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The definition of marriage has been questioned repeatedly in recent decades, particularly with regard to same-sex marriage. But it appears that the modern definition of "traditional marriage” isn’t historically accurate. According to Stephanie Coontz, author of "Marriage, a History: How Love Conquered Marriage," the institution of marriage was once a union devoid of any emotional component. Up until the end of the 18th century, love had absolutely nothing to do with marriage. “Marriage was far too important as a political and economic institution — it was the way the upper class signed peace treaties and made war,” she says. “It’s the way that the middle class made business arrangements; for the lower class it was the way you got your working partner — bakers had to marry other bakers, even if they fell in love with someone who did something else, because you couldn’t run a small business.” Coontz, a professor of history and family studies at Evergreen State College and director of research and public education for the Council on Contemporary Families, says heterosexual couples initially redefined traditional marriage by pushing for the union to be built on love. “Love was really something that was different from marriage,” she says. “It was OK if you fell in love after marriage, but it was not really the purpose. There were many places in Europe, in southern France for example, that the only place you could find true love was in adultery, because marriage was such a mercenary institution. Adding love to marriage was a big, revolutionary change.” As capitalism spread around the globe in the 18th century and the Age of Enlightenment began to take hold, the idea of a loved-based relationships also started to take shape. “When the idea of love first came out, people were terrified,” says Coontz. “They said, ‘Oh my gosh. What’s going to happen to society if my son can say, ‘Ew! I don’t want to marry that woman, I don’t love her!’ They were concerned about what would happen if people fell out of love — that they would want divorce. Or a woman who was seduced might even refuse to get married. People were really worried about this.” During the 20th century, love was redefined to allow people to find their opposite — a person that would complete them — something that later proved to be problematic. “You fell in love with someone who was totally different than you,” she says. “So here we are trying to build marriages on the basis of love, but we have two historical definitions of love: One is that it’s illicit, and it’s exciting because it’s illicit, and the other is that it’s of opposites.” Though people were initially afraid of the idea of marrying for love, marriage itself was inescapable for many, especially because women were economically and legally dependent on men. “There was a lot of social pressure from elites who could penalize people — as late as the 1950s and ‘60s, a man who wasn’t married or who was divorced was often passed over for a promotion,” says Coontz. “A woman was just basically no where.” The 1950s gave way to the “golden age of marriage” in the United States, something that is still idolized and often misrepresented today. “People look back to that as the traditional family, but it was probably the only time in history when a vast majority of women did not work,” says Coontz. “They did not work on farms besides their husbands or work in small businesses — a man could support himself on his own earnings instead of having child labor. The male breadwinner family is not the least bit traditional, and it was organized around these very rigid gender roles.” Back in the 1950s, marriage was also severely complicated because of the short courtship period that most couples would go through: The average couple married each other after just six months. “From our modern perspective, how do you get to know a person as an individual in six months? Well, you don’t,” says Coontz. “Some people were very lucky, of course, and did become friends and were able to sustain their marriages, but basically you married a gender stereotype and you didn’t have a lot to negotiate.” Nowadays, men and women have more egalitarian relationships and society has since moved away from the idea of the “male-protector” marriage model. But as heterosexual couples changed the nature of marriage, they opened the door for gay people who were searching for the right to wed. “One of the amusing ironies in all of this debate is when people say, ‘Oh my goodness! Same-sex marriage will change heterosexual marriage!” she says. “Actually, the revolution was started by heterosexuals. Heterosexuals were the ones who first said marriage should be about love in the late 18th century. In the early 20th century, we added to this the idea that marriage should be based on sexual attraction and fulfillment.” After the 1950s, Western societies found it acceptable for individuals to marry each other without having an intention to reproduce, which was also a radical reinterpretation of marriage. “All of these things began to change the definition of marriage in ways that were making gays and lesbians say, ‘Hmm. This applies to us,’” says Coontz. “The final blow was in the 1970s when we repealed all of the laws that said men have one set of duties they have to perform, and women have a different set of duties they should perform. We said marriage is an association of two individuals who can choose for themselves what roles they want to play in the marriage.” “I think at this point it was almost inevitable that gays and lesbians would say, ‘Hey, you have redefined marriage so much that it’s now something we can and should be able to enter,'” Coontz adds.	<urn:uuid:15b30a1b-a386-4f3f-a577-677ded263bd0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pri.org/stories/2015-07-01/how-traditional-couples-changed-definition-marriage-and-opened-doors-same-sex	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00152.warc.gz	en	0.987159	1,314	3.5	4	[ 0.09154574573040009, 0.5136973857879639, -0.17602694034576416, -0.17340978980064392, -0.1811949759721756, 0.2574719190597534, -0.14187707006931305, 0.20559921860694885, 0.3438730239868164, -0.27277952432632446, 0.20025426149368286, 0.46981221437454224, 0.45736026763916016, -0.0954151153564...	4	The definition of marriage has been questioned repeatedly in recent decades, particularly with regard to same-sex marriage. But it appears that the modern definition of "traditional marriage” isn’t historically accurate. According to Stephanie Coontz, author of "Marriage, a History: How Love Conquered Marriage," the institution of marriage was once a union devoid of any emotional component. Up until the end of the 18th century, love had absolutely nothing to do with marriage. “Marriage was far too important as a political and economic institution — it was the way the upper class signed peace treaties and made war,” she says. “It’s the way that the middle class made business arrangements; for the lower class it was the way you got your working partner — bakers had to marry other bakers, even if they fell in love with someone who did something else, because you couldn’t run a small business.” Coontz, a professor of history and family studies at Evergreen State College and director of research and public education for the Council on Contemporary Families, says heterosexual couples initially redefined traditional marriage by pushing for the union to be built on love. “Love was really something that was different from marriage,” she says. “It was OK if you fell in love after marriage, but it was not really the purpose. There were many places in Europe, in southern France for example, that the only place you could find true love was in adultery, because marriage was such a mercenary institution. Adding love to marriage was a big, revolutionary change.” As capitalism spread around the globe in the 18th century and the Age of Enlightenment began to take hold, the idea of a loved-based relationships also started to take shape. “When the idea of love first came out, people were terrified,” says Coontz. “They said, ‘Oh my gosh. What’s going to happen to society if my son can say, ‘Ew! I don’t want to marry that woman, I don’t love her!’ They were concerned about what would happen if people fell out of love — that they would want divorce. Or a woman who was seduced might even refuse to get married. People were really worried about this.” During the 20th century, love was redefined to allow people to find their opposite — a person that would complete them — something that later proved to be problematic. “You fell in love with someone who was totally different than you,” she says. “So here we are trying to build marriages on the basis of love, but we have two historical definitions of love: One is that it’s illicit, and it’s exciting because it’s illicit, and the other is that it’s of opposites.” Though people were initially afraid of the idea of marrying for love, marriage itself was inescapable for many, especially because women were economically and legally dependent on men. “There was a lot of social pressure from elites who could penalize people — as late as the 1950s and ‘60s, a man who wasn’t married or who was divorced was often passed over for a promotion,” says Coontz. “A woman was just basically no where.” The 1950s gave way to the “golden age of marriage” in the United States, something that is still idolized and often misrepresented today. “People look back to that as the traditional family, but it was probably the only time in history when a vast majority of women did not work,” says Coontz. “They did not work on farms besides their husbands or work in small businesses — a man could support himself on his own earnings instead of having child labor. The male breadwinner family is not the least bit traditional, and it was organized around these very rigid gender roles.” Back in the 1950s, marriage was also severely complicated because of the short courtship period that most couples would go through: The average couple married each other after just six months. “From our modern perspective, how do you get to know a person as an individual in six months? Well, you don’t,” says Coontz. “Some people were very lucky, of course, and did become friends and were able to sustain their marriages, but basically you married a gender stereotype and you didn’t have a lot to negotiate.” Nowadays, men and women have more egalitarian relationships and society has since moved away from the idea of the “male-protector” marriage model. But as heterosexual couples changed the nature of marriage, they opened the door for gay people who were searching for the right to wed. “One of the amusing ironies in all of this debate is when people say, ‘Oh my goodness! Same-sex marriage will change heterosexual marriage!” she says. “Actually, the revolution was started by heterosexuals. Heterosexuals were the ones who first said marriage should be about love in the late 18th century. In the early 20th century, we added to this the idea that marriage should be based on sexual attraction and fulfillment.” After the 1950s, Western societies found it acceptable for individuals to marry each other without having an intention to reproduce, which was also a radical reinterpretation of marriage. “All of these things began to change the definition of marriage in ways that were making gays and lesbians say, ‘Hmm. This applies to us,’” says Coontz. “The final blow was in the 1970s when we repealed all of the laws that said men have one set of duties they have to perform, and women have a different set of duties they should perform. We said marriage is an association of two individuals who can choose for themselves what roles they want to play in the marriage.” “I think at this point it was almost inevitable that gays and lesbians would say, ‘Hey, you have redefined marriage so much that it’s now something we can and should be able to enter,'” Coontz adds.	1,218	ENGLISH	1
How does Milton manipulate debate as a form in "L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso"? Though Milton's speakers set their arguments against each other in their introductions, the poems that follow are closer than they initially appear. Milton blurs the distinction between his speakers' arguments, subverting their debate by drawing attention to what their poems share. Though the speakers claim that their lives are totally opposed, Milton makes it clear that they're living in the same world. He presents a debate in order to knock it down. Why is "Il Penseroso" often thought of as a night poem? Many consider "Il Penseroso" to be Milton's night poem because so many of the scenes are set at night. It's true that much of the poem takes place in the dark, but the poem is also full of day scenes. Similarly, "L'Allegro," which many consider to be Milton's day poem, includes both day and night scenes. Like many of the binaries Milton sets up in "L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso," the day/night division doesn't hold. What Milton is doing in both poems is perhaps better represented by the scenes he sets in mixed light, like the lines in which his speaker lies in the shade during the day in "Il Penseroso." Milton's poems include light and dark, because more than he's interested in representing division, he's interested in exploring what his speakers share.	<urn:uuid:84e7d81e-c2d8-46f7-bf30-01baaf591db1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gradesaver.com/il-penseroso/study-guide/essay-questions	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00168.warc.gz	en	0.984708	303	3.71875	4	[ -0.029259368777275085, -0.26848769187927246, -0.10860753059387207, 0.21446141600608826, -0.24271978437900543, 0.07788270711898804, 0.1803211122751236, 0.10046028345823288, -0.08761555701494217, -0.1861458122730255, -0.30422475934028625, 0.2209242284297943, -0.3550786077976227, 0.1564140617...	1	How does Milton manipulate debate as a form in "L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso"? Though Milton's speakers set their arguments against each other in their introductions, the poems that follow are closer than they initially appear. Milton blurs the distinction between his speakers' arguments, subverting their debate by drawing attention to what their poems share. Though the speakers claim that their lives are totally opposed, Milton makes it clear that they're living in the same world. He presents a debate in order to knock it down. Why is "Il Penseroso" often thought of as a night poem? Many consider "Il Penseroso" to be Milton's night poem because so many of the scenes are set at night. It's true that much of the poem takes place in the dark, but the poem is also full of day scenes. Similarly, "L'Allegro," which many consider to be Milton's day poem, includes both day and night scenes. Like many of the binaries Milton sets up in "L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso," the day/night division doesn't hold. What Milton is doing in both poems is perhaps better represented by the scenes he sets in mixed light, like the lines in which his speaker lies in the shade during the day in "Il Penseroso." Milton's poems include light and dark, because more than he's interested in representing division, he's interested in exploring what his speakers share.	301	ENGLISH	1
This summer is a special season of celebration for American literature. Starting in June, there will be bicentennial exhibitions, conferences, and excursions—at the Library of Congress and at NYU, respectively—to recognize the lives, work, and influence of Walt Whitman and Herman Melville. But the bicentennial of a third important American writer will not be so honored. The oldest of the trio by four days, Julia Ward Howe was born in New York City on this day, May 27, in 1819. Including Howe in this bicentennial list may startle readers unaccustomed to thinking of her as a major literary figure. Although she wrote the words to “The Battle Hymn of the Republic,” words that are better known around the world than anything by Whitman or Melville, Howe has moved to the margins of literary history. Out of her three volumes of poetry, the “Battle Hymn” is the only lyric that has outlived its author. But Howe was famous for much more than her writing. After the Civil War, she assessed and abandoned her poetic ambitions to become a leader of the women’s suffrage movement, an advocate for world peace, and a tireless worker for human rights. By the time she died, in 1910, she was far more famous in the US and internationally, and more widely and publicly mourned, than either of the two men. Whitman and Melville were profound and original writers who revolutionized American literature. But the difference between their careers and critical reputations and Howe’s is about gender as well as genius. As the literary historian Paula Bernat Bennett noted, “no group of writers in United States literary history has been subject to more consistent denigration than nineteenth-century women, especially the poets… Their writing has been damned out of hand for its conventionality, its simplistic Christianity, its addiction to morbidity, and its excessive reliance on tears.” In fact, Howe’s poetry was neither pious, sentimental, nor morbid. She attempted to challenge expectations of women’s writing, addressing some of the very same controversial issues of language and sexuality that Whitman and Melville took on. But she was silenced by the demands of a dictatorial husband and the gendered conventions of the literary marketplace. It’s no accident that the most daringly original and critically acclaimed American woman poet of the nineteenth century, Emily Dickinson, was unmarried, did not have to ask permission to write, and avoided critical pressures by publishing only seven poems during her lifetime. On the face of it, Julia Ward, growing up as the cherished daughter of a wealthy Manhattan banker, seemed to be blessed by opportunities to succeed. Her father hired the most accomplished European tutors in French, German, and music to teach her. As a young girl, she confidently dreamed of becoming an important American writer. “Through all those years,” she recalled in her memoir, “there went with me the vision of some great work or works which I myself should give the world.” She hoped to write “the novel or play of the age.” But her father was a strict Evangelical Christian who forbade his daughters (though not his sons) to read novels, go to the theater, or go out in the city unchaperoned. At the age of twenty, in 1839, she had read only a handful of novels, and had never seen a play. As she described herself, she was like “a young damsel of an older time, shut up within an enchanted castle.” Her father died that same year, but it was not until her 1843 marriage to the celebrated pioneer of education for the blind, Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe, that Julia Ward encountered a wider world, beginning with a year-long honeymoon in Europe. Her husband, however, soon proved almost as domineering and confining as her father. He was a hero who had volunteered in the Greek war of independence from the Turks, a radical abolitionist, a lifelong reformer and champion of the oppressed from the handicapped to the enslaved. The one cause he did not support was the equality and emancipation of women. He decided where they would live, including, repeatedly, in the gloomy and isolated Perkins Institution for the Blind in South Boston. He decided that they should have six children, and would have preferred eight. He managed to wrest control of her large fortune from her brothers and uncle, sold all of her valuable real estate in Manhattan, and lost almost all of the money she’d inherited through his unwise speculation. He believed that married women should be fulfilled by their husbands, homes, and children, refrain from speaking in public, and only write poetry or perform music for the entertainment of family and friends. Despite her education and intellectual gifts, Julia’s writing was either secret or in defiance of his commands. By January 1846, pregnant with her third child, she wrote to her sister Louisa: “My voice is still frozen to silence, my poetry chained down by an icy band of indifference. I begin to believe that I am no poet, and never was one, save in my imagination.” In contrast to Howe, Whitman and Melville came from poor families and left school at twelve. With none of the financial and social advantages that Howe enjoyed, they nonetheless had freedom to develop in experience and confidence. Whitman started work as an office boy for a Brooklyn law firm, reading the novels of Sir Walter Scott in his spare time, and exploring every corner of New York. As he recalled, “I spent much of my time in the theatres… going everywhere, seeing everything, high, low, middling—absorbing theatres at every pore.” He avidly absorbed the slang and dialect in the streets, the bars, and the press. By the age of twenty, Whitman was a school teacher and an experienced journalist, already dreaming of his own literary career. “I would compose a wonderful and ponderous book… Yes: I would write a book!” Melville began working at the age of thirteen, to help support the family after his bankrupt father’s suicide. When he turned twenty, he signed on as a cabin boy on a merchant ship bound for Liverpool, and the following year joined the crew of the whaler Acushnet, which as he would write of Ishmael in Moby-Dick, would become his Harvard and his Yale. Back in Boston in 1844, after a stint in the navy, he declared the beginning of his life as a writer. Books based on life at sea and his exotic adventures and travels followed fast: Typee (1846), Omoo (1847), Mardi (1849), Redburn (1849), White-Jacket (1850), Moby-Dick (1851). He married and started a family. By 1853, Melville had published his seventh, much-derided novel, Pierre, and become a writer for short stories in the magazines. At the age of thirty-five, the age when Howe and Whitman were starting out as writers, Melville was heading into decline. In 1854, Walt Whitman was unmarried, unemployed, and living with his family in Clinton Hill, Brooklyn. When he could not find a publisher for his poems, he typeset ten pages of the first edition of Leaves of Grass himself, at the printing shop of some Brooklyn friends, and had two hundred copies bound in green cloth at his own expense. Whitman’s initial efforts at finding a bookstore to sell the book failed, but he persuaded a firm that sold phrenological and health-fad books to take it on. It appeared anonymously on July 4, 1855. Still, the first edition did not catch on, and the copies remained in piles—as Whitman recalled, “none of them were sold—practically none—perhaps one or two, perhaps not even that many.” There were only a few reviews and many reviewers and readers found the book obscene in its use of sexual language and erotic feeling. The Criterion’s critic, Rufus Wilmot Griswold, called it “a mass of stupid filth.” But Whitman did not give up. He wrote three rave reviews of the book himself, publishing them anonymously. In the United States Review, for example, he began: “An American bard at last!… Self-reliant… assuming to himself all the attributes of his country, steps Walt Whitman.” He sent a copy of the book to Ralph Waldo Emerson, who responded with a glowing letter of thanks, congratulating Whitman on “the beginning of a great career,” and praising his “free and brave thought,” and “courage of treatment.” Whitman recognized the cultural bonanza of an endorsement from Emerson, but it was in a personal letter. After a few months, he gave it to the editor of the New York Daily Tribune, who printed it, without asking Emerson’s permission. It was the beginning of Whitman’s huge success, not only as a poet, but also a marketing genius and self-publicist. Whitman’s celebration of himself and promotion of his brand has drawn comparisons with the showman P.T. Barnum, the “Shakespeare of Advertising,” whose autobiography was published the same year as Leaves of Grass. In addition to reviews and blurbs, Whitman commissioned a steel engraving of himself as a frontispiece to convey an image of the muscular, rough American poet. In the first edition, he is shown bearded, casually dressed in an unbuttoned workingman’s shirt, one hand in his pocket, the other on his hip, wearing a black slouch hat. As the scholar Ted Genoways has revealed, the changes Whitman requested in the original engraving also included “a significant enlargement of the bulge in [his] crotch.” As Genoways comments: “Just as Whitman had adopted the dress of a rough, so the frontispiece had to depict what he called in his preface ‘one goodshaped and wellhung man.’” As far as we know, Melville made no such alterations to his photographs, although from 1846 to 1855, he was pictured with a full black beard. In Pierre, he had described the ambition of his literary protagonist to “sport a flowing beard which he deemed the most noble corporeal badge of the man, not to speak of the illustrious author.” The bard with a beard, if not a bulging crotch, was certainly a cultural stereotype of the writer when Howe began to publish. But women poets did not advertise themselves, or include promotional photographs in their books in the mid-nineteenth century. Indeed, pictures of Howe at this time show her with downcast eyes, a bonnet, and a shawl. She did, however, share with her two contemporaries the themes of sensuality, gender confusion, androgyny, and homosexuality that have engaged scholars reading Whitman and Melville since the late twentieth century. Between 1846 and 1848, she secretly wrote a novel about a person born with both male and female sexual organs who grows up to experience the lives of both sexes. Howe explored the confinement of sex roles, and the joy of women having “the right to go where they please, and the power of doing what they please.” But she was unable to finish the book or to show it to anyone, even one of her sisters. (In 2004, the manuscript fragments in the Houghton Library at Harvard were brilliantly edited by Gary Williams and published by the University of Nebraska Press under the title The Hermaphrodite.) In the winter of 1853, Howe secretly began writing her first book of poems. By that time, having realized how unhappy she was in her marriage, she had gone to live near her sisters in Rome for a while, taking the two youngest children with her. But returning to Boston, after a year, she despaired of any change or improvement. In the poems she called herself “a comet dire and strange,” unable to control her orbit; and poked fun at her marriage to a stolid man who thinks he can force his tempestuous wife to be a mild companion. In October, the collection was accepted by the Boston publishers Ticknor, Reed, and Fields. As she wrote to her sister Annie, Howe had kept the book a secret from her husband and planned to tell him about it only on the morning it came out. “Then he can do nothing to prevent its sale in its proper form,” she reasoned. When the book was published anonymously, as Passion-Flowers, on December 23, 1853, she quickly sent copies to her family and to prominent Boston writers. On Christmas Eve, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, who had advised her about it, confided to his journal that the book was “full of genius; full of beauty; but what a sad tone! Another cry of discontent added to the slogan of the femmes incomprises.” Nathaniel Hawthorne, who was in England but received a copy of the book from the publisher William D. Ticknor, agreed, ranking Howe, as other early reviewers did, “beyond all comparison the first of American poetesses.” But, he wondered, “what does her husband think of it?” Well may he have asked. As she had planned, she showed the book to Chev, as he was called by his friends and family, just before Christmas. To Annie, she confided that he had taken the news “very hard.” But he said nothing more about it in the holidays after, and she felt reassured that the crisis was over. She even thought he took some pleasure in the book’s success, and hoped that it would establish her reputation as a serious American poet. Passion-Flowers was selling very well, and went into a second edition in just a few weeks. Reviewers guessed that the poet was a woman, but they were startled and impressed by the apparent autobiographical nature and intellectual range of the book. In the New York Tribune, George Ripley called Passion-Flowers “a product wrung with tears and prayer from the deepest soul of the writer… We should not have suspected these poems to be the production of a woman. They form an entirely unique class in the whole range of female literature.” Despite the author’s anonymity, everyone in Boston knew immediately that it was Howe’s work—the publishers themselves may have spread the word—and she hoped that news of her authorship would help sales in other cities. At the end of January 1854, however, Chev erupted in a fit of rage. He felt that she had betrayed and humiliated him, and he viewed Passion-Flowers as obscene. He threatened to divorce her and take custody of the two older children unless she agreed to his terms. First of all, she was to cut the verses that particularly offended him in a final third edition, and then abandon the book. Second, he ordered her to stop writing personal poems. Finally, he insisted that they resume their long-suspended sexual relationship. Howe capitulated, as she explained to Louisa: “I thought it my real duty to give up every thing that was dear and sacred to me, rather than be forced to leave two of my children… I made the greatest sacrifice I can ever be called upon to make.” Before February was out, she was pregnant again with her fifth child. In other respects over the years that followed, Julia defied Chev’s commands by continuing to write and publish, but in an impersonal voice. In 1857, she published Words for the Hour, fifty-four occasional poems on topics that included Florence Nightingale and slavery. The new book received respectful but muted reviews; critics found it deeply sad, suffused with an “unnamed and perhaps unnamable woe.” She tried writing plays, which did not succeed. By 1861, as the Civil War began, and she, Whitman, and Melville were turning forty-two, Howe had accepted that she could never have a career as a writer. For his part, Melville, facing the decline of his career and reputation, had started drinking too much, and had taken a lengthy trip around Cape Horn on the clipper ship Meteor. Whitman was writing a preface to a new edition of Leaves of Grass, saying that “the most and the best of the Poem I perceive, remains unwritten, and the work of my life yet to be done.” In October that year, Howe accompanied her husband and a group of friends to Washington, where he had been called as an officer of the sanitary commission. In her own telling, that moment was the lowest in her life. She was nursing her sixth child, while the contrast with her husband’s prominence as a doctor, abolitionist, and presidential adviser planning medical arrangements for the troops made her despair of ever being able to contribute to the life of the nation at its moment of great crisis: “I distinctly remember that a feeling of discouragement came over me as I drew near the city of Washington Something seemed to say to me, ‘you would be glad to serve, but you cannot help anyone; you have nothing to give, and there is nothing for you to do.’” Returning with her friends, including her Boston minister, James Freeman Clarke, from a review of the troops outside Washington, she heard the soldiers singing the Army song version of the spiritual “Glory, Glory”: “John Brown’s body lies a-mouldering in the ground; his soul is marching on.” The Reverend Clarke turned to Julia and asked, “Why do you not write some good words for that stirring tune?” He had given her permission to create and to serve. In a story she would often repeat, that night she woke before dawn and found the lines of a poem forming in her mind. She scribbled them down and returned to bed, telling herself, “I like this better than most things that I have written.’’ While her composition is sometimes belittled as automatic writing, she drew on Biblical rhythms and images she had long imagined and then made revisions when she wrote out a clean copy by daylight. The next day, she showed the poem to Clarke—but not to her husband. In Boston, a few months later, she sent the verses to The Atlantic Monthly, which published them on the cover in February 1862, signed as the work of Mrs. S.G. Howe, and paid her $5. In her account, “small heed” was paid to it at the time, but gradually the verses found their way to the camps, and they won praise from a military chaplain who read the poem aloud at a public lecture in Washington. There is no record of what Chev thought of it. One hundred and fifty years later, in December 2012, the original manuscript of the “Battle Hymn of the Republic,” signed by Howe, was auctioned at Christie’s, selling for for $782,500. Over the centuries, the “Battle Hymn” has become both an unofficial national anthem, sung at gatherings from baseball games to barbecues, and an international song of mourning and remembrance, played at the funerals of Winston Churchill, Bobby Kennedy, and Ronald Reagan, as well as at memorial concerts for the September 11, 2001, victims around the world. It has been performed more rarely at the funerals of women, since so few are afforded state funerals, but it was sung for Nancy Reagan, and for Howe herself, who died in 1910. The legend of Howe’s poetic creation became part of American literary history. But like all legends, it leaves out and obscures many elements of the full truth. Only a few people close to Howe knew that she was also fighting a civil war at home, struggling to assert her rights to independence, creative expression, and a public voice. The publication of the “Battle Hymn” was a turning point in her life. The song’s renown gave Howe fame and the power to emancipate herself from Chev’s control. It restored her literary confidence in herself, although, ironically, it came to overshadow all of her other writing. Everywhere she went until the day she died, audiences sang her poem to her, or demanded that she sing it to them in her trained contralto. She came to dread the sound of the band and chorus striking up as she entered the room. After the Civil War, Howe redirected her efforts into the women’s suffrage movement, and in this second chapter, became a leading campaigner and activist. As she wrote, approaching her fiftieth birthday in 1869: During the first two thirds of my life, I looked to the masculine idea of character as the only true one. I sought its inspiration, and referred my merits and demerits to its judicial verdict. The new domain now made clear to me was that of true womanhood—woman no longer in her ancillary relation to her opposite, man, but in her direct relation to the divine plan and purpose, as a free agent, fully sharing with man every human right and every human responsibility. This discovery was like the addition of a new continent to the map of the world, or of a new testament to the old ordinances. Howe outlived Melville and Whitman, both of whom died at the age of seventy-two, in 1891 and 1892 respectively. By then, Whitman had become an almost messianic figure in American letters; his enormous funeral concluded with his burial in the huge family tomb he himself had designed and commissioned. Although he was ever dissatisfied with the popular reception of Leaves of Grass, reissued in a so-called deathbed edition in 1892, Whitman died knowing that he had found his audience. By the time of Melville’s death, few remembered his books and a death notice in The New York Times misspelled the title of his most celebrated novel. But within a few decades, the Melville Revival was underway, beginning with a series of essays published for his centennial in 1919. Before her death at the age of ninety-one, Julia Ward Howe had kept abreast with what she called the “new poetry,” as well as the rising social and political movements of her time. She became a friend and supporter of Oscar Wilde’s; she heard W.B. Yeats speak and recite his poems. And she was certainly familiar with Leaves of Grass, although, as she noted in her journal in 1888, she found it “overpraised.” She continued working almost until her final hours: writing poetry, speaking out for “pure milk” legislation at the Boston state house, and receiving an honorary degree from Smith College in October 1910, where she was greeted by a huge choir of white-clad women students who sang for her, once again, the “Battle Hymn.” At her memorial service in Boston, attended by thousands, a few months later, civic leaders acknowledged that she had eclipsed her illustrious husband’s reputation, hailing her as a figure who stands “for womanhood itself, for America, and for Boston.” Her biography, written by her daughters, was published in 1916 and won the first Pulitzer Prize in biography for “teaching patriotic and unselfish services to the people.” She, however, did not wish to be remembered as the “Dearest Old Lady in America.” To the end, Howe refused to conform to social expectations that she should play “Saint Julia.” As she wrote: I do not desire ecstatic, disembodied sainthood, because I do not wish to abdicate any one of the attributes of my humanity. I cherish even the infirmities that bind me to my kind. I would be human, and American, and a woman. Left Coast Kratom is here to help you experience the freshest highest quality kratom powders and extracts at competitive prices.	<urn:uuid:0ea43701-aea3-46ea-834d-37be67f68274>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.midnightpublishing.net/whitman-melville-julia-ward-howe-a-tale-of-three-bicentennials-the-new-york-review-of-books/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00051.warc.gz	en	0.98639	5,055	3.34375	3	[ -0.21449017524719238, 0.23898878693580627, 0.08277924358844757, 0.24949657917022705, -0.17062607407569885, 0.655015766620636, -0.13555213809013367, 0.3989085555076599, -0.28476059436798096, -0.045886654406785965, 0.071855828166008, 0.479839563369751, -0.09049589931964874, 0.153506249189376...	1	This summer is a special season of celebration for American literature. Starting in June, there will be bicentennial exhibitions, conferences, and excursions—at the Library of Congress and at NYU, respectively—to recognize the lives, work, and influence of Walt Whitman and Herman Melville. But the bicentennial of a third important American writer will not be so honored. The oldest of the trio by four days, Julia Ward Howe was born in New York City on this day, May 27, in 1819. Including Howe in this bicentennial list may startle readers unaccustomed to thinking of her as a major literary figure. Although she wrote the words to “The Battle Hymn of the Republic,” words that are better known around the world than anything by Whitman or Melville, Howe has moved to the margins of literary history. Out of her three volumes of poetry, the “Battle Hymn” is the only lyric that has outlived its author. But Howe was famous for much more than her writing. After the Civil War, she assessed and abandoned her poetic ambitions to become a leader of the women’s suffrage movement, an advocate for world peace, and a tireless worker for human rights. By the time she died, in 1910, she was far more famous in the US and internationally, and more widely and publicly mourned, than either of the two men. Whitman and Melville were profound and original writers who revolutionized American literature. But the difference between their careers and critical reputations and Howe’s is about gender as well as genius. As the literary historian Paula Bernat Bennett noted, “no group of writers in United States literary history has been subject to more consistent denigration than nineteenth-century women, especially the poets… Their writing has been damned out of hand for its conventionality, its simplistic Christianity, its addiction to morbidity, and its excessive reliance on tears.” In fact, Howe’s poetry was neither pious, sentimental, nor morbid. She attempted to challenge expectations of women’s writing, addressing some of the very same controversial issues of language and sexuality that Whitman and Melville took on. But she was silenced by the demands of a dictatorial husband and the gendered conventions of the literary marketplace. It’s no accident that the most daringly original and critically acclaimed American woman poet of the nineteenth century, Emily Dickinson, was unmarried, did not have to ask permission to write, and avoided critical pressures by publishing only seven poems during her lifetime. On the face of it, Julia Ward, growing up as the cherished daughter of a wealthy Manhattan banker, seemed to be blessed by opportunities to succeed. Her father hired the most accomplished European tutors in French, German, and music to teach her. As a young girl, she confidently dreamed of becoming an important American writer. “Through all those years,” she recalled in her memoir, “there went with me the vision of some great work or works which I myself should give the world.” She hoped to write “the novel or play of the age.” But her father was a strict Evangelical Christian who forbade his daughters (though not his sons) to read novels, go to the theater, or go out in the city unchaperoned. At the age of twenty, in 1839, she had read only a handful of novels, and had never seen a play. As she described herself, she was like “a young damsel of an older time, shut up within an enchanted castle.” Her father died that same year, but it was not until her 1843 marriage to the celebrated pioneer of education for the blind, Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe, that Julia Ward encountered a wider world, beginning with a year-long honeymoon in Europe. Her husband, however, soon proved almost as domineering and confining as her father. He was a hero who had volunteered in the Greek war of independence from the Turks, a radical abolitionist, a lifelong reformer and champion of the oppressed from the handicapped to the enslaved. The one cause he did not support was the equality and emancipation of women. He decided where they would live, including, repeatedly, in the gloomy and isolated Perkins Institution for the Blind in South Boston. He decided that they should have six children, and would have preferred eight. He managed to wrest control of her large fortune from her brothers and uncle, sold all of her valuable real estate in Manhattan, and lost almost all of the money she’d inherited through his unwise speculation. He believed that married women should be fulfilled by their husbands, homes, and children, refrain from speaking in public, and only write poetry or perform music for the entertainment of family and friends. Despite her education and intellectual gifts, Julia’s writing was either secret or in defiance of his commands. By January 1846, pregnant with her third child, she wrote to her sister Louisa: “My voice is still frozen to silence, my poetry chained down by an icy band of indifference. I begin to believe that I am no poet, and never was one, save in my imagination.” In contrast to Howe, Whitman and Melville came from poor families and left school at twelve. With none of the financial and social advantages that Howe enjoyed, they nonetheless had freedom to develop in experience and confidence. Whitman started work as an office boy for a Brooklyn law firm, reading the novels of Sir Walter Scott in his spare time, and exploring every corner of New York. As he recalled, “I spent much of my time in the theatres… going everywhere, seeing everything, high, low, middling—absorbing theatres at every pore.” He avidly absorbed the slang and dialect in the streets, the bars, and the press. By the age of twenty, Whitman was a school teacher and an experienced journalist, already dreaming of his own literary career. “I would compose a wonderful and ponderous book… Yes: I would write a book!” Melville began working at the age of thirteen, to help support the family after his bankrupt father’s suicide. When he turned twenty, he signed on as a cabin boy on a merchant ship bound for Liverpool, and the following year joined the crew of the whaler Acushnet, which as he would write of Ishmael in Moby-Dick, would become his Harvard and his Yale. Back in Boston in 1844, after a stint in the navy, he declared the beginning of his life as a writer. Books based on life at sea and his exotic adventures and travels followed fast: Typee (1846), Omoo (1847), Mardi (1849), Redburn (1849), White-Jacket (1850), Moby-Dick (1851). He married and started a family. By 1853, Melville had published his seventh, much-derided novel, Pierre, and become a writer for short stories in the magazines. At the age of thirty-five, the age when Howe and Whitman were starting out as writers, Melville was heading into decline. In 1854, Walt Whitman was unmarried, unemployed, and living with his family in Clinton Hill, Brooklyn. When he could not find a publisher for his poems, he typeset ten pages of the first edition of Leaves of Grass himself, at the printing shop of some Brooklyn friends, and had two hundred copies bound in green cloth at his own expense. Whitman’s initial efforts at finding a bookstore to sell the book failed, but he persuaded a firm that sold phrenological and health-fad books to take it on. It appeared anonymously on July 4, 1855. Still, the first edition did not catch on, and the copies remained in piles—as Whitman recalled, “none of them were sold—practically none—perhaps one or two, perhaps not even that many.” There were only a few reviews and many reviewers and readers found the book obscene in its use of sexual language and erotic feeling. The Criterion’s critic, Rufus Wilmot Griswold, called it “a mass of stupid filth.” But Whitman did not give up. He wrote three rave reviews of the book himself, publishing them anonymously. In the United States Review, for example, he began: “An American bard at last!… Self-reliant… assuming to himself all the attributes of his country, steps Walt Whitman.” He sent a copy of the book to Ralph Waldo Emerson, who responded with a glowing letter of thanks, congratulating Whitman on “the beginning of a great career,” and praising his “free and brave thought,” and “courage of treatment.” Whitman recognized the cultural bonanza of an endorsement from Emerson, but it was in a personal letter. After a few months, he gave it to the editor of the New York Daily Tribune, who printed it, without asking Emerson’s permission. It was the beginning of Whitman’s huge success, not only as a poet, but also a marketing genius and self-publicist. Whitman’s celebration of himself and promotion of his brand has drawn comparisons with the showman P.T. Barnum, the “Shakespeare of Advertising,” whose autobiography was published the same year as Leaves of Grass. In addition to reviews and blurbs, Whitman commissioned a steel engraving of himself as a frontispiece to convey an image of the muscular, rough American poet. In the first edition, he is shown bearded, casually dressed in an unbuttoned workingman’s shirt, one hand in his pocket, the other on his hip, wearing a black slouch hat. As the scholar Ted Genoways has revealed, the changes Whitman requested in the original engraving also included “a significant enlargement of the bulge in [his] crotch.” As Genoways comments: “Just as Whitman had adopted the dress of a rough, so the frontispiece had to depict what he called in his preface ‘one goodshaped and wellhung man.’” As far as we know, Melville made no such alterations to his photographs, although from 1846 to 1855, he was pictured with a full black beard. In Pierre, he had described the ambition of his literary protagonist to “sport a flowing beard which he deemed the most noble corporeal badge of the man, not to speak of the illustrious author.” The bard with a beard, if not a bulging crotch, was certainly a cultural stereotype of the writer when Howe began to publish. But women poets did not advertise themselves, or include promotional photographs in their books in the mid-nineteenth century. Indeed, pictures of Howe at this time show her with downcast eyes, a bonnet, and a shawl. She did, however, share with her two contemporaries the themes of sensuality, gender confusion, androgyny, and homosexuality that have engaged scholars reading Whitman and Melville since the late twentieth century. Between 1846 and 1848, she secretly wrote a novel about a person born with both male and female sexual organs who grows up to experience the lives of both sexes. Howe explored the confinement of sex roles, and the joy of women having “the right to go where they please, and the power of doing what they please.” But she was unable to finish the book or to show it to anyone, even one of her sisters. (In 2004, the manuscript fragments in the Houghton Library at Harvard were brilliantly edited by Gary Williams and published by the University of Nebraska Press under the title The Hermaphrodite.) In the winter of 1853, Howe secretly began writing her first book of poems. By that time, having realized how unhappy she was in her marriage, she had gone to live near her sisters in Rome for a while, taking the two youngest children with her. But returning to Boston, after a year, she despaired of any change or improvement. In the poems she called herself “a comet dire and strange,” unable to control her orbit; and poked fun at her marriage to a stolid man who thinks he can force his tempestuous wife to be a mild companion. In October, the collection was accepted by the Boston publishers Ticknor, Reed, and Fields. As she wrote to her sister Annie, Howe had kept the book a secret from her husband and planned to tell him about it only on the morning it came out. “Then he can do nothing to prevent its sale in its proper form,” she reasoned. When the book was published anonymously, as Passion-Flowers, on December 23, 1853, she quickly sent copies to her family and to prominent Boston writers. On Christmas Eve, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, who had advised her about it, confided to his journal that the book was “full of genius; full of beauty; but what a sad tone! Another cry of discontent added to the slogan of the femmes incomprises.” Nathaniel Hawthorne, who was in England but received a copy of the book from the publisher William D. Ticknor, agreed, ranking Howe, as other early reviewers did, “beyond all comparison the first of American poetesses.” But, he wondered, “what does her husband think of it?” Well may he have asked. As she had planned, she showed the book to Chev, as he was called by his friends and family, just before Christmas. To Annie, she confided that he had taken the news “very hard.” But he said nothing more about it in the holidays after, and she felt reassured that the crisis was over. She even thought he took some pleasure in the book’s success, and hoped that it would establish her reputation as a serious American poet. Passion-Flowers was selling very well, and went into a second edition in just a few weeks. Reviewers guessed that the poet was a woman, but they were startled and impressed by the apparent autobiographical nature and intellectual range of the book. In the New York Tribune, George Ripley called Passion-Flowers “a product wrung with tears and prayer from the deepest soul of the writer… We should not have suspected these poems to be the production of a woman. They form an entirely unique class in the whole range of female literature.” Despite the author’s anonymity, everyone in Boston knew immediately that it was Howe’s work—the publishers themselves may have spread the word—and she hoped that news of her authorship would help sales in other cities. At the end of January 1854, however, Chev erupted in a fit of rage. He felt that she had betrayed and humiliated him, and he viewed Passion-Flowers as obscene. He threatened to divorce her and take custody of the two older children unless she agreed to his terms. First of all, she was to cut the verses that particularly offended him in a final third edition, and then abandon the book. Second, he ordered her to stop writing personal poems. Finally, he insisted that they resume their long-suspended sexual relationship. Howe capitulated, as she explained to Louisa: “I thought it my real duty to give up every thing that was dear and sacred to me, rather than be forced to leave two of my children… I made the greatest sacrifice I can ever be called upon to make.” Before February was out, she was pregnant again with her fifth child. In other respects over the years that followed, Julia defied Chev’s commands by continuing to write and publish, but in an impersonal voice. In 1857, she published Words for the Hour, fifty-four occasional poems on topics that included Florence Nightingale and slavery. The new book received respectful but muted reviews; critics found it deeply sad, suffused with an “unnamed and perhaps unnamable woe.” She tried writing plays, which did not succeed. By 1861, as the Civil War began, and she, Whitman, and Melville were turning forty-two, Howe had accepted that she could never have a career as a writer. For his part, Melville, facing the decline of his career and reputation, had started drinking too much, and had taken a lengthy trip around Cape Horn on the clipper ship Meteor. Whitman was writing a preface to a new edition of Leaves of Grass, saying that “the most and the best of the Poem I perceive, remains unwritten, and the work of my life yet to be done.” In October that year, Howe accompanied her husband and a group of friends to Washington, where he had been called as an officer of the sanitary commission. In her own telling, that moment was the lowest in her life. She was nursing her sixth child, while the contrast with her husband’s prominence as a doctor, abolitionist, and presidential adviser planning medical arrangements for the troops made her despair of ever being able to contribute to the life of the nation at its moment of great crisis: “I distinctly remember that a feeling of discouragement came over me as I drew near the city of Washington Something seemed to say to me, ‘you would be glad to serve, but you cannot help anyone; you have nothing to give, and there is nothing for you to do.’” Returning with her friends, including her Boston minister, James Freeman Clarke, from a review of the troops outside Washington, she heard the soldiers singing the Army song version of the spiritual “Glory, Glory”: “John Brown’s body lies a-mouldering in the ground; his soul is marching on.” The Reverend Clarke turned to Julia and asked, “Why do you not write some good words for that stirring tune?” He had given her permission to create and to serve. In a story she would often repeat, that night she woke before dawn and found the lines of a poem forming in her mind. She scribbled them down and returned to bed, telling herself, “I like this better than most things that I have written.’’ While her composition is sometimes belittled as automatic writing, she drew on Biblical rhythms and images she had long imagined and then made revisions when she wrote out a clean copy by daylight. The next day, she showed the poem to Clarke—but not to her husband. In Boston, a few months later, she sent the verses to The Atlantic Monthly, which published them on the cover in February 1862, signed as the work of Mrs. S.G. Howe, and paid her $5. In her account, “small heed” was paid to it at the time, but gradually the verses found their way to the camps, and they won praise from a military chaplain who read the poem aloud at a public lecture in Washington. There is no record of what Chev thought of it. One hundred and fifty years later, in December 2012, the original manuscript of the “Battle Hymn of the Republic,” signed by Howe, was auctioned at Christie’s, selling for for $782,500. Over the centuries, the “Battle Hymn” has become both an unofficial national anthem, sung at gatherings from baseball games to barbecues, and an international song of mourning and remembrance, played at the funerals of Winston Churchill, Bobby Kennedy, and Ronald Reagan, as well as at memorial concerts for the September 11, 2001, victims around the world. It has been performed more rarely at the funerals of women, since so few are afforded state funerals, but it was sung for Nancy Reagan, and for Howe herself, who died in 1910. The legend of Howe’s poetic creation became part of American literary history. But like all legends, it leaves out and obscures many elements of the full truth. Only a few people close to Howe knew that she was also fighting a civil war at home, struggling to assert her rights to independence, creative expression, and a public voice. The publication of the “Battle Hymn” was a turning point in her life. The song’s renown gave Howe fame and the power to emancipate herself from Chev’s control. It restored her literary confidence in herself, although, ironically, it came to overshadow all of her other writing. Everywhere she went until the day she died, audiences sang her poem to her, or demanded that she sing it to them in her trained contralto. She came to dread the sound of the band and chorus striking up as she entered the room. After the Civil War, Howe redirected her efforts into the women’s suffrage movement, and in this second chapter, became a leading campaigner and activist. As she wrote, approaching her fiftieth birthday in 1869: During the first two thirds of my life, I looked to the masculine idea of character as the only true one. I sought its inspiration, and referred my merits and demerits to its judicial verdict. The new domain now made clear to me was that of true womanhood—woman no longer in her ancillary relation to her opposite, man, but in her direct relation to the divine plan and purpose, as a free agent, fully sharing with man every human right and every human responsibility. This discovery was like the addition of a new continent to the map of the world, or of a new testament to the old ordinances. Howe outlived Melville and Whitman, both of whom died at the age of seventy-two, in 1891 and 1892 respectively. By then, Whitman had become an almost messianic figure in American letters; his enormous funeral concluded with his burial in the huge family tomb he himself had designed and commissioned. Although he was ever dissatisfied with the popular reception of Leaves of Grass, reissued in a so-called deathbed edition in 1892, Whitman died knowing that he had found his audience. By the time of Melville’s death, few remembered his books and a death notice in The New York Times misspelled the title of his most celebrated novel. But within a few decades, the Melville Revival was underway, beginning with a series of essays published for his centennial in 1919. Before her death at the age of ninety-one, Julia Ward Howe had kept abreast with what she called the “new poetry,” as well as the rising social and political movements of her time. She became a friend and supporter of Oscar Wilde’s; she heard W.B. Yeats speak and recite his poems. And she was certainly familiar with Leaves of Grass, although, as she noted in her journal in 1888, she found it “overpraised.” She continued working almost until her final hours: writing poetry, speaking out for “pure milk” legislation at the Boston state house, and receiving an honorary degree from Smith College in October 1910, where she was greeted by a huge choir of white-clad women students who sang for her, once again, the “Battle Hymn.” At her memorial service in Boston, attended by thousands, a few months later, civic leaders acknowledged that she had eclipsed her illustrious husband’s reputation, hailing her as a figure who stands “for womanhood itself, for America, and for Boston.” Her biography, written by her daughters, was published in 1916 and won the first Pulitzer Prize in biography for “teaching patriotic and unselfish services to the people.” She, however, did not wish to be remembered as the “Dearest Old Lady in America.” To the end, Howe refused to conform to social expectations that she should play “Saint Julia.” As she wrote: I do not desire ecstatic, disembodied sainthood, because I do not wish to abdicate any one of the attributes of my humanity. I cherish even the infirmities that bind me to my kind. I would be human, and American, and a woman. Left Coast Kratom is here to help you experience the freshest highest quality kratom powders and extracts at competitive prices.	4,973	ENGLISH	1
In Fyodor Dostoevsky book Crime and Punishment, women at this time in St. Petersburg were not treated equally compared to men in terms of education and authority. In Crime and Punishment, the women in the novel go through a life of hardship. Majority of women, in Crime and Punishment, such as Sonya and Katerina are seen to be some of the women being treated with little or no respect towards men. The women in this story play a motherly role towards the men. Women in the novel might have lived in a male governed city, but it seemed that the words the women spoke in this story were very strong in influencing the men. Sonya plays a major role in Raskolnikov’s life, being the person Raskolnikov opens up to and later relies on. Raskolnikov felt a heavy connection with Sonya because she was a prostitute and he was a murderer, which let him feel like they’ve both committed sins. After Sonya’s self-sacrificing actions had led to Raskolnikov to be dependent on Sonya and soon end up loving her. - a unit manager - If the number of data values are too much	<urn:uuid:3c394e6d-5a17-440c-ad55-357dfbb99b0b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freedomrunners.org/in-fyodor-dostoevsky-book-crime-and-punishment/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00337.warc.gz	en	0.983972	257	3.46875	3	[ 0.17554639279842377, -0.08780361711978912, -0.07837868481874466, -0.1490711122751236, 0.06329453736543655, -0.049284592270851135, 0.3992675244808197, 0.5039290189743042, 0.20076607167720795, -0.10731430351734161, -0.13495296239852905, 0.10457472503185272, -0.16701877117156982, 0.3473873734...	2	In Fyodor Dostoevsky book Crime and Punishment, women at this time in St. Petersburg were not treated equally compared to men in terms of education and authority. In Crime and Punishment, the women in the novel go through a life of hardship. Majority of women, in Crime and Punishment, such as Sonya and Katerina are seen to be some of the women being treated with little or no respect towards men. The women in this story play a motherly role towards the men. Women in the novel might have lived in a male governed city, but it seemed that the words the women spoke in this story were very strong in influencing the men. Sonya plays a major role in Raskolnikov’s life, being the person Raskolnikov opens up to and later relies on. Raskolnikov felt a heavy connection with Sonya because she was a prostitute and he was a murderer, which let him feel like they’ve both committed sins. After Sonya’s self-sacrificing actions had led to Raskolnikov to be dependent on Sonya and soon end up loving her. - a unit manager - If the number of data values are too much	249	ENGLISH	1
Paris Peace Talks and the Release of POWs Paris Peace Talks: In 1967, with American troop strength in Vietnam reaching 500,000, protest against U.S. participation in the Vietnam War had grown stronger as growing numbers of Americans questioned whether the U.S. war effort could succeed or was morally justifiable. They took their protests to the streets in peace marches, demonstrations, and acts of civil disobedience. Despite the country's polarization, the balance of American public opinion was beginning to sway toward "de-escalation" of the war. This was the backdrop as the United States and Hanoi agreed to enter into preliminary peace talks in Paris in 1968. However, almost as soon as the talks were started, they stalled. When President Lyndon Johnson turned over the presidency to Richard Nixon eight months into the talks, the only thing the two sides had agreed on was the shape of the conference table. Despite candidate Nixon's promise of "peace with honor," the deadlock would continue for three-and-one-half years of public and secret meetings in Paris. Two key issues had locked both parties. Washington wanted all northern troops out of South Vietnam; Hanoi refused any provisional South Vietnamese government that involved its leader, Nguyen Van Thieu. In June 1969 the first troop withdrawals were made by the U.S., as part of its "Vietnamization" plan, whereby the South Vietnamese would gradually assume complete military responsibilities in the war while continuing to be supplied by U.S. arms. In February 1970, national security advisor Henry Kissinger began secret one-on-one meetings with North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho outside Paris while the formal peace process continued in the city. Still, little progress would be made until the summer of 1972. By then, Nixon was pursuing détente with both China and the Soviet Union and was eager to put Vietnam behind him before the next election. Both sides wanted peace. Hanoi feared political isolation if the U.S. had a rapprochement with China and the Soviet Union. They also knew that peace would end the fearsome U.S. bombing and might finally mean the complete withdrawal of the military giant. Nixon wanted to move to other foreign policy initiatives. Kissinger assured the North that their troops would be able to remain in the South after the cease-fire. Kissinger also backed down on the U.S. support of the Thieu regime by agreeing to an electoral commission made up of neutralists, Viet Cong and members of the Saigon government that would oversee the political settlement in the South. In return, the North withdrew its condition of Thieu's removal, and agreed the future flow of Vietnamese troops to the South would stop. By October 1972, a tentative cease-fire agreement was reached. The accord called for the simultaneous withdrawal of U.S. troops and freedom for American POWs, to be followed by a political settlement of South Vietnam's future. Washington would extend postwar economic assistance to help Vietnam rebuild its destroyed infrastructure. On October 22, Nixon suspended all bombing north of the twentieth parallel and four days later Kissinger proclaimed that "peace was at hand." The celebration was premature. Thieu, who had not been consulted during the secret negotiations, demanded changes that infuriated Hanoi, and talks broke off on December 13. Nixon, caught between a stubborn ally and a tough enemy, took action. He promised Thieu $1 billion in military equipment that would give South Vietnam the fourth largest air force in the world and assured Thieu that the United States would re-enter the war if North Vietnam did not abide by the peace. They were promises that Thieu had no reason to doubt; Nixon had just won a landslide election and the Watergate affair was nearly invisible on the political landscape. As for the stick, Nixon resolved to punish the North. During 12 days of the most concentrated bombing in world history, called the Christmas bombing, American planes flew nearly 2,000 sorties and dropped 35,000 tons of bombs against transportation terminals, rail yards, warehouses, barracks, oil tanks, factories, airfields and power plants in the North. In two short weeks, 25 percent of North Vietnam's oil reserves and 80 percent of its electrical capacity were destroyed. The U.S. lost 26 aircraft and 93 air force men. When peace talks resumed in Paris on January 8, 1973, an accord was reached swiftly. The peace agreement was formally signed on January 27, 1973. It closely resembled what had been agreed to back in October of the previous year. Kissinger later justified the accord by saying, "We believed that those who opposed the war in Vietnam would be satisfied with our withdrawal, and those who favored an honorable ending would be satisfied if the United States would not destroy an ally." America's longest war was over. The release of POWs: In the days following the signing of the peace accord on January 27, 1973, the American prisoners of war got word that the war was over. Camp officers read the news from prepared texts stating that the men would be released 120 at a time at two-week intervals. The sick and wounded were scheduled to depart first; the others would follow in the order in which they were captured. As the men were dismissed following the announcement at Hoa Lo., Lt. Colonel Robinson Risner about-faced and called to the 400 men, "Fourth Allied POW Wing, atten-hut!" Lt. Gerald Coffee remembered the men's reaction. "The thud of eight hundred rubber-tire sandals coming together smartly was awesome." Squadron commanders returned the salute and then dismissed their units with a unified "Squadron, dis . . . missed!" Some were reluctant to believe the news. Coffee's squadron commander Lt. Everett Alvarez, in captivity for 8 1/2 years, said to Coffee: "You know, I've been up and down so many times over the years that I'm not sure what to think. It looks good, everything seems right, but I'll believe it when I see it. I'm not ready to party it up . . . yet." Those who believed the announcement was true had a wide variety of reactions. Coffee said that "some men were exchanging a wink and a smile or a light punch on the shoulders, but most, with minds racing unto themselves, already projected themselves twelve thousand miles away and considered the joyful and spooky prospect of reunions with loved ones." POW Sam Johnson remembers his group at Hoa Lo "ran to each other, hugging and crying and whooping with joy." At the another Hanoi prison camp, Plantation, Al Stafford felt "a kind of emptiness which changed, slowly, to profound, bottomless fatigue." He explained afterwards that he had never felt so tired and so vacant in his life, which expressed itself in a deep desire to go back to his cell and sleep. With the peace, the persistently austere POW conditions were finally relaxed. The men were given letters from families that had been withheld for months and years, along with supplies and other presents from home, including MAD magazine. The prisoners started receiving fresh supplies of bread and vegetables, canned meat and fish, undoubtedly attempts by the North Vietnamese to get the men looking better. In the hours and days before their release, POWs imagined their future lives. Alvarez daydreamed of "returning to a normal life" in which "we would make our own decisions and set our own agendas." The expectation of normal, daily activities -- getting in a car and cruising down a highway or rolling in a haystack -- filled him with "tingling anticipation. I would get up whenever I pleased, make my own selection of clothing, eat whatever I wanted, and go wherever I fancied." The last evening in Hoa Lo, Vietnamese guards gave the American prisoners their going-away clothes. Coffee recalled that his fellow soldiers eyed the clothes "like a bunch of little kids in a toy store." They played with the zippers on their jackets and laced and unlaced shoelaces that "we hadn't seen . . . for years." The men were given small black tote bags to carry what they had -- cigarettes, toiletries and gifts they'd received. Some snuck in a souvenir of captivity. For Alvarez, this was a tin drinking cup he said he had used "for so long that it had taken on the sentimental value of a baby's cup." As promised, the men were released in shifts, with those believed to be the last group leaving Vietnam on March 29, 1973. However, on that same day, the Viet Cong announced that Army Capt. Robert White, unaccounted for since his disappearance in November 1969, was still in captivity. Years later White would say "they just plain forgot about me" until his captors reminded superiors about him. He was released a few days later, and was the last known surviving U.S. POW from the Vietnam War.	<urn:uuid:86fc5e24-59c6-4abc-8f1b-2f97bcbce033>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/honor-paris-peace-talks-and-release-pows/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00503.warc.gz	en	0.98362	1,824	3.75	4	[ -0.7624900341033936, 0.29410767555236816, -0.1168108657002449, -0.13876093924045563, -0.02216842956840992, 0.8162713050842285, -0.23491397500038147, -0.2518538236618042, -0.005480002611875534, 0.2819625735282898, 0.4527282118797302, 0.26921796798706055, 0.15150119364261627, 0.5960212945938...	8	Paris Peace Talks and the Release of POWs Paris Peace Talks: In 1967, with American troop strength in Vietnam reaching 500,000, protest against U.S. participation in the Vietnam War had grown stronger as growing numbers of Americans questioned whether the U.S. war effort could succeed or was morally justifiable. They took their protests to the streets in peace marches, demonstrations, and acts of civil disobedience. Despite the country's polarization, the balance of American public opinion was beginning to sway toward "de-escalation" of the war. This was the backdrop as the United States and Hanoi agreed to enter into preliminary peace talks in Paris in 1968. However, almost as soon as the talks were started, they stalled. When President Lyndon Johnson turned over the presidency to Richard Nixon eight months into the talks, the only thing the two sides had agreed on was the shape of the conference table. Despite candidate Nixon's promise of "peace with honor," the deadlock would continue for three-and-one-half years of public and secret meetings in Paris. Two key issues had locked both parties. Washington wanted all northern troops out of South Vietnam; Hanoi refused any provisional South Vietnamese government that involved its leader, Nguyen Van Thieu. In June 1969 the first troop withdrawals were made by the U.S., as part of its "Vietnamization" plan, whereby the South Vietnamese would gradually assume complete military responsibilities in the war while continuing to be supplied by U.S. arms. In February 1970, national security advisor Henry Kissinger began secret one-on-one meetings with North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho outside Paris while the formal peace process continued in the city. Still, little progress would be made until the summer of 1972. By then, Nixon was pursuing détente with both China and the Soviet Union and was eager to put Vietnam behind him before the next election. Both sides wanted peace. Hanoi feared political isolation if the U.S. had a rapprochement with China and the Soviet Union. They also knew that peace would end the fearsome U.S. bombing and might finally mean the complete withdrawal of the military giant. Nixon wanted to move to other foreign policy initiatives. Kissinger assured the North that their troops would be able to remain in the South after the cease-fire. Kissinger also backed down on the U.S. support of the Thieu regime by agreeing to an electoral commission made up of neutralists, Viet Cong and members of the Saigon government that would oversee the political settlement in the South. In return, the North withdrew its condition of Thieu's removal, and agreed the future flow of Vietnamese troops to the South would stop. By October 1972, a tentative cease-fire agreement was reached. The accord called for the simultaneous withdrawal of U.S. troops and freedom for American POWs, to be followed by a political settlement of South Vietnam's future. Washington would extend postwar economic assistance to help Vietnam rebuild its destroyed infrastructure. On October 22, Nixon suspended all bombing north of the twentieth parallel and four days later Kissinger proclaimed that "peace was at hand." The celebration was premature. Thieu, who had not been consulted during the secret negotiations, demanded changes that infuriated Hanoi, and talks broke off on December 13. Nixon, caught between a stubborn ally and a tough enemy, took action. He promised Thieu $1 billion in military equipment that would give South Vietnam the fourth largest air force in the world and assured Thieu that the United States would re-enter the war if North Vietnam did not abide by the peace. They were promises that Thieu had no reason to doubt; Nixon had just won a landslide election and the Watergate affair was nearly invisible on the political landscape. As for the stick, Nixon resolved to punish the North. During 12 days of the most concentrated bombing in world history, called the Christmas bombing, American planes flew nearly 2,000 sorties and dropped 35,000 tons of bombs against transportation terminals, rail yards, warehouses, barracks, oil tanks, factories, airfields and power plants in the North. In two short weeks, 25 percent of North Vietnam's oil reserves and 80 percent of its electrical capacity were destroyed. The U.S. lost 26 aircraft and 93 air force men. When peace talks resumed in Paris on January 8, 1973, an accord was reached swiftly. The peace agreement was formally signed on January 27, 1973. It closely resembled what had been agreed to back in October of the previous year. Kissinger later justified the accord by saying, "We believed that those who opposed the war in Vietnam would be satisfied with our withdrawal, and those who favored an honorable ending would be satisfied if the United States would not destroy an ally." America's longest war was over. The release of POWs: In the days following the signing of the peace accord on January 27, 1973, the American prisoners of war got word that the war was over. Camp officers read the news from prepared texts stating that the men would be released 120 at a time at two-week intervals. The sick and wounded were scheduled to depart first; the others would follow in the order in which they were captured. As the men were dismissed following the announcement at Hoa Lo., Lt. Colonel Robinson Risner about-faced and called to the 400 men, "Fourth Allied POW Wing, atten-hut!" Lt. Gerald Coffee remembered the men's reaction. "The thud of eight hundred rubber-tire sandals coming together smartly was awesome." Squadron commanders returned the salute and then dismissed their units with a unified "Squadron, dis . . . missed!" Some were reluctant to believe the news. Coffee's squadron commander Lt. Everett Alvarez, in captivity for 8 1/2 years, said to Coffee: "You know, I've been up and down so many times over the years that I'm not sure what to think. It looks good, everything seems right, but I'll believe it when I see it. I'm not ready to party it up . . . yet." Those who believed the announcement was true had a wide variety of reactions. Coffee said that "some men were exchanging a wink and a smile or a light punch on the shoulders, but most, with minds racing unto themselves, already projected themselves twelve thousand miles away and considered the joyful and spooky prospect of reunions with loved ones." POW Sam Johnson remembers his group at Hoa Lo "ran to each other, hugging and crying and whooping with joy." At the another Hanoi prison camp, Plantation, Al Stafford felt "a kind of emptiness which changed, slowly, to profound, bottomless fatigue." He explained afterwards that he had never felt so tired and so vacant in his life, which expressed itself in a deep desire to go back to his cell and sleep. With the peace, the persistently austere POW conditions were finally relaxed. The men were given letters from families that had been withheld for months and years, along with supplies and other presents from home, including MAD magazine. The prisoners started receiving fresh supplies of bread and vegetables, canned meat and fish, undoubtedly attempts by the North Vietnamese to get the men looking better. In the hours and days before their release, POWs imagined their future lives. Alvarez daydreamed of "returning to a normal life" in which "we would make our own decisions and set our own agendas." The expectation of normal, daily activities -- getting in a car and cruising down a highway or rolling in a haystack -- filled him with "tingling anticipation. I would get up whenever I pleased, make my own selection of clothing, eat whatever I wanted, and go wherever I fancied." The last evening in Hoa Lo, Vietnamese guards gave the American prisoners their going-away clothes. Coffee recalled that his fellow soldiers eyed the clothes "like a bunch of little kids in a toy store." They played with the zippers on their jackets and laced and unlaced shoelaces that "we hadn't seen . . . for years." The men were given small black tote bags to carry what they had -- cigarettes, toiletries and gifts they'd received. Some snuck in a souvenir of captivity. For Alvarez, this was a tin drinking cup he said he had used "for so long that it had taken on the sentimental value of a baby's cup." As promised, the men were released in shifts, with those believed to be the last group leaving Vietnam on March 29, 1973. However, on that same day, the Viet Cong announced that Army Capt. Robert White, unaccounted for since his disappearance in November 1969, was still in captivity. Years later White would say "they just plain forgot about me" until his captors reminded superiors about him. He was released a few days later, and was the last known surviving U.S. POW from the Vietnam War.	1,870	ENGLISH	1
