Khaba's Golden Horus or royal crest was probably a golden falcon, which was mentioned in ancient Egyptian language as “Netjer-nub”. The Layer Pyramid of Zawyet el'Aryan is commonly believed to be the burial tomb of Pharaoh Khaba, which is located 8 km southwest of Giza. Like all other pyramids of the Third Dynasty, it is also built of mud-bricks that were arranged in layers, over the base layer of rough bedrock blocks. Most probably, this pyramid was planned to be about 42 – 45 meters in height; but at present, its height is seen to be of only 17 meters and it is not determined whether the pyramid was left unfinished or its height was just eroded in the course of time. Mastaba Z500 is one of two large mastabas next to the Layer Pyramid. It's believed to be constructed by Khaba, as this building consisted of some stone vessels that contained his name and crest, along with other writings, which could not be deciphered yet. This mastaba has only 2 large chambers, but no other commonly seen mortuary structure is found here. This particular mastaba is important due to the discovery of the stone vessels and the mud seals from here, which contain the name of Khaba written on them.	<urn:uuid:7cec89f7-0e18-4201-8897-602f1d906d7d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ask-aladdin.com/egypt-pharaohs/khaba/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00139.warc.gz	en	0.985586	695	3.671875	4	[ -0.3706969618797302, 0.8929426670074463, 0.2357722818851471, 0.3629310727119446, -0.7281842827796936, -0.07505206018686295, 0.37631016969680786, -0.29142725467681885, 0.04816077649593353, 0.32032299041748047, 0.1909099817276001, -0.831250786781311, -0.06383353471755981, 0.01501889526844024...	8	Khaba was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, who by birth belonged to the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom and he was also called ‘Hor-Khaba’. Though the exact duration of his reign has not been ascertained but historians believe that he ruled around 2670 B.C. His name has been found written in nine stone bowls and many mud seals, which dated back to the Third Dynasty era, excavated from Elephantine, Hierakonpolis, and Quesna in the Nile Delta region. Khaba's exact chronological position in the Turin King list cannot be defined either, due to the absence of any mention of the date of his presence in any inscription. Similarly, the exact whereabouts of Khaba's pyramid or his mortal remains are as of yet undetermined. There are several specific theories on this issue, but none can be proven yet. Many historians claim that the unfinished Layer Pyramid in Zawyet el'Aryan was actually made for the burial of Khaba; while few others believe that the large mastaba near the Layer Pyramid was built as the tomb of this Pharaoh, as the diorite and dolomite vessels bearing his Serekh name and crest are found here. The exact predecessor of Khaba is unknown, as historians hold the ideas that either Sekhemkhet or Sanakht was probably the Pharaoh of Egypt before him, whom he succeeded. Hence, nothing can be known about his parentage or his early life and not even about his marital existence or children are mentioned in any seal or inscription of that time. Consequently, the name of his successor cannot be determined, but either Huni or Qahedjet most likely ascended the throne of Egypt after him; though some Egyptologists now think that actually Huni and Khaba were the names given to the same person. Khaba was the first Egyptian ruler, whose name and crest had been imprinted in golden color on the seals and vessels, a trend that became a regular occurrence thereafter for all kings since the rule of Sneferu in the Fourth Dynasty. Also, Khaba's Golden Horus or royal crest was probably a golden falcon, which was mentioned in ancient Egyptian language as “Netjer-nub”. The Layer Pyramid of Zawyet el'Aryan is commonly believed to be the burial tomb of Pharaoh Khaba, which is located 8 km southwest of Giza. Like all other pyramids of the Third Dynasty, it is also built of mud-bricks that were arranged in layers, over the base layer of rough bedrock blocks. Most probably, this pyramid was planned to be about 42 – 45 meters in height; but at present, its height is seen to be of only 17 meters and it is not determined whether the pyramid was left unfinished or its height was just eroded in the course of time. Mastaba Z500 is one of two large mastabas next to the Layer Pyramid. It's believed to be constructed by Khaba, as this building consisted of some stone vessels that contained his name and crest, along with other writings, which could not be deciphered yet. This mastaba has only 2 large chambers, but no other commonly seen mortuary structure is found here. This particular mastaba is important due to the discovery of the stone vessels and the mud seals from here, which contain the name of Khaba written on them.	706	ENGLISH	1
The ‘American Dream’ is the assertion that any individual can become fabulously wealthy and that fabulous wealth, in turn, produces great happiness. The idea of the “American Dream” started when the a flock of immigrants desired to live and stay in America for the commotion that it is in America where they can find better opportunities of work thus will enable them to earn more money. The term has now been used to refer for an individual’s deep desire to drastically change lifestyle by getting more money. Needless to say money has been the source and cause for everything. This is what happened to the story of “Death of a Salesman”. A father has been so keen in becoming wealthy because he thought that money will make him extremely happy. “Death of a Salesman” talks about the dream of a father – Willy. A dream that he has had since he and his brother were left by their father when they were just kids. Willy has been having the so-called the “American Dream”, wherein he believes that he will have a better life sooner than expected. Better life for him would mean being socially accepted, owning properties, and sort of being looked-up to by his fellow men. This research paper is aimed at analyzing the personality of the people in the story “Death of a Salesman” who have not pursued the American Dream as compared to the personality of those who were able to achieve it. In doing so, an analysis of the whole story first is done in order to have a deeper appreciation and understanding of the whole story. It is hypothesized that the “American Dream” can be achieved if the person has the right attitude and the right perspective for it. The major characters in the story don’t have the right characteristics to achieve the “American dream,” hence their failure. However, the may have failed in their quest, they have learned the best lessons in life one has to get. “Death of a Salesman” – Analysis “The man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead. Be liked and you will never want”… – Willy Loman, Act 1 (Miller, 1998) “The American Dream” is the highlight of this story. There is a wrong connotation among some people that to be “well-liked” and to wear the most fashionable items are sign of achieving the all American dream. This is the very reason why many who have aspired to become rich and/or powerful would opt to use the “short-cuts”. By going to the “short-cut” would mean getting the sympathy and/or love of other people so that they will all give anything you want. However it can be learned from the story that the most meaningful way to achieving the American dream” is by climbing the ladder. One has to work hard for it. One has to do his share by working hard, earning a living, and having the right attitude towards different circumstances. Needless to say, those people who ware not willing to work hard will expectedly fail to reach their dreams. The story took place on 1940’s where the idea of colonialism and Americanization was so prominent. However, the setting can still reflect today’s modern time. The idea of an American dream then and now is still the same. The people who have such kind of dreams still have their own means and ways of trying to achieve such dream. The place where the story happened was mostly at Willy’s house, although there were instances were other places like New York and Boston were discussed. It should be noted that these places are significant in the whole concept of the story. First, Willy’s house is where the whole family was brought up. It is where Willy’s American Dream started. It is where he had instilled to his son’s minds that they all had to fulfill the family’s American dream, no matter what happens. Meanwhile, Boston and New York are also significant aspect of the story as these areas coincide with the overall theme. I believed that these state where among the most urbanized states in America. These areas represent where most known and rich people usually reside. These areas are where Willy and his family thought where they should be. The People who did not Pursue the American Dream Willy Loman: The Father, the Husband and the Great Dreamer Willy Loman is the first person who was not able to pursue his American dream. He is the most insecure salesman portrayed in the story. He did not actually stop from wanting to pursue his American Dream, however, he opted to change tactics. He realized that he did not want to pursue his dream alone. He tagged his family – his own sons with his dream. His frequent reminders, scolding and and/or motivation to his own sons made it look like he wanted to reach and achieve his dreams through his kids. He kept on telling his wife and his kids that they are bound to richness if they set their mind for it. He never failed to be amazed with the way the rich people wear their clothing and buy the most expensive items. He was always fascinated by the idea of being able to live in luxury, being one of the most sought-after people in the area not because he is extraordinary, but because he can afford to be one. He strongly believed that he will never be happy unless he pursued his American Dream. That’s where the conflict among the characters – Willy versus Happy and Biff – started. Willy would not welcome any idea that will dampen his quest for his American Dream. While he felt very proud to one of his son for making his efforts in acting like a rich American, he felt so betrayed upon knowing that one of his sons was not actually pursuing the family’s dream. Willy is the epitome of a man who is so determined but lacked in action. It seemed that his passion to achieve his dream is all in the mind, because his heart and body didn’t do anything to actually reach that dream. He was not even exerting any effort. “And when I saw that, I realized that selling was the greatest career a man could want. ’Cause what could be more satisfying than to be able to go, at the age of eighty-four, into twenty or thirty different cities, and pick up a phone, and be remembered and loved and helped by so many different people?” (Miller, 1998) The above-quoted statement came from Willy. He was referring to somebody (Howard) who served as his inspiration. It is very apparent in this statement that his idea of happiness and fulfillment is by being able to go around various cities and “be loved and helped by so many people.” He wanted to be liked because he wanted to be helped. He was thinking that he need not work very hard to be happy because there will lots of people who will be helping him and supporting him. That’s his idea. He failed to see the truth that behind Howard’s personality is the fact that even in his age of 84, he still had to be around the city, to actually “ask” for help. Happy: The Son who Followed Willy’s Footsteps Happy, on the other hand, has the exact opposite personality of his name. He was just not happy; he was frustrated and was full of pretensions. He shared his father’s American Dream but unlike his father, he was not so vocal about it. He just worked behind his father’s back and pretended that he was really into something productive. He had even pretended that he is working as an assistant buyer, when in fact, he was just an assistant of the assistant buyer. Unlike his father, Happy would not admit that he had not yet achieved anything. Biff: The Realistic Son Biff didn’t share his father’s nor his brother’s American Dream. He did not believe that such dream is achievable. He did not believe that one should have such kind of dream to aim higher. But unlike the two, Biff seemed to be achieving more. Biff had been trying to seek for the truth and he was indeed able to find it. “I saw the things that I love in this world. The work and the food and the time to sit and smoke. And I looked at the pen and I thought, what the hell am I grabbing this for? Why am I trying to become what I don’t want to be . . . when all I want is out there, waiting for me the minute I say I know who I am.” (Miller, 1998) This was a statement of Biff as he was talking to his father. This was his way of letting his father know that he is different from him. That he has different dreams. The statement was his way of blatantly telling his father that he is not betraying his father or he just want to fail his father’s dream. What he was just trying to say is the fact that in his own way, he can do something good of his life and that he can lead a better life that what his father had. Linda: The wife and the mother Linda Loman is Willy’s dependable wife. At some instances, she seemed to be sharing her husband’s American Dream. She had high hopes for her family through her husband’s dreams. However, there were also instances where she acted lie she was the more realistic persona. She would be reminding herself and sometimes her husband that there are more and better things to do than to keep on dreaming. “A small man can be just as exhausted as a great man.” Linda, referring to her husband Willy Loman, Act 1 (Miller, 1998) Also, she would be explaining to her husband that they could have other and better alternatives to be happy instead of pursuing the American dream. Because of these attitudes, Linda has become the most nurturing wife and mother in the story. She has provided the needed guidance for their kids while also providing the needed motivation to her husband. The People Achieved the American Dream Charley: the Successful American Dreamer Charley is the first character in the story that seemed able to achieve his American Dream. He is a businessman. He treats Willy as his friend and would sometimes lend some money to Willy. Willy was so jealous of Charley’s success Charley was his only friend. Charley was able to achieve his dream not only because he is full of courage, determination and self-worth but also because he is industrious. He is focused and knows what he wants and how to get it. He realized even at his early age that of he would want to have a comfortable life, he should strive hard, and that is exactly what he did. He started his own business. He knew that he will not prosper if he was to stay as a paid laborer. He wanted to be his own boss, managing his own time and earning in his own business. Through self sacrifices and willpower, he became successful. On Willy’s death, he did not blame Willy for having such “illusions”, instead he referred to Willy as a victim of a wrong dream and a misconception. “He’s a man way out there in the blue, riding on a smile and a shoeshine … A salesman is got to dream, boy.” (Miller, 1998) Bernard: The Exact opposite of Happy Bernard is Charley’s son. He is now a successful lawyer. He is able to become one through perseverance. He studied really hard and did not stop schooling. Unlike Willy’s sons, Bernard is always sure of what he wanted to become. He did not waver in working all his might just to achieve his dream. Aside from this personal attributes, Bernard also receives positive motivation from both his parents. His father is very supportive of his needs – financially, physically and emotionally. He did not receive any force from his father nor from his mother regarding his future and his life. Ben: Willy’s Inspiration Ben is Willy’s brother who died for an undisclosed reason. He was wealthy man and he was always in Willy’s dreams. Ben served as Willy’s symbol of success. Willy would always remind himself that he could be as wealthy as his brother was (Ben). Howard Wagner is Willy’s supervisor. Howard is also a rich man as he was one of the receivers of the inheritance from his father. Suffice it to say, Howard will never be a rich man if not for his father. But what is good about Howard is the fact that he worked really hard to keep the money he had inherited. He did not want to put the money into waste. He chose to become wise enough into using the money in his business. That was why he was not happy upon seeing that Willy is not working really well for the company. He had to fire Willy for obvious reason that he was not even gaining anything from the salary he has been giving Willy. The American Dream is a good starting point for a more meaningful and productive life or career. It is a symbol of success and of comfort. If one is to set high standards for himself, he must work hard to achieve it. Willy and his family have the American dream but unfortunately they are not able to achieve it. They lack the right attitude and the willpower to achieve it. They were not exerting any effort to achieve it. For them, they just want instant money to have instant success and wealth. They failed to realize that wealth and happiness should be earned. Ike what happened to the other characters in the story who are lucky enough to achieve the American Dream. They maintain the right attitude. They have the right key to the door of success and that is being industrious, having positive thinking and point of views coupled with the right attitude towards the people around them. “Death of a Salesman” 2006. <http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/salesman/summary.html> Miller, Arthur. 1998. Death of a Salesman. ISBN: 0140481346	<urn:uuid:7b72d6dd-60cb-4e4f-a402-c979ef87abfa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://webgamesday.com/introduction/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00152.warc.gz	en	0.992712	3,019	3.28125	3	[ -0.04300907999277115, 0.2984693944454193, 0.10028420388698578, -0.05213826149702072, -0.22236354649066925, 0.6264752149581909, 0.3579065799713135, 0.016137532889842987, 0.1352434903383255, 0.040207020938396454, 0.13809803128242493, 0.22747951745986938, -0.03515412285923958, -0.225512534379...	5	The ‘American Dream’ is the assertion that any individual can become fabulously wealthy and that fabulous wealth, in turn, produces great happiness. The idea of the “American Dream” started when the a flock of immigrants desired to live and stay in America for the commotion that it is in America where they can find better opportunities of work thus will enable them to earn more money. The term has now been used to refer for an individual’s deep desire to drastically change lifestyle by getting more money. Needless to say money has been the source and cause for everything. This is what happened to the story of “Death of a Salesman”. A father has been so keen in becoming wealthy because he thought that money will make him extremely happy. “Death of a Salesman” talks about the dream of a father – Willy. A dream that he has had since he and his brother were left by their father when they were just kids. Willy has been having the so-called the “American Dream”, wherein he believes that he will have a better life sooner than expected. Better life for him would mean being socially accepted, owning properties, and sort of being looked-up to by his fellow men. This research paper is aimed at analyzing the personality of the people in the story “Death of a Salesman” who have not pursued the American Dream as compared to the personality of those who were able to achieve it. In doing so, an analysis of the whole story first is done in order to have a deeper appreciation and understanding of the whole story. It is hypothesized that the “American Dream” can be achieved if the person has the right attitude and the right perspective for it. The major characters in the story don’t have the right characteristics to achieve the “American dream,” hence their failure. However, the may have failed in their quest, they have learned the best lessons in life one has to get. “Death of a Salesman” – Analysis “The man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead. Be liked and you will never want”… – Willy Loman, Act 1 (Miller, 1998) “The American Dream” is the highlight of this story. There is a wrong connotation among some people that to be “well-liked” and to wear the most fashionable items are sign of achieving the all American dream. This is the very reason why many who have aspired to become rich and/or powerful would opt to use the “short-cuts”. By going to the “short-cut” would mean getting the sympathy and/or love of other people so that they will all give anything you want. However it can be learned from the story that the most meaningful way to achieving the American dream” is by climbing the ladder. One has to work hard for it. One has to do his share by working hard, earning a living, and having the right attitude towards different circumstances. Needless to say, those people who ware not willing to work hard will expectedly fail to reach their dreams. The story took place on 1940’s where the idea of colonialism and Americanization was so prominent. However, the setting can still reflect today’s modern time. The idea of an American dream then and now is still the same. The people who have such kind of dreams still have their own means and ways of trying to achieve such dream. The place where the story happened was mostly at Willy’s house, although there were instances were other places like New York and Boston were discussed. It should be noted that these places are significant in the whole concept of the story. First, Willy’s house is where the whole family was brought up. It is where Willy’s American Dream started. It is where he had instilled to his son’s minds that they all had to fulfill the family’s American dream, no matter what happens. Meanwhile, Boston and New York are also significant aspect of the story as these areas coincide with the overall theme. I believed that these state where among the most urbanized states in America. These areas represent where most known and rich people usually reside. These areas are where Willy and his family thought where they should be. The People who did not Pursue the American Dream Willy Loman: The Father, the Husband and the Great Dreamer Willy Loman is the first person who was not able to pursue his American dream. He is the most insecure salesman portrayed in the story. He did not actually stop from wanting to pursue his American Dream, however, he opted to change tactics. He realized that he did not want to pursue his dream alone. He tagged his family – his own sons with his dream. His frequent reminders, scolding and and/or motivation to his own sons made it look like he wanted to reach and achieve his dreams through his kids. He kept on telling his wife and his kids that they are bound to richness if they set their mind for it. He never failed to be amazed with the way the rich people wear their clothing and buy the most expensive items. He was always fascinated by the idea of being able to live in luxury, being one of the most sought-after people in the area not because he is extraordinary, but because he can afford to be one. He strongly believed that he will never be happy unless he pursued his American Dream. That’s where the conflict among the characters – Willy versus Happy and Biff – started. Willy would not welcome any idea that will dampen his quest for his American Dream. While he felt very proud to one of his son for making his efforts in acting like a rich American, he felt so betrayed upon knowing that one of his sons was not actually pursuing the family’s dream. Willy is the epitome of a man who is so determined but lacked in action. It seemed that his passion to achieve his dream is all in the mind, because his heart and body didn’t do anything to actually reach that dream. He was not even exerting any effort. “And when I saw that, I realized that selling was the greatest career a man could want. ’Cause what could be more satisfying than to be able to go, at the age of eighty-four, into twenty or thirty different cities, and pick up a phone, and be remembered and loved and helped by so many different people?” (Miller, 1998) The above-quoted statement came from Willy. He was referring to somebody (Howard) who served as his inspiration. It is very apparent in this statement that his idea of happiness and fulfillment is by being able to go around various cities and “be loved and helped by so many people.” He wanted to be liked because he wanted to be helped. He was thinking that he need not work very hard to be happy because there will lots of people who will be helping him and supporting him. That’s his idea. He failed to see the truth that behind Howard’s personality is the fact that even in his age of 84, he still had to be around the city, to actually “ask” for help. Happy: The Son who Followed Willy’s Footsteps Happy, on the other hand, has the exact opposite personality of his name. He was just not happy; he was frustrated and was full of pretensions. He shared his father’s American Dream but unlike his father, he was not so vocal about it. He just worked behind his father’s back and pretended that he was really into something productive. He had even pretended that he is working as an assistant buyer, when in fact, he was just an assistant of the assistant buyer. Unlike his father, Happy would not admit that he had not yet achieved anything. Biff: The Realistic Son Biff didn’t share his father’s nor his brother’s American Dream. He did not believe that such dream is achievable. He did not believe that one should have such kind of dream to aim higher. But unlike the two, Biff seemed to be achieving more. Biff had been trying to seek for the truth and he was indeed able to find it. “I saw the things that I love in this world. The work and the food and the time to sit and smoke. And I looked at the pen and I thought, what the hell am I grabbing this for? Why am I trying to become what I don’t want to be . . . when all I want is out there, waiting for me the minute I say I know who I am.” (Miller, 1998) This was a statement of Biff as he was talking to his father. This was his way of letting his father know that he is different from him. That he has different dreams. The statement was his way of blatantly telling his father that he is not betraying his father or he just want to fail his father’s dream. What he was just trying to say is the fact that in his own way, he can do something good of his life and that he can lead a better life that what his father had. Linda: The wife and the mother Linda Loman is Willy’s dependable wife. At some instances, she seemed to be sharing her husband’s American Dream. She had high hopes for her family through her husband’s dreams. However, there were also instances where she acted lie she was the more realistic persona. She would be reminding herself and sometimes her husband that there are more and better things to do than to keep on dreaming. “A small man can be just as exhausted as a great man.” Linda, referring to her husband Willy Loman, Act 1 (Miller, 1998) Also, she would be explaining to her husband that they could have other and better alternatives to be happy instead of pursuing the American dream. Because of these attitudes, Linda has become the most nurturing wife and mother in the story. She has provided the needed guidance for their kids while also providing the needed motivation to her husband. The People Achieved the American Dream Charley: the Successful American Dreamer Charley is the first character in the story that seemed able to achieve his American Dream. He is a businessman. He treats Willy as his friend and would sometimes lend some money to Willy. Willy was so jealous of Charley’s success Charley was his only friend. Charley was able to achieve his dream not only because he is full of courage, determination and self-worth but also because he is industrious. He is focused and knows what he wants and how to get it. He realized even at his early age that of he would want to have a comfortable life, he should strive hard, and that is exactly what he did. He started his own business. He knew that he will not prosper if he was to stay as a paid laborer. He wanted to be his own boss, managing his own time and earning in his own business. Through self sacrifices and willpower, he became successful. On Willy’s death, he did not blame Willy for having such “illusions”, instead he referred to Willy as a victim of a wrong dream and a misconception. “He’s a man way out there in the blue, riding on a smile and a shoeshine … A salesman is got to dream, boy.” (Miller, 1998) Bernard: The Exact opposite of Happy Bernard is Charley’s son. He is now a successful lawyer. He is able to become one through perseverance. He studied really hard and did not stop schooling. Unlike Willy’s sons, Bernard is always sure of what he wanted to become. He did not waver in working all his might just to achieve his dream. Aside from this personal attributes, Bernard also receives positive motivation from both his parents. His father is very supportive of his needs – financially, physically and emotionally. He did not receive any force from his father nor from his mother regarding his future and his life. Ben: Willy’s Inspiration Ben is Willy’s brother who died for an undisclosed reason. He was wealthy man and he was always in Willy’s dreams. Ben served as Willy’s symbol of success. Willy would always remind himself that he could be as wealthy as his brother was (Ben). Howard Wagner is Willy’s supervisor. Howard is also a rich man as he was one of the receivers of the inheritance from his father. Suffice it to say, Howard will never be a rich man if not for his father. But what is good about Howard is the fact that he worked really hard to keep the money he had inherited. He did not want to put the money into waste. He chose to become wise enough into using the money in his business. That was why he was not happy upon seeing that Willy is not working really well for the company. He had to fire Willy for obvious reason that he was not even gaining anything from the salary he has been giving Willy. The American Dream is a good starting point for a more meaningful and productive life or career. It is a symbol of success and of comfort. If one is to set high standards for himself, he must work hard to achieve it. Willy and his family have the American dream but unfortunately they are not able to achieve it. They lack the right attitude and the willpower to achieve it. They were not exerting any effort to achieve it. For them, they just want instant money to have instant success and wealth. They failed to realize that wealth and happiness should be earned. Ike what happened to the other characters in the story who are lucky enough to achieve the American Dream. They maintain the right attitude. They have the right key to the door of success and that is being industrious, having positive thinking and point of views coupled with the right attitude towards the people around them. “Death of a Salesman” 2006. <http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/salesman/summary.html> Miller, Arthur. 1998. Death of a Salesman. ISBN: 0140481346	2,879	ENGLISH	1
Samaria at the time Jesus lived included cities and towns that were Greek and some that were Samaritan. Samaria at the time Jesus lived included cities and towns that were Greek and some that were Samaritan. The Samaritans were descended from the Assyrians who conquered before 700 B.C. who mingled with tribes of Israel. Samaritans were considered Gentiles by the Jews in Judea. Galileans who traveled south to Jerusalem for the festivals often did not feel safe traveling through Samaria. They would head east across the Jordan River into Decapolis and then Perea and then walk or ride south on the east side of the Jordan. Often, they would then come through Bethany and come up to Jerusalem from there. You will see two places called Bethany on the map. Mary, Martha, and Lazarus lived in the Bethany that is next to Jerusalem. Sychar or Sychor in the story of the Woman at the Well is also on this map in Samaria. You can see roads on this map that Jesus and His followers would have used.	<urn:uuid:8a2962b2-f8b7-4f1d-a62f-d6720760530c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jesus.christ.org/history-rituals/ancient-samaria/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00408.warc.gz	en	0.988385	219	3.78125	4	[ 0.18537858128547668, 0.034573744982481, 0.24028660356998444, -0.31935909390449524, -0.2388787865638733, 0.12181558459997177, 0.13439254462718964, 0.3038713335990906, -0.06480642408132553, -0.01096621248871088, -0.34819743037223816, -0.15326854586601257, 0.056353259831666946, 0.278179138898...	9	Samaria at the time Jesus lived included cities and towns that were Greek and some that were Samaritan. Samaria at the time Jesus lived included cities and towns that were Greek and some that were Samaritan. The Samaritans were descended from the Assyrians who conquered before 700 B.C. who mingled with tribes of Israel. Samaritans were considered Gentiles by the Jews in Judea. Galileans who traveled south to Jerusalem for the festivals often did not feel safe traveling through Samaria. They would head east across the Jordan River into Decapolis and then Perea and then walk or ride south on the east side of the Jordan. Often, they would then come through Bethany and come up to Jerusalem from there. You will see two places called Bethany on the map. Mary, Martha, and Lazarus lived in the Bethany that is next to Jerusalem. Sychar or Sychor in the story of the Woman at the Well is also on this map in Samaria. You can see roads on this map that Jesus and His followers would have used.	221	ENGLISH	1
The Roman army was the backbone of the empire’s power, and the Romans managed to conquer so many tribes, clans, confederations, and empires because of their military superiority. It was also the source of the empire’s economic and political strength, ensuring domestic peace so that trade could flourish. However, this peace was often coterminous with subjugation. The Emperor used the army to protect Rome and to control the people it had conquered. The Roman army was also a tool of cultural assimilation. Some soldiers were away from their families for long periods of time, loosening their clan loyalties and replacing them with loyalty to Rome. The Roman army was a means by which a barbarian could become a citizen, but the process was not fast. Only when a soldier had served in the army for 25 years he could become a citizen of Rome. Organization of the Roman Army The army was organised in a very simple way: 5000 Legionaries (Roman Citizens who were in the army) would form a Legion. The Legion would be split into centuries (80 men) controlled by a Centurion. The centuries would then be divided into smaller groups with different jobs to perform. A Roman Soldier Roman soldiers had to be physically vigorous. They were expected to march up to 20 miles per day in line, wearing all their armor and carrying their food and tents. Roman soldiers were trained to fight well and to defend themselves. If the enemy shot arrows at them they would use their shields to surround their bodies and protect themselves. This formation was know as ‘the turtle’. They fought with short swords, daggers for stabbing and a long spear for throwing. They also carried a shield for protection as well as wearing armor. The tactics were simple but versatile enough to face different enemies in multiple terrains: From the forests of Germania to the rocky planes of the Greek peninsula. For these and many other reasons the Roman army was the reason for the Empire’s existence for several centuries. This article is part of our larger resource on the Romans culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on the Romans. Cite This Article"The Roman Army: Organization and Battle Tactics" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-romans-the-roman-army> More Citation Information.	<urn:uuid:6761ec69-8ef5-4842-a027-b97c63153ed3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-romans-the-roman-army	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00544.warc.gz	en	0.98047	510	3.515625	4	[ -0.36539363861083984, 0.5321452617645264, 0.6964520215988159, 0.008492077700793743, -0.4762089252471924, -0.21702207624912262, -0.12110773473978043, 0.2842305898666382, 0.02221442200243473, -0.22970162332057953, 0.25142937898635864, -0.3964231610298157, 0.1329827755689621, 0.36363220214843...	1	The Roman army was the backbone of the empire’s power, and the Romans managed to conquer so many tribes, clans, confederations, and empires because of their military superiority. It was also the source of the empire’s economic and political strength, ensuring domestic peace so that trade could flourish. However, this peace was often coterminous with subjugation. The Emperor used the army to protect Rome and to control the people it had conquered. The Roman army was also a tool of cultural assimilation. Some soldiers were away from their families for long periods of time, loosening their clan loyalties and replacing them with loyalty to Rome. The Roman army was a means by which a barbarian could become a citizen, but the process was not fast. Only when a soldier had served in the army for 25 years he could become a citizen of Rome. Organization of the Roman Army The army was organised in a very simple way: 5000 Legionaries (Roman Citizens who were in the army) would form a Legion. The Legion would be split into centuries (80 men) controlled by a Centurion. The centuries would then be divided into smaller groups with different jobs to perform. A Roman Soldier Roman soldiers had to be physically vigorous. They were expected to march up to 20 miles per day in line, wearing all their armor and carrying their food and tents. Roman soldiers were trained to fight well and to defend themselves. If the enemy shot arrows at them they would use their shields to surround their bodies and protect themselves. This formation was know as ‘the turtle’. They fought with short swords, daggers for stabbing and a long spear for throwing. They also carried a shield for protection as well as wearing armor. The tactics were simple but versatile enough to face different enemies in multiple terrains: From the forests of Germania to the rocky planes of the Greek peninsula. For these and many other reasons the Roman army was the reason for the Empire’s existence for several centuries. This article is part of our larger resource on the Romans culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on the Romans. Cite This Article"The Roman Army: Organization and Battle Tactics" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-romans-the-roman-army> More Citation Information.	506	ENGLISH	1
Saint John the Merciful was a patriarch of Alexandria in the early 7th century, also known as John V of Alexandria. He gained his epithet from his unstinting generosity in distributing the vast wealth of the patriarchate of Alexandria to the poor and afflicted. Saint John the Merciful, Patriarch of Alexandria, was born on Cyprus in the VII Century into the family of the illustrious dignitary Epiphanios. At the wish of his parents, he entered into marriage and had children. When the wife and the children of the saint died, he became a monk: strict at fasting, prayer, and love for a brother. His spiritual exploits gain him renown, and when the Patriarchal cathedra-seat at Alexandria fell vacant, the emperor Heraclius and all the clergy begged Saint John to occupy the Patriarchal throne. The saint worthily assumed his archpastoral service, concerning himself over the moral and dogmatic welfare of his flock. He considers it his main task is to be merciful and protective towards all those in need. At the beginning of his patriarchal service, he ordered the counting of all the poor and downtrodden in Alexandria (which turned out to be over seven thousand men). To all those in need, the saint daily distributed food. Twice during the week, on Wednesdays and Fridays, he emerged from the doors of the Patriarchal Cathedral, he received everyone in need: settled quarrels and distributed alms. Three times a week he visited the sick-houses and rendered help to the suffering. It this period that the emperor Heraclius led a tremendous army against the Persian emperor Chosroes II. It resulted in the Persians ravaging and burning Jerusalem, and taking a multitude of captives. The holy patriarch John ransom the captives with funds from the church's treasury. The saint never refused suppliants. Twice the saint gave money to a merchant that had suffered shipwreck, and a third time gave him a ship belonging to the Patriarchate and filled with grain, with which the merchant had a successful journey and repaid his obligations. Saint John the Merciful was known for his gentle attitude towards people. А certain citizen insulted George, a nephew of the Patriarch. George asked the saint to avenge the insult. The saint promised to reward the offender, in a manner that all Alexandria would see. This calmed George down, and Saint John began to instruct him, speaking about the necessity of meekness and humility, and then, having summoned the insulter, he declared, that he would release him from payment of a church tax on his land. Alexandria indeed was amazed by such a "revenge", and George learned the lesson in the teaching of his uncle. Shortly before his death, Saint John through illness was compelled to resign his cathedra and set off to the island of Cyprus. Having arrived at Cyprus, in his native city of Amaphunteia, the saint in peace fell asleep in the Lord (616-620). John is commemorated in the Orthodox Church on November 12. The main source for his biography is a Life written by Leontius of Neapolis in Cyprus	<urn:uuid:d65fbaff-9e3b-46b8-85cf-96ca7042d4ee>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.artbychimevi.com/post/720990208872/saint-john-the-merciful-patriarch-of	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00446.warc.gz	en	0.981902	645	3.546875	4	[ 0.06492607295513153, 1.0751967430114746, -0.025012724101543427, -0.122718445956707, -0.0872841477394104, -0.1225806325674057, -0.0469459630548954, 0.24703684449195862, 0.46436792612075806, 0.19557559490203857, -0.29123061895370483, -0.31482362747192383, 0.20702822506427765, 0.1346516907215...	14	Saint John the Merciful was a patriarch of Alexandria in the early 7th century, also known as John V of Alexandria. He gained his epithet from his unstinting generosity in distributing the vast wealth of the patriarchate of Alexandria to the poor and afflicted. Saint John the Merciful, Patriarch of Alexandria, was born on Cyprus in the VII Century into the family of the illustrious dignitary Epiphanios. At the wish of his parents, he entered into marriage and had children. When the wife and the children of the saint died, he became a monk: strict at fasting, prayer, and love for a brother. His spiritual exploits gain him renown, and when the Patriarchal cathedra-seat at Alexandria fell vacant, the emperor Heraclius and all the clergy begged Saint John to occupy the Patriarchal throne. The saint worthily assumed his archpastoral service, concerning himself over the moral and dogmatic welfare of his flock. He considers it his main task is to be merciful and protective towards all those in need. At the beginning of his patriarchal service, he ordered the counting of all the poor and downtrodden in Alexandria (which turned out to be over seven thousand men). To all those in need, the saint daily distributed food. Twice during the week, on Wednesdays and Fridays, he emerged from the doors of the Patriarchal Cathedral, he received everyone in need: settled quarrels and distributed alms. Three times a week he visited the sick-houses and rendered help to the suffering. It this period that the emperor Heraclius led a tremendous army against the Persian emperor Chosroes II. It resulted in the Persians ravaging and burning Jerusalem, and taking a multitude of captives. The holy patriarch John ransom the captives with funds from the church's treasury. The saint never refused suppliants. Twice the saint gave money to a merchant that had suffered shipwreck, and a third time gave him a ship belonging to the Patriarchate and filled with grain, with which the merchant had a successful journey and repaid his obligations. Saint John the Merciful was known for his gentle attitude towards people. А certain citizen insulted George, a nephew of the Patriarch. George asked the saint to avenge the insult. The saint promised to reward the offender, in a manner that all Alexandria would see. This calmed George down, and Saint John began to instruct him, speaking about the necessity of meekness and humility, and then, having summoned the insulter, he declared, that he would release him from payment of a church tax on his land. Alexandria indeed was amazed by such a "revenge", and George learned the lesson in the teaching of his uncle. Shortly before his death, Saint John through illness was compelled to resign his cathedra and set off to the island of Cyprus. Having arrived at Cyprus, in his native city of Amaphunteia, the saint in peace fell asleep in the Lord (616-620). John is commemorated in the Orthodox Church on November 12. The main source for his biography is a Life written by Leontius of Neapolis in Cyprus	653	ENGLISH	1
Crowned on May 26,Nicholas was neither trained nor inclined to rule, which did not help the autocracy he sought to preserve in an era desperate for change. The disastrous outcome of the Russo-Japanese War led to the Russian Revolution ofwhich the czar diffused only after signing a manifesto promising representative government and basic civil liberties in Russia. However, Nicholas soon retracted most of these concessions, and the Bolsheviks and other revolutionary groups won wide support. May 18, in Saint Petersburg, Russia Died: July 17, in Yekaterinburg, Russia Best known for: Where did Nicholas II grow up? His full given name was Nikolai Aleksandrovich Romanov. Since he was the eldest son of the Tsar, Nicholas was heir to the throne of Russia. He was close to his parents and had five younger brothers and sisters. Growing up, Nicholas was taught by private tutors. He enjoyed studying foreign languages and history. Nicholas traveled quite a bit and then joined the army when he was nineteen. Unfortunately, his father didn't get him involved in Russian politics. This lack of on the job training would become an issue when his father died young and an unprepared Nicholas became Tsar of Russia. Becoming Tsar InNicholas' father died from kidney disease. Nicholas was now the all powerful Tsar of Russia. Since the Tsar needed to be married and produce heirs to the throne, Nicholas quickly married the daughter of a German Archduke named Princess Alexandra. He was officially crowned Tsar of Russia on May 26, When Nicholas first took the crown he continued with many of his father's conservative policies. This included financial reforms, an alliance with France, and the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railroad in Nicholas also proposed the Hague Peace Conference of in order to help promote peace in Europe. War with Japan Nicholas was determined to expand his empire in Asia. However, his efforts provoked Japan who attacked Russia in The Russian army was defeated and humiliated by the Japanese and Nicholas was forced into peace negotiations. Bloody Sunday In the early s, the peasants and lower class workers in Russia lived lives of poverty. They had little food, worked long hours, and had dangerous working conditions. Inunder the leadership of a priest named George Gapon, thousands of workers organized a march to the Tsar's palace. They believed that the government was at fault, but that the Tsar was still on their side.Nicholas II was a very strong believer in autocracy and the belief that he had been made Tsar by God, however Nicholas was a very poor leader to the people of Russia, growing political problems and the war pushed Nicholas II to abdicate. Nicholas II’s ministers consequently resigned in rapid succession and were replaced by Alexandra’s chosen candidates, as influenced by Rasputin until his murder by nobles. Early Life Nicholas II was born Nikolai Aleksandrovich Romanov in Pushkin, Russia, on May 6, Born: May 06, Nikolai Aleksandrovich Romanov was born near St Petersburg on 18 May , the eldest son of Tsar Alexander III. When he succeeded his father in , he had very little experience of government. The man on the left is Nicholas II, Tsar of all the Russias. The imposing man on his right is Grand Duke Nikolay Nikolayevich, the Tsar’s uncle, who stood 6 feet 6 inches tall, and was the Tsar’s commanding officer when Nicholas was first in the army as the crown prince. Nicholas II did not, in fact, interfere unduly in operational decisions, but his departure for headquarters had serious political consequences. In his absence, supreme power in effect passed, with his approval and encouragement, to the empress. Nicholas II was the last tsar of Russia under Romanov rule. His poor handling of Bloody Sunday and Russia’s role in World War I led to his abdication and heartoftexashop.com: May 06,	<urn:uuid:bf8256c0-2c26-4614-abc5-dd8f5c8b30d2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://vytixypujazab.heartoftexashop.com/how-did-tsar-nicholas-ii-play-18002qs.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00379.warc.gz	en	0.989388	831	3.375	3	[ 0.07369888573884964, -0.012486706487834454, 0.2130458503961563, 0.13339915871620178, -0.09117557108402252, 0.022820455953478813, 0.010335599072277546, 0.5950025320053101, -0.18161286413669586, -0.10190856456756592, -0.14900881052017212, -0.10366334021091461, 0.3074563443660736, 0.486599028...	1	Crowned on May 26,Nicholas was neither trained nor inclined to rule, which did not help the autocracy he sought to preserve in an era desperate for change. The disastrous outcome of the Russo-Japanese War led to the Russian Revolution ofwhich the czar diffused only after signing a manifesto promising representative government and basic civil liberties in Russia. However, Nicholas soon retracted most of these concessions, and the Bolsheviks and other revolutionary groups won wide support. May 18, in Saint Petersburg, Russia Died: July 17, in Yekaterinburg, Russia Best known for: Where did Nicholas II grow up? His full given name was Nikolai Aleksandrovich Romanov. Since he was the eldest son of the Tsar, Nicholas was heir to the throne of Russia. He was close to his parents and had five younger brothers and sisters. Growing up, Nicholas was taught by private tutors. He enjoyed studying foreign languages and history. Nicholas traveled quite a bit and then joined the army when he was nineteen. Unfortunately, his father didn't get him involved in Russian politics. This lack of on the job training would become an issue when his father died young and an unprepared Nicholas became Tsar of Russia. Becoming Tsar InNicholas' father died from kidney disease. Nicholas was now the all powerful Tsar of Russia. Since the Tsar needed to be married and produce heirs to the throne, Nicholas quickly married the daughter of a German Archduke named Princess Alexandra. He was officially crowned Tsar of Russia on May 26, When Nicholas first took the crown he continued with many of his father's conservative policies. This included financial reforms, an alliance with France, and the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railroad in Nicholas also proposed the Hague Peace Conference of in order to help promote peace in Europe. War with Japan Nicholas was determined to expand his empire in Asia. However, his efforts provoked Japan who attacked Russia in The Russian army was defeated and humiliated by the Japanese and Nicholas was forced into peace negotiations. Bloody Sunday In the early s, the peasants and lower class workers in Russia lived lives of poverty. They had little food, worked long hours, and had dangerous working conditions. Inunder the leadership of a priest named George Gapon, thousands of workers organized a march to the Tsar's palace. They believed that the government was at fault, but that the Tsar was still on their side.Nicholas II was a very strong believer in autocracy and the belief that he had been made Tsar by God, however Nicholas was a very poor leader to the people of Russia, growing political problems and the war pushed Nicholas II to abdicate. Nicholas II’s ministers consequently resigned in rapid succession and were replaced by Alexandra’s chosen candidates, as influenced by Rasputin until his murder by nobles. Early Life Nicholas II was born Nikolai Aleksandrovich Romanov in Pushkin, Russia, on May 6, Born: May 06, Nikolai Aleksandrovich Romanov was born near St Petersburg on 18 May , the eldest son of Tsar Alexander III. When he succeeded his father in , he had very little experience of government. The man on the left is Nicholas II, Tsar of all the Russias. The imposing man on his right is Grand Duke Nikolay Nikolayevich, the Tsar’s uncle, who stood 6 feet 6 inches tall, and was the Tsar’s commanding officer when Nicholas was first in the army as the crown prince. Nicholas II did not, in fact, interfere unduly in operational decisions, but his departure for headquarters had serious political consequences. In his absence, supreme power in effect passed, with his approval and encouragement, to the empress. Nicholas II was the last tsar of Russia under Romanov rule. His poor handling of Bloody Sunday and Russia’s role in World War I led to his abdication and heartoftexashop.com: May 06,	822	ENGLISH	1
Asked in Old Testament How were Hebrew slaves treated in Egypt? April 04, 2016 5:11PM The Israelites (Hebrews) at first enjoyed a prosperous period in Egypt (Genesis 47:27), since the Egyptians were grateful to Joseph (a leading Israelite) for having enabled them to survive a famine (Genesis ch.41).Later, the Israelites were enslaved by the Egyptians (Exodus ch.1), with backbreaking labor and cruel decrees (ibid). By the time of the Exodus, many of the Israelites had given up hope (Exodus ch.6). The Israelites were not treated very well by the Eygytians as they were being harshly oppressed. You can look at what they were given and had and might get a bit confused, but contrary to now popular belief, especially amongst those who ancestors weren't slaves, to be a slave does not mean you are treated well just because you are provided with housing and certain, but usually small, means to get by day to day. A more recent comparison can be slavery in the US; slaves had food and weren't always whipped to death and were provided with places to live, but now many spin that into, they must have had a darling time and enjoyed being held captive against their will; that is, being slaves. Slaves are still seen a property, so while they are seen as inferior, and when they "act out" their slaves owners don't mind killing some here and there, they still want them to be taken care of to a degree so they can benefit from their labors; if they aren't taken care of to actually do the job they are forced to do, then the slave owners will be left with no choice but doing it for themselves, and many know, they weren't keen on letting that happen. Exodus 1:11 Therefore they (Egyptians)set taskmasters over them (Israelites) to afflict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh supply cities, Pithom and Raamses. Exodus 1:12 But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew. And they were in dread of the children of Israel. Exodus 1:13 So the Egyptians made the children of Israel serve with rigor. Exodus 1:14 And they made their lives bitter with hard bondage-in mortar, in brick, and in all manner of service in the field. All their service in which they made them serve was with rigor. According to the Book of Exodus, the Israelite slaves must have been treated remarkably well by the Egyptians: they had their own cattle and houses of such quality that the angel would not know who was a Jew or who was an Egyptian, had the Jews not marked their doors. Elsewhere, the Bible says the Hebrew slaves were treated The reason for the confusion as to the treatments of the Israelites is that the story is not at all factual. According to most scholars, the Israelite population actually originated among the Canaanites, and were never enslaved in Egypt, so was never treated well or badly in Egypt. The legend of the Exodus developed much later, after the Hebrew people had long forgotten their real origins.	<urn:uuid:b7d892ac-e82a-48e2-8e4b-c1c4fcae6792>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.answers.com/Q/How_were_Hebrew_slaves_treated_in_Egypt	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00077.warc.gz	en	0.988126	668	3.453125	3	[ -0.3938030004501343, 0.9549458622932434, 0.2311893105506897, -0.15100084245204926, -0.49232596158981323, -0.17077460885047913, 0.10361547768115997, -0.2705078721046448, -0.13206961750984192, 0.27331697940826416, 0.1265341341495514, -0.23202893137931824, -0.1323169469833374, 0.1243180409073...	1	Asked in Old Testament How were Hebrew slaves treated in Egypt? April 04, 2016 5:11PM The Israelites (Hebrews) at first enjoyed a prosperous period in Egypt (Genesis 47:27), since the Egyptians were grateful to Joseph (a leading Israelite) for having enabled them to survive a famine (Genesis ch.41).Later, the Israelites were enslaved by the Egyptians (Exodus ch.1), with backbreaking labor and cruel decrees (ibid). By the time of the Exodus, many of the Israelites had given up hope (Exodus ch.6). The Israelites were not treated very well by the Eygytians as they were being harshly oppressed. You can look at what they were given and had and might get a bit confused, but contrary to now popular belief, especially amongst those who ancestors weren't slaves, to be a slave does not mean you are treated well just because you are provided with housing and certain, but usually small, means to get by day to day. A more recent comparison can be slavery in the US; slaves had food and weren't always whipped to death and were provided with places to live, but now many spin that into, they must have had a darling time and enjoyed being held captive against their will; that is, being slaves. Slaves are still seen a property, so while they are seen as inferior, and when they "act out" their slaves owners don't mind killing some here and there, they still want them to be taken care of to a degree so they can benefit from their labors; if they aren't taken care of to actually do the job they are forced to do, then the slave owners will be left with no choice but doing it for themselves, and many know, they weren't keen on letting that happen. Exodus 1:11 Therefore they (Egyptians)set taskmasters over them (Israelites) to afflict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh supply cities, Pithom and Raamses. Exodus 1:12 But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew. And they were in dread of the children of Israel. Exodus 1:13 So the Egyptians made the children of Israel serve with rigor. Exodus 1:14 And they made their lives bitter with hard bondage-in mortar, in brick, and in all manner of service in the field. All their service in which they made them serve was with rigor. According to the Book of Exodus, the Israelite slaves must have been treated remarkably well by the Egyptians: they had their own cattle and houses of such quality that the angel would not know who was a Jew or who was an Egyptian, had the Jews not marked their doors. Elsewhere, the Bible says the Hebrew slaves were treated The reason for the confusion as to the treatments of the Israelites is that the story is not at all factual. According to most scholars, the Israelite population actually originated among the Canaanites, and were never enslaved in Egypt, so was never treated well or badly in Egypt. The legend of the Exodus developed much later, after the Hebrew people had long forgotten their real origins.	674	ENGLISH	1
The allegory of the cave by Plato is a series of dialogues by Socrates who was his biggest influence and by Glaucon who was Plato’s older brother. The allegory see’s men since birth sitting in a cave in near total darkness but for a fire behind them with their heads chained to a stick and forced to look at the wall in front of them. The fire that creates the artificial light also has people and animals passing in front of it, which then in turn casts shadows on the walls in front of the prisoners. Essentially the only images they are able to capture throughout their life are these shadows in front of them. However first of all it is important to know exactly what an ‘allegory’ is. Ted Ellen’s definition of it sees an allegory as being a kind of metaphor which uses objects, people and events to compare to things other than their literal meaning this making an allegory a story with two meanings; one which has a literal meaning and the other which has a symbolic one. 1 It is common misconception to see the cave for just a cave; it has a much bigger and deeper meaning to which philosophers have been trying to uncover for thousands of years. 2 ‘Like ourselves’ says Socrates to Glaucon when talking about the prisoners. 3 The prisoners are basically being paralleled to us right now. We are essentially the prisoners living in this cave according to Plato. What we see is what’s given to us since birth and that is the only truth we can know. The ‘academic’ in this clip also agrees with this as he states that we are in the middle of a cave right now too. 4 The phrase ‘Like ourselves’ could suggest in theory another Socrates and Glaucon who are looking at their own mirror image in another dimension essentially discussion the strangeness of the subject thus meaning they could in essence be the prisoners. Plato’s conclusion on the allegory see’s it as being a process to who should govern in the present day. 5 To be able to answer the question of what ‘truth’ is according to Plato it is essential to look at other philosophers and scholars take on the subject. There are also different interpretations of the allegory of the cave, which could also give a different meaning to the word ‘truth’. The main argument in this essay is that truth is not merely about right and wrong but about what we know and what we don’t. What we are shown and what we are restricted from seeing and what we have grown accustomed to. The ‘pursuit of truth’ could determinedly be what Plato’s truth is. Many scholars regard the allegory of the cave to have stages of ‘truth’ in which every stage is a step closer to absolute truth. 6 However it does not mean to say that because the final stage in truth hasn’t been reached the stage at which one prisoner is at is a lie. It just means there are other dimensions to truth and the further one goes the further he is enlightened; the decent out of the cave represents this. Reeve names the stages of truth in his book; the first one sees prisoners only having shadows cast upon the wall in front of them, they are attached to bonds of ‘unnecessary appetite’. 7 They only know what’s put in front and because of their lack of training and education they take them (shadows) to be the reality of truth so they are satisfied with what is there and base their thoughts around them. The second stage of truth is named as being ‘necessary appetites’. This occurs when the prisoner is able to turn around and see that the originals of the images he had seen all his life. He is now able to advance his knowledge of truth to the next level through training in music and gymnastics and see the shadows for what they really were; puppets, moulds of men and artificial animals. However some are bound to stay at this level in a state of confusion and never make it up road to the outer world into true light. This metaphor can be seen as one person realising that they have been fed lies throughout their life but because their imagination is limited to only seeing the real things in front of them they are confused on to what to do, they may not even realise that they are required to look deeper to advance for a greater knowledge of truth. In a sense the chains are still on but the rope they are tied to gets longer. For the ones who are able to escape Reeve names their needs as ‘aspiration or spirited desires’. The prisoner is now out in the open free to look at the sunlight that surrounds him. It is here that they now see the originals to what they previously only saw models and puppets. They are enlightened a step further. However some are still destined to stay at this level too chained unable to see further. In reality this stage is reached through training in music, gymnastics and maths. The final stage to absolute truth according to Plato is when the prisoner is finally motivated by rational desires and able to see the reasons for the shadows, models and originals. The prisoners at this stage are no longer motivated by personal benefits. Their purpose in life becomes to educate and free other minds of this cave. It is because they don’t want to rule is why they are best suited to rule. 8 The stages have truths have been utilised one by one and it could be argued that it is this pursuit of truth is truth since the cave is about progressing through to light. However it is unclear on how the prisoners are able to advance to the next stage in the allegory. The underlying question is what happens that makes them question deeper.	<urn:uuid:b2812dd4-fe04-4fc3-bb99-c1217aca8a12>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ozziessays.com/essay-on-platos-older-brother-10845/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00115.warc.gz	en	0.984143	1,192	3.71875	4	[ 0.20740485191345215, 0.18478131294250488, -0.08728846162557602, 0.18658562004566193, -0.4876238703727722, -0.12307597696781158, 0.685278594493866, 0.00614313967525959, 0.004232512786984444, -0.030004054307937622, 0.011035633273422718, -0.2075922191143036, -0.040672898292541504, 0.461338877...	1	The allegory of the cave by Plato is a series of dialogues by Socrates who was his biggest influence and by Glaucon who was Plato’s older brother. The allegory see’s men since birth sitting in a cave in near total darkness but for a fire behind them with their heads chained to a stick and forced to look at the wall in front of them. The fire that creates the artificial light also has people and animals passing in front of it, which then in turn casts shadows on the walls in front of the prisoners. Essentially the only images they are able to capture throughout their life are these shadows in front of them. However first of all it is important to know exactly what an ‘allegory’ is. Ted Ellen’s definition of it sees an allegory as being a kind of metaphor which uses objects, people and events to compare to things other than their literal meaning this making an allegory a story with two meanings; one which has a literal meaning and the other which has a symbolic one. 1 It is common misconception to see the cave for just a cave; it has a much bigger and deeper meaning to which philosophers have been trying to uncover for thousands of years. 2 ‘Like ourselves’ says Socrates to Glaucon when talking about the prisoners. 3 The prisoners are basically being paralleled to us right now. We are essentially the prisoners living in this cave according to Plato. What we see is what’s given to us since birth and that is the only truth we can know. The ‘academic’ in this clip also agrees with this as he states that we are in the middle of a cave right now too. 4 The phrase ‘Like ourselves’ could suggest in theory another Socrates and Glaucon who are looking at their own mirror image in another dimension essentially discussion the strangeness of the subject thus meaning they could in essence be the prisoners. Plato’s conclusion on the allegory see’s it as being a process to who should govern in the present day. 5 To be able to answer the question of what ‘truth’ is according to Plato it is essential to look at other philosophers and scholars take on the subject. There are also different interpretations of the allegory of the cave, which could also give a different meaning to the word ‘truth’. The main argument in this essay is that truth is not merely about right and wrong but about what we know and what we don’t. What we are shown and what we are restricted from seeing and what we have grown accustomed to. The ‘pursuit of truth’ could determinedly be what Plato’s truth is. Many scholars regard the allegory of the cave to have stages of ‘truth’ in which every stage is a step closer to absolute truth. 6 However it does not mean to say that because the final stage in truth hasn’t been reached the stage at which one prisoner is at is a lie. It just means there are other dimensions to truth and the further one goes the further he is enlightened; the decent out of the cave represents this. Reeve names the stages of truth in his book; the first one sees prisoners only having shadows cast upon the wall in front of them, they are attached to bonds of ‘unnecessary appetite’. 7 They only know what’s put in front and because of their lack of training and education they take them (shadows) to be the reality of truth so they are satisfied with what is there and base their thoughts around them. The second stage of truth is named as being ‘necessary appetites’. This occurs when the prisoner is able to turn around and see that the originals of the images he had seen all his life. He is now able to advance his knowledge of truth to the next level through training in music and gymnastics and see the shadows for what they really were; puppets, moulds of men and artificial animals. However some are bound to stay at this level in a state of confusion and never make it up road to the outer world into true light. This metaphor can be seen as one person realising that they have been fed lies throughout their life but because their imagination is limited to only seeing the real things in front of them they are confused on to what to do, they may not even realise that they are required to look deeper to advance for a greater knowledge of truth. In a sense the chains are still on but the rope they are tied to gets longer. For the ones who are able to escape Reeve names their needs as ‘aspiration or spirited desires’. The prisoner is now out in the open free to look at the sunlight that surrounds him. It is here that they now see the originals to what they previously only saw models and puppets. They are enlightened a step further. However some are still destined to stay at this level too chained unable to see further. In reality this stage is reached through training in music, gymnastics and maths. The final stage to absolute truth according to Plato is when the prisoner is finally motivated by rational desires and able to see the reasons for the shadows, models and originals. The prisoners at this stage are no longer motivated by personal benefits. Their purpose in life becomes to educate and free other minds of this cave. It is because they don’t want to rule is why they are best suited to rule. 8 The stages have truths have been utilised one by one and it could be argued that it is this pursuit of truth is truth since the cave is about progressing through to light. However it is unclear on how the prisoners are able to advance to the next stage in the allegory. The underlying question is what happens that makes them question deeper.	1,145	ENGLISH	1
American jazz is a trove of sounds borrowed from such varied sources as American and African folk music, European classical music, and Christian gospel songs. One of the recognizable traits of jazz is its use of improvisation: certain parts of the music are written out and played the same way by various performers, and other improvised parts are created spontaneously during a performance and vary widely from performer to performer. The root form of jazz was ragtime, lively songs or rags performed on the piano, and the best-known of the ragtime performers and composers was Scott Joplin. Born in the 1868 to former slaves, Scott Joplin earned his living from a very early age playing the piano in bars around the Mississippi. One of these regular jobs was in the Maple Leaf Club in Sedalia, Missouri. It was there that he began writing the more than 500 compositions that he was to produce, the most famous of which was “The Maple Leaf Rag”. (Longman Preparation Course for the TOEFL, Deborah Philips Adapted.)	<urn:uuid:bb1ff69c-e008-4d90-b721-2e58162025d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.qconcursos.com/questoes-militares/questoes/81ad0fe1-f5	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00324.warc.gz	en	0.983016	214	3.859375	4	[ 0.09245613217353821, -0.18462416529655457, 0.19056370854377747, -0.5817586779594421, 0.10535728931427002, 0.5227633714675903, -0.1310119479894638, -0.028574591502547264, 0.23967896401882172, 0.08170250803232193, 0.18545643985271454, 0.2775278091430664, -0.14630356431007385, 0.0901155769824...	1	American jazz is a trove of sounds borrowed from such varied sources as American and African folk music, European classical music, and Christian gospel songs. One of the recognizable traits of jazz is its use of improvisation: certain parts of the music are written out and played the same way by various performers, and other improvised parts are created spontaneously during a performance and vary widely from performer to performer. The root form of jazz was ragtime, lively songs or rags performed on the piano, and the best-known of the ragtime performers and composers was Scott Joplin. Born in the 1868 to former slaves, Scott Joplin earned his living from a very early age playing the piano in bars around the Mississippi. One of these regular jobs was in the Maple Leaf Club in Sedalia, Missouri. It was there that he began writing the more than 500 compositions that he was to produce, the most famous of which was “The Maple Leaf Rag”. (Longman Preparation Course for the TOEFL, Deborah Philips Adapted.)	213	ENGLISH	1
Colonial Women \| 18th Century Ladies \| 19th Century Women A Woman’s Put Because many colonial females hitched, the definition of good wife arrived into presence and a code of ethics developed that could govern feminine life in brand brand New England from 1650 to 1750. Good spouses had rights that are legal colonial America, as well as had more freedom than nineteenth-century females will have. Many males first hitched within their mid-twenties, and females at around age 20. 2nd marriages are not unusual, and widows and widowers faced social and financial pressures to remarry. On average, most widows and widowers remarried within 6 months to per year. Engaged and getting married had been a concern that is major young feamales in the American Colonies. In case a girl that is youngn’t marry, it absolutely was most likely because she ended up being required in the home to look after a unwell member of the family, but the majority ladies did sooner or later marry, as ended up being anticipated by culture. Continue reading	<urn:uuid:ee198641-eb77-4afc-bdd3-4d1093d2c4cf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://venomprinting.com/?cat=253	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00373.warc.gz	en	0.983455	225	3.34375	3	[ -0.1444636732339859, 0.21833530068397522, 0.2635655999183655, -0.2504747807979584, -0.01619684137403965, 0.11612190306186676, -0.03622554987668991, 0.15669018030166626, -0.2051558494567871, 0.04470263794064522, 0.07731417566537857, -0.08990482985973358, -0.06636684387922287, 0.131063729524...	1	Colonial Women \| 18th Century Ladies \| 19th Century Women A Woman’s Put Because many colonial females hitched, the definition of good wife arrived into presence and a code of ethics developed that could govern feminine life in brand brand New England from 1650 to 1750. Good spouses had rights that are legal colonial America, as well as had more freedom than nineteenth-century females will have. Many males first hitched within their mid-twenties, and females at around age 20. 2nd marriages are not unusual, and widows and widowers faced social and financial pressures to remarry. On average, most widows and widowers remarried within 6 months to per year. Engaged and getting married had been a concern that is major young feamales in the American Colonies. In case a girl that is youngn’t marry, it absolutely was most likely because she ended up being required in the home to look after a unwell member of the family, but the majority ladies did sooner or later marry, as ended up being anticipated by culture. Continue reading	231	ENGLISH	1
Cricket earlier was described as “a club striking a ball (like) the ancient games of club-ball, stool-ball, trap-ball, stob-ball”. Cricket can definitely be traced back to Tudor times in early 16th-century England. Written evidence exists of a game known as creag being played by Prince Edward, the son of Edward I (Longshanks), at Newenden, Kent in 1301 and there has been speculation, but no evidence, that this was a form of cricket. Cricket is a bat-and-ball team sport that is first documented as being played in southern England in the 16th century. The expansion of the British Empire led to cricket being played overseas and by the mid-19th century the first international matches were being held. Today, the game’s governing body, the International Cricket Council (ICC), has 104 member countries. In Maples Academy, there are all the required assets for playing this game in the most professional manner. The Main Ground has a well laid cricket pitch. The groups practice at the nets on Central Ground as per their categories according to their age.	<urn:uuid:4b116c2b-c570-495b-83bc-1caeda5ea82a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://maplesacademy.in/cricket/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00119.warc.gz	en	0.98529	238	3.34375	3	[ -0.06654340773820877, 0.21441645920276642, 0.1176314651966095, -0.6131091713905334, 0.20416966080665588, 0.1567208170890808, 0.33823731541633606, 0.07930739223957062, -0.01301881019026041, 0.5070176124572754, 0.3301997482776642, -0.7725921273231506, -0.11662565171718597, 0.3173030316829681...	4	Cricket earlier was described as “a club striking a ball (like) the ancient games of club-ball, stool-ball, trap-ball, stob-ball”. Cricket can definitely be traced back to Tudor times in early 16th-century England. Written evidence exists of a game known as creag being played by Prince Edward, the son of Edward I (Longshanks), at Newenden, Kent in 1301 and there has been speculation, but no evidence, that this was a form of cricket. Cricket is a bat-and-ball team sport that is first documented as being played in southern England in the 16th century. The expansion of the British Empire led to cricket being played overseas and by the mid-19th century the first international matches were being held. Today, the game’s governing body, the International Cricket Council (ICC), has 104 member countries. In Maples Academy, there are all the required assets for playing this game in the most professional manner. The Main Ground has a well laid cricket pitch. The groups practice at the nets on Central Ground as per their categories according to their age.	233	ENGLISH	1
One of the activities I enjoyed the most was when we read and analysed the story “The Lady in the looking glass: a reflection”, by Virginia Woolf. First of all, we did research about the author and the context and background of the story. She fought for women’s rights and was a courageous woman, and very revolutionary for that time. This research allowed us to know the context and background of the story and the author’s biography. The story has a really interesting development and plot twist. The main character is Isabella, who appears to hide her true inside by showing through the outside another side and many layers who hide her true self. From the outside, she appeared to be someone who was cared for, with many letters from friends and appreciated her. However, as we reach the end, we realize that those “letters” turned out to be bills. This showed Isabella’s two sides. The one from the outside, which was the one she showed to everyone,to hide her other and true self, from the inside. She was lonely and had many debts, which she wanted know about, hiding them behind these layers of life. Virginia Woolf uses metaphors, comparisons and similes to show these two sides of Isabella, throughout the house’s appearances. As well as Isabella, the inside of the house was creepy, dark and messy, but from the outside, you could see a colourful garden with many flowers and hiding this darkness with a lot of brightness and positivity. I really liked this activity for several reasons. First of all, the story was incredible and fascinating from every aspect. The amount of comparisons and diverse metaphors to represent one thing used by Woolf was really impressive. Moreover, the use of symbols such as the mirror and how it reflected someone’s inside and outside also caught my attention a lot. In addition, the way message given by Woolf is very true and worth to think about. Isabella is very unhappy as she hides her true self with layers filled with lies, and with this Wool wants to transmit that we need to accept how we are, and love ourselves as we are. We don’t have to be afraid of what we like, what we do, or how we are, and begin to love ourselves with our good and bad things, no matter what others may think or say. This activity is connected to our everyday life. At least I felt really identified with Woolf’s message. I sometimes hide what I like to do or act in a different way according to who I am with, fearing what people may think or say. Everyone has sometimes experienced this and mainly adolescents have. Although I might keep doing it sometimes without realizing, the poem and message given by Virginia helped me to understand that I have to stop hiding my true self, and be how I really am. I don’t need to be afraid to show my true self, as I have good things and bad things, which is good to accept them. It’s true, as Virginia shows, that by loving yourself and liking how you are with your good and bad things you will be happier, as hiding your true self like Isabella leads to loneliness and unhappiness. You have to be proud of who you are, accept your positive and negative aspects and love yourself, letting everyone to know your true self.	<urn:uuid:b701e7bf-6d5e-40c0-a50f-b7194efd1ecf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://matiasripoll.cumbresblogs.com/2019/11/20/the-lady-in-the-looking-glass-a-reflection-e-portfolio/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00074.warc.gz	en	0.980391	693	3.59375	4	[ 0.1088959276676178, 0.03790779411792755, 0.3323383927345276, 0.2509070634841919, -0.2316971719264984, 0.06714635342359543, 0.6682866215705872, 0.06906811892986298, 0.17203959822654724, -0.17684787511825562, -0.2275487184524536, -0.16722801327705383, -0.014072317630052567, -0.07217136025428...	3	One of the activities I enjoyed the most was when we read and analysed the story “The Lady in the looking glass: a reflection”, by Virginia Woolf. First of all, we did research about the author and the context and background of the story. She fought for women’s rights and was a courageous woman, and very revolutionary for that time. This research allowed us to know the context and background of the story and the author’s biography. The story has a really interesting development and plot twist. The main character is Isabella, who appears to hide her true inside by showing through the outside another side and many layers who hide her true self. From the outside, she appeared to be someone who was cared for, with many letters from friends and appreciated her. However, as we reach the end, we realize that those “letters” turned out to be bills. This showed Isabella’s two sides. The one from the outside, which was the one she showed to everyone,to hide her other and true self, from the inside. She was lonely and had many debts, which she wanted know about, hiding them behind these layers of life. Virginia Woolf uses metaphors, comparisons and similes to show these two sides of Isabella, throughout the house’s appearances. As well as Isabella, the inside of the house was creepy, dark and messy, but from the outside, you could see a colourful garden with many flowers and hiding this darkness with a lot of brightness and positivity. I really liked this activity for several reasons. First of all, the story was incredible and fascinating from every aspect. The amount of comparisons and diverse metaphors to represent one thing used by Woolf was really impressive. Moreover, the use of symbols such as the mirror and how it reflected someone’s inside and outside also caught my attention a lot. In addition, the way message given by Woolf is very true and worth to think about. Isabella is very unhappy as she hides her true self with layers filled with lies, and with this Wool wants to transmit that we need to accept how we are, and love ourselves as we are. We don’t have to be afraid of what we like, what we do, or how we are, and begin to love ourselves with our good and bad things, no matter what others may think or say. This activity is connected to our everyday life. At least I felt really identified with Woolf’s message. I sometimes hide what I like to do or act in a different way according to who I am with, fearing what people may think or say. Everyone has sometimes experienced this and mainly adolescents have. Although I might keep doing it sometimes without realizing, the poem and message given by Virginia helped me to understand that I have to stop hiding my true self, and be how I really am. I don’t need to be afraid to show my true self, as I have good things and bad things, which is good to accept them. It’s true, as Virginia shows, that by loving yourself and liking how you are with your good and bad things you will be happier, as hiding your true self like Isabella leads to loneliness and unhappiness. You have to be proud of who you are, accept your positive and negative aspects and love yourself, letting everyone to know your true self.	668	ENGLISH	1
The Black Death, formerly known as the Bubonic Plague, is by far one of the most horrifying and yet the most fascinating subjects toed to the Middle Ages. Perhaps it is both the ferocity of the disease and the gruesome nature in which patients would die that captivates our morbid fascination with this killer disease. Overview of the Black Death The Black Death was first seen in Europe in 1328 and it lasted until 1351; although occasional outbreaks did occur for the next sixty years. The Black Death was able to reach even the most distant corners of the globe as it followed trade routes. It is estimated that up to 200 million people died in Europe alone, and the 1328 outbreak in China wiped out 35 million people in their population. The Black Death only troubled Britain for three years, but in that short period it wreaked havoc across the country. The Black Death was particularly frightening because it killed indiscriminately. It didn’t seem to matter whether a person was young or old, rich or poor, employee or employer. Once infected, the patient had a very limited period of life left, and that period would be unpleasant to say the least. Symptoms of the Black Death The Black Death earned its well known nickname through it’s very visual symptoms. Once infected, a patient would notice the following symptoms: Painful swellings (known as buboes) in the lymph nodes (found in the neck, armpits, groin and legs). The bubo would become inflamed and would at first be a deep red in colour, but as time passed the bubo would change from red to purple and finally to black. Patients would also suffer with a particularly high fever which would trigger a state of delirium and mental disorientation. Patients would also suffer from vomiting, muscular pain and bleeding in the lungs. Neither the physicians nor the people had any idea about what was causing the Black Death to spread so rapidly. They also had no idea how to treat the patients or cure the disease. They did what anyone would do in this situation and they executed their best educated guess. Treatments were for the symptoms caused by the Black Death. They included: Rose, lavender, sage and bay were used to treat the headaches experienced during the illness. Wormwood, mint and balm were used to treat nausea and sickness. Comfrey and liquorice were used to treat problems related to the lung. Vinegar was used as a cleansing agent, and it was believed that it would kill the bacteria. One of the most common treatments was bloodletting – the process of letting blood pour from the body. Another was the lancing of the buboes followed by the application of a mixture of warm butter, garlic and onion. The Black Death Lands in Europe Rumours of a pestilence and plague in the Far East had already spread to Europe in the early 1340’s, but no amount of rumours or hearsay could have prepared the Europeans for what would happen in 1347. In October 1347, twelve Genoese trading ships docked at Messina, a Sicilian port, after a long journey which took the sailors, ironically, across the Black Sea. Crowds gathered at docks ready to greet the sailors, but what they saw when the ships were docked was not what they were expecting. Most of the sailors aboard the twelve ships were dead, and those who were still alive were gravely ill. All of the sailors seemed to be suffering with the same symptoms, they were feverish, delirious and clearly in pain. Most worryingly, the sailors all had mysterious black boils that oozed nasty looking pus mixed with blood, and it was this element of the illness that helped contribute to the disease’s well known nick name, “Black Death.” The Sicilian authorities ordered the fleet to leave the harbour, but their reaction was too late. The plague had landed and would begin to infect Europe. Over the next five years, more than 20 million people in Europe (almost a third of the continent’s population) would succumb to the horrifying yet quick death that came with the bubonic plague. The Black Death Takes over Britain The same rumours that had been whispered about the Far East across Europe had transformed into whispers about Europe that were floating around England. The Black Death reached England in 1348, and it created the same sense of panic and fear as it did in Sicily. In the summer of 1348 Bristol was hit with the bubonic plague. At the time, Bristol was an important European port, and it was the second largest city in England. It is estimated that 10,000 citizens were living and working in Bristol at the time when the plague hit. These people were living in cramped and unsanitary conditions that would have only have served to help the spread of the plague. It is generally believed that the Black Death reached Bristol in the summer months of June and August, and by the 1st November 1348 the Black Death was upon England’s capital city of London. Like Bristol, London was a crowded, bustling city but with a much bigger population count. Instead of 10,000 souls living in cramped, squalid conditions, it was a population of around 70,000 citizens living in these conditions. The sanitation in London was extremely poor and living conditions were almost unbearable. The city was rife with rats, which helped to carry the plague through infected fleas. The River Thames, as a popular trade route, saw ships enter and depart from London, helping to spread the transmission of the plague from one place to another. There’s no doubt that the crowded, dirty and unsanitary living conditions that English citizens lived in contributed to the rapid spread of the Black Death. The Black Death was not limited to big cities either. It seemed wherever there was trade, there was plague. Smaller communities and villages were hit just as hard as those in the big cities, and in some locations up to 80% of the community died as a result of the Black Death. Between 1348 and 1350 it is estimated that the Black Death killed around 30 - 40% of the population of England, which is believed to have been roughly five to six million people. It is estimated that more than 20,000 citizens living in London succumbed to the effects of the Black Death during this time, with many of the deaths occurring in communities across the country. There is no doubt that the bad habits of the local populations, that included throwing human waste into the streets, sharing polluted water and the freedom of pigs and livestock to graze in the city, all contributed to an environment that provided the perfect breeding ground for a disease. Had communities, towns and cities been better maintained the plague may not have had such an apocalyptic effect. It is difficult to imagine the scenes that would have been in England during the dreadful years of the plague. Red crosses were placed on front doors to let any passersby know that the plague had been detected in a particular property. Each night brave souls would walk the streets with a cart, collecting the bodies of the dead. Many people, once they had passed, were thrown into open communal pits, the bodies burnt in mass graves. At the time, it was the only way that the living could dispose of the dead to reduce the spread of the disease and to prevent further diseases from spreading. While the Black Death killed indiscriminately it was often the oldest, youngest, weakest and poorest who died first. The Black Death had a dramatic effect on the population count, and the remaining citizens that survived the horrors of those three years were going to become key players in the changes to their society that would occur in the near future, from a change in the perception and the power of the church to changes in the working conditions, rights and responsibilities of the peasants. Religion and the Black Death Many people are unaware at just how much religion and the Black Death are connected. Religion had a massive part to play in England before, during and after the Black Death. Some thought that the devastating plague had been sent by the Almighty as a divine punishment for their sins. The only solution, some claimed, was to rid the world of the blasphemers, and to once again win the approval of the Almighty. Thousands of citizens were slain in the late 1340’s in order to appease God and win back his approval. However, as the Black Death progress through England and Europe the religious connotations and sentiments began to change. The huge numbers that were dying made it very difficult for the church to ensure that every citizen was given their last rites and had the chance to confess their sins. Pope Clement VI was forced to grant the remission of the sins of any person who had died as a result of the Black Death. Victims were given permission to confess their sins to one another. The church could not explain why the plague was killing so many, and it tested the beliefs of individuals, families and entire communities. Once the majority of the plague outbreak had passed in Britain, many of the surviving peasants felt that they had been saved for some divine purpose. This had a dramatic impact on the mindset of the peasant, which contributed to great changes for the peasants later in the 1380’s. Consequences of the Bubonic Plague Outbreak in Britain The bubonic plague dramatically reduced the population count in cities and towns across England, which in turn created an immediate and ongoing shortage of employees. Lords and land owners had crops that needed to be harvested, fields that needed to be tended to and properties that needed to be maintained. The Feudal System that had once kept both the landlords and the peasant’s in check suddenly disappeared, and peasants were demanding more pay from their employers, or choosing to work elsewhere where the pay was better. Parliament tried desperate to reduce the amount of movement of peasants, and attempted to enforce a law that would prevent landlords from paying more wages and would prevent the peasants from travelling to find a better offer. However, this did not work, and for a few decades peasants enjoyed better pay. The people of this time felt emboldened by the plague, and they were convinced that they had a divine blessing that went far above anything that the Parliament could say or do. With this feeling came the confidence to demand more from their day to day lives. However, in the 1381, with the rise of taxes and the fear that the world would once again no longer favour the rights of the peasant, the peasants rose against the government, and started the Peasant’s Revolt. The Peasant’s Revolt is directly linked to the employment shortage created by the horrifying mortality rates of Black Death, and had it have not been for the plague and for the feeling that the plague was directly linked to the Almighty then the peasants may never have fought for their rights and freedoms. To summarise, the effects of the Black Death had a dramatic impact on the society, including: Both prices of resources and peasant wages increased. Greater value was placed on labour Land that had been used for farming was acquired for the purpose of pasturing, which was much less labour intensive This dramatic change in the farming processes led to increased production of wool and cloth Peasants from villages migrated to towns and cities, leading to the downfall of the Feudal System Peasants became disillusioned with the church, and the church’s power to lead and influence was undermined, creating the opportunity for the English reformation	<urn:uuid:254589d6-816d-4cef-8955-150ae0ae52e3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefinertimes.com/Middle-Ages/the-black-death.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00118.warc.gz	en	0.984486	2,377	3.609375	4	[ -0.18175697326660156, 0.16713407635688782, 0.30841824412345886, 0.03365582227706909, 0.18423733115196228, -0.4505596160888672, 0.7678773403167725, 0.36437222361564636, 0.1475210040807724, -0.41149193048477173, 0.07554391771554947, -0.5375303030014038, -0.18371517956256866, 0.07499239593744...	1	The Black Death, formerly known as the Bubonic Plague, is by far one of the most horrifying and yet the most fascinating subjects toed to the Middle Ages. Perhaps it is both the ferocity of the disease and the gruesome nature in which patients would die that captivates our morbid fascination with this killer disease. Overview of the Black Death The Black Death was first seen in Europe in 1328 and it lasted until 1351; although occasional outbreaks did occur for the next sixty years. The Black Death was able to reach even the most distant corners of the globe as it followed trade routes. It is estimated that up to 200 million people died in Europe alone, and the 1328 outbreak in China wiped out 35 million people in their population. The Black Death only troubled Britain for three years, but in that short period it wreaked havoc across the country. The Black Death was particularly frightening because it killed indiscriminately. It didn’t seem to matter whether a person was young or old, rich or poor, employee or employer. Once infected, the patient had a very limited period of life left, and that period would be unpleasant to say the least. Symptoms of the Black Death The Black Death earned its well known nickname through it’s very visual symptoms. Once infected, a patient would notice the following symptoms: Painful swellings (known as buboes) in the lymph nodes (found in the neck, armpits, groin and legs). The bubo would become inflamed and would at first be a deep red in colour, but as time passed the bubo would change from red to purple and finally to black. Patients would also suffer with a particularly high fever which would trigger a state of delirium and mental disorientation. Patients would also suffer from vomiting, muscular pain and bleeding in the lungs. Neither the physicians nor the people had any idea about what was causing the Black Death to spread so rapidly. They also had no idea how to treat the patients or cure the disease. They did what anyone would do in this situation and they executed their best educated guess. Treatments were for the symptoms caused by the Black Death. They included: Rose, lavender, sage and bay were used to treat the headaches experienced during the illness. Wormwood, mint and balm were used to treat nausea and sickness. Comfrey and liquorice were used to treat problems related to the lung. Vinegar was used as a cleansing agent, and it was believed that it would kill the bacteria. One of the most common treatments was bloodletting – the process of letting blood pour from the body. Another was the lancing of the buboes followed by the application of a mixture of warm butter, garlic and onion. The Black Death Lands in Europe Rumours of a pestilence and plague in the Far East had already spread to Europe in the early 1340’s, but no amount of rumours or hearsay could have prepared the Europeans for what would happen in 1347. In October 1347, twelve Genoese trading ships docked at Messina, a Sicilian port, after a long journey which took the sailors, ironically, across the Black Sea. Crowds gathered at docks ready to greet the sailors, but what they saw when the ships were docked was not what they were expecting. Most of the sailors aboard the twelve ships were dead, and those who were still alive were gravely ill. All of the sailors seemed to be suffering with the same symptoms, they were feverish, delirious and clearly in pain. Most worryingly, the sailors all had mysterious black boils that oozed nasty looking pus mixed with blood, and it was this element of the illness that helped contribute to the disease’s well known nick name, “Black Death.” The Sicilian authorities ordered the fleet to leave the harbour, but their reaction was too late. The plague had landed and would begin to infect Europe. Over the next five years, more than 20 million people in Europe (almost a third of the continent’s population) would succumb to the horrifying yet quick death that came with the bubonic plague. The Black Death Takes over Britain The same rumours that had been whispered about the Far East across Europe had transformed into whispers about Europe that were floating around England. The Black Death reached England in 1348, and it created the same sense of panic and fear as it did in Sicily. In the summer of 1348 Bristol was hit with the bubonic plague. At the time, Bristol was an important European port, and it was the second largest city in England. It is estimated that 10,000 citizens were living and working in Bristol at the time when the plague hit. These people were living in cramped and unsanitary conditions that would have only have served to help the spread of the plague. It is generally believed that the Black Death reached Bristol in the summer months of June and August, and by the 1st November 1348 the Black Death was upon England’s capital city of London. Like Bristol, London was a crowded, bustling city but with a much bigger population count. Instead of 10,000 souls living in cramped, squalid conditions, it was a population of around 70,000 citizens living in these conditions. The sanitation in London was extremely poor and living conditions were almost unbearable. The city was rife with rats, which helped to carry the plague through infected fleas. The River Thames, as a popular trade route, saw ships enter and depart from London, helping to spread the transmission of the plague from one place to another. There’s no doubt that the crowded, dirty and unsanitary living conditions that English citizens lived in contributed to the rapid spread of the Black Death. The Black Death was not limited to big cities either. It seemed wherever there was trade, there was plague. Smaller communities and villages were hit just as hard as those in the big cities, and in some locations up to 80% of the community died as a result of the Black Death. Between 1348 and 1350 it is estimated that the Black Death killed around 30 - 40% of the population of England, which is believed to have been roughly five to six million people. It is estimated that more than 20,000 citizens living in London succumbed to the effects of the Black Death during this time, with many of the deaths occurring in communities across the country. There is no doubt that the bad habits of the local populations, that included throwing human waste into the streets, sharing polluted water and the freedom of pigs and livestock to graze in the city, all contributed to an environment that provided the perfect breeding ground for a disease. Had communities, towns and cities been better maintained the plague may not have had such an apocalyptic effect. It is difficult to imagine the scenes that would have been in England during the dreadful years of the plague. Red crosses were placed on front doors to let any passersby know that the plague had been detected in a particular property. Each night brave souls would walk the streets with a cart, collecting the bodies of the dead. Many people, once they had passed, were thrown into open communal pits, the bodies burnt in mass graves. At the time, it was the only way that the living could dispose of the dead to reduce the spread of the disease and to prevent further diseases from spreading. While the Black Death killed indiscriminately it was often the oldest, youngest, weakest and poorest who died first. The Black Death had a dramatic effect on the population count, and the remaining citizens that survived the horrors of those three years were going to become key players in the changes to their society that would occur in the near future, from a change in the perception and the power of the church to changes in the working conditions, rights and responsibilities of the peasants. Religion and the Black Death Many people are unaware at just how much religion and the Black Death are connected. Religion had a massive part to play in England before, during and after the Black Death. Some thought that the devastating plague had been sent by the Almighty as a divine punishment for their sins. The only solution, some claimed, was to rid the world of the blasphemers, and to once again win the approval of the Almighty. Thousands of citizens were slain in the late 1340’s in order to appease God and win back his approval. However, as the Black Death progress through England and Europe the religious connotations and sentiments began to change. The huge numbers that were dying made it very difficult for the church to ensure that every citizen was given their last rites and had the chance to confess their sins. Pope Clement VI was forced to grant the remission of the sins of any person who had died as a result of the Black Death. Victims were given permission to confess their sins to one another. The church could not explain why the plague was killing so many, and it tested the beliefs of individuals, families and entire communities. Once the majority of the plague outbreak had passed in Britain, many of the surviving peasants felt that they had been saved for some divine purpose. This had a dramatic impact on the mindset of the peasant, which contributed to great changes for the peasants later in the 1380’s. Consequences of the Bubonic Plague Outbreak in Britain The bubonic plague dramatically reduced the population count in cities and towns across England, which in turn created an immediate and ongoing shortage of employees. Lords and land owners had crops that needed to be harvested, fields that needed to be tended to and properties that needed to be maintained. The Feudal System that had once kept both the landlords and the peasant’s in check suddenly disappeared, and peasants were demanding more pay from their employers, or choosing to work elsewhere where the pay was better. Parliament tried desperate to reduce the amount of movement of peasants, and attempted to enforce a law that would prevent landlords from paying more wages and would prevent the peasants from travelling to find a better offer. However, this did not work, and for a few decades peasants enjoyed better pay. The people of this time felt emboldened by the plague, and they were convinced that they had a divine blessing that went far above anything that the Parliament could say or do. With this feeling came the confidence to demand more from their day to day lives. However, in the 1381, with the rise of taxes and the fear that the world would once again no longer favour the rights of the peasant, the peasants rose against the government, and started the Peasant’s Revolt. The Peasant’s Revolt is directly linked to the employment shortage created by the horrifying mortality rates of Black Death, and had it have not been for the plague and for the feeling that the plague was directly linked to the Almighty then the peasants may never have fought for their rights and freedoms. To summarise, the effects of the Black Death had a dramatic impact on the society, including: Both prices of resources and peasant wages increased. Greater value was placed on labour Land that had been used for farming was acquired for the purpose of pasturing, which was much less labour intensive This dramatic change in the farming processes led to increased production of wool and cloth Peasants from villages migrated to towns and cities, leading to the downfall of the Feudal System Peasants became disillusioned with the church, and the church’s power to lead and influence was undermined, creating the opportunity for the English reformation	2,394	ENGLISH	1
The New Kingdom is a period of time in Egypt that happened from 1520 B.C. to 1075 B.C. This period of time was a time when Egypt was very powerful, and they had a lot of money. The dynasties that ruled during the New Kingdom were the Eighteenth Dynasty, the Nineteenth Dynasty and the Twentieth Dynasty. How Did the New Kingdom Form? Before the New Kingdom, there was a period called the Second Intermediate Period. This was a time when a group of people that were not from Egypt ruled. They were called the Hyksos. Then, in 1540 B.C., a young ruler named Ahmose I became the king of Lower Egypt. He was only 10 years old when he began to rule the area. Not only was he so young, but Ahmose I became one of the greatest rulers of the New Kingdom. He was so powerful and smart that he was able to defeat the Hyksos and he became the single ruler of Egypt. Ahmose I was the first ruler of the New Kingdom. It was during the New Kingdom that there were pharaohs that were trying to take over lands such as Kush and Nubia. They also were trying to take over other lands such as Syria, Israel and Lebanon. Egypt became a place where there was a lot of trading and they would trade with other nations. They also discovered gold mines during this time, and they used the gold to become a very wealthy area. They used this gold to buy things from other nations and Egypt became very wealthy. The pharaohs took all the wealth that they got, and they started building temples. The temples were huge, and they were made for the gods. One temple was called the Temple of Luxor and it was built in Thebes. Then, they built on to it and made a Temple of Karnak. Some pharaohs begin to build temples that would honor them as gods. Since this was a time when the people thought that the pharaohs were gods, the people agreed with these ideas. Ramses II had a temple built for himself and there was also the Temple of Hatshepsut that was built to honor that pharaoh. Tombs were also being built during this time to bury the dead kings and pharaohs. Some of these tombs are being found today by archeologists. There was a place called the Valley of the Kings where many pharaohs were buried such as Pharaoh Thutmose I, Pharaoh Tutankhamun and more. Inside of these tombs were found treasures, art, mummies and money. How Did the New Kingdom End? The New Kingdom ended after Pharaoh Ramesses III became the ruler of the Egyptian Empire. He was a violent king and he wanted to rule different areas so he would fight battles with them. Ramesses III is also known to fight battles by sea and to try to take over tribe areas in Libya. All of these wars caused there to be a drought and a famine. A drought is when there is not enough water and a famine is when there is not enough food. When Ramesses III died, the government fought against itself and when Ramesses XI took over, he was not able to keep the area united. Ramesses XI was the last king to rule in the New Kingdom. Facts About the New Kingdom: - Many of the kings, eleven in fact, had the name Ramesses. - One woman named Hatshepsut be came pharaoh and she ruled the area for over 20 years. - Pharaoh Akhenaten thought that people should only serve one god and he called Aten to be the Egyptian god that the people served. - Pharaoh Akhenaten named their new capital city Amarna to honor Aten. - The Third Intermediate Period followed the New Kingdom. - When Thutmose III ruled Egypt, he was considered the strongest ruler. He is called “Napoleon of Egypt” because of his strong rulings. What Did You Learn? - What is the period of time between 1520 B.C. and 1075 B.C. called? The period between this time is called the New Kingdom. - How many dynasties ruled during the New Kingdom? There were three dynasties: The Eighteenth Dynasty, Nineteenth Dynasty and Twentieth Dynasty during this period. - What caused the New Kingdom to form? The New Kingdom formed when foreign people came to take over Egypt. During this time, King Ahmose I took over the reign. He was a strong ruler and he was able to defeat the Hyksos and make Egypt one area under one rule. - What was special about King Ahmose I? King Ahmose I was only 10 years old when he began ruling Egypt. - Why did the New Kingdom fall? The New Kingdom fell because Ramesses III wanted to try to take over land that did not belong to him. Due to all of his wars, he caused there to be droughts and famines. - What does famine mean? Famine means not having enough food to eat in an area. - What does drought mean? Drought means not having enough water to drink.	<urn:uuid:47a93f63-2c7a-4b08-892d-214a8b86cdfd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyforkids.net/new-kingdom.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00162.warc.gz	en	0.991383	1,097	3.5625	4	[ -0.4675152897834778, 0.6026960611343384, 0.6038820147514343, -0.18005569279193878, -0.34198814630508423, -0.33843517303466797, 0.1302146166563034, -0.06665941327810287, -0.1694813072681427, 0.28815197944641113, 0.3010159134864807, -0.44178739190101624, 0.041914038360118866, 0.0655232444405...	14	The New Kingdom is a period of time in Egypt that happened from 1520 B.C. to 1075 B.C. This period of time was a time when Egypt was very powerful, and they had a lot of money. The dynasties that ruled during the New Kingdom were the Eighteenth Dynasty, the Nineteenth Dynasty and the Twentieth Dynasty. How Did the New Kingdom Form? Before the New Kingdom, there was a period called the Second Intermediate Period. This was a time when a group of people that were not from Egypt ruled. They were called the Hyksos. Then, in 1540 B.C., a young ruler named Ahmose I became the king of Lower Egypt. He was only 10 years old when he began to rule the area. Not only was he so young, but Ahmose I became one of the greatest rulers of the New Kingdom. He was so powerful and smart that he was able to defeat the Hyksos and he became the single ruler of Egypt. Ahmose I was the first ruler of the New Kingdom. It was during the New Kingdom that there were pharaohs that were trying to take over lands such as Kush and Nubia. They also were trying to take over other lands such as Syria, Israel and Lebanon. Egypt became a place where there was a lot of trading and they would trade with other nations. They also discovered gold mines during this time, and they used the gold to become a very wealthy area. They used this gold to buy things from other nations and Egypt became very wealthy. The pharaohs took all the wealth that they got, and they started building temples. The temples were huge, and they were made for the gods. One temple was called the Temple of Luxor and it was built in Thebes. Then, they built on to it and made a Temple of Karnak. Some pharaohs begin to build temples that would honor them as gods. Since this was a time when the people thought that the pharaohs were gods, the people agreed with these ideas. Ramses II had a temple built for himself and there was also the Temple of Hatshepsut that was built to honor that pharaoh. Tombs were also being built during this time to bury the dead kings and pharaohs. Some of these tombs are being found today by archeologists. There was a place called the Valley of the Kings where many pharaohs were buried such as Pharaoh Thutmose I, Pharaoh Tutankhamun and more. Inside of these tombs were found treasures, art, mummies and money. How Did the New Kingdom End? The New Kingdom ended after Pharaoh Ramesses III became the ruler of the Egyptian Empire. He was a violent king and he wanted to rule different areas so he would fight battles with them. Ramesses III is also known to fight battles by sea and to try to take over tribe areas in Libya. All of these wars caused there to be a drought and a famine. A drought is when there is not enough water and a famine is when there is not enough food. When Ramesses III died, the government fought against itself and when Ramesses XI took over, he was not able to keep the area united. Ramesses XI was the last king to rule in the New Kingdom. Facts About the New Kingdom: - Many of the kings, eleven in fact, had the name Ramesses. - One woman named Hatshepsut be came pharaoh and she ruled the area for over 20 years. - Pharaoh Akhenaten thought that people should only serve one god and he called Aten to be the Egyptian god that the people served. - Pharaoh Akhenaten named their new capital city Amarna to honor Aten. - The Third Intermediate Period followed the New Kingdom. - When Thutmose III ruled Egypt, he was considered the strongest ruler. He is called “Napoleon of Egypt” because of his strong rulings. What Did You Learn? - What is the period of time between 1520 B.C. and 1075 B.C. called? The period between this time is called the New Kingdom. - How many dynasties ruled during the New Kingdom? There were three dynasties: The Eighteenth Dynasty, Nineteenth Dynasty and Twentieth Dynasty during this period. - What caused the New Kingdom to form? The New Kingdom formed when foreign people came to take over Egypt. During this time, King Ahmose I took over the reign. He was a strong ruler and he was able to defeat the Hyksos and make Egypt one area under one rule. - What was special about King Ahmose I? King Ahmose I was only 10 years old when he began ruling Egypt. - Why did the New Kingdom fall? The New Kingdom fell because Ramesses III wanted to try to take over land that did not belong to him. Due to all of his wars, he caused there to be droughts and famines. - What does famine mean? Famine means not having enough food to eat in an area. - What does drought mean? Drought means not having enough water to drink.	1,074	ENGLISH	1
Saying Equals Doing This chapter shows that the constative is in all its features assimilable to the performative. Besides chronicling a discovery, How to Do Things with Words ruthlessly and relentlessly challenges what it discovered. In Austin's other essays on speech acts as well as in the Harvard lectures, he interrogated his most famous concept as soon as he introduced it. The result is a demonstration of how to do things with a mind as well as a seminal description of how to do things with words. Even before introducing the concept of the performative, Austin used his first-lecture to define the constative as that to which he was not devoting attention because it was wholly caught up in the irrelevant problematic of truth and falsity. Speech acts - performatives - were first contrasted to speech statements, constatives. However, the contrast immediately broke down when faulty statements turned out to be faulty for reasons with clear analogies to the factors debilitating failed performatives.	<urn:uuid:3e8c8a15-97cb-45bd-8d7e-9bb29ae0b62b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315537436/chapters/10.4324/9781315537436-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00083.warc.gz	en	0.980736	195	3.71875	4	[ -0.3436162769794464, -0.2753554880619049, 0.08299171179533005, 0.19126220047473907, -0.7786481380462646, -0.021226851269602776, 0.8354014754295349, -0.004690712317824364, 0.1333635151386261, -0.18165385723114014, 0.02126159705221653, -0.03976624831557274, 0.4128495454788208, 0.163119196891...	1	Saying Equals Doing This chapter shows that the constative is in all its features assimilable to the performative. Besides chronicling a discovery, How to Do Things with Words ruthlessly and relentlessly challenges what it discovered. In Austin's other essays on speech acts as well as in the Harvard lectures, he interrogated his most famous concept as soon as he introduced it. The result is a demonstration of how to do things with a mind as well as a seminal description of how to do things with words. Even before introducing the concept of the performative, Austin used his first-lecture to define the constative as that to which he was not devoting attention because it was wholly caught up in the irrelevant problematic of truth and falsity. Speech acts - performatives - were first contrasted to speech statements, constatives. However, the contrast immediately broke down when faulty statements turned out to be faulty for reasons with clear analogies to the factors debilitating failed performatives.	198	ENGLISH	1
Healthy eating is about more than just the foods you eat. It is being mindful of your eating habits, taking time to eat and noticing when you are hungry and when you are full. On this page Benefits of being mindful of your eating habits Being mindful of your eating habits means being aware of: - how you eat - why you eat - what you eat - when you eat - where you eat - how much you eat Being mindful can help you: - make healthier choices more often - make positive changes to routine eating behaviours - be more conscious of the food you eat and your eating habits - create a sense of awareness around your every day eating decisions - reconnect to the eating experience by creating an awareness of your: How to be mindful of your eating habits Use these ideas to help you be mindful of your eating habits. Create a healthy eating environment Your eating environment changes depending on where you live, learn, work and play. Focus your attention on eating and your eating environment. Regardless of where you are, try to make changes to your surroundings so that the healthy choice is the easy choice. Use your senses Being mindful of the foods you eat encourages you to pay attention to the aromas, textures, flavours and taste of food. Pay attention to your likes and dislikes using these senses. This may help connect you to your eating experience and be more conscious of the food you are eating. Consider your eating habits Think about the last meal or snack that you had. Can you describe: - how you ate? - did you eat slowly? - were you distracted? - did you eat with others? - why you ate? - were you hungry? - was it offered to you? - what you ate? - what did you have to eat and drink? - when you ate? - what time was it? - how long had it been since the last time you ate? - where you ate? - were you in a space meant for eating? - how much you ate? - how much food and drink did you have? Being able to recall and describe answers to these questions means you were likely being mindful of your eating habits.	<urn:uuid:63edab3c-9d93-461d-8ced-dd3ecc7e9946>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/healthy-eating-recommendations/be-mindful-of-your-eating-habits/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00169.warc.gz	en	0.9804	470	3.34375	3	[ 0.2970007359981537, 0.00922245904803276, 0.48503854870796204, -0.31421613693237305, -0.15670643746852875, 0.45050808787345886, 0.9242260456085205, -0.27561941742897034, 0.16536636650562286, -0.5648899078369141, 0.10715381056070328, -0.8474942445755005, -0.05346230790019035, 0.2172008603811...	2	Healthy eating is about more than just the foods you eat. It is being mindful of your eating habits, taking time to eat and noticing when you are hungry and when you are full. On this page Benefits of being mindful of your eating habits Being mindful of your eating habits means being aware of: - how you eat - why you eat - what you eat - when you eat - where you eat - how much you eat Being mindful can help you: - make healthier choices more often - make positive changes to routine eating behaviours - be more conscious of the food you eat and your eating habits - create a sense of awareness around your every day eating decisions - reconnect to the eating experience by creating an awareness of your: How to be mindful of your eating habits Use these ideas to help you be mindful of your eating habits. Create a healthy eating environment Your eating environment changes depending on where you live, learn, work and play. Focus your attention on eating and your eating environment. Regardless of where you are, try to make changes to your surroundings so that the healthy choice is the easy choice. Use your senses Being mindful of the foods you eat encourages you to pay attention to the aromas, textures, flavours and taste of food. Pay attention to your likes and dislikes using these senses. This may help connect you to your eating experience and be more conscious of the food you are eating. Consider your eating habits Think about the last meal or snack that you had. Can you describe: - how you ate? - did you eat slowly? - were you distracted? - did you eat with others? - why you ate? - were you hungry? - was it offered to you? - what you ate? - what did you have to eat and drink? - when you ate? - what time was it? - how long had it been since the last time you ate? - where you ate? - were you in a space meant for eating? - how much you ate? - how much food and drink did you have? Being able to recall and describe answers to these questions means you were likely being mindful of your eating habits.	442	ENGLISH	1
In Different Abilities, beginning readers will learn to celebrate diversity by appreciating the variety of abilities people have. Vibrant, full-color photos and carefully leveled text engage young readers as they draw inferences about how diversity makes our society stronger and more interesting. An infographic introduces readers to one of the abilities noted in the book, while a picture glossary reinforces new vocabulary. Children can learn more about diversity online using our safe search engine that provides relevant, age-appropriate websites. Different Abilities also features reading tips for teachers and parents, a table of contents, and an index. Rifle barrels pointed at the family as they stepped into the open. Tilly cowered behind her father. "We're headed for St. Augustine," Kwaku explained. The men lowered their guns. "Where are you from?" one of them asked. "Are you runaways?" "Please let us go on our way," Catbird begged. "Get in the wagon," the man said. "These men are armed," Kwaku said quietly. "We must do as we are told." When everyone was aboard, the wagon rumbled on down the road. They were headed away from St. Augustine and their chance for freedom. Fern learns why the Native Americans are forcing people from their farms and does what she can to help. Having finished his education at Blackstone School, Red Fox writes letters to his friend, Ellen, who is traveling in Europe, as he prepares to return to his family on the Nebraska plains. While working together on a school report about the 1960s, Aleesa and Kenneth are transported to March 1968, where they suddenly realize that the death of Martin Luther King, Jr. is only days away. African American twin brothers, one a slave on a Virginia plantation and one a free man in Pennsylvania, are reunited after years of separation when they accompany soldiers on opposing sides of the Civil War. After Carlos and his family move from the Dominican Republic to Chicago, Carlos finds himself missing his old friends and country, but a meeting with his hero, Sammy Sosa, changes his life forever. Cassie, who is spending the summer with her aunt while her parents go through a divorce, becomes friends with Joey, a boy in a wheelchair who lives nearby with his grandmother. Tall-Shadow, a young Navajo boy, faces adverse dangers when he confronts the Big Cat, a lion who is feared by the tribe. Tall Shadow also struggles with his desire to adopt the white man's ways and his father's wish to maintain their culture. As Three Willows spoke, she rose. She brought a bundle to the tiny fire. She untied the straps that held it. Then she unrolled the buffalo robe. It was large, soft and carefully tanned. Red Fox peered through the dim light of the tipi. He could see colorful drawings painted on the smooth side of the robe. Red Fox reached out to touch one scene. It was a man on horseback. He was racing across the prairie. Red Fox could almost feel the movement of the horse under the rider as they raced. That's your father, whispered Three Willows. A young Indian boy attends a school for Native Americans and is caught between the traditions of his people and the new ways of the white man. He is determined to get an education in order to return home and help his Native American people. Caroline learns the meaning of freedom while struggling to maintain the family cotton plantation during the Civil War. Doreen, a young Gypsy girl, struggles with both her own prejudices and those of others when she becomes separated from her family and is cared for by two sisters who insist she attend school regularly. "I walked across the room and opened the small door. The sound stopped as I peered in. All I could see were some old magazines and a book. As I watched, the book moved! I was scared and wanted to run, but my feet seemed nailed to the floor. I finally reached out and picked up the book and blew dust from it. I felt someone or something next to me once more." While spending the summer on his grandparents' Texas cotton farm, Michael sees a teenage boy on the other side of the Rio Grande in Mexico. He starts to write letters to Javier, and then helps him cross the river to come into the United States. During his summer in Hawaii, Kimo repeatedly visits a secret and forbidden beach, ignoring several frightening warning signs. Who is threatening him and why? Kodi runs away from his boarding school after learning that his mare has been sold to a brutal rancher. His reunion with his brother resolves all his conflicts, and the two return to live and start a school on the reservation where they were born. After being adopted by Michael's family and moving from Mexico to Dallas, Javier tries to adapt to life in the United States but realizes he misses his old life in Vera Cruz, Mexico. When the secret that Patrick can't read comes to light, he begins to conquer his learning disability using his imagination and interest in race cars. After having left Russia to live in freedom in Latvia, Sasha finds his adopted country increasing under threat of invasion from Hitler's growing war machine. After the death of his mother, Miguel is sent to live with his Uncle Small Bear on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. Embarrassed by his father's deafness and bullied by kids at school, P.J. Ramos finds strength in a new friendship, a chessboard, and an army of tiny soldiers. Provides factual information about the history of the life of a cowboy through the fictional story of Eddie, a young boy who goes to the Bar W Ranch where his Uncle Hank and Uncle Charlie work. This book is about a Japanese American boy and his family, who were forced to live in internment camps after the attack on Pearl Harbor. This book tells the story of a young boy planned to be a preacher. When he is called to save a white girl living with an Indian tribe, he is surprised by what he learns.	<urn:uuid:39e61065-3e91-4669-93c8-d7635cf4dac0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biguniverse.com/library/books?category%3AGenre=Cultural%2FDiversity&category%3AGrade=3rd+Grade&category%3ALanguage=English+%28US%29&page=11	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00218.warc.gz	en	0.981761	1,246	3.421875	3	[ -0.22313109040260315, 0.2622382640838623, -0.014203885570168495, -0.052026163786649704, -0.336753249168396, 0.1742711067199707, 0.1007365882396698, 0.34579798579216003, -0.1069309189915657, -0.09577225148677826, 0.1880066841840744, 0.3874395787715912, -0.10449349135160446, 0.07958300411701...	1	In Different Abilities, beginning readers will learn to celebrate diversity by appreciating the variety of abilities people have. Vibrant, full-color photos and carefully leveled text engage young readers as they draw inferences about how diversity makes our society stronger and more interesting. An infographic introduces readers to one of the abilities noted in the book, while a picture glossary reinforces new vocabulary. Children can learn more about diversity online using our safe search engine that provides relevant, age-appropriate websites. Different Abilities also features reading tips for teachers and parents, a table of contents, and an index. Rifle barrels pointed at the family as they stepped into the open. Tilly cowered behind her father. "We're headed for St. Augustine," Kwaku explained. The men lowered their guns. "Where are you from?" one of them asked. "Are you runaways?" "Please let us go on our way," Catbird begged. "Get in the wagon," the man said. "These men are armed," Kwaku said quietly. "We must do as we are told." When everyone was aboard, the wagon rumbled on down the road. They were headed away from St. Augustine and their chance for freedom. Fern learns why the Native Americans are forcing people from their farms and does what she can to help. Having finished his education at Blackstone School, Red Fox writes letters to his friend, Ellen, who is traveling in Europe, as he prepares to return to his family on the Nebraska plains. While working together on a school report about the 1960s, Aleesa and Kenneth are transported to March 1968, where they suddenly realize that the death of Martin Luther King, Jr. is only days away. African American twin brothers, one a slave on a Virginia plantation and one a free man in Pennsylvania, are reunited after years of separation when they accompany soldiers on opposing sides of the Civil War. After Carlos and his family move from the Dominican Republic to Chicago, Carlos finds himself missing his old friends and country, but a meeting with his hero, Sammy Sosa, changes his life forever. Cassie, who is spending the summer with her aunt while her parents go through a divorce, becomes friends with Joey, a boy in a wheelchair who lives nearby with his grandmother. Tall-Shadow, a young Navajo boy, faces adverse dangers when he confronts the Big Cat, a lion who is feared by the tribe. Tall Shadow also struggles with his desire to adopt the white man's ways and his father's wish to maintain their culture. As Three Willows spoke, she rose. She brought a bundle to the tiny fire. She untied the straps that held it. Then she unrolled the buffalo robe. It was large, soft and carefully tanned. Red Fox peered through the dim light of the tipi. He could see colorful drawings painted on the smooth side of the robe. Red Fox reached out to touch one scene. It was a man on horseback. He was racing across the prairie. Red Fox could almost feel the movement of the horse under the rider as they raced. That's your father, whispered Three Willows. A young Indian boy attends a school for Native Americans and is caught between the traditions of his people and the new ways of the white man. He is determined to get an education in order to return home and help his Native American people. Caroline learns the meaning of freedom while struggling to maintain the family cotton plantation during the Civil War. Doreen, a young Gypsy girl, struggles with both her own prejudices and those of others when she becomes separated from her family and is cared for by two sisters who insist she attend school regularly. "I walked across the room and opened the small door. The sound stopped as I peered in. All I could see were some old magazines and a book. As I watched, the book moved! I was scared and wanted to run, but my feet seemed nailed to the floor. I finally reached out and picked up the book and blew dust from it. I felt someone or something next to me once more." While spending the summer on his grandparents' Texas cotton farm, Michael sees a teenage boy on the other side of the Rio Grande in Mexico. He starts to write letters to Javier, and then helps him cross the river to come into the United States. During his summer in Hawaii, Kimo repeatedly visits a secret and forbidden beach, ignoring several frightening warning signs. Who is threatening him and why? Kodi runs away from his boarding school after learning that his mare has been sold to a brutal rancher. His reunion with his brother resolves all his conflicts, and the two return to live and start a school on the reservation where they were born. After being adopted by Michael's family and moving from Mexico to Dallas, Javier tries to adapt to life in the United States but realizes he misses his old life in Vera Cruz, Mexico. When the secret that Patrick can't read comes to light, he begins to conquer his learning disability using his imagination and interest in race cars. After having left Russia to live in freedom in Latvia, Sasha finds his adopted country increasing under threat of invasion from Hitler's growing war machine. After the death of his mother, Miguel is sent to live with his Uncle Small Bear on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. Embarrassed by his father's deafness and bullied by kids at school, P.J. Ramos finds strength in a new friendship, a chessboard, and an army of tiny soldiers. Provides factual information about the history of the life of a cowboy through the fictional story of Eddie, a young boy who goes to the Bar W Ranch where his Uncle Hank and Uncle Charlie work. This book is about a Japanese American boy and his family, who were forced to live in internment camps after the attack on Pearl Harbor. This book tells the story of a young boy planned to be a preacher. When he is called to save a white girl living with an Indian tribe, he is surprised by what he learns.	1,227	ENGLISH	1
Inside the Herodion This view is from the outer wall of the upper fortress of the Herodion. You can see the astonishing magnitude of this palace. Herod’s workers began with a natural hill considerably higher than other hills in the area. They constructed double cyndrical walls nearly 220 feet in diameter, the inside of which can be seen here. The finished cylinder was more than 90 feet high.Between the two walls, seven stories contained apartments, chambers, and storage rooms. The top three stories have been destroyed over time, so you must imagine that the wall the picture was taken from was more than 40 feet higher. On each of the compass points were defensive towers. Those on the south, north, and west extended outside the cylinder but not inside, so they are not visible in this photo. The massive eastern tower was 55 feet in diameter and more than 120 feet high. The view from the tower was spectacular. Inside the upper stories of this tower were the royal apartments of Herod and his family. Since Herod was buried in the Herodion and his tomb has never been found, some have suggested he is buried in the base of the tower. Ehud Netzer, the archaeologist responsible for excavating this fortress-palace, believes that is unlikely because Jewish people were usually buried outside the places where they lived. He proposes a site near the lower palace, which has not yet been excavated. Inside the cylinder were several magnificent structures. On the right side, next to the eastern tower, are the remains of the peristyle garden. Columns stood around the outside with a roof to the wall outside the garden. This left a large area in the center open to the sky for trees, vines, and bushes. On the far end of the peristyle was a semicircular niche where statues were placed. Just above it, on the right, was a doorway that led through a 200-foot tunnel, then down 300 stairs to the colonnaded terrace below. On the lower left are the remains of a large reception hall, called a triclinium, with benches around the outside. Originally, this room had a roof and its walls were covered with colored plaster. The floor was probably a mosaic. During the First Jewish Revolt, well after Herod’s death, the reception hall was turned into a synagogue by the religious zealots who defended it against the Romans. Beyond the ramp into the fortress (left behind by the archaeological team and not part of Herod’s structure) is the bath complex. It included a vaulted caldarium (hot bath), a small, round tepidarium (warm bath), and a small frigidarium (cold bath). One can imagine Herod enjoying the luxurious warmth of his bath while Jesus was born in a cold stable nearby. In the distance, in the top center of the photo, looking northeast, is the city of Bethlehem. Today it is a large town of more than 25,000 people. In Jesus’ day it was a small town of, at most, a few hundred. The proximity between the massive fortress of Herod and the place where the Messiah was born is a graphic picture of the way the lives of these two Jewish kings were both intertwined and in stark contrast. See all posts in Glossary \|Mar 30 — Apr 08, 2020\| \|Jun 28 — Jul 12, 2020\| \|Nov 01 — Nov 15, 2020\| \|Nov 14 — Nov 28, 2020\|	<urn:uuid:79653d73-d316-442a-a911-abc8e17ce42b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://underthefigtree.org/glossary/inside-the-herodion/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00549.warc.gz	en	0.980635	714	3.3125	3	[ -0.1843251883983612, -0.019831685349345207, 0.20188570022583008, 0.36913496255874634, -0.00456149922683835, -0.19550925493240356, -0.024170657619833946, 0.31297406554222107, -0.376287579536438, 0.3470069169998169, 0.05607539415359497, -0.27748429775238037, 0.3930791914463043, 0.79450172185...	1	Inside the Herodion This view is from the outer wall of the upper fortress of the Herodion. You can see the astonishing magnitude of this palace. Herod’s workers began with a natural hill considerably higher than other hills in the area. They constructed double cyndrical walls nearly 220 feet in diameter, the inside of which can be seen here. The finished cylinder was more than 90 feet high.Between the two walls, seven stories contained apartments, chambers, and storage rooms. The top three stories have been destroyed over time, so you must imagine that the wall the picture was taken from was more than 40 feet higher. On each of the compass points were defensive towers. Those on the south, north, and west extended outside the cylinder but not inside, so they are not visible in this photo. The massive eastern tower was 55 feet in diameter and more than 120 feet high. The view from the tower was spectacular. Inside the upper stories of this tower were the royal apartments of Herod and his family. Since Herod was buried in the Herodion and his tomb has never been found, some have suggested he is buried in the base of the tower. Ehud Netzer, the archaeologist responsible for excavating this fortress-palace, believes that is unlikely because Jewish people were usually buried outside the places where they lived. He proposes a site near the lower palace, which has not yet been excavated. Inside the cylinder were several magnificent structures. On the right side, next to the eastern tower, are the remains of the peristyle garden. Columns stood around the outside with a roof to the wall outside the garden. This left a large area in the center open to the sky for trees, vines, and bushes. On the far end of the peristyle was a semicircular niche where statues were placed. Just above it, on the right, was a doorway that led through a 200-foot tunnel, then down 300 stairs to the colonnaded terrace below. On the lower left are the remains of a large reception hall, called a triclinium, with benches around the outside. Originally, this room had a roof and its walls were covered with colored plaster. The floor was probably a mosaic. During the First Jewish Revolt, well after Herod’s death, the reception hall was turned into a synagogue by the religious zealots who defended it against the Romans. Beyond the ramp into the fortress (left behind by the archaeological team and not part of Herod’s structure) is the bath complex. It included a vaulted caldarium (hot bath), a small, round tepidarium (warm bath), and a small frigidarium (cold bath). One can imagine Herod enjoying the luxurious warmth of his bath while Jesus was born in a cold stable nearby. In the distance, in the top center of the photo, looking northeast, is the city of Bethlehem. Today it is a large town of more than 25,000 people. In Jesus’ day it was a small town of, at most, a few hundred. The proximity between the massive fortress of Herod and the place where the Messiah was born is a graphic picture of the way the lives of these two Jewish kings were both intertwined and in stark contrast. See all posts in Glossary \|Mar 30 — Apr 08, 2020\| \|Jun 28 — Jul 12, 2020\| \|Nov 01 — Nov 15, 2020\| \|Nov 14 — Nov 28, 2020\|	758	ENGLISH	1
Now let's work on modifying your automatic thoughts. Your thoughts can be considered hypotheses, rather than hard facts, about certain events. Complete the next two columns, "Evidence That Supports" and "Evidence That Does Not Support" your hot thoughts. Be a scientist observing your own thought process: Is there any evidence for or against your conclusion that you let your dad down or can't live up to his expectations? Did your father say anything that indicated differently? Have you had any experiences with your dad recently that would show that these conclusions are not always true? Are you discounting anything positive that he said? Could your sad mood have made you view the conversation differently from what it really was? Would you have viewed it differently in a different mood state? Was the outcome of the conversation really within your control? (Greenberger & Padesky, 1995). The next step is to complete the column titled "Alternative/Balanced Thoughts." This is the chance to consider alternative viewpoints that are more balanced (as opposed to distorted), even if you don't believe them fully. Try writing down all of the other causes, explanations, or conclusions you could have drawn from this event, and rate each of them on a 0-100% scale as to how credible you find them (100% means you believe this alternative explanation fully, 0% means not at all). Examples might include: "I think Dad was just in a bad mood that day and 1 got defensive" (40%); "We got on the touchy subject of money, which always makes us both uncomfortable" (70%); and "Dad expressed disappointment in me, but some important things came to light that we needed to talk about" (50%). Once you have generated and reflected on these alternative thoughts, make new ratings of your moods (depression, anxiety, or any other emotions you listed in column 2) using the same 0-100% (or -3 - +3) scale. In developing alternative thoughts, consider the following strategies (Greenberger & Padesky, 1995). Write a sentence that summarizes all of the "for" and "against" evidence for your cognition about this event (perhaps link the evidence with the word and or but, as in the examples in the preceding paragraph). Consider what advice you would give another person who was in the same situation, had the same thoughts and moods, and had given you the same for/against evidence. Consider the best, worst, and most likely (realistic) outcomes if your hot cognition turns out to be true. For example, if the hot cognition "I let Dad down again" turns out to be true, a worst-case outcome might be that he reminds you of your failings the next time you talk to him and you end up feeling even worse; a best-case outcome might be that he apologizes and admits he was wrong, and you feel great; a realistic outcome might be that you feel tension the next time you talk to him but that you effectively steer the conversation toward more comfortable topics. Jacob, the soccer coach, learned to evaluate the evidence for and against his automatic, self-blaming thought that "I'm no good with kids." There was plenty of evidence to the contrary, given the many positive comments he received, on an ongoing basis, from his wife, the soccer players, and their parents. He was able to generate more balanced thoughts: "Sometimes the kids get uncooperative when I'm not feeling my best"; "Coaching can be a difficult task no matter how good you are"; "Today the kids were getting overstimu-lated and weren't in the mood to learn." His mood tended to improve upon introducing and repeatedly restating to himself these countervailing thoughts. Another person with bipolar disorder, Katrina, age 41, had emigrated to the United States from Hungary. A year after arriving she obtained a job at an inner city school teaching teenagers who were developmentally disabled. During a particularly difficult day, three of the boys in the class cursed at her and told her she was the worst teacher they'd ever had. By day's end, she felt quite depressed and anxious, and didn't want to go back to work. She took two days off, citing "mental exhaustion." She recounted thoughts in reaction to this event, such as, "Maybe I shouldn't be a teacher . 1 don't know if 1 have the strength and willpower . . . I'm not effective; I can't deal with it by myself . . 1 don't belong; 1 can't make it." She identified "I'm not effective" as the most powerful, emotion-provoking hot thought. In examining the evidence for and against this thought, Katrina cited the fact that she'd had to call in the school counselor to help mediate the conflict, that the kids liked her only when she was being friendly and casual but not when she was actually teaching, and that she seemed more powerfully affected by this incident than the other teachers thought she should be. She was also able to generate evidence against her hot cognition, including the fact that she had received positive evaluations of her teaching from the school administration and that her earlier teaching experiences in Hungary had been quite positive. She admitted that "the kids are troubled and angry at everybody" and "I've seen them curse out other teachers." She also recalled that the incident began after one of the boys had verbally taunted another boy in the class. She eventually settled on more balanced views that did not rule out her own role in causing the incident but that included the contrary evidence: "I'm a good teacher, but I have a difficult set of students that anyone would have a problem with. ... I sometimes struggle with my own boundaries and how to set limits with people. . . I'm new at this, and it's hard not to get my buttons pushed,. . . I'm still making a difference in their lives, and they're teaching me a lot about myself even though they hurt my feelings sometimes." Her mood in reaction to the confrontation improved significantly upon reviewing these balanced thoughts. Over time, as her depression lifted, she focused on the larger question of whether she wanted to teach, which had become confused in her mind with whether she was good at it. Was this article helpful? Overcome Office and Familial Stress and Improve The Quality Of Your Life In No Time! Are You Underconfident And Shy? Do You Feel Tongue-Tied While Interacting With Your Boss? Does Setting Professional and Personal Goals Feel Like a Herculean Task? You Too Can Have a Challenging Career And Lead a Balanced Life! Infuse Positivity and Experience Miraculous Change Of Circumstances With Life Coaching Sessions!	<urn:uuid:86ba68da-48e2-4e7c-94d9-915952d635f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mitchmedical.us/bipolar-disorder-2/step-2-challenging-negative-thoughts.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00298.warc.gz	en	0.981814	1,368	3.421875	3	[ -0.06145752966403961, 0.2954794764518738, 0.05189954489469528, -0.2056824266910553, 0.12945705652236938, 0.4144884943962097, 0.40181851387023926, 0.2349105328321457, 0.15457382798194885, -0.08714914321899414, 0.18141397833824158, 0.1947372853755951, 0.024061894044280052, 0.4832132756710052...	1	Now let's work on modifying your automatic thoughts. Your thoughts can be considered hypotheses, rather than hard facts, about certain events. Complete the next two columns, "Evidence That Supports" and "Evidence That Does Not Support" your hot thoughts. Be a scientist observing your own thought process: Is there any evidence for or against your conclusion that you let your dad down or can't live up to his expectations? Did your father say anything that indicated differently? Have you had any experiences with your dad recently that would show that these conclusions are not always true? Are you discounting anything positive that he said? Could your sad mood have made you view the conversation differently from what it really was? Would you have viewed it differently in a different mood state? Was the outcome of the conversation really within your control? (Greenberger & Padesky, 1995). The next step is to complete the column titled "Alternative/Balanced Thoughts." This is the chance to consider alternative viewpoints that are more balanced (as opposed to distorted), even if you don't believe them fully. Try writing down all of the other causes, explanations, or conclusions you could have drawn from this event, and rate each of them on a 0-100% scale as to how credible you find them (100% means you believe this alternative explanation fully, 0% means not at all). Examples might include: "I think Dad was just in a bad mood that day and 1 got defensive" (40%); "We got on the touchy subject of money, which always makes us both uncomfortable" (70%); and "Dad expressed disappointment in me, but some important things came to light that we needed to talk about" (50%). Once you have generated and reflected on these alternative thoughts, make new ratings of your moods (depression, anxiety, or any other emotions you listed in column 2) using the same 0-100% (or -3 - +3) scale. In developing alternative thoughts, consider the following strategies (Greenberger & Padesky, 1995). Write a sentence that summarizes all of the "for" and "against" evidence for your cognition about this event (perhaps link the evidence with the word and or but, as in the examples in the preceding paragraph). Consider what advice you would give another person who was in the same situation, had the same thoughts and moods, and had given you the same for/against evidence. Consider the best, worst, and most likely (realistic) outcomes if your hot cognition turns out to be true. For example, if the hot cognition "I let Dad down again" turns out to be true, a worst-case outcome might be that he reminds you of your failings the next time you talk to him and you end up feeling even worse; a best-case outcome might be that he apologizes and admits he was wrong, and you feel great; a realistic outcome might be that you feel tension the next time you talk to him but that you effectively steer the conversation toward more comfortable topics. Jacob, the soccer coach, learned to evaluate the evidence for and against his automatic, self-blaming thought that "I'm no good with kids." There was plenty of evidence to the contrary, given the many positive comments he received, on an ongoing basis, from his wife, the soccer players, and their parents. He was able to generate more balanced thoughts: "Sometimes the kids get uncooperative when I'm not feeling my best"; "Coaching can be a difficult task no matter how good you are"; "Today the kids were getting overstimu-lated and weren't in the mood to learn." His mood tended to improve upon introducing and repeatedly restating to himself these countervailing thoughts. Another person with bipolar disorder, Katrina, age 41, had emigrated to the United States from Hungary. A year after arriving she obtained a job at an inner city school teaching teenagers who were developmentally disabled. During a particularly difficult day, three of the boys in the class cursed at her and told her she was the worst teacher they'd ever had. By day's end, she felt quite depressed and anxious, and didn't want to go back to work. She took two days off, citing "mental exhaustion." She recounted thoughts in reaction to this event, such as, "Maybe I shouldn't be a teacher . 1 don't know if 1 have the strength and willpower . . . I'm not effective; I can't deal with it by myself . . 1 don't belong; 1 can't make it." She identified "I'm not effective" as the most powerful, emotion-provoking hot thought. In examining the evidence for and against this thought, Katrina cited the fact that she'd had to call in the school counselor to help mediate the conflict, that the kids liked her only when she was being friendly and casual but not when she was actually teaching, and that she seemed more powerfully affected by this incident than the other teachers thought she should be. She was also able to generate evidence against her hot cognition, including the fact that she had received positive evaluations of her teaching from the school administration and that her earlier teaching experiences in Hungary had been quite positive. She admitted that "the kids are troubled and angry at everybody" and "I've seen them curse out other teachers." She also recalled that the incident began after one of the boys had verbally taunted another boy in the class. She eventually settled on more balanced views that did not rule out her own role in causing the incident but that included the contrary evidence: "I'm a good teacher, but I have a difficult set of students that anyone would have a problem with. ... I sometimes struggle with my own boundaries and how to set limits with people. . . I'm new at this, and it's hard not to get my buttons pushed,. . . I'm still making a difference in their lives, and they're teaching me a lot about myself even though they hurt my feelings sometimes." Her mood in reaction to the confrontation improved significantly upon reviewing these balanced thoughts. Over time, as her depression lifted, she focused on the larger question of whether she wanted to teach, which had become confused in her mind with whether she was good at it. Was this article helpful? Overcome Office and Familial Stress and Improve The Quality Of Your Life In No Time! Are You Underconfident And Shy? Do You Feel Tongue-Tied While Interacting With Your Boss? Does Setting Professional and Personal Goals Feel Like a Herculean Task? You Too Can Have a Challenging Career And Lead a Balanced Life! Infuse Positivity and Experience Miraculous Change Of Circumstances With Life Coaching Sessions!	1,388	ENGLISH	1