The History Learning Site, 9 Mar The Jews in Nazi Germany suffered appallingly after January Some rich Jews could afford to leave Nazi Germany or were forced to but many could not. Hire Writer Discrimination against Jews When Hitler came into power in Januaryeven though he hated Jews he had no clear anti-Semitism policies yet. Hitler was cautious because severe measures against the Jewish people would hinder both of his objectives, these were to secure his dictatorship and get the German economy moving again. He kept cautious because his conservative allies would object to them also economic recovery would be disrupted by acts on Jewish businesses. The very first action Hitler took on the Jews was on April 1st he decided a nationwide boycott of Jewish businesses and professions. This was to be presented to his conservative allies as a response to what the Nazis believed was Jewish inspired, anti-German propaganda in all the foreign press. The boycott was to last indefinitely, but, under a huge amount of pressure from persuasive conservatives in the government, Hitler restricted it to only a single day. This method was very successful. There were many laws that discriminated against Jews. The government introduced some discrimination legalisation. On the 7th of April the law for the restoration of the civil service and also the law concerning admission to the legal professions successfully made sure non-Aryans out of these professions. President Hindenburg suggested that Jews that had fought in the war should be exempt and Hitler did not he was able to defy him. This actually shows anti-Semitism was not strong at that time and Hitler was weak. On April 22nd a decree regarding physicians services prohibited all Jewish doctors from working in the state health system although. Once again, the Hindenburg clause approved of this. This decree had been extended to dentist in June. This type of discrimination was severe it had restricted most people from there jobs. Persecution against Jewswith the words attention focused on the Berlin Olympics, was lucky for Germanys Jews. By autumnHitler had decided to take it to the next level. He declared a more extreme phase in nazi policies. Hitler decided this year, because the Olympics were successful with the French people who saluted Hitler, he felt confident and that if he took greater action against Jews the foreign legions would not take action and see it as no threat. He did this to prepare Germany for war in four years time, he had to prepare Germanys economy for war and Goring was put in charge for this Job. In Germany at the time of April there were estimated that about 40, Jewish businesses. All of the Jews property had to be registered allowing it to be easier to be confiscated. German capitalists were backed by Goring, they were able to buy out their fierce major Jewish rivals, most of the time at bargain prices. Assisted by Goring in December by reducing the foreign exchange and raw materials quotas for Jewish firms, also in March he banned Jewish firms from receiving government contracts. There were many other policies which Goring took pleasure in doing. The number of Jewish firms to be plundered increased as a result of the seizure of Austria. Goring issued a decree for registration of Jewish property. In April by which all Jewish assets worth more than Rm 5, had to be registered and could not be sold or leased without government permission. At the time of March Jewish religious congregations were deprived from of legal protecting doctors were banned from treating anyone with the blood of a pure Aryan.Germany's Combat Helmets - - A Modern Study [Ken Niewiarowicz] on srmvision.com FREE shipping on qualifying offers. Throughout the s and on occasion in the s while home on leave from the military, I would patrol the wide and bountiful aisles of the Ohio Gun Collectors Association show/5(21). Jews In Pre-War Germany, Benjamin McCarthy “[W]e are going to destroy the Jews. They are not going to get away with what they did on November 9, The day of reckoning has come.” –Adolf Hitler, January 21, (London: University of Pittsburgh Press, ). Germany (, German Reich) The OKW stoped the treatment of proposals for awarding of missed soldiers (e.g. MIA) or soldiers captured by the enemy (e.g. POWs) from August 2nd, on and thereby was their awarding barred/blocked. Germanys role in the Second World War is commonly known. The drive to conquer other nations was. Feb 17, · The Nazi Racial State. As early as the summer of they passed a law that allowed the forced sterilisation of people who were considered 'congenitally sick'. Germany by. Watch video · From to , free copies were given to every newlywed German couple. After World War II, the publication of "Mein Kampf" in Germany became illegal. A selection of past paper questions dealing with the Weimar Republic and the rise of the Nazis in the History iGCSE Paper 1: Section B: Germany .	<urn:uuid:51ee4d5f-99bc-4256-b329-9c6eac166cfd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sunuwyhekuhahoze.srmvision.com/the-treatment-of-germanys-in-1933-1945-36772qn.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00021.warc.gz	en	0.986419	1,032	3.765625	4	[ -0.41106534004211426, 0.7704705595970154, -0.3314068913459778, -0.01751234009861946, 0.01905559003353119, 0.5310444831848145, 0.057822369039058685, 0.21138405799865723, 0.010861657559871674, -0.15813222527503967, -0.12223415076732635, 0.07446067035198212, -0.056505776941776276, 0.423176884...	1	The History Learning Site, 9 Mar The Jews in Nazi Germany suffered appallingly after January Some rich Jews could afford to leave Nazi Germany or were forced to but many could not. Hire Writer Discrimination against Jews When Hitler came into power in Januaryeven though he hated Jews he had no clear anti-Semitism policies yet. Hitler was cautious because severe measures against the Jewish people would hinder both of his objectives, these were to secure his dictatorship and get the German economy moving again. He kept cautious because his conservative allies would object to them also economic recovery would be disrupted by acts on Jewish businesses. The very first action Hitler took on the Jews was on April 1st he decided a nationwide boycott of Jewish businesses and professions. This was to be presented to his conservative allies as a response to what the Nazis believed was Jewish inspired, anti-German propaganda in all the foreign press. The boycott was to last indefinitely, but, under a huge amount of pressure from persuasive conservatives in the government, Hitler restricted it to only a single day. This method was very successful. There were many laws that discriminated against Jews. The government introduced some discrimination legalisation. On the 7th of April the law for the restoration of the civil service and also the law concerning admission to the legal professions successfully made sure non-Aryans out of these professions. President Hindenburg suggested that Jews that had fought in the war should be exempt and Hitler did not he was able to defy him. This actually shows anti-Semitism was not strong at that time and Hitler was weak. On April 22nd a decree regarding physicians services prohibited all Jewish doctors from working in the state health system although. Once again, the Hindenburg clause approved of this. This decree had been extended to dentist in June. This type of discrimination was severe it had restricted most people from there jobs. Persecution against Jewswith the words attention focused on the Berlin Olympics, was lucky for Germanys Jews. By autumnHitler had decided to take it to the next level. He declared a more extreme phase in nazi policies. Hitler decided this year, because the Olympics were successful with the French people who saluted Hitler, he felt confident and that if he took greater action against Jews the foreign legions would not take action and see it as no threat. He did this to prepare Germany for war in four years time, he had to prepare Germanys economy for war and Goring was put in charge for this Job. In Germany at the time of April there were estimated that about 40, Jewish businesses. All of the Jews property had to be registered allowing it to be easier to be confiscated. German capitalists were backed by Goring, they were able to buy out their fierce major Jewish rivals, most of the time at bargain prices. Assisted by Goring in December by reducing the foreign exchange and raw materials quotas for Jewish firms, also in March he banned Jewish firms from receiving government contracts. There were many other policies which Goring took pleasure in doing. The number of Jewish firms to be plundered increased as a result of the seizure of Austria. Goring issued a decree for registration of Jewish property. In April by which all Jewish assets worth more than Rm 5, had to be registered and could not be sold or leased without government permission. At the time of March Jewish religious congregations were deprived from of legal protecting doctors were banned from treating anyone with the blood of a pure Aryan.Germany's Combat Helmets - - A Modern Study [Ken Niewiarowicz] on srmvision.com FREE shipping on qualifying offers. Throughout the s and on occasion in the s while home on leave from the military, I would patrol the wide and bountiful aisles of the Ohio Gun Collectors Association show/5(21). Jews In Pre-War Germany, Benjamin McCarthy “[W]e are going to destroy the Jews. They are not going to get away with what they did on November 9, The day of reckoning has come.” –Adolf Hitler, January 21, (London: University of Pittsburgh Press, ). Germany (, German Reich) The OKW stoped the treatment of proposals for awarding of missed soldiers (e.g. MIA) or soldiers captured by the enemy (e.g. POWs) from August 2nd, on and thereby was their awarding barred/blocked. Germanys role in the Second World War is commonly known. The drive to conquer other nations was. Feb 17, · The Nazi Racial State. As early as the summer of they passed a law that allowed the forced sterilisation of people who were considered 'congenitally sick'. Germany by. Watch video · From to , free copies were given to every newlywed German couple. After World War II, the publication of "Mein Kampf" in Germany became illegal. A selection of past paper questions dealing with the Weimar Republic and the rise of the Nazis in the History iGCSE Paper 1: Section B: Germany .	1,026	ENGLISH	1
Old Sarum in Salisbury The Old Sarum is a historical site in the cathedral city of Salisbury in England. The evidence which is exhibited at this site can be traced back to 3000 BC. The hill, on which Old Sarum is situated, lies about 2 miles from the modern city of Salisbury. This English Heritage site was a hill fort at the time of its establishment. The fort was oval in shape with a length of 1,300 ft and width of 1,200 ft. Just like historical forts, Old Sarum was bordered by ditches and banks. The castle was surrounded by several other constructions. Visitors can see a castle well and the remains of a cathedral. The castle was originally built in 1092, but was destroyed. The larger new castle was rebuilt in 1190. The castle also lies in ruins just like the other buildings on this site. The hill overlooks beautiful Salisbury city. One can see the historical cathedral in the city as well.	<urn:uuid:80b74291-15f4-46ea-a2a0-cef20db4500a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.placesonline.com/united_kingdom/landmarks-and-historic-sites-salisbury/old-sarum	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00364.warc.gz	en	0.982692	203	3.578125	4	[ 0.22342029213905334, 0.2589951753616333, 0.4111616015434265, 0.0966852456331253, 0.11438534408807755, 0.3514065146446228, 0.006213600281625986, -0.16378413140773773, -0.321958988904953, -0.10430843383073807, -0.40406861901283264, -1.0886131525039673, 0.12069371342658997, 0.612305223941803,...	2	Old Sarum in Salisbury The Old Sarum is a historical site in the cathedral city of Salisbury in England. The evidence which is exhibited at this site can be traced back to 3000 BC. The hill, on which Old Sarum is situated, lies about 2 miles from the modern city of Salisbury. This English Heritage site was a hill fort at the time of its establishment. The fort was oval in shape with a length of 1,300 ft and width of 1,200 ft. Just like historical forts, Old Sarum was bordered by ditches and banks. The castle was surrounded by several other constructions. Visitors can see a castle well and the remains of a cathedral. The castle was originally built in 1092, but was destroyed. The larger new castle was rebuilt in 1190. The castle also lies in ruins just like the other buildings on this site. The hill overlooks beautiful Salisbury city. One can see the historical cathedral in the city as well.	211	ENGLISH	1
Visit Albert Einstein’s Home Visit the place where one of the greatest scientists in the history of the world developed his Theory of Relativity. Gaze out of the window in the home where Einstein had his most productive years of research. The year 1905 was considered to be one of his most extraordinary years when he had his most creative period of scientific discoveries. You can visit his home where he lived with his wife Mileva from 1902 to 1909. The home has been furnished with pieces from that time period. Einstein originally moved to Bern to take up a post in the federal patent office. Now, the home is an exhibition of photos and texts which give an in-depth look into how Albert Einstein lived and the environment in which he developed his most important scientific work. The Swiss hold Einstein in such high esteem that they have declared him to be the most significant Swiss of all time, which is notable due to the fact he was born a German citizen and would later obtain American citizenship.	<urn:uuid:24071089-8bdc-4c28-b55b-915570682efe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tabula.co/experiences/visit-albert-einsteins-home	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00083.warc.gz	en	0.991407	200	3.328125	3	[ 0.33936020731925964, 0.21584369242191315, 0.16123667359352112, -0.1585412472486496, -0.17737069725990295, -0.22770874202251434, 0.565342128276825, 0.19467215240001678, -0.016762113198637962, -0.2899051904678345, 0.48602235317230225, -0.32112830877304077, -0.01112164556980133, 0.35649794340...	6	Visit Albert Einstein’s Home Visit the place where one of the greatest scientists in the history of the world developed his Theory of Relativity. Gaze out of the window in the home where Einstein had his most productive years of research. The year 1905 was considered to be one of his most extraordinary years when he had his most creative period of scientific discoveries. You can visit his home where he lived with his wife Mileva from 1902 to 1909. The home has been furnished with pieces from that time period. Einstein originally moved to Bern to take up a post in the federal patent office. Now, the home is an exhibition of photos and texts which give an in-depth look into how Albert Einstein lived and the environment in which he developed his most important scientific work. The Swiss hold Einstein in such high esteem that they have declared him to be the most significant Swiss of all time, which is notable due to the fact he was born a German citizen and would later obtain American citizenship.	208	ENGLISH	1
In 1837 Josiah Spode, chief superintendent of convicts in Van Diemen’s Land, said the female convicts were “worse in every respect to manage than male convicts …They all feel they are working under compulsion which renders it almost a continual warfare between their employers and themselves.”1Spode was one of many officials who were frustrated by not being able to force working class convict women to work submissively, be deferential to their employers, desist from sexual behavior outside of marriage, be sober and use decent language. Many were far more scathing than Spode. Molesworth, in 1838, reported that convict women were “all irreclaimable prostitutes, too often disgusting by the indecency of their language and demeanor.”2While some earlier historians accepted the moralistic judgments of the colonial officials and some settlers, others like Sturma have argued that in the wider context of British working class behavior, the behavior of female convicts was less aberrant than portrayed.3Within revisionist and feminist histories three questions have dominated the study of female convicts over the last thirty years: Were their chief roles to be either whores or mothers? Were they professional criminals or valuable workers who contributed to the economic growth of the colonies? How much control did they have over their lives or were they the passive victims of a patriarchal administration? Lake argued compellingly that these dichotomies may not be the most useful ways of trying to interpret the behavior of female convicts because these options need not be mutually exclusive. It was possible for women to be caught “in patterns of oppression and exploitation…while at the same time registering the capacities of…initiative, rebellion and judicious negotiation.”4Damousi later proposed that it is time to move the debate away from these recurring themes and explore the cultural meanings of many of the convicts’ actions and the dynamics of the relationships they had with each other, with convict men and employers.5This is a tempting option, even though many of the meanings of their actions are lost to us, as few convict women wrote of their circumstances. This chapter will try to locate the 86 assigned convict women within the general structure of the whole female community in the Campbell Town district by proposing a distribution of the settler, emancipist and convict women living in the district in 1835. The demand for their labour will be discussed and their distribution to different groups of employers presented. Most of them had skills as domestic servants and worked in this capacity. The charges brought against them by their employers will be examined as a gauge of their ability to provide reasonable service in their employment. The role of their employers will also be examined, especially their responsibilities to train and supervise their domestic workers. Finally this chapter will also look more obliquely for possible cultural meanings embedded in the colonial master and servant relationship and the ways in which this relationship was changing and affecting the behaviors of both employers and their convict servants.Although some historians claimed convict women’s work was not valued in the colonies, or was only of real value when they married and became wives and mothers, this position has been challenged by those who agree that there was demand for domestic workers and, to a lesser extent, specialized farm workers such as dairymaids.6 It is more difficult to sustain this argument in New South Wales in the 1830s in rural areas where drought, increased numbers of free immigrant women and the continued placement of women convicts on farms of less than 2000 acres caused some settler families to return their female convicts to the government for economic reasons.7 However in Van Diemen’s Land in the 1830s, middle class farmers were consolidating their wealth on large holdings of up to 5000 acres in drought proof areas with their incomes increasing due to the export of wool and grain, and the high prices paid to them for meat and grain by the commissariat store.8The female convicts selected for the colonies were overwhelmingly domestic workers. Although Oxley indicated that her sample included women with over 36 trades listed on their indents, 77% of the women claimed to be domestic servants, the rest being almost equally divided between those who were skilled and unskilled urban workers and unskilled rural workers.9 Kent and Townsend argued that the domestic workers did not bring immediately useful job skills to the colony, but evidence from Reid supports the view that middle class colonists in Van Diemen’s Land, even in rural areas, were desperate for domestic servants and around 90% of female convicts were assigned to settlers within a month of their landing.10 Despite the high dispersal rates of female arrivals, only about three quarters of the 1900 women still serving their sentences in 1835 were working as assigned servants. Although this was higher than the proportion of male convicts assigned to settlers, the other 25% of female convicts were incarcerated in the Houses of Correction as punishment for offences and a small number were waiting to give birth.11 There is also anecdotal evidence that the services of female convicts were in demand. The local colonial press frequently urged the administration to immediately reassign the women serving punishment sentences in the Houses of Correction, as even difficult servants were better than none at all. Indeed it was once proposed that all female convicts should be freed on landing as they could immediately be employed as domestic workers.12 This was a very different situation from New South Wales where, throughout the 1830s, around 500 women waited for assignment in the Female Factory.13Many of the Midlands farmers in the Campbell Town district were building their third residence in the 1830s, usually impressive permanent houses to replace the wooden or small brick dwellings they first occupied. These houses were not as grand as the great houses or mansions typical of the wealthy middle class Americans of this period, with their highly differentiated public spaces of ballroom, drawing room, dining room, parlor, hall and library.14However, many had some clearly differentiated public spaces in which to entertain visitors. Although Ellen Viveash privately criticized the Jellicoes for the extravagance of adding a ballroom thirty feet in length, to their home Camelford Cottage, many of the new dwellings constructed in the 1830s had carriage turning circles, ornamental gardens and other trappings of grandeur.15 In order to function as spaces, these buildings and their surrounds required the input of considerable labour from servants, many of them female.The supply of female convicts can be seen in Table 7.1 showing the official Blue Book estimates of the numbers of women in the Campbell Town Police district. During Arthur’s later administration, convict and ticket of leave females in the district accounted for between 14% and 19% of the total female (including female children) population. Table 7.1: Estimates of free and convict women in the Campbell Town police district. Table 7.1 provides evidence that female convicts were in short supply in the Campbell Town police district, which is supported by settlers’ complaints about the insufficient supply of convict women as domestic servants. While it is difficult to estimate the composition of the free female group in the district until the first census data was collected in 1842, probably around one third of the free female population in Table 7.1 were settlers’ wives and adult relatives: the majority of the rest were female children. As well, between 30 and 60 emancipist women, whose numbers increased annually, were also counted in this group of free women. Local records show that some emancipist women were also part of the district’s paid domestic labour force and worked for both commercial families in the villages as well as for farming families.It was within this small community of settlers’ wives and their children that the female convicts and ticket of leave women had to work. Around twenty families had commercial businesses in the villages such as shops or inns. Another forty or so had small manufacturing businesses which employed male convicts in grain mills or enterprises producing building supplies. Reid has shown that convict women with trade skills were efficiently distributed to employers such as clothing or footware manufacturers in Hobart or Launceston.16 The disparity between the distributions of female convicts across the colony, shown in Table 7.2, suggests that as 71% of all female convicts were assigned to either Hobart or Launceston, where most manufacturing took place, there was little likelihood of female convicts with trade skills being assigned to the Campbell Town district, although it is possible that a few ticket of leave women may have chosen to live in the district and work at their trades.It was also not uncommon for married working class women to work from home at dressmaking and the millinery trade. The majority of female convicts, however, were assigned to the local estates or commercial premises and worked as domestic servants. Table 7.2: Estimates of numbers of convict women in different towns and districts in 1835. Note: (*) Two different totals for assigned women were presented in 1835. Convict department estimated the total number of female convicts residing in these areas. This estimate appears in their data in Appendix 3 and differs from their other estimates in their Convict Returns for 1835 in Appendix 4. The Convict Department sometimes gave different estimates of the same groups of convicts in data compiled for different purposes.By the mid 1830s, a pattern of distribution of female convicts had been established across the island, as shown in Table 7.2 that indicated that fewer than 30% of female convicts resided in country areas. Within rural districts, a further pattern of distribution existed for their placement with families, as shown in Table 7.3.The muster data indicates that most females assigned to the district were placed with respectable large land owners. Some farms and small commercial premises received only one assigned female servant, suggesting that some assigned females worked as a servant of all work, unless additional ticket of leave or free women were also employed. This was far from the majority experience though as over 60 of the female convicts in the district worked on properties where at least one other female convict was present.17 Table 7.3: Distribution of 88 female assigned servants in the Campbell Town police district Around twenty five households received more than one female convict servant. Those settlers who were assigned two or more probably obtained them as a mark of their elevated position in the community, such as the local magistrates, doctors and ministers or because they had a commercial need for women with particular skills. From this distribution it is apparent that despite the farming wealth of the district only nine farmers, employing between two and four women, were likely to have received some women with specific agricultural skills in addition to domestic skills. Only one local family merited a large allocation of female convicts to help staff an exclusive girls’ school that Mrs Clark of Ellenthorpe farm managed, separate from her husband’s substantial farm. The convict women had the necessary spread of domestic skills required for a large boarding school. Apart from a head cook, two other women also had cooking skills; another was a dressmaker and two others were needlewomen. A laundry maid and three additional house servants had been supplied and some of the women were capable of being employed at several different tasks.18The muster data shows the district situation in late December 1835, so the employment distribution of female convicts may have varied slightly in numbers throughout the year, although this data is indicative of the general pattern of local assigned female employment.Reid has estimated that some assigned convict women negotiated wages between ₤12 and ₤30 per annum, which was close to the rate paid to free women.19 In the Midlands it was more likely that employers, who wanted their female convicts to stay, paid a lower amount in cash but added goods in kind that may have increased the total benefit. While there is evidence of wages being paid to ticket of leave and emancipist women who worked in the district in 1835, there is no direct evidence of wages being paid to female convicts. However the necessity for wealthy households to have female domestics and evidence that some farmers paid cash bonuses or wages to some of their convict men, suggests it is likely that some female convicts may also have received wages. The rate of wages paid to female emancipist servants probably serves as a good guide to the maximum that female convicts would have received if they had been paid. Ann Jones took Thomas Tucker a local bricklayer, to court to claim wages he withheld when she broke her contract and left him to work for the Harrisons, one of the large land owning families. She had contracted at the annual rate of ₤16 to work three months for the Tuckers, until Mrs Tucker was confined. She left after two months when she secured more favorable conditions with the Harrisons. The magistrate ordered Tucker to pay her half of the withheld wages.20One measure of the success or failure of the local female convicts as workers was the number of times they were charged with work related offences in the magistrates courts. During 1835 only thirteen women were charged with offences related to poor work and two more with insolence to their employer. These represent 13 out of a total of 70 charges brought against female convicts by employers. Table 7.4 compares this with the sample of work related offences amalgamated from Reid’s study of 1844 charges from bench books across the colony between 1820 and 1840.21 Table 7.4: Work related charges against convict and free women in the Campbell Town police district (CTPD) in 1835 com- pared with selected charges from Reid’s sample of 1,884 charges in Van Diemen’s Land, 1820-1839. Reid’s data suggests that during the period 1820 to 1839 work related and insolence offences made up about 26% of all offences listed in the surviving bench books across the colony. The 496 work related charges in Reid’s data include the separate charges of neglect of duty, disorderly conduct, misconduct, refusing to work, verbally abusing her employers, refusing to return to service, dispute with fellow servants, insubordination, threatening to leave service, feigning illness, idleness, threatening her employer, violent and outrageous conduct, refusing to go to her service. Comparable charges from the Campbell Town bench book for one year show a much lower rate of 18%. This lower rate may be more representative of a rural district where employers were characteristically large estate owners. Insolence was almost always included in Campbell Town as a component of other work related charges and only rarely listed as a single offence.An average of only one work-related charge a month was referred to the Campbell Town courts. In this community of 85 - 90 female convict workers, more than seventy women were not charged with unsatisfactory work outputs during the year. This is not meant to imply that the women’s work was uniformly excellent, but it does indicate that the standard of their work was sufficiently satisfactory not to warrant the inconvenience of bringing them before a magistrate. This appears to be an unusual outcome considering the harsh official criticisms often voiced about female convicts’ poor work and their frequent quarrels with their mistresses. However, the low level of work related charges could also suggest that during the late assignment period, a rural police district with an increasingly prosperous farming community may have developed better than average working relationships between the convict female workforce and their employers.Reid argued that in Van Diemen’s Land female convict domestics, being in short supply, could negotiate reasonable working conditions for themselves bargaining for cash wages, extra rations, clothes, specific working hours and, even in some cases, their own room.22 McCabe noticed that large land owners in the Hunter Valley of New South Wales kept their female servants longer than small land holders did. She conjectured that large land owners’ wives may have had better skills managing the women and the time to spend training and disciplining them.23 George Allen, the master of Toxteth Park, managed his convict servants in the 1830s by endeavoring to make them comfortable, not being overbearingly demanding and being fair.24 It is also possible that the distance from the bench may have acted as a dissuading influence on some masters whose farms were remote.Masters had to adjust to the assertive working class behavior of convicts and emancipists if they wished to hold on to their services. In a climate characterized by a shortage of supply, tact and negotiation may have proved better management strategies than coercion. Lieutenant-Colonel Mundy wrote droll letters about the new types of colonial relationships that existed between masters and servants that grew out of the convict experience. Servants were nonchalant about the prospect of being sacked or not getting references because they could immediately be hired by neighbors desperate for their services. They took a week or a month off if they wanted to go visiting and preferred to be hired by the week as it gave them greater flexibility. They were in constant discussions with Mundy’s neighbors and would go over to them as soon as they negotiated a better employment offer.25 While Spode complained about the inability of convict women to adjust to their masters’ work demands, he failed to perceive the lesson learnt by masters like Allen and Mundy. Employers needed to make as many adjustments to their new type of servants as the convicts did to them. Many of the cases that came before the Campbell Town bench and other courts were often examples of negotiations that had broken down between the master and servant, sometimes over a protracted length of time.Efficient mistresses, who could negotiate with their domestic servants, train them if needed and be strong enough to exert reasonable control over household management, had positive experiences with their convict domestics. Ellen Viveash wife of a local justice of the peace, was keen to employ a female servant in the house, but wanted to ensure that she could get a satisfactory one. She asked James Simpson, the former police magistrate at Campbell Town then residing in Hobart, to look out for a suitable woman for her, either free or convict.26 He arranged the assignment of a convict woman and by June 1834, Ellen was writing to her sister:The female servant is come, she is respectable looking and her behavior is so likewise. I am agreeably surprized with what I have yet seen. She goes about her work very willingly, and does things better than is usual here. She is an excellent washer and not slow. Her washing will earn her keep and cloaths. She tries much to oblige not officiously, but by doing things well, and instantly doing something useful without waiting to be told. I have remarked many things that auger well…She says she can cook in a plain way…sew in a plain way and does not dislike working on the whole. I hope to keep her some time as she can scarcely hope to get an easier place, nor I a better servant27Louisa Meredith who farmed at Swan Port in the 1830s, wrote about the varying quality of the convict servants she had employed. The best was “a short, clever, brisk, good tempered Yorkshire woman,…who stayed with us a year and a half, and then married comfortably” and she acknowledged, that after some initial problems, she had “never since detected any act of dishonesty in one of our (female) servants, though all have been prisoners”.28 She did report, however, that she had had earlier less satisfactory experiences when convict servants had got hold of liquor. Drinking, and the lack of a mistress to set tasks and supervise, had created a shambles of disorder and idleness amongst the convict servants at Elizabeth Fenton’s Derwent Valley farm before she arrived in 1830. She calculated that the convict woman had opened a keg of rum and been the cause of the disastrous domestic scene she saw. But it only took this experienced home maker less than a month to turn round this situation, by organizing the “scouring, dusting, whitewashing, and general correcting of abuses” so that she sat down in a clean apartment, with neat floor mats, shelves for her books, windows cleaned and curtained and the rubbish removed from the verandah.29Both Meredith and Fenton could handle the occasional drinking bouts and strong language they encountered in some convict women. Both, on the whole, found their female prisoner servants competent, willing to work and honest. By contrast, less forceful and energized mistresses, such as Mrs Barker in her fine new farmhouse and French silk gowns, reigned over the chaos of a hall used as part scullery and barn, broken furniture, dirty crockery, servants and children in dirty and torn clothes and pigs wallowing in mud and filth that led up to the front doors.30The Clarks of Ellinthorpe farm, who were the largest employers of female convict labour in the district, brought no charges against any of the nine female convict servants assigned to them in 1835. This was in contrast to the six charges that they brought against some of their male convict farm servants. Most other Campbell Town district farmers’ wives, who only managed one or two female convicts, also found it unnecessary to use the magistrates’ courts to discipline their female servants over work issues.Not all farming families were able to manage their female servants well, but only six charged them with unsatisfactory work during 1835. The charge notes were generally brief and often no other information was recorded. The severity of the punishment took into account information presented by the employer about the lack of cooperation of the worker and the number of times they had previously been before the magistrate. George Allison brought Sara Weston back to the magistrate, as she had recently arrived at his place and claimed to be unable to stand and work because of illness; she told him she was able to do needlework. The magistrate had the district surgeon examine her and dismissed the case when the surgeon said she had rheumatism.31 Weston was reassigned to a local publican in Campbell Town, a position probably more congenial to her, where later she was charged with both insolence and conducting an improper relationship with a man.32 Liz Baker was merely admonished for her refusal to work when charged by Hezekial Harrison.33 Two local magistrates Richard Willis and his son-in-law Capt. Serjeantson both charged women with refusal to work and insubordination. Neither of these men tolerated poor work from their convicts and very probably both were unprepared to negotiate about work or conditions. Mary Davis received three days in solitary before being returned to Serjeantson, but Elizabeth Lovett got six months in crime class at the House of Correction as other issues apart from work were presented to the magistrate.34 David Murray, a farmer who also had a brewery, charged Martha Galloway with being drunk while performing her duties and refusing to hand the baby over.35 Some employers, like Murray, built up a charge with a series of complaints to demonstrate how difficult they found the person. Galloway also received a sentence to Crime Class in the House of Correction.The type of assignment that female convicts were given often affected their ability to cooperate with their employer and stay out of trouble. Convict women knew this themselves. Eliza Churchill commented that “Most of the women prefer being assigned in the towns, but some who wish to keep out of mischief prefer being in the country. All the women behave better in the country than in the towns, as they are not so exposed to temptations.”36 Yet even within this rural region, placements could matter. Farmers, merchants and publicans placed different expectations on their female servants and within these different settings, the type of work and temptations differed.The villages offered similar opportunities to Hobart for some women to get into trouble. It was a simple matter to slip away for a while and liquor was easy to obtain. There were more opportunities to meet men or steal and deal with receivers. It was the custom to assign the most respectable female convicts to respectable families who were mostly colonial officials and large land owners, while women judged less respectable were assigned to publicans and families running commercial premises.37Some women assigned to families who owned pubs and shops may have had a heavier work load than women working in private homes and there is some evidence that convict servants felt less need to show respect to families engaged in commerce. Three publicans brought charges against their female convicts charging them with neglect of duties and disobeying or refusing orders. In two cases the women were also drunk and abusive. Jane Jones spent twenty four hours in solitary as a result while Jane Lowig got the unpopular sentence of three months at the wash tubs at the House of Correction.38 However, Elizabeth Walker appeared to have her charge withdrawn after she counter attacked in court and accused publican Richard Heaney of being likely to sexually harass her when her mistress was away for the evening.39 James Thompson, a local storekeeper, returned Maria Woodcock to government service for disobeying orders and being insolent, as well as having spent the previous evening drunk.40 Elizabeth Harvey had to spend one month at the wash tubs in Launceston for disobeying orders and being insolent to storekeeper James Hume.41Insolence and drinking were often part of the problem of work performance and maintaining a reasonable working relationship between master and servant.The scarcity of female servants in Van Diemen’s Land created many domestic difficulties for farming and commercial households who had been used to domestic help in Britain. Because some district farming and commercial families received only one female convict domestic servant, if any, the wife and daughters were likely to have to work alongside their female servant to complete the labour intensive household and child care duties in a large family. Finding a woman to do the laundry work was particularly difficult and expensive. Colonial letters sent home to startled relatives revealed that brothers and husbands sometimes had to share the heavy laundry work with their sisters and wives until a laundry woman could be persuaded to put them on her list.42 The women in the Gatenby and Parramore farming families laboured with farm work until the families became well established. Surveyor Wedge noted with approval that Gatenby had “a large family who are not too proud or lazy to work, the Wife and Daughters, milk the cows, make butter and cheese, the Sons plough, drive, saw timber for the Mill etc., and consequently they are becoming more wealthy, comfortable and independent every day.”43 The Parramore men laboured beside their two male convict servants for the first two years, building huts, setting up a vegetable garden and establishing fences for the cows and sheep. Mrs Parramore and her daughter had charge of the domestic livestock and vegetable and fruit gardens and had no female convict domestic help during the early years.44 This was probably not an unusual situation in many of the first settler families who later became successful large land owners. The sharing of domestic labour between the family women and their domestic servant broke down, or at least blurred and confused, some of the class barriers between some middle class settler women and their working class convict servants during this period. When some settler women withdrew their labour and gained a more leisured life in the 1830s and attempted to separate themselves from the sphere of work, their servants still knew they were working for people who were self made, a point that convicts were often quick to make. Convict servants had no illusions that their masters were gentry folks, despite the nostalgic references to successful land owners as gentry that started to circulate on the island.This was especially so with middle class settlers who had small commercial businesses. Some convicts saw masters and mistresses who worked along side of them, as barely better than themselves socially, especially as they observed that some of the more successful emancipists also chose small business or farming as a step towards security after they were freed. There were plenty of examples of this in Campbell Town and Ross. Convict policemen and emancipists like the Englebert brothers and the Solomon brothers established butchers shops and small stores employing their wives within the business. Emancipist builders like Fry, Rew and Tucker, and many emancipist tradesmen established their own local businesses to service the building boom of the 1830s. Between 1835 and 1850, a significant social shift occurred in the social status of the licensees of local public houses, who changed from farmers like Thomas Fleming and John Connell, or free settlers like John Dickenson, William Saddler, John Broad, and Prudeaux Watson, to aspiring emancipists. Former convicts Thomas Tucker, David Solomon, Thomas Hughes, Charles Englebert and John Duxberry all became licensees of local inns in this period.45The social status of small free-arrived traders became more doubtful as a result. Consequently some convict servants felt sufficiently empowered to challenge the social status and moral superiority of their masters. James Thompson, a storekeeper, had trouble supervising his newly arrived female convict servant Mary-Ann Woodcock who had formed a relationship with John Beckett, another of his convict employees. After seeing them both drunk in the street one afternoon, he ordered them home and complained to the magistrate that Beckett “shook his fist in my wife's face and said he did not care a damn for any of us. He said he could get 20 pounds while I was getting 20 farthings.” Thompson was sure that “an improper connection” had started between Beckett and Woodcock who had only recently been assigned to him because Beckett bought the woman clothes. Thompson was also sure the an was running an illegal business of some sort on the side as he once “threw down a handful of notes” and was “in the habit of getting drunk and abusive.” At his wits end, Thompson admitted to the magistrate that “the woman put me in such a position last night that I believe I called her a bitch.”46Gavin Hogg, a publican in Campbell Town, also felt aggrieved that Jane Lowig, despite being drunk and abusive, had challenged the social status of his family. Lowig had been drunk and staggering and fell over a saucepan. When challenged by his wife she said “she had not come here she'd been sent here and a great deal more, she told my wife she was a d---- infernal liar - She swore she would not do anything and wouldn’t stop in the house, and declared she was a great deal better brought up than any person in the house.”47These types of exchanges between masters and their convict servants suggest that the institution of transportation did more than just create a colonial working class. Many working class convicts were just as ambitious as their employers and were confident enough to assert their skills and challenge class boundaries; the balance of power between masters and servants was constantly being challenged in an under supplied market that gave an advantage to female domestic servants.	<urn:uuid:2d03282f-6402-4b28-8927-eb832761424e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.convict.australiancolonialhistory.com/chap_7.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00281.warc.gz	en	0.986662	6,342	3.28125	3	[ -0.13654392957687378, 0.21861763298511505, 0.31746429204940796, 0.32325005531311035, -0.007232063915580511, -0.1057690903544426, 0.37114763259887695, 0.1424235701560974, -0.020975347608327866, -0.09445301443338394, 0.036214668303728104, -0.2217438817024231, -0.059414371848106384, 0.0705176...	6	In 1837 Josiah Spode, chief superintendent of convicts in Van Diemen’s Land, said the female convicts were “worse in every respect to manage than male convicts …They all feel they are working under compulsion which renders it almost a continual warfare between their employers and themselves.”1Spode was one of many officials who were frustrated by not being able to force working class convict women to work submissively, be deferential to their employers, desist from sexual behavior outside of marriage, be sober and use decent language. Many were far more scathing than Spode. Molesworth, in 1838, reported that convict women were “all irreclaimable prostitutes, too often disgusting by the indecency of their language and demeanor.”2While some earlier historians accepted the moralistic judgments of the colonial officials and some settlers, others like Sturma have argued that in the wider context of British working class behavior, the behavior of female convicts was less aberrant than portrayed.3Within revisionist and feminist histories three questions have dominated the study of female convicts over the last thirty years: Were their chief roles to be either whores or mothers? Were they professional criminals or valuable workers who contributed to the economic growth of the colonies? How much control did they have over their lives or were they the passive victims of a patriarchal administration? Lake argued compellingly that these dichotomies may not be the most useful ways of trying to interpret the behavior of female convicts because these options need not be mutually exclusive. It was possible for women to be caught “in patterns of oppression and exploitation…while at the same time registering the capacities of…initiative, rebellion and judicious negotiation.”4Damousi later proposed that it is time to move the debate away from these recurring themes and explore the cultural meanings of many of the convicts’ actions and the dynamics of the relationships they had with each other, with convict men and employers.5This is a tempting option, even though many of the meanings of their actions are lost to us, as few convict women wrote of their circumstances. This chapter will try to locate the 86 assigned convict women within the general structure of the whole female community in the Campbell Town district by proposing a distribution of the settler, emancipist and convict women living in the district in 1835. The demand for their labour will be discussed and their distribution to different groups of employers presented. Most of them had skills as domestic servants and worked in this capacity. The charges brought against them by their employers will be examined as a gauge of their ability to provide reasonable service in their employment. The role of their employers will also be examined, especially their responsibilities to train and supervise their domestic workers. Finally this chapter will also look more obliquely for possible cultural meanings embedded in the colonial master and servant relationship and the ways in which this relationship was changing and affecting the behaviors of both employers and their convict servants.Although some historians claimed convict women’s work was not valued in the colonies, or was only of real value when they married and became wives and mothers, this position has been challenged by those who agree that there was demand for domestic workers and, to a lesser extent, specialized farm workers such as dairymaids.6 It is more difficult to sustain this argument in New South Wales in the 1830s in rural areas where drought, increased numbers of free immigrant women and the continued placement of women convicts on farms of less than 2000 acres caused some settler families to return their female convicts to the government for economic reasons.7 However in Van Diemen’s Land in the 1830s, middle class farmers were consolidating their wealth on large holdings of up to 5000 acres in drought proof areas with their incomes increasing due to the export of wool and grain, and the high prices paid to them for meat and grain by the commissariat store.8The female convicts selected for the colonies were overwhelmingly domestic workers. Although Oxley indicated that her sample included women with over 36 trades listed on their indents, 77% of the women claimed to be domestic servants, the rest being almost equally divided between those who were skilled and unskilled urban workers and unskilled rural workers.9 Kent and Townsend argued that the domestic workers did not bring immediately useful job skills to the colony, but evidence from Reid supports the view that middle class colonists in Van Diemen’s Land, even in rural areas, were desperate for domestic servants and around 90% of female convicts were assigned to settlers within a month of their landing.10 Despite the high dispersal rates of female arrivals, only about three quarters of the 1900 women still serving their sentences in 1835 were working as assigned servants. Although this was higher than the proportion of male convicts assigned to settlers, the other 25% of female convicts were incarcerated in the Houses of Correction as punishment for offences and a small number were waiting to give birth.11 There is also anecdotal evidence that the services of female convicts were in demand. The local colonial press frequently urged the administration to immediately reassign the women serving punishment sentences in the Houses of Correction, as even difficult servants were better than none at all. Indeed it was once proposed that all female convicts should be freed on landing as they could immediately be employed as domestic workers.12 This was a very different situation from New South Wales where, throughout the 1830s, around 500 women waited for assignment in the Female Factory.13Many of the Midlands farmers in the Campbell Town district were building their third residence in the 1830s, usually impressive permanent houses to replace the wooden or small brick dwellings they first occupied. These houses were not as grand as the great houses or mansions typical of the wealthy middle class Americans of this period, with their highly differentiated public spaces of ballroom, drawing room, dining room, parlor, hall and library.14However, many had some clearly differentiated public spaces in which to entertain visitors. Although Ellen Viveash privately criticized the Jellicoes for the extravagance of adding a ballroom thirty feet in length, to their home Camelford Cottage, many of the new dwellings constructed in the 1830s had carriage turning circles, ornamental gardens and other trappings of grandeur.15 In order to function as spaces, these buildings and their surrounds required the input of considerable labour from servants, many of them female.The supply of female convicts can be seen in Table 7.1 showing the official Blue Book estimates of the numbers of women in the Campbell Town Police district. During Arthur’s later administration, convict and ticket of leave females in the district accounted for between 14% and 19% of the total female (including female children) population. Table 7.1: Estimates of free and convict women in the Campbell Town police district. Table 7.1 provides evidence that female convicts were in short supply in the Campbell Town police district, which is supported by settlers’ complaints about the insufficient supply of convict women as domestic servants. While it is difficult to estimate the composition of the free female group in the district until the first census data was collected in 1842, probably around one third of the free female population in Table 7.1 were settlers’ wives and adult relatives: the majority of the rest were female children. As well, between 30 and 60 emancipist women, whose numbers increased annually, were also counted in this group of free women. Local records show that some emancipist women were also part of the district’s paid domestic labour force and worked for both commercial families in the villages as well as for farming families.It was within this small community of settlers’ wives and their children that the female convicts and ticket of leave women had to work. Around twenty families had commercial businesses in the villages such as shops or inns. Another forty or so had small manufacturing businesses which employed male convicts in grain mills or enterprises producing building supplies. Reid has shown that convict women with trade skills were efficiently distributed to employers such as clothing or footware manufacturers in Hobart or Launceston.16 The disparity between the distributions of female convicts across the colony, shown in Table 7.2, suggests that as 71% of all female convicts were assigned to either Hobart or Launceston, where most manufacturing took place, there was little likelihood of female convicts with trade skills being assigned to the Campbell Town district, although it is possible that a few ticket of leave women may have chosen to live in the district and work at their trades.It was also not uncommon for married working class women to work from home at dressmaking and the millinery trade. The majority of female convicts, however, were assigned to the local estates or commercial premises and worked as domestic servants. Table 7.2: Estimates of numbers of convict women in different towns and districts in 1835. Note: (*) Two different totals for assigned women were presented in 1835. Convict department estimated the total number of female convicts residing in these areas. This estimate appears in their data in Appendix 3 and differs from their other estimates in their Convict Returns for 1835 in Appendix 4. The Convict Department sometimes gave different estimates of the same groups of convicts in data compiled for different purposes.By the mid 1830s, a pattern of distribution of female convicts had been established across the island, as shown in Table 7.2 that indicated that fewer than 30% of female convicts resided in country areas. Within rural districts, a further pattern of distribution existed for their placement with families, as shown in Table 7.3.The muster data indicates that most females assigned to the district were placed with respectable large land owners. Some farms and small commercial premises received only one assigned female servant, suggesting that some assigned females worked as a servant of all work, unless additional ticket of leave or free women were also employed. This was far from the majority experience though as over 60 of the female convicts in the district worked on properties where at least one other female convict was present.17 Table 7.3: Distribution of 88 female assigned servants in the Campbell Town police district Around twenty five households received more than one female convict servant. Those settlers who were assigned two or more probably obtained them as a mark of their elevated position in the community, such as the local magistrates, doctors and ministers or because they had a commercial need for women with particular skills. From this distribution it is apparent that despite the farming wealth of the district only nine farmers, employing between two and four women, were likely to have received some women with specific agricultural skills in addition to domestic skills. Only one local family merited a large allocation of female convicts to help staff an exclusive girls’ school that Mrs Clark of Ellenthorpe farm managed, separate from her husband’s substantial farm. The convict women had the necessary spread of domestic skills required for a large boarding school. Apart from a head cook, two other women also had cooking skills; another was a dressmaker and two others were needlewomen. A laundry maid and three additional house servants had been supplied and some of the women were capable of being employed at several different tasks.18The muster data shows the district situation in late December 1835, so the employment distribution of female convicts may have varied slightly in numbers throughout the year, although this data is indicative of the general pattern of local assigned female employment.Reid has estimated that some assigned convict women negotiated wages between ₤12 and ₤30 per annum, which was close to the rate paid to free women.19 In the Midlands it was more likely that employers, who wanted their female convicts to stay, paid a lower amount in cash but added goods in kind that may have increased the total benefit. While there is evidence of wages being paid to ticket of leave and emancipist women who worked in the district in 1835, there is no direct evidence of wages being paid to female convicts. However the necessity for wealthy households to have female domestics and evidence that some farmers paid cash bonuses or wages to some of their convict men, suggests it is likely that some female convicts may also have received wages. The rate of wages paid to female emancipist servants probably serves as a good guide to the maximum that female convicts would have received if they had been paid. Ann Jones took Thomas Tucker a local bricklayer, to court to claim wages he withheld when she broke her contract and left him to work for the Harrisons, one of the large land owning families. She had contracted at the annual rate of ₤16 to work three months for the Tuckers, until Mrs Tucker was confined. She left after two months when she secured more favorable conditions with the Harrisons. The magistrate ordered Tucker to pay her half of the withheld wages.20One measure of the success or failure of the local female convicts as workers was the number of times they were charged with work related offences in the magistrates courts. During 1835 only thirteen women were charged with offences related to poor work and two more with insolence to their employer. These represent 13 out of a total of 70 charges brought against female convicts by employers. Table 7.4 compares this with the sample of work related offences amalgamated from Reid’s study of 1844 charges from bench books across the colony between 1820 and 1840.21 Table 7.4: Work related charges against convict and free women in the Campbell Town police district (CTPD) in 1835 com- pared with selected charges from Reid’s sample of 1,884 charges in Van Diemen’s Land, 1820-1839. Reid’s data suggests that during the period 1820 to 1839 work related and insolence offences made up about 26% of all offences listed in the surviving bench books across the colony. The 496 work related charges in Reid’s data include the separate charges of neglect of duty, disorderly conduct, misconduct, refusing to work, verbally abusing her employers, refusing to return to service, dispute with fellow servants, insubordination, threatening to leave service, feigning illness, idleness, threatening her employer, violent and outrageous conduct, refusing to go to her service. Comparable charges from the Campbell Town bench book for one year show a much lower rate of 18%. This lower rate may be more representative of a rural district where employers were characteristically large estate owners. Insolence was almost always included in Campbell Town as a component of other work related charges and only rarely listed as a single offence.An average of only one work-related charge a month was referred to the Campbell Town courts. In this community of 85 - 90 female convict workers, more than seventy women were not charged with unsatisfactory work outputs during the year. This is not meant to imply that the women’s work was uniformly excellent, but it does indicate that the standard of their work was sufficiently satisfactory not to warrant the inconvenience of bringing them before a magistrate. This appears to be an unusual outcome considering the harsh official criticisms often voiced about female convicts’ poor work and their frequent quarrels with their mistresses. However, the low level of work related charges could also suggest that during the late assignment period, a rural police district with an increasingly prosperous farming community may have developed better than average working relationships between the convict female workforce and their employers.Reid argued that in Van Diemen’s Land female convict domestics, being in short supply, could negotiate reasonable working conditions for themselves bargaining for cash wages, extra rations, clothes, specific working hours and, even in some cases, their own room.22 McCabe noticed that large land owners in the Hunter Valley of New South Wales kept their female servants longer than small land holders did. She conjectured that large land owners’ wives may have had better skills managing the women and the time to spend training and disciplining them.23 George Allen, the master of Toxteth Park, managed his convict servants in the 1830s by endeavoring to make them comfortable, not being overbearingly demanding and being fair.24 It is also possible that the distance from the bench may have acted as a dissuading influence on some masters whose farms were remote.Masters had to adjust to the assertive working class behavior of convicts and emancipists if they wished to hold on to their services. In a climate characterized by a shortage of supply, tact and negotiation may have proved better management strategies than coercion. Lieutenant-Colonel Mundy wrote droll letters about the new types of colonial relationships that existed between masters and servants that grew out of the convict experience. Servants were nonchalant about the prospect of being sacked or not getting references because they could immediately be hired by neighbors desperate for their services. They took a week or a month off if they wanted to go visiting and preferred to be hired by the week as it gave them greater flexibility. They were in constant discussions with Mundy’s neighbors and would go over to them as soon as they negotiated a better employment offer.25 While Spode complained about the inability of convict women to adjust to their masters’ work demands, he failed to perceive the lesson learnt by masters like Allen and Mundy. Employers needed to make as many adjustments to their new type of servants as the convicts did to them. Many of the cases that came before the Campbell Town bench and other courts were often examples of negotiations that had broken down between the master and servant, sometimes over a protracted length of time.Efficient mistresses, who could negotiate with their domestic servants, train them if needed and be strong enough to exert reasonable control over household management, had positive experiences with their convict domestics. Ellen Viveash wife of a local justice of the peace, was keen to employ a female servant in the house, but wanted to ensure that she could get a satisfactory one. She asked James Simpson, the former police magistrate at Campbell Town then residing in Hobart, to look out for a suitable woman for her, either free or convict.26 He arranged the assignment of a convict woman and by June 1834, Ellen was writing to her sister:The female servant is come, she is respectable looking and her behavior is so likewise. I am agreeably surprized with what I have yet seen. She goes about her work very willingly, and does things better than is usual here. She is an excellent washer and not slow. Her washing will earn her keep and cloaths. She tries much to oblige not officiously, but by doing things well, and instantly doing something useful without waiting to be told. I have remarked many things that auger well…She says she can cook in a plain way…sew in a plain way and does not dislike working on the whole. I hope to keep her some time as she can scarcely hope to get an easier place, nor I a better servant27Louisa Meredith who farmed at Swan Port in the 1830s, wrote about the varying quality of the convict servants she had employed. The best was “a short, clever, brisk, good tempered Yorkshire woman,…who stayed with us a year and a half, and then married comfortably” and she acknowledged, that after some initial problems, she had “never since detected any act of dishonesty in one of our (female) servants, though all have been prisoners”.28 She did report, however, that she had had earlier less satisfactory experiences when convict servants had got hold of liquor. Drinking, and the lack of a mistress to set tasks and supervise, had created a shambles of disorder and idleness amongst the convict servants at Elizabeth Fenton’s Derwent Valley farm before she arrived in 1830. She calculated that the convict woman had opened a keg of rum and been the cause of the disastrous domestic scene she saw. But it only took this experienced home maker less than a month to turn round this situation, by organizing