President Lyndon Baines Johnson, black Republicans were a thing. And chief among them was Samuel B. Fuller. Fuller was a black American entrepreneur in the mid-Century United States. More than just an entrepreneur, he also gave back to the black community by providing both inspirational speeches as well as nuts-and-bolts training at a time when entrepreneurially minded black Americans had precious few options for either. Some entrepreneurs trained or inspired by Fuller include John H. Johnson of Johnson Publishing and George Ellis Johnson of Johnson Products. To say that Fuller came from “humble beginnings” is a bit of an understatement. He was born into a family of Louisiana sharecroppers who were so poor that he had to drop out of school to work in the sixth grade. But he also displayed an entrepreneurial spirit from a very young age. The young Master Fuller was going door to door selling products at the age of nine. When he was 15, his family moved to Nashville. It was here that his mother passed away two years later, leaving Fuller in charge of his six siblings. Relief organizations came by to offer assistance, but Fuller turned them down because he didn’t want his neighbors to think his family couldn’t make it without handouts. It was then that he and his siblings made the decision that they were going to make it on their own without any external help. From Poverty to Multi-Million-Dollar EmpireChicago where he took a series of backbreaking, menial jobs, before rising up to become the manager of a coal yard. During the Depression, he was working as an insurance agent at the Commonwealth Burial Association, a black-owned firm. Despite having a secure position at that company, he decided to strike out on his own and build his own business. Using a $25 loan he obtained by using his car as a security deposit (about $375 in 2019 money), he started his own business. With his future wife Lestine Thornton, he purchased a soap load with this money, selling it door to door. He was so successful in this endeavor that he invested another $1,000 in the enterprise. His customer base were largely newly arrived black families on the South Side of Chicago, who had arrived as part of the first Great Migration. This was an underserved community and in them, Fuller saw a potential gold mine. He was promoted to manager at Commonwealth while growing his own business to include a line of 30 products, as well as other salesmen. In 1939, Fuller opened his own factory. In 1947, he saved his supplier from going under by purchasing it. He used his newly acquired capital to sell everything under the sun, from deodorant to suits. He purchased black newspapers such as the Pittsburgh Courier and the New York Age. In Chicago, his footprint loomed large, especially after he purchased the Chicago Regal Theater and the South Center Department Store. Fuller was a staunch Republican, albeit a bit of an anachronistic one and with a firm independent streak about him. He was the head of the South Side NAACP and at the height of the Montgomery Bus Boycott, he had a novel and innovative solution: Fuller knew that the bus company was hemorrhaging money due to the boycott and other factors. He proposed winning the boycott by buying the bus line and integrating it. This was part of his entire philosophy about how to end segregation in the South and discrimination in the north: black achievement, not government intervention. No one is quite sure, but it’s very possible that Fuller was the richest black American throughout the 1950s. His cosmetics company alone was bringing in $18 million annually in 1950 dollars (over $170 million in 2019 dollars). His sales team included over 5,000 members, a third of whom were white. He became the first black man inducted into the National Association of Manufacturers in 1963. His comment at his induction ceremony that "a lack of understanding of the capitalist system and not racial barriers was keeping blacks from making progress” combined with an interview in U.S. News and World Report where he stated that "Negroes are not discriminated against because of the color of their skin. They are discriminated against because they have not anything to offer that people want to buy” caused some black leaders to call for a boycott of Fuller products. The boycotts were largely unsuccessful, but his reputation was quite tarnished in the black community. A Legacy of Black Self-Reliance Indeed, it was his zeal for unregulated capitalism that was ultimately his undoing. In 1968, he was charged with violating the Federal Securities Act after he sold unregistered promissory notes. His company went into bankruptcy in 1971. There was some upward motion after this, but Fuller Products never attained its previous levels of success. In 1976, Fuller retired due to health problems. In 1988, he died due to kidney failure. His widow estimated that he helped thousands of people to get their start in business. The legacy of S.B. Fuller is an important one because it is from such a different time in American history, one where the black community was much more ascendant and optimistic. Fuller struck a path that showed that reliance upon both private charity and government fiat was not necessary for the black community to begin achieving parity with their white counterparts. It is unfortunate that the prevailing political winds of the day eschew even the very notion of black achievement. Though perhaps political prevailing winds and majorities are not important. Fuller would certainly have been familiar with the concept of the “Talented Tenth,” first enumerated by W.E.B. DuBois in his book of the same name. This identifies a leadership class in the black community – approximately 10 percent – who can act as social, economic and political capital lifting up the entire community. Those looking to Fuller as their example for how to build a talented tenth could do no better. He stands firmly in the American tradition of black self-reliance. Read more at	<urn:uuid:dafb5918-06fb-4d4f-b3e8-d15a890a640c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://directorblue.blogspot.com/2019/06/sb-fuller-forgotten-history-of.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00515.warc.gz	en	0.989277	1,226	3.640625	4	[ -0.19269612431526184, 0.19416669011116028, -0.023632876574993134, -0.10869414359331131, -0.09611593931913376, 0.33282744884490967, -0.060076888650655746, 0.061525262892246246, -0.4271799325942993, -0.10293807089328766, 0.11255709081888199, 0.3430137634277344, 0.17499969899654388, 0.3500299...	3	President Lyndon Baines Johnson, black Republicans were a thing. And chief among them was Samuel B. Fuller. Fuller was a black American entrepreneur in the mid-Century United States. More than just an entrepreneur, he also gave back to the black community by providing both inspirational speeches as well as nuts-and-bolts training at a time when entrepreneurially minded black Americans had precious few options for either. Some entrepreneurs trained or inspired by Fuller include John H. Johnson of Johnson Publishing and George Ellis Johnson of Johnson Products. To say that Fuller came from “humble beginnings” is a bit of an understatement. He was born into a family of Louisiana sharecroppers who were so poor that he had to drop out of school to work in the sixth grade. But he also displayed an entrepreneurial spirit from a very young age. The young Master Fuller was going door to door selling products at the age of nine. When he was 15, his family moved to Nashville. It was here that his mother passed away two years later, leaving Fuller in charge of his six siblings. Relief organizations came by to offer assistance, but Fuller turned them down because he didn’t want his neighbors to think his family couldn’t make it without handouts. It was then that he and his siblings made the decision that they were going to make it on their own without any external help. From Poverty to Multi-Million-Dollar EmpireChicago where he took a series of backbreaking, menial jobs, before rising up to become the manager of a coal yard. During the Depression, he was working as an insurance agent at the Commonwealth Burial Association, a black-owned firm. Despite having a secure position at that company, he decided to strike out on his own and build his own business. Using a $25 loan he obtained by using his car as a security deposit (about $375 in 2019 money), he started his own business. With his future wife Lestine Thornton, he purchased a soap load with this money, selling it door to door. He was so successful in this endeavor that he invested another $1,000 in the enterprise. His customer base were largely newly arrived black families on the South Side of Chicago, who had arrived as part of the first Great Migration. This was an underserved community and in them, Fuller saw a potential gold mine. He was promoted to manager at Commonwealth while growing his own business to include a line of 30 products, as well as other salesmen. In 1939, Fuller opened his own factory. In 1947, he saved his supplier from going under by purchasing it. He used his newly acquired capital to sell everything under the sun, from deodorant to suits. He purchased black newspapers such as the Pittsburgh Courier and the New York Age. In Chicago, his footprint loomed large, especially after he purchased the Chicago Regal Theater and the South Center Department Store. Fuller was a staunch Republican, albeit a bit of an anachronistic one and with a firm independent streak about him. He was the head of the South Side NAACP and at the height of the Montgomery Bus Boycott, he had a novel and innovative solution: Fuller knew that the bus company was hemorrhaging money due to the boycott and other factors. He proposed winning the boycott by buying the bus line and integrating it. This was part of his entire philosophy about how to end segregation in the South and discrimination in the north: black achievement, not government intervention. No one is quite sure, but it’s very possible that Fuller was the richest black American throughout the 1950s. His cosmetics company alone was bringing in $18 million annually in 1950 dollars (over $170 million in 2019 dollars). His sales team included over 5,000 members, a third of whom were white. He became the first black man inducted into the National Association of Manufacturers in 1963. His comment at his induction ceremony that "a lack of understanding of the capitalist system and not racial barriers was keeping blacks from making progress” combined with an interview in U.S. News and World Report where he stated that "Negroes are not discriminated against because of the color of their skin. They are discriminated against because they have not anything to offer that people want to buy” caused some black leaders to call for a boycott of Fuller products. The boycotts were largely unsuccessful, but his reputation was quite tarnished in the black community. A Legacy of Black Self-Reliance Indeed, it was his zeal for unregulated capitalism that was ultimately his undoing. In 1968, he was charged with violating the Federal Securities Act after he sold unregistered promissory notes. His company went into bankruptcy in 1971. There was some upward motion after this, but Fuller Products never attained its previous levels of success. In 1976, Fuller retired due to health problems. In 1988, he died due to kidney failure. His widow estimated that he helped thousands of people to get their start in business. The legacy of S.B. Fuller is an important one because it is from such a different time in American history, one where the black community was much more ascendant and optimistic. Fuller struck a path that showed that reliance upon both private charity and government fiat was not necessary for the black community to begin achieving parity with their white counterparts. It is unfortunate that the prevailing political winds of the day eschew even the very notion of black achievement. Though perhaps political prevailing winds and majorities are not important. Fuller would certainly have been familiar with the concept of the “Talented Tenth,” first enumerated by W.E.B. DuBois in his book of the same name. This identifies a leadership class in the black community – approximately 10 percent – who can act as social, economic and political capital lifting up the entire community. Those looking to Fuller as their example for how to build a talented tenth could do no better. He stands firmly in the American tradition of black self-reliance. Read more at	1,261	ENGLISH	1
Most folk who live in the winding valley of Paint Creek in West Virginia have heard the legend — that the valley had been the route of an ancient warpath, and that warriors had celebrated their battles by painting trees along the route a bloody red. According to one archaeologist, the late Sigfus Olafson, the tales were true. Olafson contended that the route was among the most important in the Appalachian wilderness and that warriors painted the trees and held war dances there. "Local tradition as recorded by local historians of the last century says that the Indians gathered here prior to their raids on the New River settlements... and painted these trees to represent their enemies, or those whom they intended to attack, and held their war dances around them," he wrote. "Since similar practices were not uncommon among the Indians of the eastern woodlands this tradition in all likelihood is true." He surmised that the "Paint Creek Trail," as it became known, may have first been used as a warpath by the Iroquois, who followed it south during their wars against the Catawba and other tribes in Virginia and North Carolina. The trail in the 1770s was used by the Shawnee of the Ohio Country in their raids against Europeans in the valleys of the New and Greenbrier rivers. George Washington while exploring the Ohio River near Wheeling in 1770 wrote in his journal that 60 warriors of the Six Nations (the Iroquois) were journeying south to battle the Catawba in the Cherokee country. Downstream, above Letart Island, he had noted the beginning of a "Warrior's Path" that traveled across a neck of land between the Ohio and the Kanawha and which must have then followed the Kanawha southward. Further south, however, travel along the river became difficult as the river neared a narrow rugged canyon, now known as the New River Gorge. Here the trail split into two routes. The northern or eastern route around the gorge left the river and wandered through the hills eastward, following the courses of Kelley's Creek, Bell Creek, Twenty-mile Creek, the Gauley River, and Rich Creek to present-day Ansted, where it then set out across the level uplands toward the Greenbrier Valley. Militia were led by Andrew Lewis along this route in 1774 to the Battle of Point Pleasant. The southern or western route turned south into the valley of Paint Creek, which it ascended toward the level uplands at present-day Beckley. South of Beckley it crossed Flat Top Mountain and descended by Jumping Branch into the valley of the Bluestone River where it met the Kanawha again. It was along the route that Mary Draper Ingles was led as a Shawnee captive. Olafson point to the peculiarity of the Paint Creek route, which he notes is oddly suited for such a route: "This stream, about thirty miles long, runs through a very rough and mountainous region, but in spite of this type of terrain it is quite straight and has an unusually regular grade." The valley of Paint Creek is so handy as a passage through the mountains that the W.Va. Turnpike was built along the course of the valley during the 1950s. The pike was later expanded to accommodate Interstate expressways 77 and 64, and despite the relative ease of the passage, many motorists are still thrilled by or apprehensive about its winding route. Though little was left of the trail by the mid-1800s, Olafson wrote that he was satisfied as to the location near Pax of the famous painted trees for which the trail was named based on the number of early records that used them as landmarks. "Surprisingly, it was found that there were two painted tree sites on Paint Creek. One of these, sometimes called the "Big Painted Trees," was in a fair-sized bottom on the west side of Paint Creek immediately below the little village of Long Branch," he speculated. "The bottom is well suited for Indian encampment and is the point where the Coal River path, a more direct but more difficult route to the Indian towns on the Scioto joined the main path on Paint Creek, which suggests that war parties from different areas may have met here by prearrangement. "The other side, referred to in surveys as 'the Upper Painted Trees," was some three-and-a half miles air-line farther up Paint Creek at the mouth of Sand Fork [Sand Branch] and about a mile above the community of Cirtsville. "It appears to have been of lesser importance as it was infrequently referred to in the surveys." Olafson's four-page work, "The Painted Trees and The War Road," is contained in the West Virginia Archaeologist issue of September 1958, the only copy of which is in public circulation is kept in the Mason County Public Library at Point Pleasant.	<urn:uuid:96f4c841-4c7f-4808-a9d2-f99b8621fc21>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wvexplorer.com/2018/04/03/legend-of-painted-trees-and-indian-warpath-based-on-truth/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00147.warc.gz	en	0.986688	1,012	3.96875	4	[ -0.4345676600933075, -0.24594631791114807, 0.29943540692329407, 0.4800204634666443, 0.03462289646267891, 0.19052205979824066, -0.0875791683793068, -0.1188020259141922, -0.3638470470905304, 0.18562453985214233, 0.16112244129180908, -0.007150894962251186, -0.44419798254966736, 0.091360598802...	9	Most folk who live in the winding valley of Paint Creek in West Virginia have heard the legend — that the valley had been the route of an ancient warpath, and that warriors had celebrated their battles by painting trees along the route a bloody red. According to one archaeologist, the late Sigfus Olafson, the tales were true. Olafson contended that the route was among the most important in the Appalachian wilderness and that warriors painted the trees and held war dances there. "Local tradition as recorded by local historians of the last century says that the Indians gathered here prior to their raids on the New River settlements... and painted these trees to represent their enemies, or those whom they intended to attack, and held their war dances around them," he wrote. "Since similar practices were not uncommon among the Indians of the eastern woodlands this tradition in all likelihood is true." He surmised that the "Paint Creek Trail," as it became known, may have first been used as a warpath by the Iroquois, who followed it south during their wars against the Catawba and other tribes in Virginia and North Carolina. The trail in the 1770s was used by the Shawnee of the Ohio Country in their raids against Europeans in the valleys of the New and Greenbrier rivers. George Washington while exploring the Ohio River near Wheeling in 1770 wrote in his journal that 60 warriors of the Six Nations (the Iroquois) were journeying south to battle the Catawba in the Cherokee country. Downstream, above Letart Island, he had noted the beginning of a "Warrior's Path" that traveled across a neck of land between the Ohio and the Kanawha and which must have then followed the Kanawha southward. Further south, however, travel along the river became difficult as the river neared a narrow rugged canyon, now known as the New River Gorge. Here the trail split into two routes. The northern or eastern route around the gorge left the river and wandered through the hills eastward, following the courses of Kelley's Creek, Bell Creek, Twenty-mile Creek, the Gauley River, and Rich Creek to present-day Ansted, where it then set out across the level uplands toward the Greenbrier Valley. Militia were led by Andrew Lewis along this route in 1774 to the Battle of Point Pleasant. The southern or western route turned south into the valley of Paint Creek, which it ascended toward the level uplands at present-day Beckley. South of Beckley it crossed Flat Top Mountain and descended by Jumping Branch into the valley of the Bluestone River where it met the Kanawha again. It was along the route that Mary Draper Ingles was led as a Shawnee captive. Olafson point to the peculiarity of the Paint Creek route, which he notes is oddly suited for such a route: "This stream, about thirty miles long, runs through a very rough and mountainous region, but in spite of this type of terrain it is quite straight and has an unusually regular grade." The valley of Paint Creek is so handy as a passage through the mountains that the W.Va. Turnpike was built along the course of the valley during the 1950s. The pike was later expanded to accommodate Interstate expressways 77 and 64, and despite the relative ease of the passage, many motorists are still thrilled by or apprehensive about its winding route. Though little was left of the trail by the mid-1800s, Olafson wrote that he was satisfied as to the location near Pax of the famous painted trees for which the trail was named based on the number of early records that used them as landmarks. "Surprisingly, it was found that there were two painted tree sites on Paint Creek. One of these, sometimes called the "Big Painted Trees," was in a fair-sized bottom on the west side of Paint Creek immediately below the little village of Long Branch," he speculated. "The bottom is well suited for Indian encampment and is the point where the Coal River path, a more direct but more difficult route to the Indian towns on the Scioto joined the main path on Paint Creek, which suggests that war parties from different areas may have met here by prearrangement. "The other side, referred to in surveys as 'the Upper Painted Trees," was some three-and-a half miles air-line farther up Paint Creek at the mouth of Sand Fork [Sand Branch] and about a mile above the community of Cirtsville. "It appears to have been of lesser importance as it was infrequently referred to in the surveys." Olafson's four-page work, "The Painted Trees and The War Road," is contained in the West Virginia Archaeologist issue of September 1958, the only copy of which is in public circulation is kept in the Mason County Public Library at Point Pleasant.	1,017	ENGLISH	1
Denver's first cemetery was established in 1858, the same year the town was founded by William Larimer . A 320-acre tract of hills on sacred Arapaho land was designated for Mount Prospect Cemetery (later known as City Cemetery) [2; 3]. This same land would eventually become Cheesman Park and the Denver Botanic Gardens [2; 4]. The first two burials at Mount Prospect were a gambler named Jack O'Neal and a murderer named John Stoefel. Sources vary regarding the story behind these two men. Either way, it seems O'Neal was murdered outside a saloon for cheating, and Stoefel was a murderer (though whether he killed his own brother-in-law over a bag of gold dust, shot O'Neal, or both is unclear) [2; 3]. The cemetery was often referred to as Jack O'Neal's Ranch [1; 3]. As Denver grew and became overcrowded, typhoid and other diseases, as well as regular incidents of violence, filled the cemetery quickly, with separate areas for different races, religions, fraternal organizations, and veterans [2; 3]. Though Congressional action confirmed the use of the land as a burial ground in 1872, less than twenty years later, real estate promoters and Governor John Evans convinced Congress to change the land use to create a city park [3; 4]. Grateful to obtain permission to vacate the badly-managed and by then controversial Mount Prospect Cemetery of burials, the city named the new institution Congress Park [1; 2; 3]. In March of 1893, removal of bodies began. Since there were no death records apart from headstones (and many graves in pauper's cemeteries were unmarked), the estimated number of total burials is problematic, though some claim the cemetery held as many as two thousand bodies [2; 3]. Of these, 4,200 were removed in the 1890s, 788 of which were reinterred at Riverside Cemetery. Others, particularly Civil War veterans and Odd Fellows burials, went to Boot Hill. Vacated pioneer graves were planted with trees . Accusations abounded during the removal of bodies: the Denver Republican newspaper reported ghastly treatment of remains including ripping of clothing and walking on remains, on March 19, 1893, and workers were also accused of grave robbing, hacking up bodies to avoid digging up most of the graves, and presenting individual remains as belonging to multiple burials [1; 2; 3]. In August of the same year, families were given 90 days to remove the remains of the deceased, after which no more bodies would be exhumed (however, removals continued until 1950) [2; 3]. Strangely, the Catholic and Jewish areas of the cemetery continued to be active burying grounds until after the turn of the century . The park's history as a burying ground, the controversy surrounding the grave removals, and the fact that many burials remain and continue to be unearthed in both Cheesman Park and the adjoining Denver Botanical Gardens, have earned the park a reputation as being haunted [1; 2; 3]. Park grading began in 1894, and the park design was completed by Reinhard Schuetze four years later. Schuetze's design called for an hourglass-shaped, expansive lawn surrounded by plantings including a forest, with a neoclassical pavilion surrounded by gardens at the highest point, offering views of the Rocky Mountains on one side and the Denver skyline on the other . In 1907, Walter S. Cheesman died, and the park was renamed in his honor. Cheesman had arrived in Denver in 1861. Born on Long Island, New York, in 1838, Cheesman had worked as a druggist in Chicago prior to his move (via ox cart) to join his brother, who owned a drugstore in Denver. The brothers sold potable spring water in a city without sanitary infrastructure, as well as the typical medicine, chemicals, and basic necessities associated with drugstores. The success of their business allowed Cheesman to branch into real estate and railroad interests, as well as establishing infrastructure for Denver's water system and helping to found the Denver Chamber of Commerce. His widow and his daughter donated the Cheesman Park Pavilion (designed by Willis A. Marean and Albert Julius Norton and constructed of Colorado Yule marble) in his memory in 1908 [3; 4]. Sadly, the architect of the park, Reinhard Schuetze, died in 1910, the same year the Pavilion was completed, but before the rest of his design was fully realized. Most of the park's present roadways and walkways are consistent with Schuetze's original plans, though traffic control has necessitated some alterations, including, in 1912, the complete removal of a section of Franklin Street, which was then converted into a pedestrian mall. The linden trees lining the mall were planted by Schuetze, while his successor, DeBoer, was responsible for much of the park's forest plantings, which were carefully chosen to provide year-round color, texture, and form. Where the children's playground near the park's East 12th Avenue entry stands today, Schuetze had planned a lily pond. Formal gardens were added to the north of the Pavilion, as were a wide set of steps descending to the lawn, basins and fountains in an Italian water garden to the west, and a formal rose garden. Some of these features were removed, altered, or refurbished in the 1970s. Across the north lawn from the Pavilion is Schuetze's Japanese Tea House, a rustic, open pavilion sporting peeled log support posts . The Pavilion has long served as a gathering point for picnics, special events, dancing, musical performances, and as a shelter for victims of recurring floods from nearby Cherry Creek. From 1934 to 1972, it was the performance space for the Denver Post's Summer Opera, and today it is used for outdoor concerts, informal gatherings, drum circles, dance performances, and weddings [2; 3; 4]. The park itself serves as a greenbelt, jogging and picnic spot, playground, and an area for kite flying, games, and pet walking [2; 3]. Local pagans also hold ceremonies in the park .	<urn:uuid:288cad69-f30f-4d36-bd00-08f81b3677e0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/23988	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00552.warc.gz	en	0.980432	1,310	3.46875	3	[ -0.31237465143203735, -0.07937535643577576, 0.46725228428840637, 0.20951354503631592, -0.18284493684768677, 0.07319891452789307, 0.11258411407470703, -0.04277561232447624, -0.013891140930354595, -0.23988080024719238, 0.054741475731134415, 0.06893877685070038, -0.010053353384137154, 0.26701...	2	Denver's first cemetery was established in 1858, the same year the town was founded by William Larimer . A 320-acre tract of hills on sacred Arapaho land was designated for Mount Prospect Cemetery (later known as City Cemetery) [2; 3]. This same land would eventually become Cheesman Park and the Denver Botanic Gardens [2; 4]. The first two burials at Mount Prospect were a gambler named Jack O'Neal and a murderer named John Stoefel. Sources vary regarding the story behind these two men. Either way, it seems O'Neal was murdered outside a saloon for cheating, and Stoefel was a murderer (though whether he killed his own brother-in-law over a bag of gold dust, shot O'Neal, or both is unclear) [2; 3]. The cemetery was often referred to as Jack O'Neal's Ranch [1; 3]. As Denver grew and became overcrowded, typhoid and other diseases, as well as regular incidents of violence, filled the cemetery quickly, with separate areas for different races, religions, fraternal organizations, and veterans [2; 3]. Though Congressional action confirmed the use of the land as a burial ground in 1872, less than twenty years later, real estate promoters and Governor John Evans convinced Congress to change the land use to create a city park [3; 4]. Grateful to obtain permission to vacate the badly-managed and by then controversial Mount Prospect Cemetery of burials, the city named the new institution Congress Park [1; 2; 3]. In March of 1893, removal of bodies began. Since there were no death records apart from headstones (and many graves in pauper's cemeteries were unmarked), the estimated number of total burials is problematic, though some claim the cemetery held as many as two thousand bodies [2; 3]. Of these, 4,200 were removed in the 1890s, 788 of which were reinterred at Riverside Cemetery. Others, particularly Civil War veterans and Odd Fellows burials, went to Boot Hill. Vacated pioneer graves were planted with trees . Accusations abounded during the removal of bodies: the Denver Republican newspaper reported ghastly treatment of remains including ripping of clothing and walking on remains, on March 19, 1893, and workers were also accused of grave robbing, hacking up bodies to avoid digging up most of the graves, and presenting individual remains as belonging to multiple burials [1; 2; 3]. In August of the same year, families were given 90 days to remove the remains of the deceased, after which no more bodies would be exhumed (however, removals continued until 1950) [2; 3]. Strangely, the Catholic and Jewish areas of the cemetery continued to be active burying grounds until after the turn of the century . The park's history as a burying ground, the controversy surrounding the grave removals, and the fact that many burials remain and continue to be unearthed in both Cheesman Park and the adjoining Denver Botanical Gardens, have earned the park a reputation as being haunted [1; 2; 3]. Park grading began in 1894, and the park design was completed by Reinhard Schuetze four years later. Schuetze's design called for an hourglass-shaped, expansive lawn surrounded by plantings including a forest, with a neoclassical pavilion surrounded by gardens at the highest point, offering views of the Rocky Mountains on one side and the Denver skyline on the other . In 1907, Walter S. Cheesman died, and the park was renamed in his honor. Cheesman had arrived in Denver in 1861. Born on Long Island, New York, in 1838, Cheesman had worked as a druggist in Chicago prior to his move (via ox cart) to join his brother, who owned a drugstore in Denver. The brothers sold potable spring water in a city without sanitary infrastructure, as well as the typical medicine, chemicals, and basic necessities associated with drugstores. The success of their business allowed Cheesman to branch into real estate and railroad interests, as well as establishing infrastructure for Denver's water system and helping to found the Denver Chamber of Commerce. His widow and his daughter donated the Cheesman Park Pavilion (designed by Willis A. Marean and Albert Julius Norton and constructed of Colorado Yule marble) in his memory in 1908 [3; 4]. Sadly, the architect of the park, Reinhard Schuetze, died in 1910, the same year the Pavilion was completed, but before the rest of his design was fully realized. Most of the park's present roadways and walkways are consistent with Schuetze's original plans, though traffic control has necessitated some alterations, including, in 1912, the complete removal of a section of Franklin Street, which was then converted into a pedestrian mall. The linden trees lining the mall were planted by Schuetze, while his successor, DeBoer, was responsible for much of the park's forest plantings, which were carefully chosen to provide year-round color, texture, and form. Where the children's playground near the park's East 12th Avenue entry stands today, Schuetze had planned a lily pond. Formal gardens were added to the north of the Pavilion, as were a wide set of steps descending to the lawn, basins and fountains in an Italian water garden to the west, and a formal rose garden. Some of these features were removed, altered, or refurbished in the 1970s. Across the north lawn from the Pavilion is Schuetze's Japanese Tea House, a rustic, open pavilion sporting peeled log support posts . The Pavilion has long served as a gathering point for picnics, special events, dancing, musical performances, and as a shelter for victims of recurring floods from nearby Cherry Creek. From 1934 to 1972, it was the performance space for the Denver Post's Summer Opera, and today it is used for outdoor concerts, informal gatherings, drum circles, dance performances, and weddings [2; 3; 4]. The park itself serves as a greenbelt, jogging and picnic spot, playground, and an area for kite flying, games, and pet walking [2; 3]. Local pagans also hold ceremonies in the park .	1,385	ENGLISH	1
\|Born\|\|Approximately 330 B.C.\| \|Died\|\|Approximately 260 B.C.\| There are no known records of the exact date or place of Euclid's birth, and little is known about his personal life. We do know that during the reign of Ptolemy I he taught mathematics in Alexandria, Egypt, at the Alexandria library or "Museum", and that he wrote the most enduring mathematical work of all time, the Stoicheia or Elements, a thirteen volume work. This comprehensive compilation of geometrical knowledge, based on the works of Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Menaechmus and others, was in common usage for over 2,000 years. An Arabian author, al-Qifti (d. 1248), recorded that Euclid's father was Naucrates and his grandfather was Zenarchus, that he was a Greek, born in Tyre and lived in Damascus. But there is no real proof that this is the same Euclid. In fact, another man, Euclid of Megara, a philosopher who lived at the time of Plato, is often confused with Euclid of Alexandria. Euclid is often referred to as the "Father of Geometry." It is probable that he attended Plato's Academy in Athens, received his mathematical training from students of Plato, and then came to Alexandria. Alexandria was then the largest city in the western world, and the center of both the papyrus industry and the book trade. Ptolemy had created the great library at Alexandria, which was known as the Museum, because it was considered a house of the muses for the arts and sciences. Many scholars worked and taught there, and that is where Euclid wrote The Elements. There is some evidence that Euclid also founded a school and taught pupils while he was in Alexandria. The Elements is divided into thirteen books which cover plane geometry, arithmetic and number theory, irrational numbers, and solid geometry. Euclid organized the known geometrical ideas, starting with simple definitions, axioms, formed statements called theorems, and set forth methods for logical proofs. He began with accepted mathematical truths, axioms and postulates, and demonstrated logically 467 propositions in plane and solid geometry. One of the proofs was for the theorem of Pythagoras, proving that the equation is always true for every right triangle. The Elements was the most widely used textbook of all time, has appeared in more than 1,000 editions since printing was invented, was still found in classrooms until the twentieth century, and is thought to have sold more copies than any book other than the Bible. Euclid used an approach called the "synthetic approach" to present his theorems. Using this method, one progresses in a series of logical steps from the known to the unknown. Euclid proved that it is impossible to find the "largest prime number," because if you take the largest known prime number, add 1 to the product of all the primes up to and including it, you will get another prime number. Euclid's proof for this theorem is generally accepted as one of the "classic" proofs because of its conciseness and clarity. Millions of prime numbers are known to exist, and more are being added by mathematicians and computer scientists. Mathematicians since Euclid have attempted without success to find a pattern to the sequence of prime numbers. The Greek philosopher Proclus records that when Ptolemy I asked if there was an easier way to study geometry than The Elements, Euclid replied, "Sire, there is no royal road to geometry." Axioms are statements that are accepted as true. Euclid believed that we can't be sure of any axioms without proof, so he devised logical steps to prove them. Euclid divided his ten axioms, which he called "postulates," into two groups of five. The first five were "Common Notions," because they were common to all sciences: Campanus translated The Elements from Arabic to Latin, and the first printed edition appeared in Venice in 1482. The first English translation of The Elements was by the mathematician John Dee in 1570. Dee's lectures and writings revived interest in mathematics in England. His translation was from a Latin translation of an Arabic translation of the original Greek. In 1733, an Italian mathematician named Girolamo Saccheri almost discovered non-Euclidean geometry. He had studied for years in a futile attempt to find a single error in Euclid's postulates. On the verge of a breakthrough, he gave up and published Euclid Cleared of Every Flaw. It would be about a hundred years before another viable geometry was invented. In 1899, the German mathematician David Hilbert presented Foundations of Geometry, the first complete set of geometry axioms since Euclid. Euclid also wrote Data, which contains 94 propositions, Phaenomena, concerning spherical astronomy, Caloptrics, about mirrors, Optics, the theory of perspective, and a work of music theory. In his works about optics, Euclid made light rays part of geometry, working with them as if they were straight lines. Many of the works ascribed to Euclid are no longer in existence or are incomplete. The Greek number system made it hard to do calculations. Like the Roman number system, it was not a positional system, had no zero, and had only whole numbers. To compensate for this, they used graphical techniques using a compass and straightedge to produce geometric constructions. These became known as Euclidean Constructions and are described further in Euclidean Constructions - Tools and Rules At age forty, Abraham Lincoln studied Euclid for training in reasoning, and as a traveling lawyer on horseback, kept a copy of Euclid's Elements in his saddlebag. In his biography of Lincoln, his law partner Billy Herndon tells how late at night Lincoln would lie on the floor studying Euclid's geometry by lamplight. Lincoln's logical speeches and some of his phrases such as "dedicated to the proposition" in the Gettysburg address are attributed to his reading of Euclid. Lincoln explains why he was motivated to read Euclid:	<urn:uuid:f8e80201-bef6-4896-afd8-7e8d1fd4c5be>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mathopenref.com/euclid.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00442.warc.gz	en	0.981945	1,294	3.75	4	[ -0.12323157489299774, 0.2635034918785095, 0.05106021463871002, -0.12597967684268951, -0.6346063613891602, -0.06826388090848923, 0.038367047905921936, 0.5463002920150757, -0.067903071641922, 0.07729525864124298, -0.24630282819271088, -0.4633519649505615, 0.26140618324279785, 0.3191878199577...	6	\|Born\|\|Approximately 330 B.C.\| \|Died\|\|Approximately 260 B.C.\| There are no known records of the exact date or place of Euclid's birth, and little is known about his personal life. We do know that during the reign of Ptolemy I he taught mathematics in Alexandria, Egypt, at the Alexandria library or "Museum", and that he wrote the most enduring mathematical work of all time, the Stoicheia or Elements, a thirteen volume work. This comprehensive compilation of geometrical knowledge, based on the works of Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Menaechmus and others, was in common usage for over 2,000 years. An Arabian author, al-Qifti (d. 1248), recorded that Euclid's father was Naucrates and his grandfather was Zenarchus, that he was a Greek, born in Tyre and lived in Damascus. But there is no real proof that this is the same Euclid. In fact, another man, Euclid of Megara, a philosopher who lived at the time of Plato, is often confused with Euclid of Alexandria. Euclid is often referred to as the "Father of Geometry." It is probable that he attended Plato's Academy in Athens, received his mathematical training from students of Plato, and then came to Alexandria. Alexandria was then the largest city in the western world, and the center of both the papyrus industry and the book trade. Ptolemy had created the great library at Alexandria, which was known as the Museum, because it was considered a house of the muses for the arts and sciences. Many scholars worked and taught there, and that is where Euclid wrote The Elements. There is some evidence that Euclid also founded a school and taught pupils while he was in Alexandria. The Elements is divided into thirteen books which cover plane geometry, arithmetic and number theory, irrational numbers, and solid geometry. Euclid organized the known geometrical ideas, starting with simple definitions, axioms, formed statements called theorems, and set forth methods for logical proofs. He began with accepted mathematical truths, axioms and postulates, and demonstrated logically 467 propositions in plane and solid geometry. One of the proofs was for the theorem of Pythagoras, proving that the equation is always true for every right triangle. The Elements was the most widely used textbook of all time, has appeared in more than 1,000 editions since printing was invented, was still found in classrooms until the twentieth century, and is thought to have sold more copies than any book other than the Bible. Euclid used an approach called the "synthetic approach" to present his theorems. Using this method, one progresses in a series of logical steps from the known to the unknown. Euclid proved that it is impossible to find the "largest prime number," because if you take the largest known prime number, add 1 to the product of all the primes up to and including it, you will get another prime number. Euclid's proof for this theorem is generally accepted as one of the "classic" proofs because of its conciseness and clarity. Millions of prime numbers are known to exist, and more are being added by mathematicians and computer scientists. Mathematicians since Euclid have attempted without success to find a pattern to the sequence of prime numbers. The Greek philosopher Proclus records that when Ptolemy I asked if there was an easier way to study geometry than The Elements, Euclid replied, "Sire, there is no royal road to geometry." Axioms are statements that are accepted as true. Euclid believed that we can't be sure of any axioms without proof, so he devised logical steps to prove them. Euclid divided his ten axioms, which he called "postulates," into two groups of five. The first five were "Common Notions," because they were common to all sciences: Campanus translated The Elements from Arabic to Latin, and the first printed edition appeared in Venice in 1482. The first English translation of The Elements was by the mathematician John Dee in 1570. Dee's lectures and writings revived interest in mathematics in England. His translation was from a Latin translation of an Arabic translation of the original Greek. In 1733, an Italian mathematician named Girolamo Saccheri almost discovered non-Euclidean geometry. He had studied for years in a futile attempt to find a single error in Euclid's postulates. On the verge of a breakthrough, he gave up and published Euclid Cleared of Every Flaw. It would be about a hundred years before another viable geometry was invented. In 1899, the German mathematician David Hilbert presented Foundations of Geometry, the first complete set of geometry axioms since Euclid. Euclid also wrote Data, which contains 94 propositions, Phaenomena, concerning spherical astronomy, Caloptrics, about mirrors, Optics, the theory of perspective, and a work of music theory. In his works about optics, Euclid made light rays part of geometry, working with them as if they were straight lines. Many of the works ascribed to Euclid are no longer in existence or are incomplete. The Greek number system made it hard to do calculations. Like the Roman number system, it was not a positional system, had no zero, and had only whole numbers. To compensate for this, they used graphical techniques using a compass and straightedge to produce geometric constructions. These became known as Euclidean Constructions and are described further in Euclidean Constructions - Tools and Rules At age forty, Abraham Lincoln studied Euclid for training in reasoning, and as a traveling lawyer on horseback, kept a copy of Euclid's Elements in his saddlebag. In his biography of Lincoln, his law partner Billy Herndon tells how late at night Lincoln would lie on the floor studying Euclid's geometry by lamplight. Lincoln's logical speeches and some of his phrases such as "dedicated to the proposition" in the Gettysburg address are attributed to his reading of Euclid. Lincoln explains why he was motivated to read Euclid:	1,293	ENGLISH	1
The Siege of Tyre T HE city of Tyre stood on a small island, three or four miles in diameter, on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. It was, in those days, the greatest commercial city in the world, and it exercised a great maritime power by means of its fleets and ships, which traversed every part of the Mediterranean. Tyre had been built originally on the mainland; but in some of the wars which it had to encounter with the kings of Babylon in the East, this old city had been abandoned by the inhabitants, and a new one built upon an island not far from the shore, which could be more easily defended from an enemy. The old city had gone to ruin, and its place was occupied by old walls, fallen towers, stones, columns, arches, and other remains of the ancient magnificence of the place. The island on which the Tyre of Alexander's day had been built was about half a mile from the shore. The water between was about eighteen feet deep, and formed a harbor for the vessels. The great business of the Tyrians was commerce. They bought and sold merchandise in all the ports of the Mediterranean Sea, and transported it by their merchant vessels to and fro. They had also fleets of war galleys, which they used to protect their interests on the high seas, and in the various ports which their merchant vessels visited. They were thus wealthy and powerful, and yet they lived shut up upon their little island, and were almost entirely independent of the main-land. The city itself, however, though contracted in extent on account of the small dimensions of the island, was very compactly built and strongly fortified, and it contained a vast number of stately and magnificent edifices, which were filled with stores of wealth that had been accumulated by the mercantile enterprise and thrift of many generations. Extravagant stories are told by the historians and geographers of those days, in respect to the scale on which the structures of Tyre were built. It was said, for instance, that the walls were one hundred and fifty feet high. It is true that the walls rose directly from the surface of the water, and of course a considerable part of their elevation was required to bring them up to the level of the surface of the land; and then, in addition to this, they had to be carried up the whole ordinary height of a city wall to afford the usual protection to the edifices and dwellings within. There might have been some places where the walls themselves, or structures connected with them, were carried up to the elevation above named, though it is scarcely to be supposed that such could have been their ordinary dimensions. At any rate, Tyre was a very wealthy, magnificent, and powerful city, intent on its commercial operations, and well furnished with means of protecting them at sea, but feeling little interest, and taking little part, in the contentions continually arising among the rival powers which had possession of the land. Their policy was to retain their independence, and yet to keep on good terms with all other powers, so that their commercial intercourse with the ports of all nations might go on undisturbed. It was, of course, a very serious question with Alexander, as his route lay now through Phœnicia and in the neighborhood of Tyre, what he should do in respect to such a port. He did not like to leave it behind him and proceed to the eastward; for, in case of any reverses happening to him, the Tyrians would be very likely to act decidedly against him, and their power on the Mediterranean would enable them to act very efficiently against him on all the coasts of Greece and Asia Minor. On the other hand, it seemed a desperate undertaking to attack the city. He had none but land forces, and the island was half a mile from the shore. Besides, its enormous walls, rising perpendicularly out of the water, it was defended by ships well armed and manned. It was not possible to surround the city and starve it into submission, as the inhabitants had wealth to buy, and ships to bring in, any quantity of provisions and stores by sea. Alexander, however, determined not to follow Darius toward the east, and leave such a stronghold as this behind him. The Tyrians wished to avoid a quarrel if it were possible. They sent complimentary messages to Alexander, congratulating him on his conquests, and disavowing all feelings of hostility to him. They also sent him a golden crown, as many of the other states of Asia had done, in token of their yielding a general submission to his authority. Alexander returned very gracious replies, and expressed to them his intention of coming to Tyre for the purpose of offering sacrifices, as he said, to Hercules, a god whom the Tyrians worshiped. The Tyrians knew that wherever Alexander went he went at the head of his army, and his coming into Tyre at all implied necessarily his taking military possession of it. They thought it might, perhaps, be somewhat difficult to dispossess such a visitor after he should once get installed in their castles and palaces. So they sent him word that it would not be in their power to receive him in the city itself, but that he could offer the sacrifice which he intended on the main-land, as there was a temple sacred to Hercules among the ruins there. Alexander then called a council of his officers, and stated to them his views. He said that, on reflecting fully upon the subject, he had come to the conclusion that it was best to postpone pushing his expedition forward into the heart of Persia until he should have subdued Tyre completely, and made himself master of the Mediterranean Sea. He said, also, that he should take possession of Egypt before turning his arms toward the forces that Darius was gathering against him in the East. The generals of the army concurred in this opinion, and Alexander advanced toward Tyre. The Tyrians prepared for their defense. After examining carefully all the circumstances of the case, Alexander conceived the very bold plan of building a broad causeway from the main-land to the island on which the city was founded, out of the ruins of old Tyre, and then marching his army over upon it to the walls of the city, where he could then plant his engines and make a breach. This would seem to be a very desperate undertaking. It is true the stones remaining on the site of the old city afforded sufficient materials for the construction of the pier, but then the work must go on against a tremendous opposition, both from the walls of the city itself and from the Tyrian ships in the harbor. It would seem to be almost impossible to protect the men from these attacks so as to allow the operations to proceed at all, and the difficulty and danger must increase very rapidly as the work should approach the walls of the city. But, notwithstanding these objections, Alexander determined to proceed. Tyre must be taken, and this was obviously the only possible mode of taking it. The soldiers advanced to undertake the work with great readiness. Their strong personal attachment to Alexander; their confidence that whatever he should plan and attempt would succeed; the novelty and boldness of this design of reaching an island by building an isthmus to it from the main-land—these and other similar considerations excited the ardor and enthusiasm of the troops to the highest degree. In constructing works of this kind in the water, the material used is sometimes stone and sometimes earth. So far as earth is employed, it is necessary to resort to some means to prevent its spreading under the water, or being washed away by the dash of the waves at its sides. This is usually effected by driving what are called piles, which are long beams of wood, pointed at the end, and driven into the earth by means of powerful engines. Alexander sent parties of men into the mountains of Lebanon, where were vast forests of cedars, which were very celebrated in ancient times, and which are often alluded to in the sacred scriptures. They cut down these trees, and brought the stems of them to the shore, where they sharpened them at one end and drove them into the sand, in order to protect the sides of their embankment. Others brought stones from the ruins and tumbled them into the sea in the direction where the pier was to be built. It was some time before the work made such progress as to attract much attention from Tyre. At length, however, when the people of the city saw it gradually increasing in size and advancing toward them, they concluded that they must engage in earnest in the work of arresting its progress. They accordingly constructed engines on the walls to throw heavy darts and stones over the water to the men upon the pier. They sent secretly to the tribes that inhabited the valleys and ravines among the mountains, to attack the parties at work there, and they landed forces from the city at some distance from the pier, and then marched along the shore, and attempted to drive away the men that were engaged in carrying stones from the ruins. They also fitted up and manned some galleys of large size, and brought them up near to the pier itself, and attacked the men who were at work upon it with stones, darts, arrows, and missiles of every description. But all was of no avail. The work, though impeded, still went on. Alexander built large screens of wood upon the pier, covering them with hides, which protected his soldiers from the weapons of the enemy, so that they could carry on their operations safely behind them. By these means the work advanced for some distance further. As it advanced, various structures were erected upon it, especially along the sides and at the end toward the city. These structures consisted of great engines for driving piles, and machines for throwing stones and darts, and towers carried up to a great height, to enable the men to throw stones and heavy weapons down upon the galleys which might attempt to approach them. At length the Tyrians determined on attempting to destroy all these wooden works by means of what is called in modern times a fire ship. They took a large galley, and filled it with combustibles of every kind. They loaded it first with light dry wood, and they poured pitch, and tar, and oil over all this wood to make it burn with fiercer flames. They saturated the sails and the cordage in the same manner, and laid trains of combustible materials through all parts of the vessel, so that when fire should be set in one part it would immediately spread every where, and set the whole mass in flames at once. They towed this ship, on a windy day, near to the enemy's works, and on the side from which the wind was blowing. They then put it in motion toward the pier at a point where there was the greatest collection of engines and machines, and when they had got as near as they dared to go themselves, the men who were on board set the trains on fire, and made their escape in boats. The flames ran all over the vessel with inconceivable rapidity. The vessel itself drifted down upon Alexander's works, notwithstanding the most strenuous exertions of his soldiers to keep it away. The frames and engines, and the enormous and complicated machines which had been erected, took fire, and the whole mass was soon enveloped in a general conflagration. The men made desperate attempts to defend their works, but all in vain. Some were killed by arrows and darts, some were burned to death, and others, in the confusion, fell into the sea. Finally, the army was obliged to draw back, and to abandon all that was combustible in the vast construction they had reared, to the devouring flames. Not long after this the sea itself came to the aid of the Tyrians. There was a storm; and, as a consequence of it, a heavy swell rolled in from the offing, which soon undermined and washed away a large part of the pier. The effects of a heavy sea on the most massive and substantial structures, when they are fairly exposed to its impulse, are far greater than would be conceived possible by those who had not witnessed them. The most ponderous stones are removed, the strongest fastenings are torn asunder, and embankments the most compact and solid are undermined and washed away. The storm, in this case, destroyed in a few hours the work of many months, while the army of Alexander looked on from the shore witnessing its ravages in dismay. When the storm was over, and the first shock of chagrin and disappointment had passed from the minds of the men, Alexander prepared to resume the work with fresh vigor and energy. The men commenced repairing the pier and widening it, so as to increase its strength and capacity. They dragged whole trees to the edges of it, and sunk them, branches and all, to the bottom, to form a sort of platform there, to prevent the stones from sinking into the slime. They built new towers and engines, covering them with green hides to make them fire-proof; and thus they were soon advancing again, and gradually drawing nearer to the city, and in a more threatening and formidable manner than ever. Alexander, finding that his efforts were impeded very much by the ships of the Tyrians, determined on collecting and equipping a fleet of his own. This he did at Sidon, which was a town a short distance north of Tyre. He embarked on board this fleet himself, and came down with it into the Tyrian seas. With this fleet he had various success. He chained many of the ships together, two and two, at a little distance apart, covering the inclosed space with a platform, on which the soldiers could stand to fight. The men also erected engines on these platforms to attack the city. These engines were of various kinds. There was what they called the battering ram, which was a long and very heavy beam of wood, headed with iron or brass. This beam was suspended by a chain in the middle, so that it could be swung back and forth by the soldiers, its head striking against the wall each time, by which means the wall would sometimes be soon battered down. They had also machines for throwing great stones, or beams of wood, by means of the elastic force of strong bars of wood, or of steel, or that of twisted ropes. The part of the machine upon which the stone was placed would be drawn back by the united strength of many of the soldiers, and then, as it recovered itself when released, the stone would be thrown off into the air with prodigious velocity and force. Alexander's double galleys answered very well as long as the water was smooth; but sometimes, when they were caught out in a swell, the rolling of the waves would rack and twist them so as to tear the platforms asunder, and sink the men in the sea. Thus difficulties unexpected and formidable were continually arising. Alexander, however, persevered through them all. The Tyrians, finding themselves pressed more and more, and seeing that the dangers impending became more and more formidable every day, at length concluded to send a great number of the women and children away to Carthage, which was a great commercial city in Africa. They were determined not to submit to Alexander, but to carry their resistance to the very last extremity. And as the closing scenes of a siege, especially if the place is at last taken by storm, are awful beyond description, they wished to save their wives, and daughters, and helpless babes from having to witness them. In the mean time, as the siege advanced, the parties became more and more incensed against each other. They treated the captives which they took on either side with greater and greater cruelty, each thinking that they were only retaliating worse injuries from the other. The Macedonians approached nearer and nearer. The resources of the unhappy city were gradually cut off and its strength worn away. The engines approached nearer and nearer to the walls, until the battering rams bore directly upon them, and breaches began to be made. At length one great breach on the southern side was found to be "practicable," as they call it. Alexander began to prepare for the final assault, and the Tyrians saw before them the horrible prospect of being taken by storm. Still they would not submit. Submission would now have done but little good, though it might have saved some of the final horrors of the scene. Alexander had become greatly exasperated by the long resistance which the Tyrians had made. They probably could not now have averted destruction, but they might, perhaps, have prevented its coming upon them in so terrible a shape as the irruption of thirty thousand frantic and infuriated soldiers through the breaches in their walls to take their city by storm. The breach by which Alexander proposed to force his entrance was on the southern side. He prepared a number of ships, with platforms raised upon them in such a manner that, on getting near the walls, they could be let down, and form a sort of bridge, over which the men could pass to the broken fragments of the wall, and thence ascend through the breach above. The plan succeeded. The ships advanced to the proposed place of landing. The bridges were let down. The men crowded over them to the foot of the wall. They clambered up through the breach to the battlements above, although the Tyrians thronged the passage and made the most desperate resistance. Hundreds were killed by darts, and arrows, and falling stones, and their bodies tumbled into the sea. The others, paying no attention to their falling comrades, and drowning the horrid screams of the crushed and the dying with their own frantic shouts of rage and fury, pressed on up the broken wall till they reached the battlements above. The vast throng then rolled along upon the top of the wall till they came to stairways and slopes by which they could descend into the city, and, pouring down through all these avenues, they spread over the streets, and satiated the hatred and rage, which had been gathering strength for seven long months, in bursting into houses, and killing and destroying all that came in their way. Thus the city was stormed. After the soldiers were weary with the work of slaughtering the wretched inhabitants of the city, they found that many still remained alive, and Alexander tarnished the character for generosity and forbearance for which he had thus far been distinguished by the cruelty with which he treated them. Some were executed, some thrown into the sea; and it is even said that two thousand were crucified along the sea-shore. This may mean that their bodies were placed upon crosses after life had been destroyed by some more humane method than crucifixion. At any rate, we find frequent indications from this time that prosperity and power were beginning to exert their usual unfavorable influence upon Alexander's character. He became haughty, imperious, and cruel. He lost the modesty and gentleness which seemed to characterize him in the earlier part of his life, and began to assume the moral character, as well as perform the exploits, of a military hero. A good illustration of this is afforded by the answer that he sent to Darius, about the time of the storming of Tyre, in reply to a second communication which he had received from him proposing terms of peace. Darius offered him a very large sum of money for the ransom of his mother, wife, and child, and agreed to give up to him all the country he had conquered, including the whole territory west of the Euphrates. He also offered him his daughter Statira in marriage. He recommended to him to accept these terms, and be content with the possessions he had already acquired; that he could not expect to succeed, if he should try, in crossing the mighty rivers of the East, which were in the way of his march toward the Persian dominions. Alexander replied, that if he wished to marry his daughter he could do it without his consent; as to the ransom, he was not in want of money; in respect to Darius's offering to give him up all west of the Euphrates, it was absurd for a man to speak of giving what was no longer his own; that he had crossed too many seas in his military expeditions, since he left Macedon, to feel any concern about the rivers that he might find in his way; and that he should continue to pursue Darius wherever he might retreat in search of safety and protection, and he had no fear but that he should find and conquer him at last. It was a harsh and cruel message to send to the unhappy monarch whom he had already so greatly injured. Parmenio advised him to accept Darius's offers. "I would," said he, "if I were Alexander." "Yes," said Alexander, "and so would I if I were Parmenio." What a reply from a youth of twenty-two to a venerable general of sixty, who had been so tried and faithful a friend, and so efficient a coadjutor both to his father and to himself, for so many years. The siege and storming of Tyre has always been considered one of the greatest of Alexander's exploits. The boldness, the perseverance, the indomitable energy which he himself and all his army manifested, during the seven months of their Herculean toil, attracted the admiration of the world. And yet we find our feelings of sympathy for his character, and interest in his fate, somewhat alienated by the indications of pride, imperiousness, and cruelty which begin to appear. While he rises in our estimation as a military hero, he begins to sink somewhat as a man. And yet the change was not sudden. He bore during the siege his part in the privations and difficulties which the soldiers had to endure; and the dangers to which they had to be exposed, he was always willing to share. One night he was out with a party upon the mountains. Among his few immediate attendants was Lysimachus, one of his former teachers, who always loved to accompany him at such times. Lysimachus was advanced in life, and somewhat infirm, and consequently could not keep up with the rest in the march. Alexander remained with Lysimachus, and ordered the rest to go on. The road at length became so rugged that they had to dismount from their horses and walk. Finally they lost their way, and found themselves obliged to stop for the night. They had no fire. They saw, however, at a distance, some camp fires blazing which belonged to the barbarian tribes against whom the expedition was directed. Alexander went to the nearest one. There were two men lying by it, who had been stationed to take care of it. He advanced stealthily to them and killed them both, probably while they were asleep. He then took a brand from their fire, carried it back to his own encampment, where he made a blazing fire for himself and Lysimachus, and they passed the night in comfort and safety. This is the story. How far we are to give credit to it, each reader must judge for himself. One thing is certain, however, that there are many military heroes of whom such stories would not be even fabricated.	<urn:uuid:2b59c91d-0ea0-4d36-9711-1059b6d80641>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=abbott&book=alexander&story=siege	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00510.warc.gz	en	0.990787	4,776	3.4375	3	[ 0.2954498529434204, 0.2707960307598114, 0.39694997668266296, -0.2935031056404114, -0.489585280418396, -0.35783588886260986, -0.05073872208595276, 0.4110433757305145, 0.01918594166636467, 0.005477219820022583, -0.2650633454322815, -0.5422686338424683, -0.009093225002288818, 0.24024395644664...	5	The Siege of Tyre T HE city of Tyre stood on a small island, three or four miles in diameter, on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. It was, in those days, the greatest commercial city in the world, and it exercised a great maritime power by means of its fleets and ships, which traversed every part of the Mediterranean. Tyre had been built originally on the mainland; but in some of the wars which it had to encounter with the kings of Babylon in the East, this old city had been abandoned by the inhabitants, and a new one built upon an island not far from the shore, which could be more easily defended from an enemy. The old city had gone to ruin, and its place was occupied by old walls, fallen towers, stones, columns, arches, and other remains of the ancient magnificence of the place. The island on which the Tyre of Alexander's day had been built was about half a mile from the shore. The water between was about eighteen feet deep, and formed a harbor for the vessels. The great business of the Tyrians was commerce. They bought and sold merchandise in all the ports of the Mediterranean Sea, and transported it by their merchant vessels to and fro. They had also fleets of war galleys, which they used to protect their interests on the high seas, and in the various ports which their merchant vessels visited. They were thus wealthy and powerful, and yet they lived shut up upon their little island, and were almost entirely independent of the main-land. The city itself, however, though contracted in extent on account of the small dimensions of the island, was very compactly built and strongly fortified, and it contained a vast number of stately and magnificent edifices, which were filled with stores of wealth that had been accumulated by the mercantile enterprise and thrift of many generations. Extravagant stories are told by the historians and geographers of those days, in respect to the scale on which the structures of Tyre were built. It was said, for instance, that the walls were one hundred and fifty feet high. It is true that the walls rose directly from the surface of the water, and of course a considerable part of their elevation was required to bring them up to the level of the surface of the land; and then, in addition to this, they had to be carried up the whole ordinary height of a city wall to afford the usual protection to the edifices and dwellings within. There might have been some places where the walls themselves, or structures connected with them, were carried up to the elevation above named, though it is scarcely to be supposed that such could have been their ordinary dimensions. At any rate, Tyre was a very wealthy, magnificent, and powerful city, intent on its commercial operations, and well furnished with means of protecting them at sea, but feeling little interest, and taking little part, in the contentions continually arising among the rival powers which had possession of the land. Their policy was to retain their independence, and yet to keep on good terms with all other powers, so that their commercial intercourse with the ports of all nations might go on undisturbed. It was, of course, a very serious question with Alexander, as his route lay now through Phœnicia and in the neighborhood of Tyre, what he should do in respect to such a port. He did not like to leave it behind him and proceed to the eastward; for, in case of any reverses happening to him, the Tyrians would be very likely to act decidedly against him, and their power on the Mediterranean would enable them to act very efficiently against him on all the coasts of Greece and Asia Minor. On the other hand, it seemed a desperate undertaking to attack the city. He had none but land forces, and the island was half a mile from the shore. Besides, its enormous walls, rising perpendicularly out of the water, it was defended by ships well armed and manned. It was not possible to surround the city and starve it into submission, as the inhabitants had wealth to buy, and ships to bring in, any quantity of provisions and stores by sea. Alexander, however, determined not to follow Darius toward the east, and leave such a stronghold as this behind him. The Tyrians wished to avoid a quarrel if it were possible. They sent complimentary messages to Alexander, congratulating him on his conquests, and disavowing all feelings of hostility to him. They also sent him a golden crown, as many of the other states of Asia had done, in token of their yielding a general submission to his authority. Alexander returned very gracious replies, and expressed to them his intention of coming to Tyre for the purpose of offering sacrifices, as he said, to Hercules, a god whom the Tyrians worshiped. The Tyrians knew that wherever Alexander went he went at the head of his army, and his coming into Tyre at all implied necessarily his taking military possession of it. They thought it might, perhaps, be somewhat difficult to dispossess such a visitor after he should once get installed in their castles and palaces. So they sent him word that it would not be in their power to receive him in the city itself, but that he could offer the sacrifice which he intended on the main-land, as there was a temple sacred to Hercules among the ruins there. Alexander then called a council of his officers, and stated to them his views. He said that, on reflecting fully upon the subject, he had come to the conclusion that it was best to postpone pushing his expedition forward into the heart of Persia until he should have subdued Tyre completely, and made himself master of the Mediterranean Sea. He said, also, that he should take possession of Egypt before turning his arms toward the forces that Darius was gathering against him in the East. The generals of the army concurred in this opinion, and Alexander advanced toward Tyre. The Tyrians prepared for their defense. After examining carefully all the circumstances of the case, Alexander conceived the very bold plan of building a broad causeway from the main-land to the island on which the city was founded, out of the ruins of old Tyre, and then marching his army over upon it to the walls of the city, where he could then plant his engines and make a breach. This would seem to be a very desperate undertaking. It is true the stones remaining on the site of the old city afforded sufficient materials for the construction of the pier, but then the work must go on against a tremendous opposition, both from the walls of the city itself and from the Tyrian ships in the harbor. It would seem to be almost impossible to protect the men from these attacks so as to allow the operations to proceed at all, and the difficulty and danger must increase very rapidly as the work should approach the walls of the city. But, notwithstanding these objections, Alexander determined to proceed. Tyre must be taken, and this was obviously the only possible mode of taking it. The soldiers advanced to undertake the work with great readiness. Their strong personal attachment to Alexander; their confidence that whatever he should plan and attempt would succeed; the novelty and boldness of this design of reaching an island by building an isthmus to it from the main-land—these and other similar considerations excited the ardor and enthusiasm of the troops to the highest degree. In constructing works of this kind in the water, the material used is sometimes stone and sometimes earth. So far as earth is employed, it is necessary to resort to some means to prevent its spreading under the water, or being washed away by the dash of the waves at its sides. This is usually effected by driving what are called piles, which are long beams of wood, pointed at the end, and driven into the earth by means of powerful engines. Alexander sent parties of men into the mountains of Lebanon, where were vast forests of cedars, which were very celebrated in ancient times, and which are often alluded to in the sacred scriptures. They cut down these trees, and brought the stems of them to the shore, where they sharpened them at one end and drove them into the sand, in order to protect the sides of their embankment. Others brought stones from the ruins and tumbled them into the sea in the direction where the pier was to be built. It was some time before the work made such progress as to attract much attention from Tyre. At length, however, when the people of the city saw it gradually increasing in size and advancing toward them, they concluded that they must engage in earnest in the work of arresting its progress. They accordingly constructed engines on the walls to throw heavy darts and stones over the water to the men upon the pier. They sent secretly to the tribes that inhabited the valleys and ravines among the mountains, to attack the parties at work there, and they landed forces from the city at some distance from the pier, and then marched along the shore, and attempted to drive away the men that were engaged in carrying stones from the ruins. They also fitted up and manned some galleys of large size, and brought them up near to the pier itself, and attacked the men who were at work upon it with stones, darts, arrows, and missiles of every description. But all was of no avail. The work, though impeded, still went on. Alexander built large screens of wood upon the pier, covering them with hides, which protected his soldiers from the weapons of the enemy, so that they could carry on their operations safely behind them. By these means the work advanced for some distance further. As it advanced, various structures were erected upon it, especially along the sides and at the end toward the city. These structures consisted of great engines for driving piles, and machines for throwing stones and darts, and towers carried up to a great height, to enable the men to throw stones and heavy weapons down upon the galleys which might attempt to approach them. At length the Tyrians determined on attempting to destroy all these wooden works by means of what is called in modern times a fire ship. They took a large galley, and filled it with combustibles of every kind. They loaded it first with light dry wood, and they poured pitch, and tar, and oil over all this wood to make it burn with fiercer flames. They saturated the sails and the cordage in the same manner, and laid trains of combustible materials through all parts of the vessel, so that when fire should be set in one part it would immediately spread every where, and set the whole mass in flames at once. They towed this ship, on a windy day, near to the enemy's works, and on the side from which the wind was blowing. They then put it in motion toward the pier at a point where there was the greatest collection of engines and machines, and when they had got as near as they dared to go themselves, the men who were on board set the trains on fire, and made their escape in boats. The flames ran all over the vessel with inconceivable rapidity. The vessel itself drifted down upon Alexander's works, notwithstanding the most strenuous exertions of his soldiers to keep it away. The frames and engines, and the enormous and complicated machines which had been erected, took fire, and the whole mass was soon enveloped in a general conflagration. The men made desperate attempts to defend their works, but all in vain. Some were killed by arrows and darts, some were burned to death, and others, in the confusion, fell into the sea. Finally, the army was obliged to draw back, and to abandon all that was combustible in the vast construction they had reared, to the devouring flames. Not long after this the sea itself came to the aid of the Tyrians. There was a storm; and, as a consequence of it, a heavy swell rolled in from the offing, which soon undermined and washed away a large part of the pier. The effects of a heavy sea on the most massive and substantial structures, when they are fairly exposed to its impulse, are far greater than would be conceived possible by those who had not witnessed them. The most ponderous stones are removed, the strongest fastenings are torn asunder, and embankments the most compact and solid are undermined and washed away. The storm, in this case, destroyed in a few hours the work of many months, while the army of Alexander looked on from the shore witnessing its ravages in dismay. When the storm was over, and the first shock of chagrin and disappointment had passed from the minds of the men, Alexander prepared to resume the work with fresh vigor and energy. The men commenced repairing the pier and widening it, so as to increase its strength and capacity. They dragged whole trees to the edges of it, and sunk them, branches and all, to the bottom, to form a sort of platform there, to prevent the stones from sinking into the slime. They built new towers and engines, covering them with green hides to make them fire-proof; and thus they were soon advancing again, and gradually drawing nearer to the city, and in a more threatening and formidable manner than ever. Alexander, finding that his efforts were impeded very much by the ships of the Tyrians, determined on collecting and equipping a fleet of his own. This he did at Sidon, which was a town a short distance north of Tyre. He embarked on board this fleet himself, and came down with it into the Tyrian seas. With this fleet he had various success. He chained many of the ships together, two and two, at a little distance apart, covering the inclosed space with a platform, on which the soldiers could stand to fight. The men also erected engines on these platforms to attack the city. These engines were of various kinds. There was what they called the battering ram, which was a long and very heavy beam of wood, headed with iron or brass. This beam was suspended by a chain in the middle, so that it could be swung back and forth by the soldiers, its head striking against the wall each time, by which means the wall would sometimes be soon battered down. They had also machines for throwing great stones, or beams of wood, by means of the elastic force of strong bars of wood, or of steel, or that of twisted ropes. The part of the machine upon which the stone was placed would be drawn back by the united strength of many of the soldiers, and then, as it recovered itself when released, the stone would be thrown off into the air with prodigious velocity and force. Alexander's double galleys answered very well as long as the water was smooth; but sometimes, when they were caught out in a swell, the rolling of the waves would rack and twist them so as to tear the platforms asunder, and sink the men in the sea. Thus difficulties unexpected and formidable were continually arising. Alexander, however, persevered through them all. The Tyrians, finding themselves pressed more and more, and seeing that the dangers impending became more and more formidable every day, at length concluded to send a great number of the women and children away to Carthage, which was a great commercial city in Africa. They were determined not to submit to Alexander, but to carry their resistance to the very last extremity. And as the closing scenes of a siege, especially if the place is at last taken by storm, are awful beyond description, they wished to save their wives, and daughters, and helpless babes from having to witness them. In the mean time, as the siege advanced, the parties became more and more incensed against each other. They treated the captives which they took on either side with greater and greater cruelty, each thinking that they were only retaliating worse injuries from the other. The Macedonians approached nearer and nearer. The resources of the unhappy city were gradually cut off and its strength worn away. The engines approached nearer and nearer to the walls, until the battering rams bore directly upon them, and breaches began to be made. At length one great breach on the southern side was found to be "practicable," as they call it. Alexander began to prepare for the final assault, and the Tyrians saw before them the horrible prospect of being taken by storm. Still they would not submit. Submission would now have done but little good, though it might have saved some of the final horrors of the scene. Alexander had become greatly exasperated by the long resistance which the Tyrians had made. They probably could not now have averted destruction, but they might, perhaps, have prevented its coming upon them in so terrible a shape as the irruption of thirty thousand frantic and infuriated soldiers through the breaches in their walls to take their city by storm. The breach by which Alexander proposed to force his entrance was on the southern side. He prepared a number of ships, with platforms raised upon them in such a manner that, on getting near the walls, they could be let down, and form a sort of bridge, over which the men could pass to the broken fragments of the wall, and thence ascend through the breach above. The plan succeeded. The ships advanced to the proposed place of landing. The bridges were let down. The men crowded over them to the foot of the wall. They clambered up through the breach to the battlements above, although the Tyrians thronged the passage and made the most desperate resistance. Hundreds were killed by darts, and arrows, and falling stones, and their bodies tumbled into the sea. The others, paying no attention to their falling comrades, and drowning the horrid screams of the crushed and the dying with their own frantic shouts of rage and fury, pressed on up the broken wall till they reached the battlements above. The vast throng then rolled along upon the top of the wall till they came to stairways and slopes by which they could descend into the city, and, pouring down through all these avenues, they spread over the streets, and satiated the hatred and rage, which had been gathering strength for seven long months, in bursting into houses, and killing and destroying all that came in their way. Thus the city was stormed. After the soldiers were weary with the work of slaughtering the wretched inhabitants of the city, they found that many still remained alive, and Alexander tarnished the character for generosity and forbearance for which he had thus far been distinguished by the cruelty with which he treated them. Some were executed, some thrown into the sea; and it is even said that two thousand were crucified along the sea-shore. This may mean that their bodies were placed upon crosses after life had been destroyed by some more humane method than crucifixion. At any rate, we find frequent indications from this time that prosperity and power were beginning to exert their usual unfavorable influence upon Alexander's character. He became haughty, imperious, and cruel. He lost the modesty and gentleness which seemed to characterize him in the earlier part of his life, and began to assume the moral character, as well as perform the exploits, of a military hero. A good illustration of this is afforded by the answer that he sent to Darius, about the time of the storming of Tyre, in reply to a second communication which he had received from him proposing terms of peace. Darius offered him a very large sum of money for the ransom of his mother, wife, and child, and agreed to give up to him all the country he had conquered, including the whole territory west of the Euphrates. He also offered him his daughter Statira in marriage. He recommended to him to accept these terms, and be content with the possessions he had already acquired; that he could not expect to succeed, if he should try, in crossing the mighty rivers of the East, which were in the way of his march toward the Persian dominions. Alexander replied, that if he wished to marry his daughter he could do it without his consent; as to the ransom, he was not in want of money; in respect to Darius's offering to give him up all west of the Euphrates, it was absurd for a man to speak of giving what was no longer his own; that he had crossed too many seas in his military expeditions, since he left Macedon, to feel any concern about the rivers that he might find in his way; and that he should continue to pursue Darius wherever he might retreat in search of safety and protection, and he had no fear but that he should find and conquer him at last. It was a harsh and cruel message to send to the unhappy monarch whom he had already so greatly injured. Parmenio advised him to accept Darius's offers. "I would," said he, "if I were Alexander." "Yes," said Alexander, "and so would I if I were Parmenio." What a reply from a youth of twenty-two to a venerable general of sixty, who had been so tried and faithful a friend, and so efficient a coadjutor both to his father and to himself, for so many years. The siege and storming of Tyre has always been considered one of the greatest of Alexander's exploits. The boldness, the perseverance, the indomitable energy which he himself and all his army manifested, during the seven months of their Herculean toil, attracted the admiration of the world. And yet we find our feelings of sympathy for his character, and interest in his fate, somewhat alienated by the indications of pride, imperiousness, and cruelty which begin to appear. While he rises in our estimation as a military hero, he begins to sink somewhat as a man. And yet the change was not sudden. He bore during the siege his part in the privations and difficulties which the soldiers had to endure; and the dangers to which they had to be exposed, he was always willing to share. One night he was out with a party upon the mountains. Among his few immediate attendants was Lysimachus, one of his former teachers, who always loved to accompany him at such times. Lysimachus was advanced in life, and somewhat infirm, and consequently could not keep up with the rest in the march. Alexander remained with Lysimachus, and ordered the rest to go on. The road at length became so rugged that they had to dismount from their horses and walk. Finally they lost their way, and found themselves obliged to stop for the night. They had no fire. They saw, however, at a distance, some camp fires blazing which belonged to the barbarian tribes against whom the expedition was directed. Alexander went to the nearest one. There were two men lying by it, who had been stationed to take care of it. He advanced stealthily to them and killed them both, probably while they were asleep. He then took a brand from their fire, carried it back to his own encampment, where he made a blazing fire for himself and Lysimachus, and they passed the night in comfort and safety. This is the story. How far we are to give credit to it, each reader must judge for himself. One thing is certain, however, that there are many military heroes of whom such stories would not be even fabricated.	4,785	ENGLISH	1
The statues of Easter Island are called Moaïs. These are colossi of stone, mostly erected vertically, often by group, on Easter Island, a Chilean island in the Pacific. This island is only known for this particularity that exists nowhere else. The statues of Easter Island First of all, you have to set the scene. These statues are not as old as one might imagine: They were all erected between 1200 and 1500, approximate dates corresponding to the arrival of Polynesians on the island (around 1200) and the abandonment of the cult ancestors (around 1500, maybe a little later). It is a period of 3 to 4 centuries during which the inhabitants cut and erected his statues before abandoning them. Easter Island has the particularity of being the island furthest from any human habitat (2078Kms for the nearest neighbors). It is rather small, with an area of 165Kms2. It has a mountain (507m high), the highest point of the island, and 3 smaller extinct volcanoes, plus a lot of geological curiosities related to volcanism. At the time of their arrival the vegetation was varied, with forests and meadows. Nowadays there are only meadows left. That said , the Polynesian community that came on the scene organized themselves into clans. Archaeologists have found traces of a territorial division of the island by radiation, that is to say that the center belonged to the entire community, but each clan had a triangle from the center to the coast. Each clan built villages and farmed for the livelihood of its people. But all had in common the Polynesian culture. Among them, ancestor worship played an important part. Origin of the Moaïs The Moais are in fact only human representations, simple statues. They represented the ancestors, that is to say, the physical persons at the origin of the Polynesians, but also their culture, their history. The worship was practiced on the principle of Polynesian traditions. Each village had its "Ahus", a flat ground laid out for the worship on which the religious ceremonies were held, but also the public meetings. This esplanade served as both a place of worship and a place of social gathering. The first Moaïs were in real size, they were carved on the basis of Tikis islands (" Ti'i ", Tahiti). A Tiki is a statue symbolizing either a man, a god, or a man-god. The representation was stylized according to a technique peculiar to this region of the world. But gradually and without reason, the inhabitants of the island began to make statues higher and higher. Nowadays, those who are on the spot measure between 2.5m and 10m, with a statue of 21m abandoned before being finished, she is still in the quarry and has never been set up. They weigh several tons, sometimes several tens of tons.	<urn:uuid:a1d63da1-246d-4943-b876-d2e0a5a31f9a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wonders-of-the-world.net/Statues-of-Easter-island/Origin-of-the-statues-of-Easter-island.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00416.warc.gz	en	0.980947	601	3.6875	4	[ 0.27131983637809753, -0.11058348417282104, 0.3305967450141907, -0.15045452117919922, -0.2062840759754181, -0.23781557381153107, 0.1618572175502777, -0.15883022546768188, 0.10741293430328369, 0.6169254183769226, -0.06042899936437607, -0.5931485295295715, 0.12714353203773499, 0.8581386804580...	8	The statues of Easter Island are called Moaïs. These are colossi of stone, mostly erected vertically, often by group, on Easter Island, a Chilean island in the Pacific. This island is only known for this particularity that exists nowhere else. The statues of Easter Island First of all, you have to set the scene. These statues are not as old as one might imagine: They were all erected between 1200 and 1500, approximate dates corresponding to the arrival of Polynesians on the island (around 1200) and the abandonment of the cult ancestors (around 1500, maybe a little later). It is a period of 3 to 4 centuries during which the inhabitants cut and erected his statues before abandoning them. Easter Island has the particularity of being the island furthest from any human habitat (2078Kms for the nearest neighbors). It is rather small, with an area of 165Kms2. It has a mountain (507m high), the highest point of the island, and 3 smaller extinct volcanoes, plus a lot of geological curiosities related to volcanism. At the time of their arrival the vegetation was varied, with forests and meadows. Nowadays there are only meadows left. That said , the Polynesian community that came on the scene organized themselves into clans. Archaeologists have found traces of a territorial division of the island by radiation, that is to say that the center belonged to the entire community, but each clan had a triangle from the center to the coast. Each clan built villages and farmed for the livelihood of its people. But all had in common the Polynesian culture. Among them, ancestor worship played an important part. Origin of the Moaïs The Moais are in fact only human representations, simple statues. They represented the ancestors, that is to say, the physical persons at the origin of the Polynesians, but also their culture, their history. The worship was practiced on the principle of Polynesian traditions. Each village had its "Ahus", a flat ground laid out for the worship on which the religious ceremonies were held, but also the public meetings. This esplanade served as both a place of worship and a place of social gathering. The first Moaïs were in real size, they were carved on the basis of Tikis islands (" Ti'i ", Tahiti). A Tiki is a statue symbolizing either a man, a god, or a man-god. The representation was stylized according to a technique peculiar to this region of the world. But gradually and without reason, the inhabitants of the island began to make statues higher and higher. Nowadays, those who are on the spot measure between 2.5m and 10m, with a statue of 21m abandoned before being finished, she is still in the quarry and has never been set up. They weigh several tons, sometimes several tens of tons.	623	ENGLISH	1
Túpac Amaru II was born José Gabriel Condorcanqui Noguera between March 8 and 24, 1738 in Surimana, Tungasuca, in the province of Cusco, to Miguel Condorcanqui Usquionsa Tupac Amaru, kuraka of three towns in the Tinta district, and María Rosa Noguera. On May 1, Túpac Amaru II was baptized by Santiago José Lopez in a church in Tungasuca. Prior to his father's death, Amaru II spent his childhood in the Vilcamayu Valley; he accompanied his father to community functions, such as the temple, the market, and processions. Tupac's parents died when he was twelve years old, and he was raised by an aunt and uncle. At age sixteen, he received a Jesuit education at the San Francisco de Borja School, founded to educate the sons of kurakas. The Jesuits "impressed upon him his social standing as future kuraka and someone of royal Inca blood." At age twenty-two, Túpac Amaru II married Micaela Bastidas. Shortly after his marriage, Amaru II succeeded his father as kuraka, giving him rights to land. As with his father, he was both the head of several Quechua communities and a regional merchant and muleteer, inheriting 350 mules from his father's estate. His regional trading gave him contacts in many other indigenous communities and access to information about economic conditions. His personal contacts and knowledge of the region were useful in the rebellion of 1780-81. His status in the colonial Spanish racial hierarchy has been discussed by scholars, whether he was of "pure indigenous blood" or a mixed-race mestizo, although his mother most likely had partial Spanish ancestry. He was recognized as an elite Quechua from a kuraka family and was educated at a school in Cuzco for sons of indigenous leaders. He spoke Quechua and Spanish, and learned some Latin from the Jesuits. He was upwardly socially mobile, and in Cuzco he had connections with distinguished Spanish and Spanish American (creole) residents. "The upper classes in Lima saw him as a well-educated Indian," whatever European ancestry he might have had. Between 1776 and 1780 Condorcanqui went into litigation with the Betancur family over the right of succession of the Marquisate of Oropesa and lost the case. In 1760, he married Micaela Bastidas Puyucahua of Afro-Peruvian and indigenous descent. Tupac Amaru II inherited the caciqueship, or hereditary chiefdom of Tungasuca and Pampamarca from his older brother, governing on behalf of the Spanish governor.	<urn:uuid:d4bcbf11-2aff-4f06-b4a1-9023f503f2c7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.think.ovh/%D7%AA%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%91/en/T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00340.warc.gz	en	0.984814	587	3.421875	3	[ -0.029561791568994522, 0.06651512533426285, 0.2473505139350891, 0.1698228120803833, -0.011797993443906307, -0.15513275563716888, 0.06877097487449646, 0.21497055888175964, 0.08180749416351318, -0.016990626230835915, -0.13956883549690247, -0.993949830532074, 0.09699775278568268, 0.2284661829...	1	Túpac Amaru II was born José Gabriel Condorcanqui Noguera between March 8 and 24, 1738 in Surimana, Tungasuca, in the province of Cusco, to Miguel Condorcanqui Usquionsa Tupac Amaru, kuraka of three towns in the Tinta district, and María Rosa Noguera. On May 1, Túpac Amaru II was baptized by Santiago José Lopez in a church in Tungasuca. Prior to his father's death, Amaru II spent his childhood in the Vilcamayu Valley; he accompanied his father to community functions, such as the temple, the market, and processions. Tupac's parents died when he was twelve years old, and he was raised by an aunt and uncle. At age sixteen, he received a Jesuit education at the San Francisco de Borja School, founded to educate the sons of kurakas. The Jesuits "impressed upon him his social standing as future kuraka and someone of royal Inca blood." At age twenty-two, Túpac Amaru II married Micaela Bastidas. Shortly after his marriage, Amaru II succeeded his father as kuraka, giving him rights to land. As with his father, he was both the head of several Quechua communities and a regional merchant and muleteer, inheriting 350 mules from his father's estate. His regional trading gave him contacts in many other indigenous communities and access to information about economic conditions. His personal contacts and knowledge of the region were useful in the rebellion of 1780-81. His status in the colonial Spanish racial hierarchy has been discussed by scholars, whether he was of "pure indigenous blood" or a mixed-race mestizo, although his mother most likely had partial Spanish ancestry. He was recognized as an elite Quechua from a kuraka family and was educated at a school in Cuzco for sons of indigenous leaders. He spoke Quechua and Spanish, and learned some Latin from the Jesuits. He was upwardly socially mobile, and in Cuzco he had connections with distinguished Spanish and Spanish American (creole) residents. "The upper classes in Lima saw him as a well-educated Indian," whatever European ancestry he might have had. Between 1776 and 1780 Condorcanqui went into litigation with the Betancur family over the right of succession of the Marquisate of Oropesa and lost the case. In 1760, he married Micaela Bastidas Puyucahua of Afro-Peruvian and indigenous descent. Tupac Amaru II inherited the caciqueship, or hereditary chiefdom of Tungasuca and Pampamarca from his older brother, governing on behalf of the Spanish governor.	595	ENGLISH	1
After successfully building a school garden, Greenwood Elementary School decided to make the focus of the next year using the garden to build connections between students, families and the community, while simultaneously promoting healthy eating. They used a Healthy Schools BC Grant to purchase a variety of vegetable seeds, and garden tools, including gloves, trowels, and a rake. In addition to the supplies purchased, the school received two rotating compost bins as a donation from community members. Students were involved in the project by planting seeds and collecting and delivering compost to the rotating bins. The school also hosted an evening event where students and families from their school, as well as students and families from a local primary feeder school, could come and create stepping stones for the garden. What was the impact of the project? Through this project older students were able to connect with younger students by welcoming and teaching them about the garden and healthy eating. The compost bins provided an avenue for students to build relationships with community members, while learning about the food cycle and how food scraps can be reincorporated into the soil. Lastly, the stepping stone event created an avenue for the school to connect with local families. There were 60 stones in total created and added to the garden. The stones acted as a legacy for students who would be graduating to high school the next year, and as a way to connect to the younger students who would be attending Greenwood Elementary school in future years. Overall, the garden project was a great success in strengthening connections between the and the surrounding community.	<urn:uuid:439de27f-eaeb-4df2-bd2f-b123fc635f7a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://healthyschoolsbc.ca/stories/school-connectedness-through-house-teams/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00466.warc.gz	en	0.983449	305	3.5	4	[ 0.015852641314268112, -0.14010843634605408, 0.3474602699279785, -0.46362417936325073, 0.1504596769809723, -0.004285051953047514, -0.2961772680282593, -0.26582804322242737, -0.5795060396194458, 0.05468583106994629, 0.006218078546226025, -0.25877729058265686, 0.34841257333755493, 0.328079551...	7	After successfully building a school garden, Greenwood Elementary School decided to make the focus of the next year using the garden to build connections between students, families and the community, while simultaneously promoting healthy eating. They used a Healthy Schools BC Grant to purchase a variety of vegetable seeds, and garden tools, including gloves, trowels, and a rake. In addition to the supplies purchased, the school received two rotating compost bins as a donation from community members. Students were involved in the project by planting seeds and collecting and delivering compost to the rotating bins. The school also hosted an evening event where students and families from their school, as well as students and families from a local primary feeder school, could come and create stepping stones for the garden. What was the impact of the project? Through this project older students were able to connect with younger students by welcoming and teaching them about the garden and healthy eating. The compost bins provided an avenue for students to build relationships with community members, while learning about the food cycle and how food scraps can be reincorporated into the soil. Lastly, the stepping stone event created an avenue for the school to connect with local families. There were 60 stones in total created and added to the garden. The stones acted as a legacy for students who would be graduating to high school the next year, and as a way to connect to the younger students who would be attending Greenwood Elementary school in future years. Overall, the garden project was a great success in strengthening connections between the and the surrounding community.	305	ENGLISH	1
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gage, Thomas GAGE, THOMAS (1721–1787), British general and governor of Massachusetts, second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born in 1721. He entered the army in 1741 and saw service in Flanders and in the campaign of Culloden, becoming lieutenant-colonel in the 44th foot in March 1751. In 1754 he served in America, and he took part in the following year in General Braddock’s disastrous expedition. In 1758 he became colonel of a new regiment, and served in Amherst’s operations against Montreal. He was made governor of Montreal, and promoted major-general in 1761, and in 1763 succeeded Amherst in the command of the British forces in America; in 1770 he was made a lieutenant-general. In 1774 he was appointed governor of Massachusetts, and in that capacity was entrusted with carrying into effect the Boston Port Act. The difficulties which surrounded him in the execution of his office at this time of the gravest unrest culminated in 1775, and the action of the 19th of April at Lexington initiated the American War of Independence. After the battle of Bunker Hill, Gage was superseded by General (Sir William) Howe, and returned to England. He became general in 1782, and died on the 2nd of April 1787.	<urn:uuid:d7ab33ba-e99f-4c26-a6f3-f3fd1f5a6d0f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Gage,_Thomas	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00236.warc.gz	en	0.983366	294	3.40625	3	[ 0.03967024385929108, 0.20604586601257324, 0.4719020128250122, -0.3849550485610962, -0.4335126578807831, -0.20366260409355164, 0.07915830612182617, 0.058356039226055145, -0.30466482043266296, 0.16757778823375702, -0.05710509791970253, -0.6296835541725159, 0.08791887760162354, 0.240948483347...	3	1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gage, Thomas GAGE, THOMAS (1721–1787), British general and governor of Massachusetts, second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born in 1721. He entered the army in 1741 and saw service in Flanders and in the campaign of Culloden, becoming lieutenant-colonel in the 44th foot in March 1751. In 1754 he served in America, and he took part in the following year in General Braddock’s disastrous expedition. In 1758 he became colonel of a new regiment, and served in Amherst’s operations against Montreal. He was made governor of Montreal, and promoted major-general in 1761, and in 1763 succeeded Amherst in the command of the British forces in America; in 1770 he was made a lieutenant-general. In 1774 he was appointed governor of Massachusetts, and in that capacity was entrusted with carrying into effect the Boston Port Act. The difficulties which surrounded him in the execution of his office at this time of the gravest unrest culminated in 1775, and the action of the 19th of April at Lexington initiated the American War of Independence. After the battle of Bunker Hill, Gage was superseded by General (Sir William) Howe, and returned to England. He became general in 1782, and died on the 2nd of April 1787.	336	ENGLISH	1
The People's Rights vs. The Governments Responsibility What Led Up Plus Population Control Under Mao The origin of the policy can date back to the 1950s, a year after Mao Zedong (1893-1976) became chairmen of the new "People's Republic of China." Seeing they were a country in need of growth, Mao believed birth control was a capitalist plot to weaken the country and make it vulnerable to attack. He thought "every mouth comes with two hands attached," and "An army of the people is invincible." He condemned birth control and banned the import of contraceptives. Over time the liabilities of a large, rapidly growing population soon became apparent. While at the same time, Mao was busy trying to boost the economy of china, though some experiments worked, others didn't. Chinese leaders again saw rapid population growth as an obstacle to development, and their interest in birth control revived In the 1970's, Mao began to come around to the threats posed by too many people. He began encouraged a policy of marry late, wait long to have children and have few" and coined the slogan:'Late, long, and few' and 'One is good, two is OK, three is too many', with the number of children allowed. This was put into effect around the same time Mao passed away. Three years after his death, the One-child Policy was put into effect, and has been ever since. The lives of everyday people were changed drascitally from this point forward. How the Policy Adapts to Life Under the one-child program, as it was most commonly enforced, a couple was allowed to have one child. If that child turned out be a girl, they were allowed to have a second child. After the second child, they were not allowed to have any more children. In some places though couples were only allowed to have one child regardless of whether it was a boy or a girl. It is unusual for a family to have two sons, but not impossible. The program is stated as completly involuntary, but is strictly controlled. . Family Planning Officials are the ones who are responsible for accomplishing authoritie among the general public. Under the one-child program, a sophisticated system rewarded those who observed the policy and penalized those who did not. Couples with only one child were given a "one-child certificate" entitling them to such benefits as cash bonuses, longer maternity leave, better child care, preferential housing assignments, etc. In return, they were required to pledge that they would not have more children. In the countryside, there was great pressure to adhere to the one-child limit because the rural population accounted for approximately 60 percent of the total. The effectiveness of the one-child policy in rural areas was considered the key to the success or failure of the program as a whole.The one-child policy (when only allowed to have one child without limits) actually only covers about 35 percent of Chinese, mostly those living in urban areas. In the cities, it's accepted as a necassery evil; in...	<urn:uuid:2dee6562-1832-495a-9774-bc635104400f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/exploring-china-s-one-child-policy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00004.warc.gz	en	0.985041	625	3.296875	3	[ -0.5666631460189819, 0.14452946186065674, -0.04159577563405037, -0.11961507797241211, -0.06227198988199234, 0.37898826599121094, 0.1886271834373474, 0.07911057770252228, -0.22107651829719543, 0.12502247095108032, 0.5244195461273193, 0.2913932502269745, 0.26840442419052124, 0.21747875213623...	1	The People's Rights vs. The Governments Responsibility What Led Up Plus Population Control Under Mao The origin of the policy can date back to the 1950s, a year after Mao Zedong (1893-1976) became chairmen of the new "People's Republic of China." Seeing they were a country in need of growth, Mao believed birth control was a capitalist plot to weaken the country and make it vulnerable to attack. He thought "every mouth comes with two hands attached," and "An army of the people is invincible." He condemned birth control and banned the import of contraceptives. Over time the liabilities of a large, rapidly growing population soon became apparent. While at the same time, Mao was busy trying to boost the economy of china, though some experiments worked, others didn't. Chinese leaders again saw rapid population growth as an obstacle to development, and their interest in birth control revived In the 1970's, Mao began to come around to the threats posed by too many people. He began encouraged a policy of marry late, wait long to have children and have few" and coined the slogan:'Late, long, and few' and 'One is good, two is OK, three is too many', with the number of children allowed. This was put into effect around the same time Mao passed away. Three years after his death, the One-child Policy was put into effect, and has been ever since. The lives of everyday people were changed drascitally from this point forward. How the Policy Adapts to Life Under the one-child program, as it was most commonly enforced, a couple was allowed to have one child. If that child turned out be a girl, they were allowed to have a second child. After the second child, they were not allowed to have any more children. In some places though couples were only allowed to have one child regardless of whether it was a boy or a girl. It is unusual for a family to have two sons, but not impossible. The program is stated as completly involuntary, but is strictly controlled. . Family Planning Officials are the ones who are responsible for accomplishing authoritie among the general public. Under the one-child program, a sophisticated system rewarded those who observed the policy and penalized those who did not. Couples with only one child were given a "one-child certificate" entitling them to such benefits as cash bonuses, longer maternity leave, better child care, preferential housing assignments, etc. In return, they were required to pledge that they would not have more children. In the countryside, there was great pressure to adhere to the one-child limit because the rural population accounted for approximately 60 percent of the total. The effectiveness of the one-child policy in rural areas was considered the key to the success or failure of the program as a whole.The one-child policy (when only allowed to have one child without limits) actually only covers about 35 percent of Chinese, mostly those living in urban areas. In the cities, it's accepted as a necassery evil; in...	636	ENGLISH	1
1Jotham was twenty-five years old when he became king, and he reigned in Jerusalem sixteen years. His mother’s name was Jerusha daughter of Zadok.2He did what was right in the eyes of the Lord, just as his father Uzziah had done, but unlike him he did not enter the temple of the Lord. The people, however, continued their corrupt practices.3Jotham rebuilt the Upper Gate of the temple of the Lord and did extensive work on the wall at the hill of Ophel.4He built towns in the hill country of Judah and forts and towers in the wooded areas.5Jotham waged war against the king of the Ammonites and conquered them. That year the Ammonites paid him a hundred talents 1. That is, about 3 3/4 tons or about 3.4 metric tons of silver, ten thousand cors 2. That is, probably about 1,800 tons or about 1,600 metric tons of wheat of wheat and ten thousand cors 3. That is, probably about 1,500 tons or about 1,350 metric tons of barley of barley. The Ammonites brought him the same amount also in the second and third years.6Jotham grew powerful because he walked steadfastly before the Lord his God.7The other events in Jotham’s reign, including all his wars and the other things he did, are written in the book of the kings of Israel and Judah.8He was twenty-five years old when he became king, and he reigned in Jerusalem sixteen years.9Jotham rested with his ancestors and was buried in the City of David. And Ahaz his son succeeded him as king.	<urn:uuid:0a79e9f3-7369-413c-a7f7-c89d20b15f24>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bibleserver.com/NIV/2Chronicles27	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00523.warc.gz	en	0.987124	364	3.328125	3	[ -0.19139046967029572, 0.6976831555366516, 0.14192336797714233, -0.39985600113868713, -0.7707371115684509, -0.2214863896369934, 0.10244639217853546, 0.12696829438209534, -0.2603735327720642, 0.062342528253793716, -0.22507667541503906, -0.3549536168575287, 0.37805747985839844, 0.185736835002...	1	1Jotham was twenty-five years old when he became king, and he reigned in Jerusalem sixteen years. His mother’s name was Jerusha daughter of Zadok.2He did what was right in the eyes of the Lord, just as his father Uzziah had done, but unlike him he did not enter the temple of the Lord. The people, however, continued their corrupt practices.3Jotham rebuilt the Upper Gate of the temple of the Lord and did extensive work on the wall at the hill of Ophel.4He built towns in the hill country of Judah and forts and towers in the wooded areas.5Jotham waged war against the king of the Ammonites and conquered them. That year the Ammonites paid him a hundred talents 1. That is, about 3 3/4 tons or about 3.4 metric tons of silver, ten thousand cors 2. That is, probably about 1,800 tons or about 1,600 metric tons of wheat of wheat and ten thousand cors 3. That is, probably about 1,500 tons or about 1,350 metric tons of barley of barley. The Ammonites brought him the same amount also in the second and third years.6Jotham grew powerful because he walked steadfastly before the Lord his God.7The other events in Jotham’s reign, including all his wars and the other things he did, are written in the book of the kings of Israel and Judah.8He was twenty-five years old when he became king, and he reigned in Jerusalem sixteen years.9Jotham rested with his ancestors and was buried in the City of David. And Ahaz his son succeeded him as king.	373	ENGLISH	1
Admiral of the English Fleet Edward Hawke was the son of Edward Hawke, a barrister and Elizabeth Hawke (née Bladen). Hawke benefited from the patronage of Colonel Martin Bladen, a Member of Parliament and his maternal uncle. In 1737 Hawke married Catherine Brooke; they had three sons and one daughter. During his lifetime Hawke went on to achieve a victory over a French fleet at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in November 1759 during the Seven Years’ War, preventing a French invasion of Britain. He developed the concept of a Western Squadron, keeping an almost continuous blockade of the French coast throughout the war. Admiral Hawke was influential in the decision to give Captain James Cook command of his first expedition that left in 1768. When at a meeting in the Royal Geographical Society it was suggested that a civilian should lead the expedition Hawke is supposed to have remarked that, he would sooner have his right hand cut off than allow this to happen. Cook named a series of prominent places that he came across in the ‘New World’ after Hawke as a sign of his gratitude. Towards the end of their life, Edward and Catherine Hawke had a country house in Sunbury-on-Thames and lived alternately there and at a rented home in North Stoneham, Hampshire. Hawke died at his house in Sunbury-on-Thames on 17 October 1781 and was buried at St. Nicolas’ Church, North Stoneham. Hawke Street West Melbourne is thought to have been named in his honor.	<urn:uuid:1bf650d3-e3f5-467b-9db2-1bed9c0ba139>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.melbournestreets.com.au/edward-hawke-1st-baron-hawke-kb-pc-1705-1781/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00194.warc.gz	en	0.98454	329	3.4375	3	[ -0.18595759570598602, 0.4849354922771454, 0.28393062949180603, -0.18675503134727478, -0.4294864535331726, -0.04161897301673889, 0.2792026400566101, 0.11412456631660461, -0.17042820155620575, -0.17532464861869812, 0.11738758534193039, -0.8782904148101807, 0.08057484775781631, 0.428357124328...	8	Admiral of the English Fleet Edward Hawke was the son of Edward Hawke, a barrister and Elizabeth Hawke (née Bladen). Hawke benefited from the patronage of Colonel Martin Bladen, a Member of Parliament and his maternal uncle. In 1737 Hawke married Catherine Brooke; they had three sons and one daughter. During his lifetime Hawke went on to achieve a victory over a French fleet at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in November 1759 during the Seven Years’ War, preventing a French invasion of Britain. He developed the concept of a Western Squadron, keeping an almost continuous blockade of the French coast throughout the war. Admiral Hawke was influential in the decision to give Captain James Cook command of his first expedition that left in 1768. When at a meeting in the Royal Geographical Society it was suggested that a civilian should lead the expedition Hawke is supposed to have remarked that, he would sooner have his right hand cut off than allow this to happen. Cook named a series of prominent places that he came across in the ‘New World’ after Hawke as a sign of his gratitude. Towards the end of their life, Edward and Catherine Hawke had a country house in Sunbury-on-Thames and lived alternately there and at a rented home in North Stoneham, Hampshire. Hawke died at his house in Sunbury-on-Thames on 17 October 1781 and was buried at St. Nicolas’ Church, North Stoneham. Hawke Street West Melbourne is thought to have been named in his honor.	329	ENGLISH	1
Monday, August 30, 2010 The Means Brothers at Horseshoe Bend As the white population increased, the Creek Indians began to divide among themselves into those who held more traditional views and those who were more assimilated through contact with whites. Tecumseh tried to unite the Native Americans in a confederacy against white Americans. Most Upper Creeks, called "Red Sticks" because of their bright red war clubs, wanted to resist white encroachment. Most Lower Creeks, more accustomed to whites, were inclined toward peace. This division led to the Creek War of 1813-14. With the Creek already on the warpath, a war faction of the "Red Sticks" took part in a general uprising when a party of frontier settlers clashed with some native Americans at Burnt Corn, Alabama about 80 miles north of Pensacola, Florida. 250 people at Ft. Mims, just above Mobile, Alabama, were massacred and many others burned to death. When the news reached Nashville, General Andrew Jackson mobilized the Tennessee militia for a full-scale campaign. In January 1814 Jackson launched his campaign to drive south into the heart of Red Stick country between the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers. A deep bend in the Tallapoosa River, known as Horseshoe, enclosed one hundred acres, furrowed with gullies and covered by small timber and brush. Across the narrow neck of the peninsula the Creek had built a log breastwork. At the point was a fleet of canoes to insure an avenue of retreat. On the morning of Sunday, March 27, 1814, Jackson sent 700 mounted militia and 600 Cherokee and Lower Creek allies to cross the Tallapoosa and surround the bend. Jackson and the troops of the Thirty-Ninth U.S. Infantry and Tennessee Militia Infantry, about 2,000 men including brothers Ahijah and Andrew Means, marched into the peninsula of the Horseshoe to confront the 1,000 Red Sticks behind their barricade. Jackson warned, "Any officer or soldier who flies before the enemy without being compelled to do so by superior force...shall suffer death." "Arrows, and spear, and balls were flying. Swords and tomahawks gleaming in the sun," said Sam Houston. Jackson’s hope was to breach the barricade. "For two hours "a brisk...galling fire" of cannon and musketry, a hail of iron shot and lead balls splintered the bark of the logs, but the "balls passed through the works without shaking the wall... Notwithstanding every shot penetrated...and carried with it death..still such was the strength of the wall that it never shook," Jackson later said. It was Ahijah and Andrew Means and the rest of the volunteer militia's job to guard the supply wagons, pack horses and wounded. They were located behind the three main positions in front of the breastworks. Records show that some of the regiment were wounded, indicating their position was breached causing the militia men from Overton County to join in the fighting. During a lull in the battle, a small cloud appeared. The Red Sticks, believing this was the sign they had been waiting for, fired upon the messenger of peace and resumed the battle with fury. The sign of deliverance brought only a quiet shower and the peninsula was strewed with the slain. The battle of Horseshoe Bend was over. 557 Indian dead were counted on the ground and the river held 200 more. All total, nearly 900 warriors are believed to have perished in this decisive battle. Jackson had lost 49 men and another 157 were wounded. On August 9, 1814, Andrew Jackson forced the Creeks to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson. Despite protest of the Creek chiefs who had fought alongside Jackson, the Creek Nation ceded 23 million acres, half of Alabama and part of southern Georgia, to the United States government. Even though the Creek War was largely a civil war between the Creeks, Andrew Jackson saw no difference between the Creeks that had fought with him and the Red Sticks that fought against him. Of the 23 million acres Jackson forced the Creeks to cede, 1.9 million acres was claimed by the Cherokee Nation who had allied with the United States. After becoming President, Jackson took the land ceded to his former allies, the Cherokees, together with other Cherokee lands in his removal of the Cherokees to the Oklahoma Territory. Chief Junaluska, the Cherokee Chief who saved the life of Jackson in battle and who led 500 Cherokees in support of Jackson at Horseshoe Bend, stated that "If I had known that Jackson would drive us from our homes, I would have killed him at Horseshoe." The Pay Roll Records for Col. Copeland’s company showed that for the 4 months and 5 days of service, Ahijah and Andrew Means and others in the Overton County Militia received $8 a month with a $2.86 subsistence, for a total of $36.19. When the militia men returned to Overton County, both Ahijah and Andrew left their home on Obey River and moved to Missouri where they lived the rest of their days. Ahijah and Andrew Means' brother, Benjamin, was the great-grandfather of William Ezra Means....my great-grandfather. "But I know Whom I have believed And am persuaded that He is able To keep that which I’ve committed Unto Him against that day&qu... James Arness died today. Gunsmoke was every one's favorite TV show back when I was a kid. For years, at my house, we watched every singl... When I think of the 70's, I think of the greatest rock and roll music ever. It is now included in a music genre that is known today a... (This photo was made in the 1950's as the Goat Man passed through my town) Charles McCartney was born on July 6, 1901. In 1915, at age ...	<urn:uuid:57e5dc76-3936-469d-bbc4-878c3d5eef87>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.randyspecktacular.com/2010/08/means-brothers-at-horseshoe-bend.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00261.warc.gz	en	0.980209	1,235	3.390625	3	[ -0.3992626965045929, 0.022733397781848907, 0.33550867438316345, 0.28170618414878845, -0.02350422367453575, -0.04437068849802017, 0.023134417831897736, 0.21076296269893646, -0.34444740414619446, -0.2575986385345459, 0.4391305148601532, -0.03504585847258568, 0.12765461206436157, 0.2140207290...	1	Monday, August 30, 2010 The Means Brothers at Horseshoe Bend As the white population increased, the Creek Indians began to divide among themselves into those who held more traditional views and those who were more assimilated through contact with whites. Tecumseh tried to unite the Native Americans in a confederacy against white Americans. Most Upper Creeks, called "Red Sticks" because of their bright red war clubs, wanted to resist white encroachment. Most Lower Creeks, more accustomed to whites, were inclined toward peace. This division led to the Creek War of 1813-14. With the Creek already on the warpath, a war faction of the "Red Sticks" took part in a general uprising when a party of frontier settlers clashed with some native Americans at Burnt Corn, Alabama about 80 miles north of Pensacola, Florida. 250 people at Ft. Mims, just above Mobile, Alabama, were massacred and many others burned to death. When the news reached Nashville, General Andrew Jackson mobilized the Tennessee militia for a full-scale campaign. In January 1814 Jackson launched his campaign to drive south into the heart of Red Stick country between the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers. A deep bend in the Tallapoosa River, known as Horseshoe, enclosed one hundred acres, furrowed with gullies and covered by small timber and brush. Across the narrow neck of the peninsula the Creek had built a log breastwork. At the point was a fleet of canoes to insure an avenue of retreat. On the morning of Sunday, March 27, 1814, Jackson sent 700 mounted militia and 600 Cherokee and Lower Creek allies to cross the Tallapoosa and surround the bend. Jackson and the troops of the Thirty-Ninth U.S. Infantry and Tennessee Militia Infantry, about 2,000 men including brothers Ahijah and Andrew Means, marched into the peninsula of the Horseshoe to confront the 1,000 Red Sticks behind their barricade. Jackson warned, "Any officer or soldier who flies before the enemy without being compelled to do so by superior force...shall suffer death." "Arrows, and spear, and balls were flying. Swords and tomahawks gleaming in the sun," said Sam Houston. Jackson’s hope was to breach the barricade. "For two hours "a brisk...galling fire" of cannon and musketry, a hail of iron shot and lead balls splintered the bark of the logs, but the "balls passed through the works without shaking the wall... Notwithstanding every shot penetrated...and carried with it death..still such was the strength of the wall that it never shook," Jackson later said. It was Ahijah and Andrew Means and the rest of the volunteer militia's job to guard the supply wagons, pack horses and wounded. They were located behind the three main positions in front of the breastworks. Records show that some of the regiment were wounded, indicating their position was breached causing the militia men from Overton County to join in the fighting. During a lull in the battle, a small cloud appeared. The Red Sticks, believing this was the sign they had been waiting for, fired upon the messenger of peace and resumed the battle with fury. The sign of deliverance brought only a quiet shower and the peninsula was strewed with the slain. The battle of Horseshoe Bend was over. 557 Indian dead were counted on the ground and the river held 200 more. All total, nearly 900 warriors are believed to have perished in this decisive battle. Jackson had lost 49 men and another 157 were wounded. On August 9, 1814, Andrew Jackson forced the Creeks to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson. Despite protest of the Creek chiefs who had fought alongside Jackson, the Creek Nation ceded 23 million acres, half of Alabama and part of southern Georgia, to the United States government. Even though the Creek War was largely a civil war between the Creeks, Andrew Jackson saw no difference between the Creeks that had fought with him and the Red Sticks that fought against him. Of the 23 million acres Jackson forced the Creeks to cede, 1.9 million acres was claimed by the Cherokee Nation who had allied with the United States. After becoming President, Jackson took the land ceded to his former allies, the Cherokees, together with other Cherokee lands in his removal of the Cherokees to the Oklahoma Territory. Chief Junaluska, the Cherokee Chief who saved the life of Jackson in battle and who led 500 Cherokees in support of Jackson at Horseshoe Bend, stated that "If I had known that Jackson would drive us from our homes, I would have killed him at Horseshoe." The Pay Roll Records for Col. Copeland’s company showed that for the 4 months and 5 days of service, Ahijah and Andrew Means and others in the Overton County Militia received $8 a month with a $2.86 subsistence, for a total of $36.19. When the militia men returned to Overton County, both Ahijah and Andrew left their home on Obey River and moved to Missouri where they lived the rest of their days. Ahijah and Andrew Means' brother, Benjamin, was the great-grandfather of William Ezra Means....my great-grandfather. "But I know Whom I have believed And am persuaded that He is able To keep that which I’ve committed Unto Him against that day&qu... James Arness died today. Gunsmoke was every one's favorite TV show back when I was a kid. For years, at my house, we watched every singl... When I think of the 70's, I think of the greatest rock and roll music ever. It is now included in a music genre that is known today a... (This photo was made in the 1950's as the Goat Man passed through my town) Charles McCartney was born on July 6, 1901. In 1915, at age ...	1,306	ENGLISH	1
The piece is known as the Coleridge collar because prior to acquisition by the vendor it had descended through the family of Lord Coleridge, who acquired it in 1873 in his capacity as Lord Chief Justice of the Common pleas. It is thought that it is the livery collar or chain of office personally given by Henry VIII to Sir Edward Montagu, his loyal follower, which makes it the only surviving example from his reign. As well as serving as Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, in which post he was given this collar, Montagu (c.1485-1557) was a Privy Councillor, an executor of the King's will and governor to his son, later Edward VI. Livery collars were first worn in Henry IV's reign as official symbols of allegiance to the monarch. Lancaster's kings favoured the motifs of 'S's, Yorkist kings used suns and roses. For their collars, the Tudor dynasty incorporated 'S's, the motif of a Tudor rose and portcullises, all of which feature in Sir Edward's collar detail shown here. The collar would have been sold on to his successors as Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas right up until 1880 when Lord Coleridge merged that office with that of Lord Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench to create the role of Lord Chief Justice of England. It would then have become redundant, becoming Lord Coleridge's personal property. A posthumous portrait of Sir Edward at Boughton House shows him wearing an identical chain. Moreover prior to the auction, the collar was subject to scientific analysis which revealed the gold to date from 1545-51 confirming its age and strengthening the hypothesis that this was indeed Montagu's chain. When it was offered for sale as part of Christie's auction of early European furniture, sculpture and tapestries on November 6, it realised a mid-estimate £260,000, the top price of the day. The auctioneers said the chain would be going to a UK private collection. By Anne Crane	<urn:uuid:42bf1662-5e0d-40c2-8161-5c663cf65677>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://cdn.antiquestradegazette.com/news/2008/rare-link-with-henry-viii-makes-mid-estimate-sum/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00478.warc.gz	en	0.982151	427	3.671875	4	[ -0.4696759283542633, -0.10987786948680878, -0.038478147238492966, 0.1481357365846634, -0.4443489611148834, -0.4318828284740448, 0.2929968237876892, -0.11233623325824738, 0.3071309030056, -0.0738554373383522, -0.057879652827978134, -0.45988595485687256, 0.43749144673347473, -0.0421978458762...	4	The piece is known as the Coleridge collar because prior to acquisition by the vendor it had descended through the family of Lord Coleridge, who acquired it in 1873 in his capacity as Lord Chief Justice of the Common pleas. It is thought that it is the livery collar or chain of office personally given by Henry VIII to Sir Edward Montagu, his loyal follower, which makes it the only surviving example from his reign. As well as serving as Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, in which post he was given this collar, Montagu (c.1485-1557) was a Privy Councillor, an executor of the King's will and governor to his son, later Edward VI. Livery collars were first worn in Henry IV's reign as official symbols of allegiance to the monarch. Lancaster's kings favoured the motifs of 'S's, Yorkist kings used suns and roses. For their collars, the Tudor dynasty incorporated 'S's, the motif of a Tudor rose and portcullises, all of which feature in Sir Edward's collar detail shown here. The collar would have been sold on to his successors as Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas right up until 1880 when Lord Coleridge merged that office with that of Lord Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench to create the role of Lord Chief Justice of England. It would then have become redundant, becoming Lord Coleridge's personal property. A posthumous portrait of Sir Edward at Boughton House shows him wearing an identical chain. Moreover prior to the auction, the collar was subject to scientific analysis which revealed the gold to date from 1545-51 confirming its age and strengthening the hypothesis that this was indeed Montagu's chain. When it was offered for sale as part of Christie's auction of early European furniture, sculpture and tapestries on November 6, it realised a mid-estimate £260,000, the top price of the day. The auctioneers said the chain would be going to a UK private collection. By Anne Crane	438	ENGLISH	1
Pritilata, the female warrior Last updated: 6 October 2017 From the section Pritilata Waddedar Chittagong: a hot bed of revolutionary action In the 1930s, there were many revolutionary groups all over Bengal and Chittagong was a fertile land for the revolutionary activities. Members of these groups believed that India’s freedom could be achieved only through armed struggle. There were, throughout Bengal, many well established "resistance" groups dedicated to reformation, or destruction of the British rule. And it cannot be surprising that in the city that had, by then, already been under the administration of Britain for 170 years, such resistance was amongst the most active. Not least, of course, because of the racism so readily demonstrated by British residents. The early nineteenth century had seen the reform of British administration of its Indian territories, bringing to its work far more lower middle class employees who often sought refuge from their alienation in both religion and racism. And since Chittagong had been, from the beginning, a major base of British activity, there were probably more British residents, and more British-only facilities, than in most other parts of India. Joining Surya Sen's revolutionary group Pritilata believed that the time had come for women to take active role in the armed struggle against the British, sacrifice their lives if necessary, and confront all risks, dangers and tribulations, on the same footing as their male comrades. She was ready to join the Indian independence movement and free her motherland. During visits home from Calcutta, Pritilata found one of her brothers was already involved in revolutionary politics and was an active member of an anti-British group led by Surya Sen, known as 'Masterda'. Her brother introduced her to the famous revolutionary activist and facilitated her entry into their work. During those days it was very rare for a woman to join in revolutionary politics, nevertheless Masterda accepted Pritilata as a woman member of his revolutionary group. A contemporary revolutionary, Binod Bihari Chowdhury, objected that they did not allow women to join their group. However, Pritalata was allowed to join the group because the revolutionaries reasoned that women transporting weapons would not attract as much suspicion as men. At first Pritilata was called upon to discharge messages rather than take part in missions. One such assignment would have a profound effect on young Priti. - Surya Sen ("Masterda") ( - ) - Binod Bihari Chowdhury ( - ) Inspiration from Ramkrishna Biswas In one assignment in 1931 Surya Sen and his revolutionary group decided to kill Craig, Inspector General of Chittagong. Ramakrishna Biswas and Kalipada Chakravarty were assigned for this task. But they mistakenly killed SP of Chandpur and Traini Mukherjee instead of Craig. Ramakrishna Biswas and Kalipada Chakravarty were arrested on 2 December 1931. After the trial Biswas was ordered to be hanged till death and Chakravarty to be exiled to Cellular Jail. - Ramakrishna Biswas ( - ) - Kalipada Chakravarty ( - ) The family and friends lacked the amount of money required to travel to Chittagong to Alipore Jail [Alipur Central Jail] of Calcutta. Since at that time Pritilata was staying in Kolkata (as a student of Bethune College), she was asked by Surya Sen to go to Alipore Jail and meet Ramkrishna Biswas. The political prisoner was put behind the bars under strict observation in complete seclusion. Nevertheless, Pritilata convinced the jail authorities that she was a distant relative of Ram Krishna - allegedly she introduced herself as his sister - and met him a total of 40 times, once every week, prior to his execution. These meetings and their long conversation had a profound effect on 20-year-old Pritilata and deepened her resolve to free her Motherland of British tyranny. There was another revolutionary, Ramkrishna Bishwas, a brilliant student and a year older than me in school. He was caught and was sentenced to die. Nobody could meet him, not even his relatives. Pritilata heard about Ram Krishna, managed to convince the jail authorities that she was his distant relative and actually met him 40 times, once every week. I think this was possible because the jailer back then was an Irish. And the Irish by nature are freedom lovers and had to fight for their land, just like we did. Anyway, Masterda had heard about Pritilata and wanted her to join the group. Pritilata also was very eager to join our group. We, generally, did not allow girls or women to be a part of our group. However, at one point, we realised that it was impossible to work without girls, so as to achieve our goals and complete our missions. Girls could easily transport weapons, even on local transport. That is why we depended on a lot of women who transported a lot of our weapons from one part of the country to another. Binod Bihari Chowdhury, Their [i.e. Pritilata's and Ram Krishna Biswas'] long conversation cast a concrete foundation of revolutionary - mentality dormant in her – saturated her with revolutionary dreams which she believed the only way to earn freedom in true sense. On her final return to Chittagong, Pritilata became a trusted and respected member of Surya Sen's group. After she graduated from Dhaka University, Pritilata became a teacher. Her father was a clerk in a municipal office, and the family was not well off. Her father entrusted his salary to Priti, who kept the key to the family cash box. When Surya Sen needed 50 rupees she handed over her father's monthly salary to Sen. Her teacher's salary supported her parents and 4 younger siblings. She was an articulate revolutionary and wrote many pamphlets used by Sen's IRA. She was aware that her revolutionary lifestyle put her family in financial jeopardy but it was a decision she felt she had to make. Masterda and Pritilata narrowly survive police encounter Along with the revolutionary group of Surya Sen, Pritilata took part in many raids like attacks on the Telephone & Telegraph offices and the capture of the reserve police line. She took part in the Jalalabad battle, in which her responsibility was to supply explosives to the revolutionaries. On 13 June 1932 Masterda called for a special secret meeting at his hideout in the village of Dhalghat, Patiya Upazila, which wasn't too far from the town. Pritilata was one of the invitees to the secret hideout which ironically was located in her birthplace. The venue for the secret meeting was the house of Savitri Devi, a widower. However, the gathering proved catastrophic as the information of the meeting was somehow leaked to the British authorities and they set out to crackdown on the secret rendezvous. When the meeting was in place, suddenly the house was surrounded and raided at dusk by British military officers and police officers led by Cameron, Captain of the 218 Gurkha Rifles Regiment. In the violent encounter that subsequently followed Captain Cameroon was shot dead while ascending the staircase. Nirmal Sen is usually attributed with killing Cameron, though some have suggested it may have been Apurba Sen. The leaders were on the upper floor of the two storied mudhouse. The captain was going up the ladder followed by a havildar when a shot pierced his heart. There is a difference of opinion whether Apurba Sen or Nirmal Sen fired the shot. Knowing fully well the risk involved in, harbouring absconders, respectable ladies with family not unoften came forward to provide shelter to those whose heads carried heavy rewards. Shifting from place to place Surya Sen with his two valiant lieutenants, Nirmal Sen and Apurba Sen and another young boy came to Dhalghat, a place about 4 miles north of Patiya Military Camp and 10 miles from the Chittagong town. About 9 p.m. Master-da (Surya Sen) and his comrades almost finished their dinner. A young girl of the house, and in such matters the youngsters of each family had shown considerable tact and discipline, signalled the arrival of a large number of unknown men in the locality. The house, a two-storeyed mud-built one was surrounded by the police, and Captain Cameron of the 2/8th Gurkhas and a Havildar, the leader of the party, being almost certain about the presence of the suspects in the second storey went up by outer stairs Surya Sen and his young comrade got on the top of the cornigated roofing of the cook-shed by a bamboo ladder and jumped on the ground and disappeared. The Havildar was ahead of the Captain and while passing through a narrow door was pushed off the stairs and fell to the ground below. A young man, Apurba Sen, armed with revolvers confronted Cameron at a range of a yard and shot him through. The armed man then dashed down the stairs and was challenged by a rifleman in the compound. As he attempted to escape, the rifleman fired at him killing him outright. Meanwhile another man, Nirmal, in the upper storey was seen trying to escape by climbing through a window. He was fired at and wounded. He at once got inside the room for protection. It was late at night when the Havildar thought of bringing in reinforcement from the Patiya Military Camp. He came back with 15 additional riflemen and a Lewis gun. He increased the guard around the house and started his operations against the room that sheltered the fugitive. He aimed his Lewis gun at a window of the room. Three revolver shots were fired from the window but they failed to hit anybody. The firing from the Lewis gun continued for some time more and all signs of movement in the room ceased. The guards remained at their posts for the rest of the night. In the morning in the hedge by the side of the house was found the body of a man who had attacked Cameron. There were two revolvers with him, one in his hand and the other in waist belt. In the upper storey Nirmal Sen lay dead with several wounds on his body. - Nirmal Sen ( - ) - Apurba Sen ( - ) Sadly for the Bengali revolutionaries, many of the group members courted martyrdom in the exchange of fire including two of Surya Sen's trusted lieutenants Apurba Sen (alias Bhola) and Nirmal Sen, both young men in their 20s. But luckily Surya, Pritilata and Kalpana luckily managed to escape to safety - just. The police brought a canon that blasted the house in the morning. When the police went inside they found the dead body of Nirmal Sen, but Master-da along with Pritilata Waddedar gave them a slip and escaped. They went to another village named Katani. After completing her Bachelors degree, Pritilata had come to join Masterda's forces. One day, the police had surrounded Masterda's shelter where several from the team were also situated. Immediately, Nirmal Sen, another leader of ours, asked Masterda to move downstairs. Through a pathway, Masterda reached a small pond. Along with him were Pritilata and one of the boys from the team who was suffering from high fever. All three of them, hid under water. They would bring their nose up, breathe and then go down again. At one point, a stray bullet hit the boy suffering from fever and killed him. After a couple of hours, when everything had cooled down, Masterda and Pritilata climbed out of the water and found dead bodies all over the place. Nirmal da was also dead. They shifted to another shelter. He asked Priti to change into something else quickly and go to town so that in the morning, the authorities would not suspect her of being involved. But she refused to go. She could not bear the fact that Nirmal da and the boy had died in front of her. Pritilata wanted to work with Masterda and if necessary would take a bullet. Masterda had asked her to wait and would assign her accordingly in a mission. Binod Bihari Chowdhury Pritilata came back to her school. But by now she had been identified and the infamous trio were enlisted on the 'most wanted' list by British police. So Masterda instructed the two ladies to go underground just as the male revolutionaries of that time did and await further instruction. As such both Pritilata and Kalpana left their school and went undercover. For her part the landlady Savitri Devi was arrested on the same day along with her son Ram Krishna Chakraborty, a minor. Ram was sentenced to four years of hard labour and moved to Midnapore Central Jail where he was made to work the oil mills. Ram was also denied permission to meet his mother despite having contracted tuberculosis. He subsequently died in jail in 1934. Savitri Devi wrote a letter to her brother-in-law but no reply came, nor did anybody turn up. Ultimately Ram Krishna died in jail. When the mother was allowed to have a glimpse of the dead body, she found iron fetters still on the wrists of her son. Her son’s death was extremely shocking for her. Even then she never lost courage and strength of mind. Savitri Devi was not treated well by her relatives when she went back to her own village after release from jail. She faced countless hardship to make a living. To date, Savitri Devi remains just another unsung hero of Bangladesh's rich and turbulent history.	<urn:uuid:c9f08d4c-604d-410a-947e-261fd03604d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://londoni.co/index.php/59-history-of-bangladesh/biography/pritilata-waddedar/257-pritilata-waddedar-female-warrior-chittagong-a-hot-bed-of-revolutionary-action-joining-surya-sen-s-group-inspiration-from-ramkrishna-biswas-narrow-escape-from-police-encounter-by-masterda-kalpana-priti-biography-of-muslim-and-bengali	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00055.warc.gz	en	0.985821	2,927	3.28125	3	[ -0.27628093957901, 0.027366390451788902, 0.16069072484970093, -0.003678504377603531, -0.37662196159362793, 0.09383948892354965, 0.0013481341302394867, 0.2609494626522064, 0.08036157488822937, -0.029992178082466125, -0.13306380808353424, -0.5833026170730591, -0.018123473972082138, 0.3267694...	13	Pritilata, the female warrior Last updated: 6 October 2017 From the section Pritilata Waddedar Chittagong: a hot bed of revolutionary action In the 1930s, there were many revolutionary groups all over Bengal and Chittagong was a fertile land for the revolutionary activities. Members of these groups believed that India’s freedom could be achieved only through armed struggle. There were, throughout Bengal, many well established "resistance" groups dedicated to reformation, or destruction of the British rule. And it cannot be surprising that in the city that had, by then, already been under the administration of Britain for 170 years, such resistance was amongst the most active. Not least, of course, because of the racism so readily demonstrated by British residents. The early nineteenth century had seen the reform of British administration of its Indian territories, bringing to its work far more lower middle class employees who often sought refuge from their alienation in both religion and racism. And since Chittagong had been, from the beginning, a major base of British activity, there were probably more British residents, and more British-only facilities, than in most other parts of India. Joining Surya Sen's revolutionary group Pritilata believed that the time had come for women to take active role in the armed struggle against the British, sacrifice their lives if necessary, and confront all risks, dangers and tribulations, on the same footing as their male comrades. She was ready to join the Indian independence movement and free her motherland. During visits home from Calcutta, Pritilata found one of her brothers was already involved in revolutionary politics and was an active member of an anti-British group led by Surya Sen, known as 'Masterda'. Her brother introduced her to the famous revolutionary activist and facilitated her entry into their work. During those days it was very rare for a woman to join in revolutionary politics, nevertheless Masterda accepted Pritilata as a woman member of his revolutionary group. A contemporary revolutionary, Binod Bihari Chowdhury, objected that they did not allow women to join their group. However, Pritalata was allowed to join the group because the revolutionaries reasoned that women transporting weapons would not attract as much suspicion as men. At first Pritilata was called upon to discharge messages rather than take part in missions. One such assignment would have a profound effect on young Priti. - Surya Sen ("Masterda") ( - ) - Binod Bihari Chowdhury ( - ) Inspiration from Ramkrishna Biswas In one assignment in 1931 Surya Sen and his revolutionary group decided to kill Craig, Inspector General of Chittagong. Ramakrishna Biswas and Kalipada Chakravarty were assigned for this task. But they mistakenly killed SP of Chandpur and Traini Mukherjee instead of Craig. Ramakrishna Biswas and Kalipada Chakravarty were arrested on 2 December 1931. After the trial Biswas was ordered to be hanged till death and Chakravarty to be exiled to Cellular Jail. - Ramakrishna Biswas ( - ) - Kalipada Chakravarty ( - ) The family and friends lacked the amount of money required to travel to Chittagong to Alipore Jail [Alipur Central Jail] of Calcutta. Since at that time Pritilata was staying in Kolkata (as a student of Bethune College), she was asked by Surya Sen to go to Alipore Jail and meet Ramkrishna Biswas. The political prisoner was put behind the bars under strict observation in complete seclusion. Nevertheless, Pritilata convinced the jail authorities that she was a distant relative of Ram Krishna - allegedly she introduced herself as his sister - and met him a total of 40 times, once every week, prior to his execution. These meetings and their long conversation had a profound effect on 20-year-old Pritilata and deepened her resolve to free her Motherland of British tyranny. There was another revolutionary, Ramkrishna Bishwas, a brilliant student and a year older than me in school. He was caught and was sentenced to die. Nobody could meet him, not even his relatives. Pritilata heard about Ram Krishna, managed to convince the jail authorities that she was his distant relative and actually met him 40 times, once every week. I think this was possible because the jailer back then was an Irish. And the Irish by nature are freedom lovers and had to fight for their land, just like we did. Anyway, Masterda had heard about Pritilata and wanted her to join the group. Pritilata also was very eager to join our group. We, generally, did not allow girls or women to be a part of our group. However, at one point, we realised that it was impossible to work without girls, so as to achieve our goals and complete our missions. Girls could easily transport weapons, even on local transport. That is why we depended on a lot of women who transported a lot of our weapons from one part of the country to another. Binod Bihari Chowdhury, Their [i.e. Pritilata's and Ram Krishna Biswas'] long conversation cast a concrete foundation of revolutionary - mentality dormant in her – saturated her with revolutionary dreams which she believed the only way to earn freedom in true sense. On her final return to Chittagong, Pritilata became a trusted and respected member of Surya Sen's group. After she graduated from Dhaka University, Pritilata became a teacher. Her father was a clerk in a municipal office, and the family was not well off. Her father entrusted his salary to Priti, who kept the key to the family cash box. When Surya Sen needed 50 rupees she handed over her father's monthly salary to Sen. Her teacher's salary supported her parents and 4 younger siblings. She was an articulate revolutionary and wrote many pamphlets used by Sen's IRA. She was aware that her revolutionary lifestyle put her family in financial jeopardy but it was a decision she felt she had to make. Masterda and Pritilata narrowly survive police encounter Along with the revolutionary group of Surya Sen, Pritilata took part in many raids like attacks on the Telephone & Telegraph offices and the capture of the reserve police line. She took part in the Jalalabad battle, in which her responsibility was to supply explosives to the revolutionaries. On 13 June 1932 Masterda called for a special secret meeting at his hideout in the village of Dhalghat, Patiya Upazila, which wasn't too far from the town. Pritilata was one of the invitees to the secret hideout which ironically was located in her birthplace. The venue for the secret meeting was the house of Savitri Devi, a widower. However, the gathering proved catastrophic as the information of the meeting was somehow leaked to the British authorities and they set out to crackdown on the secret rendezvous. When the meeting was in place, suddenly the house was surrounded and raided at dusk by British military officers and police officers led by Cameron, Captain of the 218 Gurkha Rifles Regiment. In the violent encounter that subsequently followed Captain Cameroon was shot dead while ascending the staircase. Nirmal Sen is usually attributed with killing Cameron, though some have suggested it may have been Apurba Sen. The leaders were on the upper floor of the two storied mudhouse. The captain was going up the ladder followed by a havildar when a shot pierced his heart. There is a difference of opinion whether Apurba Sen or Nirmal Sen fired the shot. Knowing fully well the risk involved in, harbouring absconders, respectable ladies with family not unoften came forward to provide shelter to those whose heads carried heavy rewards. Shifting from place to place Surya Sen with his two valiant lieutenants, Nirmal Sen and Apurba Sen and another young boy came to Dhalghat, a place about 4 miles north of Patiya Military Camp and 10 miles from the Chittagong town. About 9 p.m. Master-da (Surya Sen) and his comrades almost finished their dinner. A young girl of the house, and in such matters the youngsters of each family had shown considerable tact and discipline, signalled the arrival of a large number of unknown men in the locality. The house, a two-storeyed mud-built one was surrounded by the police, and Captain Cameron of the 2/8th Gurkhas and a Havildar, the leader of the party, being almost certain about the presence of the suspects in the second storey went up by outer stairs Surya Sen and his young comrade got on the top of the cornigated roofing of the cook-shed by a bamboo ladder and jumped on the ground and disappeared. The Havildar was ahead of the Captain and while passing through a narrow door was pushed off the stairs and fell to the ground below. A young man, Apurba Sen, armed with revolvers confronted Cameron at a range of a yard and shot him through. The armed man then dashed down the stairs and was challenged by a rifleman in the compound. As he attempted to escape, the rifleman fired at him killing him outright. Meanwhile another man, Nirmal, in the upper storey was seen trying to escape by climbing through a window. He was fired at and wounded. He at once got inside the room for protection. It was late at night when the Havildar thought of bringing in reinforcement from the Patiya Military Camp. He came back with 15 additional riflemen and a Lewis gun. He increased the guard around the house and started his operations against the room that sheltered the fugitive. He aimed his Lewis gun at a window of the room. Three revolver shots were fired from the window but they failed to hit anybody. The firing from the Lewis gun continued for some time more and all signs of movement in the room ceased. The guards remained at their posts for the rest of the night. In the morning in the hedge by the side of the house was found the body of a man who had attacked Cameron. There were two revolvers with him, one in his hand and the other in waist belt. In the upper storey Nirmal Sen lay dead with several wounds on his body. - Nirmal Sen ( - ) - Apurba Sen ( - ) Sadly for the Bengali revolutionaries, many of the group members courted martyrdom in the exchange of fire including two of Surya Sen's trusted lieutenants Apurba Sen (alias Bhola) and Nirmal Sen, both young men in their 20s. But luckily Surya, Pritilata and Kalpana luckily managed to escape to safety - just. The police brought a canon that blasted the house in the morning. When the police went inside they found the dead body of Nirmal Sen, but Master-da along with Pritilata Waddedar gave them a slip and escaped. They went to another village named Katani. After completing her Bachelors degree, Pritilata had come to join Masterda's forces. One day, the police had surrounded Masterda's shelter where several from the team were also situated. Immediately, Nirmal Sen, another leader of ours, asked Masterda to move downstairs. Through a pathway, Masterda reached a small pond. Along with him were Pritilata and one of the boys from the team who was suffering from high fever. All three of them, hid under water. They would bring their nose up, breathe and then go down again. At one point, a stray bullet hit the boy suffering from fever and killed him. After a couple of hours, when everything had cooled down, Masterda and Pritilata climbed out of the water and found dead bodies all over the place. Nirmal da was also dead. They shifted to another shelter. He asked Priti to change into something else quickly and go to town so that in the morning, the authorities would not suspect her of being involved. But she refused to go. She could not bear the fact that Nirmal da and the boy had died in front of her. Pritilata wanted to work with Masterda and if necessary would take a bullet. Masterda had asked her to wait and would assign her accordingly in a mission. Binod Bihari Chowdhury Pritilata came back to her school. But by now she had been identified and the infamous trio were enlisted on the 'most wanted' list by British police. So Masterda instructed the two ladies to go underground just as the male revolutionaries of that time did and await further instruction. As such both Pritilata and Kalpana left their school and went undercover. For her part the landlady Savitri Devi was arrested on the same day along with her son Ram Krishna Chakraborty, a minor. Ram was sentenced to four years of hard labour and moved to Midnapore Central Jail where he was made to work the oil mills. Ram was also denied permission to meet his mother despite having contracted tuberculosis. He subsequently died in jail in 1934. Savitri Devi wrote a letter to her brother-in-law but no reply came, nor did anybody turn up. Ultimately Ram Krishna died in jail. When the mother was allowed to have a glimpse of the dead body, she found iron fetters still on the wrists of her son. Her son’s death was extremely shocking for her. Even then she never lost courage and strength of mind. Savitri Devi was not treated well by her relatives when she went back to her own village after release from jail. She faced countless hardship to make a living. To date, Savitri Devi remains just another unsung hero of Bangladesh's rich and turbulent history.	2,940	ENGLISH	1