the “scouring, dusting, whitewashing, and general correcting of abuses” so that she sat down in a clean apartment, with neat floor mats, shelves for her books, windows cleaned and curtained and the rubbish removed from the verandah.29Both Meredith and Fenton could handle the occasional drinking bouts and strong language they encountered in some convict women. Both, on the whole, found their female prisoner servants competent, willing to work and honest. By contrast, less forceful and energized mistresses, such as Mrs Barker in her fine new farmhouse and French silk gowns, reigned over the chaos of a hall used as part scullery and barn, broken furniture, dirty crockery, servants and children in dirty and torn clothes and pigs wallowing in mud and filth that led up to the front doors.30The Clarks of Ellinthorpe farm, who were the largest employers of female convict labour in the district, brought no charges against any of the nine female convict servants assigned to them in 1835. This was in contrast to the six charges that they brought against some of their male convict farm servants. Most other Campbell Town district farmers’ wives, who only managed one or two female convicts, also found it unnecessary to use the magistrates’ courts to discipline their female servants over work issues.Not all farming families were able to manage their female servants well, but only six charged them with unsatisfactory work during 1835. The charge notes were generally brief and often no other information was recorded. The severity of the punishment took into account information presented by the employer about the lack of cooperation of the worker and the number of times they had previously been before the magistrate. George Allison brought Sara Weston back to the magistrate, as she had recently arrived at his place and claimed to be unable to stand and work because of illness; she told him she was able to do needlework. The magistrate had the district surgeon examine her and dismissed the case when the surgeon said she had rheumatism.31 Weston was reassigned to a local publican in Campbell Town, a position probably more congenial to her, where later she was charged with both insolence and conducting an improper relationship with a man.32 Liz Baker was merely admonished for her refusal to work when charged by Hezekial Harrison.33 Two local magistrates Richard Willis and his son-in-law Capt. Serjeantson both charged women with refusal to work and insubordination. Neither of these men tolerated poor work from their convicts and very probably both were unprepared to negotiate about work or conditions. Mary Davis received three days in solitary before being returned to Serjeantson, but Elizabeth Lovett got six months in crime class at the House of Correction as other issues apart from work were presented to the magistrate.34 David Murray, a farmer who also had a brewery, charged Martha Galloway with being drunk while performing her duties and refusing to hand the baby over.35 Some employers, like Murray, built up a charge with a series of complaints to demonstrate how difficult they found the person. Galloway also received a sentence to Crime Class in the House of Correction.The type of assignment that female convicts were given often affected their ability to cooperate with their employer and stay out of trouble. Convict women knew this themselves. Eliza Churchill commented that “Most of the women prefer being assigned in the towns, but some who wish to keep out of mischief prefer being in the country. All the women behave better in the country than in the towns, as they are not so exposed to temptations.”36 Yet even within this rural region, placements could matter. Farmers, merchants and publicans placed different expectations on their female servants and within these different settings, the type of work and temptations differed.The villages offered similar opportunities to Hobart for some women to get into trouble. It was a simple matter to slip away for a while and liquor was easy to obtain. There were more opportunities to meet men or steal and deal with receivers. It was the custom to assign the most respectable female convicts to respectable families who were mostly colonial officials and large land owners, while women judged less respectable were assigned to publicans and families running commercial premises.37Some women assigned to families who owned pubs and shops may have had a heavier work load than women working in private homes and there is some evidence that convict servants felt less need to show respect to families engaged in commerce. Three publicans brought charges against their female convicts charging them with neglect of duties and disobeying or refusing orders. In two cases the women were also drunk and abusive. Jane Jones spent twenty four hours in solitary as a result while Jane Lowig got the unpopular sentence of three months at the wash tubs at the House of Correction.38 However, Elizabeth Walker appeared to have her charge withdrawn after she counter attacked in court and accused publican Richard Heaney of being likely to sexually harass her when her mistress was away for the evening.39 James Thompson, a local storekeeper, returned Maria Woodcock to government service for disobeying orders and being insolent, as well as having spent the previous evening drunk.40 Elizabeth Harvey had to spend one month at the wash tubs in Launceston for disobeying orders and being insolent to storekeeper James Hume.41Insolence and drinking were often part of the problem of work performance and maintaining a reasonable working relationship between master and servant.The scarcity of female servants in Van Diemen’s Land created many domestic difficulties for farming and commercial households who had been used to domestic help in Britain. Because some district farming and commercial families received only one female convict domestic servant, if any, the wife and daughters were likely to have to work alongside their female servant to complete the labour intensive household and child care duties in a large family. Finding a woman to do the laundry work was particularly difficult and expensive. Colonial letters sent home to startled relatives revealed that brothers and husbands sometimes had to share the heavy laundry work with their sisters and wives until a laundry woman could be persuaded to put them on her list.42 The women in the Gatenby and Parramore farming families laboured with farm work until the families became well established. Surveyor Wedge noted with approval that Gatenby had “a large family who are not too proud or lazy to work, the Wife and Daughters, milk the cows, make butter and cheese, the Sons plough, drive, saw timber for the Mill etc., and consequently they are becoming more wealthy, comfortable and independent every day.”43 The Parramore men laboured beside their two male convict servants for the first two years, building huts, setting up a vegetable garden and establishing fences for the cows and sheep. Mrs Parramore and her daughter had charge of the domestic livestock and vegetable and fruit gardens and had no female convict domestic help during the early years.44 This was probably not an unusual situation in many of the first settler families who later became successful large land owners. The sharing of domestic labour between the family women and their domestic servant broke down, or at least blurred and confused, some of the class barriers between some middle class settler women and their working class convict servants during this period. When some settler women withdrew their labour and gained a more leisured life in the 1830s and attempted to separate themselves from the sphere of work, their servants still knew they were working for people who were self made, a point that convicts were often quick to make. Convict servants had no illusions that their masters were gentry folks, despite the nostalgic references to successful land owners as gentry that started to circulate on the island.This was especially so with middle class settlers who had small commercial businesses. Some convicts saw masters and mistresses who worked along side of them, as barely better than themselves socially, especially as they observed that some of the more successful emancipists also chose small business or farming as a step towards security after they were freed. There were plenty of examples of this in Campbell Town and Ross. Convict policemen and emancipists like the Englebert brothers and the Solomon brothers established butchers shops and small stores employing their wives within the business. Emancipist builders like Fry, Rew and Tucker, and many emancipist tradesmen established their own local businesses to service the building boom of the 1830s. Between 1835 and 1850, a significant social shift occurred in the social status of the licensees of local public houses, who changed from farmers like Thomas Fleming and John Connell, or free settlers like John Dickenson, William Saddler, John Broad, and Prudeaux Watson, to aspiring emancipists. Former convicts Thomas Tucker, David Solomon, Thomas Hughes, Charles Englebert and John Duxberry all became licensees of local inns in this period.45The social status of small free-arrived traders became more doubtful as a result. Consequently some convict servants felt sufficiently empowered to challenge the social status and moral superiority of their masters. James Thompson, a storekeeper, had trouble supervising his newly arrived female convict servant Mary-Ann Woodcock who had formed a relationship with John Beckett, another of his convict employees. After seeing them both drunk in the street one afternoon, he ordered them home and complained to the magistrate that Beckett “shook his fist in my wife's face and said he did not care a damn for any of us. He said he could get 20 pounds while I was getting 20 farthings.” Thompson was sure that “an improper connection” had started between Beckett and Woodcock who had only recently been assigned to him because Beckett bought the woman clothes. Thompson was also sure the an was running an illegal business of some sort on the side as he once “threw down a handful of notes” and was “in the habit of getting drunk and abusive.” At his wits end, Thompson admitted to the magistrate that “the woman put me in such a position last night that I believe I called her a bitch.”46Gavin Hogg, a publican in Campbell Town, also felt aggrieved that Jane Lowig, despite being drunk and abusive, had challenged the social status of his family. Lowig had been drunk and staggering and fell over a saucepan. When challenged by his wife she said “she had not come here she'd been sent here and a great deal more, she told my wife she was a d---- infernal liar - She swore she would not do anything and wouldn’t stop in the house, and declared she was a great deal better brought up than any person in the house.”47These types of exchanges between masters and their convict servants suggest that the institution of transportation did more than just create a colonial working class. Many working class convicts were just as ambitious as their employers and were confident enough to assert their skills and challenge class boundaries; the balance of power between masters and servants was constantly being challenged in an under supplied market that gave an advantage to female domestic servants.	6,475	ENGLISH	1
100 Years ago schools were segregated, but some hoped the process for black American schools could become more adequate in New Orleans. In today’s culture most schools are blended, some would even say a “chex mix” of students fill most school. 100 years ago it was a different story, as the white and black race were forced separation from each other. Tension between Black Americans and White Americans was intense and there was no one to blame but the white Americans who thought they were superior to other races due to skin tone. Unfortunately this gave the preconceived notion that all White Americans had this view on Black Americans and many Black Americans resented White Americans. With this being said, White Americans had more privileges including education. On December 13, 1919 the quarterly meeting of “colored education” (as it was called at the time) was held at the Colored Congregational Church to discuss access to more adequate school facilities and their plan for achieving that goal that was to raise poll taxes for black citizens. Reverend H. H Dunn, the president of the meeting addressed to the members that “increased payment of poll taxes on the part of the negroes would improve greatly present conditions.” Albert Workman, president of the Colored Longshoremen’s Organization claimed 1000 of his members had paid their poll taxes. Dr. DeVore, a chairman of the committee on school building reported that “the petition for additional school buildings, more evening schools and supervisors for music and drawing had been presented to the school board and favorable action promise where funds were available.” The committee was then instructed to renew the petition. This is a great story, being from a hundred years ago. Racism was very prevalent in 1919 but not everyone was inhumane, many wanted equality and if we compare what people were fighting for 100 years ago, we can only imagine what society will be like in 100 years. “https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_Orleans” History of New Orleans University of Chicago’s online histories and source documents December 6, 2019	<urn:uuid:3a4f600a-4972-43ec-97ea-5fe6eaf49668>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://docstudio.org/2019/12/14/the-fight-towards-a-better-education-for-african-americans/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00425.warc.gz	en	0.983236	435	3.9375	4	[ -0.25812020897865295, 0.25090742111206055, 0.12997454404830933, -0.23810777068138123, -0.26017695665359497, 0.2963935136795044, -0.7698265314102173, 0.06997697800397873, 0.19201435148715973, 0.2737804055213928, 0.13472943007946014, 0.0035115580540150404, -0.2842465341091156, 0.465897738933...	14	100 Years ago schools were segregated, but some hoped the process for black American schools could become more adequate in New Orleans. In today’s culture most schools are blended, some would even say a “chex mix” of students fill most school. 100 years ago it was a different story, as the white and black race were forced separation from each other. Tension between Black Americans and White Americans was intense and there was no one to blame but the white Americans who thought they were superior to other races due to skin tone. Unfortunately this gave the preconceived notion that all White Americans had this view on Black Americans and many Black Americans resented White Americans. With this being said, White Americans had more privileges including education. On December 13, 1919 the quarterly meeting of “colored education” (as it was called at the time) was held at the Colored Congregational Church to discuss access to more adequate school facilities and their plan for achieving that goal that was to raise poll taxes for black citizens. Reverend H. H Dunn, the president of the meeting addressed to the members that “increased payment of poll taxes on the part of the negroes would improve greatly present conditions.” Albert Workman, president of the Colored Longshoremen’s Organization claimed 1000 of his members had paid their poll taxes. Dr. DeVore, a chairman of the committee on school building reported that “the petition for additional school buildings, more evening schools and supervisors for music and drawing had been presented to the school board and favorable action promise where funds were available.” The committee was then instructed to renew the petition. This is a great story, being from a hundred years ago. Racism was very prevalent in 1919 but not everyone was inhumane, many wanted equality and if we compare what people were fighting for 100 years ago, we can only imagine what society will be like in 100 years. “https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_Orleans” History of New Orleans University of Chicago’s online histories and source documents December 6, 2019	442	ENGLISH	1
The first Anglican service in North America occurred during Sir Francis Drake's circumnavigation of the Earth. It is recorded that he and his crew landed just north of San Francisco Bay in 1579 and celebrated Communion there. Further services must have been celebrated during the attempt made by Sir Walter Raleigh to found a colony in what is now North Carolina in 1589, whilst the first Anglican parishes were established with the Virginia Colony in the years following 1607. Each Virginia County was provided with a church, a minister, a vestry, magistrates, a courthouse and other essential institutions at the expense of the tax payer, and it was this tradition of self-governance that was to do much to form and inform the founders of the American Republic as they struggled to establish a new state. Generally speaking, Anglicanism progressed from South to North among the American colonies. Virginia had a strong established Anglican Church from the start. Charles II (1660-85) established Anglicanism in Maryland, and six counties of New York, whilst Anglican parishes began to appear in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Jersey at the end of the 17th century. Anglicanism had gained a toehold in Rhode Island quite early on, as there was no Puritan establishment to oppose it. However, the Church was weak in New England, and had to be supported by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, an English society which had been founded with just this work in mind in 1697. One major problem for the Church of England in the American Colonies was the lack of a bishop. Puritan New England and the Whigs in England did all they could to scupper plans for a colonial Bishop during the reign of Queen Anne (1702-14) and again under George III in the early 1760s. As a stop gap, various Bishops of London appointed "Commissaries" who exercised the non-sacramental functions of a bishop. Whilst this eased the situation somewhat, those who sought ordination still had to go to England to be made deacon and ordained priest, and about 1 in 10 of these men were lost at sea. Confirmation was a rite unknown in the Colonial Church, and folks were admitted to communion when they had learned the catechism, and the minister deemed them 'ready and desirous' to be confirmed. By the 1770s, the Church of England in the America had around 250 churches and 200 clergy. These numbers were sharply reduced during the Revolutionary War, so that by 1782 probably a quarter of Anglican parishes, and a third of the clergy were no longer functioning. The Church was to be slow recovering from this set back. The task of organizing the remnants of the Church of England into a new jurisdiction fell largely to a small group of men based in or near Philadelphia. The lead was taken by the Rev. William White, Rector of Christ Church and St Peter in that city. In 1782 he published a snappily entitled pamphlet 'The Case of Protestant Episcopalians Considered' which set out a model for a new church government of State Conventions affiliated to a General Convention which would administer the Church in the 13 States. He proposed electing bishops as the presiding officers in each diocese, and proposed a temporary non-episcopal form of ordination until bishops could be secured from England. This was not "Anglican" enough for the sterner spirits in Connecticut, where the clergy met in March of 1783 to elect a Bishop who they would then send to England (they hoped) for Consecration. The chosen candidates were Jeremiah Leeming, who declined, and Samuel Seabury, who set off for England in the spring of 1783, and spent the next 18 months knocking on doors, trying to secure consecration in England. Unfortunately, English law at that time did not permit the consecration of Bishops for dioceses outside of the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the Isle of Man, so Seabury was checkmated until he was advised to go to Scotland and seek out the Bishops of the Scottish Episcopal Church. The Scottish Episcopalians had been disestablished in 1690, and had managed to survive as a voluntary organisation ever since, though, because of the Jacobite sympathies of many of its members, it had been placed under severe restriction by the Hanoverian regime in Scotland. In any event, Seabury was consecrated by the Bishop Primus, Robert Kilgour, assisted by Bishops Skinner and Petrie, on the 14th of November 1784 at St Andrew's Church, Aberdeen. He returned as quickly as he could to Connecticut where he took up his duties as bishop. Meanwhile, moves were made in England to allow for the consecration of three bishops for the USA, and a Bishop for Canada. The Act allowing this to occur passed in 1786. William White, Samuel Provoost, and David Griffith had been elected by the Diocesan Conventions of Pennsylvania, New York, and Virginia respectively. The first two could afford to make the trip, and were duly consecrated by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York and the Bishop of Peterborough on the 4th of February 1787. Griffith resigned his election in 1787 and died shortly thereafter, while Virginia proceeded to elect James Madison to fill the vacant bishopric. Madison was consecrated in 1791 in London. The first Bishop to be consecrated on American soil was Thomas Claggett of Maryland who was consecrated by the four existing bishops in 1792. For the next twenty years, the Church's future looked far from certain. Disendowment greatly weakened the Church in Virginia and broke the spirit of James Madison, its bishop. In New York, Bishop Provoost seemed to alternate between actively promoting the Episcopal Church and prophesying its doom. Seabury, White and Claggett proved to be active and capable men, so in Connecticut, Maryland, and Pennsylvania the Church got off to a solid start, which in the first instance meant that it survived. From 1797 onwards there was a steady stream of consecrations with Massachusetts, North Carolina, South Carolina, and New Jersey all receiving their first Bishops. Provoost resigned in 1801 and was replaced with Benjamin Moore, who proved to be quite active until a stroke seriously impaired his abilities in 1810. In retrospect, 1811 was the turning point for the Protestant Episcopal Church when John Henry Hobart (1775-1830), and Alexander Viets Griswold (1767-1843) were elected to the Episcopate. Hobart's consecration took place in Trinity Church, Wall Street, in somewhat stressful circumstances. Bishops White and Bass were present, but it was not known until that morning that Provoost would be well enough to join them. In any event he was, and all was well, but it illustrates the fragility of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America (PECUSA) c.1810. No such drama attended Griswold's consecration a few months later, and it almost seems as though the church had already turned an important corner. Both Hobart and Griswold were dynamic men. Hobart was a High Churchman who believed in the Episcopal Church's distinctiveness, whilst Griswold clave to the Evangelical side of the Anglican inheritance. Both were great preachers. Slowly but surely, Hobart converted a dispirited New York diocese into the largest and most successful in the Episcopal Church, whilst Griswold (re)established the Church in the Eastern Diocese - Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts between 1811 and 1843. Vermont was spun off from the Eastern Diocese in 1832, whilst the other four states became independent Dioceses on Griswold's death in 1843. A further move in the right direction came in 1814 when Richard Channing Moore (1762-1841), Rector of St Stephen's, New York City, accepted election to be second bishop of Virginia. The diocese was in a poor state, but Moore, a mild Evangelical whose religious convictions fit in well with the Virginia aristocracy (at least with the few that were religious) set about rebuilding it. He became the 'first circuit rider of the diocese' during his summer vacations, and many a Virginia parish owes its establishment or re-establishment to his efforts in the 1810s, 20s, and 30s. The similarly Evangelical, Philander Chase was active as Bishop of Ohio, and later Michigan, and by 1841, and the consecration of Bishop Lee of Delaware, and Elliot of Georgia, all of the original thirteen states had bishops, and the new states of Kentucky, and Ohio had also received their first bishops. By the mid-1830s the Protestant Episcopal Church had built up a considerable impetus that was taking it westwards. Leonidas Polk was consecrated in 1832 to serve as Missionary Bishop of the Southwest, a vast territory that included much of the southern half of the Louisiana Purchase, whilst the northern half came under the jurisdiction of Jackson Kemper, the Missionary Bishop of the Northwest. Further expansion occurred with the consecration of Bishops for Texas, California, Oregon, and Washington in the late 1840s and early 1850s, which brought to a close the great pre-Civil War era of expansion. The Protestant Episcopal Church had not split prior to the War Between the States. This was in large measure due to the fact that Episcopalians had an innate loyalty to the Church, and a tendency to be political moderates. The Protestant Episcopal Church of the Confederate States formed only after secession with Stephen Elliott, Bishop of Georgia as its Presiding Bishop. At the end of the War Elliott, who was great friends with Bishop Hopkins, the Presiding Bishop of the northern Church, quietly arranged for the two Churches to reunite at the 1866 General Convention. At the 1863 General Convention, the Southern Dioceses had merely been reported as being 'absent' and little illusion was made to the political causes of the War then being fought. There is no doubt that the War Between the States was an enormous set back for the Church's work in the South. Besides the obvious losses of men and plant - churches, schools, etc., - the whole process of Reconstruction further demoralized the Church. Several dioceses in the South were unable or unwilling to continue what was then called "Coloured Work" among the African-American population after the War. However, the great revival that swept through the Confederate Army in 1863-65 proved to be a very fertile breeding ground for new vocations to the Episcopal ministry. By the 1870s, the work of the Church in the South was moving forwards once again. West Virginia was separated from Virginia in 1877, following the death of Bishop John Johns who had been adamantly opposed to such a move, and new Missionary Districts were created in the Southwest to serve New Mexico and Western Texas, Arizona and Nevada, though the Church machinery in that part of the United States of America (USA) was to remain rudimentary for many years. The rebuilding of the Church in the South was paralleled by the 'filling in' of the map in the Northwest. The vast Missionary District of Montana, Idaho and Utah was created at the 1866 General Convention, and 30 year old Daniel Tuttle (1836-1923) was chosen to be it first Bishop. He established St Mark's, Salt Lake City, UT as his pro-cathedral, which was the first non-Mormon place of worship in that city, if not the whole of Utah. The Missionary District was divided in the 1880s, and in 1903, Bishop Tuttle was translated to become the Bishop of Missouri, a See he had first been offer some twenty-five years earlier. Throughout this period, the Church in the South and Southwest developed along mainly Low Church lines and that in the Midwest and Northwest mainly on High Church or Anglo-Catholic lines. The old eastern dioceses were a patchwork quilt, with Vermont, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Maryland tending High; and Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Ohio tending Low. This variety of opinions made for a lively, if not always harmonious Church, which was distinguished by the number and variety of its educational institutions. However, this period - roughly 1880 to 1914 - was notable for a marked decline on the part of the Evangelical Party in PECUSA. The Evangelicals had been the dominant party in the Church between about 1825 and 1850. The initial expansion of the Church into the Midwest, Georgia, Kentucky, and the former Louisiana Territory had been led by a series of strongly Evangelical bishops - Leonidas Polk, Philander Chase, Benjamin Lee, Benjamin Bosworth Smith, and Stephen Elliot.	<urn:uuid:4fa53eac-ef19-492b-92cb-389374c61531>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.grace-anglican-church.com/history-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00076.warc.gz	en	0.985342	2,657	3.515625	4	[ 0.0896633043885231, 0.19228598475456238, 0.10418089479207993, -0.5496934056282043, -0.310935378074646, 0.09825640171766281, -0.14150258898735046, 0.05703672021627426, 0.3458760976791382, 0.3404216766357422, -0.12016056478023529, -0.2813994288444519, 0.17051684856414795, 0.29111307859420776...	2	The first Anglican service in North America occurred during Sir Francis Drake's circumnavigation of the Earth. It is recorded that he and his crew landed just north of San Francisco Bay in 1579 and celebrated Communion there. Further services must have been celebrated during the attempt made by Sir Walter Raleigh to found a colony in what is now North Carolina in 1589, whilst the first Anglican parishes were established with the Virginia Colony in the years following 1607. Each Virginia County was provided with a church, a minister, a vestry, magistrates, a courthouse and other essential institutions at the expense of the tax payer, and it was this tradition of self-governance that was to do much to form and inform the founders of the American Republic as they struggled to establish a new state. Generally speaking, Anglicanism progressed from South to North among the American colonies. Virginia had a strong established Anglican Church from the start. Charles II (1660-85) established Anglicanism in Maryland, and six counties of New York, whilst Anglican parishes began to appear in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Jersey at the end of the 17th century. Anglicanism had gained a toehold in Rhode Island quite early on, as there was no Puritan establishment to oppose it. However, the Church was weak in New England, and had to be supported by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, an English society which had been founded with just this work in mind in 1697. One major problem for the Church of England in the American Colonies was the lack of a bishop. Puritan New England and the Whigs in England did all they could to scupper plans for a colonial Bishop during the reign of Queen Anne (1702-14) and again under George III in the early 1760s. As a stop gap, various Bishops of London appointed "Commissaries" who exercised the non-sacramental functions of a bishop. Whilst this eased the situation somewhat, those who sought ordination still had to go to England to be made deacon and ordained priest, and about 1 in 10 of these men were lost at sea. Confirmation was a rite unknown in the Colonial Church, and folks were admitted to communion when they had learned the catechism, and the minister deemed them 'ready and desirous' to be confirmed. By the 1770s, the Church of England in the America had around 250 churches and 200 clergy. These numbers were sharply reduced during the Revolutionary War, so that by 1782 probably a quarter of Anglican parishes, and a third of the clergy were no longer functioning. The Church was to be slow recovering from this set back. The task of organizing the remnants of the Church of England into a new jurisdiction fell largely to a small group of men based in or near Philadelphia. The lead was taken by the Rev. William White, Rector of Christ Church and St Peter in that city. In 1782 he published a snappily entitled pamphlet 'The Case of Protestant Episcopalians Considered' which set out a model for a new church government of State Conventions affiliated to a General Convention which would administer the Church in the 13 States. He proposed electing bishops as the presiding officers in each diocese, and proposed a temporary non-episcopal form of ordination until bishops could be secured from England. This was not "Anglican" enough for the sterner spirits in Connecticut, where the clergy met in March of 1783 to elect a Bishop who they would then send to England (they hoped) for Consecration. The chosen candidates were Jeremiah Leeming, who declined, and Samuel Seabury, who set off for England in the spring of 1783, and spent the next 18 months knocking on doors, trying to secure consecration in England. Unfortunately, English law at that time did not permit the consecration of Bishops for dioceses outside of the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the Isle of Man, so Seabury was checkmated until he was advised to go to Scotland and seek out the Bishops of the Scottish Episcopal Church. The Scottish Episcopalians had been disestablished in 1690, and had managed to survive as a voluntary organisation ever since, though, because of the Jacobite sympathies of many of its members, it had been placed under severe restriction by the Hanoverian regime in Scotland. In any event, Seabury was consecrated by the Bishop Primus, Robert Kilgour, assisted by Bishops Skinner and Petrie, on the 14th of November 1784 at St Andrew's Church, Aberdeen. He returned as quickly as he could to Connecticut where he took up his duties as bishop. Meanwhile, moves were made in England to allow for the consecration of three bishops for the USA, and a Bishop for Canada. The Act allowing this to occur passed in 1786. William White, Samuel Provoost, and David Griffith had been elected by the Diocesan Conventions of Pennsylvania, New York, and Virginia respectively. The first two could afford to make the trip, and were duly consecrated by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York and the Bishop of Peterborough on the 4th of February 1787. Griffith resigned his election in 1787 and died shortly thereafter, while Virginia proceeded to elect James Madison to fill the vacant bishopric. Madison was consecrated in 1791 in London. The first Bishop to be consecrated on American soil was Thomas Claggett of Maryland who was consecrated by the four existing bishops in 1792. For the next twenty years, the Church's future looked far from certain. Disendowment greatly weakened the Church in Virginia and broke the spirit of James Madison, its bishop. In New York, Bishop Provoost seemed to alternate between actively promoting the Episcopal Church and prophesying its doom. Seabury, White and Claggett proved to be active and capable men, so in Connecticut, Maryland, and Pennsylvania the Church got off to a solid start, which in the first instance meant that it survived. From 1797 onwards there was a steady stream of consecrations with Massachusetts, North Carolina, South Carolina, and New Jersey all receiving their first Bishops. Provoost resigned in 1801 and was replaced with Benjamin Moore, who proved to be quite active until a stroke seriously impaired his abilities in 1810. In retrospect, 1811 was the turning point for the Protestant Episcopal Church when John Henry Hobart (1775-1830), and Alexander Viets Griswold (1767-1843) were elected to the Episcopate. Hobart's consecration took place in Trinity Church, Wall Street, in somewhat stressful circumstances. Bishops White and Bass were present, but it was not known until that morning that Provoost would be well enough to join them. In any event he was, and all was well, but it illustrates the fragility of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America (PECUSA) c.1810. No such drama attended Griswold's consecration a few months later, and it almost seems as though the church had already turned an important corner. Both Hobart and Griswold were dynamic men. Hobart was a High Churchman who believed in the Episcopal Church's distinctiveness, whilst Griswold clave to the Evangelical side of the Anglican inheritance. Both were great preachers. Slowly but surely, Hobart converted a dispirited New York diocese into the largest and most successful in the Episcopal Church, whilst Griswold (re)established the Church in the Eastern Diocese - Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts between 1811 and 1843. Vermont was spun off from the Eastern Diocese in 1832, whilst the other four states became independent Dioceses on Griswold's death in 1843. A further move in the right direction came in 1814 when Richard Channing Moore (1762-1841), Rector of St Stephen's, New York City, accepted election to be second bishop of Virginia. The diocese was in a poor state, but Moore, a mild Evangelical whose religious convictions fit in well with the Virginia aristocracy (at least with the few that were religious) set about rebuilding it. He became the 'first circuit rider of the diocese' during his summer vacations, and many a Virginia parish owes its establishment or re-establishment to his efforts in the 1810s, 20s, and 30s. The similarly Evangelical, Philander Chase was active as Bishop of Ohio, and later Michigan, and by 1841, and the consecration of Bishop Lee of Delaware, and Elliot of Georgia, all of the original thirteen states had bishops, and the new states of Kentucky, and Ohio had also received their first bishops. By the mid-1830s the Protestant Episcopal Church had built up a considerable impetus that was taking it westwards. Leonidas Polk was consecrated in 1832 to serve as Missionary Bishop of the Southwest, a vast territory that included much of the southern half of the Louisiana Purchase, whilst the northern half came under the jurisdiction of Jackson Kemper, the Missionary Bishop of the Northwest. Further expansion occurred with the consecration of Bishops for Texas, California, Oregon, and Washington in the late 1840s and early 1850s, which brought to a close the great pre-Civil War era of expansion. The Protestant Episcopal Church had not split prior to the War Between the States. This was in large measure due to the fact that Episcopalians had an innate loyalty to the Church, and a tendency to be political moderates. The Protestant Episcopal Church of the Confederate States formed only after secession with Stephen Elliott, Bishop of Georgia as its Presiding Bishop. At the end of the War Elliott, who was great friends with Bishop Hopkins, the Presiding Bishop of the northern Church, quietly arranged for the two Churches to reunite at the 1866 General Convention. At the 1863 General Convention, the Southern Dioceses had merely been reported as being 'absent' and little illusion was made to the political causes of the War then being fought. There is no doubt that the War Between the States was an enormous set back for the Church's work in the South. Besides the obvious losses of men and plant - churches, schools, etc., - the whole process of Reconstruction further demoralized the Church. Several dioceses in the South were unable or unwilling to continue what was then called "Coloured Work" among the African-American population after the War. However, the great revival that swept through the Confederate Army in 1863-65 proved to be a very fertile breeding ground for new vocations to the Episcopal ministry. By the 1870s, the work of the Church in the South was moving forwards once again. West Virginia was separated from Virginia in 1877, following the death of Bishop John Johns who had been adamantly opposed to such a move, and new Missionary Districts were created in the Southwest to serve New Mexico and Western Texas, Arizona and Nevada, though the Church machinery in that part of the United States of America (USA) was to remain rudimentary for many years. The rebuilding of the Church in the South was paralleled by the 'filling in' of the map in the Northwest. The vast Missionary District of Montana, Idaho and Utah was created at the 1866 General Convention, and 30 year old Daniel Tuttle (1836-1923) was chosen to be it first Bishop. He established St Mark's, Salt Lake City, UT as his pro-cathedral, which was the first non-Mormon place of worship in that city, if not the whole of Utah. The Missionary District was divided in the 1880s, and in 1903, Bishop Tuttle was translated to become the Bishop of Missouri, a See he had first been offer some twenty-five years earlier. Throughout this period, the Church in the South and Southwest developed along mainly Low Church lines and that in the Midwest and Northwest mainly on High Church or Anglo-Catholic lines. The old eastern dioceses were a patchwork quilt, with Vermont, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Maryland tending High; and Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Ohio tending Low. This variety of opinions made for a lively, if not always harmonious Church, which was distinguished by the number and variety of its educational institutions. However, this period - roughly 1880 to 1914 - was notable for a marked decline on the part of the Evangelical Party in PECUSA. The Evangelicals had been the dominant party in the Church between about 1825 and 1850. The initial expansion of the Church into the Midwest, Georgia, Kentucky, and the former Louisiana Territory had been led by a series of strongly Evangelical bishops - Leonidas Polk, Philander Chase, Benjamin Lee, Benjamin Bosworth Smith, and Stephen Elliot.	2,835	ENGLISH	1
By Edward Whelan, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom The Messenian Wars, which took place between Sparta and Messenia in the 8th century BC, were very crucial in the rise of Spartan society. Victory in the Messenian Wars was important in the history of Sparta, and by extension, in the history of Ancient Greece as a whole Background to the Messinian Wars The Spartans were a Dorian tribe who invaded Greece from the southern Balkans . They conquered much of the Peloponnesian from the native Achaeans (1100 BC), and some Dorians settled in what became Messenia. There, they created a small kingdom and later adopted the culture of the native Achaeans. Over time, tensions developed between the Spartans and the Messenians; this was born out of a rivalry for resources as well as cultural differences. While the Spartans in Laconia may have resented the Messenian elite, who they believed betrayed their Dorian origins, many historians suggest that the actual cause of the war was the Spartans’ desperate need for more fertile land. The Outbreak of Messenian War The immediate casus belli was the theft of some cattle by a Messenian Olympic champion. This led to reprisal raids by the Spartans, during which several Laconians were killed, sparking an all-out war. The dating of the war is not known for certain, but it is thought to have begun in 743/742 BC and lasted until roughly 722 BC. The Spartan King Alcmenes led an army of heavy infantry into Messenian territory in order to launch a surprise attack on Ampheia, an important Messenian city. Alcemes ordered his men to march by night on the city and they caught the defenders completely by surprise. The Spartans massacred the men and enslaved the children and the women. Spartan Hoplites from a vase-painting Euphaes, the king of Messenia, placed all able-bodied men under arms. He was aware that the Spartans were superior infantrymen, so he decided to rely on a strategy of field defenses. The war largely consisted of raids and counter raids during the campaign season. In 739 BC the two armies fought an inconclusive battle in a ravine not far from the capital of Euphaes. The following campaigning season saw another pitched battle; this time the Spartans and the Messenians clashed near the destroyed city of Ampheia. The two armies were led by their respective kings, consisted mostly of heavy infantry, and also had some light skirmishers and archers. There is some controversy as to whether or not the Laconians adopted the phalanx tactics. If so, it was possibly that this was the first time that a Greek army had adopted the strategy. Whatever the case, the fight was brutal and bloody and it lasted all day long. There was no quarter shown by either side. By evening the Spartans emerged victorious and the Messenians were in full retreat. Their king decided to return to his strategy of fixed defense and he ordered a stronghold to be built on Mount Ithome, which is over 2,400 feet high (800 meters) and located just above the capital of Messenia. It appears that King Eupales died soon after, as did his archenemy, Alchemnes. The ruins of Messene War of Attrition The Messenians were able to resist the Spartans and maintain their independence. However, they were hard pressed and every summer the Laconians would raid their land, which must have caused economic collapse and food shortages. The Messenians sent an embassy to obtain advice from the Oracle at the Delphi, and they were ordered to sacrifice a virgin to the gods to secure their favor. According to some accounts, the Messenian sacrificed the daughter of a noble, Aristodemus. After this the fortunes of the Messenians improved, and they had a number of minor successes against the Spartans. It seems Aristodemus, the father of the girl sacrificed, was made the new Messenian king; he went on the attack, driving the Spartans completely out of his kingdom. The Messenians engaged the Spartans in a set-piece battle for the first time since their defeat at Ampheia. Consulting the Oracle by John William Waterhouse, showing eight priestesses in a temple of prophecy The Last Phase of the Messenian War The Messenian War had by now entered its second decade. Sparta was exhausted and was not sure of how it should proceed. It was not in their nature to give up. They emulated the Messenians and sent a delegation to the Oracle of Delphi. The delegation from Laconia was given advice by the oracle, which they followed, however what exactly they were told has not been passed down to us. Sparta possibly adopted a new tactic; they appear to have besieged the Messenian stronghold on Mount Ithome. This led to the collapse of the Messenians and their king took his own life. Aftermath of the Messenian War Many of the Messenians were killed, enslaved or went into exile when Sparta annexed nearly all of Messenia. The Laconians reduced the remaining Messenians to the status of helots, a form of slave. They worked the land of their Spartan masters, who had absolute power over them. The conquest of Messenia meant that Sparta grew richer and stronger, and it allowed the Spartan elite to become a class of professional warriors. The capture of Messenia allowed the Laconians to develop their unique constitution and peculiar institutions, such as the agoge, where boys trained to be warriors. Marble statue of a Spartan king However, the Messenians continued to resist, and they rose in a revolt known as the 2nd Messinian War, which was suppressed. Nonetheless, unrest continued. The constant threat of rebellion and the need to repress the helots meant that Sparta became a very militarized society. Sparta would not have developed as it had, if they had not been victorious in the Messenian War. The Messenians were eventually to regain their freedom and independence in the 3rd Messenian War in the 4th century BC. Pawlak, M., 2010. Boundary Dispute between Sparta and Messene. Classica & Christiana, 5(2), pp.465-478. Pausania (1998) Description of Greece. London: Penguin	<urn:uuid:5e88e7f4-60b6-41b8-8212-764a0bd512e0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://classicalwisdom.com/category/politics/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00555.warc.gz	en	0.980899	1,363	4.375	4	[ -0.3897733688354492, 0.34221240878105164, 0.330960750579834, -0.10346788913011551, -0.2708780765533447, -0.44891661405563354, -0.07301798462867737, 0.7082254886627197, -0.16954003274440765, 0.08579909801483154, -0.538488507270813, -0.6113436818122864, 0.061614178121089935, 0.30071753263473...	1	By Edward Whelan, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom The Messenian Wars, which took place between Sparta and Messenia in the 8th century BC, were very crucial in the rise of Spartan society. Victory in the Messenian Wars was important in the history of Sparta, and by extension, in the history of Ancient Greece as a whole Background to the Messinian Wars The Spartans were a Dorian tribe who invaded Greece from the southern Balkans . They conquered much of the Peloponnesian from the native Achaeans (1100 BC), and some Dorians settled in what became Messenia. There, they created a small kingdom and later adopted the culture of the native Achaeans. Over time, tensions developed between the Spartans and the Messenians; this was born out of a rivalry for resources as well as cultural differences. While the Spartans in Laconia may have resented the Messenian elite, who they believed betrayed their Dorian origins, many historians suggest that the actual cause of the war was the Spartans’ desperate need for more fertile land. The Outbreak of Messenian War The immediate casus belli was the theft of some cattle by a Messenian Olympic champion. This led to reprisal raids by the Spartans, during which several Laconians were killed, sparking an all-out war. The dating of the war is not known for certain, but it is thought to have begun in 743/742 BC and lasted until roughly 722 BC. The Spartan King Alcmenes led an army of heavy infantry into Messenian territory in order to launch a surprise attack on Ampheia, an important Messenian city. Alcemes ordered his men to march by night on the city and they caught the defenders completely by surprise. The Spartans massacred the men and enslaved the children and the women. Spartan Hoplites from a vase-painting Euphaes, the king of Messenia, placed all able-bodied men under arms. He was aware that the Spartans were superior infantrymen, so he decided to rely on a strategy of field defenses. The war largely consisted of raids and counter raids during the campaign season. In 739 BC the two armies fought an inconclusive battle in a ravine not far from the capital of Euphaes. The following campaigning season saw another pitched battle; this time the Spartans and the Messenians clashed near the destroyed city of Ampheia. The two armies were led by their respective kings, consisted mostly of heavy infantry, and also had some light skirmishers and archers. There is some controversy as to whether or not the Laconians adopted the phalanx tactics. If so, it was possibly that this was the first time that a Greek army had adopted the strategy. Whatever the case, the fight was brutal and bloody and it lasted all day long. There was no quarter shown by either side. By evening the Spartans emerged victorious and the Messenians were in full retreat. Their king decided to return to his strategy of fixed defense and he ordered a stronghold to be built on Mount Ithome, which is over 2,400 feet high (800 meters) and located just above the capital of Messenia. It appears that King Eupales died soon after, as did his archenemy, Alchemnes. The ruins of Messene War of Attrition The Messenians were able to resist the Spartans and maintain their independence. However, they were hard pressed and every summer the Laconians would raid their land, which must have caused economic collapse and food shortages. The Messenians sent an embassy to obtain advice from the Oracle at the Delphi, and they were ordered to sacrifice a virgin to the gods to secure their favor. According to some accounts, the Messenian sacrificed the daughter of a noble, Aristodemus. After this the fortunes of the Messenians improved, and they had a number of minor successes against the Spartans. It seems Aristodemus, the father of the girl sacrificed, was made the new Messenian king; he went on the attack, driving the Spartans completely out of his kingdom. The Messenians engaged the Spartans in a set-piece battle for the first time since their defeat at Ampheia. Consulting the Oracle by John William Waterhouse, showing eight priestesses in a temple of prophecy The Last Phase of the Messenian War The Messenian War had by now entered its second decade. Sparta was exhausted and was not sure of how it should proceed. It was not in their nature to give up. They emulated the Messenians and sent a delegation to the Oracle of Delphi. The delegation from Laconia was given advice by the oracle, which they followed, however what exactly they were told has not been passed down to us. Sparta possibly adopted a new tactic; they appear to have besieged the Messenian stronghold on Mount Ithome. This led to the collapse of the Messenians and their king took his own life. Aftermath of the Messenian War Many of the Messenians were killed, enslaved or went into exile when Sparta annexed nearly all of Messenia. The Laconians reduced the remaining Messenians to the status of helots, a form of slave. They worked the land of their Spartan masters, who had absolute power over them. The conquest of Messenia meant that Sparta grew richer and stronger, and it allowed the Spartan elite to become a class of professional warriors. The capture of Messenia allowed the Laconians to develop their unique constitution and peculiar institutions, such as the agoge, where boys trained to be warriors. Marble statue of a Spartan king However, the Messenians continued to resist, and they rose in a revolt known as the 2nd Messinian War, which was suppressed. Nonetheless, unrest continued. The constant threat of rebellion and the need to repress the helots meant that Sparta became a very militarized society. Sparta would not have developed as it had, if they had not been victorious in the Messenian War. The Messenians were eventually to regain their freedom and independence in the 3rd Messenian War in the 4th century BC. Pawlak, M., 2010. Boundary Dispute between Sparta and Messene. Classica & Christiana, 5(2), pp.465-478. Pausania (1998) Description of Greece. London: Penguin	1,381	ENGLISH	1
In order to prevent being overwhelmed by an allied army, Napoleon decided to seize the initiative and attack first by driving his army from Boulogne near the English Channel to the Rhine river. The army had a front of 260km, showing a structural change from the armies of old. Generals generally tried to keep their forces concentrated. A concentrated force is advantageous as it is more likely to overwhelm the enemy army and more resistant to a potential ambush. A wide front would be contrary to this idea were it not for the development of the corps d' armee. General Karl Mack The corps was essentially a mini army consisting of infantry, artillery and cavalry divisions of 15-30,000 men. Each corps was able to operate for a limited time independently until reinforcements from other corps could arrive. One corps would be able to hold an enemy army in place giving Napoleon time to concentrate his forces and launch an offensive. He did not have to continuously have his army concentrated which allowed for the wide front seen in his advance to the Rhine. This allowed the army to both cover more ground and increase movement speed. The best example of the effectiveness of this system was Napoleon’s beginning manoeuvres in the Austerlitz campaign. In Napoleon’s previous European campaigns, the focus of France’s war efforts had been in Northern Italy. The allies expected Napoleon to yet again campaign in this theatre. He did not. Instead, he marched his 200,000 strong Grande Armee eastwards into Central Germany. The front stretched froms Hannover to Wurttemberg and the right wing concentrating along the middle Rhine. The Austrian general Mack had advanced his army prematurely and had found himself isolated from the rest of the allied force. His plan had been to defend Ulm and contain the French until he was reinforced by the Russian army. He had not expected a French offensive in Central Germany. Map of Ulm Manoeuvre The French were able to move rapidly, and Napoleon completely surrounded Mack’s army at Ulm and forced 60,000 soldiers to surrender. This was a devastating blow to the Allies only six weeks into the war. The corps system deserves much of the credit. Due to its self-sustaining nature, a corps was durable enough to spread out into a wide front and could defend itself when gathering food. The Ulm victory did not bring about an end to the war. While Napoleon had inflicted a significant setback for the Austrians, he had not yet dealt with the Russian army. Worse still, the Austrians and the Russians had linked up bolstering Allied numbers. The French were in a precarious situation. They were far from France, and as a result the lines of communications connecting the army to its supply base were stretched. With winter approaching, Napoleon needed to force a decisive battle quickly to stand a chance of winning. Up Next: The Battle of Austerlitz Got a question? Want to voice your opinion? Join the discussion in the forum now!	<urn:uuid:ca56ed82-290f-44c7-b4d0-4ecbfe00a81e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thenapoleonicwars.net/austerlitz-campaign-ulm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00506.warc.gz	en	0.982697	621	3.53125	4	[ -0.46414420008659363, 0.5015089511871338, 0.22369450330734253, -0.2957102656364441, -0.10172273218631744, -0.24761702120304108, -0.020286519080400467, 0.3754930794239044, -0.045291025191545486, -0.4309902489185333, 0.22956214845180511, -0.39256012439727783, 0.49417412281036377, 0.294361621...	3	In order to prevent being overwhelmed by an allied army, Napoleon decided to seize the initiative and attack first by driving his army from Boulogne near the English Channel to the Rhine river. The army had a front of 260km, showing a structural change from the armies of old. Generals generally tried to keep their forces concentrated. A concentrated force is advantageous as it is more likely to overwhelm the enemy army and more resistant to a potential ambush. A wide front would be contrary to this idea were it not for the development of the corps d' armee. General Karl Mack The corps was essentially a mini army consisting of infantry, artillery and cavalry divisions of 15-30,000 men. Each corps was able to operate for a limited time independently until reinforcements from other corps could arrive. One corps would be able to hold an enemy army in place giving Napoleon time to concentrate his forces and launch an offensive. He did not have to continuously have his army concentrated which allowed for the wide front seen in his advance to the Rhine. This allowed the army to both cover more ground and increase movement speed. The best example of the effectiveness of this system was Napoleon’s beginning manoeuvres in the Austerlitz campaign. In Napoleon’s previous European campaigns, the focus of France’s war efforts had been in Northern Italy. The allies expected Napoleon to yet again campaign in this theatre. He did not. Instead, he marched his 200,000 strong Grande Armee eastwards into Central Germany. The front stretched froms Hannover to Wurttemberg and the right wing concentrating along the middle Rhine. The Austrian general Mack had advanced his army prematurely and had found himself isolated from the rest of the allied force. His plan had been to defend Ulm and contain the French until he was reinforced by the Russian army. He had not expected a French offensive in Central Germany. Map of Ulm Manoeuvre The French were able to move rapidly, and Napoleon completely surrounded Mack’s army at Ulm and forced 60,000 soldiers to surrender. This was a devastating blow to the Allies only six weeks into the war. The corps system deserves much of the credit. Due to its self-sustaining nature, a corps was durable enough to spread out into a wide front and could defend itself when gathering food. The Ulm victory did not bring about an end to the war. While Napoleon had inflicted a significant setback for the Austrians, he had not yet dealt with the Russian army. Worse still, the Austrians and the Russians had linked up bolstering Allied numbers. The French were in a precarious situation. They were far from France, and as a result the lines of communications connecting the army to its supply base were stretched. With winter approaching, Napoleon needed to force a decisive battle quickly to stand a chance of winning. Up Next: The Battle of Austerlitz Got a question? Want to voice your opinion? Join the discussion in the forum now!	615	ENGLISH	1
Anasuya Sarabhai, a name we should know more about, but sadly we don’t. We know Mahatma Gandhi supported the works and thinking of a few women, who were always by his side. Anasuya Sarabhai was one of these women. Indian history is rich with the contributions of extraordinary women who have broken barriers and set an example for future generations. For instance, Savitribai Phule was one such woman. However, the stories of many of these women still remain in the dark. Anasuya Sarabhai was one such woman who dedicated her life and work for the betterment of the downtrodden and less fortunate. She was affectionately called motaben meaning elder sister. Her words, and more so, her actions, even today, continue to inspire those who believe in a better and equal world for everyone. Let us now tell you the tale of Anasuya Sarabhai. She was born in Ahmedabad in 1885. Though born into the affluent Sarabhai family, Anasuya Sarabhai was orphaned at the tender age of 9 when she lost both her parents. Her paternal uncle took care of her and her two younger siblings after that. However, her uncle got her married unwillingly when she was 13. The unhappy marriage did not last long. Anasuya soon got divorced and returned to her own family. Her brother Ambalal Sarabhai, supported her in her desire to study further which she had earlier been denied by her uncle. She completed her education in England and returned to India after having found her calling to serve the cause of social equality. It began in the form of a school which she opened for the poor children of all castes. She used to bathe and teach these children on her own. After this, she went on to open several creches and toilets for women, a maternity home and a hostel for harijan (untouchable) girls. It was later, when she had an honest conversation with middle-class working women labourers, that she became an activist for the labour class of India. In 1914, when Ahmedabad was hit by a plague epidemic, upon the request of the labourers, Anasuya Sarabhai went on to demand fair wages from the mill owners. This wasn’t easy as it was her own brother, Ambalal, who was the then-president of the Mill Owners’ Association. This was followed by a 21 one day strike following which the mill owners had to finally agree to the demands of the labourers. She played a pivotal role in the Kheda Satyagraha and the foundation for Gujarat’s oldest labour union, Majoor Mahajan Sangh (Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association or TLA). It was established on February 25, 1920. In 1927, Anasuya also founded Kanyagruha, a school for the daughters of Ahmedabad’s textile workers and SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association of India). Thus, Anasuya dedicated her entire life in the betterment of the less fortunate, even if it meant standing up and fighting against her own. We salute such an inspiring lady. What are your thoughts on the same? Don’t forget to let us know in the comments below. (originally written for TopYaps.com)	<urn:uuid:4b650102-f4f6-4d5c-8b39-b6f21eed0393>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://arusticmind.com/2019/07/15/anasuya-sarabhai/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00052.warc.gz	en	0.984475	706	3.28125	3	[ -0.07296746969223022, 0.4723959267139435, -0.5915564298629761, -0.045222289860248566, -0.13722753524780273, 0.2965009808540344, 0.5110490322113037, 0.008447262458503246, 0.37340065836906433, -0.23096443712711334, -0.10874489694833755, -0.5139968395233154, 0.23130293190479279, 0.32867965102...	7	Anasuya Sarabhai, a name we should know more about, but sadly we don’t. We know Mahatma Gandhi supported the works and thinking of a few women, who were always by his side. Anasuya Sarabhai was one of these women. Indian history is rich with the contributions of extraordinary women who have broken barriers and set an example for future generations. For instance, Savitribai Phule was one such woman. However, the stories of many of these women still remain in the dark. Anasuya Sarabhai was one such woman who dedicated her life and work for the betterment of the downtrodden and less fortunate. She was affectionately called motaben meaning elder sister. Her words, and more so, her actions, even today, continue to inspire those who believe in a better and equal world for everyone. Let us now tell you the tale of Anasuya Sarabhai. She was born in Ahmedabad in 1885. Though born into the affluent Sarabhai family, Anasuya Sarabhai was orphaned at the tender age of 9 when she lost both her parents. Her paternal uncle took care of her and her two younger siblings after that. However, her uncle got her married unwillingly when she was 13. The unhappy marriage did not last long. Anasuya soon got divorced and returned to her own family. Her brother Ambalal Sarabhai, supported her in her desire to study further which she had earlier been denied by her uncle. She completed her education in England and returned to India after having found her calling to serve the cause of social equality. It began in the form of a school which she opened for the poor children of all castes. She used to bathe and teach these children on her own. After this, she went on to open several creches and toilets for women, a maternity home and a hostel for harijan (untouchable) girls. It was later, when she had an honest conversation with middle-class working women labourers, that she became an activist for the labour class of India. In 1914, when Ahmedabad was hit by a plague epidemic, upon the request of the labourers, Anasuya Sarabhai went on to demand fair wages from the mill owners. This wasn’t easy as it was her own brother, Ambalal, who was the then-president of the Mill Owners’ Association. This was followed by a 21 one day strike following which the mill owners had to finally agree to the demands of the labourers. She played a pivotal role in the Kheda Satyagraha and the foundation for Gujarat’s oldest labour union, Majoor Mahajan Sangh (Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association or TLA). It was established on February 25, 1920. In 1927, Anasuya also founded Kanyagruha, a school for the daughters of Ahmedabad’s textile workers and SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association of India). Thus, Anasuya dedicated her entire life in the betterment of the less fortunate, even if it meant standing up and fighting against her own. We salute such an inspiring lady. What are your thoughts on the same? Don’t forget to let us know in the comments below. (originally written for TopYaps.com)	695	ENGLISH	1
A 14th-century West African ruler, Mansa Musa is believed to be the richest man who ever lived. According to noted researchers, present accounts of Musa’s wealth are so staggering that they are impossible to describe. In fact, it is said that Musa’s charitable offerings had often ruined an entire country’s economy. US website Celebrity Net Worth had estimated Musa’s wealth to be around $400 billion. However, several economic historians have concluded that it isn’t physically possible to take a proper account of Musa’s wealth. To know more about Mansa Musa's life exploits, watch the clip below. #2 John D. Rockefeller (1839 – 1937): $340 Billion An American businessman and philanthropist, John D. Rockefeller’s estimated net worth is stated to be $340 billion according to Celebrity Net Worth. The founder of the Standard Oil Company, Rockefeller earned a majority of his earnings through his company. The American businessman ran his company for 27 years before hanging up his boots. Rockefeller founded two colleges and did some notable work as a philanthropist. Even today John D. Rockefeller is considered one of the giants of American history. #3 Andrew Carnegie (1835 -1919): $310 Billion Scottish-American businessman Andrew Carnegie’s net worth is estimated to be $310 billion. He earned his name through his notable contribution to the expansion of the steel industry in the U.S. in the latter half of the 19th century. Like Rockefeller, Carnegie too was an influential philanthropist; one of the most prominent ones, in fact, of his era. Carnegie’s story is often described as a ‘rags to riches’ one as his family was considered to be poor in his formative years. However, he fought the odds and made his destiny in the steel industry. #4 Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov (1868 - 1918): $300 Billion Known famously as the last Emperor of Russia, Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov’s net worth has been estimated at $300 Billion. Officially titled, Nicholas II, Emperor, and Autocrat of All the Russians, he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexander III. Nicholas took over the throne after his father’s death but wasn’t very popular in his times. He infamously earned the tag ‘Bloody Nicholas’ after close to 1400 people died at his coronation ceremony due to a stampede. One of the better things that he is known for, however, is ensuring the completion of the Trans-Siberian railroad which to date remains the largest railway in the world. #5 Mir Osman Ali Khan (1886-1967): $230 billion Known as The Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Khan possessed an estimated net worth of $230 billion. In the 37 years that he ruled over the city of Hyderabad in India, Mir Osman was responsible for the development of several projects in the city like electricity, railways, roads, and airways. Another prominent feature of the Nizam was his focus on developing education during his reign. In 1947, Mir Osman was reported to have gifted a diamond-studded tiara and necklace to Princess Elizabeth on the occasion of her marriage. #6 Jakob Fugger (1459-1525): $221 billion Not many would have heard of this little-known historical figure. But Jakob Fugger was one of the richest men of his times and his estimated worth is said to be $221 billion. Known for his sharp acumen while dealing with banking and merchant activities, Jakob Fugger was born in Augsburg, Germany. Fugger made a majority of his fortune through mining silver and gold in Hungary and Bohemia along with textile trading in Italy. #7 William The Conqueror (1028-1087): $229.5 Billion One of the greatest soldiers and rulers of the Middle Ages, William the Conqueror was named thus because of how he successfully invaded and seized England in 1066. His real name was Guillaume le Conquérant and he was one of the most powerful nobles of France before he invaded and ruled England. William earned most of his wealth because of his conquest and is said to have left a sum of $229.5 billion to his family after his death. #8 Muammar Gaddafi (1942– 2011): $200 Billion This is one of the names on the list that you are certain to be aware of. Muammar Gaddafi ruled over Libya for 42 years and was one of the most controversial personalities of the modern era. During his rule, there were widespread civilian protests and internal unrest. The Libyan dictator was killed in 2011 and it was only after his death when reports surfaced that he had stashed away more than $200 billion in bank accounts, real estate, and investments. That basically means that prior to his death, Gaddafi was the richest person alive in his time. #9 Henry Ford (1863–1947): $199 Billion American businessman Henry Ford is a well-known name primarily because he was the founder of the world-famous Ford Motor Company. Henry Ford went on to make Ford a renowned brand all over the globe and played a key role in the production of the first affordable American automobile. He was a successful industrialist and amassed $199 billion in his life. To learn about how Henry Ford rose from poverty to become a billionaire, see the clip below. #10 Cornelius Vanderbilt (1794–1877): $185 Billion Widely regarded as the third richest American ever, Cornelius Vanderbilt was a famous entrepreneur and philanthropist and is the great-great-great-grandfather of CNN anchor Anderson Cooper. Initially, Cornelius made his name in the steamboat industry. However, he wasn’t satisfied with the monetary results in it. It was after he invested in railroads at the age of 70 that his wealth truly exploded and he went on to become the richest man of his era. After his death, Cornelius Vanderbilt’s net worth was valued at $185 billion. Note: The net worth of all the personalities mentioned here has been taken from the website Celebrity Net Worth.	<urn:uuid:ec38a8e6-37b5-4f24-815f-07262a8eed7c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ba-bamail.com/content.aspx?emailid=34476	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00283.warc.gz	en	0.983406	1,297	3.296875	3	[ -0.048653461039066315, 0.4726554751396179, 0.2475517988204956, -0.13916833698749542, 0.20341622829437256, 0.00547452550381422, 0.4315587878227234, 0.05916936695575714, -0.28792834281921387, 0.31907525658607483, 0.22805491089820862, -0.06635572016239166, 0.4945756793022156, -0.0756473094224...	5	A 14th-century West African ruler, Mansa Musa is believed to be the richest man who ever lived. According to noted researchers, present accounts of Musa’s wealth are so staggering that they are impossible to describe. In fact, it is said that Musa’s charitable offerings had often ruined an entire country’s economy. US website Celebrity Net Worth had estimated Musa’s wealth to be around $400 billion. However, several economic historians have concluded that it isn’t physically possible to take a proper account of Musa’s wealth. To know more about Mansa Musa's life exploits, watch the clip below. #2 John D. Rockefeller (1839 – 1937): $340 Billion An American businessman and philanthropist, John D. Rockefeller’s estimated net worth is stated to be $340 billion according to Celebrity Net Worth. The founder of the Standard Oil Company, Rockefeller earned a majority of his earnings through his company. The American businessman ran his company for 27 years before hanging up his boots. Rockefeller founded two colleges and did some notable work as a philanthropist. Even today John D. Rockefeller is considered one of the giants of American history. #3 Andrew Carnegie (1835 -1919): $310 Billion Scottish-American businessman Andrew Carnegie’s net worth is estimated to be $310 billion. He earned his name through his notable contribution to the expansion of the steel industry in the U.S. in the latter half of the 19th century. Like Rockefeller, Carnegie too was an influential philanthropist; one of the most prominent ones, in fact, of his era. Carnegie’s story is often described as a ‘rags to riches’ one as his family was considered to be poor in his formative years. However, he fought the odds and made his destiny in the steel industry. #4 Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov (1868 - 1918): $300 Billion Known famously as the last Emperor of Russia, Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov’s net worth has been estimated at $300 Billion. Officially titled, Nicholas II, Emperor, and Autocrat of All the Russians, he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexander III. Nicholas took over the throne after his father’s death but wasn’t very popular in his times. He infamously earned the tag ‘Bloody Nicholas’ after close to 1400 people died at his coronation ceremony due to a stampede. One of the better things that he is known for, however, is ensuring the completion of the Trans-Siberian railroad which to date remains the largest railway in the world. #5 Mir Osman Ali Khan (1886-1967): $230 billion Known as The Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Khan possessed an estimated net worth of $230 billion. In the 37 years that he ruled over the city of Hyderabad in India, Mir Osman was responsible for the development of several projects in the city like electricity, railways, roads, and airways. Another prominent feature of the Nizam was his focus on developing education during his reign. In 1947, Mir Osman was reported to have gifted a diamond-studded tiara and necklace to Princess Elizabeth on the occasion of her marriage. #6 Jakob Fugger (1459-1525): $221 billion Not many would have heard of this little-known historical figure. But Jakob Fugger was one of the richest men of his times and his estimated worth is said to be $221 billion. Known for his sharp acumen while dealing with banking and merchant activities, Jakob Fugger was born in Augsburg, Germany. Fugger made a majority of his fortune through mining silver and gold in Hungary and Bohemia along with textile trading in Italy. #7 William The Conqueror (1028-1087): $229.5 Billion One of the greatest soldiers and rulers of the Middle Ages, William the Conqueror was named thus because of how he successfully invaded and seized England in 1066. His real name was Guillaume le Conquérant and he was one of the most powerful nobles of France before he invaded and ruled England. William earned most of his wealth because of his conquest and is said to have left a sum of $229.5 billion to his family after his death. #8 Muammar Gaddafi (1942– 2011): $200 Billion This is one of the names on the list that you are certain to be aware of. Muammar Gaddafi ruled over Libya for 42 years and was one of the most controversial personalities of the modern era. During his rule, there were widespread civilian protests and internal unrest. The Libyan dictator was killed in 2011 and it was only after his death when reports surfaced that he had stashed away more than $200 billion in bank accounts, real estate, and investments. That basically means that prior to his death, Gaddafi was the richest person alive in his time. #9 Henry Ford (1863–1947): $199 Billion American businessman Henry Ford is a well-known name primarily because he was the founder of the world-famous Ford Motor Company. Henry Ford went on to make Ford a renowned brand all over the globe and played a key role in the production of the first affordable American automobile. He was a successful industrialist and amassed $199 billion in his life. To learn about how Henry Ford rose from poverty to become a billionaire, see the clip below. #10 Cornelius Vanderbilt (1794–1877): $185 Billion Widely regarded as the third richest American ever, Cornelius Vanderbilt was a famous entrepreneur and philanthropist and is the great-great-great-grandfather of CNN anchor Anderson Cooper. Initially, Cornelius made his name in the steamboat industry. However, he wasn’t satisfied with the monetary results in it. It was after he invested in railroads at the age of 70 that his wealth truly exploded and he went on to become the richest man of his era. After his death, Cornelius Vanderbilt’s net worth was valued at $185 billion. Note: The net worth of all the personalities mentioned here has been taken from the website Celebrity Net Worth.	1,361	ENGLISH	1