Flaubert’s Descriptive Artistry of Madame Bovary ?Flaubert’s Descriptive Artistry in Madame Bovary By Margaret Pfirman Gustave Flaubert had a remarkable use of description. As he wrote Madame Bovary, you could tell how carefully he brought the reader into his work. With his painstakingly use of descriptive words, you were able to visualize intricate parts of Emma’s world. He was able to paint each picture that he wanted you to feel. With his various use of symbolization, you felt the setting in which he was trying to achieve. The different themes that Flaubert utilized throughout painted an intricate detail to the story. With careful illustrations, Flaubert drew you into how he wanted you think Emma Bovary thoughts might have been, how she might have been feeling, and what her mood might have been at that particular time. I will describe the use of particular ideas that Flaubert used throughout his book to illustrate this and how he used these symbols to achieve that. Windows have been used throughout to show how a person sees the outside world. When an author uses windows, it illustrates a number of things. Flaubert use of windows depicts Emma’s different periods in her marriage, her loneliness and despair of her life. In the beginning of the marriage, “she would go out to the window and watch him leave” (Flaubert, p. 1056). He so beautifully detailed how she looked out that window at the leaving of her husband, you could tell that she had hoped for a good marriage, even though there were problems from the beginning. When Charles and Emma were invited to a ball at the home of the Marquis d’Andervilliers, the window played a part of Emma’s life that she wished she belonged. Flaubert painstakingly described Emma looking out the window, “lingering on the windows of the various rooms” (Flaubert, p. 1068) dreaming of what their lives were like. Flaubert also described a Margaret Pfirman Page 2 particular scene about a window in the wintertime which I believe gave way to the depression that Emma had fallen into. ‘The windowpanes were frosted over, the whitish light came through as though filtered through ground glass, sometimes didn’t vary all day. ’ (Flaubert, p 1074). The views from he window helps the reader feel what Emma is feeling and thinking. There are several other depictions throughout the book that Flaubert alludes to, each time bringing you into Emma’s world. Flaubert described the Agricultural Show in Yonsville as “the great day had arrived” (Flaubert, p. 1115). You were able to picture the town preparing for this special event, from the lavished decorations to the preparation of the banquet. It was the perfect day for Roldophe’s seduction. Flaubert illustrated how all of the villagers congregated in the fields for the festivities. You were able to visualize what everyone was wearing. You could see each of the farm animals as they waited for judging. “The meadow was filling up, housewives laden with umbrellas, picnic baskets, and babies were bumping into everyone. ” (Flaubert, p 1118). With the Agricultural Show, Roldophe knew that they would not be missed so with everything going on around them, that is when he made his first move on Emma. Flaubert’s detail into the scenery showed that even though there were crowds, Roldophe and Emma were oblivious to them. Flaubert paid particular attention to gardens, in particular a plaster priest ‘at the far end, under some spruces, stood reading his breviary’. (Flaubert, p. 1055). This statute had particular meaning, every time it had been mentioned. It was first mentioned in the beginning of their marriage. Before Emma had found Charles’ first wife’s wedding bouquet, it showed of a possible harmonious relationship between the two. It had been mentioned a few other times Margaret Pfirman Page 3 since, but significantly was when they were leaving Tostes to their new home in Yonsville. On the road they traveled, they hit a bump and the priest statute had been shattered into a thousand pieces, thus being destroyed. This also could be shown as the beginning of the end to their marriage as well Flaubert’s descriptive artistry throughout Madame Bovary enables the reader to envision Emma, her dreams, her desires, as well as her selfishness. He allows us to see exactly how her life is. In my opinion, if it was not for Flaubert’s realism that he used in Madame Bovary, it would not have withstood as many years as a literary classic.	<urn:uuid:95a862ec-0cc7-4379-bc66-fffc17e329e0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebooksummary.com/flauberts-descriptive-artistry-of-madame-bovary-66549	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00340.warc.gz	en	0.982981	1,027	3.34375	3	[ -0.060797132551670074, 0.049551527947187424, 0.0329321026802063, 0.20609886944293976, -0.47858530282974243, 0.17329487204551697, 0.5285639762878418, 0.03579399734735489, 0.32225361466407776, -0.28025612235069275, -0.3588564991950989, -0.017642218619585037, -0.20624664425849915, 0.283542573...	1	Flaubert’s Descriptive Artistry of Madame Bovary ?Flaubert’s Descriptive Artistry in Madame Bovary By Margaret Pfirman Gustave Flaubert had a remarkable use of description. As he wrote Madame Bovary, you could tell how carefully he brought the reader into his work. With his painstakingly use of descriptive words, you were able to visualize intricate parts of Emma’s world. He was able to paint each picture that he wanted you to feel. With his various use of symbolization, you felt the setting in which he was trying to achieve. The different themes that Flaubert utilized throughout painted an intricate detail to the story. With careful illustrations, Flaubert drew you into how he wanted you think Emma Bovary thoughts might have been, how she might have been feeling, and what her mood might have been at that particular time. I will describe the use of particular ideas that Flaubert used throughout his book to illustrate this and how he used these symbols to achieve that. Windows have been used throughout to show how a person sees the outside world. When an author uses windows, it illustrates a number of things. Flaubert use of windows depicts Emma’s different periods in her marriage, her loneliness and despair of her life. In the beginning of the marriage, “she would go out to the window and watch him leave” (Flaubert, p. 1056). He so beautifully detailed how she looked out that window at the leaving of her husband, you could tell that she had hoped for a good marriage, even though there were problems from the beginning. When Charles and Emma were invited to a ball at the home of the Marquis d’Andervilliers, the window played a part of Emma’s life that she wished she belonged. Flaubert painstakingly described Emma looking out the window, “lingering on the windows of the various rooms” (Flaubert, p. 1068) dreaming of what their lives were like. Flaubert also described a Margaret Pfirman Page 2 particular scene about a window in the wintertime which I believe gave way to the depression that Emma had fallen into. ‘The windowpanes were frosted over, the whitish light came through as though filtered through ground glass, sometimes didn’t vary all day. ’ (Flaubert, p 1074). The views from he window helps the reader feel what Emma is feeling and thinking. There are several other depictions throughout the book that Flaubert alludes to, each time bringing you into Emma’s world. Flaubert described the Agricultural Show in Yonsville as “the great day had arrived” (Flaubert, p. 1115). You were able to picture the town preparing for this special event, from the lavished decorations to the preparation of the banquet. It was the perfect day for Roldophe’s seduction. Flaubert illustrated how all of the villagers congregated in the fields for the festivities. You were able to visualize what everyone was wearing. You could see each of the farm animals as they waited for judging. “The meadow was filling up, housewives laden with umbrellas, picnic baskets, and babies were bumping into everyone. ” (Flaubert, p 1118). With the Agricultural Show, Roldophe knew that they would not be missed so with everything going on around them, that is when he made his first move on Emma. Flaubert’s detail into the scenery showed that even though there were crowds, Roldophe and Emma were oblivious to them. Flaubert paid particular attention to gardens, in particular a plaster priest ‘at the far end, under some spruces, stood reading his breviary’. (Flaubert, p. 1055). This statute had particular meaning, every time it had been mentioned. It was first mentioned in the beginning of their marriage. Before Emma had found Charles’ first wife’s wedding bouquet, it showed of a possible harmonious relationship between the two. It had been mentioned a few other times Margaret Pfirman Page 3 since, but significantly was when they were leaving Tostes to their new home in Yonsville. On the road they traveled, they hit a bump and the priest statute had been shattered into a thousand pieces, thus being destroyed. This also could be shown as the beginning of the end to their marriage as well Flaubert’s descriptive artistry throughout Madame Bovary enables the reader to envision Emma, her dreams, her desires, as well as her selfishness. He allows us to see exactly how her life is. In my opinion, if it was not for Flaubert’s realism that he used in Madame Bovary, it would not have withstood as many years as a literary classic.	998	ENGLISH	1
It has long been assumed that Jacob Stainer received some training in Cremona – but the theory rests on slim evidence. Rudolf Hopfner explores a middle-period violin using micro-CT technology to cast doubt on what we think we knowWolfgang Schneiderhan Jacob Stainer (1619–83) is still regarded by many as the finest stringed instrument maker of the 17th century. In his day his instruments were more highly prized than those of the Cremonese makers and, like Stradivari, he was fortunate enough to be famous in his own lifetime. By the time of his death, his influence had extended across Europe, with some of the best-known players and composers owning instruments made by him. Thanks partly to his colourful career – which encompassed being put on trial for heresy in 1618 (see page 42) – his life was well recorded, with many documents regarding his biography still surviving. However, his formative years have always been shrouded in darkness… Already subscribed? Please sign in We’re delighted that you are enjoying our website. To access this content you need to be a subscriber. As a subscriber you’ll receive: *To receive the posters, the Strad Directory and issues and supplements in print, you will need to take out a print + online package	<urn:uuid:a7b3dca9-4399-4a13-9f4e-1d7214c7432c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thestrad.com/lutherie/jacob-stainer-reviewing-the-situation/9987.article	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00295.warc.gz	en	0.988142	273	3.28125	3	[ 0.01610497571527958, 0.0761968269944191, 0.32633572816848755, -0.26883554458618164, -0.24747046828269958, -0.16239553689956665, -0.20263245701789856, 0.3279493451118469, 0.01975724846124649, 0.042978715151548386, 0.06820553541183472, -0.04018832743167877, -0.23425547778606415, 0.4828235507...	1	It has long been assumed that Jacob Stainer received some training in Cremona – but the theory rests on slim evidence. Rudolf Hopfner explores a middle-period violin using micro-CT technology to cast doubt on what we think we knowWolfgang Schneiderhan Jacob Stainer (1619–83) is still regarded by many as the finest stringed instrument maker of the 17th century. In his day his instruments were more highly prized than those of the Cremonese makers and, like Stradivari, he was fortunate enough to be famous in his own lifetime. By the time of his death, his influence had extended across Europe, with some of the best-known players and composers owning instruments made by him. Thanks partly to his colourful career – which encompassed being put on trial for heresy in 1618 (see page 42) – his life was well recorded, with many documents regarding his biography still surviving. However, his formative years have always been shrouded in darkness… Already subscribed? Please sign in We’re delighted that you are enjoying our website. To access this content you need to be a subscriber. As a subscriber you’ll receive: *To receive the posters, the Strad Directory and issues and supplements in print, you will need to take out a print + online package	277	ENGLISH	1
Gabon Overview: History Early History to Independence The region that is now Gabon was inhabited in Paleolithic times. By the 16th cent. AD the Omiéné were living along the coast, and in the 18th cent. the Fang entered the region from the north. From the 16th to the 18th cent. the area was part of the decentralized Loango empire, which included most of the area between the Ogooué and Congo rivers. In the 1470s, Portuguese navigators found the Ogooué estuary, and shortly thereafter they began to trade with coastal merchants for slaves who had been acquired in the interior. The Portuguese were followed by Dutch, English, and French traders, and by the late 18th cent. the French had gained a dominant position. Despite the abolition of the slave trade (1815) by the Congress of Vienna, slaves continued to be exported from the Gabon coast until the 1880s, although French naval patrols succeeded in reducing the number exported annually. In the mid-19th cent., several treaties were signed with African rulers of the Ogooué estuary and neighboring territories, and Christian missions were established. In 1849, Libreville was founded by the French as a settlement for freed slaves. Paul B. Du Chaillu (in the 1850s) and A. M. A. Aymes (in the 1860s) explored the lower Ogooué. In the late 1870s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza reached the source of the river, and in the 1880s he founded Franceville (near the present-day border with the Republic of the Congo). In 1885 the Conference of Berlin recognized French rights to the region N of the Congo River that included Gabon. In 1886 the French assigned a governor to Gabon, which from 1889 to 1904 was included in the French Congo. From 1910 to 1957, Gabon was a part of French Equatorial Africa . The Fang and some other African peoples resisted the imposition of French rule until 1911. In 1913, Albert Schweitzer established a hospital at Lambaréné on the Ogooué. During World War II, Free French forces gained control (1940) of Gabon from the Vichy government. In 1946, Gabon became an overseas territory of France, and in 1958 the country became internally self-governing within the French Community . The New Nation On Aug. 17, 1960, Gabon became an independent republic. Leon Mba, a Fang, was the country's first president. In Feb., 1964, Mba was ousted by a military coup led by Jean-Hilaire Aubame, but he was restored to power within a day with the help of French troops. Mba died in 1967 and was succeeded by Omar Bongo , who established (1968) the Gabonese Democratic party (PDG) as the country's sole political organization. Bongo was returned to office in the elections of 1973 and 1979. Gabon was one of the few African countries to recognize and furnish supplies to Biafra during the Nigerian civil war (1967–70). During its first decade of independence, Gabon retained close political and economic ties with France. In the early 1970s, however, the government sought increased influence in the foreign (mainly French) companies active in Gabon, and it generally tried to loosen its ties with France. Disillusionment with Bongo's repressive policies led to the formation of a large opposition movement in the early 1980s and demands for a multiparty government. Bongo was reelected to a fourth term in 1986. Popular discontent with the regime reached a high point in 1989 with seven days of riots in Port-Gentil, which were put down by the army. In 1990 opposition parties were legalized and multiparty legislative elections were held for the first time in 22 years. Amid charges of fraud, Bongo's party won a majority of seats. The same charges were leveled as Bongo was reelected in Gabon's first multiparty presidential election in 1993. Despite constitutional reforms (1995) intended to reduce election fraud, the 1998 polls, in which Bongo once again was reelected, were termed unfair by observers. Bongo's party again won a majority of the legislative seats in 2001. The president was elected to a third term in 2005; the election was again criticized by the opposition, which was divided and relatively weak. The Dec., 2006, legislative elections were again solidly won by the president's party, but voter turnout was low. Bongo died in June, 2009; the head of the senate, Rose Francine Rogombe, became Gabon's interim president. In the Aug., 2009, presidential election, Ali Bongo, the son of the late president, was elected with 42% of the vote. Opposition parties denounced the result as rigged, and opposition supporters rioted in the capital and Port-Gentil, but the constitutional court affirmed the results. In Jan., 2011, André Mba Obame, who had lost to Bongo in 2009, declared himself the rightful president, appointed a cabinet, and attempted to rally his supporters against Bongo. The government accused him of treason and dissolved his party. Opposition parties largely boycotted the elections in Dec., 2011, for the National Assembly, and governing party candidates won all but six of the seats. Bongo narrowly won the Aug., 2016, but the opposition again said the tally had been rigged, and the outcome was also questioned by international observers; in Bongo's home province he was recording as winning 95% of a nearly 100% turnout. Assembly elections slated for Dec., 2016, were thrice postponed, beyond Apr., 2018, ostensibly due to the cost. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: Gabonese Political Geography	<urn:uuid:4d23fad9-bba9-44df-81d2-73b6c281cd99>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/places/africa/gabon/gabon/history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00160.warc.gz	en	0.982816	1,210	3.796875	4	[ -0.22153997421264648, 0.663752555847168, 0.5965890884399414, -0.016662750393152237, -0.1523798406124115, -0.054116539657115936, 0.12207609415054321, -0.12667790055274963, -0.17786137759685516, 0.2167222499847412, 0.11994415521621704, -0.7845040559768677, 0.0654357522726059, 0.2345237135887...	2	Gabon Overview: History Early History to Independence The region that is now Gabon was inhabited in Paleolithic times. By the 16th cent. AD the Omiéné were living along the coast, and in the 18th cent. the Fang entered the region from the north. From the 16th to the 18th cent. the area was part of the decentralized Loango empire, which included most of the area between the Ogooué and Congo rivers. In the 1470s, Portuguese navigators found the Ogooué estuary, and shortly thereafter they began to trade with coastal merchants for slaves who had been acquired in the interior. The Portuguese were followed by Dutch, English, and French traders, and by the late 18th cent. the French had gained a dominant position. Despite the abolition of the slave trade (1815) by the Congress of Vienna, slaves continued to be exported from the Gabon coast until the 1880s, although French naval patrols succeeded in reducing the number exported annually. In the mid-19th cent., several treaties were signed with African rulers of the Ogooué estuary and neighboring territories, and Christian missions were established. In 1849, Libreville was founded by the French as a settlement for freed slaves. Paul B. Du Chaillu (in the 1850s) and A. M. A. Aymes (in the 1860s) explored the lower Ogooué. In the late 1870s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza reached the source of the river, and in the 1880s he founded Franceville (near the present-day border with the Republic of the Congo). In 1885 the Conference of Berlin recognized French rights to the region N of the Congo River that included Gabon. In 1886 the French assigned a governor to Gabon, which from 1889 to 1904 was included in the French Congo. From 1910 to 1957, Gabon was a part of French Equatorial Africa . The Fang and some other African peoples resisted the imposition of French rule until 1911. In 1913, Albert Schweitzer established a hospital at Lambaréné on the Ogooué. During World War II, Free French forces gained control (1940) of Gabon from the Vichy government. In 1946, Gabon became an overseas territory of France, and in 1958 the country became internally self-governing within the French Community . The New Nation On Aug. 17, 1960, Gabon became an independent republic. Leon Mba, a Fang, was the country's first president. In Feb., 1964, Mba was ousted by a military coup led by Jean-Hilaire Aubame, but he was restored to power within a day with the help of French troops. Mba died in 1967 and was succeeded by Omar Bongo , who established (1968) the Gabonese Democratic party (PDG) as the country's sole political organization. Bongo was returned to office in the elections of 1973 and 1979. Gabon was one of the few African countries to recognize and furnish supplies to Biafra during the Nigerian civil war (1967–70). During its first decade of independence, Gabon retained close political and economic ties with France. In the early 1970s, however, the government sought increased influence in the foreign (mainly French) companies active in Gabon, and it generally tried to loosen its ties with France. Disillusionment with Bongo's repressive policies led to the formation of a large opposition movement in the early 1980s and demands for a multiparty government. Bongo was reelected to a fourth term in 1986. Popular discontent with the regime reached a high point in 1989 with seven days of riots in Port-Gentil, which were put down by the army. In 1990 opposition parties were legalized and multiparty legislative elections were held for the first time in 22 years. Amid charges of fraud, Bongo's party won a majority of seats. The same charges were leveled as Bongo was reelected in Gabon's first multiparty presidential election in 1993. Despite constitutional reforms (1995) intended to reduce election fraud, the 1998 polls, in which Bongo once again was reelected, were termed unfair by observers. Bongo's party again won a majority of the legislative seats in 2001. The president was elected to a third term in 2005; the election was again criticized by the opposition, which was divided and relatively weak. The Dec., 2006, legislative elections were again solidly won by the president's party, but voter turnout was low. Bongo died in June, 2009; the head of the senate, Rose Francine Rogombe, became Gabon's interim president. In the Aug., 2009, presidential election, Ali Bongo, the son of the late president, was elected with 42% of the vote. Opposition parties denounced the result as rigged, and opposition supporters rioted in the capital and Port-Gentil, but the constitutional court affirmed the results. In Jan., 2011, André Mba Obame, who had lost to Bongo in 2009, declared himself the rightful president, appointed a cabinet, and attempted to rally his supporters against Bongo. The government accused him of treason and dissolved his party. Opposition parties largely boycotted the elections in Dec., 2011, for the National Assembly, and governing party candidates won all but six of the seats. Bongo narrowly won the Aug., 2016, but the opposition again said the tally had been rigged, and the outcome was also questioned by international observers; in Bongo's home province he was recording as winning 95% of a nearly 100% turnout. Assembly elections slated for Dec., 2016, were thrice postponed, beyond Apr., 2018, ostensibly due to the cost. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: Gabonese Political Geography	1,395	ENGLISH	1
14,000-Year-Old Piece Of Bread Rewrites The History Of Baking And Farming By Lina Zeldovich 6 - 7 minutes When an archaeologist working on an excavation site in Jordan first swept up the tiny black particles scattered around an ancient fireplace, she had no idea they were going to change the history of food and agriculture. Amaia Arranz-Otaegui is an archaeobotanist from the University of Copenhagen. She was collecting dinner leftovers of the Natufians, a hunter-gatherer tribe that lived in the area more than 14,000 years ago during the Epipaleolithic time — a period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras. Natufians were hunters, which one could clearly tell from the bones of gazelles, sheep and hares that littered the cooking pit. But it turns out the Natufians were bakers, too --at a time well before scientists thought it was possible. When Arranz-Otaegui sifted through the swept-up silt, the black particles appeared to be charred food remains. "They looked like what we find in our toasters," she says — except no one ever heard of people making bread so early in human history. "I could tell they were processed plants," Arranz-Otaegui says, "but I didn't really know what they were." So she took her burnt findings to a colleague, Lara Gonzalez Carretero at University College London Institute of Archaeology, whose specialty is identifying prehistoric food remains, bread in particular. She concluded that what Arranz-Otaegui had unearthed was a handful of truly primordial breadcrumbs. "We both realized we were looking at the oldest bread remains in the world," says Gonzalez Carretero. They were both quite surprised — with good reason. The established archaeological doctrine states that humans first began baking bread about 10,000 years ago. That was a pivotal time in our evolution. Humans gave up their nomadic way of life, settled down and began farming and growing cereals. Once they had various grains handy, they began milling them into flour and making bread. In other words, until now we thought that our ancestors were farmers first and bakers second. But Arranz-Otaegui's breadcrumbs predate the advent of agriculture by at least 4,000 years. That means that our ancestors were bakers first —and learned to farm afterwards. "Finding bread in this Epipaleolithic site was the last thing we expected!" says Arranz-Otaegui. "We used to think that the first bread appeared during the Neolithic times, when people started to cultivate cereal, but it now seems they learned to make bread earlier." When you think about it, the idea that early humans learned to bake before settling down to farm is logical, the researchers behind the finding say. Making bread is a labor-intensive process that involves removing husks, grinding cereals, kneading the dough and then baking it. The fact that our ancestors were willing to invest so much effort into the prehistoric pastry suggests that they considered bread a special treat. Baking bread could have been reserved for special occasions or to impress important guests. The people's desire to indulge more often may have prompted them to begin cultivating cereals. "In our opinion, instead of domesticating cereals first, the bread-making culture could have been something that actually fueled the domestication of cereal," says Gonzalez Carretero. "So maybe it was the other way around [from what we previously thought.]" The research appears in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Andreas Heiss, an archaeologist at the Austrian Academy of Science who is familiar with the project but not directly involved in the study, finds the discovery "thrilling." He says it shows that ancient tribes were quite adept at food-making techniques, and developed them earlier than we had given them credit for. "It tells us that our ancestors were smart people who knew how to use their environment well," Heiss says. "It also tells us that processing food is a much more basic technique in human history than we thought — maybe as old as hunting and gathering." As the team analyzed the crumbs further, they found out that the Natufians were sophisticated cooks. Their flour was made from two different types of ingredients — wild wheat called einkorn and the roots of club-rush tubers, a type of a flowering plant. That particular combination allowed them to make pliable elastic dough that could be pressed onto the walls of their fireplace pits, much like flatbreads are baked today in tandoori ovens — and baked to perfection. Besides the einkorn and tubers, the team also found traces of barley and oats. The Natufians may have had rather developed taste buds, too. They liked to toss some spices and condiments into their dishes, particularly mustard seeds. "We found a lot of wild mustard seeds, not in the bread but in the overall assemblage," says Gonzalez Carretero. But, she adds, mustard seeds had also been found in some bread remains excavated from other sites, so it's possible that Natufians sprinkled a few on their own pastries. So far, the team has analyzed only 25 breadcrumbs with about 600 more to go, so they think chances are good that some charred pieces with mustard seeds might turn up. Arranz-Otaegui thinks it's possible. "The seeds have [a] very particular taste, so why not use them?" Exactly how delicious was this special Natufian treat? It's hard to tell. Modern-day bread recipes don't include ancient wheat or roots of tuberous plants. But Arranz-Otaegui does want to find out how the Epipaleolithic bread played on the palate. She has been gathering the einkorn seeds, as well as peeling and grinding the tubers. She plans to partner up with a skilled chef and baker to reconstruct the exact mixture in correct proportions. It will be the oldest bread recipe ever created by mankind. Lina Zeldovich is a science and food writer based in New York City.	<urn:uuid:cdb48baf-d483-42b0-8290-b3ab7cc355e9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tefter.io/bookmarks/52568/readable	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00533.warc.gz	en	0.980383	1,301	3.796875	4	[ -0.5902990698814392, 0.5804671049118042, 0.24127832055091858, 0.04893616586923599, -0.21657907962799072, -0.15183815360069275, -0.2691984176635742, -0.0025372037198394537, -0.2697935700416565, 0.05784972012042999, -0.1710543930530548, -0.6179426908493042, -0.10968250036239624, 0.2050208449...	1	14,000-Year-Old Piece Of Bread Rewrites The History Of Baking And Farming By Lina Zeldovich 6 - 7 minutes When an archaeologist working on an excavation site in Jordan first swept up the tiny black particles scattered around an ancient fireplace, she had no idea they were going to change the history of food and agriculture. Amaia Arranz-Otaegui is an archaeobotanist from the University of Copenhagen. She was collecting dinner leftovers of the Natufians, a hunter-gatherer tribe that lived in the area more than 14,000 years ago during the Epipaleolithic time — a period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras. Natufians were hunters, which one could clearly tell from the bones of gazelles, sheep and hares that littered the cooking pit. But it turns out the Natufians were bakers, too --at a time well before scientists thought it was possible. When Arranz-Otaegui sifted through the swept-up silt, the black particles appeared to be charred food remains. "They looked like what we find in our toasters," she says — except no one ever heard of people making bread so early in human history. "I could tell they were processed plants," Arranz-Otaegui says, "but I didn't really know what they were." So she took her burnt findings to a colleague, Lara Gonzalez Carretero at University College London Institute of Archaeology, whose specialty is identifying prehistoric food remains, bread in particular. She concluded that what Arranz-Otaegui had unearthed was a handful of truly primordial breadcrumbs. "We both realized we were looking at the oldest bread remains in the world," says Gonzalez Carretero. They were both quite surprised — with good reason. The established archaeological doctrine states that humans first began baking bread about 10,000 years ago. That was a pivotal time in our evolution. Humans gave up their nomadic way of life, settled down and began farming and growing cereals. Once they had various grains handy, they began milling them into flour and making bread. In other words, until now we thought that our ancestors were farmers first and bakers second. But Arranz-Otaegui's breadcrumbs predate the advent of agriculture by at least 4,000 years. That means that our ancestors were bakers first —and learned to farm afterwards. "Finding bread in this Epipaleolithic site was the last thing we expected!" says Arranz-Otaegui. "We used to think that the first bread appeared during the Neolithic times, when people started to cultivate cereal, but it now seems they learned to make bread earlier." When you think about it, the idea that early humans learned to bake before settling down to farm is logical, the researchers behind the finding say. Making bread is a labor-intensive process that involves removing husks, grinding cereals, kneading the dough and then baking it. The fact that our ancestors were willing to invest so much effort into the prehistoric pastry suggests that they considered bread a special treat. Baking bread could have been reserved for special occasions or to impress important guests. The people's desire to indulge more often may have prompted them to begin cultivating cereals. "In our opinion, instead of domesticating cereals first, the bread-making culture could have been something that actually fueled the domestication of cereal," says Gonzalez Carretero. "So maybe it was the other way around [from what we previously thought.]" The research appears in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Andreas Heiss, an archaeologist at the Austrian Academy of Science who is familiar with the project but not directly involved in the study, finds the discovery "thrilling." He says it shows that ancient tribes were quite adept at food-making techniques, and developed them earlier than we had given them credit for. "It tells us that our ancestors were smart people who knew how to use their environment well," Heiss says. "It also tells us that processing food is a much more basic technique in human history than we thought — maybe as old as hunting and gathering." As the team analyzed the crumbs further, they found out that the Natufians were sophisticated cooks. Their flour was made from two different types of ingredients — wild wheat called einkorn and the roots of club-rush tubers, a type of a flowering plant. That particular combination allowed them to make pliable elastic dough that could be pressed onto the walls of their fireplace pits, much like flatbreads are baked today in tandoori ovens — and baked to perfection. Besides the einkorn and tubers, the team also found traces of barley and oats. The Natufians may have had rather developed taste buds, too. They liked to toss some spices and condiments into their dishes, particularly mustard seeds. "We found a lot of wild mustard seeds, not in the bread but in the overall assemblage," says Gonzalez Carretero. But, she adds, mustard seeds had also been found in some bread remains excavated from other sites, so it's possible that Natufians sprinkled a few on their own pastries. So far, the team has analyzed only 25 breadcrumbs with about 600 more to go, so they think chances are good that some charred pieces with mustard seeds might turn up. Arranz-Otaegui thinks it's possible. "The seeds have [a] very particular taste, so why not use them?" Exactly how delicious was this special Natufian treat? It's hard to tell. Modern-day bread recipes don't include ancient wheat or roots of tuberous plants. But Arranz-Otaegui does want to find out how the Epipaleolithic bread played on the palate. She has been gathering the einkorn seeds, as well as peeling and grinding the tubers. She plans to partner up with a skilled chef and baker to reconstruct the exact mixture in correct proportions. It will be the oldest bread recipe ever created by mankind. Lina Zeldovich is a science and food writer based in New York City.	1,270	ENGLISH	1
Mary Anne Wilson was born in London, England, on 22 September 1820 and died at Blenheim, New Zealand, on 18 July 1901. Her father's name was James Norris, but he assumed the name Wilson when he married Mary's mother, whose surname was Croft. Mary married James Whitney Griffiths, a chemist, in London on 16 December 1841 and they had two sons and a daughter. In August 1849 she and her two younger children left England on the Pekin. They arrived in Nelson in January 1850. Mary Griffiths was described on the ship's passenger list as a widow but it is almost certain her husband was still alive and that she had left him on account of his cruelty. On 5 December 1851 at Nelson, having ascertained Griffiths's death, she married Stephen Lunn Müller, a widowed doctor with four children, who had also come to New Zealand on the Pekin. In 1857 the family moved from Nelson to Blenheim, where Stephen Müller took up the position of resident magistrate. There they were joined by Mary's eldest son. Mary Müller had a keen sense of the legal and political disabilities of women, based on personal experience. Her first and greatest concern was that, on marriage, women lost all rights to own and control property. Her second concern was that women were not able to vote. In 1864 she met the English women's rights advocate, Maria Rye, who was visiting New Zealand, and from then on closely observed the course of the women's rights movement in Great Britain and the United States. She began, under the pen name 'Fémmina', to contribute articles on women's rights to the Nelson Examiner. Because of her husband's opposing views she had to work 'like a mole'. The editor of the Nelson Examiner, Charles Elliott, was a friend and relative by marriage of Mary Müller. He saw that the articles were widely distributed and soon her influence extended well beyond Nelson. In 1869 she wrote the first pamphlet on the woman's vote published in New Zealand, An appeal to the men of New Zealand. In it she argued that women should not be discriminated against in law or politics on grounds of their sex, that they had as just a claim to the vote as men, and that without political rights they could not make their full contribution to the progress of the nation. 'How long', she asked, 'are women to remain a wholly unrepresented body of the people?' She urged men to take the initiative in electoral reform and made a special plea to parliamentarians: 'Women's eyes turn in hope – nay trust – on some leading spirits who will not fail them.' In 1870 Mary Müller received a letter of congratulation from John Stuart Mill, to whom she had sent a copy of her pamphlet. Mill urged her to form a committee to work for the vote, but she was unable to act publicly. However, she subsequently met and influenced politicians, notably Alfred Saunders and William Fox. Acts to protect the property of married women were passed in 1870 and 1884, and in 1893 women won the vote. Mary Müller witnessed these reforms with pleasure and in 1898 she wrote to leading suffragist Kate Sheppard: 'Old & failing, it is cheering to watch the efforts of the younger and abler women striving bravely to succeed in obtaining rights so long unjustly withheld'. In December 1898, seven and a half years after her husband's death, her identity as 'Fémmina' was finally revealed. She then became known, through the writings of Kate Sheppard, as New Zealand's pioneer suffragist.	<urn:uuid:aa36e608-8a74-4f74-881a-c695de834efe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/1m59/muller-mary-anne/print	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00193.warc.gz	en	0.989203	743	3.53125	4	[ 0.15980803966522217, -0.09970556944608688, 0.169269859790802, -0.1191694587469101, 0.0630921944975853, 0.15467026829719543, -0.14355352520942688, -0.3669426143169403, 0.08533817529678345, 0.3308159112930298, -0.09766790270805359, 0.07659369707107544, 0.22398585081100464, 0.3742781579494476...	4	Mary Anne Wilson was born in London, England, on 22 September 1820 and died at Blenheim, New Zealand, on 18 July 1901. Her father's name was James Norris, but he assumed the name Wilson when he married Mary's mother, whose surname was Croft. Mary married James Whitney Griffiths, a chemist, in London on 16 December 1841 and they had two sons and a daughter. In August 1849 she and her two younger children left England on the Pekin. They arrived in Nelson in January 1850. Mary Griffiths was described on the ship's passenger list as a widow but it is almost certain her husband was still alive and that she had left him on account of his cruelty. On 5 December 1851 at Nelson, having ascertained Griffiths's death, she married Stephen Lunn Müller, a widowed doctor with four children, who had also come to New Zealand on the Pekin. In 1857 the family moved from Nelson to Blenheim, where Stephen Müller took up the position of resident magistrate. There they were joined by Mary's eldest son. Mary Müller had a keen sense of the legal and political disabilities of women, based on personal experience. Her first and greatest concern was that, on marriage, women lost all rights to own and control property. Her second concern was that women were not able to vote. In 1864 she met the English women's rights advocate, Maria Rye, who was visiting New Zealand, and from then on closely observed the course of the women's rights movement in Great Britain and the United States. She began, under the pen name 'Fémmina', to contribute articles on women's rights to the Nelson Examiner. Because of her husband's opposing views she had to work 'like a mole'. The editor of the Nelson Examiner, Charles Elliott, was a friend and relative by marriage of Mary Müller. He saw that the articles were widely distributed and soon her influence extended well beyond Nelson. In 1869 she wrote the first pamphlet on the woman's vote published in New Zealand, An appeal to the men of New Zealand. In it she argued that women should not be discriminated against in law or politics on grounds of their sex, that they had as just a claim to the vote as men, and that without political rights they could not make their full contribution to the progress of the nation. 'How long', she asked, 'are women to remain a wholly unrepresented body of the people?' She urged men to take the initiative in electoral reform and made a special plea to parliamentarians: 'Women's eyes turn in hope – nay trust – on some leading spirits who will not fail them.' In 1870 Mary Müller received a letter of congratulation from John Stuart Mill, to whom she had sent a copy of her pamphlet. Mill urged her to form a committee to work for the vote, but she was unable to act publicly. However, she subsequently met and influenced politicians, notably Alfred Saunders and William Fox. Acts to protect the property of married women were passed in 1870 and 1884, and in 1893 women won the vote. Mary Müller witnessed these reforms with pleasure and in 1898 she wrote to leading suffragist Kate Sheppard: 'Old & failing, it is cheering to watch the efforts of the younger and abler women striving bravely to succeed in obtaining rights so long unjustly withheld'. In December 1898, seven and a half years after her husband's death, her identity as 'Fémmina' was finally revealed. She then became known, through the writings of Kate Sheppard, as New Zealand's pioneer suffragist.	792	ENGLISH	1
The 6th Army was a designation for a German field army that saw action in World War II. The 6th Army is best known for fighting in the Battle of Stalingrad during which it became the first entire German field army to be destroyed. After the battle of Stalingrad, approximately 107,800 soldiers of the 6th Army entered Soviet captivity, of which only about 6,000 survived the captivity. Originally numbered as the 10th Army, this combat unit was formed on 10 October 1939 with General Walther von Reichenau in command. Its primary mission was to guard the western defenses of Germany against British and French attacks during the Polish campaign. During the invasion of the Low Countries the 6th Army saw active service linking up with paratroopers and destroying fortifications at Eben Emael, Liège, and Namur during the Battle of Belgium. The 6th Army was then involved in the breakthrough of the Paris defences on 12 June 1940, before acting as a northern flank for German forces along the Normandy coast during the closing stages of the Battle of France.	<urn:uuid:fcd61110-42a8-40a1-aea6-3c164054efb6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wn.com/6th_Army_Wehrmacht?upload_time=all_time&orderby=relevance	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00188.warc.gz	en	0.984373	218	3.625	4	[ -0.12675918638706207, 0.6450104117393494, 0.16311301290988922, -0.21202895045280457, 0.051703836768865585, 0.005242601037025452, 0.005058002192527056, 0.1276843398809433, -0.15626481175422668, -0.27536267042160034, 0.3559994399547577, -0.6704698801040649, 0.2537044286727905, 0.398153334856...	1	The 6th Army was a designation for a German field army that saw action in World War II. The 6th Army is best known for fighting in the Battle of Stalingrad during which it became the first entire German field army to be destroyed. After the battle of Stalingrad, approximately 107,800 soldiers of the 6th Army entered Soviet captivity, of which only about 6,000 survived the captivity. Originally numbered as the 10th Army, this combat unit was formed on 10 October 1939 with General Walther von Reichenau in command. Its primary mission was to guard the western defenses of Germany against British and French attacks during the Polish campaign. During the invasion of the Low Countries the 6th Army saw active service linking up with paratroopers and destroying fortifications at Eben Emael, Liège, and Namur during the Battle of Belgium. The 6th Army was then involved in the breakthrough of the Paris defences on 12 June 1940, before acting as a northern flank for German forces along the Normandy coast during the closing stages of the Battle of France.	246	ENGLISH	1
IN EUROPE, if you want to eat at a railway station, there are usually a couple of dreary sandwich bars and a barrow of fruit if you are lucky. In America, in the food hall in New York's Grand Central Station, there are outlets selling Chinese, Italian (three), sushi, Indian, Kosher, German, children's food, and much more: some 30 food outlets, plus an auditorium with a kitchen on a stage, promising four days of culinary demonstrations. Why wouldn't you get fat in America? Yet it is not obvious that getting fat is a natural response to plenty. Animals rarely get fat, even when food is abundant, unless they are old and domesticated. Young animals almost never get fat. Young people do all too frequently. Humans have around ten times as many fat cells in relation to their body mass as most other animals. Polar bears are similarly off the curve, but then they have good reason to be fat: they need insulation and go for long periods without food. Pigs are well-padded, but they were bred for it. Perhaps humans were bred for it too. That is what the thrifty-gene theory suggests. It was thought up by James Neel, a geneticist, in 1962, as he was seeking an explanation for the extreme porkiness of the Pima Indians. He postulated that they were fat because of the bad times their tribe had been through. They were minding their own business in Mexico and Arizona in the 19th century when incoming farmers disrupted their water supply. Some Pima starved and many were malnourished. Those who survived, suggested Neel, did so because they had some innate advantage—a thrifty gene that meant they were particularly good at storing energy. Their descendants inherited a trait that became a burden, not a benefit. Andrew Prentice, professor of international nutrition at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, reckons that the thrifty gene is widespread among the human race. He puts it down to agriculture. Hunter-gatherers, he argues, did not much need a thrifty gene. They may not have had the plenty that agriculture could provide, but they were few and their food supply flexible. However, after man settled down to farming around 12,000 years ago, the population grew, and soon lots of people depended on a small range of crops in a limited area. When the crops failed, disaster struck. And it did so often, and relatively recently, in Europe. In 1321, some 20% of English people are reckoned to have died of famine. There was cannibalism in 1563 and 151 famines were recorded in England before 1620, the year the Mayflower sailed to America. American genes may be especially thrifty. Some immigrants were survivors of disasters such as the Irish potato famine. They also had to survive the crossing and the business of making a new life, which wiped out plenty of weaker stock. From 104 passengers on the Mayflower, only 23 left descendants. That was mostly because of crop failures and starvation, relief from which Americans still celebrate at Thanksgiving. This article appeared in the Special report section of the print edition under the headline "Fatter than other animals"	<urn:uuid:6f9deebc-ddf6-4a8e-b62e-3b862ff233a6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.economist.com/special-report/2003/12/13/fatter-than-other-animals	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00137.warc.gz	en	0.984836	662	3.328125	3	[ -0.11262646317481995, 0.12380596995353699, 0.12696897983551025, 0.2911559045314789, 0.30294501781463623, 0.16383415460586548, -0.08871793001890182, 0.34319812059402466, -0.15752369165420532, 0.015289928764104843, 0.051975563168525696, -0.6467921733856201, 0.18445974588394165, 0.05644212663...	3	IN EUROPE, if you want to eat at a railway station, there are usually a couple of dreary sandwich bars and a barrow of fruit if you are lucky. In America, in the food hall in New York's Grand Central Station, there are outlets selling Chinese, Italian (three), sushi, Indian, Kosher, German, children's food, and much more: some 30 food outlets, plus an auditorium with a kitchen on a stage, promising four days of culinary demonstrations. Why wouldn't you get fat in America? Yet it is not obvious that getting fat is a natural response to plenty. Animals rarely get fat, even when food is abundant, unless they are old and domesticated. Young animals almost never get fat. Young people do all too frequently. Humans have around ten times as many fat cells in relation to their body mass as most other animals. Polar bears are similarly off the curve, but then they have good reason to be fat: they need insulation and go for long periods without food. Pigs are well-padded, but they were bred for it. Perhaps humans were bred for it too. That is what the thrifty-gene theory suggests. It was thought up by James Neel, a geneticist, in 1962, as he was seeking an explanation for the extreme porkiness of the Pima Indians. He postulated that they were fat because of the bad times their tribe had been through. They were minding their own business in Mexico and Arizona in the 19th century when incoming farmers disrupted their water supply. Some Pima starved and many were malnourished. Those who survived, suggested Neel, did so because they had some innate advantage—a thrifty gene that meant they were particularly good at storing energy. Their descendants inherited a trait that became a burden, not a benefit. Andrew Prentice, professor of international nutrition at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, reckons that the thrifty gene is widespread among the human race. He puts it down to agriculture. Hunter-gatherers, he argues, did not much need a thrifty gene. They may not have had the plenty that agriculture could provide, but they were few and their food supply flexible. However, after man settled down to farming around 12,000 years ago, the population grew, and soon lots of people depended on a small range of crops in a limited area. When the crops failed, disaster struck. And it did so often, and relatively recently, in Europe. In 1321, some 20% of English people are reckoned to have died of famine. There was cannibalism in 1563 and 151 famines were recorded in England before 1620, the year the Mayflower sailed to America. American genes may be especially thrifty. Some immigrants were survivors of disasters such as the Irish potato famine. They also had to survive the crossing and the business of making a new life, which wiped out plenty of weaker stock. From 104 passengers on the Mayflower, only 23 left descendants. That was mostly because of crop failures and starvation, relief from which Americans still celebrate at Thanksgiving. This article appeared in the Special report section of the print edition under the headline "Fatter than other animals"	686	ENGLISH	1
- Firstly, a definition of a "lai" (or "lay/leich" depending on your language preference): Essentially, a lai is a poetic/musical form that was popular in the Medieval period, especially in France and Germany. It is a rhymed poem; certain rhyme schemes were common but overall the structure was in some ways less rigid (or, at least it seems, less rigidly adhered to) than many other poetic forms we might study today, such as a sonnet or a limerick. Marie de France's lais did not utilize the traditional musical setting, and differed in that they told stories, much like fables. (I gleaned this information here) - Marie de France, from Britannica: She was the earliest known female French poet, which is pretty cool. Not much is known about her, however, though her title "de France" indicates that she was likely a Frenchwoman residing in England. - Marie de France, from encyclopedia.com: She is believed to have written between the years 1160 and 1210. Her reasons for coming to England remain a mystery, but could have been for marriage or her career (she was extremely well-connected in England's literary world!). She was quite well-educated, and well-respected in the royal courts of England. She was also extremely well-known for her fables, but it was her lais that earned her the respect of her contemporaries, and which are considered her greatest masterpiece. (A side note from my own personal knowledge from what I've learned in my classes: The lais deal with something called "courtly love" (amour courtois, in French!), which was a popular philosophy in her time. Courtly love had several rules, but perhaps the most important - and, I think, the one which most influenced her lais - was that being married was not considered an acceptable reason to forsake true love if it came along. I believe there has been some contention as to whether Marie upholds this idea, but the subject of infidelity is unquestionably one which she hoped to explore in her writing, as ten of her twelve lais include it.) - Marie de France, from New World Encyclopedia: This source states that she is believed to have been born in Normandy, France, and to have moved to England after her childhood. Additionally, it mentions that some have proposed that Marie may have been the illegitimate half-sister of King Henry II, which is a rumor I have seen mentioned elsewhere as well, and which would seemingly fit well with some other aspects of my research: her move to England and her astoundingly good connections there, her presence in the royal court, and her interest in infidelity as a subject matter. That said, there is not, to my knowledge, any evidence to support this, and so I will file it under numerous other unsupported rumors I have come across as to her life (I have also heard that others believe she was a nun or abbess! Quite the difference, no?). There are only five known manuscripts existing that include her lais, and only one of them includes all twelve. Her lais range from 118-1184 lines long, and they are told in octosyllabic rhyming couplets. She also wrote 103 fables. This source includes a list of famous Marie's from that time who could have possibly been her, including the king's half-sister and multiple abbesses, but, of course, no one knows for sure. So we simply call her Marie de France, after a line she wrote: "Marie ai nun, si sui de France," which translates from Old French to mean, "My name is Marie, I am from France." \|Painting of the main characters in Marie de France's lai, "Chevrefoil"(which translates to "honeysuckle") by Edmund Blair Leighton\|	<urn:uuid:edcdb3f2-d5d7-4a14-b3eb-89efb0d30bf1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mythclass996.blogspot.com/2019/09/week-six-storybook-lab.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00058.warc.gz	en	0.988452	808	3.640625	4	[ 0.02489810436964035, -0.13865964114665985, 0.11983069777488708, 0.03818228840827942, 0.21269217133522034, 0.47985556721687317, 0.12758730351924896, 0.23943325877189636, 0.4859650135040283, -0.301841676235199, -0.08691779524087906, 0.1005825325846672, 0.27183473110198975, -0.135026142001152...	1	- Firstly, a definition of a "lai" (or "lay/leich" depending on your language preference): Essentially, a lai is a poetic/musical form that was popular in the Medieval period, especially in France and Germany. It is a rhymed poem; certain rhyme schemes were common but overall the structure was in some ways less rigid (or, at least it seems, less rigidly adhered to) than many other poetic forms we might study today, such as a sonnet or a limerick. Marie de France's lais did not utilize the traditional musical setting, and differed in that they told stories, much like fables. (I gleaned this information here) - Marie de France, from Britannica: She was the earliest known female French poet, which is pretty cool. Not much is known about her, however, though her title "de France" indicates that she was likely a Frenchwoman residing in England. - Marie de France, from encyclopedia.com: She is believed to have written between the years 1160 and 1210. Her reasons for coming to England remain a mystery, but could have been for marriage or her career (she was extremely well-connected in England's literary world!). She was quite well-educated, and well-respected in the royal courts of England. She was also extremely well-known for her fables, but it was her lais that earned her the respect of her contemporaries, and which are considered her greatest masterpiece. (A side note from my own personal knowledge from what I've learned in my classes: The lais deal with something called "courtly love" (amour courtois, in French!), which was a popular philosophy in her time. Courtly love had several rules, but perhaps the most important - and, I think, the one which most influenced her lais - was that being married was not considered an acceptable reason to forsake true love if it came along. I believe there has been some contention as to whether Marie upholds this idea, but the subject of infidelity is unquestionably one which she hoped to explore in her writing, as ten of her twelve lais include it.) - Marie de France, from New World Encyclopedia: This source states that she is believed to have been born in Normandy, France, and to have moved to England after her childhood. Additionally, it mentions that some have proposed that Marie may have been the illegitimate half-sister of King Henry II, which is a rumor I have seen mentioned elsewhere as well, and which would seemingly fit well with some other aspects of my research: her move to England and her astoundingly good connections there, her presence in the royal court, and her interest in infidelity as a subject matter. That said, there is not, to my knowledge, any evidence to support this, and so I will file it under numerous other unsupported rumors I have come across as to her life (I have also heard that others believe she was a nun or abbess! Quite the difference, no?). There are only five known manuscripts existing that include her lais, and only one of them includes all twelve. Her lais range from 118-1184 lines long, and they are told in octosyllabic rhyming couplets. She also wrote 103 fables. This source includes a list of famous Marie's from that time who could have possibly been her, including the king's half-sister and multiple abbesses, but, of course, no one knows for sure. So we simply call her Marie de France, after a line she wrote: "Marie ai nun, si sui de France," which translates from Old French to mean, "My name is Marie, I am from France." \|Painting of the main characters in Marie de France's lai, "Chevrefoil"(which translates to "honeysuckle") by Edmund Blair Leighton\|	810	ENGLISH	1
The concern of Canadians regarding Japan attacking Canada caused racism to begin in Canada. An attack in Pearl Harbor by the Japanese, made Canadian citizens to be scared of the Japanese immigrants that had been living in Canada for a long time. The fear caused Canada to force immigrants to go back to Japan, took away their belongings, moved them to concentration camps, etc. Even though the action that was taken against the Japanese was reasonable to the government, it is still debatable if this is a approved by the society now. Although some might agree with this being a justified act, it can be proven that it was a deed which was not acceptable and demonstrated inequality. It was a violation against the human rights along with being an act that showed discrimination and racism against the Japanese and impacted the future of the Japanese Canadians who were the victims of this internment. The Interment of the Japanese Canadians is a tremendous example of the violation of the human rights and freedoms. When the World War One began, the Canadian government decided to forcefully move all the Japanese immigrants out of the country. They were instructed to move to their homeland but as the majority of the immigrants were born and raised in Canada, therefore their homeland was Canada. These immigrants had nowhere to go, thus they stayed back in Canada and then were later unwillingly told to shift their residence. This unwanted group of Japanese Canadians were moved to Concentration Camps, even though they did not want to be there. This behavior of the Canadians expressed the contravention of the human rights and freedoms. Due to this, the Japanese lost their freedom to live freely and to live wherever they prefer to. Along with that, the Japanese lost the possession of their personal belongings. Before moving to the camps, they were told to pack up all their belongings and then they were later in possession of the government. Houses and Boats of these individuals were sold and the government was profited by it. This was not fair to the Japanese Canadians as they were the one who should have gotten the money. That was not the only thing that was unfair to these immigrants. When they reached the camps, they were separated from their families. Males and Females were separated and sent to accomplish a particular task, such as males would work in factories and females would cook for everyone. Although this might sound harmless but it was no less than slavery. Forcing these individuals to finish the work assigned for the government and not paying them for it, expressed a rude behavior and inequality. While the Canadians were more concerned about saving their homeland, they did not realize that a lot of human rights and freedoms were being violated.	<urn:uuid:486e3b07-1bc0-4c29-8ecc-5dd5bd575799>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fossilfinders.org/the-a-tremendous-example-of-the-violation-of-the/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00130.warc.gz	en	0.993661	523	3.953125	4	[ 0.04186056926846504, 0.23827412724494934, 0.06956762820482254, -0.024256497621536255, 0.18416786193847656, 0.1850695013999939, 0.3691706657409668, 0.5161919593811035, 0.08174796402454376, 0.3690560758113861, 0.37856051325798035, 0.07380543649196625, 0.1121918186545372, 0.4143519699573517, ...	1	The concern of Canadians regarding Japan attacking Canada caused racism to begin in Canada. An attack in Pearl Harbor by the Japanese, made Canadian citizens to be scared of the Japanese immigrants that had been living in Canada for a long time. The fear caused Canada to force immigrants to go back to Japan, took away their belongings, moved them to concentration camps, etc. Even though the action that was taken against the Japanese was reasonable to the government, it is still debatable if this is a approved by the society now. Although some might agree with this being a justified act, it can be proven that it was a deed which was not acceptable and demonstrated inequality. It was a violation against the human rights along with being an act that showed discrimination and racism against the Japanese and impacted the future of the Japanese Canadians who were the victims of this internment. The Interment of the Japanese Canadians is a tremendous example of the violation of the human rights and freedoms. When the World War One began, the Canadian government decided to forcefully move all the Japanese immigrants out of the country. They were instructed to move to their homeland but as the majority of the immigrants were born and raised in Canada, therefore their homeland was Canada. These immigrants had nowhere to go, thus they stayed back in Canada and then were later unwillingly told to shift their residence. This unwanted group of Japanese Canadians were moved to Concentration Camps, even though they did not want to be there. This behavior of the Canadians expressed the contravention of the human rights and freedoms. Due to this, the Japanese lost their freedom to live freely and to live wherever they prefer to. Along with that, the Japanese lost the possession of their personal belongings. Before moving to the camps, they were told to pack up all their belongings and then they were later in possession of the government. Houses and Boats of these individuals were sold and the government was profited by it. This was not fair to the Japanese Canadians as they were the one who should have gotten the money. That was not the only thing that was unfair to these immigrants. When they reached the camps, they were separated from their families. Males and Females were separated and sent to accomplish a particular task, such as males would work in factories and females would cook for everyone. Although this might sound harmless but it was no less than slavery. Forcing these individuals to finish the work assigned for the government and not paying them for it, expressed a rude behavior and inequality. While the Canadians were more concerned about saving their homeland, they did not realize that a lot of human rights and freedoms were being violated.	525	ENGLISH	1
Francis Key, a lawyer, was the composer of the "Star-Spangled Banner." The composition later became the national anthem. Key was born in Fredrick County, Maryland, in August 1779 to an affluent family. He studied at St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland where he graduated in 1796. At one point he considered joining the Episcopal priesthood. He later opted to pursue law. He studied with Judge Jeremiah Chase and then joined the bar in 1801. He set up a successful private law practice in Georgetown. Key represented several high profile clients including two associates of Aaron Burr, a former US Vice president against charges of treason. Due to his religion and faith, Key was not supportive of the War of 1812. However, he joined the Georgetown militia and took part in the Battle of Bladensburg in 1814 which was outside Washington, D.C. The War With The British The War of 1812 was as a result of anger at the British for interference in American Trade, the impressing of US sailors by the Royal Navy, as well as American ambition to expand westward. The US attained encouraging victories at the beginning of the war against distracted British forces who were engaged in a fight with France. After the win against Napoleon's forces, the British were able to turn their attention to North America. They soon attacked the capital of the United States and burnt government buildings with great significance. The Royal Navy then set their sights on the critical seaport of Baltimore. In September 1814, Key went to a British naval fleet that was near Baltimore to secure the release of William Beanes, a friend of his who had become a British prisoner during a previous battle. He managed to secure the release of his friend from the British under one condition; that they were not to leave the harbor until the Royal Navy was done conducting an attack on Baltimore. They guarded on an American Ship during the period of the attack. The Attack On Fort McHenry On a rainy September 13, the Royal Navy fired a downpour of rockets and shells on Fort McHenry at the Baltimore Harbor for 25 consecutive hours. Due to the intensity of the attack, Key thought the British would win as he watched the barrage of the Fort eight miles away. At the dawn of September 14, he saw the American Flag flying at the Fort signaling an American Victory. The sight inspired Key to compose the "Star Spangled Banner." His work was initially distributed under the title "Defense of Fort McHenry" before gaining its current title. British Links To The Star Spangled Banner Anthem Ironically, the tune to the composition was from a song of British origin titled "To Anacreon in Heaven." It was written by a British Composer by the name John Stafford Smith. It later became the Anacreontic Society's club anthem and a favorite drinking song. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:2ca32def-80a8-48e4-ac91-8798a80865c0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/who-wrote-the-star-spangled-banner.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00224.warc.gz	en	0.980137	649	3.5	4	[ -0.1576453000307083, 0.08955679833889008, 0.26982277631759644, -0.5695044994354248, -0.1018143743276596, 0.07211105525493622, 0.5346432328224182, -0.2705707550048828, 0.16586096584796906, -0.5385572910308838, -0.19109737873077393, -0.0035228533670306206, -0.145811527967453, -0.222608000040...	3	Francis Key, a lawyer, was the composer of the "Star-Spangled Banner." The composition later became the national anthem. Key was born in Fredrick County, Maryland, in August 1779 to an affluent family. He studied at St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland where he graduated in 1796. At one point he considered joining the Episcopal priesthood. He later opted to pursue law. He studied with Judge Jeremiah Chase and then joined the bar in 1801. He set up a successful private law practice in Georgetown. Key represented several high profile clients including two associates of Aaron Burr, a former US Vice president against charges of treason. Due to his religion and faith, Key was not supportive of the War of 1812. However, he joined the Georgetown militia and took part in the Battle of Bladensburg in 1814 which was outside Washington, D.C. The War With The British The War of 1812 was as a result of anger at the British for interference in American Trade, the impressing of US sailors by the Royal Navy, as well as American ambition to expand westward. The US attained encouraging victories at the beginning of the war against distracted British forces who were engaged in a fight with France. After the win against Napoleon's forces, the British were able to turn their attention to North America. They soon attacked the capital of the United States and burnt government buildings with great significance. The Royal Navy then set their sights on the critical seaport of Baltimore. In September 1814, Key went to a British naval fleet that was near Baltimore to secure the release of William Beanes, a friend of his who had become a British prisoner during a previous battle. He managed to secure the release of his friend from the British under one condition; that they were not to leave the harbor until the Royal Navy was done conducting an attack on Baltimore. They guarded on an American Ship during the period of the attack. The Attack On Fort McHenry On a rainy September 13, the Royal Navy fired a downpour of rockets and shells on Fort McHenry at the Baltimore Harbor for 25 consecutive hours. Due to the intensity of the attack, Key thought the British would win as he watched the barrage of the Fort eight miles away. At the dawn of September 14, he saw the American Flag flying at the Fort signaling an American Victory. The sight inspired Key to compose the "Star Spangled Banner." His work was initially distributed under the title "Defense of Fort McHenry" before gaining its current title. British Links To The Star Spangled Banner Anthem Ironically, the tune to the composition was from a song of British origin titled "To Anacreon in Heaven." It was written by a British Composer by the name John Stafford Smith. It later became the Anacreontic Society's club anthem and a favorite drinking song. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	667	ENGLISH	1
Are We Popular? Was Jesus popular? by Janice Ross Suitable for Key Stage 3 To consider what true, lasting popularity might look like. Preparation and materials - You will need to prearrange for 11 narrators to perform the short scene in the ‘Assembly’, Steps 7 and 8. - In the ‘Time for reflection’ part of the assembly, you will need the means to display the quotation by the Earl of Mansfield: ‘True popularity is not the popularity which is followed after, but the popularity which follows after.’ - Optional: you may wish to read the parable of the lost son, which is found in Luke 15.11-32. It is available at: https://tinyurl.com/l5kl8kf - Students at a high school were asked in a survey to complete the following statement: ‘People who are popular at school are . . .’ Ask the students how they would complete the sentence. Pause to allow time for thought. - Explain that you are going to read out a range of the top answers that were given in the survey. Ask the students to consider whether any of the answers match the ones that they had thought of. People who are popular at school are: - generous, open-minded and have lots of free time for parties - high achievers - involved in extra-curricular activities, especially sport - the ones who have the most friends and the most money - beautiful, from the way they wear their hair to their clothes, even to how they laugh - those who can make others laugh the most - their own people, self-confident - We might be able to identify from our answers that popularity sometimes depends on status and achievements, sometimes on personality and sometimes on a mixture of both. However, most of us would probably agree that we like to be popular. - Make the point that popularity can change from day to day. A brilliant football player can quickly become forgotten when new talent becomes more prominent. Likewise, a misunderstanding between friends could mean that, for a while, people turn against us. - There is a well-known story in the Bible called the parable of the lost son that reminds us of this. When wealth dwindles away and there is no money left for partying, our popularity can quickly disappear. Optional: you may wish to read the parable of the lost son, which is found in Luke 15.11-32. - Ask the students whether they think that Jesus was popular. You may wish to take answers. - Point out that on the day we call Palm Sunday, Jesus entered Jerusalem. Crowds lined the streets to welcome him, waving palm branches and throwing their coats down before him. Ask the prearranged narrators to come to the front and read the following lines. Narrator 1: I used to be blind, but Jesus healed me. Narrator 2: I had leprosy. People thought that I was unclean and might give them the disease, so I had to live separately from everyone. Jesus touched me and I was healed. Narrator 3: I wanted Jesus to bless my children and, even though he was exhausted, he took my little ones in his arms and said a prayer. Narrator 4: I was friendless because I was a tax collector, and not a very honest one at that. Jesus came to my house for a cup of tea. He changed my life! Narrator 5: I was a violent man. Jesus came all the way over the lake to set me free. - So, it seems that Jesus was pretty popular! However, a few days later, people seemed to have changed their minds. Narrator 6: Who does he think he is? Isn’t he just a carpenter’s son from Nazareth? Narrator 7: Some Messiah he is. He rode into Jerusalem on a donkey, for goodness’ sake! Narrator 8: He called me - ME: a learned Pharisee, an important religious leader - he called ME a hypocrite and a whitewashed pillar. Narrator 9: He eats with prostitutes and sinners. Narrator 10: He expects disciples to leave their jobs and follow him. Narrator 11: He talks about love, but I feel uncomfortable in his presence. His eyes seem to bore right through me. - Explain that Jesus did not strive to be popular. In fact, he was not interested in becoming popular. He tried to do what was right: to care for others and love people, even those who were unpopular and marginalized. Jesus said that he wanted to please his father in heaven. Sometimes, Jesus walked away from the crowds who had flocked to hear him to spend time alone with his father, God. For many, Jesus became popular through his humility, servanthood and care of the poor and weak, and the wisdom of his words. At the same time, these actions earned him many enemies. Time for reflection Explain that someone who had views about the meaning of popularity was the Earl of Mansfield, a British barrister, politician and judge who was noted for his reform of English law. He became the most powerful British law expert of the eighteenth century and said this: ‘True popularity is not the popularity which is followed after, but the popularity which follows after.’ Show the quotation by the Earl of Mansfield. Jesus would seem to be an example of someone with true popularity: he did not strive to be popular, but it would be true to say that popularity followed after him. Two thousand years after his death, Jesus has millions of followers all over the world. In some countries, Christians are persecuted for their belief in him. Some are put in prison; some are taken from their families and even killed. However, it seems that even the threat of persecution does not keep people from responding to Jesus’ message. Ask the students, ‘Would you agree that this is true popularity?’ Many people look on popularity as a goal worth striving for. Many others are struggling with fading popularity. Thank you for the example of Jesus, whose aim was to please only you. As we try to live his way and follow him, give us a solid sense of our worth in your eyes. Thank you that you know us and love us. Please be with anyone in the world today who is suffering for a religious belief. Please be close to them and keep them safe. ‘Popular’ from the musical Wicked, available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_uM8bUnlGQ (3.50 minutes long)	<urn:uuid:501b6129-9868-494f-8859-55cbcdf3af82>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.assemblies.org.uk/sec/3485/are-we-popular	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00410.warc.gz	en	0.982135	1,410	3.484375	3	[ -0.11374779790639877, -0.07435040175914764, 0.03499114513397217, -0.18437185883522034, 0.09086102992296219, 0.392244428396225, 0.31967294216156006, 0.19694852828979492, 0.32911938428878784, -0.10164730995893478, 0.30226248502731323, 0.03388993442058563, 0.33427947759628296, 0.0604181811213...	2	Are We Popular? Was Jesus popular? by Janice Ross Suitable for Key Stage 3 To consider what true, lasting popularity might look like. Preparation and materials - You will need to prearrange for 11 narrators to perform the short scene in the ‘Assembly’, Steps 7 and 8. - In the ‘Time for reflection’ part of the assembly, you will need the means to display the quotation by the Earl of Mansfield: ‘True popularity is not the popularity which is followed after, but the popularity which follows after.’ - Optional: you may wish to read the parable of the lost son, which is found in Luke 15.11-32. It is available at: https://tinyurl.com/l5kl8kf - Students at a high school were asked in a survey to complete the following statement: ‘People who are popular at school are . . .’ Ask the students how they would complete the sentence. Pause to allow time for thought. - Explain that you are going to read out a range of the top answers that were given in the survey. Ask the students to consider whether any of the answers match the ones that they had thought of. People who are popular at school are: - generous, open-minded and have lots of free time for parties - high achievers - involved in extra-curricular activities, especially sport - the ones who have the most friends and the most money - beautiful, from the way they wear their hair to their clothes, even to how they laugh - those who can make others laugh the most - their own people, self-confident - We might be able to identify from our answers that popularity sometimes depends on status and achievements, sometimes on personality and sometimes on a mixture of both. However, most of us would probably agree that we like to be popular. - Make the point that popularity can change from day to day. A brilliant football player can quickly become forgotten when new talent becomes more prominent. Likewise, a misunderstanding between friends could mean that, for a while, people turn against us. - There is a well-known story in the Bible called the parable of the lost son that reminds us of this. When wealth dwindles away and there is no money left for partying, our popularity can quickly disappear. Optional: you may wish to read the parable of the lost son, which is found in Luke 15.11-32. - Ask the students whether they think that Jesus was popular. You may wish to take answers. - Point out that on the day we call Palm Sunday, Jesus entered Jerusalem. Crowds lined the streets to welcome him, waving palm branches and throwing their coats down before him. Ask the prearranged narrators to come to the front and read the following lines. Narrator 1: I used to be blind, but Jesus healed me. Narrator 2: I had leprosy. People thought that I was unclean and might give them the disease, so I had to live separately from everyone. Jesus touched me and I was healed. Narrator 3: I wanted Jesus to bless my children and, even though he was exhausted, he took my little ones in his arms and said a prayer. Narrator 4: I was friendless because I was a tax collector, and not a very honest one at that. Jesus came to my house for a cup of tea. He changed my life! Narrator 5: I was a violent man. Jesus came all the way over the lake to set me free. - So, it seems that Jesus was pretty popular! However, a few days later, people seemed to have changed their minds. Narrator 6: Who does he think he is? Isn’t he just a carpenter’s son from Nazareth? Narrator 7: Some Messiah he is. He rode into Jerusalem on a donkey, for goodness’ sake! Narrator 8: He called me - ME: a learned Pharisee, an important religious leader - he called ME a hypocrite and a whitewashed pillar. Narrator 9: He eats with prostitutes and sinners. Narrator 10: He expects disciples to leave their jobs and follow him. Narrator 11: He talks about love, but I feel uncomfortable in his presence. His eyes seem to bore right through me. - Explain that Jesus did not strive to be popular. In fact, he was not interested in becoming popular. He tried to do what was right: to care for others and love people, even those who were unpopular and marginalized. Jesus said that he wanted to please his father in heaven. Sometimes, Jesus walked away from the crowds who had flocked to hear him to spend time alone with his father, God. For many, Jesus became popular through his humility, servanthood and care of the poor and weak, and the wisdom of his words. At the same time, these actions earned him many enemies. Time for reflection Explain that someone who had views about the meaning of popularity was the Earl of Mansfield, a British barrister, politician and judge who was noted for his reform of English law. He became the most powerful British law expert of the eighteenth century and said this: ‘True popularity is not the popularity which is followed after, but the popularity which follows after.’ Show the quotation by the Earl of Mansfield. Jesus would seem to be an example of someone with true popularity: he did not strive to be popular, but it would be true to say that popularity followed after him. Two thousand years after his death, Jesus has millions of followers all over the world. In some countries, Christians are persecuted for their belief in him. Some are put in prison; some are taken from their families and even killed. However, it seems that even the threat of persecution does not keep people from responding to Jesus’ message. Ask the students, ‘Would you agree that this is true popularity?’ Many people look on popularity as a goal worth striving for. Many others are struggling with fading popularity. Thank you for the example of Jesus, whose aim was to please only you. As we try to live his way and follow him, give us a solid sense of our worth in your eyes. Thank you that you know us and love us. Please be with anyone in the world today who is suffering for a religious belief. Please be close to them and keep them safe. ‘Popular’ from the musical Wicked, available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_uM8bUnlGQ (3.50 minutes long)	1,364	ENGLISH	1
Most school books of India list non-participation of Sikhs as one of the main reason for the failure of the 1857 Mutiny, some of them even go so far as to blame Sikhs for the failure. Question then arises – Why didn’t Sikhs join the 1857 mutiny? To understand the answer, one must re-visit the area from 1818 onwards; and the time period before the 1857 mutiny. By 1818, entire India was defeated by the British, but one area stood sovereign – all alone on the North West frontier of India – the Sikh kingdom of Ranjit Singh. Sikhs had over the years defeated the Mughals rulers several times, pushed away the Afghans, and the British did not dare to attack them as long as Ranjit Singh was alive. In 1838, Ranjit Singh died. Ranjit Singh was succeeded by his son, Maharaja Sher Singh, who took the kingdom to Laddakh and beyond. The Britishers could only watch in frustration as the Sikh armies stormed into Tibet and won parts of it. However, due to infighting amongst Sikhs there were a succession of assassinations of the rulers and a 9 year old son of Ranjit Singh, Duleep Singh, was hoisted as the king under the regency of his mother Maharani Jinda. - the British started attacking the Sikhs. Sikhs fought hard to retain their freedom. The Bengal Army of the British consisted of Bihari, Oudhi and Bengali soldiers from the Gangetic Plains. These soldiers of the British Bengal Army were known then in Punjab as Poorbias (or Hindustanis). - In the First Anglo Sikh war – the Sikhs were defeated and their territories in the Jullunder Doab were taken away by the British. The child Maharaja was made answerable to the Company Sarkar - Sikhs under Maharani Jinda did not bend down to the British and refused to kowtow to the British. By 1849, the situation between the Sikhs and British India had become untenable and the Sikhs challenged the British into an open war. If you ask me, I feel that Second Anglo Sikh War was an assertion of independence by the 12 year old Maharaja Duleep Singh and his mother, Maharani Jinda. (Why is it not called the First War of Independence? ) - It was fought bravely, but a governor of Khalsa kingdom, appointed by Ranjit Singh as incharge of Jammu and Kashmir, was bought over by the British, on promises of his own kingdom. At the Battle of Gujrat, the Sikhs were defeated decisively, the battle that marked the end of the Second Anglo Sikh war. After that defeat, the remaining Sikh soldiers were bitterly insulted by the Poorbias of the victorious British Bengal Army; their beloved horses were taken away by the Poorbias, Kirpans and Guns put into furnaces. It was a sad event in the Sikh psyche. Sikh cannons and soldiers were captured and paraded in Calcutta. After this war; the last independent kingdom of Indian sub-continent was ‘annexed’ to the British Empire. Reasons for Sikhs not joining the mutiny are many: Sikhs had nursed a justifiable grudge against the Poorbias who, despite the Sikhs having never given them any cause for offence, had by their betrayal and other overt and covert acts, helped the British during the Anglo-Sikh wars and later in the annexation of Punjab. The only battles that were fought to maintain sovereign dominance were the Anglo-Sikh battles – which, interestingly, were lost by Sikhs to the Purbias (Biharis, Bengalis and Oudhis). The 1857 Mutiny was primarily led by Poorbia soldiers. The British used the Sikh grievance against Poorbias (the Divide and Rule mainfestation). Kavi Khazan Singh in his work, ‘Jangnama Dilli‘, written in 1858, mentions that the Sikh participation against the Poorbia soldiers was in reaction to their boast that they had vanquished the Sikhs in 1845-46 and in 1848-49. Another contemporary observer noted: “The animosity between the Sikhs and the Poobias is notorious. The former gave out that they would not allow the latter to pass through their country. It was, therefore, determined to take advantage of this ill feeling and to stimulate it by the offer of rewards for every Hindostanee sepoy who should be captured. The bitter memories of Poorbia co-operation with the British were so fresh in Sikh minds that any coalition between the two became impossible.” In the above background, the reasons - The people who now claimed to be fighters for freedom were the same ((comprising Mangal Pandey’s 34th Bengal Infantry)) who, eight years earlier, had actively helped the British to usurp Sikh sovereignty, and to suppress Sikhs when the Sikhs were fighting for independence. - Sikhs had no leadership, after their kingdom was annexed and the Maharani was imprisoned while the twelve year old Maharaja had been kept isolated, almost in house-arrest under British guardians and later sent to England. - Moreover, Sikhs had fought for uprooting of Mughal rule for over 100 years from 1700s to 1800s. There was no way that they were going to support foisting up of a Mughal Emperor over them again in the shape of Bahadur Shah Zafar. 1857 was simply an uprising by pockets of sepoys, who were sporadically aided by a few local fiefdoms who wanted to further their own, respective interests. Also, one must not forget as summarised by Prof. Ganda Singh in “The Indian Mutiny Of 1857 And The Sikhs – Dr. Ganda Singh” “not only did the people of the Punjab, the Hindus, the Muslims, and the Sikhs kept aloof from the mutineers, but the people of Bengal, Madras, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Sindh, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir and the North-Western Frontier Province also did not join them. Some of them actually opposed them. Not only this. Out of the three Presidency Armies — Bengal, Madras and Bombay — it was only a part of the Bengal Army that had mutinied. The other parts fought on the side of the British Government to suppress it. The Madras and Bombay armies remained quiet and loyal. Evidently, the Poorbia soldiers had failed to win the sympathies of their own class of people in the south and south-west as in the west and north- west”. In his writings and speeches Jawaharlal Nehru maintained that “the revolt of 1857 was a feudal outburst headed by feudal chiefs, and their followers and aided by others”. He did not deny the popular character of the revolt, though he did not call it national. R.C. Majumdar, in his study “The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857” (1857) proclaimed that “the revolt of 1857 was neither national, nor war nor of independence”. If not for Poorbia support to British in 1849, the war of independence of Sikhs would have invigorated and liberated rest of India in 1849 itself. If not for Sikh support to British in 1857, the liberation process would have been accelarated too. However, one must appreciate that our ancestors, be they from the Hindi heartland, or from Punjab – they tried to do their best in protecting their families, their lands, their businesses and their livelihoods in the midst of the world collapsing around them. There is no point in assessing their actions, or inactions, wearing the coloured glasses of today. They did not have the hindsight wisdom of history, they lived in that present. And hence, while Poorbias need to be empathised and condoned for their relentless support to British in 1846-1849, Sikhs need to be empathised and condoned for their support to British in 1857. A. After the war the Punjab was annexed to the East India Company’s territories and Duleep Singh was deposed to Britain, where he again rebelled. Who knows about his rebellion? Anyone? B. Also the questions that arise, if one cares to ask: - Why did Rajputs not participate in 1857? - Why did Marathas help British in defeating Tatya Tope? - Why was the revolt limited to parts of Uttar Pradesh and Delhi only? - Why did’nt Kerala participate in the mutiny? - and so on…Hyderabad? Mysore? Oriyas? - Why only single out the Sikhs as a reason for the failure of the mutiny?	<urn:uuid:b9eb4ac4-d6f2-48d3-b39c-fd3051902665>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kulveersamra.wordpress.com/2019/02/20/sikhs-and-the-1857-mutiny/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00158.warc.gz	en	0.983803	1,863	3.59375	4	[ -0.16420096158981323, 0.21489393711090088, 0.13111233711242676, -0.21029427647590637, -0.44555187225341797, -0.18887360394001007, 0.04966296628117561, 0.1567753106355667, 0.012260086834430695, -0.22270897030830383, 0.3014129400253296, -0.5457812547683716, 0.027874084189534187, 0.3357426226...	1	Most school books of India list non-participation of Sikhs as one of the main reason for the failure of the 1857 Mutiny, some of them even go so far as to blame Sikhs for the failure. Question then arises – Why didn’t Sikhs join the 1857 mutiny? To understand the answer, one must re-visit the area from 1818 onwards; and the time period before the 1857 mutiny. By 1818, entire India was defeated by the British, but one area stood sovereign – all alone on the North West frontier of India – the Sikh kingdom of Ranjit Singh. Sikhs had over the years defeated the Mughals rulers several times, pushed away the Afghans, and the British did not dare to attack them as long as Ranjit Singh was alive. In 1838, Ranjit Singh died. Ranjit Singh was succeeded by his son, Maharaja Sher Singh, who took the kingdom to Laddakh and beyond. The Britishers could only watch in frustration as the Sikh armies stormed into Tibet and won parts of it. However, due to infighting amongst Sikhs there were a succession of assassinations of the rulers and a 9 year old son of Ranjit Singh, Duleep Singh, was hoisted as the king under the regency of his mother Maharani Jinda. - the British started attacking the Sikhs. Sikhs fought hard to retain their freedom. The Bengal Army of the British consisted of Bihari, Oudhi and Bengali soldiers from the Gangetic Plains. These soldiers of the British Bengal Army were known then in Punjab as Poorbias (or Hindustanis). - In the First Anglo Sikh war – the Sikhs were defeated and their territories in the Jullunder Doab were taken away by the British. The child Maharaja was made answerable to the Company Sarkar - Sikhs under Maharani Jinda did not bend down to the British and refused to kowtow to the British. By 1849, the situation between the Sikhs and British India had become untenable and the Sikhs challenged the British into an open war. If you ask me, I feel that Second Anglo Sikh War was an assertion of independence by the 12 year old Maharaja Duleep Singh and his mother, Maharani Jinda. (Why is it not called the First War of Independence? ) - It was fought bravely, but a governor of Khalsa kingdom, appointed by Ranjit Singh as incharge of Jammu and Kashmir, was bought over by the British, on promises of his own kingdom. At the Battle of Gujrat, the Sikhs were defeated decisively, the battle that marked the end of the Second Anglo Sikh war. After that defeat, the remaining Sikh soldiers were bitterly insulted by the Poorbias of the victorious British Bengal Army; their beloved horses were taken away by the Poorbias, Kirpans and Guns put into furnaces. It was a sad event in the Sikh psyche. Sikh cannons and soldiers were captured and paraded in Calcutta. After this war; the last independent kingdom of Indian sub-continent was ‘annexed’ to the British Empire. Reasons for Sikhs not joining the mutiny are many: Sikhs had nursed a justifiable grudge against the Poorbias who, despite the Sikhs having never given them any cause for offence, had by their betrayal and other overt and covert acts, helped the British during the Anglo-Sikh wars and later in the annexation of Punjab. The only battles that were fought to maintain sovereign dominance were the Anglo-Sikh battles – which, interestingly, were lost by Sikhs to the Purbias (Biharis, Bengalis and Oudhis). The 1857 Mutiny was primarily led by Poorbia soldiers. The British used the Sikh grievance against Poorbias (the Divide and Rule mainfestation). Kavi Khazan Singh in his work, ‘Jangnama Dilli‘, written in 1858, mentions that the Sikh participation against the Poorbia soldiers was in reaction to their boast that they had vanquished the Sikhs in 1845-46 and in 1848-49. Another contemporary observer noted: “The animosity between the Sikhs and the Poobias is notorious. The former gave out that they would not allow the latter to pass through their country. It was, therefore, determined to take advantage of this ill feeling and to stimulate it by the offer of rewards for every Hindostanee sepoy who should be captured. The bitter memories of Poorbia co-operation with the British were so fresh in Sikh minds that any coalition between the two became impossible.” In the above background, the reasons - The people who now claimed to be fighters for freedom were the same ((comprising Mangal Pandey’s 34th Bengal Infantry)) who, eight years earlier, had actively helped the British to usurp Sikh sovereignty, and to suppress Sikhs when the Sikhs were fighting for independence. - Sikhs had no leadership, after their kingdom was annexed and the Maharani was imprisoned while the twelve year old Maharaja had been kept isolated, almost in house-arrest under British guardians and later sent to England. - Moreover, Sikhs had fought for uprooting of Mughal rule for over 100 years from 1700s to 1800s. There was no way that they were going to support foisting up of a Mughal Emperor over them again in the shape of Bahadur Shah Zafar. 1857 was simply an uprising by pockets of sepoys, who were sporadically aided by a few local fiefdoms who wanted to further their own, respective interests. Also, one must not forget as summarised by Prof. Ganda Singh in “The Indian Mutiny Of 1857 And The Sikhs – Dr. Ganda Singh” “not only did the people of the Punjab, the Hindus, the Muslims, and the Sikhs kept aloof from the mutineers, but the people of Bengal, Madras, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Sindh, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir and the North-Western Frontier Province also did not join them. Some of them actually opposed them. Not only this. Out of the three Presidency Armies — Bengal, Madras and Bombay — it was only a part of the Bengal Army that had mutinied. The other parts fought on the side of the British Government to suppress it. The Madras and Bombay armies remained quiet and loyal. Evidently, the Poorbia soldiers had failed to win the sympathies of their own class of people in the south and south-west as in the west and north- west”. In his writings and speeches Jawaharlal Nehru maintained that “the revolt of 1857 was a feudal outburst headed by feudal chiefs, and their followers and aided by others”. He did not deny the popular character of the revolt, though he did not call it national. R.C. Majumdar, in his study “The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857” (1857) proclaimed that “the revolt of 1857 was neither national, nor war nor of independence”. If not for Poorbia support to British in 1849, the war of independence of Sikhs would have invigorated and liberated rest of India in 1849 itself. If not for Sikh support to British in 1857, the liberation process would have been accelarated too. However, one must appreciate that our ancestors, be they from the Hindi heartland, or from Punjab – they tried to do their best in protecting their families, their lands, their businesses and their livelihoods in the midst of the world collapsing around them. There is no point in assessing their actions, or inactions, wearing the coloured glasses of today. They did not have the hindsight wisdom of history, they lived in that present. And hence, while Poorbias need to be empathised and condoned for their relentless support to British in 1846-1849, Sikhs need to be empathised and condoned for their support to British in 1857. A. After the war the Punjab was annexed to the East India Company’s territories and Duleep Singh was deposed to Britain, where he again rebelled. Who knows about his rebellion? Anyone? B. Also the questions that arise, if one cares to ask: - Why did Rajputs not participate in 1857? - Why did Marathas help British in defeating Tatya Tope? - Why was the revolt limited to parts of Uttar Pradesh and Delhi only? - Why did’nt Kerala participate in the mutiny? - and so on…Hyderabad? Mysore? Oriyas? - Why only single out the Sikhs as a reason for the failure of the mutiny?	1,893	ENGLISH	1
Now that our talk is going to be centered on the theme “God is One,” let us clarify what we mean by “One” in this sentence. The word “one” in our daily conversation conveys any of the following meanings: 1. “Man” and “Horse” are one (because both are mammals). Here `one' describes that both man and horse belong to the same genus. 2. “Bakr” and “Smith” are one. `One' here shows that both are of the same species. 3. You say pointing to two carpenters that they are one. Here `one' means that both have the same profession, or the same adjective can be used for both. 4. Churchill was an orator, writer, soldier and statesman. You may say that his oratory, penmanship, soldiership and statesmanship were one, because they were combined in one person. 5. One pint milk and one pint water are ` one', because both have the same quantity. 6. Hot milk and hot water are `one', because both are in the same condition. 7. John and Smith are standing. You may say `They are one', because both are in the same position. 8. Khalid has two sons, Bakr and `Umar. Bakr and `Umar are one, because they have the same relation with Khalid. 9. A human-body or a chair is one because its components or parts are joined together. (But if the parts are disjoined or disintegrated, this `one' will become millions.) 10. The beginning of counting is called ` one', as the beginning of theoretical line is called point. This `one' is followed by countless numbers. 11. A matchless or unique person or thing is called one, as, for example, we may say that the sun within our solar system is ` one' because it has no equal within this system. But all these meanings of `Unity' carry the idea of `duality' or `plurality', because meanings nos. 1 to 9 show that `two' or `more' things are `one' in some respect. So `two' or ` more' are always present in these meanings. ` One' as beginning of number or count presupposes more than one thing. A unique thing may be called one, but it is just a metaphorical use which has no relation with reality, because that unique thing, being made of matter, has millions of parts - is not one. When we say `God is One', we take none of these meanings in consideration. Unity of God means that He has no parts, no body; He is not divisible even in imagination. God cannot be more than one. Why this bold assertion? There are various reasons. In addition to some of the proofs given earlier, here are two more: - First Proof: It has been proved earlier that God is Eternal. And also it has been proved that Eternal cannot be a compound, mixture or mixed thing. Now suppose there are two identical pens. They are similar in shape, size, colour and all qualities. Still, they are two, each having a separate identity. So, each pen has two kinds of qualities: first, the common qualities which make one pen similar to the other; second, the distinguishing qualities which give each pen its separate entity and identity. In other words, each pen of the set is a compound of mixed lot of two separate properties. This happens in all examples where two similar things exist side by side. It would surely happen if two Eternals were to exist side by side. It means that if there were two Eternals they would both be compound. Each would have a common quality, that is, Eternity; and a distinguishing quality which would give it a separate personality. This would mean that' Eternal would be a compound, which we already have proved to be impossible. Therefore, God being Eternal cannot be more than one. Second Proof: Suppose there were two gods. Could one of them over-ride the decision of the other? If yes, then the second one is weaker than the first, and therefore is not omnipotent, not a god at all. If `No', then the first one is weaker than the second, and therefore not omnipotent, not a god at all. And if both think and act exactly on similar lines, then what is the need to suppose two gods at all? One god is enough to run this universe! 'Shirk' literally means `partnership'. In Islamic terminology, it is used for the belief of ` polytheism' (believing in more than one god) and `pantheism', (believing that everything in the world is a part of god). Polytheism is found in a variety of disguises. Some details are given here mostly from the Urdu book Tawhid awr `adl (Unity and Justice of God) of Mawlana Muhammad Mustafa Jawhar of Karachi: “There is some difference of opinion about `oneness' of God. For example: “1. Some say that God is not alone in Eternity. He has some colleagues in His Eternity. As, for instance, Christians believe that Jesus Christ and Holy Ghost are partners of God in godship - and it is evident that they could not be said to be partners in godship unless they themselves were believed to be eternal. “And the believers in -transmigration of soul believe that matter and soul both were eternal like God. If they discard the belief of the eternity of matter and soul, they will have to discard the belief of the transmigration of soul also. “2. Resulting from the above belief, is the belief that there are partners in the attributes and qualities of God, as Christians believe about Jesus Christ. Because if Jesus Christ was not sharing the attributes and qualities of godhead, he could not be called a god. “3. Some groups believe that there were partners in the actions of God, i.e., they were his helpers or partners in creation and control of the universe, as the Greek philosophers believed in `ten intellects' who created the whole universe. “4. Some people believe and say that God has no partner in his eternity, qualities and actions, but he has partners in worship. Such people are mainly called “mushrik ” in the Qur'anic terminology. “Such mushriks were the idol-worshippers of Arabia and their ideology is shared by the idol-worshippers in India and other places. “5. The last group is of those people who thought that God has no partner in his Eternity, attributes, actions and worship; but they believed themselves to be independent of Allah in their actions. Such was the case of ` al-Qadiriyyah' (Qadirites) in Islam, who said that Allah had no power over man's actions. Such belief means that man is not dependent upon Allah; rather he shares in the authority of Allah concerning his own activities. ” Thus there are five types of shirk: (1) shirk in the person and Eternity of God, (2) shirk in the Attributes of God, (3) shirk in the Action of God, (4) shirk in the worship of God, and (5) shirk in the Authority of God. All such beliefs are vehemently and clearly rejected and refuted in the Qur'an. Chapter 7 and 9 contain a discussion of the Holy Prophet with atheists. It was a part of a great discussion in which thirty-five rep resentatives of five religions (Jews, Christians, Atheists, Dualists that is Parsecs, and Polytheists that is mushrikin) came to him' and held discussions with him. In the ,end all accepted the truth of Islam and became Muslims. It is the ;beauty of the arguments put forward by the Holy Prophet that he explained highly philosophical subjects in such a simple language that even a layman could easily understand it. It is a master-piece of “Wisdom and good preaching.” By the way, there are people who assert day in day out that the Holy Prophet learned from Judaism and Christianity. This discussion is a challenge to them. Let them produce such irrefutable argument from Jewish and Christian literature of early centuries before Islam. It will not be out of place to mention that these apparently simple arguments hold their ground even today and they are as much valid today as they were 1,400 years ago. The discussion is narrated by Imam al-Hasan ibn `Ali al` Askari (p.b.u.h.) in his tafsir, (commentary), and al-`Allamah at-Tabarsi has copied it in his famous al-Ihtijaj (vol.I); it has been translated ( with short comments) into Urdu by Mawlana Muhammad Mustafa `Jawhar' of Karachi and published twice. All three books are in my library. The Holy Prophet had started his talks with Jews, then went on conversing with Christians, atheists, dualists and lastly_ with idolworshippers. Because of the arrangement of this booklet the arguments against atheists were given in the first part. Now the remaining four discussions are given here. Jews of Arabia in the days of Holy Prophet had lost their original beliefs. Being in touch with idol-worshippers and Christians, they also had started the dogma of God having a son. As `Uzayr1 had re-written Torah after it had been 1. The Holy Prophet: “Why `Uzayr was son of God and Moses was not, as Moses brought Torah from God for the first time and bringing it first time is far more important than rewriting it? “Moreover, Moses showed many miracles which `Uzayr did not show. Therefore, if `Uzayr was son of God because God gave him the honour of re-writing Torah, Moses is far more deserving to be the son of God. “Also, I take it that by sonship you do not mean that relationship which is established when a child is born from the womb of his mother after his parents establish sexual intercourse.” Jews confirmed it, saying that when they said that `Uzayr was son of God, they did not mean sonship by birth, but because of his honour with God. It has the same meaning as many teachers call their favourite pupil “my son ”. The Holy Prophet said that he already had answered that argument when he said that by that standard Moses was more deserving to be called the son of God. And so far as the example of an elder calling some unrelated youth as “my son” is concerned, let us look at such uses a bit further. You must have seen that the same elder, while showing respect to some great scholar, calls him “my brother” or “my elder” or “my chief” or even “my father”. Basing on such usage, will you say that Moses (who was more honoured than `Uzayr before God) should be called “Brother of God” or “Elder of God” or “Chief of God?” The Jews could not answer it and after some deliberation accepted Islam. Christians had expressed their belief that God is one with Jesus and that Jesus was son of God. The Holy Prophet asked them what they meant by saying that eternal God is one with his son Jesus? “Do you mean that the eternal (that is, God) became mortal as Jesus was? “If you say so, it is impossible that eternal which has neither beginning nor end should become mortal, which has both beginning and end. Or do you mean that mortal (Jesus) became eternal as God is ? “But this also is impossible, because how can a thing which was created after non-existence be eternal ? “Or do you mean by this sentence (God is one with Jesus) that God gave Jesus honour which was not given to anyone else? “If so, then you will have to accept that Jesus was not eternal, as he was created; and that his quality of getting honour from God is also not eternal, because he got it after his being created. And in that case, Jesus cannot be one with God because eternal and transient cannot combine together.” Christians: “When God showed many wonderful miracles on the hand of Jesus, He made him His son as an honour.” The Holy Prophet drew their attention to what he had already told Jews on the subject of ` Uzayr and sonship of God, and repeated that argument. The Christians could not answer the arguments. Then after some deliberation one of them said that the scriptures have reported Jesus as saying, “I am going to my father.” (This argument is based on the understanding that Jesus himself claimed that God was his father, and as the Holy Prophet accepted Jesus as a true prophet, his claim could not be wrong). The Holy Prophet said that the wording They said: “We find two kinds of things in this world - good and evil. These are opposites and we believe that the creator of good cannot be the creator of evil, and vice versa. These two opposites cannot be found together. “Don't you see that snow cannot give warmth and fire cannot make cool? That is why we believe two separate creators for good and evil and they are represented by light and darkness and both are eternal.” The Holy Prophet said: “Pray tell me, have not you found in this world different colours-black, white, red, yellow, green and blue? Is it not a fact that none of these colours can be found with another colour in same place at same time?” Dualists: “Yes. No two of these colours can be found in one place at same time.” The Holy Prophet said: Then, according to your thinking, you must believe that there is a separate creator for each one of these colours.” The Dualists could not give any answer to that argument. Then the Holy Prophet asked them that light and darkness being opposites, how did it happen that both joined hands in creation and their creatures (good and evil) are together in this world? Doesn't it mean that there is a Superior power who has brought these opposites together? They took time pondering upon these points and finally accepted Islam. Then the Holy Prophet asked the idol worshippers why they worshipped the idols instead of the one Almighty God. They said: “We seek to be nearer to God through these idols.” The Holy Prophet: “Do these idols hear? Are they pious and obedient servants of God? How can you seek nearness to God through them ? ” Idol-worshippers: “No. They do not hear.” Holy Prophet: “And the fact is that you have carved these idols by your own hands. So, if these had ability to worship, it was incumbent upon them to worship you (because you are their creator) not that you should worship them. “Moreover, God has never allowed you to worship idols (so how can you be nearer to God through these idols, without any authority from God?).” On hearing this argument, the idol-worshippers split into three groups:- One group said: “These are the images of those persons in whom God was incarnated. Thus we worship God by worshipping the im ages of those persons who were incarnation of God. ” The Holy Prophet said: 1. ” Your belief that God was incarnated in anybody is absolutely wrong because you have made the Creator like His creatures. Don't you see that God cannot be incarnated in anything unless that thing surrounds God. (But how can anything surround God?) 2. “Also what will be the difference between God and other things which are found in a body (like colour, taste, smell, hardness or softness, heaviness or lightness). All these things are found in other things, and have no independent existence. Is God also like this? 3. “Lastly, when you attribute to God a quality (incarnation) which is the quality of a transient (of a thing which was created after non-existence), then why not believe that all qualities of a transient are found in Him. I mean, you must also believe that God changes and deteriorates and dies, because the body of His supposed incarnation changes and deteriorates and dies. It is impossible for the content not to change with the changes of the receptacle! “All these considerations prove that it is impossible for God to be incarnated in any body. “And when incarnation is wrong, there remains no basis for your belief that God was incarnated in some of His creatures and that these idols are the image of such persons.” The second group said that those idols were the images of those of past generations who were very obedient to God. “He carved their images and worship them with a view to glorify God through their worship.” The Holy Prophet asked them: “Pray tell me what kind of worship have you saved for Almighty God, when you are worshipping these images by prostrating before them, praying to them, and putting your head before them? “Don't you know that it is the right of God that He should not be thought equal to His servant? If you honour a King in the same way as you honour his servant, will not it be an insult to the King? ” Idol-worshippers: “Yes. It is true.” The Holy Prophet: “Then, don't you realize that by worshipping the images of the. creatures, you are insulting the Creator ? ” the last group said: “God created Adam and ordered the angels to prostrate before him. We are more deserving to prostrate before Adam (because we are his children). As Adam is not alive today, we have carved his image to prostrate before it and to seek nearness to God through that worship.” the Holy Prophet told them: “Accepted that God ordered the angels to prostrate before Adam. But has He ordered you to prostrate before the image of Adam? Adam and his image are not one and same thing. How are you sure that God is riot displeased with your prostration before Adam's image? “Look at it in this way. If a man allows you to enter his house one day, do you have any right to enter that house next day? Or to enter his other house the same day ? “If a man gives you a gift of one of his clothes, or one of his horses, arc you justified in taking it?” Idol-worshippers: “Yes, we will take it.” The Holy Prophet: “If you don't accept that cloth or horse, do you halve any right to take his other cloth or horse without his permission ? ” Idol-worshippers: “No. Because he had gifted the first cloth or horse, but not the other.” The Holy Prophet: “Who has more right that his property should not be used without his permission: God or His creatures?” Idol-worshippers: “God has more right that His property should not be infringed upon.” The Holy Prophet: “Then why are you contravening this principle? When and where has God allowed you to worship the idols?” After some consideration, all of them became Muslim. - 1. ` Uzayr = `Esdras or Ezra in English. lost for centuries, Jews revered him very much and started the claim that `Uzayr was son of God. The Holy Prophet asked them what was the reason of their belief. They said that 'Uzayr re-wrote Torah for the children of Israel when it was lost to them and it shows that he was son of God.	<urn:uuid:11f983d1-02bb-403b-957e-113c98047753>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.al-islam.org/god-islamic-perspective-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/part-2-oneness-god	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00520.warc.gz	en	0.981044	4,267	3.65625	4	[ 0.023265959694981575, 0.033936548978090286, -0.18258458375930786, -0.11198517680168152, -0.7074443101882935, -0.26804643869400024, 0.7169955968856812, -0.011333285830914974, 0.37806475162506104, 0.09325384348630905, -0.16901397705078125, -0.4178456664085388, 0.13858625292778015, 0.02838860...	6	Now that our talk is going to be centered on the theme “God is One,” let us clarify what we mean by “One” in this sentence. The word “one” in our daily conversation conveys any of the following meanings: 1. “Man” and “Horse” are one (because both are mammals). Here `one' describes that both man and horse belong to the same genus. 2. “Bakr” and “Smith” are one. `One' here shows that both are of the same species. 3. You say pointing to two carpenters that they are one. Here `one' means that both have the same profession, or the same adjective can be used for both. 4. Churchill was an orator, writer, soldier and statesman. You may say that his oratory, penmanship, soldiership and statesmanship were one, because they were combined in one person. 5. One pint milk and one pint water are ` one', because both have the same quantity. 6. Hot milk and hot water are `one', because both are in the same condition. 7. John and Smith are standing. You may say `They are one', because both are in the same position. 8. Khalid has two sons, Bakr and `Umar. Bakr and `Umar are one, because they have the same relation with Khalid. 9. A human-body or a chair is one because its components or parts are joined together. (But if the parts are disjoined or disintegrated, this `one' will become millions.) 10. The beginning of counting is called ` one', as the beginning of theoretical line is called point. This `one' is followed by countless numbers. 11. A matchless or unique person or thing is called one, as, for example, we may say that the sun within our solar system is ` one' because it has no equal within this system. But all these meanings of `Unity' carry the idea of `duality' or `plurality', because meanings nos. 1 to 9 show that `two' or `more' things are `one' in some respect. So `two' or ` more' are always present in these meanings. ` One' as beginning of number or count presupposes more than one thing. A unique thing may be called one, but it is just a metaphorical use which has no relation with reality, because that unique thing, being made of matter, has millions of parts - is not one. When we say `God is One', we take none of these meanings in consideration. Unity of God means that He has no parts, no body; He is not divisible even in imagination. God cannot be more than one. Why this bold assertion? There are various reasons. In addition to some of the proofs given earlier, here are two more: - First Proof: It has been proved earlier that God is Eternal. And also it has been proved that Eternal cannot be a compound, mixture or mixed thing. Now suppose there are two identical pens. They are similar in shape, size, colour and all qualities. Still, they are two, each having a separate identity. So, each pen has two kinds of qualities: first, the common qualities which make one pen similar to the other; second, the distinguishing qualities which give each pen its separate entity and identity. In other words, each pen of the set is a compound of mixed lot of two separate properties. This happens in all examples where two similar things exist side by side. It would surely happen if two Eternals were to exist side by side. It means that if there were two Eternals they would both be compound. Each would have a common quality, that is, Eternity; and a distinguishing quality which would give it a separate personality. This would mean that' Eternal would be a compound, which we already have proved to be impossible. Therefore, God being Eternal cannot be more than one. Second Proof: Suppose there were two gods. Could one of them over-ride the decision of the other? If yes, then the second one is weaker than the first, and therefore is not omnipotent, not a god at all. If `No', then the first one is weaker than the second, and therefore not omnipotent, not a god at all. And if both think and act exactly on similar lines, then what is the need to suppose two gods at all? One god is enough to run this universe! 'Shirk' literally means `partnership'. In Islamic terminology, it is used for the belief of ` polytheism' (believing in more than one god) and `pantheism', (believing that everything in the world is a part of god). Polytheism is found in a variety of disguises. Some details are given here mostly from the Urdu book Tawhid awr `adl (Unity and Justice of God) of Mawlana Muhammad Mustafa Jawhar of Karachi: “There is some difference of opinion about `oneness' of God. For example: “1. Some say that God is not alone in Eternity. He has some colleagues in His Eternity. As, for instance, Christians believe that Jesus Christ and Holy Ghost are partners of God in godship - and it is evident that they could not be said to be partners in godship unless they themselves were believed to be eternal. “And the believers in -transmigration of soul believe that matter and soul both were eternal like God. If they discard the belief of the eternity of matter and soul, they will have to discard the belief of the transmigration of soul also. “2. Resulting from the above belief, is the belief that there are partners in the attributes and qualities of God, as Christians believe about Jesus Christ. Because if Jesus Christ was not sharing the attributes and qualities of godhead, he could not be called a god. “3. Some groups believe that there were partners in the actions of God, i.e., they were his helpers or partners in creation and control of the universe, as the Greek philosophers believed in `ten intellects' who created the whole universe. “4. Some people believe and say that God has no partner in his eternity, qualities and actions, but he has partners in worship. Such people are mainly called “mushrik ” in the Qur'anic terminology. “Such mushriks were the idol-worshippers of Arabia and their ideology is shared by the idol-worshippers in India and other places. “5. The last group is of those people who thought that God has no partner in his Eternity, attributes, actions and worship; but they believed themselves to be independent of Allah in their actions. Such was the case of ` al-Qadiriyyah' (Qadirites) in Islam, who said that Allah had no power over man's actions. Such belief means that man is not dependent upon Allah; rather he shares in the authority of Allah concerning his own activities. ” Thus there are five types of shirk: (1) shirk in the person and Eternity of God, (2) shirk in the Attributes of God, (3) shirk in the Action of God, (4) shirk in the worship of God, and (5) shirk in the Authority of God. All such beliefs are vehemently and clearly rejected and refuted in the Qur'an. Chapter 7 and 9 contain a discussion of the Holy Prophet with atheists. It was a part of a great discussion in which thirty-five rep resentatives of five religions (Jews, Christians, Atheists, Dualists that is Parsecs, and Polytheists that is mushrikin) came to him' and held discussions with him. In the ,end all accepted the truth of Islam and became Muslims. It is the ;beauty of the arguments put forward by the Holy Prophet that he explained highly philosophical subjects in such a simple language that even a layman could easily understand it. It is a master-piece of “Wisdom and good preaching.” By the way, there are people who assert day in day out that the Holy Prophet learned from Judaism and Christianity. This discussion is a challenge to them. Let them produce such irrefutable argument from Jewish and Christian literature of early centuries before Islam. It will not be out of place to mention that these apparently simple arguments hold their ground even today and they are as much valid today as they were 1,400 years ago. The discussion is narrated by Imam al-Hasan ibn `Ali al` Askari (p.b.u.h.) in his tafsir, (commentary), and al-`Allamah at-Tabarsi has copied it in his famous al-Ihtijaj (vol.I); it has been translated ( with short comments) into Urdu by Mawlana Muhammad Mustafa `Jawhar' of Karachi and published twice. All three books are in my library. The Holy Prophet had started his talks with Jews, then went on conversing with Christians, atheists, dualists and lastly_ with idolworshippers. Because of the arrangement of this booklet the arguments against atheists were given in the first part. Now the remaining four discussions are given here. Jews of Arabia in the days of Holy Prophet had lost their original beliefs. Being in touch with idol-worshippers and Christians, they also had started the dogma of God having a son. As `Uzayr1 had re-written Torah after it had been 1. The Holy Prophet: “Why `Uzayr was son of God and Moses was not, as Moses brought Torah from God for the first time and bringing it first time is far more important than rewriting it? “Moreover, Moses showed many miracles which `Uzayr did not show. Therefore, if `Uzayr was son of God because God gave him the honour of re-writing Torah, Moses is far more deserving to be the son of God. “Also, I take it that by sonship you do not mean that relationship which is established when a child is born from the womb of his mother after his parents establish sexual intercourse.” Jews confirmed it, saying that when they said that `Uzayr was son of God, they did not mean sonship by birth, but because of his honour with God. It has the same meaning as many teachers call their favourite pupil “my son ”. The Holy Prophet said that he already had answered that argument when he said that by that standard Moses was more deserving to be called the son of God. And so far as the example of an elder calling some unrelated youth as “my son” is concerned, let us look at such uses a bit further. You must have seen that the same elder, while showing respect to some great scholar, calls him “my brother” or “my elder” or “my chief” or even “my father”. Basing on such usage, will you say that Moses (who was more honoured than `Uzayr before God) should be called “Brother of God” or “Elder of God” or “Chief of God?” The Jews could not answer it and after some deliberation accepted Islam. Christians had expressed their belief that God is one with Jesus and that Jesus was son of God. The Holy Prophet asked them what they meant by saying that eternal God is one with his son Jesus? “Do you mean that the eternal (that is, God) became mortal as Jesus was? “If you say so, it is impossible that eternal which has neither beginning nor end should become mortal, which has both beginning and end. Or do you mean that mortal (Jesus) became eternal as God is ? “But this also is impossible, because how can a thing which was created after non-existence be eternal ? “Or do you mean by this sentence (God is one with Jesus) that God gave Jesus honour which was not given to anyone else? “If so, then you will have to accept that Jesus was not eternal, as he was created; and that his quality of getting honour from God is also not eternal, because he got it after his being created. And in that case, Jesus cannot be one with God because eternal and transient cannot combine together.” Christians: “When God showed many wonderful miracles on the hand of Jesus, He made him His son as an honour.” The Holy Prophet drew their attention to what he had already told Jews on the subject of ` Uzayr and sonship of God, and repeated that argument. The Christians could not answer the arguments. Then after some deliberation one of them said that the scriptures have reported Jesus as saying, “I am going to my father.” (This argument is based on the understanding that Jesus himself claimed that God was his father, and as the Holy Prophet accepted Jesus as a true prophet, his claim could not be wrong). The Holy Prophet said that the wording They said: “We find two kinds of things in this world - good and evil. These are opposites and we believe that the creator of good cannot be the creator of evil, and vice versa. These two opposites cannot be found together. “Don't you see that snow cannot give warmth and fire cannot make cool? That is why we believe two separate creators for good and evil and they are represented by light and darkness and both are eternal.” The Holy Prophet said: “Pray tell me, have not you found in this world different colours-black, white, red, yellow, green and blue? Is it not a fact that none of these colours can be found with another colour in same place at same time?” Dualists: “Yes. No two of these colours can be found in one place at same time.” The Holy Prophet said: Then, according to your thinking, you must believe that there is a separate creator for each one of these colours.” The Dualists could not give any answer to that argument. Then the Holy Prophet asked them that light and darkness being opposites, how did it happen that both joined hands in creation and their creatures (good and evil) are together in this world? Doesn't it mean that there is a Superior power who has brought these opposites together? They took time pondering upon these points and finally accepted Islam. Then the Holy Prophet asked the idol worshippers why they worshipped the idols instead of the one Almighty God. They said: “We seek to be nearer to God through these idols.” The Holy Prophet: “Do these idols hear? Are they pious and obedient servants of God? How can you seek nearness to God through them ? ” Idol-worshippers: “No. They do not hear.” Holy Prophet: “And the fact is that you have carved these idols by your own hands. So, if these had ability to worship, it was incumbent upon them to worship you (because you are their creator) not that you should worship them. “Moreover, God has never allowed you to worship idols (so how can you be nearer to God through these idols, without any authority from God?).” On hearing this argument, the idol-worshippers split into three groups:- One group said: “These are the images of those persons in whom God was incarnated. Thus we worship God by worshipping the im ages of those persons who were incarnation of God. ” The Holy Prophet said: 1. ” Your belief that God was incarnated in anybody is absolutely wrong because you have made the Creator like His creatures. Don't you see that God cannot be incarnated in anything unless that thing surrounds God. (But how can anything surround God?) 2. “Also what will be the difference between God and other things which are found in a body (like colour, taste, smell, hardness or softness, heaviness or lightness). All these things are found in other things, and have no independent existence. Is God also like this? 3. “Lastly, when you attribute to God a quality (incarnation) which is the quality of a transient (of a thing which was created after non-existence), then why not believe that all qualities of a transient are found in Him. I mean, you must also believe that God changes and deteriorates and dies, because the body of His supposed incarnation changes and deteriorates and dies. It is impossible for the content not to change with the changes of the receptacle! “All these considerations prove that it is impossible for God to be incarnated in any body. “And when incarnation is wrong, there remains no basis for your belief that God was incarnated in some of His creatures and that these idols are the image of such persons.” The second group said that those idols were the images of those of past generations who were very obedient to God. “He carved their images and worship them with a view to glorify God through their worship.” The Holy Prophet asked them: “Pray tell me what kind of worship have you saved for Almighty God, when you are worshipping these images by prostrating before them, praying to them, and putting your head before them? “Don't you know that it is the right of God that He should not be thought equal to His servant? If you honour a King in the same way as you honour his servant, will not it be an insult to the King? ” Idol-worshippers: “Yes. It is true.” The Holy Prophet: “Then, don't you realize that by worshipping the images of the. creatures, you are insulting the Creator ? ” the last group said: “God created Adam and ordered the angels to prostrate before him. We are more deserving to prostrate before Adam (because we are his children). As Adam is not alive today, we have carved his image to prostrate before it and to seek nearness to God through that worship.” the Holy Prophet told them: “Accepted that God ordered the angels to prostrate before Adam. But has He ordered you to prostrate before the image of Adam? Adam and his image are not one and same thing. How are you sure that God is riot displeased with your prostration before Adam's image? “Look at it in this way. If a man allows you to enter his house one day, do you have any right to enter that house next day? Or to enter his other house the same day ? “If a man gives you a gift of one of his clothes, or one of his horses, arc you justified in taking it?” Idol-worshippers: “Yes, we will take it.” The Holy Prophet: “If you don't accept that cloth or horse, do you halve any right to take his other cloth or horse without his permission ? ” Idol-worshippers: “No. Because he had gifted the first cloth or horse, but not the other.” The Holy Prophet: “Who has more right that his property should not be used without his permission: God or His creatures?” Idol-worshippers: “God has more right that His property should not be infringed upon.” The Holy Prophet: “Then why are you contravening this principle? When and where has God allowed you to worship the idols?” After some consideration, all of them became Muslim. - 1. ` Uzayr = `Esdras or Ezra in English. lost for centuries, Jews revered him very much and started the claim that `Uzayr was son of God. The Holy Prophet asked them what was the reason of their belief. They said that 'Uzayr re-wrote Torah for the children of Israel when it was lost to them and it shows that he was son of God.	4,060	ENGLISH	1
Birth of President Franklin Pierce Franklin Pierce was born in Hillsborough, New Hampshire, on November 23, 1804. Pierce was the only U.S. President to hail from New Hampshire. Franklin’s father, Benjamin Pierce, was a decorated Revolutionary War veteran and active in state politics, including two terms as governor. At the age of 12, Franklin Pierce was sent to Hancock Academy to study. Pierce reportedly became homesick and walked home fourteen miles barefoot. His father drove him halfway back to the academy, abandoning Pierce on the side of the road without uttering a word. In the spring of 1820, Pierce transferred to Francestown Academy to prepare for college. He then entered Bowdoin College in the fall, where he began a lifelong friendship with Nathaniel Hawthorne and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Pierce’s grades were poor at the beginning of his college career, but improved so much he graduated fifth in his class in 1824. Pierce began studying law under Governor Levi Woodbury and was admitted to the bar in 1827. Aided by his father, Pierce’s political career advanced rapidly. By 1831, at the age of 27, he was speaker of the New Hampshire House of Representatives. From 1833-37, he served as a U.S. congressman, and from 1837-42 as a U.S. senator. Due to his wife’s dislike of public life in Washington, Pierce resigned from the Senate and established a law practice in Concord, New Hampshire. He served as a Brigadier General in the Mexican-American War. As a leader of the Democratic Party, Pierce was an opponent of abolition. This made him extremely popular in the South. As a result, he was nominated as a candidate for U.S. President. Pierce won the election of 1852 by an overwhelming margin. At 48 years old, Pierce was the youngest man to become President up to that time. President Pierce’s appeasement of the South proved disastrous. His support of a bill allowing settlers to determine whether slavery would be allowed in the new territories of Kansas and Nebraska led to armed conflict. As soon as the Kansas-Nebraska Act was announced, the new territories were invaded by both pro-slavery “Border Ruffians” from Missouri, and abolitionists from the North. This fighting, called “Bleeding Kansas,” served as a prelude to the Civil War. It also created a political storm which caused the Democratic Party to support slavery, destroying the Whig Party, and leading to the creation of the Republican Party. Pierce’s expansionist foreign policy also created a negative public reaction. His attempts to acquire the island of Cuba failed, mostly due to Southern opposition. These states feared that if Spain were to release the black slaves in Cuba, it would lead to a slave revolt in the South. However, in general, Pierce presided over a time of great prosperity in America. The California gold rush was still attracting people to the West. The Federal Government aided in the construction of railroads expanding westward. The United States grew through the Gadsden Purchase, as land from Mexico was added to the Territory of New Mexico. Due to how he handled the issue of slavery, Pierce had grown very unpopular and was not renominated for election. After a period of traveling abroad, he settled in Massachusetts, where he died in relative obscurity. Until his death, Pierce remained a harsh critic of President Lincoln, believing the President could have avoided the Civil War. Click the images to add this history to your collection.	<urn:uuid:f5239389-6522-4487-8a1f-410ffdc7c29b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mysticstamp.com/info/this-day-in-history-november-23-1804/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00408.warc.gz	en	0.982314	742	3.859375	4	[ 0.20099997520446777, 0.388162225484848, 0.02671045809984207, -0.19749364256858826, -0.41988587379455566, 0.23169340193271637, 0.21974986791610718, 0.0015757761429995298, -0.4221360981464386, -0.17602106928825378, 0.5112083554267883, -0.09319493174552917, -0.028703931719064713, 0.4698547124...	1	Birth of President Franklin Pierce Franklin Pierce was born in Hillsborough, New Hampshire, on November 23, 1804. Pierce was the only U.S. President to hail from New Hampshire. Franklin’s father, Benjamin Pierce, was a decorated Revolutionary War veteran and active in state politics, including two terms as governor. At the age of 12, Franklin Pierce was sent to Hancock Academy to study. Pierce reportedly became homesick and walked home fourteen miles barefoot. His father drove him halfway back to the academy, abandoning Pierce on the side of the road without uttering a word. In the spring of 1820, Pierce transferred to Francestown Academy to prepare for college. He then entered Bowdoin College in the fall, where he began a lifelong friendship with Nathaniel Hawthorne and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Pierce’s grades were poor at the beginning of his college career, but improved so much he graduated fifth in his class in 1824. Pierce began studying law under Governor Levi Woodbury and was admitted to the bar in 1827. Aided by his father, Pierce’s political career advanced rapidly. By 1831, at the age of 27, he was speaker of the New Hampshire House of Representatives. From 1833-37, he served as a U.S. congressman, and from 1837-42 as a U.S. senator. Due to his wife’s dislike of public life in Washington, Pierce resigned from the Senate and established a law practice in Concord, New Hampshire. He served as a Brigadier General in the Mexican-American War. As a leader of the Democratic Party, Pierce was an opponent of abolition. This made him extremely popular in the South. As a result, he was nominated as a candidate for U.S. President. Pierce won the election of 1852 by an overwhelming margin. At 48 years old, Pierce was the youngest man to become President up to that time. President Pierce’s appeasement of the South proved disastrous. His support of a bill allowing settlers to determine whether slavery would be allowed in the new territories of Kansas and Nebraska led to armed conflict. As soon as the Kansas-Nebraska Act was announced, the new territories were invaded by both pro-slavery “Border Ruffians” from Missouri, and abolitionists from the North. This fighting, called “Bleeding Kansas,” served as a prelude to the Civil War. It also created a political storm which caused the Democratic Party to support slavery, destroying the Whig Party, and leading to the creation of the Republican Party. Pierce’s expansionist foreign policy also created a negative public reaction. His attempts to acquire the island of Cuba failed, mostly due to Southern opposition. These states feared that if Spain were to release the black slaves in Cuba, it would lead to a slave revolt in the South. However, in general, Pierce presided over a time of great prosperity in America. The California gold rush was still attracting people to the West. The Federal Government aided in the construction of railroads expanding westward. The United States grew through the Gadsden Purchase, as land from Mexico was added to the Territory of New Mexico. Due to how he handled the issue of slavery, Pierce had grown very unpopular and was not renominated for election. After a period of traveling abroad, he settled in Massachusetts, where he died in relative obscurity. Until his death, Pierce remained a harsh critic of President Lincoln, believing the President could have avoided the Civil War. Click the images to add this history to your collection.	748	ENGLISH	1