Daily Prayers were accompanied by the reciting of the Shema. While the Qumran community prayed three times a day, most Jews appear to have prayed twice a day. These prayers were either at the time of the morning and evening sacrifice or at dawn and sundown at whatever location the person happened to be at (they did not have to go to the synagogue to pray.) Home was the primary place of worship for the Jew. In addition to memorized prayers, individuals presented petitions to God for their own health and happiness. The Eighteen Benedictions represent prayers used in public worship, although it is impossible to know for sure if they date to the pre-70 period. These prayers emphasize the attributes of God (his justice and mercy), his uniqueness, his willingness to forgive and to heal the sick as well as his control of the harvest. Sanders is doubtful first century Jews did any prayers (or hymns) in unison, but this cannot be certain since there is no evidence either way. How often the average Jew studied the scripture is unclear. This may refer to simply going to the synagogue and heard the scripture read (especially for the non-educated who would not be able to read.) In addition, scrolls were expensive, only the incredibly wealthy would be able to own a scroll to study. The Synagogue is of critical importance to the Jews of the first century. While we do not know when the synagogue was first used, we do know of synagogues dating to the first century (in the town of Gamla and one in Masada and the Herodian, likely built by Zealots long after Herod’s time.) Often synagogues were built over the site of an older building, accounting for the lack of first century archaeological remains. The synagogue at Tiberias was large enough to hold a crowd gathered to discuss the impending war (Life 277, 280, 290-303). We know from the Bible that both Jesus and Paul taught in synagogues regularly. Philo describes the synagogue meeting which took place on Sabbath: a priest or elder would read from the scripture and comment on the text while people listened, then anyone who was moved to comment would do so. Usually they simply sat in silence and listened. Essenes were taught in the law every day, but more often on the Sabbath. The synagogue as designed with benches around the perimeter to encourage participation by all in attendance, as demonstrated in Mark 1:14-15, 6:1-5. I am not sure Jesus challenges this institution of Second Temple Judaism. He is often described as participating in Synagogue discussions may have been asked on occasion to address the group as a teacher. But it is possible Jesus does subvert the normal practice of gathering to study Scripture at a Synagogue in other ways, but teaching on hillsides or other locations.	<urn:uuid:3afa8f08-15bb-4fd0-9752-24df322b66c0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://readingacts.com/tag/genre/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00512.warc.gz	en	0.981079	577	3.3125	3	[ -0.08502783626317978, 0.35254189372062683, -0.31504708528518677, -0.1348162591457367, -0.15634453296661377, 0.1426687389612198, -0.1113421842455864, 0.22002911567687988, -0.12179155647754669, -0.0832834467291832, -0.2683108448982239, -0.03580734133720398, -0.16722247004508972, 0.2975272536...	8	Daily Prayers were accompanied by the reciting of the Shema. While the Qumran community prayed three times a day, most Jews appear to have prayed twice a day. These prayers were either at the time of the morning and evening sacrifice or at dawn and sundown at whatever location the person happened to be at (they did not have to go to the synagogue to pray.) Home was the primary place of worship for the Jew. In addition to memorized prayers, individuals presented petitions to God for their own health and happiness. The Eighteen Benedictions represent prayers used in public worship, although it is impossible to know for sure if they date to the pre-70 period. These prayers emphasize the attributes of God (his justice and mercy), his uniqueness, his willingness to forgive and to heal the sick as well as his control of the harvest. Sanders is doubtful first century Jews did any prayers (or hymns) in unison, but this cannot be certain since there is no evidence either way. How often the average Jew studied the scripture is unclear. This may refer to simply going to the synagogue and heard the scripture read (especially for the non-educated who would not be able to read.) In addition, scrolls were expensive, only the incredibly wealthy would be able to own a scroll to study. The Synagogue is of critical importance to the Jews of the first century. While we do not know when the synagogue was first used, we do know of synagogues dating to the first century (in the town of Gamla and one in Masada and the Herodian, likely built by Zealots long after Herod’s time.) Often synagogues were built over the site of an older building, accounting for the lack of first century archaeological remains. The synagogue at Tiberias was large enough to hold a crowd gathered to discuss the impending war (Life 277, 280, 290-303). We know from the Bible that both Jesus and Paul taught in synagogues regularly. Philo describes the synagogue meeting which took place on Sabbath: a priest or elder would read from the scripture and comment on the text while people listened, then anyone who was moved to comment would do so. Usually they simply sat in silence and listened. Essenes were taught in the law every day, but more often on the Sabbath. The synagogue as designed with benches around the perimeter to encourage participation by all in attendance, as demonstrated in Mark 1:14-15, 6:1-5. I am not sure Jesus challenges this institution of Second Temple Judaism. He is often described as participating in Synagogue discussions may have been asked on occasion to address the group as a teacher. But it is possible Jesus does subvert the normal practice of gathering to study Scripture at a Synagogue in other ways, but teaching on hillsides or other locations.	587	ENGLISH	1
General life for the Logan family is very hard at times. Not only do they have to make their living in a racist society, but also they have to battle greedy white landowners for their own land. Though slavery had been abolished around the 1860s’ ‘seventy years had passed… ‘ (Slavery abolished at different times in different states) the white community still thought of the Blacks as inferior and unacceptable to them. Throughout the play, we see harsh examples of discrimination, not because they have done something wrong, but merely because of the seemingly inevitable fascists. Big Ma talks of Africa and how slaves were bought from Africa to work for the colonies. She goes to houses to care for people; with the herbal cures she has knowledge of from Africa. We see our first example of racism when Big Ma goes the Berrys’ house to help when they have been severely burnt, resulting finally in the death of one of the Berrys’. This is just one of a whole range of violent racism. According to white people, ‘… black people weren’t really people like white people were, so slavery was all right. ‘ The whites think it is all right to treat the Blacks with such callousness to keep them in line and doing what the whites would call correct. There is a great religious link in the Logan family life and this teaches them morals to be more honest. For example when Stacey goes to the Walace store to fight T. J. , he tells Mama as it is on his conscience. The white people believe themselves to be religious in bringing the slaves to America so the Blacks could learn Christianity and be a ‘better’ race. ‘They also said slavery was good for us as it taught is to be good Christians – like the white people. ‘ Mama tells us of what she thinks the real excuse for bringing them over from Africa and teaching Christianity, ‘… they did not teach us Christianity to save our souls, but to teach us obedience. ‘ This appears to be the case in the play as the whites punish various people in the black society for no real reason e. g. Mr Tantum was tarred and feathered for no reason but the whites thought he was ‘getting out of line. ‘ The whites cannot accept that legally the Blacks are equal to them and the importance of the background of this prejudice is very significant. The cruel ways of the times when slavery was prominent still occour but the law seems to turn a blind eye to the situation. The Logans’ face the possibility of being hanged or maimed by the white landowners trying to get their land. The Logans’ are forced to pay more taxes on their land to Mr. Granger (a main plantation owner) in attempt for him to get their land. The land was originally Mr. Grangers’ and was sold for a very low price for tax money. In raising the payments, Mr. Granger expects the Logan family not to be able to pay for the land and will have to sell some of it and then Mr. Granger can buy it back. The Logans’ face hardship and racism because there is always the threat of night men being sent to retrieve the land. The Logans’ live in fear because of this and is indeed why Papa takes Mr. Morrison to work on the land. Cassie does not realise the importance of the Logan Land at the beginning of the play, but by the end this changes as she has seen some examples of the harsh reality of life in Mississippi. She is not only crying for ‘T. J and the land’, she cries for freedom and equality too. The general life style of the Logan family is better than that of most average families of the black community in the 1930s. The Logan family are extremely fortunate to own their own land (which Papa simply calls ‘Logan Land’) as most of the other Blacks have to work on white land as sharecroppers, only being able to afford the bare minimum and few necessities (which they would have thought to have been a luxury) such as shoes or even books at school. The average black families who were on the Granger sharecrop land were in a constant cycle of debt. In comparison to the other black families in the area, the quality of the Logan life is much better than that of most of the local Blacks in the book. For example the Logans have a smart best dress outfit whereas the Avery children are not as smartly dressed as they cannot afford to buy new clothes when they grow out of them. On the first day of school the Logan children wear their best clothes, but T. J. and Claude do not have shoes to go with their Sunday best clothing and it was ‘… patched and worn, hung loosely upon their frail frames’.	<urn:uuid:162bc482-7f0c-48ed-ae7d-11ca7fe74cb2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://houghtonlakeboard.org/the-death-of-one-of-the-berrys/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00546.warc.gz	en	0.980483	997	3.578125	4	[ -0.06411918252706528, 0.0555378720164299, 0.03927471488714218, 0.14306840300559998, 0.17513370513916016, -0.02596977725625038, -0.02827605977654457, -0.1647445112466812, -0.3094733953475952, 0.16873732209205627, 0.03480032831430435, -0.02892456389963627, -0.1738651692867279, 0.023343659937...	4	General life for the Logan family is very hard at times. Not only do they have to make their living in a racist society, but also they have to battle greedy white landowners for their own land. Though slavery had been abolished around the 1860s’ ‘seventy years had passed… ‘ (Slavery abolished at different times in different states) the white community still thought of the Blacks as inferior and unacceptable to them. Throughout the play, we see harsh examples of discrimination, not because they have done something wrong, but merely because of the seemingly inevitable fascists. Big Ma talks of Africa and how slaves were bought from Africa to work for the colonies. She goes to houses to care for people; with the herbal cures she has knowledge of from Africa. We see our first example of racism when Big Ma goes the Berrys’ house to help when they have been severely burnt, resulting finally in the death of one of the Berrys’. This is just one of a whole range of violent racism. According to white people, ‘… black people weren’t really people like white people were, so slavery was all right. ‘ The whites think it is all right to treat the Blacks with such callousness to keep them in line and doing what the whites would call correct. There is a great religious link in the Logan family life and this teaches them morals to be more honest. For example when Stacey goes to the Walace store to fight T. J. , he tells Mama as it is on his conscience. The white people believe themselves to be religious in bringing the slaves to America so the Blacks could learn Christianity and be a ‘better’ race. ‘They also said slavery was good for us as it taught is to be good Christians – like the white people. ‘ Mama tells us of what she thinks the real excuse for bringing them over from Africa and teaching Christianity, ‘… they did not teach us Christianity to save our souls, but to teach us obedience. ‘ This appears to be the case in the play as the whites punish various people in the black society for no real reason e. g. Mr Tantum was tarred and feathered for no reason but the whites thought he was ‘getting out of line. ‘ The whites cannot accept that legally the Blacks are equal to them and the importance of the background of this prejudice is very significant. The cruel ways of the times when slavery was prominent still occour but the law seems to turn a blind eye to the situation. The Logans’ face the possibility of being hanged or maimed by the white landowners trying to get their land. The Logans’ are forced to pay more taxes on their land to Mr. Granger (a main plantation owner) in attempt for him to get their land. The land was originally Mr. Grangers’ and was sold for a very low price for tax money. In raising the payments, Mr. Granger expects the Logan family not to be able to pay for the land and will have to sell some of it and then Mr. Granger can buy it back. The Logans’ face hardship and racism because there is always the threat of night men being sent to retrieve the land. The Logans’ live in fear because of this and is indeed why Papa takes Mr. Morrison to work on the land. Cassie does not realise the importance of the Logan Land at the beginning of the play, but by the end this changes as she has seen some examples of the harsh reality of life in Mississippi. She is not only crying for ‘T. J and the land’, she cries for freedom and equality too. The general life style of the Logan family is better than that of most average families of the black community in the 1930s. The Logan family are extremely fortunate to own their own land (which Papa simply calls ‘Logan Land’) as most of the other Blacks have to work on white land as sharecroppers, only being able to afford the bare minimum and few necessities (which they would have thought to have been a luxury) such as shoes or even books at school. The average black families who were on the Granger sharecrop land were in a constant cycle of debt. In comparison to the other black families in the area, the quality of the Logan life is much better than that of most of the local Blacks in the book. For example the Logans have a smart best dress outfit whereas the Avery children are not as smartly dressed as they cannot afford to buy new clothes when they grow out of them. On the first day of school the Logan children wear their best clothes, but T. J. and Claude do not have shoes to go with their Sunday best clothing and it was ‘… patched and worn, hung loosely upon their frail frames’.	976	ENGLISH	1
The Cambodian genocide was the mass killing of people who were perceived to oppose the Khmer Rouge regime led by Pol Pot. The genocide resulted in the death of between an estimated 1.5 and 3 million people between 1975 and 1979. The regime intended to turn Cambodia into a socialist republic with agriculture as the core economic activity. After successfully overthrowing the government, the Khmer Rouge changed the country’s name from Cambodia to Democratic Kampuchea. Millions of people were forced from the cities into labor camps in rural settlements to work on rice fields. Any person who opposed the regime including the rich, monks and religious leaders were tortured and killed. Precursors To The Genocide The Khmer Rouge, formally known as the Communist Party of Kampuchea, was formed during the struggle for independence against the French. By 1968 the movement evolved into a political party. In March 1970, an American backed coup outed the then-head of state King Sihanouk and appointed the Prime Minister Lon Nol as the head of state. Sihanouk allied with the Khmer Rouge, setting the stage for a genocide. At the time, the US was bombing Viet Cong positions in Cambodia, killing thousands of Cambodians in the process. Millions of peasant farmers loyal to the Khmer Rouge were armed by the Chinese government and by April 17, 1975, they took control of the capital city and overthrew the government of Cambodia. The city was considered economically invaluable and thousands of people were forced into labor camps in the villages. Starvation, physical abuse, exhaustion, diseases, became prevalent in the countryside. The Khmer Rouge was extremely brutal in the way it handled the masses. The educated lot consisting of teachers, doctors, artists, monks, religious leaders, and those who worked in government facilities were singled out as a potential threat to the regime and eliminated. Those in opposition were ambushed and killed alongside those who could not work. Once a family member was killed, other family members were targeted to prevent them from seeking revenge. There was no immunity in the conflict, unlike other genocides. Even those on the Khmer Rouge side were eliminated once they were suspected of not being loyal enough. Children were killed under a notion that stated “to permanently disable the weed you pull out the roots. “Several facilities such as schools, medical facilities, and churches were closed down. Child soldiers became part of the Khmer Rouge army. The international community remained silent on the ongoing atrocities in Cambodia. Neither Europe nor the US took interest in what was happening despite the frantic efforts by the western media to raise concerns. The United States had suffered heavy casualties in the Vietnam War and was in no position to engage in another conflict. The End Of The Genocide In 1977, clashes between Cambodia and Vietnam began. Two years later, Vietnam forced its way into Cambodia and overthrew the government which was comprised of the defectors of the Khmer Rouge. Other members fled to Thailand where they occasionally attacked Vietnam. For the next decade, the ousted members tried to overthrow the Vietnamese-backed regime with the aid of the Soviet Union and China. Vietnam withdrew from Cambodia in 1989 after the US placed economic sanctions on the occupied state while the Soviet Union withdrew its financial aid. In 1991, a coalition came to power. Two years later former head of state Norodom Sihanouk was elected as the president. About the Author Victor Kiprop is a writer from Kenya. When he's not writing he spends time watching soccer and documentaries, visiting friends, or working in the farm. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:490e7f54-65b5-4f28-8aa8-12913e4d9239>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-caused-the-cambodian-genocide.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00505.warc.gz	en	0.980762	758	3.53125	4	[ -0.23188090324401855, 0.6291172504425049, 0.23536130785942078, -0.10842065513134003, 0.03107151947915554, 0.30130109190940857, 0.21013084053993225, 0.15338820219039917, -0.13741502165794373, 0.7106130123138428, 0.5329231023788452, -0.2415289282798767, 0.14320997893810272, 0.386318206787109...	2	The Cambodian genocide was the mass killing of people who were perceived to oppose the Khmer Rouge regime led by Pol Pot. The genocide resulted in the death of between an estimated 1.5 and 3 million people between 1975 and 1979. The regime intended to turn Cambodia into a socialist republic with agriculture as the core economic activity. After successfully overthrowing the government, the Khmer Rouge changed the country’s name from Cambodia to Democratic Kampuchea. Millions of people were forced from the cities into labor camps in rural settlements to work on rice fields. Any person who opposed the regime including the rich, monks and religious leaders were tortured and killed. Precursors To The Genocide The Khmer Rouge, formally known as the Communist Party of Kampuchea, was formed during the struggle for independence against the French. By 1968 the movement evolved into a political party. In March 1970, an American backed coup outed the then-head of state King Sihanouk and appointed the Prime Minister Lon Nol as the head of state. Sihanouk allied with the Khmer Rouge, setting the stage for a genocide. At the time, the US was bombing Viet Cong positions in Cambodia, killing thousands of Cambodians in the process. Millions of peasant farmers loyal to the Khmer Rouge were armed by the Chinese government and by April 17, 1975, they took control of the capital city and overthrew the government of Cambodia. The city was considered economically invaluable and thousands of people were forced into labor camps in the villages. Starvation, physical abuse, exhaustion, diseases, became prevalent in the countryside. The Khmer Rouge was extremely brutal in the way it handled the masses. The educated lot consisting of teachers, doctors, artists, monks, religious leaders, and those who worked in government facilities were singled out as a potential threat to the regime and eliminated. Those in opposition were ambushed and killed alongside those who could not work. Once a family member was killed, other family members were targeted to prevent them from seeking revenge. There was no immunity in the conflict, unlike other genocides. Even those on the Khmer Rouge side were eliminated once they were suspected of not being loyal enough. Children were killed under a notion that stated “to permanently disable the weed you pull out the roots. “Several facilities such as schools, medical facilities, and churches were closed down. Child soldiers became part of the Khmer Rouge army. The international community remained silent on the ongoing atrocities in Cambodia. Neither Europe nor the US took interest in what was happening despite the frantic efforts by the western media to raise concerns. The United States had suffered heavy casualties in the Vietnam War and was in no position to engage in another conflict. The End Of The Genocide In 1977, clashes between Cambodia and Vietnam began. Two years later, Vietnam forced its way into Cambodia and overthrew the government which was comprised of the defectors of the Khmer Rouge. Other members fled to Thailand where they occasionally attacked Vietnam. For the next decade, the ousted members tried to overthrow the Vietnamese-backed regime with the aid of the Soviet Union and China. Vietnam withdrew from Cambodia in 1989 after the US placed economic sanctions on the occupied state while the Soviet Union withdrew its financial aid. In 1991, a coalition came to power. Two years later former head of state Norodom Sihanouk was elected as the president. About the Author Victor Kiprop is a writer from Kenya. When he's not writing he spends time watching soccer and documentaries, visiting friends, or working in the farm. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	782	ENGLISH	1
Who is Vladimir Lenin? Vladimir Illyic Ulyanov, also known as Vladimir Lenin, was the first leader of the Soviet Union and a key player in its October Revolution. Vladimir Lenin Background Born in 1870 as Vladimir Ulyanov, Lenin's revolutionary roots date to early in his life. In 1887, one of Lenin's brothers was hanged for participating in a terrorist attack on Tsar Alexander III. The authorities also banished his sister, Anna, who witnessed the attack. Lenin's brother was given several opportunities to recant his anarchist position against the tsar; he refused and was hanged. By several accounts, this was a turning point for Lenin. Lenin espoused an extreme dislike for Tsarist rule in Russia. He thought society should be free of class distinction and people should be free to live their lives without being constrained by the virtual caste system that existed in Russia at the time. He soon became involved in student protests and eventually got kicked out of college. He eventually got his degree in 1891 from St. Petersburg University. He worked for a couple of years but then became more interested in Marxist propaganda distribution, which got him arrested and sent to Siberia for 14 months. In 1898, he married a socialist activist (Nadezhda Krupskaya) and traveled Europe. During this time, he started writing articles and books about the revolutionary movement and chose his famous alias (Lenin). In 1901, he wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, "What is to be done?" which was widely read throughout Russia and abroad. In the pamphlet, Lenin argued that what Russia really needed was an "elite revolutionary vanguard" to help the oppressed classes overthrow the government. Specifically, Lenin felt that capitalists' habit of international trade was translating to higher wages in Russia and therefore quelling the appetite for revolution among workers. He argued that these markets had to be cut off. What set Lenin apart from Prussian-German Karl Marx was that Lenin thought he could bring communism to the rest of the world by changing the way people looked at "the oppressed class." He argued that a "dictatorship for the proletariat" was necessary to make things happen; the poor and oppressed couldn't do it for themselves. In the meantime, World War I was wrecking the Russian , which had a weak industrial infrastructure at the time. This led to the February Revolution of 1917, which overthrew Tsar Nicholas II. Lenin, who was living in Europe at the time, came back to Russia, madder than ever. He ran to Finland after a Bolshevik uprising, but then came back in October. His protests gathered massive support, leading to the arrest of the country's provisional government. He published his ideas for how governments should operate in his essay "State and Revolution." In it, Lenin called for government based on workers' councils, or "soviets," which were elected by the workers. It worked. On November 8, Lenin became the premier of the Council of People's Commissars. He pushed for socializing the health care system, emancipating women, improving education (literacy was a big problem), and getting out of World War I. This last part caused Russia to give up large portions of its western front. Not everybody was sold on Lenin, and there were plenty of uprisings. Lenin started responding to these disruptions by forming what was essentially a secret police force and persecuting and jailing members of opposing parties. Lenin began arguing that a single person should be in charge of each enterprise, which some felt conflicted with the idea that the workers were in charge of the means of production in Russia. Lenin argued that it was the most efficient way. In January 1918, an assassination attempt was made on Lenin while he rode in his car. The gunmen missed, but in August of that year, Fanya Kaplan, a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, shot him twice after a meeting. Lenin barely survived, and he increased his efforts to eradicate the "enemies of the Revolution." In 1922, he had at least 8,000 priests and workers executed after an uprising in a textile town. Civil war broke out in Russia, and supporters of various political movements fell into the mix. Foreign powers, including the U.S., France, Britain and Japan, also got involved. Lenin's side basically won the fight, which gave him the courage to try to spread the revolution west to Poland, Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. In May 1922, Lenin had a stroke. Two more followed, leaving him bedridden by 1923. Lenin died in 1924 at age 53. The city of Petrograd was renamed Leningrad in his honor. Why Does Vladimir Lenin Matter? Lenin is a symbol of how ideals and reality are often two different things. Though he sought a different economic way of life for his people, in practice, that ideal did not prove sustainable. Regardless, he is one of many Russian men who questioned the sustainability and purpose of capitalism and became famous for it.	<urn:uuid:228f8040-7081-4f35-8995-fc86b52d59cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://investinganswers.com/dictionary/v/vladimir-lenin	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00225.warc.gz	en	0.987188	1,024	3.421875	3	[ -0.43973055481910706, -0.13218002021312714, 0.4343302249908447, 0.16626542806625366, 0.07622679322957993, -0.16156640648841858, 0.5769107341766357, 0.35854679346084595, -0.337605357170105, 0.34973418712615967, 0.349321573972702, 0.316686749458313, 0.11513949930667877, 0.25191837549209595, ...	1	Who is Vladimir Lenin? Vladimir Illyic Ulyanov, also known as Vladimir Lenin, was the first leader of the Soviet Union and a key player in its October Revolution. Vladimir Lenin Background Born in 1870 as Vladimir Ulyanov, Lenin's revolutionary roots date to early in his life. In 1887, one of Lenin's brothers was hanged for participating in a terrorist attack on Tsar Alexander III. The authorities also banished his sister, Anna, who witnessed the attack. Lenin's brother was given several opportunities to recant his anarchist position against the tsar; he refused and was hanged. By several accounts, this was a turning point for Lenin. Lenin espoused an extreme dislike for Tsarist rule in Russia. He thought society should be free of class distinction and people should be free to live their lives without being constrained by the virtual caste system that existed in Russia at the time. He soon became involved in student protests and eventually got kicked out of college. He eventually got his degree in 1891 from St. Petersburg University. He worked for a couple of years but then became more interested in Marxist propaganda distribution, which got him arrested and sent to Siberia for 14 months. In 1898, he married a socialist activist (Nadezhda Krupskaya) and traveled Europe. During this time, he started writing articles and books about the revolutionary movement and chose his famous alias (Lenin). In 1901, he wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, "What is to be done?" which was widely read throughout Russia and abroad. In the pamphlet, Lenin argued that what Russia really needed was an "elite revolutionary vanguard" to help the oppressed classes overthrow the government. Specifically, Lenin felt that capitalists' habit of international trade was translating to higher wages in Russia and therefore quelling the appetite for revolution among workers. He argued that these markets had to be cut off. What set Lenin apart from Prussian-German Karl Marx was that Lenin thought he could bring communism to the rest of the world by changing the way people looked at "the oppressed class." He argued that a "dictatorship for the proletariat" was necessary to make things happen; the poor and oppressed couldn't do it for themselves. In the meantime, World War I was wrecking the Russian , which had a weak industrial infrastructure at the time. This led to the February Revolution of 1917, which overthrew Tsar Nicholas II. Lenin, who was living in Europe at the time, came back to Russia, madder than ever. He ran to Finland after a Bolshevik uprising, but then came back in October. His protests gathered massive support, leading to the arrest of the country's provisional government. He published his ideas for how governments should operate in his essay "State and Revolution." In it, Lenin called for government based on workers' councils, or "soviets," which were elected by the workers. It worked. On November 8, Lenin became the premier of the Council of People's Commissars. He pushed for socializing the health care system, emancipating women, improving education (literacy was a big problem), and getting out of World War I. This last part caused Russia to give up large portions of its western front. Not everybody was sold on Lenin, and there were plenty of uprisings. Lenin started responding to these disruptions by forming what was essentially a secret police force and persecuting and jailing members of opposing parties. Lenin began arguing that a single person should be in charge of each enterprise, which some felt conflicted with the idea that the workers were in charge of the means of production in Russia. Lenin argued that it was the most efficient way. In January 1918, an assassination attempt was made on Lenin while he rode in his car. The gunmen missed, but in August of that year, Fanya Kaplan, a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, shot him twice after a meeting. Lenin barely survived, and he increased his efforts to eradicate the "enemies of the Revolution." In 1922, he had at least 8,000 priests and workers executed after an uprising in a textile town. Civil war broke out in Russia, and supporters of various political movements fell into the mix. Foreign powers, including the U.S., France, Britain and Japan, also got involved. Lenin's side basically won the fight, which gave him the courage to try to spread the revolution west to Poland, Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. In May 1922, Lenin had a stroke. Two more followed, leaving him bedridden by 1923. Lenin died in 1924 at age 53. The city of Petrograd was renamed Leningrad in his honor. Why Does Vladimir Lenin Matter? Lenin is a symbol of how ideals and reality are often two different things. Though he sought a different economic way of life for his people, in practice, that ideal did not prove sustainable. Regardless, he is one of many Russian men who questioned the sustainability and purpose of capitalism and became famous for it.	1,071	ENGLISH	1
\|Robert Geiger coined the expression “The Dust Bowl” in the 1930s. This phrase described the conditions in the Midwest because of the persistent droughts that had plagued the United States. The Dust Bowl was concurrent with the Great Depression. It was the greatest man-made environmental disaster in American history at that time. The Dust Bowl, also known as the “Dirty Thirties,” included a varied array of weather conditions including blizzards, dust storms, and tornadoes. While Oklahoma and Texas were considered two of the most prosperous regions in the country at the start of 1930, there were many farming problems in that region. Wheat was an abundant crop, and farmers would plow straight furrows to plant as much wheat as possible. What the farmers did not realize was that they were doing extensive damage to the land. They quickly stripped its nutrients, and rain runoff caused erosion. With increased wheat harvests, the price of the once-scarce crop declined drastically. By 1931, farmers were not able to recoup the money they had invested to harvest their wheat crop. Many farmers faced financial disaster. The 1930s brought massive storms to the region, including three droughts between 1934 and 1936. In the aftermath of each drought, heavy rains pelted the nation. One of these heavy storms produced five inches of water in the Oklahoma Panhandle. The flooding was followed by a dust storm that caused extensive property damage to local homes and businesses. After the winter, the drought started again. It was impossible for farmers to plant their crops at the proper time, and the crops were not fully grown at harvest. The harvest was not large enough for farmers to make a profit or to repay the loans they had taken out over the year. The Dust Bowl received national attention in 1934. That year a tremendous dust storm blew dirt east from states such as Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas as far as Washington, D.C., and New York City. After this, the storms ceased, but record-breaking heat replaced them. The extreme weather caused many people in states such as Colorado, Kansas, Texas, and Oklahoma to die from heat stroke and overexposure. The Dust Bowl continued to be a plague on the region. People were isolated in their homes and business for long periods, not wanting to risk braving the storm outside. Finally, on April 14, 1935, the weather cleared and became bright and sunny. Birds flew through the sky. It seemed that the storm had finally passed. Then a giant cloud quickly moved into the region and brought back the dust storms. This event was known as “Black Sunday.” The horrendous weather conditions continued well into 1936, as record temperatures soared and flooding rains followed. A new type of storm arrived, a “snuster.” A snuster was the combination of a dust storm and a blizzard, engulfing entire regions at a time. Dust Bowl conditions continued to the end of the 1930s, adding to the already disastrous financial conditions brought on by the Great Depression. The Dust Bowl provided a late and often disregarded lesson on the dangers of carelessly altering the land. Who coined the term “Dust Bowl”? What does it describe? What weather conditions occurred during the Dust Bowl? What was the most abundant crop grown at this time? How did farmers plant this crop? What weather condition plagued the United States between 1934 and 1936? Describe the sequence of storms during the Dust Bowl.How did the drought impair the farmers’ planting of crops? What was significant about April 14, 1935? What was a “snuster”?	<urn:uuid:61cc623e-d42e-4798-9c61-25c0f3ed4bea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essaydocs.org/robert-geiger-coined-the-expression-the-dust-bowl-in-the-1930s.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00220.warc.gz	en	0.983091	749	3.84375	4	[ 0.06292110681533813, 0.13299137353897095, 0.05371629074215889, 0.20535625517368317, 0.30665624141693115, -0.07762013375759125, 0.15168778598308563, -0.10522626340389252, -0.36216360330581665, 0.02374056726694107, -0.3270686864852905, -0.5090893507003784, 0.5560356378555298, -0.104228481650...	1	\|Robert Geiger coined the expression “The Dust Bowl” in the 1930s. This phrase described the conditions in the Midwest because of the persistent droughts that had plagued the United States. The Dust Bowl was concurrent with the Great Depression. It was the greatest man-made environmental disaster in American history at that time. The Dust Bowl, also known as the “Dirty Thirties,” included a varied array of weather conditions including blizzards, dust storms, and tornadoes. While Oklahoma and Texas were considered two of the most prosperous regions in the country at the start of 1930, there were many farming problems in that region. Wheat was an abundant crop, and farmers would plow straight furrows to plant as much wheat as possible. What the farmers did not realize was that they were doing extensive damage to the land. They quickly stripped its nutrients, and rain runoff caused erosion. With increased wheat harvests, the price of the once-scarce crop declined drastically. By 1931, farmers were not able to recoup the money they had invested to harvest their wheat crop. Many farmers faced financial disaster. The 1930s brought massive storms to the region, including three droughts between 1934 and 1936. In the aftermath of each drought, heavy rains pelted the nation. One of these heavy storms produced five inches of water in the Oklahoma Panhandle. The flooding was followed by a dust storm that caused extensive property damage to local homes and businesses. After the winter, the drought started again. It was impossible for farmers to plant their crops at the proper time, and the crops were not fully grown at harvest. The harvest was not large enough for farmers to make a profit or to repay the loans they had taken out over the year. The Dust Bowl received national attention in 1934. That year a tremendous dust storm blew dirt east from states such as Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas as far as Washington, D.C., and New York City. After this, the storms ceased, but record-breaking heat replaced them. The extreme weather caused many people in states such as Colorado, Kansas, Texas, and Oklahoma to die from heat stroke and overexposure. The Dust Bowl continued to be a plague on the region. People were isolated in their homes and business for long periods, not wanting to risk braving the storm outside. Finally, on April 14, 1935, the weather cleared and became bright and sunny. Birds flew through the sky. It seemed that the storm had finally passed. Then a giant cloud quickly moved into the region and brought back the dust storms. This event was known as “Black Sunday.” The horrendous weather conditions continued well into 1936, as record temperatures soared and flooding rains followed. A new type of storm arrived, a “snuster.” A snuster was the combination of a dust storm and a blizzard, engulfing entire regions at a time. Dust Bowl conditions continued to the end of the 1930s, adding to the already disastrous financial conditions brought on by the Great Depression. The Dust Bowl provided a late and often disregarded lesson on the dangers of carelessly altering the land. Who coined the term “Dust Bowl”? What does it describe? What weather conditions occurred during the Dust Bowl? What was the most abundant crop grown at this time? How did farmers plant this crop? What weather condition plagued the United States between 1934 and 1936? Describe the sequence of storms during the Dust Bowl.How did the drought impair the farmers’ planting of crops? What was significant about April 14, 1935? What was a “snuster”?	770	ENGLISH	1
Contrary to popular belief, Anglo- Saxon England had queens, with the tenth-century Elfrida being the most powerful and notorious of them all. She was the first woman to be crowned Queen of England, sharing her husband King Edgar's imperial coronation at Bath in 973. The couple made a love match, with claims that they plotted the death of her first husband to ensure that she was free. Edgar divorced his second wife, a former nun, after conducting an adulterous affair with Elfrida, leading to an enmity between the two women that lasted until their deaths. During her marriage Elfrida claimed to be the king's only legitimate wife, but she failed to secure the succession for her son, Ethelred. Elfrida was implicated in the murder of her stepson, King Edward the Martyr, who died on a visit to her at Corfe Castle. She then ruled England on behalf of her young son for six years before he expelled her from court. Elfrida was eventually able to return to court but, since he proved himself unable to counter the Viking attacks, she may have come to regret winning the crown for Ethelred the Unready. Wife, mother, murderer, ruler, crowned queen. The life of Queen Elfrida was filled with drama as she rose to become the most powerful woman in Anglo-Saxon England.	<urn:uuid:e6f3b7f0-236c-47c8-8d5d-27eac174a64c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.telegraph.co.uk/Product/Elizabeth-Norton/Elfrida--The-First-Crowned-Queen-of-England/16050553	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00110.warc.gz	en	0.984121	289	3.421875	3	[ 0.09618953615427017, 0.6006566882133484, 0.3898974359035492, -0.04111247882246971, -0.06994229555130005, 0.09217742830514908, 0.14958155155181885, -0.06573106348514557, 0.5079309940338135, -0.4011775851249695, -0.1009921208024025, -0.3760891556739807, -0.15706881880760193, -0.1762939393520...	1	Contrary to popular belief, Anglo- Saxon England had queens, with the tenth-century Elfrida being the most powerful and notorious of them all. She was the first woman to be crowned Queen of England, sharing her husband King Edgar's imperial coronation at Bath in 973. The couple made a love match, with claims that they plotted the death of her first husband to ensure that she was free. Edgar divorced his second wife, a former nun, after conducting an adulterous affair with Elfrida, leading to an enmity between the two women that lasted until their deaths. During her marriage Elfrida claimed to be the king's only legitimate wife, but she failed to secure the succession for her son, Ethelred. Elfrida was implicated in the murder of her stepson, King Edward the Martyr, who died on a visit to her at Corfe Castle. She then ruled England on behalf of her young son for six years before he expelled her from court. Elfrida was eventually able to return to court but, since he proved himself unable to counter the Viking attacks, she may have come to regret winning the crown for Ethelred the Unready. Wife, mother, murderer, ruler, crowned queen. The life of Queen Elfrida was filled with drama as she rose to become the most powerful woman in Anglo-Saxon England.	283	ENGLISH	1
As more countries work towards true gender equality in all facets of life, Finland can proudly say it was one of the first to foster this ideal. Finland was the first country to grant women full political rights, including the right to vote. Universal suffrage became a Finnish law in 1906, when anyone aged 24 and over, maids and crofters included, was granted an equal vote. Then, people would often travel on skis to the nearest village to mark their choice on a ballot with a red line. Female Finnish journalist and politician Hedwig Gebhard proclaimed "furthering decency" and "improving the position of women," among others, as matters of conscience that women should vote for in her election proclamation. Women were not only in the poll lines, but on the ballot. Out of the 62 candidates who were women, 19 were elected to first Parliament, most of whom were representing the Social Democratic Party. Women have been represented in positions of political power in more recent Finnish history, too. In 2003, Anneli Jaatteenmaki became the first female Prime Minister of Finland. Finland's first female president, Tarja Halonen, served from 2000 until 2012. With an approval rating of 88%, Halonen was a very popular president. She was widely known for her interest in human rights issues, fighting for LGBT and women's rights issues throughout her presidency. She is a member of the Council of Women World Leaders, an international network of past and present female presidents and prime ministers who seek collective action on issues critical to women's equality. In fact, in 2007 there was a female majority in the government of Finland. Looking back again, there is a lot that led to women having a voice and being valued in Finland today. In the 1850's, Finnish women activists spoke about the importance of education for girls after reading works from the likes of John Stuart Mill. In 1878, equal inheritance rights were granted for women and men and in the 1880's, the first women's organizations were established. In 1886, the first coeducational school was opened, and at the turn of the century, women won the right to study at university. Married women have also had the right to paid employment without needing consent of their husbands for a century. Similarly, a new marriage act in 1930 was passed that released married women from the guardianship of their husbands. This freedom to work and recognition as an equal individual was important and necessary, as women kept the wheels turning while men were fighting at the forefront of the war. Women worked in hospitals, factories, and kept the farms running, and continued to do so after the war was over. Soon, women working and pursuing their own careers became the norm - but most importantly, they had the choice to. It's often hard to imagine that not that long ago, women didn't have many of the basic human rights that men did. It still is uplifting to look at how Finland took initiative to start making positive changes before many of its neighbors near and far did. Finland still has work to do in terms of social progress, as does the rest of the world; and the rest of the world can look to Finland as an example of pioneering progress.There is a Finnish emoji called "Girl Power," which celebrates Finland's leadership in equal rights. Finland was also the first country to develop its own set of emojis, each representing a unique and important part of its culture. It is so central to the country's identity that,t to honor 100 years of Finnish independence and the progress of women's rights over the last century, Finland launched the International Gender Equality Prize in 2007. It is intended to highlight the work of one person or organisation in the field of gender equality, and the first recipient was German Chancellor Angela Merkel.	<urn:uuid:1d24c32d-5ee2-4b4a-999b-2fa97641d89b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.finnstyle.com/equal-rights.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00452.warc.gz	en	0.988294	769	4.03125	4	[ -0.21794062852859497, 0.037987180054187775, -0.12889747321605682, -0.24144813418388367, -0.42851483821868896, 0.8330758810043335, 0.059490349143743515, 0.20527073740959167, 0.2304026186466217, 0.25943320989608765, -0.2169523537158966, -0.2206394374370575, 0.2708350718021393, 0.225491449236...	7	As more countries work towards true gender equality in all facets of life, Finland can proudly say it was one of the first to foster this ideal. Finland was the first country to grant women full political rights, including the right to vote. Universal suffrage became a Finnish law in 1906, when anyone aged 24 and over, maids and crofters included, was granted an equal vote. Then, people would often travel on skis to the nearest village to mark their choice on a ballot with a red line. Female Finnish journalist and politician Hedwig Gebhard proclaimed "furthering decency" and "improving the position of women," among others, as matters of conscience that women should vote for in her election proclamation. Women were not only in the poll lines, but on the ballot. Out of the 62 candidates who were women, 19 were elected to first Parliament, most of whom were representing the Social Democratic Party. Women have been represented in positions of political power in more recent Finnish history, too. In 2003, Anneli Jaatteenmaki became the first female Prime Minister of Finland. Finland's first female president, Tarja Halonen, served from 2000 until 2012. With an approval rating of 88%, Halonen was a very popular president. She was widely known for her interest in human rights issues, fighting for LGBT and women's rights issues throughout her presidency. She is a member of the Council of Women World Leaders, an international network of past and present female presidents and prime ministers who seek collective action on issues critical to women's equality. In fact, in 2007 there was a female majority in the government of Finland. Looking back again, there is a lot that led to women having a voice and being valued in Finland today. In the 1850's, Finnish women activists spoke about the importance of education for girls after reading works from the likes of John Stuart Mill. In 1878, equal inheritance rights were granted for women and men and in the 1880's, the first women's organizations were established. In 1886, the first coeducational school was opened, and at the turn of the century, women won the right to study at university. Married women have also had the right to paid employment without needing consent of their husbands for a century. Similarly, a new marriage act in 1930 was passed that released married women from the guardianship of their husbands. This freedom to work and recognition as an equal individual was important and necessary, as women kept the wheels turning while men were fighting at the forefront of the war. Women worked in hospitals, factories, and kept the farms running, and continued to do so after the war was over. Soon, women working and pursuing their own careers became the norm - but most importantly, they had the choice to. It's often hard to imagine that not that long ago, women didn't have many of the basic human rights that men did. It still is uplifting to look at how Finland took initiative to start making positive changes before many of its neighbors near and far did. Finland still has work to do in terms of social progress, as does the rest of the world; and the rest of the world can look to Finland as an example of pioneering progress.There is a Finnish emoji called "Girl Power," which celebrates Finland's leadership in equal rights. Finland was also the first country to develop its own set of emojis, each representing a unique and important part of its culture. It is so central to the country's identity that,t to honor 100 years of Finnish independence and the progress of women's rights over the last century, Finland launched the International Gender Equality Prize in 2007. It is intended to highlight the work of one person or organisation in the field of gender equality, and the first recipient was German Chancellor Angela Merkel.	814	ENGLISH	1
Remembering Martin Luther King, Jr. MLK Jr. Day is a national holiday honoring the work of the late pastor and human rights activist, Martin Luther King Jr. King believed in a fair country, undivided by race and class, where each child had as much opportunity as the next. As a nation, much of our great civic progress can be attributed to King and his unwavering conviction and his willingness to fight for the rights of all people. In his famous speech, “I Have a Dream,” King states that though African American citizens had been freed from slavery years before, they still were not free. Great prejudice was abundant in the days King lived. Schools were segregated, African American adults and children were discriminated against, and poverty ran rampant in black communities. King felt the words of the Constitution were ignored in regard to people of color, stating, “This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check; a check which has come back marked 'insufficient funds.'” King spoke at churches and rallies for over a decade, moving for citizens to abandon the racism that had impregnated society. He organized marches and campaigned for African American citizens to be given equal treatment. King sought to empower those affected by discrimination and transform our nation into a nation where each citizen was valued for what they brought to the table, rather than the color of their skin. Martin Luther King fought this battle for many years, rallying citizens all over the country. Though he was tragically assassinated April 4, 1968, his vision lives on. Ronald Reagan signed the bill declaring the third Monday of each January Martin Luther King Jr. Day in 1986. For 34 years, Americans have taken this day to remember King, his empowering words, and his work for our country. The annual MLK March will begin Monday at 10 a.m. at Cottrell Chapel CME.	<urn:uuid:0caded2a-7e0a-4bd0-bbfa-83b842cceca6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tribnow.com/news/remembering-martin-luther-king-jr	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00141.warc.gz	en	0.982721	452	3.71875	4	[ -0.19159242510795593, 0.3999321162700653, 0.40242037177085876, -0.10563943535089493, -0.4738265872001648, 0.17643430829048157, 0.03606415167450905, -0.05075700208544731, -0.4018951654434204, 0.3408154845237732, 0.09749920666217804, 0.6465531587600708, 0.1663990020751953, 0.0406702309846878...	2	Remembering Martin Luther King, Jr. MLK Jr. Day is a national holiday honoring the work of the late pastor and human rights activist, Martin Luther King Jr. King believed in a fair country, undivided by race and class, where each child had as much opportunity as the next. As a nation, much of our great civic progress can be attributed to King and his unwavering conviction and his willingness to fight for the rights of all people. In his famous speech, “I Have a Dream,” King states that though African American citizens had been freed from slavery years before, they still were not free. Great prejudice was abundant in the days King lived. Schools were segregated, African American adults and children were discriminated against, and poverty ran rampant in black communities. King felt the words of the Constitution were ignored in regard to people of color, stating, “This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check; a check which has come back marked 'insufficient funds.'” King spoke at churches and rallies for over a decade, moving for citizens to abandon the racism that had impregnated society. He organized marches and campaigned for African American citizens to be given equal treatment. King sought to empower those affected by discrimination and transform our nation into a nation where each citizen was valued for what they brought to the table, rather than the color of their skin. Martin Luther King fought this battle for many years, rallying citizens all over the country. Though he was tragically assassinated April 4, 1968, his vision lives on. Ronald Reagan signed the bill declaring the third Monday of each January Martin Luther King Jr. Day in 1986. For 34 years, Americans have taken this day to remember King, his empowering words, and his work for our country. The annual MLK March will begin Monday at 10 a.m. at Cottrell Chapel CME.	457	ENGLISH	1
ISBN-13: 9780195149746 / Angielski / Twarda / 2006 / 228 str. Most scholars since World War Two have assumed that composer Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809-1847) maintained a strong attachment to Judaism throughout his lifetime. As these commentators have rightly noted, Mendelssohn was born Jewish and did not convert to Protestantism until age seven, his grandfather was the famous Jewish reformer and philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, and his music was banned by the Nazis, who clearly viewed him as a Jew.Such facts tell only part of the story, however. Through a mix of cultural analysis, biographical study, and a close examination of the libretto drafts of Mendelssohn's sacred works, The Price of Assimilation provides dramatic new answers to the so-called "Mendelssohn Jewish question." Sposato demonstrates how Mendelssohn's father, Abraham, worked to distance the family from its Jewish past, and how Mendelssohn's reputation as a composer of Christian sacred music was threatened by the reverence with which German Jews viewed his family name. In order to prove the sincerity of his Christian faith to both his father and his audiences, Mendelssohn aligned his early sacred works with a nineteenth-century anti-Semitic musical tradition, and did so more fervently than even his Christian collaborators required. With the death of Mendelssohn's father and the near simultaneous establishment of the composer's career in Leipzig in 1835, however, Mendelssohn's fear of his background began to dissipate, and he began to explore ways in which he could prove the sincerity of his faith without having to publicly disparage his Jewish heritage.	<urn:uuid:3f80aad5-c41e-4109-96f2-713b324fcb85>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://krainaksiazek.pl/The-Price-of-Assimilation-Felix-Mendelssohn-and-the-Nineteenth-Century-Anti-Semitic-Tradition,9780195149746.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00014.warc.gz	en	0.983078	358	3.5	4	[ 0.29497483372688293, 0.680984616279602, -0.1232052743434906, -0.42197898030281067, -0.2245073765516281, 0.026700107380747795, -0.19514991343021393, 0.26603463292121887, -0.10430111736059189, -0.3617054224014282, -0.13666932284832, -0.051082707941532135, -0.027647335082292557, 0.14758537709...	1	ISBN-13: 9780195149746 / Angielski / Twarda / 2006 / 228 str. Most scholars since World War Two have assumed that composer Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809-1847) maintained a strong attachment to Judaism throughout his lifetime. As these commentators have rightly noted, Mendelssohn was born Jewish and did not convert to Protestantism until age seven, his grandfather was the famous Jewish reformer and philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, and his music was banned by the Nazis, who clearly viewed him as a Jew.Such facts tell only part of the story, however. Through a mix of cultural analysis, biographical study, and a close examination of the libretto drafts of Mendelssohn's sacred works, The Price of Assimilation provides dramatic new answers to the so-called "Mendelssohn Jewish question." Sposato demonstrates how Mendelssohn's father, Abraham, worked to distance the family from its Jewish past, and how Mendelssohn's reputation as a composer of Christian sacred music was threatened by the reverence with which German Jews viewed his family name. In order to prove the sincerity of his Christian faith to both his father and his audiences, Mendelssohn aligned his early sacred works with a nineteenth-century anti-Semitic musical tradition, and did so more fervently than even his Christian collaborators required. With the death of Mendelssohn's father and the near simultaneous establishment of the composer's career in Leipzig in 1835, however, Mendelssohn's fear of his background began to dissipate, and he began to explore ways in which he could prove the sincerity of his faith without having to publicly disparage his Jewish heritage.	375	ENGLISH	1
New US research has found that although dating during adolescence is common teenage behavior, which has been believed to help teens develop their social skills and learn about others, those who don't date may actually be less likely to be depressed and fare better than their dating peers. Carried out by the University of Georgia, the new study looked at 594 students who were followed from sixth through 12th grade. Every year, the students were asked whether they had dated, as well as to report on social and emotional factors such as their positive relationships with friends, at home, and at school, any symptoms of depression and suicidal thoughts. The students' teachers were also asked to complete questionnaires on their students' behavior, social skills, leadership skills and levels of depression. The findings, published online in The Journal of School Health, showed that in 10th grade, the students who were not dating had significantly higher ratings from their teachers for social skills and leadership, when compared to their dating peers. Although the students' own self‐reports of positive relationships did not differ among those who dated and those who did not, self‐reported depression was significantly lower among those who rarely or never dated. The teachers' scores on the depression scale were also significantly lower for the group that reported no dating. "The majority of teens have had some type of romantic experience by 15 to 17 years of age, or middle adolescence," said Brooke Douglas, the study's lead author. "This high frequency has led some researchers to suggest that dating during teenage years is a normative behavior. That is, adolescents who have a romantic relationship are therefore considered 'on time' in their psychological development," continued Douglas. "Does this mean that teens that don't date are maladjusted in some way? That they are social misfits? Few studies had examined the characteristics of youth who do not date during the teenage years, and we decided we wanted to learn more." However, despite dating being considered normal behavior, and even essential for a teenager's development, the new findings suggest otherwise. "In summary, we found that non-dating students are doing well and are simply following a different and healthy developmental trajectory than their dating peers," said co-author Pamela Orpinas. "While the study refutes the notion of non-daters as social misfits, it also calls for health promotion interventions at schools and elsewhere to include non-dating as an option for normal, healthy development," added Douglas. "As public health professionals, we can do a better job of affirming that adolescents do have the individual freedom to choose whether they want to date or not, and that either option is acceptable and healthy," she said.	<urn:uuid:8e2417da-2263-45ae-a779-a09b567f1c92>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sg.style.yahoo.com/teens-dont-date-better-social-skills-less-depressed-094636533.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00532.warc.gz	en	0.987317	546	3.390625	3	[ -0.18439963459968567, 0.2593817114830017, 0.27437126636505127, -0.17687025666236877, -0.3337554931640625, 0.006152986083179712, -0.45842957496643066, 0.12905308604240417, 0.37226757407188416, -0.40339797735214233, 0.7306141257286072, 0.179803729057312, 0.4745620787143707, 0.116177447140216...	3	New US research has found that although dating during adolescence is common teenage behavior, which has been believed to help teens develop their social skills and learn about others, those who don't date may actually be less likely to be depressed and fare better than their dating peers. Carried out by the University of Georgia, the new study looked at 594 students who were followed from sixth through 12th grade. Every year, the students were asked whether they had dated, as well as to report on social and emotional factors such as their positive relationships with friends, at home, and at school, any symptoms of depression and suicidal thoughts. The students' teachers were also asked to complete questionnaires on their students' behavior, social skills, leadership skills and levels of depression. The findings, published online in The Journal of School Health, showed that in 10th grade, the students who were not dating had significantly higher ratings from their teachers for social skills and leadership, when compared to their dating peers. Although the students' own self‐reports of positive relationships did not differ among those who dated and those who did not, self‐reported depression was significantly lower among those who rarely or never dated. The teachers' scores on the depression scale were also significantly lower for the group that reported no dating. "The majority of teens have had some type of romantic experience by 15 to 17 years of age, or middle adolescence," said Brooke Douglas, the study's lead author. "This high frequency has led some researchers to suggest that dating during teenage years is a normative behavior. That is, adolescents who have a romantic relationship are therefore considered 'on time' in their psychological development," continued Douglas. "Does this mean that teens that don't date are maladjusted in some way? That they are social misfits? Few studies had examined the characteristics of youth who do not date during the teenage years, and we decided we wanted to learn more." However, despite dating being considered normal behavior, and even essential for a teenager's development, the new findings suggest otherwise. "In summary, we found that non-dating students are doing well and are simply following a different and healthy developmental trajectory than their dating peers," said co-author Pamela Orpinas. "While the study refutes the notion of non-daters as social misfits, it also calls for health promotion interventions at schools and elsewhere to include non-dating as an option for normal, healthy development," added Douglas. "As public health professionals, we can do a better job of affirming that adolescents do have the individual freedom to choose whether they want to date or not, and that either option is acceptable and healthy," she said.	540	ENGLISH	1
One of the most famous emperors in ancient China was Qin Shihuang. Also known as Ying Zheng, he ruled the Chinese state of Qin from 247-210 BC. After he came to power, Chinese vassal states fought fiercely for their advantages. He died in 210 BC, unified the warring states period, became the first emperor of China, and established the Qin dynasty. During the reign of Qin Shihuang, massive construction projects were carried out to help build the infrastructure needed for an imperial China, often at the cost of many lives. The first version of the Great Wall of China was built during this period and was also the first national road system. The most famous remains of Qin Shihuang’s reign are his mausoleum in central China’s shaanxi province. Construction began in 246 b.c., and in addition to the emperor’s tomb, there were large palaces, valuables, rivers of mercury and landscapes painted on the ceiling. But the most striking feature of the tomb is the emperor’s guard: the terra-cotta warriors. The 8,000 soldiers, made of molds and clay, guarded the emperor’s tomb to help him after his death. Like other construction projects during the reign of Qin Shihuang, the construction of the mausoleum required a large labor force. It is estimated that 700,000 workers were involved in the construction of the mausoleum alone. In 2003, hundreds of remains were unearthed near the tomb. They are believed to be the remains of workers who built the monument, and a preliminary examination of their bones showed that they had been engaged in strenuous physical Labour until their death. But because the remains were poorly preserved, scientists were unable to determine the ethnic origin of the workers. With a vast territory and a population of 22 million, these workers could have come from anywhere. So the Chinese scientists decided to directly examine the mitochondrial DNA of these workers to discover their ethnic origin.	<urn:uuid:51144c13-31b1-441b-927f-32011881f326>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.chinaexpeditiontours.com/blog/who-built-the-terracotta-army/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00495.warc.gz	en	0.983	413	4.1875	4	[ -0.3717024624347687, 0.5409201979637146, 0.32061779499053955, -0.1396835297346115, -0.16041944921016693, -0.0984782725572586, 0.11622485518455505, -0.12920130789279938, 0.12540608644485474, 0.06790033727884293, 0.1101217269897461, -0.8793393969535828, 0.1607172191143036, 0.3736894428730011...	11	One of the most famous emperors in ancient China was Qin Shihuang. Also known as Ying Zheng, he ruled the Chinese state of Qin from 247-210 BC. After he came to power, Chinese vassal states fought fiercely for their advantages. He died in 210 BC, unified the warring states period, became the first emperor of China, and established the Qin dynasty. During the reign of Qin Shihuang, massive construction projects were carried out to help build the infrastructure needed for an imperial China, often at the cost of many lives. The first version of the Great Wall of China was built during this period and was also the first national road system. The most famous remains of Qin Shihuang’s reign are his mausoleum in central China’s shaanxi province. Construction began in 246 b.c., and in addition to the emperor’s tomb, there were large palaces, valuables, rivers of mercury and landscapes painted on the ceiling. But the most striking feature of the tomb is the emperor’s guard: the terra-cotta warriors. The 8,000 soldiers, made of molds and clay, guarded the emperor’s tomb to help him after his death. Like other construction projects during the reign of Qin Shihuang, the construction of the mausoleum required a large labor force. It is estimated that 700,000 workers were involved in the construction of the mausoleum alone. In 2003, hundreds of remains were unearthed near the tomb. They are believed to be the remains of workers who built the monument, and a preliminary examination of their bones showed that they had been engaged in strenuous physical Labour until their death. But because the remains were poorly preserved, scientists were unable to determine the ethnic origin of the workers. With a vast territory and a population of 22 million, these workers could have come from anywhere. So the Chinese scientists decided to directly examine the mitochondrial DNA of these workers to discover their ethnic origin.	422	ENGLISH	1
As children become adults their social behavior changes in some ways. what are the main differences between young children's social behavior and that of adults? To what extent are the changes that take place good? Regarding society's morals and standards of behavior, children are born as "clean slates". One of the main purposes of their upbringing is to instill these moral codes into them in order to raise well-functioning members of society. However, in the process of moulding them into an acceptable shape, some desirable qualities can be lost. The greatest lesson children need to be taught is how to co-exist and co-operate with others. Very young children are rather self-centred, but, as they grow up, they acquire the ability to consider others' interests as well as their own. They also learn to take on more responsibility, so that by adulthood most children mature into reliable individuals with a well-developed sense of duty. On the other hand, these assets come at a cost, as children might lose their individuality in their attempts to fit in. For instance, much has been said about young children's creativity, but this fresh outlook on life is likely to vanish after children start their formal education and are taught the conventional approaches to thinking. By the time they reach adulthood, very few retain the capability of thinking outside the box. The mass media is also culpable for bringing individuals to the same level as they have considerable influence on the development of one's beliefs. Due to the mass-media's promotion on consumerism and glamorous lifestyles, most young people learn to place value on material possessions rather than spirituality. To conclude, well-adjusted older members of society are more dependable and dutiful than children. However, many of them have lost part of their identity as a price to conform to society's norms.	<urn:uuid:aacbc9e5-6522-4baf-8f04-00cd9c067110>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essayforum.com/writing/children-become-adults-social-behavior-56227/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00181.warc.gz	en	0.982154	373	3.734375	4	[ 0.2240341603755951, -0.04243485629558563, 0.25995945930480957, -0.5678635835647583, -0.22732965648174286, 0.6208246350288391, -0.02546454407274723, 0.14340049028396606, -0.06843817979097366, -0.04233647882938385, 0.3009010851383209, 0.09125707298517227, 0.2651078402996063, 0.00022770228679...	2	As children become adults their social behavior changes in some ways. what are the main differences between young children's social behavior and that of adults? To what extent are the changes that take place good? Regarding society's morals and standards of behavior, children are born as "clean slates". One of the main purposes of their upbringing is to instill these moral codes into them in order to raise well-functioning members of society. However, in the process of moulding them into an acceptable shape, some desirable qualities can be lost. The greatest lesson children need to be taught is how to co-exist and co-operate with others. Very young children are rather self-centred, but, as they grow up, they acquire the ability to consider others' interests as well as their own. They also learn to take on more responsibility, so that by adulthood most children mature into reliable individuals with a well-developed sense of duty. On the other hand, these assets come at a cost, as children might lose their individuality in their attempts to fit in. For instance, much has been said about young children's creativity, but this fresh outlook on life is likely to vanish after children start their formal education and are taught the conventional approaches to thinking. By the time they reach adulthood, very few retain the capability of thinking outside the box. The mass media is also culpable for bringing individuals to the same level as they have considerable influence on the development of one's beliefs. Due to the mass-media's promotion on consumerism and glamorous lifestyles, most young people learn to place value on material possessions rather than spirituality. To conclude, well-adjusted older members of society are more dependable and dutiful than children. However, many of them have lost part of their identity as a price to conform to society's norms.	363	ENGLISH	1
AncientPages.com - As a means of communications, the Inca used fast roadrunners to relay messages. The roadrunners were the mailmen of the Inca Empire. Not everyone could become a roadrunner, or chasqui. It was a specialized and honorable profession that required studies. Without these specially trained Incan mailmen, controlling the vast Inca Empire would have been almost impossible. The Incan communication system was based on chains of runners to relay messages. Most messages were oral. Some were sent by Quipu, the knotted language of the Inca. Since the Inca had no writing system the runner had to remember the message, and relay it to the next person. The Incan roadrunners were very fast and they could carry messages at a rate of about 250 miles a day. Each runner would run for one to two 1/2 miles along the famous Inca roads. There were small relay station buildings spaced along the roads where fresh runners watched and waited for the arrival of the messenger. As he approached the relay station, the runner blew loudly on a conch shell to alert the next runner to get ready. The next runner would appear, running along side the first. Without stopping, the first runner told the second runner the message. The second runner then speeded ahead until he reached the next relay station. Chasquis served for fifteen days at a time. The chasqui did not have guards and they never carried weapons to defend themselves. They always ran alone. Still, this type of Inca communication was highly effective. It was vital that the messages always reached the Sapa Inca accurately. If it was discovered that a message was not accurate, punishment was severe and a roadrunner could be killed.	<urn:uuid:6477d092-a4e8-4029-85d0-3dbdaebb2e27>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.ancientpages.com/2016/03/20/inca-communication-mailmen-inca-empire-fast-roadrunners/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00344.warc.gz	en	0.985956	365	4.03125	4	[ -0.5006195306777954, 0.256169855594635, 0.21665699779987335, 0.2710155248641968, -0.16984832286834717, -0.4667516350746155, -0.03354426845908165, 0.26719653606414795, 0.18799534440040588, -0.046198464930057526, 0.1770084649324417, -0.4414443075656891, 0.03564523160457611, 0.102973960340023...	1	AncientPages.com - As a means of communications, the Inca used fast roadrunners to relay messages. The roadrunners were the mailmen of the Inca Empire. Not everyone could become a roadrunner, or chasqui. It was a specialized and honorable profession that required studies. Without these specially trained Incan mailmen, controlling the vast Inca Empire would have been almost impossible. The Incan communication system was based on chains of runners to relay messages. Most messages were oral. Some were sent by Quipu, the knotted language of the Inca. Since the Inca had no writing system the runner had to remember the message, and relay it to the next person. The Incan roadrunners were very fast and they could carry messages at a rate of about 250 miles a day. Each runner would run for one to two 1/2 miles along the famous Inca roads. There were small relay station buildings spaced along the roads where fresh runners watched and waited for the arrival of the messenger. As he approached the relay station, the runner blew loudly on a conch shell to alert the next runner to get ready. The next runner would appear, running along side the first. Without stopping, the first runner told the second runner the message. The second runner then speeded ahead until he reached the next relay station. Chasquis served for fifteen days at a time. The chasqui did not have guards and they never carried weapons to defend themselves. They always ran alone. Still, this type of Inca communication was highly effective. It was vital that the messages always reached the Sapa Inca accurately. If it was discovered that a message was not accurate, punishment was severe and a roadrunner could be killed.	360	ENGLISH	1
Henry V Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Henry V was born circa 11th August 1086, in Goslar, Saxony. His father was Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, and his mother, Bertha of Savoy. In 1099, His father crowned Henry King of Germany. His older brother was heir to the throne but was a rebel, so Henry IV crowned his younger son instead. Henry insisted he would not become involved in the Empire while his father lived. However, his father's enemies enticed Henry to rebel in 1104. Henry IV abdicated in 1105, and he died shortly after. Ruling and War Henry V began a campaign in 1107. He fought several wars over the next few years in Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland. Henry's father and the papacy continually disagreed. The papacy supported Henry V and now sought his support in return, but Henry preferred the Bishops. Henry then invaded Italy because of the disagreement. In February 1111, Henry arrived at St. Peter's Basilica for his coronation. Pope Paschal II refused to perform the ceremony. Henry, in return, refused to provide his renunciation of the right of investiture. The ceremony took place on 13th April, and Henry V then traveled back to Germany. In 1112 and 1113, Henry battled two uprisings, and he won both. Henry married Matilda on 7th January 1114. She was the daughter of Henry I, King of England. In 1114, another uprising took place by Cologne. Henry V initially retreated, and although a more significant battle ensued, Henry lost the war. A papal council excommunicated Henry V from the church in 1111. When Matilda of Tuscany died in 1115, Henry took control of her lands, and he was happily received in Rome. His enemies took encouragement in his defeat at the hands of Cologne. Pope Paschal II died, and Gelasius II became the new pope. He fled as Henry returned to Rome, so a treaty could not be made. Henry V quelled his opposition in Germany, and talks began with the new pope. In September 1122, Henry signed the Concordat of Worms. He agreed to return church property, and he renounced the right of investiture. In return, the church received Henry once more. Over the next two years, Henry led his army to war in Holland, and another in France. Henry V died on 23rd May 1125 from cancer. Henry bequeathed his estate to his nephew, Frederick II of Swabia. During his lifetime, Henry ruled three countries simultaneously. He was King of Italy from 1098 to 1125, and King of Germany from 1099 to 1125. He was also King of Arles from 1105 to 1125, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1111 to 1125.	<urn:uuid:0020f7e5-e122-4f60-9a2d-665794fc2c78>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/henry-v/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00080.warc.gz	en	0.988578	623	3.578125	4	[ -0.37471461296081543, 0.5700725317001343, 0.05814584344625473, -0.035180818289518356, -0.4317042827606201, 0.024671301245689392, 0.39961835741996765, 0.25821906328201294, 0.17963635921478271, -0.22677020728588104, -0.23256942629814148, -0.7516344785690308, -0.11218884587287903, 0.396489500...	9	Henry V Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Henry V was born circa 11th August 1086, in Goslar, Saxony. His father was Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, and his mother, Bertha of Savoy. In 1099, His father crowned Henry King of Germany. His older brother was heir to the throne but was a rebel, so Henry IV crowned his younger son instead. Henry insisted he would not become involved in the Empire while his father lived. However, his father's enemies enticed Henry to rebel in 1104. Henry IV abdicated in 1105, and he died shortly after. Ruling and War Henry V began a campaign in 1107. He fought several wars over the next few years in Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland. Henry's father and the papacy continually disagreed. The papacy supported Henry V and now sought his support in return, but Henry preferred the Bishops. Henry then invaded Italy because of the disagreement. In February 1111, Henry arrived at St. Peter's Basilica for his coronation. Pope Paschal II refused to perform the ceremony. Henry, in return, refused to provide his renunciation of the right of investiture. The ceremony took place on 13th April, and Henry V then traveled back to Germany. In 1112 and 1113, Henry battled two uprisings, and he won both. Henry married Matilda on 7th January 1114. She was the daughter of Henry I, King of England. In 1114, another uprising took place by Cologne. Henry V initially retreated, and although a more significant battle ensued, Henry lost the war. A papal council excommunicated Henry V from the church in 1111. When Matilda of Tuscany died in 1115, Henry took control of her lands, and he was happily received in Rome. His enemies took encouragement in his defeat at the hands of Cologne. Pope Paschal II died, and Gelasius II became the new pope. He fled as Henry returned to Rome, so a treaty could not be made. Henry V quelled his opposition in Germany, and talks began with the new pope. In September 1122, Henry signed the Concordat of Worms. He agreed to return church property, and he renounced the right of investiture. In return, the church received Henry once more. Over the next two years, Henry led his army to war in Holland, and another in France. Henry V died on 23rd May 1125 from cancer. Henry bequeathed his estate to his nephew, Frederick II of Swabia. During his lifetime, Henry ruled three countries simultaneously. He was King of Italy from 1098 to 1125, and King of Germany from 1099 to 1125. He was also King of Arles from 1105 to 1125, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1111 to 1125.	672	ENGLISH	1
Crassus was the architect of his own downfall .. he had crushed the slave uprising led by Spartacus in 71 BC, where after convinced of his own military prowess he recruited an army and Marched on Parthia modern Turkey, no member of his legions ever returned to Italy while after his surrender the Parthians poured molten lead down his throat. A Roman Diplomatic Mission that journeyed to that country some thirty five years on located a single survivor, who recounted the Syrian towns and villages on the invasion route were filled with all manner of statuary which the Romans looted. The extra weight slowed their column which became strung out while those at the rear parties were under constant harassment by the Syrian cavalry .. experienced Roman Officers on Crassus' staff advised him to halt the column at a certain river, build a repository for the loot and allow the stragglers to catch up. Crassus spurned their advice and insisted the column should march on which it did to extinction .. the survivor was from an engineering detachment whose leaders realized what was taking place and knew the danger they were in, he said they built a stockade from where they defended themselves. Which is how they escaped the fate the rest of the army suffered .. he knew of only seven other living survivors who were in outlying parts of the country, he had taken up with a Syrian woman and with his engineering skills he became one of the leading citizens and builders in that country. Crassus had determined to make a name for himself after Pompey had upstaged him in the handling of the slave rebellion of Spartacus. As the Roman governor of Syria, Crassus set out to extend Rome's lands eastward into Parthia. He was not prepared for the Persian Cataphracts or heavily armored cavalry and their military style.	<urn:uuid:9cf3504a-93b9-42ad-b9d0-7879ad428d88>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://truth-zone.net/forum/history/72597-the-downfall-of-roman-general-marcus-licinius-crassus-53-bc.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00452.warc.gz	en	0.990206	368	3.578125	4	[ -0.1500287652015686, 0.5997735857963562, 0.42587393522262573, -0.08267410099506378, -0.446617990732193, -0.14118051528930664, 0.024745604023337364, 0.4014573395252228, -0.14522773027420044, -0.251613050699234, 0.17076998949050903, -0.6286079287528992, 0.056143976747989655, 0.32324060797691...	3	Crassus was the architect of his own downfall .. he had crushed the slave uprising led by Spartacus in 71 BC, where after convinced of his own military prowess he recruited an army and Marched on Parthia modern Turkey, no member of his legions ever returned to Italy while after his surrender the Parthians poured molten lead down his throat. A Roman Diplomatic Mission that journeyed to that country some thirty five years on located a single survivor, who recounted the Syrian towns and villages on the invasion route were filled with all manner of statuary which the Romans looted. The extra weight slowed their column which became strung out while those at the rear parties were under constant harassment by the Syrian cavalry .. experienced Roman Officers on Crassus' staff advised him to halt the column at a certain river, build a repository for the loot and allow the stragglers to catch up. Crassus spurned their advice and insisted the column should march on which it did to extinction .. the survivor was from an engineering detachment whose leaders realized what was taking place and knew the danger they were in, he said they built a stockade from where they defended themselves. Which is how they escaped the fate the rest of the army suffered .. he knew of only seven other living survivors who were in outlying parts of the country, he had taken up with a Syrian woman and with his engineering skills he became one of the leading citizens and builders in that country. Crassus had determined to make a name for himself after Pompey had upstaged him in the handling of the slave rebellion of Spartacus. As the Roman governor of Syria, Crassus set out to extend Rome's lands eastward into Parthia. He was not prepared for the Persian Cataphracts or heavily armored cavalry and their military style.	372	ENGLISH	1
From 1948 to 1960 the policies and strategies of apartheid changed. It began as rules and regulations for example putting people into different groups based on their color and spiraled into violence, such as the massacre at Sharpsville. Over time the rules and severity of apartheid increasingly generated more violence. The government passed laws that were more restrictive and harsh, and the movement of the African National Congress (ANC) responded with violence. In 1952, the government passed a law called the Natives Act. It required all blacks to have a reference book when they turned sixteen. A reference book was a form of identification that would prove who they were and where they lived. It contained ninety-six pages with all sorts of information. The government was an increase of restriction due to apartheid for they just restricted the old law they had called Pass Laws. The Natives Laws humiliated the blacks. As it was exclusively applied to them, and not people of other ethnic backgrounds. The blacks had to carry the reference book around at all times and they nicknamed it "the stinker". On the other hand whites were given an identity card which they did not have to carry it on their person. The penalty for a black person not carrying their book was being arrested. This was only the beginning of the increase of restrictions that the government would come up with. The Blacks on the other hand also grew more violent and mad about the idea of apartheid and the Native Act, for they were infuriated that the government would take a law that was already despised and make it harsher. Another act was passed by the government that increased tension. They passed the Natives Resettlement Act in 1954. This was to move all of the black people (57,000 people) out of the town, called Sophiatown, to a new area. This was done because they believed that blacks were living in a "white area".	<urn:uuid:6ea497c4-f10b-4599-a52e-51ae8ba49309>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/4207.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00073.warc.gz	en	0.988742	377	4	4	[ -0.3867655098438263, 0.43311673402786255, 0.014950217679142952, -0.1303682178258896, -0.018204938620328903, 0.2322266697883606, 0.18432322144508362, -0.18912121653556824, -0.4729498624801636, 0.36521613597869873, 0.5816214084625244, 0.05439778417348862, -0.15024437010288239, 0.186320826411...	9	From 1948 to 1960 the policies and strategies of apartheid changed. It began as rules and regulations for example putting people into different groups based on their color and spiraled into violence, such as the massacre at Sharpsville. Over time the rules and severity of apartheid increasingly generated more violence. The government passed laws that were more restrictive and harsh, and the movement of the African National Congress (ANC) responded with violence. In 1952, the government passed a law called the Natives Act. It required all blacks to have a reference book when they turned sixteen. A reference book was a form of identification that would prove who they were and where they lived. It contained ninety-six pages with all sorts of information. The government was an increase of restriction due to apartheid for they just restricted the old law they had called Pass Laws. The Natives Laws humiliated the blacks. As it was exclusively applied to them, and not people of other ethnic backgrounds. The blacks had to carry the reference book around at all times and they nicknamed it "the stinker". On the other hand whites were given an identity card which they did not have to carry it on their person. The penalty for a black person not carrying their book was being arrested. This was only the beginning of the increase of restrictions that the government would come up with. The Blacks on the other hand also grew more violent and mad about the idea of apartheid and the Native Act, for they were infuriated that the government would take a law that was already despised and make it harsher. Another act was passed by the government that increased tension. They passed the Natives Resettlement Act in 1954. This was to move all of the black people (57,000 people) out of the town, called Sophiatown, to a new area. This was done because they believed that blacks were living in a "white area".	397	ENGLISH	1
On Apollo 15, 16, and 17 NASA filmed the Lunar Module taking off and leaving the moon. With no-one on the moon how could the the camera move to follow it and who brought the exposed film back to Earth? It depends on which "film" and mission you are referring to. (The original question referred to "the first moon landing". Later edits refer to the last 3 landings.) For the first moon landing, Apollo 11, the lift off was filmed with a motion picture camera inside of lunar module looking out the window. Obviously they carried that camera home with them and develop the film after returning to Earth. (The landing was filmed the same way: camera pointing through the window.) For the last three missions, Apollo 15, 16, and 17, those were recorded from the TV camera on the lunar rover and used video transmission. No film and no processing was involved. Elizabeth Howell — Universe Today 12/16/14 11:20am https://io9.gizmodo.com/how-nasa-captured-this-iconic-footage-of-apollo-17-leav-1671650186 provided the explanation also supplied by Uwe, above. It was a live TV/video feed from the LRV (lunar rover). Repeated on several missions. Edit 22 July 2019 - Quotes from link provided to complete this answer so information is not lost due to link rot. When Apollo 17 lifted off from the moon 42 years ago this week, a camera captured the movements of the spacecraft — even though nobody was left behind to, say, establish a lunar base. ... a camera on the lunar rover that could be controlled — or even programmed — from Earth Now, the way that worked was this. Harley Weyer, who worked for me, sat down and figured what the trajectory would be and where the lunar rover would be each second as it moved out, and what your settings would go to. That picture you see was taken without looking at it [the liftoff] at all. There was no watching it and doing anything with that picture. As the crew counted down, that's a [Apollo] 17 picture you see, as [Eugene] Cernan counted down and he knew he had to park in the right place because I was going to kill him, he didn't — and Gene and I are good friends, he'll tell you that — I actually sent the first command at liftoff minus three seconds. And each command was scripted, and all I was doing was looking at a clock, sending commands. I was not looking at the television. I really didn't see it until it was over with and played back. Those were just pre-set commands that were just punched out via time. That's the way it was followed.	<urn:uuid:f6c65c83-9fce-4521-a113-60ee029f899d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://space.stackexchange.com/questions/33227/exit-film-of-moon-landing-departure	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00043.warc.gz	en	0.984921	585	3.578125	4	[ 0.04313569515943527, 0.1655893176794052, 0.21543940901756287, -0.5125671625137329, -0.1205940917134285, -0.023597747087478638, -0.1419028341770172, -0.003914800006896257, -0.09321105480194092, 0.1861923635005951, 0.5523287057876587, -0.20836186408996582, -0.11824852228164673, 0.21727015078...	11	On Apollo 15, 16, and 17 NASA filmed the Lunar Module taking off and leaving the moon. With no-one on the moon how could the the camera move to follow it and who brought the exposed film back to Earth? It depends on which "film" and mission you are referring to. (The original question referred to "the first moon landing". Later edits refer to the last 3 landings.) For the first moon landing, Apollo 11, the lift off was filmed with a motion picture camera inside of lunar module looking out the window. Obviously they carried that camera home with them and develop the film after returning to Earth. (The landing was filmed the same way: camera pointing through the window.) For the last three missions, Apollo 15, 16, and 17, those were recorded from the TV camera on the lunar rover and used video transmission. No film and no processing was involved. Elizabeth Howell — Universe Today 12/16/14 11:20am https://io9.gizmodo.com/how-nasa-captured-this-iconic-footage-of-apollo-17-leav-1671650186 provided the explanation also supplied by Uwe, above. It was a live TV/video feed from the LRV (lunar rover). Repeated on several missions. Edit 22 July 2019 - Quotes from link provided to complete this answer so information is not lost due to link rot. When Apollo 17 lifted off from the moon 42 years ago this week, a camera captured the movements of the spacecraft — even though nobody was left behind to, say, establish a lunar base. ... a camera on the lunar rover that could be controlled — or even programmed — from Earth Now, the way that worked was this. Harley Weyer, who worked for me, sat down and figured what the trajectory would be and where the lunar rover would be each second as it moved out, and what your settings would go to. That picture you see was taken without looking at it [the liftoff] at all. There was no watching it and doing anything with that picture. As the crew counted down, that's a [Apollo] 17 picture you see, as [Eugene] Cernan counted down and he knew he had to park in the right place because I was going to kill him, he didn't — and Gene and I are good friends, he'll tell you that — I actually sent the first command at liftoff minus three seconds. And each command was scripted, and all I was doing was looking at a clock, sending commands. I was not looking at the television. I really didn't see it until it was over with and played back. Those were just pre-set commands that were just punched out via time. That's the way it was followed.	601	ENGLISH	1
Every one of us has heard of instances where someone was in an emergency, and even though there were other people present, no one bothered to help the helpless victim. This strange phenomenon is known as the bystander effect. “There is no exercise better for the heart than reaching down and lifting people up.” ― John Holmes The circumstances under which Kitty Genovese was murdered on 13 March 1964, has been extensively cited as a suitable example of ‘bystander effect’. Genovese was stabbed to death at around 3:15 a.m while on her way back from work to her apartment in Queens, New York. She was stabbed by serial rapist Winston Moseley, who fled the crime scene after one of the neighbors shouted at him to leave her alone. However, the assailant returned after ten minutes, stabbed the victim many times over, raped her, and left her for dead. Even though she screamed for help, her neighbors did not come to her rescue. Thus, also known as the Genovese syndrome, the bystander effect is a psychological phenomenon that theorizes that the greater the number of bystanders present, the lesser is the likelihood of any of them coming forth to rescue the person in distress. The term was coined by psychologists John Darley and Bibb Latané in 1968, after they conducted a series of non-dangerous or violent emergency-based experiments to find out why the witnesses in the Kitty Genovese murder did not help her. Bystander Effect in Psychology The first reason put forth by psychologists was that no single individual feels the absolute pressure to intervene when the responsibility for intervention is shared among multiple observers, and thus, no one takes the initiative to offer help to the distressed person. However, when there is only one onlooker, he/she is more likely to help the person in distress because of his/her individualistic pressure to intervene. However, the individual bystander may also choose to ignore and not offer help, if his/her personal security is threatened or if he/she does not wish to get unnecessarily involved in the situation. The second consideration submitted by the duo was that, even though a bystander cannot closely observe the other bystanders, on seeing multiple bystanders, he may assume that the emergency is being resolved by the others, and his own efforts to intervene would be useless, or perhaps cause further confusion or damage. This way, the passive bystander justifies his inaction by assuring himself that others are there to intervene and help the individual in distress. Bystander Effect Experiment This was one of the first ever experiments conducted to determine whether the presence of other people near the distressed person inhibited the bystanders from intervening to offer assistance. A bunch of college students (subjects) were made to sit in a cubicle and instructed to speak to fellow students using an intercom. The students were also instructed that only one student would be allowed to use the intercom at one time and that they would be speaking either individually, in a pair, or in a group of six. What the student subjects were not told was that there would be only one confederate (assistant to the research) who would be speaking with them. During the conversation with the fellow students, the confederate was instructed to mention that he had suffered episodes of seizure in the past. The confederate then pretended that he was having a seizure attack during the conversation and screamed for help from the fellow students. The experiment revealed the following results: - 85% of students in the pair setting left their room to look for help because they thought they were the only witness to the crisis. - 62% of students from the three-person group, offered to help the student suffering from a seizure. - Only 31% of students from the six-person group left the room to help the person in distress. These results were attributed to an evident ‘diffusion of responsibility’, wherein the presence of multiple bystanders reduced their sense of personal responsibility to help the distressed person. Realistic experiments were conducted by the duo, in order to prove the hypothesis that with the presence of more bystanders in an emergency, the possibility of any one bystander taking the initiative to offer help will not only be less likely but also slow. In one of the experiments conducted to test this hypothesis, the student subjects were assessed under the pretext of filling out a questionnaire. There were three experimental scenarios that were created to test the results. - The first one involved making subjects sit alone in one of the rooms and fill the questionnaire. - The second scenario involved making three subjects sit together in a room. - The third scenario involved making one of the subjects sit with two research confederates, who were instructed to pretend that they were students as well. The premise of the experiment was to record how the subjects would react in the face of an emergency. While the subjects were going through their questionnaire, smoke was filled into the room to make it appear as if there is a possible fire threat. The experiment revealed the following results: - 75% of subjects who were sitting alone, reported the smoke to the experimenter. - Only 38% of subjects sitting in a group of three reported the smoke. - Only 10% of subjects who sat with the confederates, reported the fire, because the confederates were instructed to ignore the smoke when it appeared and act ‘not bothered.’ The explanation of only 10% of subjects reporting the smoke in the last experiment, verified that bystanders often get misled by the reactions of others around them. In this case, since the two confederates did not show any traces of fear or panic, most of the subjects controlled their behavior and chose to not react either. This tendency to not react is known as ‘pluralistic ignorance’, wherein the supposed calm reaction of other people is construed as a sign that everything is fine and there is no emergency. These experiments led to the hypothesis that the presence of more people can significantly delay the reaction time of bystanders. Another experiment was carried out by psychologists John Darley and Daniel Batson at the Princeton campus, to check the relation between lateness and the bystander effect. A confederate student was asked to feign illness and was seen by the other students. Although the campus students saw the slumped and visibly distressed student groaning, only 10% stopped to show their concern and offer help, even though they were late. However, when not running against time, more than 60% students offered their help to the student in distress. Variables that Explain the Bystander Effect Ambiguity: Being unclear as to whether a person requires help or not, can severely affect the reaction of bystanders. Bystanders are also less likely to help if they are unsure about their own well-being and would rarely put themselves at risk. Group Cohesiveness: Bystanders who are familiar with one another are more likely to work as a team and be the first to offer assistance to the person in distress. Studies conducted in this area revealed that the less cohesive groups were the slowest and disinclined to offer their help, as compared to the high cohesive groups who were familiar with one another. Similarities: Research based on altruism found that a bystander was more inclined to help the person in distress, if there was something in common between them, such as the same gender, being football fans, and the victim wearing a football jersey. Familiar Environment: A bystander who is familiar with the locality and knows his way in and around the place, will be more inclined to help the victim because he will feel more secure in doing so. Diffusion of Responsibility:The presence of multiple bystanders immediately reduced the personal responsibility of the passive bystander. The fact that others can help and the belief that someone else is more qualified to intervene and assist, makes most bystanders withdraw and not participate in helping the victim. A True Story Based on the Bystander Effect I, for one, have witnessed this psychological phenomenon and experienced its desensitizing effect on the bystanders present during the episode. Which is why I wished to gain a deeper understanding of this phenomenon. While waiting to cross the road on a peculiarly hot afternoon, a lady standing besides me, crossed the road a bit too early and was instantly slammed by a motorcyclist. At one moment, she was standing and the next, I saw her rolling on the road from the impact. I did not think, I did not calculate my next move, all I remember doing was running towards her. A huge group of people had surrounded her and were just standing there, shocked and unmoving. No one budged to help the injured woman. I had to shove and push my way through the circle to reach her. The motorcyclist was there, and he seemed too shocked for words. When I approached her, I noticed that copious amounts of blood was oozing from her ear and that she was barely conscious. I tried to wake her up and checked her breathing, which was barely noticeable. I knew there was no time to call the ambulance, and something had to be done immediately. Someone was kind enough to call for a taxicab, and I somehow managed to pick her up! I was assisted by a man, who also offered to take her to the hospital. I gave him my phone number and instructed him to call me and keep me updated. The motorcyclist accompanied the accident victim to the hospital. The victim’s husband called to inform me that his wife needed to be operated and that the doctors had told him that had she not been brought in so early, she would have probably died. That’s when I realized that had I been a bit late or not offered to help, that woman would not have made it, and that still sends shivers down my spine … The opposite of a passive bystander is the active bystander, who is naturally tuned to respond to crisis and help people in need. According to Holocaust survivor and sociologist Samuel Oliner, much of this tendency to come forth and help has been attributed to the qualities instilled by the parents of such individuals. The parents of active bystanders were more caring, tolerant, and empathetic towards not only their own children, but everybody, and that quality has inspired their children to do the same.	<urn:uuid:e48efc68-afd8-4d7a-8486-3d8ba740510e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://psychologenie.com/bystander-effect-social-psychological-phenomenon	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00091.warc.gz	en	0.984265	2,127	3.3125	3	[ -0.16876468062400818, 0.18005253374576569, 0.19221195578575134, 0.08642309159040451, 0.34427082538604736, -0.010822026990354061, 0.6302189826965332, 0.23010943830013275, 0.11287601292133331, -0.233571395277977, 0.2552970051765442, 0.25986146926879883, -0.10686314851045609, 0.00730399414896...	7	Every one of us has heard of instances where someone was in an emergency, and even though there were other people present, no one bothered to help the helpless victim. This strange phenomenon is known as the bystander effect. “There is no exercise better for the heart than reaching down and lifting people up.” ― John Holmes The circumstances under which Kitty Genovese was murdered on 13 March 1964, has been extensively cited as a suitable example of ‘bystander effect’. Genovese was stabbed to death at around 3:15 a.m while on her way back from work to her apartment in Queens, New York. She was stabbed by serial rapist Winston Moseley, who fled the crime scene after one of the neighbors shouted at him to leave her alone. However, the assailant returned after ten minutes, stabbed the victim many times over, raped her, and left her for dead. Even though she screamed for help, her neighbors did not come to her rescue. Thus, also known as the Genovese syndrome, the bystander effect is a psychological phenomenon that theorizes that the greater the number of bystanders present, the lesser is the likelihood of any of them coming forth to rescue the person in distress. The term was coined by psychologists John Darley and Bibb Latané in 1968, after they conducted a series of non-dangerous or violent emergency-based experiments to find out why the witnesses in the Kitty Genovese murder did not help her. Bystander Effect in Psychology The first reason put forth by psychologists was that no single individual feels the absolute pressure to intervene when the responsibility for intervention is shared among multiple observers, and thus, no one takes the initiative to offer help to the distressed person. However, when there is only one onlooker, he/she is more likely to help the person in distress because of his/her individualistic pressure to intervene. However, the individual bystander may also choose to ignore and not offer help, if his/her personal security is threatened or if he/she does not wish to get unnecessarily involved in the situation. The second consideration submitted by the duo was that, even though a bystander cannot closely observe the other bystanders, on seeing multiple bystanders, he may assume that the emergency is being resolved by the others, and his own efforts to intervene would be useless, or perhaps cause further confusion or damage. This way, the passive bystander justifies his inaction by assuring himself that others are there to intervene and help the individual in distress. Bystander Effect Experiment This was one of the first ever experiments conducted to determine whether the presence of other people near the distressed person inhibited the bystanders from intervening to offer assistance. A bunch of college students (subjects) were made to sit in a cubicle and instructed to speak to fellow students using an intercom. The students were also instructed that only one student would be allowed to use the intercom at one time and that they would be speaking either individually, in a pair, or in a group of six. What the student subjects were not told was that there would be only one confederate (assistant to the research) who would be speaking with them. During the conversation with the fellow students, the confederate was instructed to mention that he had suffered episodes of seizure in the past. The confederate then pretended that he was having a seizure attack during the conversation and screamed for help from the fellow students. The experiment revealed the following results: - 85% of students in the pair setting left their room to look for help because they thought they were the only witness to the crisis. - 62% of students from the three-person group, offered to help the student suffering from a seizure. - Only 31% of students from the six-person group left the room to help the person in distress. These results were attributed to an evident ‘diffusion of responsibility’, wherein the presence of multiple bystanders reduced their sense of personal responsibility to help the distressed person. Realistic experiments were conducted by the duo, in order to prove the hypothesis that with the presence of more bystanders in an emergency, the possibility of any one bystander taking the initiative to offer help will not only be less likely but also slow. In one of the experiments conducted to test this hypothesis, the student subjects were assessed under the pretext of filling out a questionnaire. There were three experimental scenarios that were created to test the results. - The first one involved making subjects sit alone in one of the rooms and fill the questionnaire. - The second scenario involved making three subjects sit together in a room. - The third scenario involved making one of the subjects sit with two research confederates, who were instructed to pretend that they were students as well. The premise of the experiment was to record how the subjects would react in the face of an emergency. While the subjects were going through their questionnaire, smoke was filled into the room to make it appear as if there is a possible fire threat. The experiment revealed the following results: - 75% of subjects who were sitting alone, reported the smoke to the experimenter. - Only 38% of subjects sitting in a group of three reported the smoke. - Only 10% of subjects who sat with the confederates, reported the fire, because the confederates were instructed to ignore the smoke when it appeared and act ‘not bothered.’ The explanation of only 10% of subjects reporting the smoke in the last experiment, verified that bystanders often get misled by the reactions of others around them. In this case, since the two confederates did not show any traces of fear or panic, most of the subjects controlled their behavior and chose to not react either. This tendency to not react is known as ‘pluralistic ignorance’, wherein the supposed calm reaction of other people is construed as a sign that everything is fine and there is no emergency. These experiments led to the hypothesis that the presence of more people can significantly delay the reaction time of bystanders. Another experiment was carried out by psychologists John Darley and Daniel Batson at the Princeton campus, to check the relation between lateness and the bystander effect. A confederate student was asked to feign illness and was seen by the other students. Although the campus students saw the slumped and visibly distressed student groaning, only 10% stopped to show their concern and offer help, even though they were late. However, when not running against time, more than 60% students offered their help to the student in distress. Variables that Explain the Bystander Effect Ambiguity: Being unclear as to whether a person requires help or not, can severely affect the reaction of bystanders. Bystanders are also less likely to help if they are unsure about their own well-being and would rarely put themselves at risk. Group Cohesiveness: Bystanders who are familiar with one another are more likely to work as a team and be the first to offer assistance to the person in distress. Studies conducted in this area revealed that the less cohesive groups were the slowest and disinclined to offer their help, as compared to the high cohesive groups who were familiar with one another. Similarities: Research based on altruism found that a bystander was more inclined to help the person in distress, if there was something in common between them, such as the same gender, being football fans, and the victim wearing a football jersey. Familiar Environment: A bystander who is familiar with the locality and knows his way in and around the place, will be more inclined to help the victim because he will feel more secure in doing so. Diffusion of Responsibility:The presence of multiple bystanders immediately reduced the personal responsibility of the passive bystander. The fact that others can help and the belief that someone else is more qualified to intervene and assist, makes most bystanders withdraw and not participate in helping the victim. A True Story Based on the Bystander Effect I, for one, have witnessed this psychological phenomenon and experienced its desensitizing effect on the bystanders present during the episode. Which is why I wished to gain a deeper understanding of this phenomenon. While waiting to cross the road on a peculiarly hot afternoon, a lady standing besides me, crossed the road a bit too early and was instantly slammed by a motorcyclist. At one moment, she was standing and the next, I saw her rolling on the road from the impact. I did not think, I did not calculate my next move, all I remember doing was running towards her. A huge group of people had surrounded her and were just standing there, shocked and unmoving. No one budged to help the injured woman. I had to shove and push my way through the circle to reach her. The motorcyclist was there, and he seemed too shocked for words. When I approached her, I noticed that copious amounts of blood was oozing from her ear and that she was barely conscious. I tried to wake her up and checked her breathing, which was barely noticeable. I knew there was no time to call the ambulance, and something had to be done immediately. Someone was kind enough to call for a taxicab, and I somehow managed to pick her up! I was assisted by a man, who also offered to take her to the hospital. I gave him my phone number and instructed him to call me and keep me updated. The motorcyclist accompanied the accident victim to the hospital. The victim’s husband called to inform me that his wife needed to be operated and that the doctors had told him that had she not been brought in so early, she would have probably died. That’s when I realized that had I been a bit late or not offered to help, that woman would not have made it, and that still sends shivers down my spine … The opposite of a passive bystander is the active bystander, who is naturally tuned to respond to crisis and help people in need. According to Holocaust survivor and sociologist Samuel Oliner, much of this tendency to come forth and help has been attributed to the qualities instilled by the parents of such individuals. The parents of active bystanders were more caring, tolerant, and empathetic towards not only their own children, but everybody, and that quality has inspired their children to do the same.	2,114	ENGLISH	1
On April 20, 1964, Nelson Mandela delivered a speech to the Supreme Court of South Africa. Mandela was being tried for sabotage, high treason, and a conspiracy to take over the established government; these charges were brought forth during a time a great discrimination against Africans, by whites. Mandela was a strong leader in the drive towards unification and equality, and to this very day is still acknowledged as a driving force to the end of the apartheid in South Africa. Like many great leaders before him Mandela relied greatly on political movement rather than rebellions or any other means of violence, as he described in more detail in this speech. The purpose of this speech was to convince the court that the bulk of the accusations made against himself, as well as the African National Congress, were fabricated, but he also aimed to thrust their movement onward. Using his trustworthiness as a groundbreaker for social righteousness, influential diction, and practical logic Mandela is able to truly express the struggles of blacks in a country dominated by white politicians. Although his trial resulted in a guilty ruling, he was effective in displaying that some of the responsibility fell to the government and the change was undoubtedly coming. - My Kind of Treasure We can’t deny that we really have that friend whom we never thought we would be close with	<urn:uuid:28f4cf9a-0d43-475c-bdb3-75e99f31b402>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freedomrunners.org/on-april-20/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00408.warc.gz	en	0.987753	258	3.46875	3	[ -0.8762482404708862, 0.7536705136299133, -0.09858118742704391, -0.43096938729286194, -0.11295914649963379, 0.27760282158851624, 0.7001146674156189, -0.3832891583442688, -0.20708535611629486, 0.35553693771362305, 0.45960190892219543, -0.034983329474925995, 0.33721229434013367, 0.27279114723...	3	On April 20, 1964, Nelson Mandela delivered a speech to the Supreme Court of South Africa. Mandela was being tried for sabotage, high treason, and a conspiracy to take over the established government; these charges were brought forth during a time a great discrimination against Africans, by whites. Mandela was a strong leader in the drive towards unification and equality, and to this very day is still acknowledged as a driving force to the end of the apartheid in South Africa. Like many great leaders before him Mandela relied greatly on political movement rather than rebellions or any other means of violence, as he described in more detail in this speech. The purpose of this speech was to convince the court that the bulk of the accusations made against himself, as well as the African National Congress, were fabricated, but he also aimed to thrust their movement onward. Using his trustworthiness as a groundbreaker for social righteousness, influential diction, and practical logic Mandela is able to truly express the struggles of blacks in a country dominated by white politicians. Although his trial resulted in a guilty ruling, he was effective in displaying that some of the responsibility fell to the government and the change was undoubtedly coming. - My Kind of Treasure We can’t deny that we really have that friend whom we never thought we would be close with	264	ENGLISH	1
Jacques Cartier was more than an excellent navigator. He was a showman. When he spent the winter of 1535 in Quebec, Cartier lost many of his men through scurvy. “Out of 110 that we were, not ten were well enough to help the others, a pitiful thing to see.” He wanted to tell King Francis the tale of a country further north, called the “Kingdom of Saguenay,” said to be full of gold, rubies and other treasures. He recognized that it was essential to put on a good show when he returned to France so he could return to Canada with the king’s blessing. Before sailing from Quebec, he invited First Nations Chief Donnacona and some of his Iroquoian men to a feast. When they entered the stockade, he held them captive and brought them onboard the ship. Cartier didn’t exactly force them to accompany him to France, however he told Donnacona that they would treat him like a king and that they would give him and his men many gifts. Donnacona agreed, but there was great weeping and wailing onshore. Donnacona explained the situation to the Iroquois from the deck and they were given gifts of frying pans and eight steel hatchets. All went smoothly. This 14-month voyage was Cartier’s most profitable yet. Cartier taught the Chief enough French to talk to the king and relied on Donnacona’s skill as a great spinner of tales. Indeed, King Francis was so impressed that he granted a large expedition to Canada. Donnacona was treated well in France and looked after at the king’s expense. Cartier promised to bring Donnacona back in 12 moons. Then Cartier’s plans went sour. King Francis appointed Sieur de Roberval, a Huguenot and friend of the king to be in charge of the expedition. He thought it was not good enough to have a mere sea captain to represent him. Donnacona died of scurvy and all but one of the other Iroquois died too, except for a little girl, whose fate is unknown. Cartier had grand plans to bring in some of the finest French builders to Canada to develop homes and establish an outpost. Roberval would not allow Cartier to recruit the men he needed. Instead, on March 9, 1541, he received a sanction to take criminals to Canada. Disappointed, Cartier broke away from Roberval and travelled to Canada on his own on May 23, 1541, for his third voyage. And that’s a whole other story! Below is a description of the Iroquois Natives from Cartier’s writings: “They are by no means a laborious people and work the soil with short bits of wood about half a sword in length. With these they hoe their corn which they call ozisy, in size as large as a pea. Corn of a similar kind grows in considerable quantities in Brazil. They have also a considerable quantity of melons, cucumbers, pumpkins, pease and beans of various colours and unlike our own. Furthermore they have a plant, of which a large supply is collected in summer for the winter’s consumption. They hold in high esteem, though the men alone make use of it in the following manner. After drying it in the sun, they carry it about their necks in a small skin pouch in lieu of a bag, together with a hollow bit of stone or wood. Then at frequent intervals they crumble this plant into powder, which they place in one of the openings of the hollow instrument, and laying a live coal on top, suck at the other end to such an extent, that they fill their bodies so full of smoke, that it streams out of their mouths and nostrils as from a chimney. They say it keeps them warm and in good health and never go about without these things. We made a trial of this smoke. When it is in one’s mouth, one would think one had taken powdered pepper, it is so hot. The women of this country work beyond comparison more than the men, both at fishing, which is much followed, as well as at tilling the ground and other tasks. Both the men, women and children are more indifferent to the cold than beasts; for in the coldest weather we experienced, and it was extraordinary severe, they would come to our ships every day across the ice and snow, the majority of them almost stark naked, which seems incredible unless one has seen them. While the ice and snow last, they catch a great number of wild animals such as fawns, stags and bears, hares, martens, foxes, otters and others.”	<urn:uuid:5b763a61-b071-4eac-9471-71a5b5d88215>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tkmorin.wordpress.com/2019/12/08/cartiers-plans-crushed-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00372.warc.gz	en	0.982274	1,008	3.375	3	[ -0.193425253033638, 0.5416190028190613, 0.26943057775497437, -0.1405460238456726, -0.5131747126579285, -0.37542903423309326, 0.3221278786659241, 0.357708215713501, -0.1050754263997078, -0.06885069608688354, -0.007178273983299732, -0.12394246459007263, 0.2808852195739746, 0.1161624789237976...	12	Jacques Cartier was more than an excellent navigator. He was a showman. When he spent the winter of 1535 in Quebec, Cartier lost many of his men through scurvy. “Out of 110 that we were, not ten were well enough to help the others, a pitiful thing to see.” He wanted to tell King Francis the tale of a country further north, called the “Kingdom of Saguenay,” said to be full of gold, rubies and other treasures. He recognized that it was essential to put on a good show when he returned to France so he could return to Canada with the king’s blessing. Before sailing from Quebec, he invited First Nations Chief Donnacona and some of his Iroquoian men to a feast. When they entered the stockade, he held them captive and brought them onboard the ship. Cartier didn’t exactly force them to accompany him to France, however he told Donnacona that they would treat him like a king and that they would give him and his men many gifts. Donnacona agreed, but there was great weeping and wailing onshore. Donnacona explained the situation to the Iroquois from the deck and they were given gifts of frying pans and eight steel hatchets. All went smoothly. This 14-month voyage was Cartier’s most profitable yet. Cartier taught the Chief enough French to talk to the king and relied on Donnacona’s skill as a great spinner of tales. Indeed, King Francis was so impressed that he granted a large expedition to Canada. Donnacona was treated well in France and looked after at the king’s expense. Cartier promised to bring Donnacona back in 12 moons. Then Cartier’s plans went sour. King Francis appointed Sieur de Roberval, a Huguenot and friend of the king to be in charge of the expedition. He thought it was not good enough to have a mere sea captain to represent him. Donnacona died of scurvy and all but one of the other Iroquois died too, except for a little girl, whose fate is unknown. Cartier had grand plans to bring in some of the finest French builders to Canada to develop homes and establish an outpost. Roberval would not allow Cartier to recruit the men he needed. Instead, on March 9, 1541, he received a sanction to take criminals to Canada. Disappointed, Cartier broke away from Roberval and travelled to Canada on his own on May 23, 1541, for his third voyage. And that’s a whole other story! Below is a description of the Iroquois Natives from Cartier’s writings: “They are by no means a laborious people and work the soil with short bits of wood about half a sword in length. With these they hoe their corn which they call ozisy, in size as large as a pea. Corn of a similar kind grows in considerable quantities in Brazil. They have also a considerable quantity of melons, cucumbers, pumpkins, pease and beans of various colours and unlike our own. Furthermore they have a plant, of which a large supply is collected in summer for the winter’s consumption. They hold in high esteem, though the men alone make use of it in the following manner. After drying it in the sun, they carry it about their necks in a small skin pouch in lieu of a bag, together with a hollow bit of stone or wood. Then at frequent intervals they crumble this plant into powder, which they place in one of the openings of the hollow instrument, and laying a live coal on top, suck at the other end to such an extent, that they fill their bodies so full of smoke, that it streams out of their mouths and nostrils as from a chimney. They say it keeps them warm and in good health and never go about without these things. We made a trial of this smoke. When it is in one’s mouth, one would think one had taken powdered pepper, it is so hot. The women of this country work beyond comparison more than the men, both at fishing, which is much followed, as well as at tilling the ground and other tasks. Both the men, women and children are more indifferent to the cold than beasts; for in the coldest weather we experienced, and it was extraordinary severe, they would come to our ships every day across the ice and snow, the majority of them almost stark naked, which seems incredible unless one has seen them. While the ice and snow last, they catch a great number of wild animals such as fawns, stags and bears, hares, martens, foxes, otters and others.”	972	ENGLISH	1
Essays on the emancipation proclamation by abraham lincoln The emancipation proclamation declared that all people held as slaves were declared free National Archives1. In the book, he makes a case that President Abraham Lincoln, through the utilization of the Emancipation Proclamation ofwas efficacious in liberating the slaves. Abraham lincoln editorial Black churches and schools were burned, citizens attacked, and people who refused proper submission were beaten and killed. He lived a long and resentful life full of problems that he fixed. In this short speech he called on Americans to ensure human freedom if it has to survive as a nation. Douglas, but lost. Proclamation therefore came at the right time as the initial tension between the United States and European nations was eased and the union conduct in the war was never scrutinized as their cause was now favored Christopher The Emancipation Proclamation of stated that the people enslaved in the Confederate territory are to be freed. This shows that Lincoln had warned the states that if they were in resistance against the United States their slaves would be unoccupied permanently. These prompted them to pressed Lincoln to seek a constitutional amendment that would secure freedom for all slaves. Although the Emancipation Proclamation did bear a significant amount of weight on the war, one could also argue that the Northern Union could have won without it. Abraham Lincoln was among the greatest of the presidents. By getting rid of slavery, Lincoln hoped to achieve the loyalty of Europe which was against slavery but had industrial connections with the South Bodenner. Lincoln himself stated that it was actually a war tactic strategically planned to cripple the south. But, this great declaration of independence did have some holes. Lincoln explained why he used the tax money to pay for the war effort. This is because "the material for the work is abundant; and that it needs only the hand of legislation to give it legal sanction, and the hand of the executive to give it practical shape and efficiency Henry Adams was a former slave, who experienced the emancipation Proclamation and the effect it had on whites, blacks and slaves. It will become all one thing or all the other. Any type of essay. However, throughout his presidency and the beginning of the Civil War, Lincoln remained seemingly indifferent to freeing the slaves. Neither of these views, of course, reveals much about the man who really lived--legend and political interpretations seldom do. In what was to later become a bloodiest American civil war, the states within the Union fought the states under the Confederacy for five years. based on 20 review	<urn:uuid:24f72020-644a-4ee5-bb50-90b2dd1a9eba>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://debecipefujuqacek.whatshanesaid.com/essays-on-the-emancipation-proclamation-by-abraham-lincoln125825901tx.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00292.warc.gz	en	0.981617	519	3.640625	4	[ -0.24274736642837524, 0.5593639016151428, 0.15374469757080078, 0.3311530649662018, -0.2730242609977722, 0.22470629215240479, 0.1231476217508316, 0.013538301922380924, -0.2909664213657379, 0.11045391857624054, 0.05003885552287102, 0.34250888228416443, -0.32788604497909546, 0.375138252973556...	1	Essays on the emancipation proclamation by abraham lincoln The emancipation proclamation declared that all people held as slaves were declared free National Archives1. In the book, he makes a case that President Abraham Lincoln, through the utilization of the Emancipation Proclamation ofwas efficacious in liberating the slaves. Abraham lincoln editorial Black churches and schools were burned, citizens attacked, and people who refused proper submission were beaten and killed. He lived a long and resentful life full of problems that he fixed. In this short speech he called on Americans to ensure human freedom if it has to survive as a nation. Douglas, but lost. Proclamation therefore came at the right time as the initial tension between the United States and European nations was eased and the union conduct in the war was never scrutinized as their cause was now favored Christopher The Emancipation Proclamation of stated that the people enslaved in the Confederate territory are to be freed. This shows that Lincoln had warned the states that if they were in resistance against the United States their slaves would be unoccupied permanently. These prompted them to pressed Lincoln to seek a constitutional amendment that would secure freedom for all slaves. Although the Emancipation Proclamation did bear a significant amount of weight on the war, one could also argue that the Northern Union could have won without it. Abraham Lincoln was among the greatest of the presidents. By getting rid of slavery, Lincoln hoped to achieve the loyalty of Europe which was against slavery but had industrial connections with the South Bodenner. Lincoln himself stated that it was actually a war tactic strategically planned to cripple the south. But, this great declaration of independence did have some holes. Lincoln explained why he used the tax money to pay for the war effort. This is because "the material for the work is abundant; and that it needs only the hand of legislation to give it legal sanction, and the hand of the executive to give it practical shape and efficiency Henry Adams was a former slave, who experienced the emancipation Proclamation and the effect it had on whites, blacks and slaves. It will become all one thing or all the other. Any type of essay. However, throughout his presidency and the beginning of the Civil War, Lincoln remained seemingly indifferent to freeing the slaves. Neither of these views, of course, reveals much about the man who really lived--legend and political interpretations seldom do. In what was to later become a bloodiest American civil war, the states within the Union fought the states under the Confederacy for five years. based on 20 review	517	ENGLISH	1