Главная > Реферат >Остальные работы Macbeth 5 Essay, Research Paper `Macbeth is a hero, a victim and a villain, How far do you agree with this view of his character? Macbeth is a play set in the years 995 1057. The main character, Macbeth is depicted as a very important Thane, a loyal servant to the king as well as a husband with a scheming wife. Macbeth was consumed by blinding ambition, which eventually led to his downfall. It was this vice, which allowed him to be manipulated into instigating the horrific murders of his friends. Throughout the play we see Macbeth as a hero a victim and a villain. I intend to show Macbeth in all these guises during the course of my assignment. During the beginning of the play Macbeth is seen as the greatest hero there is in Scotland. This is because he shows his courageousness and his bravery during the battles with MacDonwald and Norway. The captain called Macbeth `brave . He used this adjective because Macbeth had fought through the whole enemy s army and had killed their leader. This makes Macbeth seem like a hero because he is being very brave and unselfish, as he did not worry about risking his own life, and fought for others. The captain also said that Macbeth was `Distainding Fortune . This means that Macbeth was disregarding fortune and therefore was not fighting for personal reward but for his country. This reinforces the point that Macbeth was unselfish and also very loyal to his country. The captain continuously praises Macbeth showing the reader that fellow soldiers respected Macbeth: `Like Valour s minion carved out his passage til he faced the slave This shows us that Macbeth liked to be praised and also liked to receive all the glory of victory. The speech the captain made is the main reason Macbeth is seen as a hero in the play. The captain can be relied upon as suitable evidence for Macbeth s heroism as he fought in the same battle as Macbeth did and he also saved Malcom s life: `Fought against my captivity The captain then continues his speech describing how Banquo and Macbeth fought together: `I must report they were as cannons overcharged with double cracks This implies that the two soldiers were trying twice as hard as normal and therefore were very loyal and patriotic. Macbeth can, be called a hero in the eyes of Scottish people because he saved their country from defeat. Duncan then calls Macbeth `Noble , showing us that he was very loyal and was probably the least likely to be untrustworthy. Macbeth does seem to be a hero but does not possess many characteristics, which a hero should have. Macbeth only showed his bravery once, and there was no real conclusive evidence that proved he was fighting twice as hard as everyone was. If we were to say that Macbeth was a hero, we would have to call the captain a hero too because he fought to save Malcom s life and also was willing to explain the battle in great detail even though he was injured severely. After the beginning of the play Macbeth is seen as hero but as the play progress his glory begins to dye down. Sadly Macbeth s ambition, the witches and his wife all get the better of him and therefore Macbeth does not show any features, which are hero like until the end of the play, where he refuses to surrender of commit suicide. The hero inside of Macbeth manages to catch up with him right at the end of the play. Macbeth knows he can easily kill himself, but knows this is cowardly. He says: `Why should I play the Roman fool, and dye on my own sword? Macbeth does not want to be remembered as `The Roman Fool but he knows that if he surrenders he will face torment and will be criticised and mocked by others: `We ll have thee, as our rarer monster are, Painted upon a pole, and uinderwrit’ Macbeth knows whichever option he takes, he will be seen as a coward or monster. He decides not to `play the Roman fool and therefore shows that he is a hero still even after coming this far. During the course of the play Macbeth is a victim of the witches, of his wife and also of his own ambition. The witches are the main reason for appearing as a victim. From the start, they had picked him out as their target and had done so, because they knew of his great ambition. The witches had planned to meet Macbeth before the battle had even finished and therefore had already planned to cause Macbeth pain and torture. The witches marked Macbeth out as a victim from the start simply because he good. The witches thought good was evil and evil was good and therefore saw Macbeth as a challenge: `fair is foul, foul is fair The witches knew off Macbeth s great ambition and realised that if they focused on that part of him they would succeed in causing him pain. When the witches meet Macbeth they work on his great ambition of Macbeth s. They tell him that he will be `Thane Of Glamis , `Thane Of Cawdor and King! They refuse to tell him anything else, because they know that he will not fully understand this and it will really trick his mind. The continue to increase the mental anguish of Macbeth by saying that Banquo will be: `Lesser than Macbeth, and greater Not so happy, yet much happier Thou shalt get kings, though, thou be none So all hail Macbeth and Banquo This really aggravates Macbeth, as he does not understand how both can be king. His distress is shown when he says: `The supernatural soliciting cannot be ill, cannot be good Macbeth is therefore a victim because of the confusion the witches have caused him. Macbeth had not intended to meet the witches and did not know they were going to tell him or what they did, and therefore he is a proper victim. During Act 3 Scene 5 and Act 4 Scene 1 the witches meet again. In Act 3 Scene 5 Hecate tells the witches to conjure up illusions, which will make Macbeth over confident and therefore lead to his downfall: `shall raise such artificial sprites, as by the strength of their illusion. Shall draw him on to confusion Again the witches have planned to cause trouble for Macbeth. This time they plan to do so using apparitions: `Shall raise artificial spirits The apparitions were conjured up to cause Macbeth hurt and pain even though he would see them as good signs. In Act 4 Scene 1 the witches showed Macbeth the apparitions. The apparitions made Macbeth a lot more confident. They warned him of MacDuff: `Beware the Thane of Fife the witches also told him that he cannot be beaten by anyone born of a woman `for none of woman born shall harm Macbeth . This boosts Macbeth s confidence because he thinks that everyone is born of a woman. The final apparition tells Macbeth that he is not going to be beaten until Birnam Wood comes to Dunsinane. `Great Birnam wood to high Dunsinane hill shall come against him These apparitions make Macbeth a victim because he has been forced to do things he did not want to. The witches are therefore deceiving Macbeth and therefore Macbeth is a victim of the witches. Lady Macbeth also made Macbeth a victim because she forced him to commit murder. She insulted his pride and continuously put him down until he was forced to do what she wanted and therefore he is a victim of his wife. On line 62 Lady Macbeth uses a simile to insult Macbeth. She says he looks like a flower and not like a bear or a serpent `Look like the time; bear welcome in your, eyes, your hand, your tongue like an innocent flower This simile insults Macbeth because he thinks he is a big strong man, but his wife is saying he is weak and like a flower. This is a real blow to Macbeth s ego and is one of the contributing factors, which help him kill Duncan. Lady Macbeth tries to manipulate him again by saying she wants him to be more like a serpent and she uses a simile to express this: `look like th innocent flower, But be the serpent under t These similes really annoy and anger Macbeth. He is really upset with what his wife has said and uses a personification to show this: `Bloody Instructions, which being taught return to plague th inventor This shows us that Macbeth could easily be wound up and therefore could be a victim quite easily. He did not want to commit the murder but, because he had such pride in his manhood he became a victim easily. Macbeth could also be seen as a villain because he kills Duncan, orders the murder of Banquo and his son and sends his army out to brutally kill MacDuffs family. Macbeth killed Duncan brutally while Duncan was sleeping. This is the act of a villain as he was ruthless and evil. He wanted to commit the murder and was eager to do it: `I am settled, and bend up, Each corporal agent to this terrible feat, away, and mock the time with firest show: Fake face must hide what the false heart don t know This proves he wanted to murder Duncan and knew and understood what he was to do. Therefore Macbeth was a villain for killing Duncan but was talked into it by his wife. Macbeth s character quickly changed from having to be talked into a murder, to a mast murderer. He organises Banquo and Fleances murders and deviously finds out where they were riding. Macbeth finds out where they were riding to by putting Banquo on the spot while he was asking him to attend a banquet. `Tonight we hold a solemn supper, sir, and I ll request your presence. This question by Macbeth shows his ruthlessness. He knows that Banquo will be dead but invites him anyway. He knows that he can use what he has said as an alibi for later reference, if need be. Macbeth also knows that he will not be able to commit the murder because he will be needed at the banquet so he manipulates two murders into murdering Banquo. He uses the same tactics that his wife used on him to make the murderers do what they wanted. He blames everything that has gone wrong in there lives on Banquo, and manages to get them so angry that they are anxious to get on with the murder: `know that it was he in the times past which held you, so under fortune Macbeth also tries to persuade the murderers, to murder Banquo by saying they are not `real men until they kill Banquo. `Not I th worst rank of manhood, say t, and I will put that business in your bosoms This shows he is a villain because he was prepared to use violence and to manipulate innocent people into his way of thinking. He did not show any regret or guilt at this point in the play and certainly did not show any signs of a conscience. As the play progressed Macbeth began to show more and more of a conscience as he committed more crimes. He still thought he was invincible but began to see Banquo s ghost, which is a sign of guilt and conscience. Macbeth can not be seen as a total villain because he does show a conscience at times in the play. He sees Banquo s ghost at the table which shows us that he still has a conscience. Another factor, which shows us that he is not, a total villain is that he refused to kill MacDuff: `I ll not fight with thee. He is again is showing guilt, a conscience and even some resentment. - Macbeth Downfall Essay, Research Paper Macbeth is the driving force behind Macbeth s downfall Lady Macbeth? The driving force behind ... Macbeth ... - Macbeth Tragism Essay, Research Paper Macbeth is a tragic hero, a person of high rank who is brought to ... a flaw in his character Macbeth’s tragic flaw is his ambition, which leads ... perhaps the most tragic in Macbeth’s character, is his lack of patients ... - Macbeth Story Essay, Research Paper MacBeth is the story of a great warrior who is tempted by evil and ... he is the detested tyrant who is slain by Macduff. Although MacBeth is physically ... point in the story that MacBeth is the most skilled warrior in ... - Macbeth Summary Essay, Research Paper MACBETH KEY LITERARY ELEMENTS SETTING Mainly ... might come true. Banquo is still worried. Macbeth is scared as he considers ... . Caithness explains that Macbeth is strengthening his castle, and is acting crazy, unable ... - Macbeth 11 Essay, Research Paper Macbeth Show how Macbeth and Lady Macbeth have to go against their ... the murder Macbeth is very troubled; he is living a nightmare. Lady Macbeth is as ... by Macduff. Even before he is killed, Macbeth is dying of a diseased spirit ...	<urn:uuid:20700cca-aadf-42eb-8972-2e7c2d7051a8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://works.doklad.ru/view/jZagh3votoI.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00262.warc.gz	en	0.985639	2,882	3.28125	3	[ -0.5402817726135254, 0.09070402383804321, 0.3509659171104431, -0.06675125658512115, -0.36353084444999695, -0.3136860132217407, 0.7673599720001221, 0.5163410902023315, -0.017027927562594414, -0.12495674192905426, 0.1281835436820984, -0.40181025862693787, -0.20897403359413147, 0.266823589801...	2	Главная > Реферат >Остальные работы Macbeth 5 Essay, Research Paper `Macbeth is a hero, a victim and a villain, How far do you agree with this view of his character? Macbeth is a play set in the years 995 1057. The main character, Macbeth is depicted as a very important Thane, a loyal servant to the king as well as a husband with a scheming wife. Macbeth was consumed by blinding ambition, which eventually led to his downfall. It was this vice, which allowed him to be manipulated into instigating the horrific murders of his friends. Throughout the play we see Macbeth as a hero a victim and a villain. I intend to show Macbeth in all these guises during the course of my assignment. During the beginning of the play Macbeth is seen as the greatest hero there is in Scotland. This is because he shows his courageousness and his bravery during the battles with MacDonwald and Norway. The captain called Macbeth `brave . He used this adjective because Macbeth had fought through the whole enemy s army and had killed their leader. This makes Macbeth seem like a hero because he is being very brave and unselfish, as he did not worry about risking his own life, and fought for others. The captain also said that Macbeth was `Distainding Fortune . This means that Macbeth was disregarding fortune and therefore was not fighting for personal reward but for his country. This reinforces the point that Macbeth was unselfish and also very loyal to his country. The captain continuously praises Macbeth showing the reader that fellow soldiers respected Macbeth: `Like Valour s minion carved out his passage til he faced the slave This shows us that Macbeth liked to be praised and also liked to receive all the glory of victory. The speech the captain made is the main reason Macbeth is seen as a hero in the play. The captain can be relied upon as suitable evidence for Macbeth s heroism as he fought in the same battle as Macbeth did and he also saved Malcom s life: `Fought against my captivity The captain then continues his speech describing how Banquo and Macbeth fought together: `I must report they were as cannons overcharged with double cracks This implies that the two soldiers were trying twice as hard as normal and therefore were very loyal and patriotic. Macbeth can, be called a hero in the eyes of Scottish people because he saved their country from defeat. Duncan then calls Macbeth `Noble , showing us that he was very loyal and was probably the least likely to be untrustworthy. Macbeth does seem to be a hero but does not possess many characteristics, which a hero should have. Macbeth only showed his bravery once, and there was no real conclusive evidence that proved he was fighting twice as hard as everyone was. If we were to say that Macbeth was a hero, we would have to call the captain a hero too because he fought to save Malcom s life and also was willing to explain the battle in great detail even though he was injured severely. After the beginning of the play Macbeth is seen as hero but as the play progress his glory begins to dye down. Sadly Macbeth s ambition, the witches and his wife all get the better of him and therefore Macbeth does not show any features, which are hero like until the end of the play, where he refuses to surrender of commit suicide. The hero inside of Macbeth manages to catch up with him right at the end of the play. Macbeth knows he can easily kill himself, but knows this is cowardly. He says: `Why should I play the Roman fool, and dye on my own sword? Macbeth does not want to be remembered as `The Roman Fool but he knows that if he surrenders he will face torment and will be criticised and mocked by others: `We ll have thee, as our rarer monster are, Painted upon a pole, and uinderwrit’ Macbeth knows whichever option he takes, he will be seen as a coward or monster. He decides not to `play the Roman fool and therefore shows that he is a hero still even after coming this far. During the course of the play Macbeth is a victim of the witches, of his wife and also of his own ambition. The witches are the main reason for appearing as a victim. From the start, they had picked him out as their target and had done so, because they knew of his great ambition. The witches had planned to meet Macbeth before the battle had even finished and therefore had already planned to cause Macbeth pain and torture. The witches marked Macbeth out as a victim from the start simply because he good. The witches thought good was evil and evil was good and therefore saw Macbeth as a challenge: `fair is foul, foul is fair The witches knew off Macbeth s great ambition and realised that if they focused on that part of him they would succeed in causing him pain. When the witches meet Macbeth they work on his great ambition of Macbeth s. They tell him that he will be `Thane Of Glamis , `Thane Of Cawdor and King! They refuse to tell him anything else, because they know that he will not fully understand this and it will really trick his mind. The continue to increase the mental anguish of Macbeth by saying that Banquo will be: `Lesser than Macbeth, and greater Not so happy, yet much happier Thou shalt get kings, though, thou be none So all hail Macbeth and Banquo This really aggravates Macbeth, as he does not understand how both can be king. His distress is shown when he says: `The supernatural soliciting cannot be ill, cannot be good Macbeth is therefore a victim because of the confusion the witches have caused him. Macbeth had not intended to meet the witches and did not know they were going to tell him or what they did, and therefore he is a proper victim. During Act 3 Scene 5 and Act 4 Scene 1 the witches meet again. In Act 3 Scene 5 Hecate tells the witches to conjure up illusions, which will make Macbeth over confident and therefore lead to his downfall: `shall raise such artificial sprites, as by the strength of their illusion. Shall draw him on to confusion Again the witches have planned to cause trouble for Macbeth. This time they plan to do so using apparitions: `Shall raise artificial spirits The apparitions were conjured up to cause Macbeth hurt and pain even though he would see them as good signs. In Act 4 Scene 1 the witches showed Macbeth the apparitions. The apparitions made Macbeth a lot more confident. They warned him of MacDuff: `Beware the Thane of Fife the witches also told him that he cannot be beaten by anyone born of a woman `for none of woman born shall harm Macbeth . This boosts Macbeth s confidence because he thinks that everyone is born of a woman. The final apparition tells Macbeth that he is not going to be beaten until Birnam Wood comes to Dunsinane. `Great Birnam wood to high Dunsinane hill shall come against him These apparitions make Macbeth a victim because he has been forced to do things he did not want to. The witches are therefore deceiving Macbeth and therefore Macbeth is a victim of the witches. Lady Macbeth also made Macbeth a victim because she forced him to commit murder. She insulted his pride and continuously put him down until he was forced to do what she wanted and therefore he is a victim of his wife. On line 62 Lady Macbeth uses a simile to insult Macbeth. She says he looks like a flower and not like a bear or a serpent `Look like the time; bear welcome in your, eyes, your hand, your tongue like an innocent flower This simile insults Macbeth because he thinks he is a big strong man, but his wife is saying he is weak and like a flower. This is a real blow to Macbeth s ego and is one of the contributing factors, which help him kill Duncan. Lady Macbeth tries to manipulate him again by saying she wants him to be more like a serpent and she uses a simile to express this: `look like th innocent flower, But be the serpent under t These similes really annoy and anger Macbeth. He is really upset with what his wife has said and uses a personification to show this: `Bloody Instructions, which being taught return to plague th inventor This shows us that Macbeth could easily be wound up and therefore could be a victim quite easily. He did not want to commit the murder but, because he had such pride in his manhood he became a victim easily. Macbeth could also be seen as a villain because he kills Duncan, orders the murder of Banquo and his son and sends his army out to brutally kill MacDuffs family. Macbeth killed Duncan brutally while Duncan was sleeping. This is the act of a villain as he was ruthless and evil. He wanted to commit the murder and was eager to do it: `I am settled, and bend up, Each corporal agent to this terrible feat, away, and mock the time with firest show: Fake face must hide what the false heart don t know This proves he wanted to murder Duncan and knew and understood what he was to do. Therefore Macbeth was a villain for killing Duncan but was talked into it by his wife. Macbeth s character quickly changed from having to be talked into a murder, to a mast murderer. He organises Banquo and Fleances murders and deviously finds out where they were riding. Macbeth finds out where they were riding to by putting Banquo on the spot while he was asking him to attend a banquet. `Tonight we hold a solemn supper, sir, and I ll request your presence. This question by Macbeth shows his ruthlessness. He knows that Banquo will be dead but invites him anyway. He knows that he can use what he has said as an alibi for later reference, if need be. Macbeth also knows that he will not be able to commit the murder because he will be needed at the banquet so he manipulates two murders into murdering Banquo. He uses the same tactics that his wife used on him to make the murderers do what they wanted. He blames everything that has gone wrong in there lives on Banquo, and manages to get them so angry that they are anxious to get on with the murder: `know that it was he in the times past which held you, so under fortune Macbeth also tries to persuade the murderers, to murder Banquo by saying they are not `real men until they kill Banquo. `Not I th worst rank of manhood, say t, and I will put that business in your bosoms This shows he is a villain because he was prepared to use violence and to manipulate innocent people into his way of thinking. He did not show any regret or guilt at this point in the play and certainly did not show any signs of a conscience. As the play progressed Macbeth began to show more and more of a conscience as he committed more crimes. He still thought he was invincible but began to see Banquo s ghost, which is a sign of guilt and conscience. Macbeth can not be seen as a total villain because he does show a conscience at times in the play. He sees Banquo s ghost at the table which shows us that he still has a conscience. Another factor, which shows us that he is not, a total villain is that he refused to kill MacDuff: `I ll not fight with thee. He is again is showing guilt, a conscience and even some resentment. - Macbeth Downfall Essay, Research Paper Macbeth is the driving force behind Macbeth s downfall Lady Macbeth? The driving force behind ... Macbeth ... - Macbeth Tragism Essay, Research Paper Macbeth is a tragic hero, a person of high rank who is brought to ... a flaw in his character Macbeth’s tragic flaw is his ambition, which leads ... perhaps the most tragic in Macbeth’s character, is his lack of patients ... - Macbeth Story Essay, Research Paper MacBeth is the story of a great warrior who is tempted by evil and ... he is the detested tyrant who is slain by Macduff. Although MacBeth is physically ... point in the story that MacBeth is the most skilled warrior in ... - Macbeth Summary Essay, Research Paper MACBETH KEY LITERARY ELEMENTS SETTING Mainly ... might come true. Banquo is still worried. Macbeth is scared as he considers ... . Caithness explains that Macbeth is strengthening his castle, and is acting crazy, unable ... - Macbeth 11 Essay, Research Paper Macbeth Show how Macbeth and Lady Macbeth have to go against their ... the murder Macbeth is very troubled; he is living a nightmare. Lady Macbeth is as ... by Macduff. Even before he is killed, Macbeth is dying of a diseased spirit ...	2,722	ENGLISH	1
The concept of merit pay in education is simple enough: Bonuses are given to educators who succeed at their jobs based on agreed-upon criteria, which can include the results of standardized tests, evaluations or other measures. Merit pay has received support as part of the federal “Race to the Top” initiative, and a number of state and local efforts have included such programs. As with many education reform initiatives, however, criticism isn’t lacking. The theory behind merit pay is that higher incentives for teachers will encourage them to excel at their jobs and thus raise student performance. To examine this hypothesis in a U.S. context, the National Center on Performance Incentives at Vanderbilt University carried out the Project on Incentives in Teaching (POINT). It sought to measure the impact of bonus pay for teachers on students’ performance in mathematics between grades 5 and 8. The project’s 2010 report, “Teacher Pay for Performance,” documents the results. The study was conducted in the Nashville school system for three years, from fall 2006 to spring 2009. Middle school mathematics teachers took part in a controlled experiment to test the effect of financial rewards for educators whose students made significant gains on standardized tests. Bonuses were substantial — up to $15,000 — and participating teachers could decide for themselves what methods might work best to improve student performance. The performance of students of a control group of educators not eligible for bonuses was also tracked. The report’s findings include: - Mathematics test scores for students whose teachers were eligible for bonuses did not differ significantly from those in the control group. - Grade 5 students whose teachers were eligible showed better performances than those whose teachers were in the control group. These effects were not sustained, however, as the difference was not significant when the students were tested later in grade 6. - The surveys showed that the effect of bonus pay on students’ performance was insignificant because the teachers felt that they were already working at the optimal effort level before the experiment was put in place. The report concludes by suggesting other approaches to raising student performance, including rewarding teachers in teams and packaging remuneration with coaching or professional development. Tags: charter schools, children, youth, teachers	<urn:uuid:1788af33-01b0-4f9d-b690-94e29f08f5a0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/education/teacher-pay-for-performance/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00068.warc.gz	en	0.981526	457	3.765625	4	[ -0.5850922465324402, 0.20755241811275482, 0.08563839644193649, -0.07982464879751205, -0.22827526926994324, 0.16130715608596802, -0.15582937002182007, 0.40562203526496887, 0.24222752451896667, 0.5532916188240051, 0.5341660976409912, 0.10688944160938263, -0.2852524220943451, 0.07622916251420...	6	The concept of merit pay in education is simple enough: Bonuses are given to educators who succeed at their jobs based on agreed-upon criteria, which can include the results of standardized tests, evaluations or other measures. Merit pay has received support as part of the federal “Race to the Top” initiative, and a number of state and local efforts have included such programs. As with many education reform initiatives, however, criticism isn’t lacking. The theory behind merit pay is that higher incentives for teachers will encourage them to excel at their jobs and thus raise student performance. To examine this hypothesis in a U.S. context, the National Center on Performance Incentives at Vanderbilt University carried out the Project on Incentives in Teaching (POINT). It sought to measure the impact of bonus pay for teachers on students’ performance in mathematics between grades 5 and 8. The project’s 2010 report, “Teacher Pay for Performance,” documents the results. The study was conducted in the Nashville school system for three years, from fall 2006 to spring 2009. Middle school mathematics teachers took part in a controlled experiment to test the effect of financial rewards for educators whose students made significant gains on standardized tests. Bonuses were substantial — up to $15,000 — and participating teachers could decide for themselves what methods might work best to improve student performance. The performance of students of a control group of educators not eligible for bonuses was also tracked. The report’s findings include: - Mathematics test scores for students whose teachers were eligible for bonuses did not differ significantly from those in the control group. - Grade 5 students whose teachers were eligible showed better performances than those whose teachers were in the control group. These effects were not sustained, however, as the difference was not significant when the students were tested later in grade 6. - The surveys showed that the effect of bonus pay on students’ performance was insignificant because the teachers felt that they were already working at the optimal effort level before the experiment was put in place. The report concludes by suggesting other approaches to raising student performance, including rewarding teachers in teams and packaging remuneration with coaching or professional development. Tags: charter schools, children, youth, teachers	452	ENGLISH	1
Humans and primates are similar in some ways, but they are different in others. As scientist remark, they belong to the same family called Hominidae. They also conclude that they have many similar characteristics because they went through a process that they called evolution. This is the process in which some primates evoluted into what is know a human being and preserved several similar characteristics. It is now known that the chimpanzee is the closest primate to humans since they have a similar protein sequence. Yet since they have a lot of differences, still they are considered non humans. One similarity between humans and primates is that their skeletal system looks almost the same but they both use in it a different way. For example, humans walk erected using their two legs while primates walk using their four limbs. Another similarity is that humans and primates have some physical features alike. One of these is their hands. Both humans and primates use their hands to grab food to eat it, to create tools, etc. Humans use tools in their everyday life while primates only use them for specific tasks. Talking about differences, humans and primates have a lot too. For instance, they are different in their way of thinking and acting. Humans first think before they act while primates do what their instincts tell them to do. No matter if it is right or wrong, they learn from experience. Another difference would be the way of eating. Humans eat a wide variety of cooked and well-prepared food although primates don’t really care if it will do any better to their health. Primates don’t mind eating uncooked food. This is one reason why humans and primates didn’t “evoluted”, as scientists say, the same way. Primates remained in a stage where they can’t reach human capabilities. In conclusion, primates and humans are similar and different at the same time. They have many common characteristics but they also have many differences. Even though humans... Please join StudyMode to read the full document	<urn:uuid:1fdbeaed-600a-4e3a-870a-8d3ec70cfab2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/Humans-And-Primates-63623890.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00169.warc.gz	en	0.980474	411	3.78125	4	[ -0.19622686505317688, -0.00514950742945075, -0.01580558717250824, 0.1058230996131897, 0.09371165186166763, 0.05698607489466667, 0.7551944255828857, -0.08518275618553162, 0.21728256344795227, -0.08732251822948456, 0.3435722887516022, -0.5810495018959045, 0.22898514568805695, 0.1439048349857...	2	Humans and primates are similar in some ways, but they are different in others. As scientist remark, they belong to the same family called Hominidae. They also conclude that they have many similar characteristics because they went through a process that they called evolution. This is the process in which some primates evoluted into what is know a human being and preserved several similar characteristics. It is now known that the chimpanzee is the closest primate to humans since they have a similar protein sequence. Yet since they have a lot of differences, still they are considered non humans. One similarity between humans and primates is that their skeletal system looks almost the same but they both use in it a different way. For example, humans walk erected using their two legs while primates walk using their four limbs. Another similarity is that humans and primates have some physical features alike. One of these is their hands. Both humans and primates use their hands to grab food to eat it, to create tools, etc. Humans use tools in their everyday life while primates only use them for specific tasks. Talking about differences, humans and primates have a lot too. For instance, they are different in their way of thinking and acting. Humans first think before they act while primates do what their instincts tell them to do. No matter if it is right or wrong, they learn from experience. Another difference would be the way of eating. Humans eat a wide variety of cooked and well-prepared food although primates don’t really care if it will do any better to their health. Primates don’t mind eating uncooked food. This is one reason why humans and primates didn’t “evoluted”, as scientists say, the same way. Primates remained in a stage where they can’t reach human capabilities. In conclusion, primates and humans are similar and different at the same time. They have many common characteristics but they also have many differences. Even though humans... Please join StudyMode to read the full document	407	ENGLISH	1
President Taft’s Weight: Keeping the Pounds Off President William Howard Taft (1857-1930), who served as president from 1909-1913, was a big man. At about 6 feet tall, his weight fluctuated from 255 to over 350 pounds, and he was constantly fighting to keep the pounds off. Taft’s career of choice was in the judiciary, but fate intervened and he found himself being offered new challenges that began via political appointments. When Taft was eventually prodded into running for president, he had to endure all types of weight comments and “fat jokes.” Had he remained on the bench, he likely could have fought his weight demons privately and perhaps more effectively. Taft’s Rise In Politics Taft was born into a well-to-do and powerful family in Cincinnati, Ohio. He attended Yale University followed by Cincinnati Law School. After a few years of legal practice, he was appointed to a judgeship. At the young age of 34, he found himself with a major appointment to be a Federal circuit court judge. Taft’s first career change of fate occurred in 1900 when President William McKinley asked Taft to move to the Philippines to organize a civilian government there after its annexation following the Spanish-American War. Taft dove happily into the job and was well-liked by the Filipinos. When McKinley died in office in 1901, his presidential successor, Theodore Roosevelt, asked Taft to return to the United States to serve as Secretary of War, Taft turned him down. After three entreaties from Roosevelt, Taft finally moved back to D.C. and accepted the Secretary of War post. Roosevelt again affected Taft’s fate when he decided Taft should succeed him in the presidency—a job Taft had little interest in for many reasons including his distaste for campaigning. President Taft’s Weight: Contending with Campaign Jokes Once on the campaign trail, Taft became fair game for the opposing party as well as for the press. Cartoonists loved to lampoon him, and Taft, who often rode horseback, had to endure frequent snide remarks about the fate of the unlucky horse. Numerous other jokes followed. On a website maintained by Dr. John Sotos, M.D. some of the jokes about Taft’s weight are reprinted. Among them: ‘Taft is the politest man in Washington; the other day he gave up his seat in a street-car to three ladies.'” Later Taft would repeat the comments in speeches and laugh along with the audience, but having personal weaknesses pointed out is painful for all but the truly thick-skinned. Taft Made Effort at Weight Loss Three years before any active campaigning for the presidency, Taft wrote to a well-respected diet doctor at the time, a Dr. Nathaniel Yorke-Davies of London. The two men never met in person but they set up a correspondence system that worked—most of the time. Dr. Yorke-Davies method of weight loss was one that would be acceptable to doctors today. He believed in carefully portioned meals (weighing each portion to understand quantities) and parceling out snacks throughout the day. Initially Taft was very good about writing to the doctor regularly, and the doctor amended his advice based on what Taft’s concerns were. In the first six months of working together, Taft lost 60 pounds. He reported feeling constantly ravenous, however, and perhaps this was why he quit checking in regularly. At any rate, he soon gained back 19 of the lost pounds. By the time Taft was inaugurated as president in 1909, he had regained all of his initial weight loss and then some. He was about 354 pounds when he took office. With this information in mind, it is interesting to read about how President Taft spent his first Thanksgiving in office. Even for the very careful eater, the holidays are a time of over-indulging. Taft’s Fist Thanksgiving in the White House In 1909 William Howard Taft enjoyed a fine meal with his family that featured a 52-pound turkey from the Vose Farm. The Pie Bakers Union had promised to deliver a 50-pound mince pie (50 pounds!) but something happened and the pie was either not made or not delivered. Press reports were vague as to the fate of the pie. After an afternoon holiday meal with his family, Taft had an attaché phone Attorney General George W. Wickersham to invite him to accompany Taft on after-meal walk. A reporter for The New York Times wrote: “The President and the Attorney General then struck off on a walk that lasted more than two hours. They left the White House grounds by the rear gate that opens on the Mall, and their course took them over the wind-swept stretches of the Potomac River bottom well down toward Alexandria, Virginia. When they returned Mr. Taft looked as fresh as when he started…” (11-26-1909) The reporter wrote that no Secret Service accompanied the two men, however it is possible that Taft was accompanied by his military aide Captain Archibald Butt. No matter, President Taft certainly enjoyed a level of personal freedom that presidents today can’t even hope for. President Taft’s Weight Taft had a challenging time in the presidency, and his personal happiness was marred by the fact that one year into Taft’s term of office, his wife Nellie (1861-1943) suffered a stroke from which she never fully recovered. As for his weight battle, he never gave up. When he died in 1930, he was down to 280 pounds. Cranberries and Thanksgiving: The Origin Cranberries are one of only a handful of commercially-farmed fruits that are native to North America. But the sweet relish we enjoy at Thanksgiving is... » First Store Santa Where was the first department store Santa in the United States? There are three contenders: First Santa at Macy's? The earliest mention of a department... » Former Newsboys of Detroit Doing Good The Old Newsboys Goodfellow Fund of Detroit has existed since 1914 as a way to assure that children not be forgotten at Christmas time. More... » Who Provides the White House Turkey? Turkey is the traditional main course eaten by Americans on Thanksgiving Day, and the occupants of the White House have long celebrated this tradition. But... »	<urn:uuid:aba2c44d-40f9-487f-a006-e6812721afa8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://americacomesalive.com/2014/11/29/president-tafts-weight/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00286.warc.gz	en	0.983555	1,373	3.53125	4	[ -0.2174719274044037, 0.45182061195373535, 0.12327394634485245, -0.06566847860813141, -0.5349385738372803, 0.6557866334915161, 0.48645922541618347, -0.1577523946762085, 0.0037372796796262264, 0.27247047424316406, 0.2588226795196533, -0.18261569738388062, 0.3329164981842041, 0.56877756118774...	1	President Taft’s Weight: Keeping the Pounds Off President William Howard Taft (1857-1930), who served as president from 1909-1913, was a big man. At about 6 feet tall, his weight fluctuated from 255 to over 350 pounds, and he was constantly fighting to keep the pounds off. Taft’s career of choice was in the judiciary, but fate intervened and he found himself being offered new challenges that began via political appointments. When Taft was eventually prodded into running for president, he had to endure all types of weight comments and “fat jokes.” Had he remained on the bench, he likely could have fought his weight demons privately and perhaps more effectively. Taft’s Rise In Politics Taft was born into a well-to-do and powerful family in Cincinnati, Ohio. He attended Yale University followed by Cincinnati Law School. After a few years of legal practice, he was appointed to a judgeship. At the young age of 34, he found himself with a major appointment to be a Federal circuit court judge. Taft’s first career change of fate occurred in 1900 when President William McKinley asked Taft to move to the Philippines to organize a civilian government there after its annexation following the Spanish-American War. Taft dove happily into the job and was well-liked by the Filipinos. When McKinley died in office in 1901, his presidential successor, Theodore Roosevelt, asked Taft to return to the United States to serve as Secretary of War, Taft turned him down. After three entreaties from Roosevelt, Taft finally moved back to D.C. and accepted the Secretary of War post. Roosevelt again affected Taft’s fate when he decided Taft should succeed him in the presidency—a job Taft had little interest in for many reasons including his distaste for campaigning. President Taft’s Weight: Contending with Campaign Jokes Once on the campaign trail, Taft became fair game for the opposing party as well as for the press. Cartoonists loved to lampoon him, and Taft, who often rode horseback, had to endure frequent snide remarks about the fate of the unlucky horse. Numerous other jokes followed. On a website maintained by Dr. John Sotos, M.D. some of the jokes about Taft’s weight are reprinted. Among them: ‘Taft is the politest man in Washington; the other day he gave up his seat in a street-car to three ladies.'” Later Taft would repeat the comments in speeches and laugh along with the audience, but having personal weaknesses pointed out is painful for all but the truly thick-skinned. Taft Made Effort at Weight Loss Three years before any active campaigning for the presidency, Taft wrote to a well-respected diet doctor at the time, a Dr. Nathaniel Yorke-Davies of London. The two men never met in person but they set up a correspondence system that worked—most of the time. Dr. Yorke-Davies method of weight loss was one that would be acceptable to doctors today. He believed in carefully portioned meals (weighing each portion to understand quantities) and parceling out snacks throughout the day. Initially Taft was very good about writing to the doctor regularly, and the doctor amended his advice based on what Taft’s concerns were. In the first six months of working together, Taft lost 60 pounds. He reported feeling constantly ravenous, however, and perhaps this was why he quit checking in regularly. At any rate, he soon gained back 19 of the lost pounds. By the time Taft was inaugurated as president in 1909, he had regained all of his initial weight loss and then some. He was about 354 pounds when he took office. With this information in mind, it is interesting to read about how President Taft spent his first Thanksgiving in office. Even for the very careful eater, the holidays are a time of over-indulging. Taft’s Fist Thanksgiving in the White House In 1909 William Howard Taft enjoyed a fine meal with his family that featured a 52-pound turkey from the Vose Farm. The Pie Bakers Union had promised to deliver a 50-pound mince pie (50 pounds!) but something happened and the pie was either not made or not delivered. Press reports were vague as to the fate of the pie. After an afternoon holiday meal with his family, Taft had an attaché phone Attorney General George W. Wickersham to invite him to accompany Taft on after-meal walk. A reporter for The New York Times wrote: “The President and the Attorney General then struck off on a walk that lasted more than two hours. They left the White House grounds by the rear gate that opens on the Mall, and their course took them over the wind-swept stretches of the Potomac River bottom well down toward Alexandria, Virginia. When they returned Mr. Taft looked as fresh as when he started…” (11-26-1909) The reporter wrote that no Secret Service accompanied the two men, however it is possible that Taft was accompanied by his military aide Captain Archibald Butt. No matter, President Taft certainly enjoyed a level of personal freedom that presidents today can’t even hope for. President Taft’s Weight Taft had a challenging time in the presidency, and his personal happiness was marred by the fact that one year into Taft’s term of office, his wife Nellie (1861-1943) suffered a stroke from which she never fully recovered. As for his weight battle, he never gave up. When he died in 1930, he was down to 280 pounds. Cranberries and Thanksgiving: The Origin Cranberries are one of only a handful of commercially-farmed fruits that are native to North America. But the sweet relish we enjoy at Thanksgiving is... » First Store Santa Where was the first department store Santa in the United States? There are three contenders: First Santa at Macy's? The earliest mention of a department... » Former Newsboys of Detroit Doing Good The Old Newsboys Goodfellow Fund of Detroit has existed since 1914 as a way to assure that children not be forgotten at Christmas time. More... » Who Provides the White House Turkey? Turkey is the traditional main course eaten by Americans on Thanksgiving Day, and the occupants of the White House have long celebrated this tradition. But... »	1,376	ENGLISH	1
This week has been filled with lots of fun and creative activities that have been linked with our topic and STEM. The children used a range of materials from chalk to pipe cleaners to make their name. This allowed us as a class to discuss the shape of the different letters and look at uppercase. Here you can see the children are hard at work with their names. The children in drama have been focusing on how to portray the different characters from the Three Billy Goats Gruff using their facial expressions and body movements. After getting the children to act out a character of their choice, the rest of the class had to guess what one they were. After this activity, the children had to work in their drama teams to make the bridge from the Three Billy Goats. The children were challenged with having to make their bridge stand. The children worked really hard and made some fantastic bridges. As a class we created our own little ocean in a vase where the fish were swimming and the water was clear. I started to explain to the children that rubbish, oils and toxins are being thrown into the ocean and are affecting the fish. I then began to show the children by adding ‘rubbish’ into the vase which led to a discussion of how we could help the fish and their home. Our last STEM and topic activity was to create jellyfish! We learned some interesting facts about jellyfish and that they have no bones or a heart! The children discussed the details of the shape of the jellyfish and that the tentacles do not look all the same. The children worked in pairs and could use a variety of materials to create their wobbly masterpieces. After all our hard work, we deserved fun in the garden with P1S The children have worked so hard this term and have been joy to teach. Hope you all have a lovely October holiday. As part of STEM week, the pupils in P7H worked in groups to create their very own lava lamps. We conducted the experiment using water, oil, food colouring and Berocca tablets. We worked through the experiment in stages and also learned about the density of different liquids. It was very interesting and also lots of fun. As part of our, ” Wonders Of The World,” topic we were looking at the Romans and at The Colosseum. We held a drama session where the pupils recreated a short scene and then froze the action for the rest of the class to guess what it was. An unhappy Emperor watching the games. The poor slave was beaten by the Roman Gladiator. We have been enjoying our Music lessons this term. Miss White is teaching us some fantastic rounds and we have been learning to play a variety of percussion instruments to various beats in order to learn the written form of musical notes. Leaning the beat in the air first. Playing using two beaters at a time.	<urn:uuid:1fc2b8ec-a8e4-4d11-b59d-44c565db7c56>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/st/stmarysbannockburn/2017/10/page/3/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00315.warc.gz	en	0.982137	594	3.546875	4	[ -0.008838269859552383, -0.07160750776529312, 0.22380873560905457, -0.4716125726699829, -0.22506466507911682, 0.17839829623699188, -0.06429407000541687, 0.08071531355381012, -0.3980715274810791, 0.015344731509685516, 0.17823496460914612, -0.39000004529953003, 0.12411528080701828, 0.34937083...	2	This week has been filled with lots of fun and creative activities that have been linked with our topic and STEM. The children used a range of materials from chalk to pipe cleaners to make their name. This allowed us as a class to discuss the shape of the different letters and look at uppercase. Here you can see the children are hard at work with their names. The children in drama have been focusing on how to portray the different characters from the Three Billy Goats Gruff using their facial expressions and body movements. After getting the children to act out a character of their choice, the rest of the class had to guess what one they were. After this activity, the children had to work in their drama teams to make the bridge from the Three Billy Goats. The children were challenged with having to make their bridge stand. The children worked really hard and made some fantastic bridges. As a class we created our own little ocean in a vase where the fish were swimming and the water was clear. I started to explain to the children that rubbish, oils and toxins are being thrown into the ocean and are affecting the fish. I then began to show the children by adding ‘rubbish’ into the vase which led to a discussion of how we could help the fish and their home. Our last STEM and topic activity was to create jellyfish! We learned some interesting facts about jellyfish and that they have no bones or a heart! The children discussed the details of the shape of the jellyfish and that the tentacles do not look all the same. The children worked in pairs and could use a variety of materials to create their wobbly masterpieces. After all our hard work, we deserved fun in the garden with P1S The children have worked so hard this term and have been joy to teach. Hope you all have a lovely October holiday. As part of STEM week, the pupils in P7H worked in groups to create their very own lava lamps. We conducted the experiment using water, oil, food colouring and Berocca tablets. We worked through the experiment in stages and also learned about the density of different liquids. It was very interesting and also lots of fun. As part of our, ” Wonders Of The World,” topic we were looking at the Romans and at The Colosseum. We held a drama session where the pupils recreated a short scene and then froze the action for the rest of the class to guess what it was. An unhappy Emperor watching the games. The poor slave was beaten by the Roman Gladiator. We have been enjoying our Music lessons this term. Miss White is teaching us some fantastic rounds and we have been learning to play a variety of percussion instruments to various beats in order to learn the written form of musical notes. Leaning the beat in the air first. Playing using two beaters at a time.	575	ENGLISH	1
The Cherry Orchard by Anton Chekhov In the play “The Cherry Orchard,” by Anton Chekhov, pride and an ability to come to terms with change of one’s past are put to the test. The action of the play comes through three of the main characters each have their own personal strengths and weaknesses. All values have roots and their roots can distinctly be traced back to pride and the idea of whether or not they move on with their lives, or lie down and die when some kind of obstacle faces them. It comes down to how they deal with their pasts individually. The plot of “The Cherry Orchard” revolves around what the character, Mrs. Ranevsky, feels important. She lives in the past, she wants relive/stay there forever; in the times before she was in debt because she followed her so called love to Paris and the time before she lost her son to the tragic drowning in the river. Those were wonderful times she doesn’t want to hold them just as a memory but actually as a reality. She lives in a depressed present state and to escape reality, she relives the past! Reminiscence is the value that is a big factor of her escaping. If a memory or idea has any sentimental value she keeps it close to her heart and won’t let anyone near it. This is the idea behind why she is so unwilling to sell her home and the orchard. There are so many materialistic things that she could sell to assist is starting her way out of debt, though she is was to attached to the items to let anything go to help herself. Proof of that would be in the play when she kisses the table; she is emotional attached to them. Ranevsky’s internal weakness is her stubbornness to move on past what she has dealt with in her life. She is unwilling to give up any golden day luxury. It’s not that she doesn’t want to face the facts of her past of no understanding that she needs to face it, yet it is just easier to keep living in her illusion that absolutely nothing has or will change. Acting in the idea of self-pride! One way to show this is when she continues to tip with money that she doesn’t even have to be giving; unable to admit defeat! Another example would be during the auction, the one she doesn’t attend. She again is avoiding reality that her property is being sold, she sends her brother with money from another family member and the she throws a party. A last stand to hold onto a fake sense of reality she’s made up for herself. She is not blind she is fully aware of what is happening and that this reality fantasy is holding her back. At some point, she comments, “If I could only forget the past.? Although it is and would be hard to overcome the fact she was not actually in love with that man and she lost a son, it would be much healthier for her to move on and start fresh in reality. First is the servant who has grown up on the land, he no longer has to serve yet he stays. He stays because he is so afraid of change; he is a foil to Ranevsky. He cannot live without a person to serve it is order in his life, a constant. Firs doesn’t get why when serfs were freed they were so happy to get out, he loves his life and hates change. Prideful people often are unrelenting. Another character in the play, Gayev, toasts to a bookcase. If he was to replace the word “bookcase”? to Firs? in the toast it would make perfect sense and connect. Firs honestly lives to supply books- anything needed in the house. He is trapped in the past, yet and on another side of why he is trapped he just doesn’t want change he likes where he is at, he is happy where is living. Lopakhin loves money. He is ambitious. He grew up a peasant! He wants to be more than that though. He can get whatever he wants he has gained all of his money. He is an opposite of Firs and Mrs. Ranevsky, he’s embarrassed of his past and he has done anything and everything possible to move on. His father lived a life of serving on others land; he didn’t want to retrace those steps. This is the root of his weakness, the want to be better than his father. This is another attribute of a prideful person. This is a response from his fiance when someone asks about their wedding, “Oh, I don’t think anything will come of it. He’s too busy, he has no time for me pays no attention to me. ” He says that he loves Varya yet he is too consumed with the idea of overcoming the past he pats no mind to her. When stories of the past are told he is constantly interrupting, the past doesn’t matter he wants to talk about the future of his business. No time for the past because he will be losing money! He ends up purchasing the Ranevsky’s land and he has to make sure everyone knows of his success and that even with his past he is better than the previous generation. He surely redeemed his past and took accountability at an early stage of his life; he is able to and willing to move forward. Anton views this play as a comedy; Lopakhin took control of his fate and lives to make his life better and achieved greatness! Many people may see this play as a tragedy, Ranevsky has lost everything an Firs is left serving on another person’s land. Although when we focus on values and characteristics of the characters it becomes a comedy play. I chose to talk in detail of three characters (Mrs. Ranevsky Firs, and Lopakhin. ) Lopakhin is one with courage to overcome past memories and will to create a future. He moves on. Firs continues in his family legacy but at his own will. Ranevsky is stuck she isn’t willing to become happy and move on. As Lopakhin is able to move on and face a sort of tragedy he gains heroic qualities. He is the hero and receives a happy ending, therefore is a comedy about prideful people and their gains and losses because of the pride.	<urn:uuid:7b2dd629-e910-40be-a1ce-64830e65e8fe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebooksummary.com/the-cherry-orchard-by-anton-chekhov-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00326.warc.gz	en	0.989046	1,353	3.515625	4	[ -0.07534722983837128, -0.15781685709953308, 0.1363527625799179, -0.1246674582362175, 0.27128785848617554, -0.34295108914375305, 0.4194508492946625, 0.18270796537399292, 0.43779587745666504, -0.29433804750442505, 0.18873190879821777, -0.21698783338069916, -0.07297123968601227, 0.11253569275...	2	The Cherry Orchard by Anton Chekhov In the play “The Cherry Orchard,” by Anton Chekhov, pride and an ability to come to terms with change of one’s past are put to the test. The action of the play comes through three of the main characters each have their own personal strengths and weaknesses. All values have roots and their roots can distinctly be traced back to pride and the idea of whether or not they move on with their lives, or lie down and die when some kind of obstacle faces them. It comes down to how they deal with their pasts individually. The plot of “The Cherry Orchard” revolves around what the character, Mrs. Ranevsky, feels important. She lives in the past, she wants relive/stay there forever; in the times before she was in debt because she followed her so called love to Paris and the time before she lost her son to the tragic drowning in the river. Those were wonderful times she doesn’t want to hold them just as a memory but actually as a reality. She lives in a depressed present state and to escape reality, she relives the past! Reminiscence is the value that is a big factor of her escaping. If a memory or idea has any sentimental value she keeps it close to her heart and won’t let anyone near it. This is the idea behind why she is so unwilling to sell her home and the orchard. There are so many materialistic things that she could sell to assist is starting her way out of debt, though she is was to attached to the items to let anything go to help herself. Proof of that would be in the play when she kisses the table; she is emotional attached to them. Ranevsky’s internal weakness is her stubbornness to move on past what she has dealt with in her life. She is unwilling to give up any golden day luxury. It’s not that she doesn’t want to face the facts of her past of no understanding that she needs to face it, yet it is just easier to keep living in her illusion that absolutely nothing has or will change. Acting in the idea of self-pride! One way to show this is when she continues to tip with money that she doesn’t even have to be giving; unable to admit defeat! Another example would be during the auction, the one she doesn’t attend. She again is avoiding reality that her property is being sold, she sends her brother with money from another family member and the she throws a party. A last stand to hold onto a fake sense of reality she’s made up for herself. She is not blind she is fully aware of what is happening and that this reality fantasy is holding her back. At some point, she comments, “If I could only forget the past.? Although it is and would be hard to overcome the fact she was not actually in love with that man and she lost a son, it would be much healthier for her to move on and start fresh in reality. First is the servant who has grown up on the land, he no longer has to serve yet he stays. He stays because he is so afraid of change; he is a foil to Ranevsky. He cannot live without a person to serve it is order in his life, a constant. Firs doesn’t get why when serfs were freed they were so happy to get out, he loves his life and hates change. Prideful people often are unrelenting. Another character in the play, Gayev, toasts to a bookcase. If he was to replace the word “bookcase”? to Firs? in the toast it would make perfect sense and connect. Firs honestly lives to supply books- anything needed in the house. He is trapped in the past, yet and on another side of why he is trapped he just doesn’t want change he likes where he is at, he is happy where is living. Lopakhin loves money. He is ambitious. He grew up a peasant! He wants to be more than that though. He can get whatever he wants he has gained all of his money. He is an opposite of Firs and Mrs. Ranevsky, he’s embarrassed of his past and he has done anything and everything possible to move on. His father lived a life of serving on others land; he didn’t want to retrace those steps. This is the root of his weakness, the want to be better than his father. This is another attribute of a prideful person. This is a response from his fiance when someone asks about their wedding, “Oh, I don’t think anything will come of it. He’s too busy, he has no time for me pays no attention to me. ” He says that he loves Varya yet he is too consumed with the idea of overcoming the past he pats no mind to her. When stories of the past are told he is constantly interrupting, the past doesn’t matter he wants to talk about the future of his business. No time for the past because he will be losing money! He ends up purchasing the Ranevsky’s land and he has to make sure everyone knows of his success and that even with his past he is better than the previous generation. He surely redeemed his past and took accountability at an early stage of his life; he is able to and willing to move forward. Anton views this play as a comedy; Lopakhin took control of his fate and lives to make his life better and achieved greatness! Many people may see this play as a tragedy, Ranevsky has lost everything an Firs is left serving on another person’s land. Although when we focus on values and characteristics of the characters it becomes a comedy play. I chose to talk in detail of three characters (Mrs. Ranevsky Firs, and Lopakhin. ) Lopakhin is one with courage to overcome past memories and will to create a future. He moves on. Firs continues in his family legacy but at his own will. Ranevsky is stuck she isn’t willing to become happy and move on. As Lopakhin is able to move on and face a sort of tragedy he gains heroic qualities. He is the hero and receives a happy ending, therefore is a comedy about prideful people and their gains and losses because of the pride.	1,292	ENGLISH	1
The 2nd of February 2013 is a remarkable date for Russia, seventy years after the end of the Battle of Stalingrad, which was a crucial turning point in the Great Patriotic War (1941-1944). The battle lasted 200 days and ended on the 2nd of February 1943, when 300.000 Nazi soldiers got trapped inside of the city. They were either killed or had to surrender. by Olivia Kroth The Battle of Stalingrad has gone down into history as one of the bloodiest battles of warfare. It began on the 23rd of August 1942, when the Nazis started bombing the city, reducing some of its quarters to rubble. On the 19th of November 1942, the Red Army launched a counter offensive named Operation Uranus, a two-pronged attack that cut off and surrounded the Nazi soldiers inside of the city. During the Russian winter of 1942/1943, the Nazis were freezing and starving, while the Soviets continued to attack them. The eastern border of Stalingrad was the river Volga. Across the river, additional Soviet units of the 62nd Army were deployed under the command of Lieutenant-General Vasily Chuikov, who reportedly said, "We will defend Stalingrad or die in the attempt." Vasily Ivanovich Chuikov was born on the 12th of February 1900 in a large peasant family in the village of Serebryanye Prudy, Tula region, to the south of Moscow. Vasily and all of his brothers became soldiers. In 1918, he joined the Red Army, but left his regiment in 1921 to study at the Frunze Military Academy until 1925. When the Battle of Stalingrad began, he was promoted to commanding general of the 62nd Army. General Chuikov became famous for developing and practising the tactic of "hugging the enemy." Soviet soldiers kept very close to the Nazis inside of Stalingrad, to destroy them with Molotov cocktails and Russian artillery, operating at close range. "Hugging the enemy" also rendered the Nazi Air Force ineffective, as they could not bomb Stalingrad without killing their own forces inside of the city. For his outstanding bravery and excellent leadership, General Chuikov became Hero of the Soviet Union twice, in 1944 and in 1945. After the war, he was promoted to Marshal of the Soviet Union. Later in life, he published his memoirs, "The Beginning of the Road: The Story of the Battle of Stalingrad." Vasily Ivanovich Chuikov died on the 18th of March 1982. During the crucial battle, the Soviets poured aerial reinforcement into Stalingrad. Because Soviet industry had been relocated in 1941, Soviet aircraft production reached 15.800 in the second half of 1942. The Soviet aircraft industry had significant strength and built up strategic reserves. On the 5th of September 1942, the Soviet 24th and 66th Armies organized a massive attack. On the 18th of September, the Soviet 1st Guards followed suit. Thus, the Soviet 62nd and 64th Armies, including the 13th Guards Rifle Division, were able to anchor their defence lines with strong points in houses of Stalingrad. The Soviet fighters were fierce and unrelenting. Their slogans: "Not a step back!" - "There is no land behind the Volga!" The Soviet defence lines in the city were anchored in strategically located buildings, overseeing main streets and squares. Multi-floored apartment blocks and warehouses were converted into strong points, equipped with anti-tank rifles, machine guns, barbed wire, mines and mortars. Snipers in small groups of five to ten men were based in each of the streets. Probably the most famous Soviet sniper was Vasily Grigoryevich Zaytsev, born on the 23rd of March 1915 in Yeleninskoye. During the Battle of Stalingrad, he killed 225 Nazis. Vasily grew up in the Ural Mountains, where he learned marksmanship hunting deer and wolves with his grandfather and younger brother. He first served as clerk in the Soviet Navy in Vladivostok, later he was transferred to the front line. On the 22nd of September 1942, Vasily Zaytsev crossed the Volga river, to join the 1047th Rifle Regiment of the 284th Rifles Division of the 62nd Army. His specialty became to shoot Nazis out of windows at a distance of 800 metres. He took aim from his Mosin-Nagant rifle and killed them with one single shot. Because of his special skills, Vasily Zaytsev ran a snipers' training school in the Metiz factory of Stalingrad. His apprentices were named "Zaychata," baby hares. Thus, the famous sniper movement of the 62nd Army began. Vasily Zaytsev's 28 apprentices killed about 3.000 enemies during the Great Patriotic War. A special Zaytsev tactic was to cover a large area from three positions, with two men at each point, a sniper and a scout. The tactic was called "the sixes." It is still in use today, and was implemented during the war in Chechnya. In January 1943, Vasily Zaytsev's eyes were injured from a mortar attack. Professor Filatov, an eye specialist, was able to restore his sight. On the 22nd of February 1943, Vasily Zaytsev was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union. After the Great Patriotic War, Vasily Zaytsev lived in Kiev, where he died on the 15th of December 1991. Initially, he was buried in Kiev, but his remains were later transferred to Volgograd (formerly: Stalingrad). On the 31st of January 2006, he was reburied with full military honours on Mamayev Kurgan, at the monument to the defenders of Stalingrad. On the monument, a famous quote reminds of the Battle of Stalingrad, "For us, there was no land beyond the Volga." During the Battle of Stalingrad, on the hill of Mamayev Kurgan, the fighting was especially merciless. Another point was "Pavlov's House," an apartment building in the city which Yakov Pavlov had turned into a fortress by surrounding it with minefields. In each window, machine gun positions had been set up. When Soviet soldiers wanted to leave this fortress, they had to step over piles of Nazi corpses. Sergeant Pavlov was awarded Hero of the Soviet Union for his actions. The Battle of Stalingrad revealed the determination and discipline of the Red Army. One of General Rodimtsev's soldiers scratched a few words on the wall of the railway station before dying, "Rodimtsev's Guardsmen fought and died here for the Motherland." Today, some survivors remember those horrible times. Alexander Tsygankov, who was a soldier in the 181st Infantry Division of the 62nd Army, said in an interview with the Voice of Russia: "We disembarked straight on the bank of the Volga, where on a patch of land, several thousand civilians were gathered for evacuation across the river, old people, women and children, some wounded. The Nazi planes came right over the heads of those defenceless people, dropping bombs and striking them with heavy machine guns," Alexander Tsygankov told his interviewer. "I cannot tell you the hatred we felt for those sadists. We swore that we would be avenged for the bloodshed they had caused and for the destruction they had brought. They had completely destroyed the city in just a few days," he emphasized, when recalling those painful memories of the Great Patriotic War. Another war veteran, Alexei Stefanov, told about similar events he witnessed during the Battle of Stalingrad, "The 62nd ferry was a bridge to the eastern bank of the Volga. When the dreadful nightmare began, when 70.000 civilians were killed, there were scores of women and children hiding in half-ruined houses and cellars." Alexei Stefanov also pointed out the acts of solidarity among the Russian population, "A rescue operation was launched. There was a field hospital not far from the ferry. The wounded helped women and children to get aboard. The sailors shielded them with their bodies, because the Nazis were hunting the boats." Many female soldiers participated in the Battle of Stalingrad as well: 75.000 girls and women from Stalingrad underwent medical and military training to serve in the battle. They staffed anti-aircraft batteries or treated the wounded as nurses. Some women were machine gunners, mortar operators, snipers or scouts. Matryona Stolnikova of Stalingrad tells her story: "One aircraft went zooming up, another went into a dive. One swooped down, another flew up ... It was a nightmare. Black craters of bombs marked our streets. Everything was ablaze, everything that loving hands had created over the long years. The Nazis were monsters, not human beings." Lidya Plastikova of Stalingrad worked at a tractor plant, which had been converted to build tanks. In an interview, she recalled: "The machines abandoned by those, who had joined the Home Guard were taken over by women, old folk, boys and girls of 14 to 16 years of age. It was a difficult time, very difficult indeed. We would never think of leaving the workshops until the job entrusted to us was done. Although the plant had been badly damaged by bombs, work never stopped. We would go out and bring back the damaged tanks from the battlefield to repair them and get them going again." Another woman who worked in Stalingrad, when the battle raged, was Dr. Zinaida Yermolieva, an epidemiologist and microbiologist. Due to her research work, an outbreak of cholera could be stopped on the Stalingrad front. She created Russian penicillin in an underground laboratory, where she set up the production of the antibiotic. Professor Yermolieva used the corpses of Nazis, who had died of cholera, for her research work, to obtain the antibiotic. She also organized its mass production, for which she was awarded the Order of Lenin and the Stalin Prize. She is remembered as a famous specialist of anti-cholera research in Russia, a woman of outstanding determination and willpower, with the brilliant mind of a scientist. Zinaida Yermolieva was born into a Don Cossack family, in 1898. She studied medicine at the Rostov medical institute and became assistant professor of microbiology. Her scientific activities began in the 1920s. They lasted throughout the Great Patriotic War. The Nazis lost five armies in Stalingrad. Out of the 110.000 Nazi prisoners captured in the city, barely 6.000 returned "heim ins Reich." They were decimated by disease, lack of medical care and starvation. The prisoners of war were sent on death marches to prison camps all over the Soviet Union. Thus, about 75.000 Nazi prisoners died in the first three months after their capture. Some 35.000 were sent on transports, which about 17.000 of them did not survive. They died of cholera, typhus, cold and malnutrition. In March 1943, about 40.000 dead Nazis were buried in a mass grave. They had died during a typhus epidemic. In 1945, the city of Stalingrad was awarded the title Hero City, for the heroism of its inhabitants. In October 1967, the colossal statue of "Mother Motherland" (Rodina Mat) was installed on Mamayev Kurgan, overlooking the Hero City, which today bears the name of Volgograd. Of course, nowadays, there is plenty of beautiful land on the other side of the Volga, but the horrors of Stalingrad during the nightmarish years of 1942/1943 are unforgotten. Prepared for publication by: A disaster that appeared something different from a tragic fatality. The timing of the incident, on the night when Iran launched its operation...	<urn:uuid:2f3fae48-ac39-4d4f-969d-383b54304291>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pravdareport.com/history/123649-stalingrad/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00036.warc.gz	en	0.984315	2,522	3.5625	4	[ -0.1335180401802063, 0.2596184015274048, 0.23017914593219757, -0.07650552690029144, -0.019246583804488182, 0.0435660220682621, 0.09022171050310135, 0.4205581247806549, -0.209969624876976, -0.387850284576416, 0.07050740718841553, -0.23322921991348267, 0.44038498401641846, 0.320686399936676,...	1	The 2nd of February 2013 is a remarkable date for Russia, seventy years after the end of the Battle of Stalingrad, which was a crucial turning point in the Great Patriotic War (1941-1944). The battle lasted 200 days and ended on the 2nd of February 1943, when 300.000 Nazi soldiers got trapped inside of the city. They were either killed or had to surrender. by Olivia Kroth The Battle of Stalingrad has gone down into history as one of the bloodiest battles of warfare. It began on the 23rd of August 1942, when the Nazis started bombing the city, reducing some of its quarters to rubble. On the 19th of November 1942, the Red Army launched a counter offensive named Operation Uranus, a two-pronged attack that cut off and surrounded the Nazi soldiers inside of the city. During the Russian winter of 1942/1943, the Nazis were freezing and starving, while the Soviets continued to attack them. The eastern border of Stalingrad was the river Volga. Across the river, additional Soviet units of the 62nd Army were deployed under the command of Lieutenant-General Vasily Chuikov, who reportedly said, "We will defend Stalingrad or die in the attempt." Vasily Ivanovich Chuikov was born on the 12th of February 1900 in a large peasant family in the village of Serebryanye Prudy, Tula region, to the south of Moscow. Vasily and all of his brothers became soldiers. In 1918, he joined the Red Army, but left his regiment in 1921 to study at the Frunze Military Academy until 1925. When the Battle of Stalingrad began, he was promoted to commanding general of the 62nd Army. General Chuikov became famous for developing and practising the tactic of "hugging the enemy." Soviet soldiers kept very close to the Nazis inside of Stalingrad, to destroy them with Molotov cocktails and Russian artillery, operating at close range. "Hugging the enemy" also rendered the Nazi Air Force ineffective, as they could not bomb Stalingrad without killing their own forces inside of the city. For his outstanding bravery and excellent leadership, General Chuikov became Hero of the Soviet Union twice, in 1944 and in 1945. After the war, he was promoted to Marshal of the Soviet Union. Later in life, he published his memoirs, "The Beginning of the Road: The Story of the Battle of Stalingrad." Vasily Ivanovich Chuikov died on the 18th of March 1982. During the crucial battle, the Soviets poured aerial reinforcement into Stalingrad. Because Soviet industry had been relocated in 1941, Soviet aircraft production reached 15.800 in the second half of 1942. The Soviet aircraft industry had significant strength and built up strategic reserves. On the 5th of September 1942, the Soviet 24th and 66th Armies organized a massive attack. On the 18th of September, the Soviet 1st Guards followed suit. Thus, the Soviet 62nd and 64th Armies, including the 13th Guards Rifle Division, were able to anchor their defence lines with strong points in houses of Stalingrad. The Soviet fighters were fierce and unrelenting. Their slogans: "Not a step back!" - "There is no land behind the Volga!" The Soviet defence lines in the city were anchored in strategically located buildings, overseeing main streets and squares. Multi-floored apartment blocks and warehouses were converted into strong points, equipped with anti-tank rifles, machine guns, barbed wire, mines and mortars. Snipers in small groups of five to ten men were based in each of the streets. Probably the most famous Soviet sniper was Vasily Grigoryevich Zaytsev, born on the 23rd of March 1915 in Yeleninskoye. During the Battle of Stalingrad, he killed 225 Nazis. Vasily grew up in the Ural Mountains, where he learned marksmanship hunting deer and wolves with his grandfather and younger brother. He first served as clerk in the Soviet Navy in Vladivostok, later he was transferred to the front line. On the 22nd of September 1942, Vasily Zaytsev crossed the Volga river, to join the 1047th Rifle Regiment of the 284th Rifles Division of the 62nd Army. His specialty became to shoot Nazis out of windows at a distance of 800 metres. He took aim from his Mosin-Nagant rifle and killed them with one single shot. Because of his special skills, Vasily Zaytsev ran a snipers' training school in the Metiz factory of Stalingrad. His apprentices were named "Zaychata," baby hares. Thus, the famous sniper movement of the 62nd Army began. Vasily Zaytsev's 28 apprentices killed about 3.000 enemies during the Great Patriotic War. A special Zaytsev tactic was to cover a large area from three positions, with two men at each point, a sniper and a scout. The tactic was called "the sixes." It is still in use today, and was implemented during the war in Chechnya. In January 1943, Vasily Zaytsev's eyes were injured from a mortar attack. Professor Filatov, an eye specialist, was able to restore his sight. On the 22nd of February 1943, Vasily Zaytsev was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union. After the Great Patriotic War, Vasily Zaytsev lived in Kiev, where he died on the 15th of December 1991. Initially, he was buried in Kiev, but his remains were later transferred to Volgograd (formerly: Stalingrad). On the 31st of January 2006, he was reburied with full military honours on Mamayev Kurgan, at the monument to the defenders of Stalingrad. On the monument, a famous quote reminds of the Battle of Stalingrad, "For us, there was no land beyond the Volga." During the Battle of Stalingrad, on the hill of Mamayev Kurgan, the fighting was especially merciless. Another point was "Pavlov's House," an apartment building in the city which Yakov Pavlov had turned into a fortress by surrounding it with minefields. In each window, machine gun positions had been set up. When Soviet soldiers wanted to leave this fortress, they had to step over piles of Nazi corpses. Sergeant Pavlov was awarded Hero of the Soviet Union for his actions. The Battle of Stalingrad revealed the determination and discipline of the Red Army. One of General Rodimtsev's soldiers scratched a few words on the wall of the railway station before dying, "Rodimtsev's Guardsmen fought and died here for the Motherland." Today, some survivors remember those horrible times. Alexander Tsygankov, who was a soldier in the 181st Infantry Division of the 62nd Army, said in an interview with the Voice of Russia: "We disembarked straight on the bank of the Volga, where on a patch of land, several thousand civilians were gathered for evacuation across the river, old people, women and children, some wounded. The Nazi planes came right over the heads of those defenceless people, dropping bombs and striking them with heavy machine guns," Alexander Tsygankov told his interviewer. "I cannot tell you the hatred we felt for those sadists. We swore that we would be avenged for the bloodshed they had caused and for the destruction they had brought. They had completely destroyed the city in just a few days," he emphasized, when recalling those painful memories of the Great Patriotic War. Another war veteran, Alexei Stefanov, told about similar events he witnessed during the Battle of Stalingrad, "The 62nd ferry was a bridge to the eastern bank of the Volga. When the dreadful nightmare began, when 70.000 civilians were killed, there were scores of women and children hiding in half-ruined houses and cellars." Alexei Stefanov also pointed out the acts of solidarity among the Russian population, "A rescue operation was launched. There was a field hospital not far from the ferry. The wounded helped women and children to get aboard. The sailors shielded them with their bodies, because the Nazis were hunting the boats." Many female soldiers participated in the Battle of Stalingrad as well: 75.000 girls and women from Stalingrad underwent medical and military training to serve in the battle. They staffed anti-aircraft batteries or treated the wounded as nurses. Some women were machine gunners, mortar operators, snipers or scouts. Matryona Stolnikova of Stalingrad tells her story: "One aircraft went zooming up, another went into a dive. One swooped down, another flew up ... It was a nightmare. Black craters of bombs marked our streets. Everything was ablaze, everything that loving hands had created over the long years. The Nazis were monsters, not human beings." Lidya Plastikova of Stalingrad worked at a tractor plant, which had been converted to build tanks. In an interview, she recalled: "The machines abandoned by those, who had joined the Home Guard were taken over by women, old folk, boys and girls of 14 to 16 years of age. It was a difficult time, very difficult indeed. We would never think of leaving the workshops until the job entrusted to us was done. Although the plant had been badly damaged by bombs, work never stopped. We would go out and bring back the damaged tanks from the battlefield to repair them and get them going again." Another woman who worked in Stalingrad, when the battle raged, was Dr. Zinaida Yermolieva, an epidemiologist and microbiologist. Due to her research work, an outbreak of cholera could be stopped on the Stalingrad front. She created Russian penicillin in an underground laboratory, where she set up the production of the antibiotic. Professor Yermolieva used the corpses of Nazis, who had died of cholera, for her research work, to obtain the antibiotic. She also organized its mass production, for which she was awarded the Order of Lenin and the Stalin Prize. She is remembered as a famous specialist of anti-cholera research in Russia, a woman of outstanding determination and willpower, with the brilliant mind of a scientist. Zinaida Yermolieva was born into a Don Cossack family, in 1898. She studied medicine at the Rostov medical institute and became assistant professor of microbiology. Her scientific activities began in the 1920s. They lasted throughout the Great Patriotic War. The Nazis lost five armies in Stalingrad. Out of the 110.000 Nazi prisoners captured in the city, barely 6.000 returned "heim ins Reich." They were decimated by disease, lack of medical care and starvation. The prisoners of war were sent on death marches to prison camps all over the Soviet Union. Thus, about 75.000 Nazi prisoners died in the first three months after their capture. Some 35.000 were sent on transports, which about 17.000 of them did not survive. They died of cholera, typhus, cold and malnutrition. In March 1943, about 40.000 dead Nazis were buried in a mass grave. They had died during a typhus epidemic. In 1945, the city of Stalingrad was awarded the title Hero City, for the heroism of its inhabitants. In October 1967, the colossal statue of "Mother Motherland" (Rodina Mat) was installed on Mamayev Kurgan, overlooking the Hero City, which today bears the name of Volgograd. Of course, nowadays, there is plenty of beautiful land on the other side of the Volga, but the horrors of Stalingrad during the nightmarish years of 1942/1943 are unforgotten. Prepared for publication by: A disaster that appeared something different from a tragic fatality. The timing of the incident, on the night when Iran launched its operation...	2,716	ENGLISH	1