This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Exchange Bank of Amsterdam (Dutch: Amsterdamsche Wisselbank) was an early bank, vouched for by the city of Amsterdam, established in 1609, the precursor to, if not the first, modern central bank. During the last decade of the Republic of the United Provinces, in 1790, the premium on the Bank's money disappeared, and by the end of the year it had declared itself insolvent. The City of Amsterdam assumed control of the bank in 1791. The Nederlandsche Bank was established in 1814 and took over money issue duties for the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, while the Wisselbank entered liquidation in 1820. In Renaissance Europe, the currency of small states—such as Genoa, Hamburg, Venice, and Nuremberg—consisted in large part of the currencies of neighboring nations. The foreign money, clipped and worn, lowered the value of a country's currency. A country's own freshly minted money, therefore, bore an agio, being worth more than its stock currency. Furthermore, it was melted as soon as it was released, its metallic content being worth more than its nominal value. In order to remedy this situation, a bank was founded in 1609 under the protection of the city of Amsterdam. This bank at first received both foreign and local coinage at their real, intrinsic value, deducted a small coinage and management fee, and credited clients in its book for the remainder. This credit was known as bank money. Being always in accord with mint standards, and always of the same value, bank money was worth more than real coinage. At the same time a new regulation was introduced; according to which all bills drawn at Amsterdam worth more than 600 guilders must be paid in bank money. This both removed all uncertainty from these bills and compelled all merchants to keep an account with the bank, which in turn occasioned a certain demand for bank money. Bank money had several distinct advantages over other forms of money. It was secure from fire, robbery and other accidents; was backed by the city of Amsterdam; and could be paid or received by a simple transfer, avoiding both the costs of counting and the risks of conveyance. Furthermore, it was of a known, superior quality. Because of the above it bore an agio, being worth more than its nominal value. Consequentially, it was not often that clients asked for their money to be extracted from the bank. A shilling freshly minted would buy no more than a clipped and worn one. It was better for clients to sell the debt the bank owed them—their credit—at the market, earning a premium, which is the expression of the aforementioned agio. Deposits of bullion and coin Deposits of coin constituted but a small part of bank capital. Most of the bank's capital originated with deposits of gold and silver bullion, intrinsically of higher value as bullion was not debased, unlike most of the circulating coinage. The Bank of Amsterdam gave credit for deposits of gold and silver worth about 5 percent less than their mint price. It granted the depositor a receipt, which allowed him to claim his deposit 6 months later, upon returning to the bank the same value of bank money for which credit was given, and payment of a fee for the keeping—a warehouse rent of sorts—worth 0.25% for silver, and 0.5% for gold. This fee could, of course, be paid every 6 months, extending the period of deposit. The difference of fees has been attributed both to the difficulty of ascertaining the purity of gold and to a wish to encourage deposits of silver, it being the standard metal of the time. If a depositor did not claim his deposit back after six months, it fell to the bank, and the depositor was left with the credit he received in compensation. The terms of deposit were such that deposits of bullion were most commonly made when the price was somewhat lower than ordinary, and taken out again when it rose. The proportions between the bank price (the credit which the bank gave for deposits of bullion), the mint price, and the market price of gold bullion were always nearly the same. A person could generally sell his receipt for the difference between the mint price of bullion and the market price. As a receipt was nearly always worth something, it was only rarely that deposits were allowed to fall to the bank through the expiration of receipts (which means the depositor neither paid additional keeping fees nor removed his deposit from the bank). This happened more frequently with regard to gold, due to its higher keeping fee. The bank also took in coin, granting credit and receipts in exchange, and charging 0.25% for the keeping. These receipts were often of no value, however, and the deposit was allowed to fall to the bank. The bank maintained it did not lend any of the bullion deposited in it, not even that part for which the receipts expired, and which could not generally be claimed. When a holder of a receipt found himself in need of coinage, he could sell his receipt. Alternatively, when a holder of bank money found himself in need of bullion, he could buy a receipt. Receipts and credit were thus freely bought and sold. When a holder of a receipt wished to take out the bullion for which it stood, he had to purchase enough bank credit to do so. The holder of a receipt, when he purchased bank money, purchased the power of taking out a quantity of bullion, of which the mint price is five per cent above the bank price. The agio of five per cent therefore, which he commonly paid for it, was paid not for an imaginary but for a real value. The owner of bank money, when he purchased a receipt, purchased the power of taking out a quantity of bullion of which the market price is commonly from two to three per cent above the mint price. The price of the receipt, and the price of the bank money, made up between them the full value of the bullion. The bank allowed no withdrawal except by means of a receipt. There was, however, more bank money available than the combined value of all receipts – because some receipts have been allowed to expire, but the bank money, or credit, remained in the bank's books. In times of peace, a client who wished to withdraw his deposit had no trouble purchasing a receipt and making a withdrawal. In times of distress, however, as during the French invasion in 1672, the price or receipts could be pushed upwards by demand. While this was not its original aim, the Bank of Amsterdam proved profitable to the city which provided for it. In addition to the keeping fee mentioned above, each person, upon first opening an account, paid a fee of ten guilders; and three guilders three stuivers for each additional account. Two stuivers were paid for each transaction, excepting those of less than three hundred guilders, for which six stuivers were paid, in order to discourage the multiplicity of small transactions. A person who neglected to balance his account twice in the year forfeited twenty-five guilders. A person who ordered a transfer for more than was upon his account, was obliged to pay three per cent for the sum overdrawn. The bank made further profit by selling foreign coin and bullion which fell to it by the expiration of receipts, and by selling bank money at five percent agio, and buying it at four percent. These sources of revenue were more than enough to pay for the wages of bank officers, and defray the expense of management. The bank was administered by a committee of city government officials concerned to keep its affairs secret. It initially operated on a deposit-only basis, but by 1657 it was allowing depositors to overdraw their accounts, and lending large sums to the Municipality of Amsterdam and the United East Indies Company (Dutch East India Company). Initially this was kept confidential, but it had become public knowledge by 1790. The agio on the bank money dropped from a premium at peak of around 6.25% to a discount of 2%, and by the end of the year the bank had to declare itself insolvent, offering to sell silver at a 10% discount to depositors. The City of Amsterdam took over direct control in 1791 and decreed its liquidation in December 1819. - Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2005). "The Big Problem of Large Bills: The Bank of Amsterdam and the Origins of Central Banking" (PDF). Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta Working Paper 2005–16. - Corant, Charles Arthur (1969). A History of Modern Banks of Issue.	<urn:uuid:8dcf67f6-7a10-4a08-8872-e047310ca532>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://en.turkcewiki.org/wiki/Amsterdamsche_Wisselbank	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00103.warc.gz	en	0.980054	1,812	3.734375	4	[ -0.05447749048471451, -0.3629288077354431, 0.15293455123901367, -0.2628902494907379, 0.21851548552513123, -0.2606276571750641, 0.11206106841564178, 0.1161520928144455, -0.14363166689872742, 0.023895274847745895, -0.13434211909770966, -0.11508238315582275, -0.45696690678596497, 0.3146957755...	1	This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Exchange Bank of Amsterdam (Dutch: Amsterdamsche Wisselbank) was an early bank, vouched for by the city of Amsterdam, established in 1609, the precursor to, if not the first, modern central bank. During the last decade of the Republic of the United Provinces, in 1790, the premium on the Bank's money disappeared, and by the end of the year it had declared itself insolvent. The City of Amsterdam assumed control of the bank in 1791. The Nederlandsche Bank was established in 1814 and took over money issue duties for the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, while the Wisselbank entered liquidation in 1820. In Renaissance Europe, the currency of small states—such as Genoa, Hamburg, Venice, and Nuremberg—consisted in large part of the currencies of neighboring nations. The foreign money, clipped and worn, lowered the value of a country's currency. A country's own freshly minted money, therefore, bore an agio, being worth more than its stock currency. Furthermore, it was melted as soon as it was released, its metallic content being worth more than its nominal value. In order to remedy this situation, a bank was founded in 1609 under the protection of the city of Amsterdam. This bank at first received both foreign and local coinage at their real, intrinsic value, deducted a small coinage and management fee, and credited clients in its book for the remainder. This credit was known as bank money. Being always in accord with mint standards, and always of the same value, bank money was worth more than real coinage. At the same time a new regulation was introduced; according to which all bills drawn at Amsterdam worth more than 600 guilders must be paid in bank money. This both removed all uncertainty from these bills and compelled all merchants to keep an account with the bank, which in turn occasioned a certain demand for bank money. Bank money had several distinct advantages over other forms of money. It was secure from fire, robbery and other accidents; was backed by the city of Amsterdam; and could be paid or received by a simple transfer, avoiding both the costs of counting and the risks of conveyance. Furthermore, it was of a known, superior quality. Because of the above it bore an agio, being worth more than its nominal value. Consequentially, it was not often that clients asked for their money to be extracted from the bank. A shilling freshly minted would buy no more than a clipped and worn one. It was better for clients to sell the debt the bank owed them—their credit—at the market, earning a premium, which is the expression of the aforementioned agio. Deposits of bullion and coin Deposits of coin constituted but a small part of bank capital. Most of the bank's capital originated with deposits of gold and silver bullion, intrinsically of higher value as bullion was not debased, unlike most of the circulating coinage. The Bank of Amsterdam gave credit for deposits of gold and silver worth about 5 percent less than their mint price. It granted the depositor a receipt, which allowed him to claim his deposit 6 months later, upon returning to the bank the same value of bank money for which credit was given, and payment of a fee for the keeping—a warehouse rent of sorts—worth 0.25% for silver, and 0.5% for gold. This fee could, of course, be paid every 6 months, extending the period of deposit. The difference of fees has been attributed both to the difficulty of ascertaining the purity of gold and to a wish to encourage deposits of silver, it being the standard metal of the time. If a depositor did not claim his deposit back after six months, it fell to the bank, and the depositor was left with the credit he received in compensation. The terms of deposit were such that deposits of bullion were most commonly made when the price was somewhat lower than ordinary, and taken out again when it rose. The proportions between the bank price (the credit which the bank gave for deposits of bullion), the mint price, and the market price of gold bullion were always nearly the same. A person could generally sell his receipt for the difference between the mint price of bullion and the market price. As a receipt was nearly always worth something, it was only rarely that deposits were allowed to fall to the bank through the expiration of receipts (which means the depositor neither paid additional keeping fees nor removed his deposit from the bank). This happened more frequently with regard to gold, due to its higher keeping fee. The bank also took in coin, granting credit and receipts in exchange, and charging 0.25% for the keeping. These receipts were often of no value, however, and the deposit was allowed to fall to the bank. The bank maintained it did not lend any of the bullion deposited in it, not even that part for which the receipts expired, and which could not generally be claimed. When a holder of a receipt found himself in need of coinage, he could sell his receipt. Alternatively, when a holder of bank money found himself in need of bullion, he could buy a receipt. Receipts and credit were thus freely bought and sold. When a holder of a receipt wished to take out the bullion for which it stood, he had to purchase enough bank credit to do so. The holder of a receipt, when he purchased bank money, purchased the power of taking out a quantity of bullion, of which the mint price is five per cent above the bank price. The agio of five per cent therefore, which he commonly paid for it, was paid not for an imaginary but for a real value. The owner of bank money, when he purchased a receipt, purchased the power of taking out a quantity of bullion of which the market price is commonly from two to three per cent above the mint price. The price of the receipt, and the price of the bank money, made up between them the full value of the bullion. The bank allowed no withdrawal except by means of a receipt. There was, however, more bank money available than the combined value of all receipts – because some receipts have been allowed to expire, but the bank money, or credit, remained in the bank's books. In times of peace, a client who wished to withdraw his deposit had no trouble purchasing a receipt and making a withdrawal. In times of distress, however, as during the French invasion in 1672, the price or receipts could be pushed upwards by demand. While this was not its original aim, the Bank of Amsterdam proved profitable to the city which provided for it. In addition to the keeping fee mentioned above, each person, upon first opening an account, paid a fee of ten guilders; and three guilders three stuivers for each additional account. Two stuivers were paid for each transaction, excepting those of less than three hundred guilders, for which six stuivers were paid, in order to discourage the multiplicity of small transactions. A person who neglected to balance his account twice in the year forfeited twenty-five guilders. A person who ordered a transfer for more than was upon his account, was obliged to pay three per cent for the sum overdrawn. The bank made further profit by selling foreign coin and bullion which fell to it by the expiration of receipts, and by selling bank money at five percent agio, and buying it at four percent. These sources of revenue were more than enough to pay for the wages of bank officers, and defray the expense of management. The bank was administered by a committee of city government officials concerned to keep its affairs secret. It initially operated on a deposit-only basis, but by 1657 it was allowing depositors to overdraw their accounts, and lending large sums to the Municipality of Amsterdam and the United East Indies Company (Dutch East India Company). Initially this was kept confidential, but it had become public knowledge by 1790. The agio on the bank money dropped from a premium at peak of around 6.25% to a discount of 2%, and by the end of the year the bank had to declare itself insolvent, offering to sell silver at a 10% discount to depositors. The City of Amsterdam took over direct control in 1791 and decreed its liquidation in December 1819. - Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2005). "The Big Problem of Large Bills: The Bank of Amsterdam and the Origins of Central Banking" (PDF). Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta Working Paper 2005–16. - Corant, Charles Arthur (1969). A History of Modern Banks of Issue.	1,864	ENGLISH	1
Thomas Aquinas, OP ( 7 March 1274), also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian Dominican friar and Catholic priest and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the "Doctor Angelicus" and "Doctor Communis". "Aquinas" is from the county of Aquino, an area where his family held land until 1137. He was born in Roccasecca, Italy. He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of Thomism. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy was conceived in development or opposition of his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, and political theory. Unlike many currents in the Church of the time, Thomas embraced several ideas put forward by Aristotle — whom he referred to as "the Philosopher" — and attempted to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy with the principles of Christianity. The works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologica and the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on Sacred Scripture and on Aristotle are an important part of his body of work. Furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the Church's liturgy.	<urn:uuid:26deb297-e68e-4b5f-968b-f7acad80645f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bookrix.de/_ebook-st-thomas-aquinas-on-prayer-and-the-contemplative-life-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00348.warc.gz	en	0.980315	271	3.3125	3	[ 0.0979776456952095, 0.1391720473766327, 0.323355495929718, -0.13946114480495453, -0.406268447637558, 0.04863390326499939, -0.07460274547338486, 0.47224631905555725, 0.06028860807418823, 0.09007986634969711, -0.3831557631492615, -0.24574871361255646, 0.184194415807724, 0.27745112776756287, ...	1	Thomas Aquinas, OP ( 7 March 1274), also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian Dominican friar and Catholic priest and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the "Doctor Angelicus" and "Doctor Communis". "Aquinas" is from the county of Aquino, an area where his family held land until 1137. He was born in Roccasecca, Italy. He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of Thomism. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy was conceived in development or opposition of his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, and political theory. Unlike many currents in the Church of the time, Thomas embraced several ideas put forward by Aristotle — whom he referred to as "the Philosopher" — and attempted to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy with the principles of Christianity. The works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologica and the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on Sacred Scripture and on Aristotle are an important part of his body of work. Furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the Church's liturgy.	274	ENGLISH	1
Medieval Life and Times – What was Medieval daily life like? It is well documented that Medieval life and times for most people of that era was hard. Back-breaking work during the days, cold and uncomfortable sleep during the night. Life was difficult. Medieval Life and Times – The Lower Class Most peasants had a thatched roof hut, with walls made from wattle and clay or dung. A fire would roar in the middle of the single-roomed hut, which would be the only source of heat, whilst also being the kitchen oven, where rabbit stew, broth and anything vegetable based could be cooked. The air they breathed would have been very smoky. Harvesting food was essential to living. During the Medieval life and times of a peasant, food was scarce. The ploughing would start in the autumn, then the sowing of seeds in spring, followed by harvesting in late August. If the weather was particularly bad and the harvest was poor, during late spring the food stores would start running out and people would starve to death. Simple as that. Disease would have been rife too, with malnutrition from poor harvests and the lack of penicillin, disease could ravage entire villages in very little time. We have all heard about the plague, also known as the black death, which wiped out around one third of the European population (up to a possible 200 million people). But other diseases like the flu and TB, which today we can cope with through advances in medicine, killed people during the Medieval life and times. People would starve to death. Simple as that. In the towns, the streets would be bustling with life, more so as they were very narrow. Shops, workshops, markets and brew houses would be open for passing trade. Church bells would be heard ringing, and noisy traders would be shouting for custom. At the end of the working day, a town crier would ring the curfew bell for everyone to close up shop and go home. The town gates would then be closed and patrols would watch the town through the night. Medieval Life and Times – The Upper Class Not everyone in the Medieval life and times suffered as badly. Those born into high society, lead very different lives to the peasants. The Kings, Barons, Lords and Nobles controlled vast areas of land, and the peasants tended to work the land for them. In order to keep your bit of the land and title, you had to provide some form of service to the land owner, be it militarily or just loyalty through swearing an oath. This is known as the feudal system. The peasants were at the very bottom of the feudal ladder, the King at the very top. The barons and nobles could live the high life, reaping the rewards of owning such titles and land. Being closely linked with the King, they would be expected to join the King’s army if asked, and go straight into battle if required. But between wars, nobles during the Medieval life and times, were well fed, secure and lived in glorious castles and manor houses on vast estates. They were not entirely protected from disease, but certainly were better off than their peasant workers! What the peasants and the barons did have in common though, was religion. Christian Catholicism was the only recognised religion during the Medieval life and times of Europe. Anyone and everyone, from peasants to Kings, were very serious about their religious beliefs. Church was attended by all, sometimes everyday, and vast monasteries and convents were swiftly built during the middle ages to celebrate the Christian beliefs. Pilgrims would travel huge distances to pay their respects for dead saints. Thomas Beckett was a fine example of this, when he was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral under King Henry, thousands of pilgrims travelled to visit his Shrine in Canterbury. Plenty still flock to see the shrine today. Medieval Daily Life of a Lord Dawn: Church mass, followed by breakfast of bread and wine Morning: Meeting with the manager of the manor, whilst the lady would do embroidery. Knights would practise fighting. Lunchtime: Food would be eaten in the great hall, consisting of lots of small dishes. Jesters and music would entertain. Afternoon: Hunting groups would go off, and board games would be played inside. Dusk: Church prayers, then dinner. Huge feasts would be put on for guests. Evening: Stories of today’s events would be heard by a travelling minstrel. Idle chit-chat amongst guests. Night: Church prayers, then a light meal, followed by bed. Medieval Life and Times – Facts about medieval times - Medieval times were from the Battle of Hastings in 1066 up to the Renaissance period 1485. - Feudalism was the power hierarchy of the medieval times. - Christian Catholicism religion was the only recognised religion in Medieval daily life - Wars and battles were common, and seemed to be the final way to resolve a dispute - Life was hard for anyone in lower classes than the nobles - Disease was everywhere, and deadly - Crime was punishable through physical torture and death - Violence was a daily event - Animals and land were essential for survival, and farming was the main occupation - Castles were built to protect the lands	<urn:uuid:fd632edf-3550-4cd7-95ba-0c094788439a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.discovermiddleages.co.uk/medieval-life-and-times/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00055.warc.gz	en	0.986062	1,096	3.265625	3	[ -0.3655508756637573, 0.28063273429870605, 0.17050209641456604, 0.3970353603363037, 0.4023001194000244, -0.1647113561630249, -0.12962907552719116, -0.14688926935195923, -0.09866167604923248, -0.09282468259334564, -0.21402597427368164, -0.09834803640842438, 0.3864976167678833, 0.162344008684...	7	Medieval Life and Times – What was Medieval daily life like? It is well documented that Medieval life and times for most people of that era was hard. Back-breaking work during the days, cold and uncomfortable sleep during the night. Life was difficult. Medieval Life and Times – The Lower Class Most peasants had a thatched roof hut, with walls made from wattle and clay or dung. A fire would roar in the middle of the single-roomed hut, which would be the only source of heat, whilst also being the kitchen oven, where rabbit stew, broth and anything vegetable based could be cooked. The air they breathed would have been very smoky. Harvesting food was essential to living. During the Medieval life and times of a peasant, food was scarce. The ploughing would start in the autumn, then the sowing of seeds in spring, followed by harvesting in late August. If the weather was particularly bad and the harvest was poor, during late spring the food stores would start running out and people would starve to death. Simple as that. Disease would have been rife too, with malnutrition from poor harvests and the lack of penicillin, disease could ravage entire villages in very little time. We have all heard about the plague, also known as the black death, which wiped out around one third of the European population (up to a possible 200 million people). But other diseases like the flu and TB, which today we can cope with through advances in medicine, killed people during the Medieval life and times. People would starve to death. Simple as that. In the towns, the streets would be bustling with life, more so as they were very narrow. Shops, workshops, markets and brew houses would be open for passing trade. Church bells would be heard ringing, and noisy traders would be shouting for custom. At the end of the working day, a town crier would ring the curfew bell for everyone to close up shop and go home. The town gates would then be closed and patrols would watch the town through the night. Medieval Life and Times – The Upper Class Not everyone in the Medieval life and times suffered as badly. Those born into high society, lead very different lives to the peasants. The Kings, Barons, Lords and Nobles controlled vast areas of land, and the peasants tended to work the land for them. In order to keep your bit of the land and title, you had to provide some form of service to the land owner, be it militarily or just loyalty through swearing an oath. This is known as the feudal system. The peasants were at the very bottom of the feudal ladder, the King at the very top. The barons and nobles could live the high life, reaping the rewards of owning such titles and land. Being closely linked with the King, they would be expected to join the King’s army if asked, and go straight into battle if required. But between wars, nobles during the Medieval life and times, were well fed, secure and lived in glorious castles and manor houses on vast estates. They were not entirely protected from disease, but certainly were better off than their peasant workers! What the peasants and the barons did have in common though, was religion. Christian Catholicism was the only recognised religion during the Medieval life and times of Europe. Anyone and everyone, from peasants to Kings, were very serious about their religious beliefs. Church was attended by all, sometimes everyday, and vast monasteries and convents were swiftly built during the middle ages to celebrate the Christian beliefs. Pilgrims would travel huge distances to pay their respects for dead saints. Thomas Beckett was a fine example of this, when he was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral under King Henry, thousands of pilgrims travelled to visit his Shrine in Canterbury. Plenty still flock to see the shrine today. Medieval Daily Life of a Lord Dawn: Church mass, followed by breakfast of bread and wine Morning: Meeting with the manager of the manor, whilst the lady would do embroidery. Knights would practise fighting. Lunchtime: Food would be eaten in the great hall, consisting of lots of small dishes. Jesters and music would entertain. Afternoon: Hunting groups would go off, and board games would be played inside. Dusk: Church prayers, then dinner. Huge feasts would be put on for guests. Evening: Stories of today’s events would be heard by a travelling minstrel. Idle chit-chat amongst guests. Night: Church prayers, then a light meal, followed by bed. Medieval Life and Times – Facts about medieval times - Medieval times were from the Battle of Hastings in 1066 up to the Renaissance period 1485. - Feudalism was the power hierarchy of the medieval times. - Christian Catholicism religion was the only recognised religion in Medieval daily life - Wars and battles were common, and seemed to be the final way to resolve a dispute - Life was hard for anyone in lower classes than the nobles - Disease was everywhere, and deadly - Crime was punishable through physical torture and death - Violence was a daily event - Animals and land were essential for survival, and farming was the main occupation - Castles were built to protect the lands	1,086	ENGLISH	1
China has long and rich history dating back over 5,00 years. It is one of the most oldest countries in the world. Traditions concerning the man and the woman, and marriage, have been changing only in the last century. In ancient times marriages were mostly arraigned when the girl was in her teens. Sometimes as young as 11 or 12 years old. Most times it was because the parents were poor and they could not afford to feed and clothe the child. Often times they were sold to the husbands parents. They were taken from their homes and considered the family of the husband. Her real parents no longer had the right to interfere with the girl’s life in any way. Political reasons were there too. Wealth, power and family position had a great deal to do with the arraignment of the marriage. She was treated as a servant instead of a wife by the boys parents and mostly not respected. Even when she was grown and had children of her own, she was still expected to serve her husband’s family. This tradition started to be challenged by 1919. There was a public uproar in that year because of the suicide of a young woman who’s marriage was arraigned. It has been called the May Fourth Movement in China and marked the beginning of change for the marriage tradition and for the rights of women. The new thinking was not welcome by some of the older people, but some did embrace it and there was a division among people in those days Things changed dramatically with the founding of the People’s Republic of China by Mao Zedong in 1949. Equal rights for women and freedom to choose a partner became law. It seemed, to the women, that it was a time when they could finally be loved for who they were as a person and have happy home and family lives. As the communists took power however, Mao Zedong divided the people of china into classes of political importance and things didn’t really change all that much. True love as a reason for marriage to their partner was put aside once again in favor of political class. In order for the women to get good jobs, be respected by their family and peers, they had to keep up with the tradition and marry someone within a favored class. This went on until the death of Mao Zedong in the mid-1970’s. Enter the modern era of China’s history. They are now one of the top economies in the world. Women are taking over positions in companies that were traditionally held by men. Some are owning their own businesses and becoming wealthy. The world’s luxury car makers are changing their marketing strategies to include Chinese women who are buying up fancy sports cars at an alarming rate. As the times change, so must the thinking, but it takes time. Dating in recent years has been done via the internet lately. Many websites have sprung up in China to meet the demand of singles seeking love and marriage and it is common now for women in their 30’s – 50’s, who have been divorced, to seek love and marriage abroad. As the trend grows many Chinese women will be moving west in search of love and marriage.	<urn:uuid:048813cf-5bf6-4278-bb45-b78545c3773e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pinaymom.org/chinese-marriage-customs-then-and-now.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00438.warc.gz	en	0.991658	650	3.515625	4	[ -0.5092427730560303, 0.5743632912635803, 0.22139045596122742, -0.07904400676488876, 0.0661918967962265, 0.4997924864292145, -0.028760802000761032, -0.3933812379837036, 0.1174149140715599, -0.25544989109039307, 0.6236275434494019, 0.27086305618286133, 0.3068492114543915, 0.1925758272409439,...	8	China has long and rich history dating back over 5,00 years. It is one of the most oldest countries in the world. Traditions concerning the man and the woman, and marriage, have been changing only in the last century. In ancient times marriages were mostly arraigned when the girl was in her teens. Sometimes as young as 11 or 12 years old. Most times it was because the parents were poor and they could not afford to feed and clothe the child. Often times they were sold to the husbands parents. They were taken from their homes and considered the family of the husband. Her real parents no longer had the right to interfere with the girl’s life in any way. Political reasons were there too. Wealth, power and family position had a great deal to do with the arraignment of the marriage. She was treated as a servant instead of a wife by the boys parents and mostly not respected. Even when she was grown and had children of her own, she was still expected to serve her husband’s family. This tradition started to be challenged by 1919. There was a public uproar in that year because of the suicide of a young woman who’s marriage was arraigned. It has been called the May Fourth Movement in China and marked the beginning of change for the marriage tradition and for the rights of women. The new thinking was not welcome by some of the older people, but some did embrace it and there was a division among people in those days Things changed dramatically with the founding of the People’s Republic of China by Mao Zedong in 1949. Equal rights for women and freedom to choose a partner became law. It seemed, to the women, that it was a time when they could finally be loved for who they were as a person and have happy home and family lives. As the communists took power however, Mao Zedong divided the people of china into classes of political importance and things didn’t really change all that much. True love as a reason for marriage to their partner was put aside once again in favor of political class. In order for the women to get good jobs, be respected by their family and peers, they had to keep up with the tradition and marry someone within a favored class. This went on until the death of Mao Zedong in the mid-1970’s. Enter the modern era of China’s history. They are now one of the top economies in the world. Women are taking over positions in companies that were traditionally held by men. Some are owning their own businesses and becoming wealthy. The world’s luxury car makers are changing their marketing strategies to include Chinese women who are buying up fancy sports cars at an alarming rate. As the times change, so must the thinking, but it takes time. Dating in recent years has been done via the internet lately. Many websites have sprung up in China to meet the demand of singles seeking love and marriage and it is common now for women in their 30’s – 50’s, who have been divorced, to seek love and marriage abroad. As the trend grows many Chinese women will be moving west in search of love and marriage.	650	ENGLISH	1
- Human experience can be communicated through arts. - Art can bring out different emotions. - There are many forms of artistic expression. Here is what some of the Year 5 participants had to say about their experience – “Before we started the unit, I knew a couple of things about graffiti. For example : it was a way to express your feelings in art ; it could be both legal or not. Finally, I knew that graffiti was used by street artists – I really wanted to meet one and I finally did. I wanted to express how hunger is killing most of the population because some people can’t afford to buy food, so I decided to do that topic. Being hungry is not really a problem for us, because we can just walk into the kitchen and get ourselves a snack. But for people who don’t have a kitchen, it’s rather hard.I drew a giant bowl of soup to represent all the food we have, and a girl diving into it , to represent how much we eat a day. I was so excited when I heard that I would finally get to meet a graffiti artist and when they said we would get to do some ourselves I couldn’t wait till the day we would get to do it ! When we started it got a little hard, but then Mrs Ly came and helped, it worked I was satisfied with my picture! Were you? I was not that happy when i realized that my picture got covered by a name and you couldn’t see my picture , but then I cheered up when i heard that my friends picture’s had not been covered.” “I used to think that doing graffiti was just taking cans full of spray paint to write illegal stuff in metros or under bridges.I already knew that it was to express anger, but it turned out, not only. I learnt that you could also do graffiti legally. You can do graffiti to express other emotions( like: joy, love, hate, rage, embarrassment, etc).But now I know that graffiti can be an actual piece of art! I mean, isn’t that awesome?!!! I wanted to express my anger about climate change, but it was not easy. I thought I could do it in no time, but I was wrong! I learnt to never underestimate people. Especially all of the people who do graffiti, like this guy called Baro. They are making awesome things right now, and I take them for an example. Creating a graffiti was really fun! But it was not easy at all. When we arrived, I was thinking it was going to be finished in no-time, but when we started…We were all struggling. I tried, and to be honest, I put it on the list of the hardest things to do. But it was a very good experience and I am proud of it!” Mariame Marly Balde, 5LA By: Carole Ly, Class 5 Teacher	<urn:uuid:7380210b-bdab-4d9d-bd54-7bbb429ec9b2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lachatenbref.com/2020/01/10/school-walls-covered-in-graffiti/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00259.warc.gz	en	0.981991	615	3.46875	3	[ 0.03317240625619888, 0.006690707057714462, 0.5565423965454102, 0.20380949974060059, -0.44393599033355713, 0.14081917703151703, 0.7692855596542358, -0.13430730998516083, 0.00365657196380198, -0.3931731581687927, 0.09727559983730316, 0.042006440460681915, 0.063262440264225, 0.220167651772499...	9	- Human experience can be communicated through arts. - Art can bring out different emotions. - There are many forms of artistic expression. Here is what some of the Year 5 participants had to say about their experience – “Before we started the unit, I knew a couple of things about graffiti. For example : it was a way to express your feelings in art ; it could be both legal or not. Finally, I knew that graffiti was used by street artists – I really wanted to meet one and I finally did. I wanted to express how hunger is killing most of the population because some people can’t afford to buy food, so I decided to do that topic. Being hungry is not really a problem for us, because we can just walk into the kitchen and get ourselves a snack. But for people who don’t have a kitchen, it’s rather hard.I drew a giant bowl of soup to represent all the food we have, and a girl diving into it , to represent how much we eat a day. I was so excited when I heard that I would finally get to meet a graffiti artist and when they said we would get to do some ourselves I couldn’t wait till the day we would get to do it ! When we started it got a little hard, but then Mrs Ly came and helped, it worked I was satisfied with my picture! Were you? I was not that happy when i realized that my picture got covered by a name and you couldn’t see my picture , but then I cheered up when i heard that my friends picture’s had not been covered.” “I used to think that doing graffiti was just taking cans full of spray paint to write illegal stuff in metros or under bridges.I already knew that it was to express anger, but it turned out, not only. I learnt that you could also do graffiti legally. You can do graffiti to express other emotions( like: joy, love, hate, rage, embarrassment, etc).But now I know that graffiti can be an actual piece of art! I mean, isn’t that awesome?!!! I wanted to express my anger about climate change, but it was not easy. I thought I could do it in no time, but I was wrong! I learnt to never underestimate people. Especially all of the people who do graffiti, like this guy called Baro. They are making awesome things right now, and I take them for an example. Creating a graffiti was really fun! But it was not easy at all. When we arrived, I was thinking it was going to be finished in no-time, but when we started…We were all struggling. I tried, and to be honest, I put it on the list of the hardest things to do. But it was a very good experience and I am proud of it!” Mariame Marly Balde, 5LA By: Carole Ly, Class 5 Teacher	584	ENGLISH	1
On 1 December 1582, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, the daughter of a family friend who lived in the nearby village of Shottery. At the time of their marriage, Shakespeare was only 18 years old, whereas Anne was 26. Little is known about their courtship, though some scholars have drawn links between Shakespeare’s biography and his first published poem, Venus and Adonis, which features an experienced woman seducing a man. Shakespeare may have initially viewed the marriage as advantageous. Anne, who had been orphaned in her mid-twenties and was bequeathed significant resources in her father’s will, was “wholly at her own government,” which means that she had complete autonomy over her own affairs as well as control over family property. Despite the lack of concrete evidence regarding their courtship, however, the conditions leading to their wedding seem much clearer. It is highly probable that the couple were rushed into marriage because Anne was pregnant. This speculation appears to be confirmed by a baptismal record for their first child, Susanna, who was born just six months after their wedding. Three years later Anne gave birth to the twins Hamnet and Judith. After that, the Shakespeares would not have any more children. Following the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left for London. He spent the bulk of his life there, away from his family. Long periods of separation were not unusual at the time, and hence don’t necessarily indicate Shakespeare and Anne’s estrangement. Even so, scholars speculate that the Shakespeares had a troubled marriage. Circumstantial evidence comes from the plays themselves. Spouses—typically wives, not husbands—are often missing in his plays, and when both spouses are present, as in both their relationships prove dysfunctional, even terrifying. Nor does Shakespeare promise happiness for future marriage like those foreshadowed at the end of A Midsummer Night’s Dream It is possible that Shakespeare’s return to Stratford around 1611 indicates a reconciliation with his long-neglected wife, perhaps one like that depicted in The Winter’s Tale. Complicating this theory of reconciliation is the fact that Shakespeare’s will leaves Anne but one bequest: his “second best bed”—that is, the marriage bed. Legal historians speculate that Shakespeare may have been trying to undermine the customary dowager’s rights that ensure a widow’s lifetime income. However, other scholars believe that Shakespeare’s bequest intended to honor rather than snub his widow. At the time a bed represented an expensive heirloom and status symbol.	<urn:uuid:695eb182-d509-412a-b63e-90dfce46c566>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sparknotes.com/shakespeare/life-and-times/marriage/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00531.warc.gz	en	0.983178	544	3.8125	4	[ -0.16340568661689758, 0.11209741234779358, 0.15585476160049438, -0.3058205246925354, -0.19395478069782257, -0.19554249942302704, -0.016455233097076416, 0.01886437088251114, 0.12554240226745605, -0.05329038202762604, 0.17107191681861877, -0.001317387679591775, -0.049035049974918365, 0.13228...	11	On 1 December 1582, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, the daughter of a family friend who lived in the nearby village of Shottery. At the time of their marriage, Shakespeare was only 18 years old, whereas Anne was 26. Little is known about their courtship, though some scholars have drawn links between Shakespeare’s biography and his first published poem, Venus and Adonis, which features an experienced woman seducing a man. Shakespeare may have initially viewed the marriage as advantageous. Anne, who had been orphaned in her mid-twenties and was bequeathed significant resources in her father’s will, was “wholly at her own government,” which means that she had complete autonomy over her own affairs as well as control over family property. Despite the lack of concrete evidence regarding their courtship, however, the conditions leading to their wedding seem much clearer. It is highly probable that the couple were rushed into marriage because Anne was pregnant. This speculation appears to be confirmed by a baptismal record for their first child, Susanna, who was born just six months after their wedding. Three years later Anne gave birth to the twins Hamnet and Judith. After that, the Shakespeares would not have any more children. Following the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left for London. He spent the bulk of his life there, away from his family. Long periods of separation were not unusual at the time, and hence don’t necessarily indicate Shakespeare and Anne’s estrangement. Even so, scholars speculate that the Shakespeares had a troubled marriage. Circumstantial evidence comes from the plays themselves. Spouses—typically wives, not husbands—are often missing in his plays, and when both spouses are present, as in both their relationships prove dysfunctional, even terrifying. Nor does Shakespeare promise happiness for future marriage like those foreshadowed at the end of A Midsummer Night’s Dream It is possible that Shakespeare’s return to Stratford around 1611 indicates a reconciliation with his long-neglected wife, perhaps one like that depicted in The Winter’s Tale. Complicating this theory of reconciliation is the fact that Shakespeare’s will leaves Anne but one bequest: his “second best bed”—that is, the marriage bed. Legal historians speculate that Shakespeare may have been trying to undermine the customary dowager’s rights that ensure a widow’s lifetime income. However, other scholars believe that Shakespeare’s bequest intended to honor rather than snub his widow. At the time a bed represented an expensive heirloom and status symbol.	523	ENGLISH	1
The world of science has seen innovative inventions that have changed human lives from time immemorial. Some of these inventions have been attributed to minority scientists who have had to break barriers put in their way. They have not only made a name for themselves but also in the books of history for their achievements and contributions to the field of science. The following are some of the African American scientists to be recognized for their contributions and achievements. 10. Mae C. Jemison Mae C. Jemison was the first black woman to go to space. She was born in Alabama on October 17, 1956. She is an engineer as well as a doctor. Jemison is an accomplished scientist who holds several honorary doctorates in engineering, humanities, and science. Her rise to prominence was not easy as she had to battle the racist stereotypes in school. She graduated from Stanford University with a degree in chemical engineering in 1977 and got her degree in medicine in 1981 from Cornell University. Her space career debuted on September 12, 1992, on the STS-47. After resigning from NASA in 1993, she founded the Jemison Group. She served as a professor in Cornell and Dartmouth Universities from 1995 to 2002. She has published a number of books and publications and made television appearances as well as making speeches in high-level meetings. 9. Alice Ball Alice Ball was the first African American woman to get a masters’ degree. She attained this honor by graduating from the University of Hawaii. Her parents were middle class. Her grandfather was the first black to learn daguerreotype. He was also a photographer. Her father was a newspaper editor, a photographer, and a lawyer. She attended Seattle High School and later moved to the University of Washington where she graduated with top honors in both pharmaceutical chemistry and pharmacy. She published a prestigious journal of the American Chemistry Society. During her studies at the University of Hawaii, she made notable progress in the study of chaulmoogra oil which was being used in the treatment of leprosy. Unfortunately, she fell ill before she could publish her work and she died at the age of 24. In 2000, she was honored for her work and contribution to the world of chemistry by the University of Hawaii and awarded a medal of distinction. Every four years the island of Hawaii celebrates Alice Ball day on February 29. 8. Saint Elmo Brady Saint Elmo Brady was the first black person to be awarded a Ph.D. in Chemistry in 1916. It was a distinction which he earned in 1916 after graduating from the University of Illinois. He was born on December 22, 1884, in Kentucky Louisville. He graduated from the University of Fisk at the age of 24. From 1915 to 1918 Brady published three abstracts based on his work and through collaboration with Professor Clarence Derrick. He taught for 25 years at Fisk University until his retirement after teaching at Tuskegee and Howard Universities during 1916 to 1920. Brady was included in the university’s honor society, Phil Lambda Upsilon in 1914. He was involved in setting up strong undergraduate curricula for Chemistry and also graduate programs. He also fundraised for the establishment of black colleges and universities. He was married to Myrtle Travers and they had two sons, St Elmo Brady Jr. and Robert. He died on December 25, 1966, in Washington. 7. Marie Maynard Daly Marie Maynard Daly was the first black woman to be awarded a doctorate in Chemistry. She was born on April 26, 1921, in Corona Queens. She studied in New York at Hunter College High school and graduated with top honors from the Queen's college where she studied chemistry. The ongoing war created the need for top scientists to help in the war effort by the USA. This saw Marie get scholarships to study for her masters and doctorate in New York and Columbia Universities from 1943 to 1947. She completed her thesis under the supervision of Doctor Mary Caldwell. She worked at Howard University from 1947 to 1948 as a science instructor. She also taught at medical schools like Yeshiva University and was recognized by medical associations and research organizations like the New York Academy of Sciences. She died on October 28, 2003, at the age of 82 in New York City. 6. Sylvester James Gates Sylvester James Gates was born on December 15, 1950, in Tampa Florida. He is known for his research work on supersymmetry. He studied physics at the Massachusetts Institute of technology where he was awarded a Bachelor of Science degree in 1973 and a Ph.D. in 1977 on supersymmetry. He is still active in scientific research at MIT and he has several publications to his name. He had worked University of Maryland physics department and he is currently the physics professor at Brown University. He also was an advisor to US President Barrack Obama in his science and technology team. He was elected to the National Academy of Science in 2013 and he has been awarded honors too. He has also made appearances on the media through commercials and in high-level documentaries. 5. Ronald McNair Ronald McNair was a physicist and an astronaut working for NASA. He born on October 15, 1951, in South Carolina. He attended Carver high school and graduated with top honors in 1967. He proceeded to study at North Carolina State University where he studied engineering physics and graduated in 1971. He got his Ph.D. in 1976 from MIT. He has been awarded honors and doctorates. He began his career at NASA on February 18, 1984, after being selected in 1978. He was a talented saxophonist and would have performed in space but this dream was cut short in the Challenger disaster of 1986. He was killed when the spacecraft exploded after takeoff. 4. Roger Arliner Young Roger Arliner Young was the first African American woman to get a doctorate in zoology. She was born in 1889 in Virginia and died in early November 1964. Young went through hardships in her early life. Her mother was disabled and much of the family's resources were used to treat her mother. Young had initially enrolled in Howard University to study music in 1916, but she began to study zoology when Everett Just, a biologist at the university, helped her. She got her Bachelor’s degree in 1924, and her masters’ degree in 1926 from the University of Chicago. Despite the setbacks in her career at Howard University, she managed to secure a doctorate degree from the University of Pennsylvania in 1940. She taught at black colleges until 1959, and has several publications and works to her name. She was hospitalized in the late 1950s, and died on November 9, 1964. 3. Edward Bouchet Edward Bouchet was born in Connecticut New Haven on September 15, 1852. He was a brilliant student from his childhood to high school where he got top honors from New Haven high school and Hopkins Schools from 1866 to 1870. He was a teacher and a physicist who got his credentials from Yale University. However, he was unable to get a teaching position at any major university due to racial discrimination. Instead, he taught physics and chemistry in Philadelphia for 26 years. At the height of the controversy about the necessity for either technical and college education, he resigned from his post. He spent 14 years doing work in schools until he retired due to poor health in 1913. He died in 1916 at his childhood home in New Haven. He was awarded honors by the American Physical Society as well as his former alma mater Yale which founded a graduate society in his honor. 2. Shirley Ann Jackson Shirley Ann Jackson was the first African American woman to earn a doctorate from MIT. She was born on August 5, 1946. She joined Massachusetts Institute of Technology to study physics in 1964. She got her degree in 1968 and a doctorate in 1973. She taught at several top universities in the US before getting an appointment as the first Black woman to chair the nuclear regulatory commission in 1995 by President Bill Clinton. She has served on several corporate boards and has been given honors from notable organizations like the National Academy of Sciences. She is married and has one child. 1. Lloyd Noal Ferguson Lloyd Noal Ferguson was born on February 9, 1918 in Oakland, California. He attended Oakland high school and later the University of California, Berkeley where in 1943 he became the the first African American person to obtain a Ph.D. from that university. He worked at the North Carolina Institute and later on at Howard University. He also worked in Europe and moved back to California State University where he worked until he retired in 1986. He wrote several books and research papers. He died on November 30, 2011 at the age of 93. Who was Mae C. Jemison? Mae C. Jemison was the first black woman to go to space. Her space career debuted on September 12, 1992, on the STS-47. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:ad5460b8-663a-4664-ac3c-bbd94b596686>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/10-famous-black-scientists-you-should-know.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00508.warc.gz	en	0.989771	1,842	3.65625	4	[ -0.18937250971794128, 0.5497307777404785, 0.2721320688724518, 0.080254927277565, -0.029114577919244766, 0.11643770337104797, 0.4051397442817688, 0.12652887403964996, -0.36893054842948914, 0.2585245370864868, 0.25874364376068115, -0.15370774269104004, -0.06306794285774231, 0.309302091598510...	2	The world of science has seen innovative inventions that have changed human lives from time immemorial. Some of these inventions have been attributed to minority scientists who have had to break barriers put in their way. They have not only made a name for themselves but also in the books of history for their achievements and contributions to the field of science. The following are some of the African American scientists to be recognized for their contributions and achievements. 10. Mae C. Jemison Mae C. Jemison was the first black woman to go to space. She was born in Alabama on October 17, 1956. She is an engineer as well as a doctor. Jemison is an accomplished scientist who holds several honorary doctorates in engineering, humanities, and science. Her rise to prominence was not easy as she had to battle the racist stereotypes in school. She graduated from Stanford University with a degree in chemical engineering in 1977 and got her degree in medicine in 1981 from Cornell University. Her space career debuted on September 12, 1992, on the STS-47. After resigning from NASA in 1993, she founded the Jemison Group. She served as a professor in Cornell and Dartmouth Universities from 1995 to 2002. She has published a number of books and publications and made television appearances as well as making speeches in high-level meetings. 9. Alice Ball Alice Ball was the first African American woman to get a masters’ degree. She attained this honor by graduating from the University of Hawaii. Her parents were middle class. Her grandfather was the first black to learn daguerreotype. He was also a photographer. Her father was a newspaper editor, a photographer, and a lawyer. She attended Seattle High School and later moved to the University of Washington where she graduated with top honors in both pharmaceutical chemistry and pharmacy. She published a prestigious journal of the American Chemistry Society. During her studies at the University of Hawaii, she made notable progress in the study of chaulmoogra oil which was being used in the treatment of leprosy. Unfortunately, she fell ill before she could publish her work and she died at the age of 24. In 2000, she was honored for her work and contribution to the world of chemistry by the University of Hawaii and awarded a medal of distinction. Every four years the island of Hawaii celebrates Alice Ball day on February 29. 8. Saint Elmo Brady Saint Elmo Brady was the first black person to be awarded a Ph.D. in Chemistry in 1916. It was a distinction which he earned in 1916 after graduating from the University of Illinois. He was born on December 22, 1884, in Kentucky Louisville. He graduated from the University of Fisk at the age of 24. From 1915 to 1918 Brady published three abstracts based on his work and through collaboration with Professor Clarence Derrick. He taught for 25 years at Fisk University until his retirement after teaching at Tuskegee and Howard Universities during 1916 to 1920. Brady was included in the university’s honor society, Phil Lambda Upsilon in 1914. He was involved in setting up strong undergraduate curricula for Chemistry and also graduate programs. He also fundraised for the establishment of black colleges and universities. He was married to Myrtle Travers and they had two sons, St Elmo Brady Jr. and Robert. He died on December 25, 1966, in Washington. 7. Marie Maynard Daly Marie Maynard Daly was the first black woman to be awarded a doctorate in Chemistry. She was born on April 26, 1921, in Corona Queens. She studied in New York at Hunter College High school and graduated with top honors from the Queen's college where she studied chemistry. The ongoing war created the need for top scientists to help in the war effort by the USA. This saw Marie get scholarships to study for her masters and doctorate in New York and Columbia Universities from 1943 to 1947. She completed her thesis under the supervision of Doctor Mary Caldwell. She worked at Howard University from 1947 to 1948 as a science instructor. She also taught at medical schools like Yeshiva University and was recognized by medical associations and research organizations like the New York Academy of Sciences. She died on October 28, 2003, at the age of 82 in New York City. 6. Sylvester James Gates Sylvester James Gates was born on December 15, 1950, in Tampa Florida. He is known for his research work on supersymmetry. He studied physics at the Massachusetts Institute of technology where he was awarded a Bachelor of Science degree in 1973 and a Ph.D. in 1977 on supersymmetry. He is still active in scientific research at MIT and he has several publications to his name. He had worked University of Maryland physics department and he is currently the physics professor at Brown University. He also was an advisor to US President Barrack Obama in his science and technology team. He was elected to the National Academy of Science in 2013 and he has been awarded honors too. He has also made appearances on the media through commercials and in high-level documentaries. 5. Ronald McNair Ronald McNair was a physicist and an astronaut working for NASA. He born on October 15, 1951, in South Carolina. He attended Carver high school and graduated with top honors in 1967. He proceeded to study at North Carolina State University where he studied engineering physics and graduated in 1971. He got his Ph.D. in 1976 from MIT. He has been awarded honors and doctorates. He began his career at NASA on February 18, 1984, after being selected in 1978. He was a talented saxophonist and would have performed in space but this dream was cut short in the Challenger disaster of 1986. He was killed when the spacecraft exploded after takeoff. 4. Roger Arliner Young Roger Arliner Young was the first African American woman to get a doctorate in zoology. She was born in 1889 in Virginia and died in early November 1964. Young went through hardships in her early life. Her mother was disabled and much of the family's resources were used to treat her mother. Young had initially enrolled in Howard University to study music in 1916, but she began to study zoology when Everett Just, a biologist at the university, helped her. She got her Bachelor’s degree in 1924, and her masters’ degree in 1926 from the University of Chicago. Despite the setbacks in her career at Howard University, she managed to secure a doctorate degree from the University of Pennsylvania in 1940. She taught at black colleges until 1959, and has several publications and works to her name. She was hospitalized in the late 1950s, and died on November 9, 1964. 3. Edward Bouchet Edward Bouchet was born in Connecticut New Haven on September 15, 1852. He was a brilliant student from his childhood to high school where he got top honors from New Haven high school and Hopkins Schools from 1866 to 1870. He was a teacher and a physicist who got his credentials from Yale University. However, he was unable to get a teaching position at any major university due to racial discrimination. Instead, he taught physics and chemistry in Philadelphia for 26 years. At the height of the controversy about the necessity for either technical and college education, he resigned from his post. He spent 14 years doing work in schools until he retired due to poor health in 1913. He died in 1916 at his childhood home in New Haven. He was awarded honors by the American Physical Society as well as his former alma mater Yale which founded a graduate society in his honor. 2. Shirley Ann Jackson Shirley Ann Jackson was the first African American woman to earn a doctorate from MIT. She was born on August 5, 1946. She joined Massachusetts Institute of Technology to study physics in 1964. She got her degree in 1968 and a doctorate in 1973. She taught at several top universities in the US before getting an appointment as the first Black woman to chair the nuclear regulatory commission in 1995 by President Bill Clinton. She has served on several corporate boards and has been given honors from notable organizations like the National Academy of Sciences. She is married and has one child. 1. Lloyd Noal Ferguson Lloyd Noal Ferguson was born on February 9, 1918 in Oakland, California. He attended Oakland high school and later the University of California, Berkeley where in 1943 he became the the first African American person to obtain a Ph.D. from that university. He worked at the North Carolina Institute and later on at Howard University. He also worked in Europe and moved back to California State University where he worked until he retired in 1986. He wrote several books and research papers. He died on November 30, 2011 at the age of 93. Who was Mae C. Jemison? Mae C. Jemison was the first black woman to go to space. Her space career debuted on September 12, 1992, on the STS-47. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	2,094	ENGLISH	1
Christianity is, like Judaism and Islam, a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion. The first followers of Jesus the Christ (a man who Christians believe to be God incarnated) were Jews. Most Gentiles (non-Jews) were only taught about Jesus after his death and resurrection and his ascension into Heaven. There were a few non-Jewish believers in Jesus who met and interacted with him (the Roman centurion, for instance). The Birth Narrative: The birth narrative is the story of the birth of Jesus and is found in the Gospel books of Matthew and Luke, both of which are different versions. In both versions, Mary, the mother of Jesus, is told that she will have a baby (even though she is a virgin) and she will name him Jesus (or Immanuel, which means “God with us”). In Matthew, Magi (great wise-men from the East) come to visit Jesus and bring him gifts of gold, myrrh (a rare perfume), and incense. In Luke, it is shepherds who come and visit the baby, bringing their sheep and looking down on the child with awe and wonder. The Death Narrative (a.k.a. The Passion): After three years of ministry (according to the Gospel of John; in the other Gospels – Matthew, Mark, and Luke – Jesus’s ministry only lasts one year) Jesus goes with his disciples (followers) to Jerusalem in order to celebrate the Passover (see Judaism). Jesus and his disciples celebrated the festival, and then Jesus was betrayed by one of his followers. He was taken before the Roman government, and the Jews turned against him and sentenced him to death. They wanted Jesus crucified and one of the other prisoners released (as was the custom at the time of the Passover – the Romans would release one of the Jewish prisoners back to the people). Jesus was thus flogged and then crucified. This event had been prophesied about in the Hebrew Scriptures. What had also been prophesied was that he would rise from the dead on the third day. Christians believe that this happened, while everyone else believes that he stayed dead. According to believers, Jesus appeared first to his friend Mary Magdalene, who had been a harlot/prostitute before meeting Jesus, and Jesus’s mother, Mary the Virgin (she had been a virgin when she gave birth to Jesus). The Early Church period: After Jesus ascended, his disciples started to spread the message of his teachings and who he was. They suffered at the hands of both Jews and Romans, who accused them of being ‘haters of mankind’ (for Christians would not make sacrifices to the cult of the emperor). A man named Saul, a Pharisee (Jewish religious leader), lead numerous raids against Christians, killing many. Saul was on his way to Damascus to kill more Christians when he had a vision of Jesus. Saul never tells the audience of his letters – a major portion of the Christian Bible (the New Testament) – what his vision included, aside from the fact that it changed his life and he was given a new mission – to spread the faith to the Gentiles. This is the point in the story when Saul becomes to be known by Paul, leaving many readers to assume that he changed his name. This is not the case. Paul is what he is called when he is in the Greek speaking nations, and Saul is what he is called in Judea (the area inhabited by Jews after their return from the Babylonian exile (see Judaism)). Paul converted many Gentiles to Christianity. Peter, James, and John (disciples who walked with Jesus) stayed mostly in the Jewish areas, spreading the message (gospel – good news) there. Peter went to Rome and founded a Church there; this is why Peter is considered the first Pope – he was the first Church leader of the Church at Rome). Orthodox Christianity (on which the beliefs of Roman Catholics and Protestants are based) only emerged after some people were presenting doctrines that were contradictory to tradition and were causing splits in the Church. Church fathers and elders realized that without a set of firm doctrines and beliefs, the Church would continue to split apart and there would thus no longer be unity within the Church. So in a way, heretical figures are responsible for motivating orthodoxy into laying down the basics of what Christians would come to believe until the time of the Reformation under Martin Luther, an event that will not be discussed here beyond the fact that it challenged Catholicism and the idea that only the Priests, elders, and Monks should be allowed to read the Bible. The Reformation lead to the Bible being printed in multiple languages so anyone who could not read Latin, which was pretty much everyone who was not a higher up in the Church hierarchy, would have access to the Scriptures. - In Christianity, this includes both the Old Testament (the Hebrew Scriptures) and the New Testament (the stories of Jesus and the letters of his apostles). There are many apocryphal (not in the canon) texts that early Christians were reading. These texts were mostly written by heretics and so their content was deemed improper for the Bible. The texts not written by heretics do not have an identified author and those who formed the canon were unsure concerning its authorship and thus its authority. -Jesus is the Savior of the world and the only way to get to Heaven is to believe in him. -God loves all his children, even those who do not believe in him. -When asked what the greatest commandment was, Jesus answered, “ ‘You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind.’ This is the greatest and first commandment. And a second is like it: ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself’. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets.” Matthew 22:36-40 -Christians are to be the salt of the earth and the light of the world (this could mean preservers of mankind and leaders for how to properly live (Christians are to live as Jesus taught, but there are many today who do not live this way). -Jesus- Believed by Christians to be the Son of God (similar to a Hindu incarnation, but more divine than that). He is called ‘The Good Shepherd’ who takes care of his sheep (his followers). -Paul- Wrote many letters to the different churches that existed around 50-70 A.D. The letters discussed a range of topics from spiritual gifts to sin and morality (especially of the sexual variety). His letters take up a large portion of the New Testament and are some of the only Biblical texts Christians have that discuss how to elect Bishops and leaders and how, as a human, to deal with temptation and desire. Paul struggled with these things as he sinned (Jesus did not sin, though he had been tempted by Satan – the devil – and so understood what that felt like) and so he could help instruct people in how to live with their sin and how to stay away from temptation. -Matthew- Traditional author of the Gospel according to Matthew. His book is very Jewish-oriented. He uses Old Testament prophecies to prove that Jesus is the Messiah that the Jews had long awaited. -Mark- (John Mark) Traditional author of the Gospel according to Mark. His gospel is the shortest of the four, as well as the most concise. It is believed that Mark traveled with Paul, and so he heard stories of Jesus’s ministry and wrote them down, though it is unsure if his writings take place in chronological order. Mark’s passion narrative (the events that lead up to and include the crucifixion and resurrection) is the longest, proportionately, of all the gospels. It also does not include Jesus meeting any of his followers after his resurrection. It simply ends with Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Jesus seeing the empty tomb and talking to an angel who tells them that Jesus has risen. -Luke- (The physician) Traditional author of the Gospel according to Luke. His gospel is written to a friend (Theophilus – lover of God) and includes many stories of Jesus’s forgiveness and acceptance of all peoples. Luke is mentioned in the New Testament book of Acts as a companion of Paul. He is described as a doctor. -John – (The beloved) Traditional author of the Gospel according to John. This gospel is very different from the other three. It describes who Jesus was as a divine figure and it includes stories that are not found in the other gospels. This is the gospel that most closely relates to ‘the other worldly’. It also has many statements about who Jesus was and what his purpose on earth is. John chapter 3, verse 16 (presented as 3:16) says “For God so loved the world that he gave his only son, that whosoever believes in him shall not perish, but have eternal life.” John 14:6 is a statement by Jesus: “I am the way, the truth, and the life, and no one comes to the Father except through me.” Both of these statements became creedal in the early church – a way of stating what you believe in a simple and concise way. -Peter- One of Jesus’s disciples. During Jesus’s flogging Peter says that he does not know who Jesus is, thus fulfilling a prophecy that Jesus had said that claimed Peter would come to deny him. Peter went on to found the Roman Church and became a very important figure in early Christianity. -James- The brother of Jesus. He was also an important leader in the early Church period. He focused on the Jewish-Christian community. -Christmas- Celebrated 25 December to commemorate the virgin birth of Jesus, born in a manger in a stable. Jesus was not actually born on this day, but pagans who became Christians and had celebrated the Winter Solstice wanted to keep a part of their tradition. Christians did not know when Christ was born (except that it was cold), so they were fine with celebrating Christmas near the day of the solstice. -Epiphany- Celebrated on or around 6 January (in Protestant churches, the Sunday between 2 and 8 January). This commemorated the visit of the Magi to Jesus (in Western traditions) and the day on which Jesus was baptized in the Jordan River (in Eastern traditions). -Lent-The 40 days of fasting that takes place between Ash Wednesday and Easter Sunday. It commemorates the 40 days that Jesus spent wandering in the desert after his baptism and before his temptation by Satan. In Western traditions Christians give something up that takes their focus away from God (Facebook, certain foods (though that might be just to have a healthier diet for a while), reading, or anything like that). -Palm Sunday- Takes place the Sunday before Easter. This commemorates Jesus’s entrance into Jerusalem when he was praised by the Jewish people. -Good Friday- Takes place on the Friday before Easter. Commemorates the day on which Jesus was crucified. It is called ‘good’ because Jesus died so that humans might be able to enter Heaven after death even though they had lived a life of sin. -Easter- Celebrates Christ’s return from the dead and the empty tomb where his body had been laid. This also marks the end of the Lent season. -Pentecost- Takes place 50 days after Easter. It commemorates the day on which the Holy Spirit came down from Heaven and blessed them in their mission to go out into the world and spread the good news of Christ. Pentecost can also refer to the whole 50 days between Easter and Pentecost. -Advent- The season leading up to Christmas that in most Western traditions begins on the fourth Sunday before Christmas. It is a season of waiting for the birth of Christ. Many families have an Advent wreath, which holds 5 candles (4 placed in a square around a center candle), and light one candle on each Sunday and the 5th candle on Christmas day. -Canon- Set of texts that have been approved by the Early Church to hold proper doctrine and authority. -Messiah/Christ- (same word in two different languages) ‘The anointed one’. It is believed that Jesus became the Messiah/Christ when a dove came down from Heaven and the voice of God claimed Jesus to be his (God’s) son. -Gospel – The Greek word for ‘good news’. -Orthodoxy- Set of traditions that go back to the beginning of the early Church. Some orthodox take the Scriptures literally, others metaphorically; it all depends on the individual believer. Orthodox is sort of synonymous with ‘tradition’. Anyone who wants to can read the Bible, but not all can participate in the sacraments if they are not Orthodox. -Catholicism- Refers to those who ascribe to the tradition set down by Peter and those who followed him and his teachings. It is a more traditional viewing of Scriptures than Protestants, but not as strict as some Orthodox. Today, Catholics can read the Bible if they want to; there are no restrictions toward gender, age, or understanding of the Scriptures. But only males can become Bishops, Cardinals, and Popes. -Protestantism- This results from Martin Luther’s reformation. Protestants hold to the idea that anyone who wants to can read the Bible and teach it to others, even if they have not been fully educated in all of the scriptures. All can participate in the sacraments, as long as they accept Jesus as their Lord and savior. -Sacraments- Holy actions that take place in the Church: - Baptism- A person who confesses Jesus as the Christ gets water put on their head and the Priest/Pastor/Church leader claims that person as a Christian. - Communion- Commemorates Jesus’s celebration of Passover when he took the bread, broke it, and passed it to his disciples saying “Take. Eat. This is my body broken for you. (Every time you eat) do this in remembrance of me.” Then he took the wine goblet (which was not supposed to be touched by Jews until the Messiah had come), and gave it to his disciples saying, “Take. Drink. This is my blood poured out for you. (Every time you drink) do this in remembrance of me.” - Confirmation- A person who wants to be recognized as a Christian by the Church takes a class in which he/she learns a lot about Christ, his teachings, and the early Church, and then stands in front of the congregation (the gathered church community) and accepts Jesus. This usually occurs during a child’s middle school years, but there are classes for adults to take that are separate from the children’s.	<urn:uuid:c0c4b119-2c6a-4faf-9fb0-892cb8feda4d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://worldreligions.wordpress.ncsu.edu/christianity/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00509.warc.gz	en	0.981644	3,129	3.453125	3	[ 0.04980282112956047, 0.6071436405181885, -0.07900579273700714, -0.09649917483329773, -0.39384445548057556, 0.31453371047973633, -0.06941646337509155, 0.06019720062613487, 0.4726293087005615, 0.3020619750022888, -0.1598341464996338, 0.12763863801956177, -0.15006192028522491, 0.1358576864004...	