He was an aggressive and acquisitive monarch, asserting his rights over Toulouse, Brittany and Wales and leading to the invasion or Ireland as well. As far as historians know, there was no contemporary term for the region under Angevin control; The angevin empire, descriptions such as "our kingdom and everything subject to our rule whatever it may be" were used. The term Angevin itself is the demonym for the residents of Anjou and its historic capital, Angers ; the Plantagenets were descended from Geoffrey I, Count of Anjouhence the term. The area was a collection of the lands inherited and acquired by Henry, and so it is unclear whether these dominions shared any common identity and so should be labelled with the term Empire. While the duchies and counties were held with various levels of vassalage to the king of France the Plantagenets held various levels of control over the Duchies of Brittany and Cornwall The angevin empire, the Welsh princedomsthe county of Toulouseand the Kingdom of Scotlandalthough those regions were not formal parts of the empire. Auvergne was also in the empire for part of the reigns of Henry II and Richard, in their capacity as dukes of Aquitaine. Henry II and Richard I pushed further claims over the County of Berry but these were not completely fulfilled and the county was lost completely by the time of the accession of John in The frontiers of the empire were sometimes well known and therefore easy to mark, such as the dykes constructed between the royal demesne of the king of France and the Duchy of Normandy. In other places these borders were not so clear, particularly the eastern border of Aquitaine, where there was often a difference between the frontier Henry IIand later Richard Iclaimed, and the frontier where their effective power ended. This meant that, rather than the empire being controlled fully by the ruling monarch, he would delegate power to specially appointed subjects in different areas. British Isles[ edit ] England was under the firmest control of all the lands in the Angevin Empire, due to the age of many of the offices that governed the country and the traditions and customs that were in place. England was divided in shires with sheriffs in each enforcing the common law. A justiciar was appointed by the king to stand in his absence when he was on the continent. As the kings of England were more often in France than England they used writs more frequently than the Anglo-Saxon kings, which actually proved beneficial to England. This made it much harder for them to revolt against the king and defend all of their lands at once. Earls held a status similar to that of the continental countsbut there were no dukes at this time, only ducal titles that the kings of England held. Ireland was ruled by the Lord of Ireland who had a hard time imposing his rule at first. It supplied the Plantagenets with infantry and longbowmen. However, the constituent counties, such as Mainewere often administered by the officials of the local lords, rather than their Angevin suzerains. Maine was at first largely self-ruling and lacked administration until the Angevin kings made efforts to improve administration by installing new officials, such as the seneschal of Le Mans. These reforms came too late for the Angevins however, and only the Capetians saw the beneficial effects of this reform after they annexed the area. Gascony was a very loosely administrated region. Officials were stationed mostly in Entre-Deux-MersBayonneDaxbut some were found on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela and also on the river Garonne up to Agen. The rest of Gascony was not administered, despite being such a large area compared to other smaller, well-administered provinces. Indeed, there were lords that ruled these regions as if they were "sovereign princes" and they had extra powers, such as the ability to mint their own coins, something English lords had been unable to do for decades. Officials could be stationed in Poitouhowever, due to a large concentration of castles compared to the rest of Aquitaine. Normandy was the most administrated state of the Angevin Empire after England.The Angevin Empire may have come about by a mixture of luck and calculation, but skill and respect for local custom were required for Henry II to preserve it intact. Angevin empire: Angevin empire,, the territories, extending in the latter part of the 12th century from Scotland to the Pyrenees, that were ruled by the English king Henry II and his immediate successors, Richard I and John; they were called the Angevin kings because Henry’s father was . The term Angevin Empire is a modern term describing the collection of states once ruled by the Angevins of the House of Plantagenet. The Plantagenets ruled over an area stretching from the Pyrenees to Ireland during the 12th and early 13th centuries, located north of the kingdoms of Navarre and. The Angevin Empire, at last, was no more, and Philip assumed his place as the preeminent Lord of France. However, its legacy and its troubles remained. The Angevin Empire, Vol. 3: Or the Three Reigns of Henry II, Richard I, and John (A. D. ) (Classic Reprint) Mar 22, by James Ramsay. Hardcover. $ $ . Angevin empire, the territories, extending in the latter part of the 12th century from Scotland to the Pyrenees, that were ruled by the English king Henry II and his immediate successors, Richard I and John; they were called the Angevin kings because Henry’s father was count of Anjou.	<urn:uuid:8ba6a506-52a7-4b4c-bb40-5d5171a8c105>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://xyhuvul.ashio-midori.com/the-angevin-empire-24105kx.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00122.warc.gz	en	0.984074	1,210	3.578125	4	[ -0.17397211492061615, 0.3039843440055847, 0.047695137560367584, -0.2778242528438568, 0.1259535849094391, -0.444981187582016, 0.31692659854888916, -0.2011106312274933, 0.13219426572322845, -0.04778828099370003, -0.27562814950942993, -0.5116645097732544, 0.07595360279083252, 0.04953907430171...	2	He was an aggressive and acquisitive monarch, asserting his rights over Toulouse, Brittany and Wales and leading to the invasion or Ireland as well. As far as historians know, there was no contemporary term for the region under Angevin control; The angevin empire, descriptions such as "our kingdom and everything subject to our rule whatever it may be" were used. The term Angevin itself is the demonym for the residents of Anjou and its historic capital, Angers ; the Plantagenets were descended from Geoffrey I, Count of Anjouhence the term. The area was a collection of the lands inherited and acquired by Henry, and so it is unclear whether these dominions shared any common identity and so should be labelled with the term Empire. While the duchies and counties were held with various levels of vassalage to the king of France the Plantagenets held various levels of control over the Duchies of Brittany and Cornwall The angevin empire, the Welsh princedomsthe county of Toulouseand the Kingdom of Scotlandalthough those regions were not formal parts of the empire. Auvergne was also in the empire for part of the reigns of Henry II and Richard, in their capacity as dukes of Aquitaine. Henry II and Richard I pushed further claims over the County of Berry but these were not completely fulfilled and the county was lost completely by the time of the accession of John in The frontiers of the empire were sometimes well known and therefore easy to mark, such as the dykes constructed between the royal demesne of the king of France and the Duchy of Normandy. In other places these borders were not so clear, particularly the eastern border of Aquitaine, where there was often a difference between the frontier Henry IIand later Richard Iclaimed, and the frontier where their effective power ended. This meant that, rather than the empire being controlled fully by the ruling monarch, he would delegate power to specially appointed subjects in different areas. British Isles[ edit ] England was under the firmest control of all the lands in the Angevin Empire, due to the age of many of the offices that governed the country and the traditions and customs that were in place. England was divided in shires with sheriffs in each enforcing the common law. A justiciar was appointed by the king to stand in his absence when he was on the continent. As the kings of England were more often in France than England they used writs more frequently than the Anglo-Saxon kings, which actually proved beneficial to England. This made it much harder for them to revolt against the king and defend all of their lands at once. Earls held a status similar to that of the continental countsbut there were no dukes at this time, only ducal titles that the kings of England held. Ireland was ruled by the Lord of Ireland who had a hard time imposing his rule at first. It supplied the Plantagenets with infantry and longbowmen. However, the constituent counties, such as Mainewere often administered by the officials of the local lords, rather than their Angevin suzerains. Maine was at first largely self-ruling and lacked administration until the Angevin kings made efforts to improve administration by installing new officials, such as the seneschal of Le Mans. These reforms came too late for the Angevins however, and only the Capetians saw the beneficial effects of this reform after they annexed the area. Gascony was a very loosely administrated region. Officials were stationed mostly in Entre-Deux-MersBayonneDaxbut some were found on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela and also on the river Garonne up to Agen. The rest of Gascony was not administered, despite being such a large area compared to other smaller, well-administered provinces. Indeed, there were lords that ruled these regions as if they were "sovereign princes" and they had extra powers, such as the ability to mint their own coins, something English lords had been unable to do for decades. Officials could be stationed in Poitouhowever, due to a large concentration of castles compared to the rest of Aquitaine. Normandy was the most administrated state of the Angevin Empire after England.The Angevin Empire may have come about by a mixture of luck and calculation, but skill and respect for local custom were required for Henry II to preserve it intact. Angevin empire: Angevin empire,, the territories, extending in the latter part of the 12th century from Scotland to the Pyrenees, that were ruled by the English king Henry II and his immediate successors, Richard I and John; they were called the Angevin kings because Henry’s father was . The term Angevin Empire is a modern term describing the collection of states once ruled by the Angevins of the House of Plantagenet. The Plantagenets ruled over an area stretching from the Pyrenees to Ireland during the 12th and early 13th centuries, located north of the kingdoms of Navarre and. The Angevin Empire, at last, was no more, and Philip assumed his place as the preeminent Lord of France. However, its legacy and its troubles remained. The Angevin Empire, Vol. 3: Or the Three Reigns of Henry II, Richard I, and John (A. D. ) (Classic Reprint) Mar 22, by James Ramsay. Hardcover. $ $ . Angevin empire, the territories, extending in the latter part of the 12th century from Scotland to the Pyrenees, that were ruled by the English king Henry II and his immediate successors, Richard I and John; they were called the Angevin kings because Henry’s father was count of Anjou.	1,187	ENGLISH	1
The History Of Sport Psychology Before we get into an in-depth look at how you can use sports psychology, it is important to understand just where this practice came from. It has a far longer history than you probably realize, but it has had its own ups and downs. Let’s start at the beginning. The Early Years. The First Observations The roots of sports psychology started back in the 19th century, when a man by the name of Norman Triplett started making his own observations about athletes and when they were performing best. In 1898, he discovered that there were cyclists who were working hard to train for races, but they also always seemed to perform at their best during the race itself compared to when they were doing so on their own. The Start of The Practice It wasn’t until years later that it was actually studied, however. The man who is considered the founder of sports psychology specifically is a man by the name of Coleman R Griffith. This psychologist began studying the psychology of sports in-depth in an attempt to predict performance. It all started for him in 1918, when he was a graduate student. At this time, he was focusing on how to attention levels and vision played a role in predicting the way that football and basketball players performed during games. After his work in this area, he started teaching a course on the matter. It was titled “Psychology and Athletics,” officially starting what we now know as Sports Psychology when the accompanying research lab was opened to study athletic performance. There were a lot of conclusions that he drew through his work in this lab, but in particular, he looked into the link between learning and physical exercise. The sleep pattern of athletes. The psychological skills of football players. Mental variables that have an impact on sports player’s performance. This went on for a few years until he was unfortunately forced to close his labin 1932. The Great Depression, along with the loss of support from the head football coach of Illinois, forced the decision and effectively put an end to his research for a time. Before the closing of his lab, however, he published a paper that is seen as what started the movement. In it, he wrote that: “The more mind is made use of in athletic competition, the greater will be the skill of our athletes, the finer will be the contest, the higher will be the ideals of sportsmanship displayed, the longer will our games persist in our national life, and the more truly will they lead to those rich personal and social products which we ought to expect of them. Because of these facts, the psychologist may hope to break into the realm of athletic competition, just as he has already broken into realms of industry, commerce, medicine, education, and art.” That article led to more research as he published two textbooks on the subject, entitled Psychology of Coaching and Psychology and Athletics. This effectively laid the groundwork for others, especially after he took a job as a consultant for the Chicago Cubs in order to start using the ideas that he had formulated. Sports Psychology Catches On It didn’t take long, however, for other baseball teams to start gaining interest in the kinds of concepts that Griffith had discovered and written about. The St Louis Browns hired David F Tracy, a hypnotist, and psychologist, to bring a “scientific attitude” to their scouting and player recruitment in the 1950s. The Philadelphia Phillies picked up the game as well in the 1960s when they created a research program based around baseball players. Kansas City created something similar for the Royals in the 70s, with more and more teams catching on to start using something that has become a standard practice for baseball, football, and basketball teams across the globe. The Modern Practice Sports psychology as we know it started in large part in 1965 when a group of psychologists founded the International Society of Sport Psychology. This international group met every year to discuss their latest developments. A North American Society of Sport Psychology and Physical Activity followed closely on its heels and started the modern incarnation in the United States. Today, sports psychologists work with teams everywhere and in virtually any sport that you can imagine. A specialty journal called The Sport Psychologist was founded in 1986 and has since spread information about the latest developments and created a field that is far and away one of the most interesting. During the 1980s and the 1990s, there was an absolute explosion of the industry and at the moment there are now over 3,000 sports psychologists across the globe and there are now over 100 training programs available to those interested in the field. One of the most vital things about sports psychology, though, is that many of the techniques are very easy to use on your own, without having to resort to seeing a professional to find out more information about what you should be doing. That is why we are now going to look at the major techniques that sports psychology has discovered. These kinds of techniques are easy to use, highly effective, and some of the greatest ways of increasing performance in any sport, without having to add additional physical training to the routine.	<urn:uuid:307c0e29-9ced-4ba2-a5ed-170f56e46a3a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.5best.com/the-history-of-sport-psychology/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00166.warc.gz	en	0.982608	1,043	3.375	3	[ 0.0958775132894516, 0.5686204433441162, 0.10272664576768875, -0.1295279711484909, -0.16147039830684662, 0.9164772033691406, 0.6473581790924072, 0.17472508549690247, 0.5164292454719543, -0.13283845782279968, 0.18604181706905365, -0.22957314550876617, -0.1606949269771576, 0.259415864944458, ...	4	The History Of Sport Psychology Before we get into an in-depth look at how you can use sports psychology, it is important to understand just where this practice came from. It has a far longer history than you probably realize, but it has had its own ups and downs. Let’s start at the beginning. The Early Years. The First Observations The roots of sports psychology started back in the 19th century, when a man by the name of Norman Triplett started making his own observations about athletes and when they were performing best. In 1898, he discovered that there were cyclists who were working hard to train for races, but they also always seemed to perform at their best during the race itself compared to when they were doing so on their own. The Start of The Practice It wasn’t until years later that it was actually studied, however. The man who is considered the founder of sports psychology specifically is a man by the name of Coleman R Griffith. This psychologist began studying the psychology of sports in-depth in an attempt to predict performance. It all started for him in 1918, when he was a graduate student. At this time, he was focusing on how to attention levels and vision played a role in predicting the way that football and basketball players performed during games. After his work in this area, he started teaching a course on the matter. It was titled “Psychology and Athletics,” officially starting what we now know as Sports Psychology when the accompanying research lab was opened to study athletic performance. There were a lot of conclusions that he drew through his work in this lab, but in particular, he looked into the link between learning and physical exercise. The sleep pattern of athletes. The psychological skills of football players. Mental variables that have an impact on sports player’s performance. This went on for a few years until he was unfortunately forced to close his labin 1932. The Great Depression, along with the loss of support from the head football coach of Illinois, forced the decision and effectively put an end to his research for a time. Before the closing of his lab, however, he published a paper that is seen as what started the movement. In it, he wrote that: “The more mind is made use of in athletic competition, the greater will be the skill of our athletes, the finer will be the contest, the higher will be the ideals of sportsmanship displayed, the longer will our games persist in our national life, and the more truly will they lead to those rich personal and social products which we ought to expect of them. Because of these facts, the psychologist may hope to break into the realm of athletic competition, just as he has already broken into realms of industry, commerce, medicine, education, and art.” That article led to more research as he published two textbooks on the subject, entitled Psychology of Coaching and Psychology and Athletics. This effectively laid the groundwork for others, especially after he took a job as a consultant for the Chicago Cubs in order to start using the ideas that he had formulated. Sports Psychology Catches On It didn’t take long, however, for other baseball teams to start gaining interest in the kinds of concepts that Griffith had discovered and written about. The St Louis Browns hired David F Tracy, a hypnotist, and psychologist, to bring a “scientific attitude” to their scouting and player recruitment in the 1950s. The Philadelphia Phillies picked up the game as well in the 1960s when they created a research program based around baseball players. Kansas City created something similar for the Royals in the 70s, with more and more teams catching on to start using something that has become a standard practice for baseball, football, and basketball teams across the globe. The Modern Practice Sports psychology as we know it started in large part in 1965 when a group of psychologists founded the International Society of Sport Psychology. This international group met every year to discuss their latest developments. A North American Society of Sport Psychology and Physical Activity followed closely on its heels and started the modern incarnation in the United States. Today, sports psychologists work with teams everywhere and in virtually any sport that you can imagine. A specialty journal called The Sport Psychologist was founded in 1986 and has since spread information about the latest developments and created a field that is far and away one of the most interesting. During the 1980s and the 1990s, there was an absolute explosion of the industry and at the moment there are now over 3,000 sports psychologists across the globe and there are now over 100 training programs available to those interested in the field. One of the most vital things about sports psychology, though, is that many of the techniques are very easy to use on your own, without having to resort to seeing a professional to find out more information about what you should be doing. That is why we are now going to look at the major techniques that sports psychology has discovered. These kinds of techniques are easy to use, highly effective, and some of the greatest ways of increasing performance in any sport, without having to add additional physical training to the routine.	1,056	ENGLISH	1
In 1871, a decision was made to connect by rail Oslo (Norway’s largest city nearly 200 miles southeast of Flåm) and Bergen (105 miles southwest of Flåm). As part of the Bergen Line, the Myrdal Station opened in 1908. The question then became how to descend from the station’s elevation of 2,844 feet through the Flåmsdalen (valley) and into Flåm? Proposals were written and rejected for fifteen years while estimated costs ballooned. In 1924, the commitment was made to build the Flåm Line (Flåmsbana). At the peak of construction, 280 men were employed. The work was laborious. 18 of the 20 tunnels were drilled by hand. The project was also dangerous. Avalanches and landslides were common. In 1940, limited freight operations began. The first passenger train ran in early 1941.	<urn:uuid:9a1c2ef6-4221-4e0c-bb88-f806aeedf075>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.encirclephotos.com/image/history-of-flamsbana-near-flam-norway/?gal=28144&pos=12&marker=12	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00138.warc.gz	en	0.988758	191	3.5	4	[ 0.08877649158239365, 0.14040014147758484, 0.16135327517986298, 0.0668269693851471, -0.10108894109725952, 0.23261460661888123, -0.29503124952316284, 0.16375218331813812, -0.19893157482147217, -0.37228572368621826, -0.008501948788762093, -0.30097073316574097, 0.2195807844400406, 0.4763352870...	8	In 1871, a decision was made to connect by rail Oslo (Norway’s largest city nearly 200 miles southeast of Flåm) and Bergen (105 miles southwest of Flåm). As part of the Bergen Line, the Myrdal Station opened in 1908. The question then became how to descend from the station’s elevation of 2,844 feet through the Flåmsdalen (valley) and into Flåm? Proposals were written and rejected for fifteen years while estimated costs ballooned. In 1924, the commitment was made to build the Flåm Line (Flåmsbana). At the peak of construction, 280 men were employed. The work was laborious. 18 of the 20 tunnels were drilled by hand. The project was also dangerous. Avalanches and landslides were common. In 1940, limited freight operations began. The first passenger train ran in early 1941.	218	ENGLISH	1
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1894 The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration (I. C. and A.) Act 1894 addressed a situation where arbitration decisions brought down by an existing Arbitration Court were ignored by employers. Under the act it was voluntary for unions to register with the court, but it was compulsory for employers. Any registered union could bring any employer before the Arbitration Court, and the court's decisions were legally binding. Many disputes concerned wages; and the I. C. and A. Act enabled compulsory wage setting. Minimum wage legislation was also developed in New Zealand in the 1890s. In 1936 the I. C. and A. Act was amended to provide a 40-hour work week and compulsory union membership. Centralised wage setting, where minimum wages for an entire industry were set by a single arbitrator, was common practice until 1973. However, it was abandoned at times of employer pressure, notably between 1932 – the low point of the 1930s economic depression – and 1937. This framework came under pressure as inflation gained momentum in the late 1960s, and it was replaced in a sequence of five acts, beginning with the Industrial Relations Act 1973, which relaxed the statutory restrictions on employment relationships. Employment acts 1991 and 2000 The employment acts of 1991 and 2000 had differing philosophical bases, reflecting differences in the outlook of the governments which introduced them. National’s Employment Contracts Act 1991 stipulated that employment should be managed by contracts between employer and employee, who could set whatever terms and conditions they agreed on. Labour’s Employment Relations Act 2000 placed limits on the kinds of arrangements that could be entered into between employer and employee, for instance unions alone were allowed to negotiate collective contracts with employers. Other factors affecting employment law Employment law varies amongst nations, and differences between the employment rates of OECD countries have been attributed to different employment laws. Employment law is affected by other related laws, such as those that set liquor and shop trading hours. In the 1960s New Zealand employers had to pay additional wages for any employment engaged in outside the five-day 40-hour working week. This was supported by the regulation of shop trading hours, which were limited by law to little more than these hours. In the later 20th century employment legislation changed, in large part because of social change. Women once had low participation rates in the paid labour force, reflecting the social mores of the day, which were buttressed by employment and trading laws. Laws passed in the 1970s and 1980s ended such restrictions. The development of employment legislation thus illustrates that the legal framework of economic activity is responsive to social change.	<urn:uuid:a68cf80c-a7aa-4353-94b5-ed492c025293>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://admin.teara.govt.nz/mi/law-and-the-economy/page-4	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00302.warc.gz	en	0.981163	543	3.328125	3	[ -0.7716125249862671, 0.03050094284117222, -0.21071529388427734, 0.006203781347721815, -0.21787682175636292, 0.4017753005027771, 0.2717081308364868, -0.018336936831474304, -0.10605403780937195, -0.027305103838443756, 0.06728146970272064, 0.10303601622581482, 0.2302883267402649, 0.2200413644...	10	Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1894 The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration (I. C. and A.) Act 1894 addressed a situation where arbitration decisions brought down by an existing Arbitration Court were ignored by employers. Under the act it was voluntary for unions to register with the court, but it was compulsory for employers. Any registered union could bring any employer before the Arbitration Court, and the court's decisions were legally binding. Many disputes concerned wages; and the I. C. and A. Act enabled compulsory wage setting. Minimum wage legislation was also developed in New Zealand in the 1890s. In 1936 the I. C. and A. Act was amended to provide a 40-hour work week and compulsory union membership. Centralised wage setting, where minimum wages for an entire industry were set by a single arbitrator, was common practice until 1973. However, it was abandoned at times of employer pressure, notably between 1932 – the low point of the 1930s economic depression – and 1937. This framework came under pressure as inflation gained momentum in the late 1960s, and it was replaced in a sequence of five acts, beginning with the Industrial Relations Act 1973, which relaxed the statutory restrictions on employment relationships. Employment acts 1991 and 2000 The employment acts of 1991 and 2000 had differing philosophical bases, reflecting differences in the outlook of the governments which introduced them. National’s Employment Contracts Act 1991 stipulated that employment should be managed by contracts between employer and employee, who could set whatever terms and conditions they agreed on. Labour’s Employment Relations Act 2000 placed limits on the kinds of arrangements that could be entered into between employer and employee, for instance unions alone were allowed to negotiate collective contracts with employers. Other factors affecting employment law Employment law varies amongst nations, and differences between the employment rates of OECD countries have been attributed to different employment laws. Employment law is affected by other related laws, such as those that set liquor and shop trading hours. In the 1960s New Zealand employers had to pay additional wages for any employment engaged in outside the five-day 40-hour working week. This was supported by the regulation of shop trading hours, which were limited by law to little more than these hours. In the later 20th century employment legislation changed, in large part because of social change. Women once had low participation rates in the paid labour force, reflecting the social mores of the day, which were buttressed by employment and trading laws. Laws passed in the 1970s and 1980s ended such restrictions. The development of employment legislation thus illustrates that the legal framework of economic activity is responsive to social change.	606	ENGLISH	1
Atticus Finch was a man who fought for what he believed in. He was always the one who stood up for what was right, not what the more popular thing to do was. Atticus has a lot of courage to do what he did for Tom Robinson. Atticus looked past the racism that was in the courtroom where Tom was being accused of raping a woman and he stood up for him. Atticus believed in equality amongst people and he thought that the court was not being equal. Atticus taught his daughter Scout and his son Jem to be a good person and to treat everyone equally. He believed that success was not just winning, but instead just trying to fight for a good cause. Even if you failed, Atticus believes you were successful.Order now Courage was something Atticus definitely had. He was the only white man in town that would stand up for Tom Robinson because he knew it was wrong to accuse him. Atticus once said that you should still fight even when you know your beaten. He didnt just go with the popular opinion that blacks were bad, instead, he gathered up his courage and fought against the court. He knew that he was testifying against an all white jury and that he had no chance to convince them that Tom was guilty, but he knew that it was right to at least try. He believed that every little thing you do that is right will eventually add up and help the cause. Atticus was a man who did not believe in racism. He had grown his kids up telling them that racism was not right. He taught them that everyone was equal. Scout and Jem were still influenced by racism in the public though. Atticus noted how in the court there was no way for a black man to win against a white man when its the white man who gets to have the decision of what happens. He knew that in the court room, racism was everywhere. Black men had no chance of wining and it was always the white man who would win. No matter how good of a case Atticus gave the jury, it was still racism that came out on top. If Atticus Finch ever treated anybody unequally than there was a good reason. He was always for equality. He believed that all men were created equal and blacks shouldnt be treated badly for nothing. Equality was something that Atticus thought should be with everyone no matter where. The Jury and the Judge both treated Tom Robinson unequally and Atticus was frustrated over that. Family was always something that Atticus took pride in. He loved his family with all his heart and he would do anything for them. Atticus had 2 children, Jem and Scout. Jem was the older of the 2 and was a boy. Scout was younger and was a girl. Atticus believed that he was a failure as a father sometimes. He tried very hard to be a good one but always seemed to think he could have been a better one. Atticus would put family first before anything else. Not many people think that if you lose a battle then you were not successful. Atticus did not think this, he believed that being successful was only to try to do something for a good cause. He once said that as long as you try you will always be appreciated and will always be successful in his point of view. Even if you lose what you were fighting for, you are still successful because you tried for what you thought was right. Atticus did not win the case with tom Robinson but he still believed that he was successful. Atticus was successful because he did what he thought was right, and doing that had to help something out in a good way. Atticus Finch is a successful man. He is a courageous man who does not believe in racism. Equality is what he believed in and taught his family that equality is stronger than racism. Atticus fought in a court case for a black man. In this time blacks were strongly impacted from racism. Atticus is a strong man for doing such a thing. He knew that he had no chance in this case yet he tried to win the case anyhow. Atticus finch was a man who fought for what he believed in.	<urn:uuid:0fa288b4-b929-4f90-89fd-d07d8180f272>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/essays/to-kill-a-mockingbird-atticus-finch-essay-79544/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00100.warc.gz	en	0.996079	845	3.5	4	[ -0.20481370389461517, 0.4540746212005615, -0.38128018379211426, -0.12585142254829407, 0.020326104015111923, 0.18583537638187408, 0.7385345697402954, 0.23921126127243042, 0.015788719058036804, -0.13763755559921265, -0.028591841459274292, -0.2562454342842102, -0.4197709262371063, 0.129515975...	1	Atticus Finch was a man who fought for what he believed in. He was always the one who stood up for what was right, not what the more popular thing to do was. Atticus has a lot of courage to do what he did for Tom Robinson. Atticus looked past the racism that was in the courtroom where Tom was being accused of raping a woman and he stood up for him. Atticus believed in equality amongst people and he thought that the court was not being equal. Atticus taught his daughter Scout and his son Jem to be a good person and to treat everyone equally. He believed that success was not just winning, but instead just trying to fight for a good cause. Even if you failed, Atticus believes you were successful.Order now Courage was something Atticus definitely had. He was the only white man in town that would stand up for Tom Robinson because he knew it was wrong to accuse him. Atticus once said that you should still fight even when you know your beaten. He didnt just go with the popular opinion that blacks were bad, instead, he gathered up his courage and fought against the court. He knew that he was testifying against an all white jury and that he had no chance to convince them that Tom was guilty, but he knew that it was right to at least try. He believed that every little thing you do that is right will eventually add up and help the cause. Atticus was a man who did not believe in racism. He had grown his kids up telling them that racism was not right. He taught them that everyone was equal. Scout and Jem were still influenced by racism in the public though. Atticus noted how in the court there was no way for a black man to win against a white man when its the white man who gets to have the decision of what happens. He knew that in the court room, racism was everywhere. Black men had no chance of wining and it was always the white man who would win. No matter how good of a case Atticus gave the jury, it was still racism that came out on top. If Atticus Finch ever treated anybody unequally than there was a good reason. He was always for equality. He believed that all men were created equal and blacks shouldnt be treated badly for nothing. Equality was something that Atticus thought should be with everyone no matter where. The Jury and the Judge both treated Tom Robinson unequally and Atticus was frustrated over that. Family was always something that Atticus took pride in. He loved his family with all his heart and he would do anything for them. Atticus had 2 children, Jem and Scout. Jem was the older of the 2 and was a boy. Scout was younger and was a girl. Atticus believed that he was a failure as a father sometimes. He tried very hard to be a good one but always seemed to think he could have been a better one. Atticus would put family first before anything else. Not many people think that if you lose a battle then you were not successful. Atticus did not think this, he believed that being successful was only to try to do something for a good cause. He once said that as long as you try you will always be appreciated and will always be successful in his point of view. Even if you lose what you were fighting for, you are still successful because you tried for what you thought was right. Atticus did not win the case with tom Robinson but he still believed that he was successful. Atticus was successful because he did what he thought was right, and doing that had to help something out in a good way. Atticus Finch is a successful man. He is a courageous man who does not believe in racism. Equality is what he believed in and taught his family that equality is stronger than racism. Atticus fought in a court case for a black man. In this time blacks were strongly impacted from racism. Atticus is a strong man for doing such a thing. He knew that he had no chance in this case yet he tried to win the case anyhow. Atticus finch was a man who fought for what he believed in.	847	ENGLISH	1
Modern science would be no where without Gregor Mendel, named the father of genetics, he pioneered the way we look at our genetics. With an assortment of peas in the shape of the Google logo, the Austrian botanist and monk is celebrating his 189th birthday. Born on July 20, 1822 in Heinzendorf, Austria as Johann Mendel he was given his current name when he joined a monastery as a novitiate of the Augustinian order. As a monk and scientist he Gregor studied physics and mathematics in Vienna, he also studied anatomy and physiology of plants as a student under botanist Franz Unger. His history began with plant hybridization, the reason for the pea plants in the design has to do with his experimentation choice. His experiments led him to formulate the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment, which later became known as Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance. It was only after his death, in the early 20th century, that the importance of his works was realized.	<urn:uuid:9974a45b-6cfc-4dee-8b96-708189637889>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://logiclounge.com/2011/07/20/google-celebrates-gregor-mendel-father-of-genetics/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00322.warc.gz	en	0.990944	216	3.3125	3	[ -0.25386497378349304, 0.4190751910209656, -0.10862221568822861, -0.23243631422519684, -0.046711526811122894, -0.24395215511322021, 0.18387804925441742, 0.14439332485198975, -0.40050214529037476, 0.3114805519580841, -0.06160697713494301, -0.5167514681816101, 0.1850423812866211, 0.3415599763...	7	Modern science would be no where without Gregor Mendel, named the father of genetics, he pioneered the way we look at our genetics. With an assortment of peas in the shape of the Google logo, the Austrian botanist and monk is celebrating his 189th birthday. Born on July 20, 1822 in Heinzendorf, Austria as Johann Mendel he was given his current name when he joined a monastery as a novitiate of the Augustinian order. As a monk and scientist he Gregor studied physics and mathematics in Vienna, he also studied anatomy and physiology of plants as a student under botanist Franz Unger. His history began with plant hybridization, the reason for the pea plants in the design has to do with his experimentation choice. His experiments led him to formulate the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment, which later became known as Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance. It was only after his death, in the early 20th century, that the importance of his works was realized.	221	ENGLISH	1
It’s a bird, it’s a plane … or is it a puppy or a wolf? That is the question scientists are asking after finding an 18,000-year-old frozen puppy. The fossil was found near Yakutsk, in eastern Siberia, in the permafrost. Permafrost is a thick sub-surface layer of soil that remains frozen throughout the year. Dogor’s remains were remarkably intact, with his fur and teeth clearly visible. Russian scientists discovered the pup and identified it as male by using genomic analysis – the measurement or comparison of features such as DNA sequence, gene expression, and other identifying genetic characteristics. The frozen enigma has been named “Dogor,” which is a Yakutian world for “friend.” What is so baffling about this discovery is the fact that the puppy is from “a very interesting time in terms of wolf and dog evolution.” David Stanton, a researcher at the Centre for Palaeogenetics, said, “We don’t know exactly when dogs were domesticated, but it may have been from about that time. We are interested in whether it is in fact a dog or a wolf, or perhaps it’s something halfway between the two.” Dogor is a mystery to scientists because he isn’t from a time period when we expect our ancestors to have played “fetch the stick” with a pet dog. In fact, it is still uncertain how dogs became what they are today. Modern dogs are thought to have been domesticated from wolves, but when this event actually happened is still unknown. In 2017, a study published in the journal Nature Communications claimed that today’s pooches were domesticated from a single population of wolves as far back as 20,000 to 40,000 years ago. However, a 2016 University of Oxford study suggested instead that dogs were independently domesticated twice, from gray wolves; once during the Paleolithic era – which was the earliest known time of human development – in Asia, and then again in Europe. According to Stanton, it is usually relatively easy to tell the difference between dogs and wolves. “We have a lot of data from it already, and with that amount of data, you’d expect to tell if it was one or the other. The fact that we can’t [in the case of Dogor] might suggest that it’s from a population that was ancestral to both – to dogs and wolves,” he said. Dogor the wolf-dog raises more questions than answers regarding the time of our ancestors. Did ancient humans have a dog or a wolf as man’s best friend, and exactly what role did the canines play in society at that time? It is hard to imagine humanoids playing catch when every instant was about survival, but then, perhaps that is how today’s dog actually earned the nickname of man’s best friend. Was Dogor a mix-breed of wolf and dog, able to protect and play, offering ancient man protection and a distraction from the dangers of daily life? Perhaps we will find out as scientists unravel the mystery.	<urn:uuid:ef9a4b79-5d9f-451d-85ba-17395f01ba86>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lngenz.com/frozen-puppy-confuses-dog-evolution-theories/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00242.warc.gz	en	0.981006	664	3.6875	4	[ -0.39914828538894653, -0.2966166138648987, 0.14825905859470367, 0.2552339434623718, 0.1939123570919037, -0.06674889475107193, -0.02849189192056656, 0.2371920347213745, -0.10339309275150299, 0.17090538144111633, 0.1276855170726776, -0.6331728100776672, 0.0616968534886837, 0.1059304699301719...	3	It’s a bird, it’s a plane … or is it a puppy or a wolf? That is the question scientists are asking after finding an 18,000-year-old frozen puppy. The fossil was found near Yakutsk, in eastern Siberia, in the permafrost. Permafrost is a thick sub-surface layer of soil that remains frozen throughout the year. Dogor’s remains were remarkably intact, with his fur and teeth clearly visible. Russian scientists discovered the pup and identified it as male by using genomic analysis – the measurement or comparison of features such as DNA sequence, gene expression, and other identifying genetic characteristics. The frozen enigma has been named “Dogor,” which is a Yakutian world for “friend.” What is so baffling about this discovery is the fact that the puppy is from “a very interesting time in terms of wolf and dog evolution.” David Stanton, a researcher at the Centre for Palaeogenetics, said, “We don’t know exactly when dogs were domesticated, but it may have been from about that time. We are interested in whether it is in fact a dog or a wolf, or perhaps it’s something halfway between the two.” Dogor is a mystery to scientists because he isn’t from a time period when we expect our ancestors to have played “fetch the stick” with a pet dog. In fact, it is still uncertain how dogs became what they are today. Modern dogs are thought to have been domesticated from wolves, but when this event actually happened is still unknown. In 2017, a study published in the journal Nature Communications claimed that today’s pooches were domesticated from a single population of wolves as far back as 20,000 to 40,000 years ago. However, a 2016 University of Oxford study suggested instead that dogs were independently domesticated twice, from gray wolves; once during the Paleolithic era – which was the earliest known time of human development – in Asia, and then again in Europe. According to Stanton, it is usually relatively easy to tell the difference between dogs and wolves. “We have a lot of data from it already, and with that amount of data, you’d expect to tell if it was one or the other. The fact that we can’t [in the case of Dogor] might suggest that it’s from a population that was ancestral to both – to dogs and wolves,” he said. Dogor the wolf-dog raises more questions than answers regarding the time of our ancestors. Did ancient humans have a dog or a wolf as man’s best friend, and exactly what role did the canines play in society at that time? It is hard to imagine humanoids playing catch when every instant was about survival, but then, perhaps that is how today’s dog actually earned the nickname of man’s best friend. Was Dogor a mix-breed of wolf and dog, able to protect and play, offering ancient man protection and a distraction from the dangers of daily life? Perhaps we will find out as scientists unravel the mystery.	631	ENGLISH	1
The difference between Anderson and Morrison air raid shelters during the Second World War Air raid shelters were commonplace in Britain during the Blitz but do you know what sets the two most common types, Anderson and Morrison, apart? In 1938, the members of the League of Nations agreed unanimously that, in the event of a general war, they would not bomb civilians. In the same year, the government began investing heavily in air raid precautions and considering shelter designs, just in case the agreement signed did not hold under the pressure of a total war with Germany. Just two years later, Britain was subjected to continuous nightly bombing raids by the Luftwaffe for over a month in a campaign known as the Blitz. Discover England & Wales in 1939 Being out and about during a bombing raid could be a dangerous affair. The government advised civilians to take cover as soon as possible after hearing the warnings and several types of official and unofficial air raid shelters were provided for public use. The two most commonly used hideouts were Anderson and Morrison shelters. Anderson air raid shelters By far the most common 'private' shelters, Anderson shelters were designed to be put up at the bottom of a suburban garden and accommodate up to 6 people. Made up of sheets of corrugated iron, the shelter was designed for easy assembly by the householder. In order to be fully effective, the shelter had to be dug into a 4ft deep pit in the ground, with the soil being heaped on top to provide cover against nearby bomb blasts. Many people planted vegetables on top, making the most of the soil heaped on their makeshift dugouts. Close to 3 million Anderson shelters were erected across Britain during the Second World War. Anderson shelters tended to become waterlogged in winter, making them freezing cold and deeply unpleasant places to be. In response, the government developed a shelter that could be used within the home. Morrison air raid shelters The Morrison shelter was effectively a metal cage, in which the occupants would lie until an air raid subsided. Often doubling as a kitchen table, Morrison shelters were supplied flat-packed for D.I.Y. assembly. That wasn't as easy as it sounds - they had over 300 parts and you'd almost need an engineering degree to put them together correctly. Around 500,000 Morrison shelters were used by the public. Public air raid shelters If one was unlucky enough to be out shopping, visiting relatives, or otherwise outside dashing distance of home when a raid was detected, there were always the public shelters in which to stay until the raid passed. A public shelter could range from trenches dug in a local park to brick blockhouses on the corner of the street. Public air raid shelters had at best a mixed reputation, with their flimsy construction contributing to the general unease at using them. This was compounded by a series of incidents where badly constructed shelters collapsed in on their unlucky occupants after nearby blasts, leading people to trust more in their own shelters than that of their street. Most streets in danger zones had some form of public shelter installed. Taking shelter from the Blitz in London Underground In defiance of a government ban on the use of the underground as shelter during an air raid, many Londoners took shelter in the Tube network at the height of the Blitz. In fact, the network played host to upwards of 140,000 people on its busiest nights. Stations such as Caledonian Road were often full with people sheltering from the blasts above by early evening. Some sections of the underground were closed entirely for the duration. Aldwych, for example, became a permanent air-raid shelter. Whether they took cover in an Anderson shelter, a Morrison shelter or a public refuge, your British relatives were undoubtedly affected by the bombing campaigns of the Second World War. Find out more about their lives and communities on the eve of war with the 1939 Register or read more about air raid shelters and the Blitz in newspapers from the time.	<urn:uuid:073389db-1898-41d3-92df-a4d903dffff7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.findmypast.co.uk/blog/history/anderson-and-morrison-air-raid-shelters-and-the-british-public	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00306.warc.gz	en	0.981676	805	3.375	3	[ -0.221785306930542, 0.03894001245498657, 0.121066153049469, 0.4358287453651428, 0.3818342685699463, 0.1008317694067955, 0.17661990225315094, -0.01480252668261528, -0.023755770176649094, -0.25013864040374756, 0.21544651687145233, -0.27907469868659973, 0.11629284918308258, 0.3315474689006805...	5	The difference between Anderson and Morrison air raid shelters during the Second World War Air raid shelters were commonplace in Britain during the Blitz but do you know what sets the two most common types, Anderson and Morrison, apart? In 1938, the members of the League of Nations agreed unanimously that, in the event of a general war, they would not bomb civilians. In the same year, the government began investing heavily in air raid precautions and considering shelter designs, just in case the agreement signed did not hold under the pressure of a total war with Germany. Just two years later, Britain was subjected to continuous nightly bombing raids by the Luftwaffe for over a month in a campaign known as the Blitz. Discover England & Wales in 1939 Being out and about during a bombing raid could be a dangerous affair. The government advised civilians to take cover as soon as possible after hearing the warnings and several types of official and unofficial air raid shelters were provided for public use. The two most commonly used hideouts were Anderson and Morrison shelters. Anderson air raid shelters By far the most common 'private' shelters, Anderson shelters were designed to be put up at the bottom of a suburban garden and accommodate up to 6 people. Made up of sheets of corrugated iron, the shelter was designed for easy assembly by the householder. In order to be fully effective, the shelter had to be dug into a 4ft deep pit in the ground, with the soil being heaped on top to provide cover against nearby bomb blasts. Many people planted vegetables on top, making the most of the soil heaped on their makeshift dugouts. Close to 3 million Anderson shelters were erected across Britain during the Second World War. Anderson shelters tended to become waterlogged in winter, making them freezing cold and deeply unpleasant places to be. In response, the government developed a shelter that could be used within the home. Morrison air raid shelters The Morrison shelter was effectively a metal cage, in which the occupants would lie until an air raid subsided. Often doubling as a kitchen table, Morrison shelters were supplied flat-packed for D.I.Y. assembly. That wasn't as easy as it sounds - they had over 300 parts and you'd almost need an engineering degree to put them together correctly. Around 500,000 Morrison shelters were used by the public. Public air raid shelters If one was unlucky enough to be out shopping, visiting relatives, or otherwise outside dashing distance of home when a raid was detected, there were always the public shelters in which to stay until the raid passed. A public shelter could range from trenches dug in a local park to brick blockhouses on the corner of the street. Public air raid shelters had at best a mixed reputation, with their flimsy construction contributing to the general unease at using them. This was compounded by a series of incidents where badly constructed shelters collapsed in on their unlucky occupants after nearby blasts, leading people to trust more in their own shelters than that of their street. Most streets in danger zones had some form of public shelter installed. Taking shelter from the Blitz in London Underground In defiance of a government ban on the use of the underground as shelter during an air raid, many Londoners took shelter in the Tube network at the height of the Blitz. In fact, the network played host to upwards of 140,000 people on its busiest nights. Stations such as Caledonian Road were often full with people sheltering from the blasts above by early evening. Some sections of the underground were closed entirely for the duration. Aldwych, for example, became a permanent air-raid shelter. Whether they took cover in an Anderson shelter, a Morrison shelter or a public refuge, your British relatives were undoubtedly affected by the bombing campaigns of the Second World War. Find out more about their lives and communities on the eve of war with the 1939 Register or read more about air raid shelters and the Blitz in newspapers from the time.	818	ENGLISH	1
The Force of Steam – 1839 To the British almost more than any other nation it was important to find a way in which this great new force of steam could be used at sea as well as on land. Small beginnings were made quite early in the nineteenth century, when a steam tugboat was run on the Forth and Clyde Canal. Then an American engineer put steamboats on the Hudson River, and in one of them managed to cross the Atlantic. But it was twenty years after that when people made up their minds that steamers should go regularly to and fro between Great Britain and America. These vessels had paddle-wheels which were turned by their engines, and it took them about fifteen days to get from Liverpool to New York. By the middle of the century, however, steamers had been much improved through the invention of the screw to take the place of the paddles, and then the length of the voyage to America was gradually reduced to seven days. Our newest liners of to-day can do it in four or five. It was certain that as soon as people knew that they could cross the ocean in a steamship, there would practically be an end of their either travelling themselves or sending their letters by sailing vessel. Business men always insist on getting mails carried as quickly as possible; and as for passengers, a sea voyage was so dreadfully uncomfortable until the quite modern days of luxurious liners that hardly any one would face more of it than he could help. So in the middle and later years of the nineteenth century a large number of steamship companies were formed to carry on a regular service to all parts of the world. Amongst the oldest and best known of these are the Cunard Company, by whose ships very many people still go to America, and the Peninsular and Oriental Company, usually called the P. and O., which will take you to India, China, or Australia. These are only two out of a great many important lines, and any one who looks in the “Mail and Shipping Intelligence” of a big daily newspaper will find the names of plenty more. Excerpt from Landmarks of British History by Lucy Dale – 1910 Further Reading and External Links	<urn:uuid:89f60083-ddd7-4986-8d18-37f47fe4f1b1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.ultrapedia.com/wp/?m=20111205	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00006.warc.gz	en	0.988211	455	3.59375	4	[ -0.13858278095722198, -0.16018016636371613, 0.5430364012718201, -0.23172608017921448, 0.08720038086175919, -0.4757075309753418, 0.2141493558883667, -0.08968409895896912, -0.18848969042301178, -0.524986743927002, 0.012571415863931179, -0.3465155065059662, -0.1973646730184555, 0.362775921821...	4	The Force of Steam – 1839 To the British almost more than any other nation it was important to find a way in which this great new force of steam could be used at sea as well as on land. Small beginnings were made quite early in the nineteenth century, when a steam tugboat was run on the Forth and Clyde Canal. Then an American engineer put steamboats on the Hudson River, and in one of them managed to cross the Atlantic. But it was twenty years after that when people made up their minds that steamers should go regularly to and fro between Great Britain and America. These vessels had paddle-wheels which were turned by their engines, and it took them about fifteen days to get from Liverpool to New York. By the middle of the century, however, steamers had been much improved through the invention of the screw to take the place of the paddles, and then the length of the voyage to America was gradually reduced to seven days. Our newest liners of to-day can do it in four or five. It was certain that as soon as people knew that they could cross the ocean in a steamship, there would practically be an end of their either travelling themselves or sending their letters by sailing vessel. Business men always insist on getting mails carried as quickly as possible; and as for passengers, a sea voyage was so dreadfully uncomfortable until the quite modern days of luxurious liners that hardly any one would face more of it than he could help. So in the middle and later years of the nineteenth century a large number of steamship companies were formed to carry on a regular service to all parts of the world. Amongst the oldest and best known of these are the Cunard Company, by whose ships very many people still go to America, and the Peninsular and Oriental Company, usually called the P. and O., which will take you to India, China, or Australia. These are only two out of a great many important lines, and any one who looks in the “Mail and Shipping Intelligence” of a big daily newspaper will find the names of plenty more. Excerpt from Landmarks of British History by Lucy Dale – 1910 Further Reading and External Links	449	ENGLISH	1
In ancient Egypt, scarabs (dung beetles) represented the rising sun and eternal existence. This is because the insect pushes a ball of dung around - and the Egyptians thought the sun was propelled around the earth in the same way, by a giant beetle. Scarabs were generally either carved from stone or moulded from Egyptian faience or clay. The most common stone used for scarabs was a form of steatite, a soft stone which becomes hard when fired. Scarabs first appeared in the late Old Kingdom (c. 2575-c. 2130 BCE) when they evolved from so-called button seals. Many thousands of scarabs have been found, making them one of the most popular ancient Egyptian artefacts for sale to collectors. One of the reasons for the quantity and variety of ancient scarabs is because they were used for different purposes. The first was that they were worn as amulets. Like most other amulets, they were to give powers of protection or renewal for the wearer. The next use was as seals carrying the name of the official. Royal scarabs were the most common, with the name of the pharaoh carved into the back. But scarabs with royal names were not only used as seals, or created for the pharaoh in particular. Some ancient Egyptians liked to have their own scarabs with the name of a king or (less commonly) queen that they admired or cherished. Another were memorial, or commemorative, scarabs which would be carved to mark important events such as diplomatic ties, hunting expeditions, the constructions of sites and the lineages of a pharaoh's consorts. These types of scarabs are most notable from the reign of Amenhotep III. Finally, there are the funerary scarabs, the most famous of which are the heart scarabs. Heart scarabs had certain parts of the Book of the Dead written on them and were placed over the heart of the deceased. This would ensure that the heart would not give away the deceased's secrets during final judgment by Osiris that could be held against him/her. Heart scarabs were usually made of green stone. Condition: A couple of minor chips. Wear commensurate with age. Dimensions: 21mm long x 14mm wide Provenance: From the collection of Dr. Fred W. Campell Brown, formed during WW1 when he was in Cairo, thence by descent. Purchased at UK auction.	<urn:uuid:a8df72e6-61a7-4760-99a4-4350caafd13e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://minervaancients.com/antiquities-for-sale-egyptian-scarab-beetle-106.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00456.warc.gz	en	0.981474	505	3.71875	4	[ -0.3163183331489563, 0.6318557262420654, 0.2104194462299347, 0.20965860784053802, -0.40255698561668396, -0.33211615681648254, 0.5975102782249451, -0.12084726244211197, -0.13080061972141266, -0.24523323774337769, -0.009745584800839424, -0.7187737226486206, -0.06093624234199524, 0.0167095065...	1	In ancient Egypt, scarabs (dung beetles) represented the rising sun and eternal existence. This is because the insect pushes a ball of dung around - and the Egyptians thought the sun was propelled around the earth in the same way, by a giant beetle. Scarabs were generally either carved from stone or moulded from Egyptian faience or clay. The most common stone used for scarabs was a form of steatite, a soft stone which becomes hard when fired. Scarabs first appeared in the late Old Kingdom (c. 2575-c. 2130 BCE) when they evolved from so-called button seals. Many thousands of scarabs have been found, making them one of the most popular ancient Egyptian artefacts for sale to collectors. One of the reasons for the quantity and variety of ancient scarabs is because they were used for different purposes. The first was that they were worn as amulets. Like most other amulets, they were to give powers of protection or renewal for the wearer. The next use was as seals carrying the name of the official. Royal scarabs were the most common, with the name of the pharaoh carved into the back. But scarabs with royal names were not only used as seals, or created for the pharaoh in particular. Some ancient Egyptians liked to have their own scarabs with the name of a king or (less commonly) queen that they admired or cherished. Another were memorial, or commemorative, scarabs which would be carved to mark important events such as diplomatic ties, hunting expeditions, the constructions of sites and the lineages of a pharaoh's consorts. These types of scarabs are most notable from the reign of Amenhotep III. Finally, there are the funerary scarabs, the most famous of which are the heart scarabs. Heart scarabs had certain parts of the Book of the Dead written on them and were placed over the heart of the deceased. This would ensure that the heart would not give away the deceased's secrets during final judgment by Osiris that could be held against him/her. Heart scarabs were usually made of green stone. Condition: A couple of minor chips. Wear commensurate with age. Dimensions: 21mm long x 14mm wide Provenance: From the collection of Dr. Fred W. Campell Brown, formed during WW1 when he was in Cairo, thence by descent. Purchased at UK auction.	505	ENGLISH	1
As the NHL All-Star Weekend comes to a close in St. Louis, this is a great time to reflect on the black origins of modern hockey. American history has always promoted the myth of the original thirteen colonies. In truth, at the time of the American Revolution, there was no such thing as thirteen colonies. There were actually nineteen – six of those colonies did not agree with the Revolution. Those colonies became Canada where Black men created modern hockey! Below is an ESPN segment about the Black origins of Hockey. Out of the four major professional sports in the United States (football, baseball, basketball and ice hockey), ice hockey has been the Whitest. Nearly all of the National Hockey League’s (NHL) players are White, and the well-known history of the sport would make people believe that Caucasians created and developed the sport on their own. Our knowledge of the roots of hockey has been based almost solely on the historical records maintained by early White historians. Because of this, the misconception that hockey is a White man’s invention has persisted. We know today, such an assumption could not be further from historical fact. While history books showcase White players that date back to the 1800s, the roots of the sport actually comes from Native Americans, and the game was revolutionized by African Canadians. It was Black hockey players in the later half of the nineteenth century whose style of play and innovations helped shape the sport, effectively changing the game of hockey forever. According to the book “Black Ice,” written by George and Darril Fosty, the sons and grandsons of American slaves who escaped to Canada were not given the proper credit for innovating the game. The first reports of hockey being played dates back to 1815 along the Northwest Arm, which is a river south of Halifax in Canada. At that time, the region was not home to a large White settlement, but was instead the site of a small Black enclave. Reports say that the residents would play hockey in the winter months, when the river froze over. It is unknown whether or not these were the first ice hockey games, but it does mean that Blacks were playing the sport well before it became popular in the late 1800s. As the development of the sport into contemporary ice hockey took place, the first organized indoor game was in Montreal in 1875, and by the mid-1890s, there were hundreds of teams in Canada and Europe. At this time, there was the first recorded mention of all-Black hockey teams, which appeared in 1895. By 1900, the Colored Hockey League of the Maritimes (CHL) was created, and it was headquartered in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The NHL by contrast was not created until November 26, 1917. The CHL was initially a church league formed by Black Baptist Ministers and church administrators who wanted to use the league to help Blacks climb up the social latter and gain equal footing with the White community. They used sports as the catalyst. The league was based on faith and emphasized sportsmanship and athleticism over brute force. The league used the Bible as their rulebook. The league featured more than 400 African Canadian players who were typically natives from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. As the game continued to develop, the CHL featured more faster-paced action on the offensive end of the rink than the White leagues, which played a more physical style of game. It has been reported that the slap shot, which has been a staple for more than a century, was first used in the CHL, about 50 years before it became popular in the NHL. The league also revolutionized the goaltender position by allowing the goalie to play in an upright position, which allowed him to use his feet to a much greater degree. At times, the top Black teams were able to defeat the best White teams. Typically there would not be a rematch, and those victories were not well-publicized. The CHL flourished until World War I, but the league collapsed, and it was pretty much forgotten about. The innovations that came out of the league were later credited to White players, and the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto did not recognize the accomplishments of the league. During the nineteenth century the English introduced the concept of competitive sports to much of the world. In an age of the Victorians and Victorian ideals, sports were regarded as models of teamwork and fair play. Many believed that sports could raise the lower classes and non-White races to a higher level of civilization and social development. All was well, the theory held as long as White men continued to win at whatever sport they played. Hockey was no different. By recognizing Canadian hockey Stanley had accomplished something more. He has given the game “royal acceptance” removing its status as a game of the lowly masses and creating a tiered sport based on club elitism and commercialism. It is no secret that the Stanley Cup was only to be competed for by select teams within Canada. At the time of its presentation, it was a symbol for self-promotion all the while serving a “supposed need”. In time, those who controlled the Challenge Cup controlled hockey, effectively creating a “bourgeoisie” sport. A sport that now, by its very nature, would exclude and fail to recognize Black contributions. The most noted moment of Blacks in hockey happened when Willie O’Ree broke the color barrier in the NHL in 1958, even though Black players greatly contributed to the game years before the NHL existed. Today there are no monuments to the Colored Hockey League. There is no reference to the league in any but a few books on hockey. There is no reference to Henry Sylvester Williams, James Johnston, James Kinney or the scores of players who wore the Colored League uniforms. There is no reference in the Hockey Hall of Fame of the impact that Blacks had in the development of the modern game of hockey. No reference to the Black origin of the slap shot. There is no reference to the Black origin of the offensive style of goal play exhibited by Franklyn. There is no reference to the Black origin of goalies going down on ice in order to stop the puck. There is no reference to the Black practice of entertaining the crowds with a half-time show. It is as if the league had never existed. For hockey is today a sport Whiter in history than a Canadian winter.	<urn:uuid:1a2fe14b-520b-4432-8449-46d34c2a8de8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://court.rchp.com/category/race/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00013.warc.gz	en	0.983526	1,319	3.71875	4	[ -0.16287320852279663, 0.339953750371933, -0.07910919189453125, -0.43439748883247375, 0.17821237444877625, 0.2732173800468445, 0.04398234561085701, 0.4408084750175476, -0.17915037274360657, 0.5647290945053101, 0.13942848145961761, -0.15935486555099487, -0.1658652126789093, 0.111234828829765...	16	As the NHL All-Star Weekend comes to a close in St. Louis, this is a great time to reflect on the black origins of modern hockey. American history has always promoted the myth of the original thirteen colonies. In truth, at the time of the American Revolution, there was no such thing as thirteen colonies. There were actually nineteen – six of those colonies did not agree with the Revolution. Those colonies became Canada where Black men created modern hockey! Below is an ESPN segment about the Black origins of Hockey. Out of the four major professional sports in the United States (football, baseball, basketball and ice hockey), ice hockey has been the Whitest. Nearly all of the National Hockey League’s (NHL) players are White, and the well-known history of the sport would make people believe that Caucasians created and developed the sport on their own. Our knowledge of the roots of hockey has been based almost solely on the historical records maintained by early White historians. Because of this, the misconception that hockey is a White man’s invention has persisted. We know today, such an assumption could not be further from historical fact. While history books showcase White players that date back to the 1800s, the roots of the sport actually comes from Native Americans, and the game was revolutionized by African Canadians. It was Black hockey players in the later half of the nineteenth century whose style of play and innovations helped shape the sport, effectively changing the game of hockey forever. According to the book “Black Ice,” written by George and Darril Fosty, the sons and grandsons of American slaves who escaped to Canada were not given the proper credit for innovating the game. The first reports of hockey being played dates back to 1815 along the Northwest Arm, which is a river south of Halifax in Canada. At that time, the region was not home to a large White settlement, but was instead the site of a small Black enclave. Reports say that the residents would play hockey in the winter months, when the river froze over. It is unknown whether or not these were the first ice hockey games, but it does mean that Blacks were playing the sport well before it became popular in the late 1800s. As the development of the sport into contemporary ice hockey took place, the first organized indoor game was in Montreal in 1875, and by the mid-1890s, there were hundreds of teams in Canada and Europe. At this time, there was the first recorded mention of all-Black hockey teams, which appeared in 1895. By 1900, the Colored Hockey League of the Maritimes (CHL) was created, and it was headquartered in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The NHL by contrast was not created until November 26, 1917. The CHL was initially a church league formed by Black Baptist Ministers and church administrators who wanted to use the league to help Blacks climb up the social latter and gain equal footing with the White community. They used sports as the catalyst. The league was based on faith and emphasized sportsmanship and athleticism over brute force. The league used the Bible as their rulebook. The league featured more than 400 African Canadian players who were typically natives from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. As the game continued to develop, the CHL featured more faster-paced action on the offensive end of the rink than the White leagues, which played a more physical style of game. It has been reported that the slap shot, which has been a staple for more than a century, was first used in the CHL, about 50 years before it became popular in the NHL. The league also revolutionized the goaltender position by allowing the goalie to play in an upright position, which allowed him to use his feet to a much greater degree. At times, the top Black teams were able to defeat the best White teams. Typically there would not be a rematch, and those victories were not well-publicized. The CHL flourished until World War I, but the league collapsed, and it was pretty much forgotten about. The innovations that came out of the league were later credited to White players, and the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto did not recognize the accomplishments of the league. During the nineteenth century the English introduced the concept of competitive sports to much of the world. In an age of the Victorians and Victorian ideals, sports were regarded as models of teamwork and fair play. Many believed that sports could raise the lower classes and non-White races to a higher level of civilization and social development. All was well, the theory held as long as White men continued to win at whatever sport they played. Hockey was no different. By recognizing Canadian hockey Stanley had accomplished something more. He has given the game “royal acceptance” removing its status as a game of the lowly masses and creating a tiered sport based on club elitism and commercialism. It is no secret that the Stanley Cup was only to be competed for by select teams within Canada. At the time of its presentation, it was a symbol for self-promotion all the while serving a “supposed need”. In time, those who controlled the Challenge Cup controlled hockey, effectively creating a “bourgeoisie” sport. A sport that now, by its very nature, would exclude and fail to recognize Black contributions. The most noted moment of Blacks in hockey happened when Willie O’Ree broke the color barrier in the NHL in 1958, even though Black players greatly contributed to the game years before the NHL existed. Today there are no monuments to the Colored Hockey League. There is no reference to the league in any but a few books on hockey. There is no reference to Henry Sylvester Williams, James Johnston, James Kinney or the scores of players who wore the Colored League uniforms. There is no reference in the Hockey Hall of Fame of the impact that Blacks had in the development of the modern game of hockey. No reference to the Black origin of the slap shot. There is no reference to the Black origin of the offensive style of goal play exhibited by Franklyn. There is no reference to the Black origin of goalies going down on ice in order to stop the puck. There is no reference to the Black practice of entertaining the crowds with a half-time show. It is as if the league had never existed. For hockey is today a sport Whiter in history than a Canadian winter.	1,325	ENGLISH	1

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