9	Christianity is, like Judaism and Islam, a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion. The first followers of Jesus the Christ (a man who Christians believe to be God incarnated) were Jews. Most Gentiles (non-Jews) were only taught about Jesus after his death and resurrection and his ascension into Heaven. There were a few non-Jewish believers in Jesus who met and interacted with him (the Roman centurion, for instance). The Birth Narrative: The birth narrative is the story of the birth of Jesus and is found in the Gospel books of Matthew and Luke, both of which are different versions. In both versions, Mary, the mother of Jesus, is told that she will have a baby (even though she is a virgin) and she will name him Jesus (or Immanuel, which means “God with us”). In Matthew, Magi (great wise-men from the East) come to visit Jesus and bring him gifts of gold, myrrh (a rare perfume), and incense. In Luke, it is shepherds who come and visit the baby, bringing their sheep and looking down on the child with awe and wonder. The Death Narrative (a.k.a. The Passion): After three years of ministry (according to the Gospel of John; in the other Gospels – Matthew, Mark, and Luke – Jesus’s ministry only lasts one year) Jesus goes with his disciples (followers) to Jerusalem in order to celebrate the Passover (see Judaism). Jesus and his disciples celebrated the festival, and then Jesus was betrayed by one of his followers. He was taken before the Roman government, and the Jews turned against him and sentenced him to death. They wanted Jesus crucified and one of the other prisoners released (as was the custom at the time of the Passover – the Romans would release one of the Jewish prisoners back to the people). Jesus was thus flogged and then crucified. This event had been prophesied about in the Hebrew Scriptures. What had also been prophesied was that he would rise from the dead on the third day. Christians believe that this happened, while everyone else believes that he stayed dead. According to believers, Jesus appeared first to his friend Mary Magdalene, who had been a harlot/prostitute before meeting Jesus, and Jesus’s mother, Mary the Virgin (she had been a virgin when she gave birth to Jesus). The Early Church period: After Jesus ascended, his disciples started to spread the message of his teachings and who he was. They suffered at the hands of both Jews and Romans, who accused them of being ‘haters of mankind’ (for Christians would not make sacrifices to the cult of the emperor). A man named Saul, a Pharisee (Jewish religious leader), lead numerous raids against Christians, killing many. Saul was on his way to Damascus to kill more Christians when he had a vision of Jesus. Saul never tells the audience of his letters – a major portion of the Christian Bible (the New Testament) – what his vision included, aside from the fact that it changed his life and he was given a new mission – to spread the faith to the Gentiles. This is the point in the story when Saul becomes to be known by Paul, leaving many readers to assume that he changed his name. This is not the case. Paul is what he is called when he is in the Greek speaking nations, and Saul is what he is called in Judea (the area inhabited by Jews after their return from the Babylonian exile (see Judaism)). Paul converted many Gentiles to Christianity. Peter, James, and John (disciples who walked with Jesus) stayed mostly in the Jewish areas, spreading the message (gospel – good news) there. Peter went to Rome and founded a Church there; this is why Peter is considered the first Pope – he was the first Church leader of the Church at Rome). Orthodox Christianity (on which the beliefs of Roman Catholics and Protestants are based) only emerged after some people were presenting doctrines that were contradictory to tradition and were causing splits in the Church. Church fathers and elders realized that without a set of firm doctrines and beliefs, the Church would continue to split apart and there would thus no longer be unity within the Church. So in a way, heretical figures are responsible for motivating orthodoxy into laying down the basics of what Christians would come to believe until the time of the Reformation under Martin Luther, an event that will not be discussed here beyond the fact that it challenged Catholicism and the idea that only the Priests, elders, and Monks should be allowed to read the Bible. The Reformation lead to the Bible being printed in multiple languages so anyone who could not read Latin, which was pretty much everyone who was not a higher up in the Church hierarchy, would have access to the Scriptures. - In Christianity, this includes both the Old Testament (the Hebrew Scriptures) and the New Testament (the stories of Jesus and the letters of his apostles). There are many apocryphal (not in the canon) texts that early Christians were reading. These texts were mostly written by heretics and so their content was deemed improper for the Bible. The texts not written by heretics do not have an identified author and those who formed the canon were unsure concerning its authorship and thus its authority. -Jesus is the Savior of the world and the only way to get to Heaven is to believe in him. -God loves all his children, even those who do not believe in him. -When asked what the greatest commandment was, Jesus answered, “ ‘You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind.’ This is the greatest and first commandment. And a second is like it: ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself’. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets.” Matthew 22:36-40 -Christians are to be the salt of the earth and the light of the world (this could mean preservers of mankind and leaders for how to properly live (Christians are to live as Jesus taught, but there are many today who do not live this way). -Jesus- Believed by Christians to be the Son of God (similar to a Hindu incarnation, but more divine than that). He is called ‘The Good Shepherd’ who takes care of his sheep (his followers). -Paul- Wrote many letters to the different churches that existed around 50-70 A.D. The letters discussed a range of topics from spiritual gifts to sin and morality (especially of the sexual variety). His letters take up a large portion of the New Testament and are some of the only Biblical texts Christians have that discuss how to elect Bishops and leaders and how, as a human, to deal with temptation and desire. Paul struggled with these things as he sinned (Jesus did not sin, though he had been tempted by Satan – the devil – and so understood what that felt like) and so he could help instruct people in how to live with their sin and how to stay away from temptation. -Matthew- Traditional author of the Gospel according to Matthew. His book is very Jewish-oriented. He uses Old Testament prophecies to prove that Jesus is the Messiah that the Jews had long awaited. -Mark- (John Mark) Traditional author of the Gospel according to Mark. His gospel is the shortest of the four, as well as the most concise. It is believed that Mark traveled with Paul, and so he heard stories of Jesus’s ministry and wrote them down, though it is unsure if his writings take place in chronological order. Mark’s passion narrative (the events that lead up to and include the crucifixion and resurrection) is the longest, proportionately, of all the gospels. It also does not include Jesus meeting any of his followers after his resurrection. It simply ends with Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Jesus seeing the empty tomb and talking to an angel who tells them that Jesus has risen. -Luke- (The physician) Traditional author of the Gospel according to Luke. His gospel is written to a friend (Theophilus – lover of God) and includes many stories of Jesus’s forgiveness and acceptance of all peoples. Luke is mentioned in the New Testament book of Acts as a companion of Paul. He is described as a doctor. -John – (The beloved) Traditional author of the Gospel according to John. This gospel is very different from the other three. It describes who Jesus was as a divine figure and it includes stories that are not found in the other gospels. This is the gospel that most closely relates to ‘the other worldly’. It also has many statements about who Jesus was and what his purpose on earth is. John chapter 3, verse 16 (presented as 3:16) says “For God so loved the world that he gave his only son, that whosoever believes in him shall not perish, but have eternal life.” John 14:6 is a statement by Jesus: “I am the way, the truth, and the life, and no one comes to the Father except through me.” Both of these statements became creedal in the early church – a way of stating what you believe in a simple and concise way. -Peter- One of Jesus’s disciples. During Jesus’s flogging Peter says that he does not know who Jesus is, thus fulfilling a prophecy that Jesus had said that claimed Peter would come to deny him. Peter went on to found the Roman Church and became a very important figure in early Christianity. -James- The brother of Jesus. He was also an important leader in the early Church period. He focused on the Jewish-Christian community. -Christmas- Celebrated 25 December to commemorate the virgin birth of Jesus, born in a manger in a stable. Jesus was not actually born on this day, but pagans who became Christians and had celebrated the Winter Solstice wanted to keep a part of their tradition. Christians did not know when Christ was born (except that it was cold), so they were fine with celebrating Christmas near the day of the solstice. -Epiphany- Celebrated on or around 6 January (in Protestant churches, the Sunday between 2 and 8 January). This commemorated the visit of the Magi to Jesus (in Western traditions) and the day on which Jesus was baptized in the Jordan River (in Eastern traditions). -Lent-The 40 days of fasting that takes place between Ash Wednesday and Easter Sunday. It commemorates the 40 days that Jesus spent wandering in the desert after his baptism and before his temptation by Satan. In Western traditions Christians give something up that takes their focus away from God (Facebook, certain foods (though that might be just to have a healthier diet for a while), reading, or anything like that). -Palm Sunday- Takes place the Sunday before Easter. This commemorates Jesus’s entrance into Jerusalem when he was praised by the Jewish people. -Good Friday- Takes place on the Friday before Easter. Commemorates the day on which Jesus was crucified. It is called ‘good’ because Jesus died so that humans might be able to enter Heaven after death even though they had lived a life of sin. -Easter- Celebrates Christ’s return from the dead and the empty tomb where his body had been laid. This also marks the end of the Lent season. -Pentecost- Takes place 50 days after Easter. It commemorates the day on which the Holy Spirit came down from Heaven and blessed them in their mission to go out into the world and spread the good news of Christ. Pentecost can also refer to the whole 50 days between Easter and Pentecost. -Advent- The season leading up to Christmas that in most Western traditions begins on the fourth Sunday before Christmas. It is a season of waiting for the birth of Christ. Many families have an Advent wreath, which holds 5 candles (4 placed in a square around a center candle), and light one candle on each Sunday and the 5th candle on Christmas day. -Canon- Set of texts that have been approved by the Early Church to hold proper doctrine and authority. -Messiah/Christ- (same word in two different languages) ‘The anointed one’. It is believed that Jesus became the Messiah/Christ when a dove came down from Heaven and the voice of God claimed Jesus to be his (God’s) son. -Gospel – The Greek word for ‘good news’. -Orthodoxy- Set of traditions that go back to the beginning of the early Church. Some orthodox take the Scriptures literally, others metaphorically; it all depends on the individual believer. Orthodox is sort of synonymous with ‘tradition’. Anyone who wants to can read the Bible, but not all can participate in the sacraments if they are not Orthodox. -Catholicism- Refers to those who ascribe to the tradition set down by Peter and those who followed him and his teachings. It is a more traditional viewing of Scriptures than Protestants, but not as strict as some Orthodox. Today, Catholics can read the Bible if they want to; there are no restrictions toward gender, age, or understanding of the Scriptures. But only males can become Bishops, Cardinals, and Popes. -Protestantism- This results from Martin Luther’s reformation. Protestants hold to the idea that anyone who wants to can read the Bible and teach it to others, even if they have not been fully educated in all of the scriptures. All can participate in the sacraments, as long as they accept Jesus as their Lord and savior. -Sacraments- Holy actions that take place in the Church: - Baptism- A person who confesses Jesus as the Christ gets water put on their head and the Priest/Pastor/Church leader claims that person as a Christian. - Communion- Commemorates Jesus’s celebration of Passover when he took the bread, broke it, and passed it to his disciples saying “Take. Eat. This is my body broken for you. (Every time you eat) do this in remembrance of me.” Then he took the wine goblet (which was not supposed to be touched by Jews until the Messiah had come), and gave it to his disciples saying, “Take. Drink. This is my blood poured out for you. (Every time you drink) do this in remembrance of me.” - Confirmation- A person who wants to be recognized as a Christian by the Church takes a class in which he/she learns a lot about Christ, his teachings, and the early Church, and then stands in front of the congregation (the gathered church community) and accepts Jesus. This usually occurs during a child’s middle school years, but there are classes for adults to take that are separate from the children’s.	3,044	ENGLISH	1
History Coursework Help! Black Civil Rights movement Watch But I'm really struggling with it. I've got to include primary sources and historians opinions and obviously argue and answer the question but I'm really finding it difficult to get off the ground with it. This is the opening paragraph I've got so far; "Before 1865, when African-Americans got the right to vote, African-Americans were considered property and used as slaves by many states, especially in the southern states where the work force of most agricultural trades was predominantly made up of enslaved African-Americans. Often the slaves were kept in poor conditions, with one former slave describing the whippings and brutality against the African-Americans in 1845. Because of these decades of brutality and exploitation against African-Americans by white Americans, it is not difficult to see why former slave owners and generations of entitled, privileged, white Americans, did not agree to or like the emancipation of the slaves in 1863. Racially motivated white people began to form groups such as the KKK soon after the slaves were free to scare and torment the former slaves from using any of their new-found freedom, such as the right to vote in 1865. However, it could be argued that, whilst the KKK was a major factor in delaying the true freedom and civil rights of African-Americans, there are many other factors that delayed the civil rights movement, including the Civil Rights groups not working together and the discrimination and racism within the American government and its people. I believe the main opposition to the civil rights movement was the lack of government backing to the causes that people like Martin Luther King Jr and Malcom X were campaigning and working towards." Could anyone give it a read and see if I'm talking about the right thing and good factors or not?	<urn:uuid:360a1a2f-961e-48b1-b426-4508adfa0e37>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/showthread.php?t=5748838	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00073.warc.gz	en	0.982804	359	3.890625	4	[ -0.42708829045295715, 0.1222887709736824, 0.13632023334503174, 0.01569167710840702, 0.12988664209842682, 0.23804673552513123, -0.20193476974964142, -0.4623275101184845, -0.3749358654022217, 0.11103067547082901, 0.27748674154281616, 0.24486707150936127, -0.4366570711135864, 0.03145126625895...	1	History Coursework Help! Black Civil Rights movement Watch But I'm really struggling with it. I've got to include primary sources and historians opinions and obviously argue and answer the question but I'm really finding it difficult to get off the ground with it. This is the opening paragraph I've got so far; "Before 1865, when African-Americans got the right to vote, African-Americans were considered property and used as slaves by many states, especially in the southern states where the work force of most agricultural trades was predominantly made up of enslaved African-Americans. Often the slaves were kept in poor conditions, with one former slave describing the whippings and brutality against the African-Americans in 1845. Because of these decades of brutality and exploitation against African-Americans by white Americans, it is not difficult to see why former slave owners and generations of entitled, privileged, white Americans, did not agree to or like the emancipation of the slaves in 1863. Racially motivated white people began to form groups such as the KKK soon after the slaves were free to scare and torment the former slaves from using any of their new-found freedom, such as the right to vote in 1865. However, it could be argued that, whilst the KKK was a major factor in delaying the true freedom and civil rights of African-Americans, there are many other factors that delayed the civil rights movement, including the Civil Rights groups not working together and the discrimination and racism within the American government and its people. I believe the main opposition to the civil rights movement was the lack of government backing to the causes that people like Martin Luther King Jr and Malcom X were campaigning and working towards." Could anyone give it a read and see if I'm talking about the right thing and good factors or not?	368	ENGLISH	1
It’s easy to start a lively discussion among any group of history enthusiasts. All one has to do is make a blanket declaration and then just brace for the returning barrage of responses. However, one must be careful in framing those statements. The Allies longest combat serving tank during World War II is the famous Matilda II. This design was used in every major combat theater in the war. In the opening months of the war Matilda IIs landed with the British Expeditionary Force in France and some were still fighting in the Pacific when the Japanese surrendered in 1945. Several examples were even shipped to the Soviet Union and fought on the Eastern Front. So what made this tank special? The Matilda’s official designation was the Infantry Tank Mark II (A12) and its design dates back to 1929. The economic crisis of that period restrained the British Army, which was able to fund only very scaled back concepts to cover their needs. The United Kingdom was financially ruined by the Great War and the Air Force and Navy received the biggest portions of money for research and development. This was a major reason why the British Army tank designs were so limited in the early years of the war. Another contributing factor was the insistence of Army’s leadership to use the cruiser/infantry tank doctrine. This system used fast moving light tanks to hunt and destroy enemy tanks while heavier and slower designs would be used in a breakthrough role supporting the infantry. Roll all of these factors together and you have a 25 ton tank at 15ft in length and 8.5ft wide with a crew of 4. The A12 could only reach a top speed of 16mph on roads while cross country speeds topped out at 9mph from her two Associated Equipment Company diesel engines. As a side note AEC has powered the famous London double deck buses for years. Her turret was from a single casting with 78mm of armor to the front and very little reduction on the remaining sides. The hull was equally impressive with armor 70mm thick and an integrated side skirting. Her German contemporaries were mostly carrying armor values less than half of that. Early models were equipped with a coaxial .303 Vickers machine gun but this water cooled option was removed when the air-cooled 7.92x57mm BESA became available. Now the main gun it carried during the war was the famous 2-Pdr (40mm) quick firing gun with 94 rounds of ammunition. The British 2-Pdr was a license derivative of a design from the famous Swedish Bofors firm. Now even though the turret was hydraulically-powered, the gun was not mechanically manipulated. The gunner manually adjusted the elevation by moving their padded shoulder rest up or down. An unusual characteristic considering that British tank crews did train to fire on the move. Why was such a small main gun fitted? The 2-Pdr did have excellent armor penetrating qualities, for its time, so it could deal with any contemporary vehicle it came across. As an infantry support tank its main weapon was actually the coaxial machine gun for which it carried nearly 3,000 rounds! The British did experiment with a 2-Pdr high explosive round, but its poor performance and the demands early in the war kept that from going anywhere. Now as the war progressed and the British knew they needed to upgrade, they also tested a squeeze-bore adapter called the Little John. The adapter increased the muzzle velocity but even so the penetration at distance still proved insufficient to counter newer and more heavily armored German tank designs. The Matildas first saw action in France with the British Expeditionary Force in 1940. They were assigned to the 7th Royal Tank Regiment (RTR) and played a crucial role in trying to stop the German offensive. Most notably at the Battle of Arras in May of 1940, the Matilda almost carried the Allies to victory. The German Anti-Tank guns of the time were 37mm and lower velocity 50mm and 75mm guns. The Matilda was nearly invulnerable to these guns and rolled through the German lines undeterred despite taking hit after hit. Seeing their anti-tank gun shells having no effect on the Matildas created panic among the German troops. It was only out of dire necessity that elements of the 7th Panzer Division, commanded by General Erwin Rommel himself, tapped into their high-velocity 88mm anti-aircraft guns and used them to turn the tide. Eventually the remaining Matildas had to be abandoned during the evacuation of Dunkirk. The Matildas were not only studied by the Germans, which helped create their own monsters, but some were converted into a 50mm self-propelled gun carrier named the Oswalt. The performance of the Matilda II tank was one of the few bright spots of the French campaign. They were ordered to North Africa to carry on the only fight that Britain could mount at the time. It was there in the mixed nationalities of the Commonwealth Army where the A12 received the moniker “Matilda” as well as being called the “Queen of the Desert”. From late 1940 till mid 1942 the Matilda was the linchpin in all of the British victories culminating in their spearhead charge to lift the siege of Tobruk and foiling Rommel’s first major offensive. Their nemesis would be General Rommel and his continued use of the vaunted 88mm AA gun. Yet the sun set on the Matilda as newer panzers arrived with higher velocity guns and the effective PaK 40 anti-tank gun. Now the slow speed and small caliber gun proved to be its undoing. It’s also important to note that during this same time about 1,000 Matildas were shipped to Russia. Even though the Russians used them it was not a popular tank. The narrow tracks and skirt panels trapped mud or snow too easily and seized them up. When both countries found the gun lacking they independently tried to mount a better gun. The British made their attempt with the 6-Pdr gun while the Soviets experimented with their short 76mm. Both attempts failed. The remaining Matildas were altered for specialized support roles. The Australians though were happy to take the remaining examples and use them against the Japanese until the end the war. This was impressive because production of the tank ended in 1943. The Matilda had several advantages that made it an excellent fit in jungle warfare. Its slow speed was not an issue in the dense foliage. It was smaller and lighter than the Sherman which made it easier to maneuver. Plus, it often found itself engaging Japanese fortifications at point blank ranges where its heavy armor provided better protection for its crew. Again the only issue was with its small main gun. The Australians utilized as many Close support (CS) Matildas as they could. These carried a large 3-inch howitzer in place of the 2-Pdr and had similar HE performance as the 75mm gun on the Sherman. Not to be outdone by their Crocodile counterparts, a flamethrower equipped version was created called the Frog. This replaced the main gun and the fuel load was carried internally. Another variant, the Hedgehog, loaded a 7-shot launcher of the famous 62 pounder anti-submarine mortars on the back. While eclipsed by far more famous tanks of the Second World War there is no doubt that the A12 Matilda II was an important tank. Few tanks can even come close to its service record. The fact that so many individual Matilda II tanks were on the battle lines for years show it was a solid design. Today most Matildas peacefully rest in museums across Australia while one that’s been recently restored to be fully operational calls the Bovington Tank Museum home. Here it shares space with another tank found in the North African desert that it inspired, Tiger 131.	<urn:uuid:523a7d36-4b74-484c-89f7-157944a42531>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.firearmsnews.com/editorial/british-matilda-ii-tank/370725	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00506.warc.gz	en	0.981335	1,602	3.484375	3	[ -0.38720428943634033, 0.3130861222743988, -0.04430156946182251, -0.12422692775726318, -0.00926993228495121, 0.13177165389060974, -0.08428124338388443, 0.3986567258834839, -0.3917469382286072, -0.4729044437408447, -0.007790260948240757, -0.24086812138557434, 0.08820294588804245, 0.400510132...	4	It’s easy to start a lively discussion among any group of history enthusiasts. All one has to do is make a blanket declaration and then just brace for the returning barrage of responses. However, one must be careful in framing those statements. The Allies longest combat serving tank during World War II is the famous Matilda II. This design was used in every major combat theater in the war. In the opening months of the war Matilda IIs landed with the British Expeditionary Force in France and some were still fighting in the Pacific when the Japanese surrendered in 1945. Several examples were even shipped to the Soviet Union and fought on the Eastern Front. So what made this tank special? The Matilda’s official designation was the Infantry Tank Mark II (A12) and its design dates back to 1929. The economic crisis of that period restrained the British Army, which was able to fund only very scaled back concepts to cover their needs. The United Kingdom was financially ruined by the Great War and the Air Force and Navy received the biggest portions of money for research and development. This was a major reason why the British Army tank designs were so limited in the early years of the war. Another contributing factor was the insistence of Army’s leadership to use the cruiser/infantry tank doctrine. This system used fast moving light tanks to hunt and destroy enemy tanks while heavier and slower designs would be used in a breakthrough role supporting the infantry. Roll all of these factors together and you have a 25 ton tank at 15ft in length and 8.5ft wide with a crew of 4. The A12 could only reach a top speed of 16mph on roads while cross country speeds topped out at 9mph from her two Associated Equipment Company diesel engines. As a side note AEC has powered the famous London double deck buses for years. Her turret was from a single casting with 78mm of armor to the front and very little reduction on the remaining sides. The hull was equally impressive with armor 70mm thick and an integrated side skirting. Her German contemporaries were mostly carrying armor values less than half of that. Early models were equipped with a coaxial .303 Vickers machine gun but this water cooled option was removed when the air-cooled 7.92x57mm BESA became available. Now the main gun it carried during the war was the famous 2-Pdr (40mm) quick firing gun with 94 rounds of ammunition. The British 2-Pdr was a license derivative of a design from the famous Swedish Bofors firm. Now even though the turret was hydraulically-powered, the gun was not mechanically manipulated. The gunner manually adjusted the elevation by moving their padded shoulder rest up or down. An unusual characteristic considering that British tank crews did train to fire on the move. Why was such a small main gun fitted? The 2-Pdr did have excellent armor penetrating qualities, for its time, so it could deal with any contemporary vehicle it came across. As an infantry support tank its main weapon was actually the coaxial machine gun for which it carried nearly 3,000 rounds! The British did experiment with a 2-Pdr high explosive round, but its poor performance and the demands early in the war kept that from going anywhere. Now as the war progressed and the British knew they needed to upgrade, they also tested a squeeze-bore adapter called the Little John. The adapter increased the muzzle velocity but even so the penetration at distance still proved insufficient to counter newer and more heavily armored German tank designs. The Matildas first saw action in France with the British Expeditionary Force in 1940. They were assigned to the 7th Royal Tank Regiment (RTR) and played a crucial role in trying to stop the German offensive. Most notably at the Battle of Arras in May of 1940, the Matilda almost carried the Allies to victory. The German Anti-Tank guns of the time were 37mm and lower velocity 50mm and 75mm guns. The Matilda was nearly invulnerable to these guns and rolled through the German lines undeterred despite taking hit after hit. Seeing their anti-tank gun shells having no effect on the Matildas created panic among the German troops. It was only out of dire necessity that elements of the 7th Panzer Division, commanded by General Erwin Rommel himself, tapped into their high-velocity 88mm anti-aircraft guns and used them to turn the tide. Eventually the remaining Matildas had to be abandoned during the evacuation of Dunkirk. The Matildas were not only studied by the Germans, which helped create their own monsters, but some were converted into a 50mm self-propelled gun carrier named the Oswalt. The performance of the Matilda II tank was one of the few bright spots of the French campaign. They were ordered to North Africa to carry on the only fight that Britain could mount at the time. It was there in the mixed nationalities of the Commonwealth Army where the A12 received the moniker “Matilda” as well as being called the “Queen of the Desert”. From late 1940 till mid 1942 the Matilda was the linchpin in all of the British victories culminating in their spearhead charge to lift the siege of Tobruk and foiling Rommel’s first major offensive. Their nemesis would be General Rommel and his continued use of the vaunted 88mm AA gun. Yet the sun set on the Matilda as newer panzers arrived with higher velocity guns and the effective PaK 40 anti-tank gun. Now the slow speed and small caliber gun proved to be its undoing. It’s also important to note that during this same time about 1,000 Matildas were shipped to Russia. Even though the Russians used them it was not a popular tank. The narrow tracks and skirt panels trapped mud or snow too easily and seized them up. When both countries found the gun lacking they independently tried to mount a better gun. The British made their attempt with the 6-Pdr gun while the Soviets experimented with their short 76mm. Both attempts failed. The remaining Matildas were altered for specialized support roles. The Australians though were happy to take the remaining examples and use them against the Japanese until the end the war. This was impressive because production of the tank ended in 1943. The Matilda had several advantages that made it an excellent fit in jungle warfare. Its slow speed was not an issue in the dense foliage. It was smaller and lighter than the Sherman which made it easier to maneuver. Plus, it often found itself engaging Japanese fortifications at point blank ranges where its heavy armor provided better protection for its crew. Again the only issue was with its small main gun. The Australians utilized as many Close support (CS) Matildas as they could. These carried a large 3-inch howitzer in place of the 2-Pdr and had similar HE performance as the 75mm gun on the Sherman. Not to be outdone by their Crocodile counterparts, a flamethrower equipped version was created called the Frog. This replaced the main gun and the fuel load was carried internally. Another variant, the Hedgehog, loaded a 7-shot launcher of the famous 62 pounder anti-submarine mortars on the back. While eclipsed by far more famous tanks of the Second World War there is no doubt that the A12 Matilda II was an important tank. Few tanks can even come close to its service record. The fact that so many individual Matilda II tanks were on the battle lines for years show it was a solid design. Today most Matildas peacefully rest in museums across Australia while one that’s been recently restored to be fully operational calls the Bovington Tank Museum home. Here it shares space with another tank found in the North African desert that it inspired, Tiger 131.	1,655	ENGLISH	1
Thirty-seven million people were killed in World War l from 1914 to 1918, including 1,100 from Connecticut. The United States armed forces averaged 297 casualties a day. Here was a conflict, historian Howard Zinn wrote, where “no one since that day has been able to show that the war brought any gain for humanity that would be worth one human life.” Like many immigrants of the early 20th century, young Ulysses DeRosa came to the United States with a dream. “After reading about Carnegie and Rockefeller,” he wrote, “I was ready to become a millionaire in America.” DeRosa left his hometown in Accadia, Italy for Hartford at age twelve, thanks to the money his older brother Antonio sent him. He arrived in May 1905. Soon after Ulysses arrived in Hartford, his brother was injured at work and returned to his home country. Ulysses DeRosa was left on his own. For a short while he was taken in by a local Quaker family. Their commitment to pacifism and Quaker principles left a lasting impression. Most of the Italian emigrant community lived in the Front Street neighborhood, the east side section of the city bordering the Connecticut River. Previous to the Italians, Front Street had been home to impoverished Irish families for at least fifty years. As poor as it was, Front Street bustled with life. The neighborhood had a spirit that can only be duplicated where families work together to overcome their hardscrabble existence, fueled by a common determination to succeed. Today, Front Street — although long ago bulldozed in the name of urban redevelopment– still holds a firm place in the memories of the living, the descendants of those who succeeded, despite the disdain and rejection the original immigrants faced from the dominant Hartford WASPs. The streets were teeming with progressive political ideas that inspired DeRosa. Various radical philosophies helped form his future beliefs and prepared him for the extraordinary dangers he would face. DeRosa soaked in the cultural and political influences of the time. He learned English quickly, despite the humiliation of being required to attend a first-grade public school class. He attended “every free lecture, to my adulthood, on history or any other subject.” Prejudice against Italians was common in Hartford, and the leading citizens of the day did not hesitate to publicly voice their objections. One such voice was the Reverend Howard V. Ross of the First Methodist Church. From his pulpit Ross warned his congregants that immigrants were: “A sodden, sour, bitter mass of humanity that resists the best ideals of American and Christian civilization. From the lowest peasant class of Italy, with their ideas of low living and filth and poverty, from the Balkans with low instincts of society and womanhood. If you seek the anarchist, the Bolshevist, the wild-eyed turbulent radical, when you find him and look into his face, behold it is the face of a foreigner.” Writing in his unpublished memoir, DeRosa explained that he “never joined a party, as such, but I felt comfortable with any group that helped lift the poor. I associated with socialists, anarchists, religious leaders, labor leaders, and all “isms” as long as they were for the betterment of mankind.” Considering that the Italian east side contained only a total of twenty blocks, it produced more than its share of political activists and organizers, many of whose ideas and principles DeRosa absorbed. The DeMaio family, for instance, lived on Mechanic Street. Serephine (Rucci) DeMaio was a suffragist who bridged the gap between traditional Yankees and immigrant women. Her son Ernest became one of the founders of the United Electrical workers union (UE), a left-wing labor group that aggressively organized the industrial sector. Ernie’s father Donato and uncle Tony were arrested in Hartford during the Palmer Raids, the notorious 1919-1920 federal crackdown on immigrants and unionists. Tony had also been an organizer for the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). Ernie’s brother Anthony joined the Abraham Lincoln Brigade to fight for the republican cause against the fascists of Franco’s Spain. Anarchist influence was part of the mix as well. The insurrectionist anarchist Luigi Galleani visited the city at least twice, speaking at the Venetian Hall. Galleani had a significant following the United States, although apparently not in Hartford. Galleanists adopted his strategy of “propaganda of the deed,” the use of individual acts of violence for revolutionary political purposes. Carlos Tresca, who emigrated from Italy in 1904, would become a frequent visitor to Hartford, New Britain, and Waterbury. He spoke to an Italian audience at the Princess Theater on State Street, adjacent to DeRosa’s neighborhood. Tresca was sponsored by Girolomo Grasso who lived on Market Street (and was identified as an anarchist in a secret FBI report). DeRosa got to know Tresca when they were both living in New York and working for similar causes. Hartford Italians mourned the 1909 execution of Spanish educator and anarchist Francisco Ferrer. The celebrated international figure had been arrested and tried by a military tribunal acting on highly questionable evidence. Ferrer was the founder of the Modern School movement which took hold in the U.S., attracting Upton Sinclair and Jack London among others. La Escuela Moderna had a great influence on subsequent experimental school reform efforts such as Summerhill. The Circolo Libero Pensiero (Freethinkers Club) was a small Hartford group that enjoyed criticizing established religion and disrupting revival meetings, especially the local Italian Congregational and Baptist missions. DeRosa attended one memorable debate between a Protestant minister and an anarchist, probably Nunzio Vayana, on the question of “Religion Across History.” The purpose of the event was to challenge the historical role of the Church in its persecution during the Inquisition, and specifically the injustices done to Italian scientist Galileo and theologian Giordano Bruno, who were both executed for their ideas. As far as Ulysses DeRosa was concerned, the anarchist won the debate hands down. This particular event made a permanent impact on DeRosa: “the experience opened my mind to many forms of social injustice,” he would later write. The Status of Italian Workers in Connecticut The employment Ulysses DeRosa could find in Hartford was strictly limited. Italian workers were largely excluded from the skilled trades, and traditional unions rejected them, so they organized themselves: In 1907, immigrants who were digging out the foundation for the new mill of the American Thread Company in Willimantic went on strike to demand an increase in wages from $1.75 to $2.00 a day; Later that year, the Italian General Labor Union led a strike of of 5,000 railroad track workers across Connecticut. They stayed out for three weeks before they were forced back to work by a combination of a lack of financial support, no real solidarity support from other unions, and the inability to gain strength by spreading their action to Boston and Maine; In January, 1910, tobacco workers went on strike at the Pinney farm in Suffield, demanding a twenty-five cent daily wage increase. Around this time, dozens of Italians working on the Scotland Dam in Willimantic struck when two of their leaders were fired. Italian weavers, trolley builders, ditch diggers and paper workers around the state led strikes for better wages and a nine-hour day; The existing wages for these men were “fair pay for unskilled work twenty-five years ago,” said union leader Joseph C. Ciccosanti, but now it did not feed their families. “We are in danger of our lives every minute we are working,” Ciccosanti told a newspaper reporter. “It is hard work and in every kind of weather and we get very low pay.” Sometimes, the noble cause of labor was not always enough to motivate the state’s Italian workforce (and in this way they were similar to all other ethnicities). Forty Italian laborers were imported to Willimantic in order to break the strike of workers on the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad. On the other hand, Italian railroad workers also convinced stonecutters at Hartford’s Union Station to join their strike, and still others, shipped into a town as strikebreakers, turned around and went home when they discovered they had been hired as scabs. The Ludlow Massacre Ulysses DeRosa moved to New York City to seek greater opportunity. It was in September 1913 that he read of a Colorado coal miners strike. More than eleven thousand coal miners, many of them Italian, struck the Colorado Fuel & Iron Corporation which was owned by the Rockefeller family. The workers had been suffering under the tyranny of the bosses and the deprivations of the “company towns.” This scheme was set up by the boss to squeeze more profits from the miners, who were forced to buy groceries and pay rent to their employer. The strike was finally triggered when a union organizer was murdered by the company’s private police force. The Rockefeller corporation evicted the strikers and their families from the shanty town; the United Mine Workers union rented land and set up a tent colony that kept the families warm, well-fed, and given medical treatment by union doctors. The mining production halted and the strike survived through a tough winter, despite periodic attacks from the Baldwin-Felts private detectives who used Gatling Guns in raids on the tent colonies. The strikers survived through the winter. But on April 20, 1914, the Colorado governor ordered the National Guard to accompany scabs across the picket lines. Undaunted, the miners continued their strike. The Guard attacked the largest tent colony, located at Ludlow, with machine guns. The miners returned fire. At dusk, the guardsmen set fire to the tents. Thirteen men died from gunfire; eight children and two women were later found burned to death in the trenches that miners had dug to protect them from bullets. The strike was 1,800 miles away from Ulysses DeRosa and his friends, but the injustice inflamed the young radicals as if they had personally witnessed the massacre. If they couldn’t provide direct support for the miners, they could at least confront the corporate owner. DeRosa and the others joined anarchist Alexander Berkman and the famous writer Upton SInclair who organized protests in Tarrytown, New York, the massive estate of John D. Rockefeller. On May 31st, he and some friends took the train to Tarrytown. Almost as soon as they disembarked, DeRosa was assaulted by police and then arrested. Despite a complete lack of evidence, the local magistrate sentenced him to three months in prison. DeRosa served on Hart’s Island (part of the Bronx), located in Long Island. The island was known as Potters Field, where over one million people, mostly indigent, had been buried. The place had a variety of functions over the decades; by the time DeRosa arrived it was a boys’ reformatory. This was his first introduction to the criminal justice system; a prison that subjected them to bad food, poor medical treatment, and brutal treatment by guards. It was good training for what was come a few years later. Ulysses DeRosa developed his skill as a milliner, working at the Georgette Hat Company on Hudson Street on the lower east side. On July 17, 1918 DeRosa appeared at the induction center along with several of his friends and a group of women (mostly mothers and sisters) who were “weeping and wailing.” He made it clear that he would not cooperate with induction process, including a refusal to be fingerprinted. DeRosa was sent to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas on July 25th. DeRosa refused to wear an army uniform or cooperate with any military orders so he was labeled an “absolutist,” in contrast to other objectors who agreed to non-combat duty. He and other conscientious objectors (C.O.s) served their time along with groups of Mennonites and Molokans (a Russian spiritual christian sect) who resisted the war on religious principles. The young war resister and eighteen other conscientious objectors were brutalized and tortured over two months by Army officers and guards, according to an investigation by Roger Baldwin and the National Civil Liberties Bureau (later known as the ACLU), which intervened on their behalf. The men all received severe physical injuries; some of them suffered mental breakdowns as well. They were punched in the face, knocked to the ground and kicked, hit with rifle butts, prodded with bayonets and smashed against walls. In addition, they were forced into ice cold showers, awakened every two hours at night and forced to stand outside, and had large amounts of laxatives surreptitiously placed in their food. Once, in order to break their hunger strike, an army officer forbid them drinking water for three days. The C.O.s refused noncombatant service because, they reasoned, it would allow the military to free up other draftees who would then be sent to the battlefield. They would not march or salute, they refused direct orders to work, and resisted any action that would make them part of the Army. They were assigned to serve as waiters for the officers’ mess hall, but refused. As punishment, they were forced to camp in the nearby woods with tents but no food. At no time during their imprisonment did the C.O.s portray themselves as victims. Their hunger strikes were strategic: their ability to act in concert helped them maintain solidarity and a measure of dignity. They received a stove and utensils by refusing to eat bad food prepared by guards. Abusive behavior by army guards slowed down or halted when it was found to be ineffective. One soldier, ordered to hit a prisoner repeatedly, stopped after a few blows and could not continue. Another time, a soldier hit DeRosa with his gun butt– instead of bayoneting him as an officer had demanded. Some of the conscientious objectors (known in the press as “slackers” or obstructionists) maintained diaries of their treatment. Here are two excerpts: “We were ordered to take a cold shower. DaRosa [sic], feeling that cold showers are detrimental to him, and having taken a bath but one-half hour previous to the issuing of the above order, refused to undress. The Corporal of the Guards thrust him under the spray with his clothes on. DaRosa returned to the guard room, wearing his dripping clothes. The Corporal ordered him to undress and take a thorough shower. When DaRosa again refused, the Corporal tore his clothes from his body and at the same time delivered upon him some telling and effective blows. He was then placed under the cold shower. We were compelled to take a cold shower once in the morning and once in the afternoon. A guard stood watch and checked each man.” “Ott [another prisoner] and DeRosa, both materially weakened by their hunger strike, were forcibly dressed and put on exercise in the afternoon. Ott was shoved around a while and then left unmolested. DeRosa was pushed about, then thrown to the wet ground, punched, kicked, and spat at by the guards. He was then raised to his feet and dragged around some more. Presently he was dropped and one guard seized him by the hair and rubbed his face in and banged his head on the ground. His cheek and forehead were bruised, leaving two ugly skin wounds. Four guards carried him to the shower room, stripped him of what little clothes remained on his person, placed him on the cold cement floor, in an exhausted condition, and turned the cold spray on him. The soldiers then scrubbed him viciously with filthy brushes and brooms… He was finally brought back to the squad room in a semi-conscious state.” On September 17th, DeRosa and other C.O.s were formally arrested and sent to solitary confinement for refusing an order to clean out a large pile of trash. This order triggered a pre-determined plan by which the Army could ultimately court martial them. DeRosa and his comrades were court-martialed on October 22, 1918. They were found guilty of disobeying orders and sentenced to life in prison at hard labor. The penalty was later reduced to twenty-five years, since the life sentence exceeded the maximum penalty allowed by law. During the trial, DeRosa was questioned about his political and religious beliefs. He described himself as having become International Socialist at age fourteen. His primary allegiance was to the world at large, he considered all people as equal, and he refused to do harm to anyone. He also provided a letter from the Clerk at the New York Quaker Meeting where he had first become a member of the Friends Society. The official confirmed that DeRosa had joined their meetings and was a member in good standing. DeRosa explained his pacifist stand this way: “In these trying times the only authority that I obey is the inner light- the great ideal for which Christ gave his life, namely: Humanity. It is the spirit of reconciliation, not hate, non-resistance, not aggression, that should dominate us.” Throughout their imprisonment, army officials would try to argue the men out of their nonviolent principles. “If a negro entered your house and assaulted your wife, what would you do?” one officer asked DeRosa. After their court martial the men were transferred to the military prison at Fort Leavenworth. They were sent to “the hole” where they were chained by their wrists to their cell doors for nine hours a day. This proved to be especially painful to DeRosa due to his small stature. During their entire ordeal the men occasionally found a recruit who secretly sympathized with them. This allowed DeRosa and his friends to have mail smuggled to family members on the outside. When the conscientious objectors’ case was publicly exposed, it became a cause celebre. The officers who had been mistreating the prisoners did so in direct opposition of policies made by Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. A board of inquiry was established in Washington to examine the evidence and the behavior of the soldiers who had mistreated the C.O.s. Four officers, including the head of military police and the provost marshal of the camp, lost their jobs as a result. Ulysses DeRosa and his comrades were released from military prison after Christmas. New York Strikes and Palmer Raids No sooner had DeRosa been released from military prison, he was back in New York City working as a hat maker. He was active in his union. The city was roiling with strike activity: cigar makers, printers, house builders, window cleaners, shipyard workers, paper box makers, clerical workers and more. The 6,000 members of the milliers’ union who worked south of Twenty-third Street were out on the street by mid-September, 1919. By October 1st, the other 12,000 hat makers were set to go when their contract expired, adding to the 100,000 workers of various trades who were already on strike in the city. Their demands were similar to the other union also on strike: wage increases, union recognition (requiring employers to acknowledge their duty to bargain), holiday pay, and union consent before any workers could be fired. The United Cloth and Cap Makers Union also demanded the abolition of piecework, and that women be recognized as union representatives in the various factories. Ultimately the strike failed. DeRosa was bitter toward factory operators and the union leadership as well. In 1919 and 1920, U.S. Attorney A. Mitchell Palmer orchestrated a nationwide roundup of thousands of trade unionists, immigrants (especially Russians) and anybody he considered too left wing on the political spectrum. According to DeRosa, a friend alerted him just in time that two characters were waiting at his apartment building. DeRosa avoided the agents and very likely missed another incarceration. He moved to Baltimore, Maryland and for ten years engaged in the manufacture of men’s clothes. Once free from imprisonment, Ulysses DeRosa and his fellow political prisoners continued to work on behalf of the C.O.s still incarcerated. By 1960, Ulysses DeRosa had settled in Massachusetts and raised a family. He continued his work in the garment business. His son Dean registered as a conscientious objector, and worked as a medic during WWll. Around this time Ulysses requested a copy of his discharge papers, which he had lost. DeRosa discovered that the Army records indicated he had received a dishonorable discharge. He worked for years with the support of the Quakers to successfully correct the record. Ulysses DeRosa wrote about this ordeal and other parts of his life in an unpublished manuscript entitled “The Odyssey of a Conscientious Objector.” The document included a letter from the “United States Disciplinary Barracks” at Fort Leavenworth prison, stating that as the Secretary of War had released DeRosa, et. al., , they were now restored to a “status of honorable discharge” as of January, 27, 1919. During the Vietnam War in 1971, 35,000 men sought C.O. status, more than the 23,000 who were actually drafted that year. During that same time, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor a broader definition of who qualified as a conscientious objector. Ulysses DeRosa died on March 1, 1989 at the age of ninety-seven. Thanks to Andrew DeRosa and family for the photos of Ulysses.	<urn:uuid:48c8623c-8115-47ed-9b39-ed7baf1fa443>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shoeleatherhistoryproject.com/2018/05/05/war-resister-the-odyssey-of-ulysses/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00244.warc.gz	en	0.985534	4,597	3.390625	3	[ 0.0461026206612587, 0.163703054189682, 0.4017443358898163, -0.17365676164627075, -0.23190473020076752, 0.34380725026130676, 0.06768348067998886, 0.29762423038482666, -0.19357776641845703, -0.06239824742078781, 0.3745425343513489, 0.24453015625476837, 0.36989057064056396, 0.5878911018371582...	13	Thirty-seven million people were killed in World War l from 1914 to 1918, including 1,100 from Connecticut. The United States armed forces averaged 297 casualties a day. Here was a conflict, historian Howard Zinn wrote, where “no one since that day has been able to show that the war brought any gain for humanity that would be worth one human life.” Like many immigrants of the early 20th century, young Ulysses DeRosa came to the United States with a dream. “After reading about Carnegie and Rockefeller,” he wrote, “I was ready to become a millionaire in America.” DeRosa left his hometown in Accadia, Italy for Hartford at age twelve, thanks to the money his older brother Antonio sent him. He arrived in May 1905. Soon after Ulysses arrived in Hartford, his brother was injured at work and returned to his home country. Ulysses DeRosa was left on his own. For a short while he was taken in by a local Quaker family. Their commitment to pacifism and Quaker principles left a lasting impression. Most of the Italian emigrant community lived in the Front Street neighborhood, the east side section of the city bordering the Connecticut River. Previous to the Italians, Front Street had been home to impoverished Irish families for at least fifty years. As poor as it was, Front Street bustled with life. The neighborhood had a spirit that can only be duplicated where families work together to overcome their hardscrabble existence, fueled by a common determination to succeed. Today, Front Street — although long ago bulldozed in the name of urban redevelopment– still holds a firm place in the memories of the living, the descendants of those who succeeded, despite the disdain and rejection the original immigrants faced from the dominant Hartford WASPs. The streets were teeming with progressive political ideas that inspired DeRosa. Various radical philosophies helped form his future beliefs and prepared him for the extraordinary dangers he would face. DeRosa soaked in the cultural and political influences of the time. He learned English quickly, despite the humiliation of being required to attend a first-grade public school class. He attended “every free lecture, to my adulthood, on history or any other subject.” Prejudice against Italians was common in Hartford, and the leading citizens of the day did not hesitate to publicly voice their objections. One such voice was the Reverend Howard V. Ross of the First Methodist Church. From his pulpit Ross warned his congregants that immigrants were: “A sodden, sour, bitter mass of humanity that resists the best ideals of American and Christian civilization. From the lowest peasant class of Italy, with their ideas of low living and filth and poverty, from the Balkans with low instincts of society and womanhood. If you seek the anarchist, the Bolshevist, the wild-eyed turbulent radical, when you find him and look into his face, behold it is the face of a foreigner.” Writing in his unpublished memoir, DeRosa explained that he “never joined a party, as such, but I felt comfortable with any group that helped lift the poor. I associated with socialists, anarchists, religious leaders, labor leaders, and all “isms” as long as they were for the betterment of mankind.” Considering that the Italian east side contained only a total of twenty blocks, it produced more than its share of political activists and organizers, many of whose ideas and principles DeRosa absorbed. The DeMaio family, for instance, lived on Mechanic Street. Serephine (Rucci) DeMaio was a suffragist who bridged the gap between traditional Yankees and immigrant women. Her son Ernest became one of the founders of the United Electrical workers union (UE), a left-wing labor group that aggressively organized the industrial sector. Ernie’s father Donato and uncle Tony were arrested in Hartford during the Palmer Raids, the notorious 1919-1920 federal crackdown on immigrants and unionists. Tony had also been an organizer for the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). Ernie’s brother Anthony joined the Abraham Lincoln Brigade to fight for the republican cause against the fascists of Franco’s Spain. Anarchist influence was part of the mix as well. The insurrectionist anarchist Luigi Galleani visited the city at least twice, speaking at the Venetian Hall. Galleani had a significant following the United States, although apparently not in Hartford. Galleanists adopted his strategy of “propaganda of the deed,” the use of individual acts of violence for revolutionary political purposes. Carlos Tresca, who emigrated from Italy in 1904, would become a frequent visitor to Hartford, New Britain, and Waterbury. He spoke to an Italian audience at the Princess Theater on State Street, adjacent to DeRosa’s neighborhood. Tresca was sponsored by Girolomo Grasso who lived on Market Street (and was identified as an anarchist in a secret FBI report). DeRosa got to know Tresca when they were both living in New York and working for similar causes. Hartford Italians mourned the 1909 execution of Spanish educator and anarchist Francisco Ferrer. The celebrated international figure had been arrested and tried by a military tribunal acting on highly questionable evidence. Ferrer was the founder of the Modern School movement which took hold in the U.S., attracting Upton Sinclair and Jack London among others. La Escuela Moderna had a great influence on subsequent experimental school reform efforts such as Summerhill. The Circolo Libero Pensiero (Freethinkers Club) was a small Hartford group that enjoyed criticizing established religion and disrupting revival meetings, especially the local Italian Congregational and Baptist missions. DeRosa attended one memorable debate between a Protestant minister and an anarchist, probably Nunzio Vayana, on the question of “Religion Across History.” The purpose of the event was to challenge the historical role of the Church in its persecution during the Inquisition, and specifically the injustices done to Italian scientist Galileo and theologian Giordano Bruno, who were both executed for their ideas. As far as Ulysses DeRosa was concerned, the anarchist won the debate hands down. This particular event made a permanent impact on DeRosa: “the experience opened my mind to many forms of social injustice,” he would later write. The Status of Italian Workers in Connecticut The employment Ulysses DeRosa could find in Hartford was strictly limited. Italian workers were largely excluded from the skilled trades, and traditional unions rejected them, so they organized themselves: In 1907, immigrants who were digging out the foundation for the new mill of the American Thread Company in Willimantic went on strike to demand an increase in wages from $1.75 to $2.00 a day; Later that year, the Italian General Labor Union led a strike of of 5,000 railroad track workers across Connecticut. They stayed out for three weeks before they were forced back to work by a combination of a lack of financial support, no real solidarity support from other unions, and the inability to gain strength by spreading their action to Boston and Maine; In January, 1910, tobacco workers went on strike at the Pinney farm in Suffield, demanding a twenty-five cent daily wage increase. Around this time, dozens of Italians working on the Scotland Dam in Willimantic struck when two of their leaders were fired. Italian weavers, trolley builders, ditch diggers and paper workers around the state led strikes for better wages and a nine-hour day; The existing wages for these men were “fair pay for unskilled work twenty-five years ago,” said union leader Joseph C. Ciccosanti, but now it did not feed their families. “We are in danger of our lives every minute we are working,” Ciccosanti told a newspaper reporter. “It is hard work and in every kind of weather and we get very low pay.” Sometimes, the noble cause of labor was not always enough to motivate the state’s Italian workforce (and in this way they were similar to all other ethnicities). Forty Italian laborers were imported to Willimantic in order to break the strike of workers on the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad. On the other hand, Italian railroad workers also convinced stonecutters at Hartford’s Union Station to join their strike, and still others, shipped into a town as strikebreakers, turned around and went home when they discovered they had been hired as scabs. The Ludlow Massacre Ulysses DeRosa moved to New York City to seek greater opportunity. It was in September 1913 that he read of a Colorado coal miners strike. More than eleven thousand coal miners, many of them Italian, struck the Colorado Fuel & Iron Corporation which was owned by the Rockefeller family. The workers had been suffering under the tyranny of the bosses and the deprivations of the “company towns.” This scheme was set up by the boss to squeeze more profits from the miners, who were forced to buy groceries and pay rent to their employer. The strike was finally triggered when a union organizer was murdered by the company’s private police force. The Rockefeller corporation evicted the strikers and their families from the shanty town; the United Mine Workers union rented land and set up a tent colony that kept the families warm, well-fed, and given medical treatment by union doctors. The mining production halted and the strike survived through a tough winter, despite periodic attacks from the Baldwin-Felts private detectives who used Gatling Guns in raids on the tent colonies. The strikers survived through the winter. But on April 20, 1914, the Colorado governor ordered the National Guard to accompany scabs across the picket lines. Undaunted, the miners continued their strike. The Guard attacked the largest tent colony, located at Ludlow, with machine guns. The miners returned fire. At dusk, the guardsmen set fire to the tents. Thirteen men died from gunfire; eight children and two women were later found burned to death in the trenches that miners had dug to protect them from bullets. The strike was 1,800 miles away from Ulysses DeRosa and his friends, but the injustice inflamed the young radicals as if they had personally witnessed the massacre. If they couldn’t provide direct support for the miners, they could at least confront the corporate owner. DeRosa and the others joined anarchist Alexander Berkman and the famous writer Upton SInclair who organized protests in Tarrytown, New York, the massive estate of John D. Rockefeller. On May 31st, he and some friends took the train to Tarrytown. Almost as soon as they disembarked, DeRosa was assaulted by police and then arrested. Despite a complete lack of evidence, the local magistrate sentenced him to three months in prison. DeRosa served on Hart’s Island (part of the Bronx), located in Long Island. The island was known as Potters Field, where over one million people, mostly indigent, had been buried. The place had a variety of functions over the decades; by the time DeRosa arrived it was a boys’ reformatory. This was his first introduction to the criminal justice system; a prison that subjected them to bad food, poor medical treatment, and brutal treatment by guards. It was good training for what was come a few years later. Ulysses DeRosa developed his skill as a milliner, working at the Georgette Hat Company on Hudson Street on the lower east side. On July 17, 1918 DeRosa appeared at the induction center along with several of his friends and a group of women (mostly mothers and sisters) who were “weeping and wailing.” He made it clear that he would not cooperate with induction process, including a refusal to be fingerprinted. DeRosa was sent to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas on July 25th. DeRosa refused to wear an army uniform or cooperate with any military orders so he was labeled an “absolutist,” in contrast to other objectors who agreed to non-combat duty. He and other conscientious objectors (C.O.s) served their time along with groups of Mennonites and Molokans (a Russian spiritual christian sect) who resisted the war on religious principles. The young war resister and eighteen other conscientious objectors were brutalized and tortured over two months by Army officers and guards, according to an investigation by Roger Baldwin and the National Civil Liberties Bureau (later known as the ACLU), which intervened on their behalf. The men all received severe physical injuries; some of them suffered mental breakdowns as well. They were punched in the face, knocked to the ground and kicked, hit with rifle butts, prodded with bayonets and smashed against walls. In addition, they were forced into ice cold showers, awakened every two hours at night and forced to stand outside, and had large amounts of laxatives surreptitiously placed in their food. Once, in order to break their hunger strike, an army officer forbid them drinking water for three days. The C.O.s refused noncombatant service because, they reasoned, it would allow the military to free up other draftees who would then be sent to the battlefield. They would not march or salute, they refused direct orders to work, and resisted any action that would make them part of the Army. They were assigned to serve as waiters for the officers’ mess hall, but refused. As punishment, they were forced to camp in the nearby woods with tents but no food. At no time during their imprisonment did the C.O.s portray themselves as victims. Their hunger strikes were strategic: their ability to act in concert helped them maintain solidarity and a measure of dignity. They received a stove and utensils by refusing to eat bad food prepared by guards. Abusive behavior by army guards slowed down or halted when it was found to be ineffective. One soldier, ordered to hit a prisoner repeatedly, stopped after a few blows and could not continue. Another time, a soldier hit DeRosa with his gun butt– instead of bayoneting him as an officer had demanded. Some of the conscientious objectors (known in the press as “slackers” or obstructionists) maintained diaries of their treatment. Here are two excerpts: “We were ordered to take a cold shower. DaRosa [sic], feeling that cold showers are detrimental to him, and having taken a bath but one-half hour previous to the issuing of the above order, refused to undress. The Corporal of the Guards thrust him under the spray with his clothes on. DaRosa returned to the guard room, wearing his dripping clothes. The Corporal ordered him to undress and take a thorough shower. When DaRosa again refused, the Corporal tore his clothes from his body and at the same time delivered upon him some telling and effective blows. He was then placed under the cold shower. We were compelled to take a cold shower once in the morning and once in the afternoon. A guard stood watch and checked each man.” “Ott [another prisoner] and DeRosa, both materially weakened by their hunger strike, were forcibly dressed and put on exercise in the afternoon. Ott was shoved around a while and then left unmolested. DeRosa was pushed about, then thrown to the wet ground, punched, kicked, and spat at by the guards. He was then raised to his feet and dragged around some more. Presently he was dropped and one guard seized him by the hair and rubbed his face in and banged his head on the ground. His cheek and forehead were bruised, leaving two ugly skin wounds. Four guards carried him to the shower room, stripped him of what little clothes remained on his person, placed him on the cold cement floor, in an exhausted condition, and turned the cold spray on him. The soldiers then scrubbed him viciously with filthy brushes and brooms… He was finally brought back to the squad room in a semi-conscious state.” On September 17th, DeRosa and other C.O.s were formally arrested and sent to solitary confinement for refusing an order to clean out a large pile of trash. This order triggered a pre-determined plan by which the Army could ultimately court martial them. DeRosa and his comrades were court-martialed on October 22, 1918. They were found guilty of disobeying orders and sentenced to life in prison at hard labor. The penalty was later reduced to twenty-five years, since the life sentence exceeded the maximum penalty allowed by law. During the trial, DeRosa was questioned about his political and religious beliefs. He described himself as having become International Socialist at age fourteen. His primary allegiance was to the world at large, he considered all people as equal, and he refused to do harm to anyone. He also provided a letter from the Clerk at the New York Quaker Meeting where he had first become a member of the Friends Society. The official confirmed that DeRosa had joined their meetings and was a member in good standing. DeRosa explained his pacifist stand this way: “In these trying times the only authority that I obey is the inner light- the great ideal for which Christ gave his life, namely: Humanity. It is the spirit of reconciliation, not hate, non-resistance, not aggression, that should dominate us.” Throughout their imprisonment, army officials would try to argue the men out of their nonviolent principles. “If a negro entered your house and assaulted your wife, what would you do?” one officer asked DeRosa. After their court martial the men were transferred to the military prison at Fort Leavenworth. They were sent to “the hole” where they were chained by their wrists to their cell doors for nine hours a day. This proved to be especially painful to DeRosa due to his small stature. During their entire ordeal the men occasionally found a recruit who secretly sympathized with them. This allowed DeRosa and his friends to have mail smuggled to family members on the outside. When the conscientious objectors’ case was publicly exposed, it became a cause celebre. The officers who had been mistreating the prisoners did so in direct opposition of policies made by Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. A board of inquiry was established in Washington to examine the evidence and the behavior of the soldiers who had mistreated the C.O.s. Four officers, including the head of military police and the provost marshal of the camp, lost their jobs as a result. Ulysses DeRosa and his comrades were released from military prison after Christmas. New York Strikes and Palmer Raids No sooner had DeRosa been released from military prison, he was back in New York City working as a hat maker. He was active in his union. The city was roiling with strike activity: cigar makers, printers, house builders, window cleaners, shipyard workers, paper box makers, clerical workers and more. The 6,000 members of the milliers’ union who worked south of Twenty-third Street were out on the street by mid-September, 1919. By October 1st, the other 12,000 hat makers were set to go when their contract expired, adding to the 100,000 workers of various trades who were already on strike in the city. Their demands were similar to the other union also on strike: wage increases, union recognition (requiring employers to acknowledge their duty to bargain), holiday pay, and union consent before any workers could be fired. The United Cloth and Cap Makers Union also demanded the abolition of piecework, and that women be recognized as union representatives in the various factories. Ultimately the strike failed. DeRosa was bitter toward factory operators and the union leadership as well. In 1919 and 1920, U.S. Attorney A. Mitchell Palmer orchestrated a nationwide roundup of thousands of trade unionists, immigrants (especially Russians) and anybody he considered too left wing on the political spectrum. According to DeRosa, a friend alerted him just in time that two characters were waiting at his apartment building. DeRosa avoided the agents and very likely missed another incarceration. He moved to Baltimore, Maryland and for ten years engaged in the manufacture of men’s clothes. Once free from imprisonment, Ulysses DeRosa and his fellow political prisoners continued to work on behalf of the C.O.s still incarcerated. By 1960, Ulysses DeRosa had settled in Massachusetts and raised a family. He continued his work in the garment business. His son Dean registered as a conscientious objector, and worked as a medic during WWll. Around this time Ulysses requested a copy of his discharge papers, which he had lost. DeRosa discovered that the Army records indicated he had received a dishonorable discharge. He worked for years with the support of the Quakers to successfully correct the record. Ulysses DeRosa wrote about this ordeal and other parts of his life in an unpublished manuscript entitled “The Odyssey of a Conscientious Objector.” The document included a letter from the “United States Disciplinary Barracks” at Fort Leavenworth prison, stating that as the Secretary of War had released DeRosa, et. al., , they were now restored to a “status of honorable discharge” as of January, 27, 1919. During the Vietnam War in 1971, 35,000 men sought C.O. status, more than the 23,000 who were actually drafted that year. During that same time, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor a broader definition of who qualified as a conscientious objector. Ulysses DeRosa died on March 1, 1989 at the age of ninety-seven. Thanks to Andrew DeRosa and family for the photos of Ulysses.	4,573	ENGLISH	1
How did Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe influence American literature? Uncle Tom's Cabin had a very profound effect on American history, as it convinced many moderate Americans that slavery was wrong by personalizing slavery and showing its effects on people. While some abolitionists thought the book was too lenient, defenders of slavery thought Stowe, a northerner, was off base in her assessment and portrayal of slavery. As the legend goes, even Abraham Lincoln thought Stowe's book had had a major effect on the nation and said to her in 1862, "So you're the little woman who wrote the book that started this great war." Stowe's work was in the tradition of the slave narrative. Freed slaves such as Frederick Douglass wrote famous autobiographies about their experiences in slavery, but Stowe, a white woman, wrote a work that outsold all the previous slave narratives. She changed literature by taking a genre that had traditionally been written by African-Americans as autobiography and turning into a novelistic form. While Stowe intended the character of Uncle Tom to be a virtuous, Christian man, modern critics have charged that her characterization is racist in many ways. For example, they have criticized Tom for being too submissive. At the time, however, it was novel for a white author to depict a slave as the hero, while the white plantation owner, Simon Legree, was the villain. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:a9c08415-2265-47e8-95d4-097cb4ac72e6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-did-uncle-toms-cabin-by-harriet-beecher-stowe-736936?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00214.warc.gz	en	0.988968	296	4.125	4	[ 0.1719275712966919, 0.5430601239204407, 0.30440622568130493, 0.17129552364349365, 0.10918720811605453, 0.22243091464042664, 0.11458215117454529, -0.06439818441867828, -0.11925719678401947, 0.18108855187892914, 0.20275840163230896, 0.4646212160587311, -0.2956404387950897, 0.3449790179729461...	2	How did Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe influence American literature? Uncle Tom's Cabin had a very profound effect on American history, as it convinced many moderate Americans that slavery was wrong by personalizing slavery and showing its effects on people. While some abolitionists thought the book was too lenient, defenders of slavery thought Stowe, a northerner, was off base in her assessment and portrayal of slavery. As the legend goes, even Abraham Lincoln thought Stowe's book had had a major effect on the nation and said to her in 1862, "So you're the little woman who wrote the book that started this great war." Stowe's work was in the tradition of the slave narrative. Freed slaves such as Frederick Douglass wrote famous autobiographies about their experiences in slavery, but Stowe, a white woman, wrote a work that outsold all the previous slave narratives. She changed literature by taking a genre that had traditionally been written by African-Americans as autobiography and turning into a novelistic form. While Stowe intended the character of Uncle Tom to be a virtuous, Christian man, modern critics have charged that her characterization is racist in many ways. For example, they have criticized Tom for being too submissive. At the time, however, it was novel for a white author to depict a slave as the hero, while the white plantation owner, Simon Legree, was the villain. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	295	ENGLISH	1
Rogers (right) receives a map of New Providence Island from his son, in a painting by William Hogarth (1729) \|Royal Governor of the Bahama Islands\| 6 January 1718 – June 1721 \|Appointed by\|\|George I\| \|Preceded by\|\|New creation\| \|Succeeded by\|\|George Phenney\| 22 October 1728 – 15 July 1732 \|Appointed by\|\|George II\| \|Preceded by\|\|George Phenney\| \|Succeeded by\|\|Richard Thompson (acting governor)\| (presumed) Dorset, England \|Died\|\|15 July 1732 (aged c.53)\| \|Resting place\|\|Nassau, Bahamas\| Woodes Rogers (c. 1679 – 15 July 1732) was an English sea captain and privateer and, later, the first Royal Governor of the Bahamas. He is known as the captain of the vessel that rescued marooned Alexander Selkirk, whose plight is generally believed to have inspired Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. Rogers came from an affluent seafaring family, grew up in Poole and Bristol, and served a marine apprenticeship to a Bristol sea captain. His father held shares in many ships, but he died when Rogers was in his mid-twenties, leaving Rogers in control of the family shipping business. In 1707, Rogers was approached by Captain William Dampier, who sought support for a privateering voyage against the Spanish, with whom the British were at war. Rogers led the expedition, which consisted of two well-armed ships, Duke and Duchess, and was the captain of Duke. In three years, Rogers and his men went around the world, capturing several ships in the Pacific Ocean. En route, the expedition rescued Selkirk, finding him on Juan Fernández Island on 1 February 1709. When the expedition returned to England in October 1711, Rogers had circumnavigated the globe, while retaining his original ships and most of his men, and the investors in the expedition doubled their money. The expedition made Rogers a national hero, but his brother was killed and Rogers was badly wounded in fights in the Pacific. On his return, he was successfully sued by his crew on the grounds that they had not received their fair share of the expedition profits, and Rogers was forced into bankruptcy. He wrote of his maritime experiences in the book A Cruising Voyage Round the World, which sold well, in part due to public fascination at Selkirk's rescue. Rogers was twice appointed Governor of the Bahamas, where he succeeded in warding off threats from the Spanish, and in ridding the colony of pirates. His first term as governor was financially ruinous, and on his return to England, he was imprisoned for debt. During his second term as governor, Rogers died in Nassau at the age of about 53. Woodes Rogers was the eldest son and heir of Woods Rogers, a successful merchant captain. Woodes Rogers spent part of his childhood in Poole, England, where he likely attended the local school; his father, who owned shares in many ships, was often away nine months of the year with the Newfoundland fishing fleet. Sometime between 1690 and 1696, Captain Rogers moved his family to Bristol. In November 1697, Woodes Rogers was apprenticed to Bristol mariner John Yeamans, to learn the profession of a sailor. At 18, Rogers was somewhat old to be starting a seven-year apprenticeship. His biographer, Brian Little, suggests that this might have been a way for the newcomers to become part of Bristol maritime society, as well as making it possible for Woodes Rogers to become a freeman, or voting citizen, of the city. Little also suggests that it is likely that Rogers gained his maritime experience with Yeamans' ship on the Newfoundland fleet. Rogers completed his apprenticeship in November 1704. The following January Rogers married Sarah Whetstone, daughter of Rear Admiral Sir William Whetstone, who was a neighbour and close family friend. Rogers became a freeman of Bristol because of his marriage into the prominent Whetstone family. In 1706, Captain Rogers died at sea, leaving his ships and business to his son Woodes. Between 1706 and the end of 1708, Woodes and Sarah Rogers had a son and two daughters. The War of the Spanish Succession started in 1702, during which England's main maritime foes were France and Spain, and a number of Bristol ships were given letters of marque, allowing them to strike against enemy shipping. At least four vessels in which Rogers had an ownership interest were granted the letters. One, Whetstone Galley, named for Rogers' father in law, received the letters before being sent to Africa to begin a voyage in the slave trade. It did not reach Africa, but was captured by the French. Rogers suffered other losses against the French, although he does not record their extent in his book. He turned to privateering as a means of recouping these losses. In late 1707, Rogers was approached by William Dampier, a navigator and friend of Rogers' father, who proposed a privateering expedition against the Spanish. This was a desperate move on the part of Captain Dampier to save his career. Dampier had recently returned from leading a two-ship privateering expedition into the Pacific, which culminated in a series of mutinies before both ships finally sank due to Dampier's error in not having the hulls properly protected against worms before leaving port. Unaware of this, Rogers agreed. Financing was provided by many in the Bristol community, including Thomas Goldney II of the Quaker Goldney family and Thomas Dover, who would become president of the voyage council and Rogers' father in law. Commanding two frigates, Duke and Duchess, and captaining the first, Rogers spent three years circumnavigating the globe. The ships departed Bristol on 1 August 1708. Dampier was aboard as Rogers' sailing master. Rogers encountered various problems along the way. Forty of the Bristol crew deserted or were dismissed, and he spent a month in Ireland recruiting replacements and having the vessels prepared for sea. Many crew members were Dutch, Danish, or other foreigners. Some of the crew mutinied after Rogers refused to let them plunder a neutral Swedish vessel. When the mutiny was put down, he had the leader flogged, put in irons, and sent to England aboard another ship. The less culpable mutineers were given lighter punishments, such as reduced rations. The ships intended to force the chilly Drake Passage off the tip of South America, but expedition leaders soon realised that they were short of warm clothing and alcohol, which was then believed to warm those exposed to cold. Considering the latter the more important problem, the expedition made a stop at Tenerife to stock up on the local wine, and later sewed the ships' blankets into cold weather gear. The ships experienced a difficult inter-oceanic passage; they were forced to almost 62° South latitude, which, according to Rogers, "for ought we know is the furthest that any one has yet been to the southward". At their furthest south, they were closer to as-yet-undiscovered Antarctica than to South America. Rogers stocked his ships with limes to fend off scurvy, a practice not universally accepted at that time. After the ships reached the Pacific Ocean, their provisions of limes were exhausted and seven men died of the vitamin deficiency disease. Dampier was able to guide the ships to little-known Juan Fernández Island to replenish supplies of fresh produce. On 1 February 1709, as they neared the island, the sailors spotted a fire ashore and feared that it might be a shore party from a Spanish vessel. The next morning Rogers sent a party ashore and discovered that the fire was from Scottish sailor Alexander Selkirk, who had been stranded there four years previously. Selkirk was to become an inspiration for the classic novel Robinson Crusoe, written by Rogers' friend, Daniel Defoe. Rogers found Selkirk to be "wild-looking" and "wearing goatskins", noting in his journal, "He had with him his clothes and bedding, with a firelock, some powder, bullets and tobacco, a hatchet, a knife, a kettle, a Bible and books." Selkirk, who had been part of the ship's crew that abandoned Dampier after losing confidence in his leadership, was now more than willing to join a flotilla that included his old commodore as ship's pilot. Selkirk served as a mate aboard the Duke, and was later given command of one of the prize ships taken by the expedition. After leaving Juan Fernández on 14 February 1709, the expedition captured and looted a number of small vessels, and launched an attack on the town of Guayaquil, today located in Ecuador. When Rogers attempted to negotiate with the governor, the townsfolk secreted their valuables. Rogers was able to get a modest ransom for the town, but some crew members were so dissatisfied that they dug up the recently dead hoping to find items of value. This led to sickness on board ship, of which six men died. The expedition lost contact with one of the captured ships, which was under the command of Simon Hatley. The other vessels searched for Hatley's ship, but to no avail—Hatley and his men were captured by the Spanish. On a subsequent voyage to the Pacific, Hatley would emulate Selkirk by becoming the centre of an event which would be immortalised in literature. His ship beset by storms, Hatley shot an albatross in the hope of better winds, an episode memorialised by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The crew of the vessels became increasingly discontented, and Rogers and his officers feared another mutiny. This tension was dispelled by the expedition's capture of a rich prize off the coast of Mexico: the Spanish vessel Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación y Desengaño. Rogers sustained a wound to the face in the battle. While Duke and Duchess were successful in capturing that vessel, they failed to capture Encarnación's companion, a well-armed galleon, Nuestra Señora de Begoña, which made its escape after damaging both vessels. Rogers only reluctantly agreed to giving the inexperienced Captain Dover command of Encarnación, a decision that may have been eased by naming Selkirk as its sailing master. The privateers, accompanied by their two prizes, limped across the Pacific Ocean. The expedition was able to resupply at Guam, which, though governed by the Spanish, extended a cordial welcome to the privateers. The ships then went to the Dutch port of Batavia in what is now Indonesia, where Rogers underwent surgery to remove a musket ball from the roof of his mouth, and the expedition disposed of the less seaworthy of the two Spanish prizes. Dealing with the Dutch there constituted a violation of the British East India Company's monopoly. When the ships finally dropped anchor in the River Thames on 14 October 1711, a legal battle ensued, with the investors paying the East India Company £6,000 (about £878,000 at today's values) as settlement for their claim for breach of monopoly, about four percent of what Rogers brought back. The investors approximately doubled their money, while Rogers gained £1,600 (now worth perhaps £234,000) from a voyage which disfigured him and cost him his brother, who was killed in a battle in the Pacific. The money was probably less than he could have made at home, and was entirely absorbed by the debts his family had incurred in his absence. The long voyage and the capture of the Spanish ship made Rogers a national hero. Rogers was the first Englishman, in circumnavigating the globe, to have his original ships and most of his crew survive. After his voyage, he wrote an account of it, titled A Cruising Voyage Round the World. Edward Cooke, an officer aboard Duchess, also wrote a book, A Voyage to the South Sea and Round the World, and beat Rogers to print by several months. Rogers' book was much more successful, with many readers fascinated by the account of Selkirk's rescue, which Cooke had slighted. Among those interested in Selkirk's adventure was Daniel Defoe, who appears to have read about it, and fictionalised the story as Robinson Crusoe. While Rogers' book enjoyed financial success, it had a practical purpose—to aid British navigators and possible colonists. Much of Rogers' introduction is devoted to advocacy for the South Seas trade. Rogers notes that had there been a British colony in the South Seas, he would not have had to worry about food supplies for his crew. A third of Rogers' book is devoted to detailed descriptions of the places that he explored, with special emphasis on "such [places] as may be of most use for enlarging our trade". He describes the area of the River Plate in detail because it lay "within the limits of the South Sea Company", whose schemes had not yet burst into financial scandal. Rogers' book was carried by such South Pacific navigators as Admiral George Anson and privateering captains John Clipperton and George Shelvocke. Rogers encountered financial problems on his return. Sir William Whetstone had died, and Rogers, having failed to recoup his business losses through privateering, was forced to sell his Bristol home to support his family. He was successfully sued by a group of over 200 of his crew, who stated that they had not received their fair share of the expedition profits. The profits from his book were not enough to overcome these setbacks, and he was forced into bankruptcy. His wife gave birth to their fourth child a year after his return—a boy who died in infancy—and Woodes and Sarah Rogers soon permanently separated. Rogers decided the way out of his financial difficulty was to lead another expedition, this time against pirates. In 1713, Rogers led what was ostensibly an expedition to purchase slaves in Madagascar and take them to the Dutch East Indies, this time with the permission of the British East India Company. Rogers' secondary purpose was to gather details on the pirates of Madagascar, hoping to destroy or reform them, and colonise Madagascar on a future trip. Rogers collected information regarding pirates and their vessels near the island. Finding that a large number of the pirates had gone native, he persuaded many of them to sign a petition to Queen Anne asking her for clemency. While Rogers' expedition was profitable, when it returned to London in 1715, the British East India Company vetoed the idea of a colonial expedition to Madagascar, believing a colony was a greater threat to its monopoly than a few pirates. Accordingly, Rogers turned his sights from Madagascar to the West Indies. His connections included several of the advisers to the new king, George I, who had succeeded Queen Anne in 1714, and Rogers was able to forge an agreement for a company to manage the Bahamas, which were infested with pirates, in exchange for a share of the colony's profits. At the time, according to the Governor of Bermuda, the Bahamas were "without any face or form of Government" and the colony was a "sink or nest of infamous rascals". Until Rogers obtained his commission, the islands had been nominally governed by absentee Lords Proprietor, who did little except appoint a new, powerless governor when the position fell vacant. Under the agreement that underlay Rogers' commission, the Lords Proprietor leased their rights for a token sum to Rogers' company for twenty-one years. On 5 January 1718, a proclamation was issued announcing clemency for all piratical offences, provided that those seeking what became known as the "King's Pardon" surrendered not later than 5 September 1718. Colonial governors and deputy governors were authorised to grant the pardon. Rogers was officially appointed "Captain General and Governor in Chief" by George I on 6 January 1718. He did not leave immediately for his new bailiwick, but spent several months preparing the expedition, which included seven ships, 100 soldiers, 130 colonists, and supplies ranging from food for the expedition members and ships' crews to religious pamphlets to give to the pirates, whom Rogers believed would respond to spiritual teachings. On 22 April 1718, the expedition, accompanied by three Royal Navy vessels, sailed out of the Thames. The expedition arrived on 22 July 1718, surprising and trapping a ship commanded by pirate Charles Vane. After negotiations failed, Vane used a captured French vessel as a fireship in an attempt to ram the naval vessels. The attempt failed, but the naval vessels were forced out of the west end of Nassau harbour, giving Vane's crew an opportunity to raid the town and secure the best local pilot. Vane and his men then escaped in a small sloop via the harbour's narrow east entrance. The pirates had evaded the trap, but Nassau and New Providence Island were in Rogers' hands. At the time, the island's population consisted of about two hundred former pirates and several hundred fugitives who had escaped from nearby Spanish colonies. Rogers organised a government, granted the King's Pardon to those former pirates on the island who had not yet accepted it, and started to rebuild the island's fortifications, which had fallen into decrepitude under pirate domination. Less than a month into his residence on New Providence, Rogers was faced with a double threat: Vane wrote, threatening to join with Edward Teach (better known as Blackbeard) to retake the island, and Rogers learned that the Spanish also planned to drive the British out of the Bahamas. Rogers' expedition suffered further setbacks. An unidentified disease killed almost a hundred of his expedition members, while leaving the long-term residents nearly untouched. Two of the three navy vessels, having no orders to remain, left for New York. Ships sent to Havana to conciliate the Spanish governor there never arrived, their crew revolting and becoming pirates mid-voyage. Finally, the third naval vessel left in mid-September, its commander promising to return in three weeks—a promise he had no intention of keeping. Work on rebuilding the island's fortifications proceeded slowly, with the locals showing a disinclination to work. On 14 September 1718, Rogers received word that Vane was at Green Turtle Cay near Abaco, about 120 miles (190 km) north of Nassau. Some of the pardoned pirates on New Providence took boats to join Vane, and Rogers decided to send two ex-pirate captains, Benjamin Hornigold and John Cockram, with a crew to gather intelligence, and, if possible, to bring Vane to battle. As the weeks passed, and hopes of their return dimmed, Rogers declared martial law and set all inhabitants to work on rebuilding the island's fortifications. Finally, the former pirates returned. They had failed to find an opportunity to kill Vane or bring him to battle, but had captured one ship and a number of pirate captives. Captain Hornigold was then sent to recapture the ships and crews who had gone pirate en route to Havana. He returned with ten prisoners, including captain John Auger, and three corpses. On 9 December 1718, Rogers brought the ten men captured by Hornigold to trial. Nine were convicted, and Rogers had eight hanged three days later, reprieving the ninth on hearing he was of good family. One of the condemned, Thomas Morris, quipped as he climbed the gallows, "We have a good governor, but a harsh one." The executions so cowed the populace that when, shortly after Christmas, several residents plotted to overthrow Rogers and restore the island to piracy, the conspirators attracted little support. Rogers had them flogged, then released as harmless. On 16 March 1719 Rogers learned that Spain and Britain were at war again. He redoubled his efforts to repair the island's fortifications, buying vital supplies on credit in the hope of later being reimbursed by the expedition's investors. The Spanish sent an invasion fleet against Nassau in May, but when the fleet's commodore learned that the French (now Britain's ally) had captured Pensacola, he directed the fleet there instead. This gave Rogers time to continue to fortify and supply New Providence, and it was not until 24 February 1720 that a Spanish fleet arrived. Wary of Rogers' defences, the Spanish landed troops on Paradise Island (then known as Hog Island), which shelters Nassau's harbour. They were driven off by Rogers' troops. The year 1720 brought an end to external threats to Rogers' rule. With Spain and Britain at peace again, the Spanish made no further move against the Bahamas. Vane never returned, having been shipwrecked and captured in the Bay Islands—a year later, he was hanged in Jamaica. This did not end Rogers' problems as governor. Overextended from financing New Providence's defences, he received no assistance from Britain, and merchants refused to give him further credit. His health suffered, and he spent six weeks in Charleston, South Carolina, hoping to recuperate. Instead, he was wounded in a duel with Captain John Hildesley of HMS Flamborough, a duel caused by disputes between the two on New Providence. Troubled by the lack of support and communication from London, Rogers set sail for Britain in March 1721. He arrived three months later to find that a new governor had been appointed, and his company had been liquidated. Personally liable for the obligations he had contracted at Nassau, he was imprisoned for debt. With both the government and his former partners refusing to honour his debts, Rogers was released from debtor's prison only when his creditors took pity on him and absolved him of his debts. Even so, Rogers wrote that he was "perplexed with the melancholy prospect of [his] affairs". In 1722 or 1723, Rogers was approached by a man writing a history of piracy, and supplied him with information. The resulting work, A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates, published under the pseudonym Captain Charles Johnson, was an enormous hit on both sides of the Atlantic, and catapulted Rogers for the second time to the status of a national hero. With public attention focused on him again, Rogers was successful in 1726 in petitioning the king for financial redress. Not only did King George I grant him a pension, retroactive to 1721, but the king's son and successor, George II, reappointed him as governor on 22 October 1728. The Bahamas did not come under external threat during Rogers' second term, but the reappointed governor had difficulties. Still seeking to bolster the island's defences, Rogers sought imposition of a local tax. The assembly, which had been instituted in Rogers' absence, objected, and Rogers responded by dissolving it. The governmental battle exhausted Rogers, who again went to Charleston in early 1731 in an attempt to recover his health. Though he returned in July 1731, he never truly regained his health, and died in Nassau on 15 July 1732.	<urn:uuid:bf69fcf0-07dd-44da-93a9-1271d83d8c0b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikiredia.info/wiki/Woodes_Rogers	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00061.warc.gz	en	0.985592	4,813	3.359375	3	[ -0.3522997498512268, -0.03497859090566635, 0.5361406803131104, -0.46717870235443115, -0.1916145384311676, -0.3629204332828522, 0.0841631293296814, 0.5464131832122803, -0.3433290719985962, 0.5977810621261597, 0.6561191082000732, -0.18039721250534058, 0.1430208683013916, 0.3410949409008026, ...	1	Rogers (right) receives a map of New Providence Island from his son, in a painting by William Hogarth (1729) \|Royal Governor of the Bahama Islands\| 6 January 1718 – June 1721 \|Appointed by\|\|George I\| \|Preceded by\|\|New creation\| \|Succeeded by\|\|George Phenney\| 22 October 1728 – 15 July 1732 \|Appointed by\|\|George II\| \|Preceded by\|\|George Phenney\| \|Succeeded by\|\|Richard Thompson (acting governor)\| (presumed) Dorset, England \|Died\|\|15 July 1732 (aged c.53)\| \|Resting place\|\|Nassau, Bahamas\| Woodes Rogers (c. 1679 – 15 July 1732) was an English sea captain and privateer and, later, the first Royal Governor of the Bahamas. He is known as the captain of the vessel that rescued marooned Alexander Selkirk, whose plight is generally believed to have inspired Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. Rogers came from an affluent seafaring family, grew up in Poole and Bristol, and served a marine apprenticeship to a Bristol sea captain. His father held shares in many ships, but he died when Rogers was in his mid-twenties, leaving Rogers in control of the family shipping business. In 1707, Rogers was approached by Captain William Dampier, who sought support for a privateering voyage against the Spanish, with whom the British were at war. Rogers led the expedition, which consisted of two well-armed ships, Duke and Duchess, and was the captain of Duke. In three years, Rogers and his men went around the world, capturing several ships in the Pacific Ocean. En route, the expedition rescued Selkirk, finding him on Juan Fernández Island on 1 February 1709. When the expedition returned to England in October 1711, Rogers had circumnavigated the globe, while retaining his original ships and most of his men, and the investors in the expedition doubled their money. The expedition made Rogers a national hero, but his brother was killed and Rogers was badly wounded in fights in the Pacific. On his return, he was successfully sued by his crew on the grounds that they had not received their fair share of the expedition profits, and Rogers was forced into bankruptcy. He wrote of his maritime experiences in the book A Cruising Voyage Round the World, which sold well, in part due to public fascination at Selkirk's rescue. Rogers was twice appointed Governor of the Bahamas, where he succeeded in warding off threats from the Spanish, and in ridding the colony of pirates. His first term as governor was financially ruinous, and on his return to England, he was imprisoned for debt. During his second term as governor, Rogers died in Nassau at the age of about 53. Woodes Rogers was the eldest son and heir of Woods Rogers, a successful merchant captain. Woodes Rogers spent part of his childhood in Poole, England, where he likely attended the local school; his father, who owned shares in many ships, was often away nine months of the year with the Newfoundland fishing fleet. Sometime between 1690 and 1696, Captain Rogers moved his family to Bristol. In November 1697, Woodes Rogers was apprenticed to Bristol mariner John Yeamans, to learn the profession of a sailor. At 18, Rogers was somewhat old to be starting a seven-year apprenticeship. His biographer, Brian Little, suggests that this might have been a way for the newcomers to become part of Bristol maritime society, as well as making it possible for Woodes Rogers to become a freeman, or voting citizen, of the city. Little also suggests that it is likely that Rogers gained his maritime experience with Yeamans' ship on the Newfoundland fleet. Rogers completed his apprenticeship in November 1704. The following January Rogers married Sarah Whetstone, daughter of Rear Admiral Sir William Whetstone, who was a neighbour and close family friend. Rogers became a freeman of Bristol because of his marriage into the prominent Whetstone family. In 1706, Captain Rogers died at sea, leaving his ships and business to his son Woodes. Between 1706 and the end of 1708, Woodes and Sarah Rogers had a son and two daughters. The War of the Spanish Succession started in 1702, during which England's main maritime foes were France and Spain, and a number of Bristol ships were given letters of marque, allowing them to strike against enemy shipping. At least four vessels in which Rogers had an ownership interest were granted the letters. One, Whetstone Galley, named for Rogers' father in law, received the letters before being sent to Africa to begin a voyage in the slave trade. It did not reach Africa, but was captured by the French. Rogers suffered other losses against the French, although he does not record their extent in his book. He turned to privateering as a means of recouping these losses. In late 1707, Rogers was approached by William Dampier, a navigator and friend of Rogers' father, who proposed a privateering expedition against the Spanish. This was a desperate move on the part of Captain Dampier to save his career. Dampier had recently returned from leading a two-ship privateering expedition into the Pacific, which culminated in a series of mutinies before both ships finally sank due to Dampier's error in not having the hulls properly protected against worms before leaving port. Unaware of this, Rogers agreed. Financing was provided by many in the Bristol community, including Thomas Goldney II of the Quaker Goldney family and Thomas Dover, who would become president of the voyage council and Rogers' father in law. Commanding two frigates, Duke and Duchess, and captaining the first, Rogers spent three years circumnavigating the globe. The ships departed Bristol on 1 August 1708. Dampier was aboard as Rogers' sailing master. Rogers encountered various problems along the way. Forty of the Bristol crew deserted or were dismissed, and he spent a month in Ireland recruiting replacements and having the vessels prepared for sea. Many crew members were Dutch, Danish, or other foreigners. Some of the crew mutinied after Rogers refused to let them plunder a neutral Swedish vessel. When the mutiny was put down, he had the leader flogged, put in irons, and sent to England aboard another ship. The less culpable mutineers were given lighter punishments, such as reduced rations. The ships intended to force the chilly Drake Passage off the tip of South America, but expedition leaders soon realised that they were short of warm clothing and alcohol, which was then believed to warm those exposed to cold. Considering the latter the more important problem, the expedition made a stop at Tenerife to stock up on the local wine, and later sewed the ships' blankets into cold weather gear. The ships experienced a difficult inter-oceanic passage; they were forced to almost 62° South latitude, which, according to Rogers, "for ought we know is the furthest that any one has yet been to the southward". At their furthest south, they were closer to as-yet-undiscovered Antarctica than to South America. Rogers stocked his ships with limes to fend off scurvy, a practice not universally accepted at that time. After the ships reached the Pacific Ocean, their provisions of limes were exhausted and seven men died of the vitamin deficiency disease. Dampier was able to guide the ships to little-known Juan Fernández Island to replenish supplies of fresh produce. On 1 February 1709, as they neared the island, the sailors spotted a fire ashore and feared that it might be a shore party from a Spanish vessel. The next morning Rogers sent a party ashore and discovered that the fire was from Scottish sailor Alexander Selkirk, who had been stranded there four years previously. Selkirk was to become an inspiration for the classic novel Robinson Crusoe, written by Rogers' friend, Daniel Defoe. Rogers found Selkirk to be "wild-looking" and "wearing goatskins", noting in his journal, "He had with him his clothes and bedding, with a firelock, some powder, bullets and tobacco, a hatchet, a knife, a kettle, a Bible and books." Selkirk, who had been part of the ship's crew that abandoned Dampier after losing confidence in his leadership, was now more than willing to join a flotilla that included his old commodore as ship's pilot. Selkirk served as a mate aboard the Duke, and was later given command of one of the prize ships taken by the expedition. After leaving Juan Fernández on 14 February 1709, the expedition captured and looted a number of small vessels, and launched an attack on the town of Guayaquil, today located in Ecuador. When Rogers attempted to negotiate with the governor, the townsfolk secreted their valuables. Rogers was able to get a modest ransom for the town, but some crew members were so dissatisfied that they dug up the recently dead hoping to find items of value. This led to sickness on board ship, of which six men died. The expedition lost contact with one of the captured ships, which was under the command of Simon Hatley. The other vessels searched for Hatley's ship, but to no avail—Hatley and his men were captured by the Spanish. On a subsequent voyage to the Pacific, Hatley would emulate Selkirk by becoming the centre of an event which would be immortalised in literature. His ship beset by storms, Hatley shot an albatross in the hope of better winds, an episode memorialised by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The crew of the vessels became increasingly discontented, and Rogers and his officers feared another mutiny. This tension was dispelled by the expedition's capture of a rich prize off the coast of Mexico: the Spanish vessel Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación y Desengaño. Rogers sustained a wound to the face in the battle. While Duke and Duchess were successful in capturing that vessel, they failed to capture Encarnación's companion, a well-armed galleon, Nuestra Señora de Begoña, which made its escape after damaging both vessels. Rogers only reluctantly agreed to giving the inexperienced Captain Dover command of Encarnación, a decision that may have been eased by naming Selkirk as its sailing master. The privateers, accompanied by their two prizes, limped across the Pacific Ocean. The expedition was able to resupply at Guam, which, though governed by the Spanish, extended a cordial welcome to the privateers. The ships then went to the Dutch port of Batavia in what is now Indonesia, where Rogers underwent surgery to remove a musket ball from the roof of his mouth, and the expedition disposed of the less seaworthy of the two Spanish prizes. Dealing with the Dutch there constituted a violation of the British East India Company's monopoly. When the ships finally dropped anchor in the River Thames on 14 October 1711, a legal battle ensued, with the investors paying the East India Company £6,000 (about £878,000 at today's values) as settlement for their claim for breach of monopoly, about four percent of what Rogers brought back. The investors approximately doubled their money, while Rogers gained £1,600 (now worth perhaps £234,000) from a voyage which disfigured him and cost him his brother, who was killed in a battle in the Pacific. The money was probably less than he could have made at home, and was entirely absorbed by the debts his family had incurred in his absence. The long voyage and the capture of the Spanish ship made Rogers a national hero. Rogers was the first Englishman, in circumnavigating the globe, to have his original ships and most of his crew survive. After his voyage, he wrote an account of it, titled A Cruising Voyage Round the World. Edward Cooke, an officer aboard Duchess, also wrote a book, A Voyage to the South Sea and Round the World, and beat Rogers to print by several months. Rogers' book was much more successful, with many readers fascinated by the account of Selkirk's rescue, which Cooke had slighted. Among those interested in Selkirk's adventure was Daniel Defoe, who appears to have read about it, and fictionalised the story as Robinson Crusoe. While Rogers' book enjoyed financial success, it had a practical purpose—to aid British navigators and possible colonists. Much of Rogers' introduction is devoted to advocacy for the South Seas trade. Rogers notes that had there been a British colony in the South Seas, he would not have had to worry about food supplies for his crew. A third of Rogers' book is devoted to detailed descriptions of the places that he explored, with special emphasis on "such [places] as may be of most use for enlarging our trade". He describes the area of the River Plate in detail because it lay "within the limits of the South Sea Company", whose schemes had not yet burst into financial scandal. Rogers' book was carried by such South Pacific navigators as Admiral George Anson and privateering captains John Clipperton and George Shelvocke. Rogers encountered financial problems on his return. Sir William Whetstone had died, and Rogers, having failed to recoup his business losses through privateering, was forced to sell his Bristol home to support his family. He was successfully sued by a group of over 200 of his crew, who stated that they had not received their fair share of the expedition profits. The profits from his book were not enough to overcome these setbacks, and he was forced into bankruptcy. His wife gave birth to their fourth child a year after his return—a boy who died in infancy—and Woodes and Sarah Rogers soon permanently separated. Rogers decided the way out of his financial difficulty was to lead another expedition, this time against pirates. In 1713, Rogers led what was ostensibly an expedition to purchase slaves in Madagascar and take them to the Dutch East Indies, this time with the permission of the British East India Company. Rogers' secondary purpose was to gather details on the pirates of Madagascar, hoping to destroy or reform them, and colonise Madagascar on a future trip. Rogers collected information regarding pirates and their vessels near the island. Finding that a large number of the pirates had gone native, he persuaded many of them to sign a petition to Queen Anne asking her for clemency. While Rogers' expedition was profitable, when it returned to London in 1715, the British East India Company vetoed the idea of a colonial expedition to Madagascar, believing a colony was a greater threat to its monopoly than a few pirates. Accordingly, Rogers turned his sights from Madagascar to the West Indies. His connections included several of the advisers to the new king, George I, who had succeeded Queen Anne in 1714, and Rogers was able to forge an agreement for a company to manage the Bahamas, which were infested with pirates, in exchange for a share of the colony's profits. At the time, according to the Governor of Bermuda, the Bahamas were "without any face or form of Government" and the colony was a "sink or nest of infamous rascals". Until Rogers obtained his commission, the islands had been nominally governed by absentee Lords Proprietor, who did little except appoint a new, powerless governor when the position fell vacant. Under the agreement that underlay Rogers' commission, the Lords Proprietor leased their rights for a token sum to Rogers' company for twenty-one years. On 5 January 1718, a proclamation was issued announcing clemency for all piratical offences, provided that those seeking what became known as the "King's Pardon" surrendered not later than 5 September 1718. Colonial governors and deputy governors were authorised to grant the pardon. Rogers was officially appointed "Captain General and Governor in Chief" by George I on 6 January 1718. He did not leave immediately for his new bailiwick, but spent several months preparing the expedition, which included seven ships, 100 soldiers, 130 colonists, and supplies ranging from food for the expedition members and ships' crews to religious pamphlets to give to the pirates, whom Rogers believed would respond to spiritual teachings. On 22 April 1718, the expedition, accompanied by three Royal Navy vessels, sailed out of the Thames. The expedition arrived on 22 July 1718, surprising and trapping a ship commanded by pirate Charles Vane. After negotiations failed, Vane used a captured French vessel as a fireship in an attempt to ram the naval vessels. The attempt failed, but the naval vessels were forced out of the west end of Nassau harbour, giving Vane's crew an opportunity to raid the town and secure the best local pilot. Vane and his men then escaped in a small sloop via the harbour's narrow east entrance. The pirates had evaded the trap, but Nassau and New Providence Island were in Rogers' hands. At the time, the island's population consisted of about two hundred former pirates and several hundred fugitives who had escaped from nearby Spanish colonies. Rogers organised a government, granted the King's Pardon to those former pirates on the island who had not yet accepted it, and started to rebuild the island's fortifications, which had fallen into decrepitude under pirate domination. Less than a month into his residence on New Providence, Rogers was faced with a double threat: Vane wrote, threatening to join with Edward Teach (better known as Blackbeard) to retake the island, and Rogers learned that the Spanish also planned to drive the British out of the Bahamas. Rogers' expedition suffered further setbacks. An unidentified disease killed almost a hundred of his expedition members, while leaving the long-term residents nearly untouched. Two of the three navy vessels, having no orders to remain, left for New York. Ships sent to Havana to conciliate the Spanish governor there never arrived, their crew revolting and becoming pirates mid-voyage. Finally, the third naval vessel left in mid-September, its commander promising to return in three weeks—a promise he had no intention of keeping. Work on rebuilding the island's fortifications proceeded slowly, with the locals showing a disinclination to work. On 14 September 1718, Rogers received word that Vane was at Green Turtle Cay near Abaco, about 120 miles (190 km) north of Nassau. Some of the pardoned pirates on New Providence took boats to join Vane, and Rogers decided to send two ex-pirate captains, Benjamin Hornigold and John Cockram, with a crew to gather intelligence, and, if possible, to bring Vane to battle. As the weeks passed, and hopes of their return dimmed, Rogers declared martial law and set all inhabitants to work on rebuilding the island's fortifications. Finally, the former pirates returned. They had failed to find an opportunity to kill Vane or bring him to battle, but had captured one ship and a number of pirate captives. Captain Hornigold was then sent to recapture the ships and crews who had gone pirate en route to Havana. He returned with ten prisoners, including captain John Auger, and three corpses. On 9 December 1718, Rogers brought the ten men captured by Hornigold to trial. Nine were convicted, and Rogers had eight hanged three days later, reprieving the ninth on hearing he was of good family. One of the condemned, Thomas Morris, quipped as he climbed the gallows, "We have a good governor, but a harsh one." The executions so cowed the populace that when, shortly after Christmas, several residents plotted to overthrow Rogers and restore the island to piracy, the conspirators attracted little support. Rogers had them flogged, then released as harmless. On 16 March 1719 Rogers learned that Spain and Britain were at war again. He redoubled his efforts to repair the island's fortifications, buying vital supplies on credit in the hope of later being reimbursed by the expedition's investors. The Spanish sent an invasion fleet against Nassau in May, but when the fleet's commodore learned that the French (now Britain's ally) had captured Pensacola, he directed the fleet there instead. This gave Rogers time to continue to fortify and supply New Providence, and it was not until 24 February 1720 that a Spanish fleet arrived. Wary of Rogers' defences, the Spanish landed troops on Paradise Island (then known as Hog Island), which shelters Nassau's harbour. They were driven off by Rogers' troops. The year 1720 brought an end to external threats to Rogers' rule. With Spain and Britain at peace again, the Spanish made no further move against the Bahamas. Vane never returned, having been shipwrecked and captured in the Bay Islands—a year later, he was hanged in Jamaica. This did not end Rogers' problems as governor. Overextended from financing New Providence's defences, he received no assistance from Britain, and merchants refused to give him further credit. His health suffered, and he spent six weeks in Charleston, South Carolina, hoping to recuperate. Instead, he was wounded in a duel with Captain John Hildesley of HMS Flamborough, a duel caused by disputes between the two on New Providence. Troubled by the lack of support and communication from London, Rogers set sail for Britain in March 1721. He arrived three months later to find that a new governor had been appointed, and his company had been liquidated. Personally liable for the obligations he had contracted at Nassau, he was imprisoned for debt. With both the government and his former partners refusing to honour his debts, Rogers was released from debtor's prison only when his creditors took pity on him and absolved him of his debts. Even so, Rogers wrote that he was "perplexed with the melancholy prospect of [his] affairs". In 1722 or 1723, Rogers was approached by a man writing a history of piracy, and supplied him with information. The resulting work, A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates, published under the pseudonym Captain Charles Johnson, was an enormous hit on both sides of the Atlantic, and catapulted Rogers for the second time to the status of a national hero. With public attention focused on him again, Rogers was successful in 1726 in petitioning the king for financial redress. Not only did King George I grant him a pension, retroactive to 1721, but the king's son and successor, George II, reappointed him as governor on 22 October 1728. The Bahamas did not come under external threat during Rogers' second term, but the reappointed governor had difficulties. Still seeking to bolster the island's defences, Rogers sought imposition of a local tax. The assembly, which had been instituted in Rogers' absence, objected, and Rogers responded by dissolving it. The governmental battle exhausted Rogers, who again went to Charleston in early 1731 in an attempt to recover his health. Though he returned in July 1731, he never truly regained his health, and died in Nassau on 15 July 1732.	4,966	ENGLISH	1
The Roman Empire was one of the biggest and best empires to ever exist. The roman empire was a massive empire that spanned from most of modern day Europe to the top of the Middle East and the top of Africa. Back then, the Roman Empire was said to have no competition for centuries and even if the had competition, no one would want to go to war against them. If the Roman Empire was so strong, then how did Rome fall? The decline of Rome was primarily due to social and political causes, and these attributes caused the military, and economic causes which lead to its fall in 476 AD.Although the military wasn’t the main cause, it was still a factor towards the fall of Rome. Evan Andrews states that. This shows that Rome struggled with troop numbers and wasn’t able to defend its frontiers because it didn’t have a big enough military. It also shows that an emperor had to build a wall just to keep them from getting run over. This can also be seen as people not wanting to commit to the empire by not sending their sons to the military to fight, which is why the roman empire didn’t have that many troops. This cause came from the society not committing to the empire and losing loyalty to the empire. This drought in soldiers affected the economy as the generals had to hire mercenaries just to have people fight for them. In conclusion, The Military was a factor in the fall of rome, but was a factor due to the citizens not committing to the empire.Most reasons to why an empire falls is due to the fall of its economy. The economy was a big cause in why rome fell but was caused by the governments political decision to ‘improve the economy’, when it ends up destroying it. Amnianus Marcellinus says that. This shows that the government’s decision to increased the taxes lead to its downfall in economy and of the eastern empire of rome. It also shows that families had to leave the empire or they would be punished for not paying taxes. This affected the way society looked at its leaders and economy, they lost faith and the government found that they lost the people’s trust. This concludes that the economy was affected by the political decision of the government to ‘save’ the economy but ended up failing and lost most of the people’s trust within the empire.The economy and military usually have the biggest impact on why an empire rises and falls, but the downfall of the economy and military in rome is due to the political causes. This shows that the poor governing of the empire caused havok and caused a civil war to break out. This also shows that the roman empire had 20 emperors in a span of 75 years.That’s an emperor every 3 years and 9 months! To have that many emperors within that span of time meant that the men in charge were poor leaders and brought down the economy. This impacted the life a roman citizen too. It impacted their trust in the empire and emperors and forced the people to refuse to give their sons to the military causing a downfall in loot. The other text states that the emperor didn’t care about the empire, he only cared about his position within the empire. To conclude, the economy and military causes were due to the political decisions made by the emperor.The people within the empire started losing faith and trust in the empire which lead to the primary cause on why Rome fell.This shows that the people couldn’t trust anybody other than themselves. This also shows that it was no longer about loyalty and that the priorities of the people were only for power, profit, and survival. This lead to most citizens not going and watching public affairs because they didn’t care about that anymore. This completely shows why the roman citizens lost faith in their empire. They lost faith and trust in the empire because the government and emperor were raise taxes, and caused many citizens to leave the country because they couldn’t pay off their bills and debts. Therefore, The empire fell due to the sheer mass of people losing loyalty towards the empire because the people could not trust the government anymore.In conclusion, The roman empire decline primarily due to social and political causes, and these attributes caused the military, and economic causes which lead to its fall. This is proven to be true as the people lost faith in the empire because they couldn’t pay their debts. The military didn’t have enough troops and used its money hiring mercenaries because the society weren’t as loyal anymore. The economy fell because the empire made a political decision to raise the prices and taxes up which corrupted the empire of its money. Therefore the Empire fell because the political and social causes affected the military and economics which lead to its downfall in 476 AD.	<urn:uuid:49db23fc-c695-48e6-8c28-e70c974dea68>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/the-military-it-also-shows-that-an-emperor-had/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00556.warc.gz	en	0.984322	987	3.921875	4	[ -0.30480441451072693, 0.3490751087665558, 0.5471376180648804, 0.08433981239795685, -0.07135668396949768, -0.17658472061157227, -0.19610591232776642, 0.561612069606781, 0.05967775359749794, -0.3244382441043854, 0.29177287220954895, -0.139773428440094, 0.020073752850294113, 0.434501945972442...	1	The Roman Empire was one of the biggest and best empires to ever exist. The roman empire was a massive empire that spanned from most of modern day Europe to the top of the Middle East and the top of Africa. Back then, the Roman Empire was said to have no competition for centuries and even if the had competition, no one would want to go to war against them. If the Roman Empire was so strong, then how did Rome fall? The decline of Rome was primarily due to social and political causes, and these attributes caused the military, and economic causes which lead to its fall in 476 AD.Although the military wasn’t the main cause, it was still a factor towards the fall of Rome. Evan Andrews states that. This shows that Rome struggled with troop numbers and wasn’t able to defend its frontiers because it didn’t have a big enough military. It also shows that an emperor had to build a wall just to keep them from getting run over. This can also be seen as people not wanting to commit to the empire by not sending their sons to the military to fight, which is why the roman empire didn’t have that many troops. This cause came from the society not committing to the empire and losing loyalty to the empire. This drought in soldiers affected the economy as the generals had to hire mercenaries just to have people fight for them. In conclusion, The Military was a factor in the fall of rome, but was a factor due to the citizens not committing to the empire.Most reasons to why an empire falls is due to the fall of its economy. The economy was a big cause in why rome fell but was caused by the governments political decision to ‘improve the economy’, when it ends up destroying it. Amnianus Marcellinus says that. This shows that the government’s decision to increased the taxes lead to its downfall in economy and of the eastern empire of rome. It also shows that families had to leave the empire or they would be punished for not paying taxes. This affected the way society looked at its leaders and economy, they lost faith and the government found that they lost the people’s trust. This concludes that the economy was affected by the political decision of the government to ‘save’ the economy but ended up failing and lost most of the people’s trust within the empire.The economy and military usually have the biggest impact on why an empire rises and falls, but the downfall of the economy and military in rome is due to the political causes. This shows that the poor governing of the empire caused havok and caused a civil war to break out. This also shows that the roman empire had 20 emperors in a span of 75 years.That’s an emperor every 3 years and 9 months! To have that many emperors within that span of time meant that the men in charge were poor leaders and brought down the economy. This impacted the life a roman citizen too. It impacted their trust in the empire and emperors and forced the people to refuse to give their sons to the military causing a downfall in loot. The other text states that the emperor didn’t care about the empire, he only cared about his position within the empire. To conclude, the economy and military causes were due to the political decisions made by the emperor.The people within the empire started losing faith and trust in the empire which lead to the primary cause on why Rome fell.This shows that the people couldn’t trust anybody other than themselves. This also shows that it was no longer about loyalty and that the priorities of the people were only for power, profit, and survival. This lead to most citizens not going and watching public affairs because they didn’t care about that anymore. This completely shows why the roman citizens lost faith in their empire. They lost faith and trust in the empire because the government and emperor were raise taxes, and caused many citizens to leave the country because they couldn’t pay off their bills and debts. Therefore, The empire fell due to the sheer mass of people losing loyalty towards the empire because the people could not trust the government anymore.In conclusion, The roman empire decline primarily due to social and political causes, and these attributes caused the military, and economic causes which lead to its fall. This is proven to be true as the people lost faith in the empire because they couldn’t pay their debts. The military didn’t have enough troops and used its money hiring mercenaries because the society weren’t as loyal anymore. The economy fell because the empire made a political decision to raise the prices and taxes up which corrupted the empire of its money. Therefore the Empire fell because the political and social causes affected the military and economics which lead to its downfall in 476 AD.	956	ENGLISH	1
During the frequent wars of the second century B. The prices of such slaves were low, and landowners and manufacturers found they could compel slaves to work longer and harder than hired laborers. Periodically, the harsh working and living conditions resulted in slave revolts. The difference between the Han dynasty and the Roman empire is the Romans taxed everyone equally as the Hans taxed people according to class. The similarity between them is that their economy and high taxes drove them into the ground. Both the Romans and the Hans believed that divinity resided within nature rather than outside and above it. The Romans produced wrought-iron tools and weapons by hammering heated iron. Whereas the Han hammered ores with a higher carbon content to produce steel weapons and tools. Both the Han Dynasty and the Romans were wealthy and had many luxuries. The Han believed in Confusiansm and that it brought loyalty, authority, and respect for elders. The Romans believed in many gods and that you had to give offerings for approval. One difference between the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty, was the role of women. In the Roman Empire, there were laws that were created specifically for women, that restricted their rights. In the Han Dynasty, women had more liberties, and were expected to abide by Confucianism. Roman women could not be judges, regardless of their intelligence, and Han women were not allowed to learn to read or write. Aurora Dismukes Kelsey said Women in Rome and in the Han Dynasty had no authority to own land and they had to obey their husband and her son. In the Roman Empire, women had some rights as they were given personal protection and economic freedom. Women in Rome had more freedom than women in Han Dynasty China. In Rome women were allowed to attend religious festivals and events like gladitorial matches. They had almost no say in anything except for the raising of their children. Both Rome and Han tried to expand their military and they both faced problems of defense. Also, agriculture was a source of wealth for both civilizations.Slavery in ancient Rome played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services, and might be employed at highly skilled jobs and professions. Sep 11, · Differences: Rome and Han were different because Rome had LOTS of gold, and the Han had luxury items. September 13, at PM Difference: Romans had a patritian and plebeian society and they relied on slavery where as China had peasants working the lands but didn't consider them property. In ancient Rome slavery became the indispensable foundation of the economy, and social status was a way to have political privilege and was praised upon in society. But in ancient China, they didn’t have as many slaves as the Romans, the had more of peasants contributing to society by working in fields, laboring on imperial estates, and . Comparison between Roman and Han Empires. From Wikiversity. One key difference from the Han was an extensive institution of slavery, in which slave laborers were used in large numbers to produce goods. China and Rome; Trade between the Romans and the Empires of Asia;. In ancient China, some people were born in slavery because their mother was slave. Others were sold into slavery, perhaps to pay a debt. During the Qin Dynasty, captured people were made into slaves. Slavery in ancient China was not a pleasant experience. The lives of slaves were filled with. Slavery, was accepted as part of life in ancient Rome by the slaves themselves and by the society. Little credit had been given to the important contributions slave labor made to Roman civilization. However, slavery was both beneficial and disastrous to ancient Rome.	<urn:uuid:f5465aa1-1414-4ec5-8aec-623e3cc757df>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://vagejyxohy.alphabetnyc.com/slavery-in-rome-and-china-17749oj.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00200.warc.gz	en	0.98975	753	3.984375	4	[ -0.25777214765548706, 0.4526384472846985, 0.19126509130001068, 0.21492251753807068, -0.04204326122999191, 0.03138839080929756, -0.07767230272293091, 0.04829074814915657, -0.011655215173959732, -0.2554900050163269, 0.20873482525348663, -0.08428150415420532, -0.025479260832071304, 0.30476540...	1	During the frequent wars of the second century B. The prices of such slaves were low, and landowners and manufacturers found they could compel slaves to work longer and harder than hired laborers. Periodically, the harsh working and living conditions resulted in slave revolts. The difference between the Han dynasty and the Roman empire is the Romans taxed everyone equally as the Hans taxed people according to class. The similarity between them is that their economy and high taxes drove them into the ground. Both the Romans and the Hans believed that divinity resided within nature rather than outside and above it. The Romans produced wrought-iron tools and weapons by hammering heated iron. Whereas the Han hammered ores with a higher carbon content to produce steel weapons and tools. Both the Han Dynasty and the Romans were wealthy and had many luxuries. The Han believed in Confusiansm and that it brought loyalty, authority, and respect for elders. The Romans believed in many gods and that you had to give offerings for approval. One difference between the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty, was the role of women. In the Roman Empire, there were laws that were created specifically for women, that restricted their rights. In the Han Dynasty, women had more liberties, and were expected to abide by Confucianism. Roman women could not be judges, regardless of their intelligence, and Han women were not allowed to learn to read or write. Aurora Dismukes Kelsey said Women in Rome and in the Han Dynasty had no authority to own land and they had to obey their husband and her son. In the Roman Empire, women had some rights as they were given personal protection and economic freedom. Women in Rome had more freedom than women in Han Dynasty China. In Rome women were allowed to attend religious festivals and events like gladitorial matches. They had almost no say in anything except for the raising of their children. Both Rome and Han tried to expand their military and they both faced problems of defense. Also, agriculture was a source of wealth for both civilizations.Slavery in ancient Rome played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services, and might be employed at highly skilled jobs and professions. Sep 11, · Differences: Rome and Han were different because Rome had LOTS of gold, and the Han had luxury items. September 13, at PM Difference: Romans had a patritian and plebeian society and they relied on slavery where as China had peasants working the lands but didn't consider them property. In ancient Rome slavery became the indispensable foundation of the economy, and social status was a way to have political privilege and was praised upon in society. But in ancient China, they didn’t have as many slaves as the Romans, the had more of peasants contributing to society by working in fields, laboring on imperial estates, and . Comparison between Roman and Han Empires. From Wikiversity. One key difference from the Han was an extensive institution of slavery, in which slave laborers were used in large numbers to produce goods. China and Rome; Trade between the Romans and the Empires of Asia;. In ancient China, some people were born in slavery because their mother was slave. Others were sold into slavery, perhaps to pay a debt. During the Qin Dynasty, captured people were made into slaves. Slavery in ancient China was not a pleasant experience. The lives of slaves were filled with. Slavery, was accepted as part of life in ancient Rome by the slaves themselves and by the society. Little credit had been given to the important contributions slave labor made to Roman civilization. However, slavery was both beneficial and disastrous to ancient Rome.	744	ENGLISH	1
What is Net Pay? Definition: Net pay is the amount of pay that an employee receives after all deductions have been made. It is the amount that is arrived at after making deductions from the gross pay. Net pay is also referred to as take-home pay. What does Net Pay mean? The net pay is the sum that an employee will actually receive at the end of a pay period. It would be less than the gross pay because of the deductions and the amounts that are held back. Net pay = Gross pay – Payroll taxes – Other deductions What are the different amounts that are deducted from an individual’s gross salary? This is an illustrative list: ⇨ Medicare and Social Security taxes. ⇨ Deductions for medical insurance, life insurance, and dental insurance. ⇨ Repayment of an advance that the employee has taken from the company. ⇨ Deduction towards a 401 (k) plan. ⇨ Deduction for trade union dues. ⇨ Voluntary deduction towards a charitable cause. The pay stub will provide complete details about the gross pay as well as the deductions that have been made. This will allow the employee to verify that the net pay has been correctly calculated. Example of Net Pay Steven Prose is employed by Green Brothers, a trucking company. He is paid a gross salary of $52,000. Steven receives 26 paychecks a year. When Steven receives his first paycheck for the year, he sees that his net pay is only $1,750. His paystub tells him that deductions totaling $250 have been made by his employer. The deductions are towards Medicare, Social Security, and an advance that he had taken in the previous month. The net pay that an employee receives is usually less than the gross pay. It is important for an employee to read the paycheck stub carefully and verify that the deductions have been correctly made.	<urn:uuid:66450ebf-6f96-4917-9cda-85a6e445be36>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://crushthecpaexam.com/accounting-glossary/what-is-net-pay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00121.warc.gz	en	0.982665	403	3.390625	3	[ -0.5895600318908691, 0.06841765344142914, -0.20959888398647308, -0.08087536692619324, 0.2279641032218933, -0.15918833017349243, 1.0394227504730225, -0.2931872308254242, 0.18854570388793945, 0.02806840091943741, 0.6598339080810547, 0.03088187985122204, -0.07031162828207016, -0.0083985682576...	3	What is Net Pay? Definition: Net pay is the amount of pay that an employee receives after all deductions have been made. It is the amount that is arrived at after making deductions from the gross pay. Net pay is also referred to as take-home pay. What does Net Pay mean? The net pay is the sum that an employee will actually receive at the end of a pay period. It would be less than the gross pay because of the deductions and the amounts that are held back. Net pay = Gross pay – Payroll taxes – Other deductions What are the different amounts that are deducted from an individual’s gross salary? This is an illustrative list: ⇨ Medicare and Social Security taxes. ⇨ Deductions for medical insurance, life insurance, and dental insurance. ⇨ Repayment of an advance that the employee has taken from the company. ⇨ Deduction towards a 401 (k) plan. ⇨ Deduction for trade union dues. ⇨ Voluntary deduction towards a charitable cause. The pay stub will provide complete details about the gross pay as well as the deductions that have been made. This will allow the employee to verify that the net pay has been correctly calculated. Example of Net Pay Steven Prose is employed by Green Brothers, a trucking company. He is paid a gross salary of $52,000. Steven receives 26 paychecks a year. When Steven receives his first paycheck for the year, he sees that his net pay is only $1,750. His paystub tells him that deductions totaling $250 have been made by his employer. The deductions are towards Medicare, Social Security, and an advance that he had taken in the previous month. The net pay that an employee receives is usually less than the gross pay. It is important for an employee to read the paycheck stub carefully and verify that the deductions have been correctly made.	383	ENGLISH	1
More and more white settlers were moving to the West. They were moving on lands where Native Americans already lived. The settlers didn't care. They wanted the land. They would do whatever they could to take the land away from the Native Americans. Some Native Americans left their lands without a fight. They did not want a war with the white settlers. Nations like the Seminoles did not leave. They fought to keep what was theirs. The first Seminole War started in 1817. In November, a group of soldiers went to Fowl Town. This was a Seminole village. The soldiers wanted a chief there to give himself up to the Americans. They thought the chief had killed some families in Georgia. The chief would not surrender. The soldiers attacked the town. They drove the Native Americans into a swamp. The soldiers also killed about twenty men. Then they burned Fowl Town.	<urn:uuid:0b7d1432-55b5-4623-a0e9-693b4c3ba1c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.edhelper.com/reading_comprehensions/Seminole-Wars.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00158.warc.gz	en	0.990855	181	3.5625	4	[ -0.22820650041103363, 0.1231936663389206, 0.21125230193138123, 0.22809575498104095, -0.07133114337921143, -0.17228858172893524, 0.09036437422037125, 0.22326980531215668, 0.14690136909484863, 0.018699437379837036, 0.0973304733633995, -0.004842654336243868, -0.2744472622871399, 0.38737350702...	2	More and more white settlers were moving to the West. They were moving on lands where Native Americans already lived. The settlers didn't care. They wanted the land. They would do whatever they could to take the land away from the Native Americans. Some Native Americans left their lands without a fight. They did not want a war with the white settlers. Nations like the Seminoles did not leave. They fought to keep what was theirs. The first Seminole War started in 1817. In November, a group of soldiers went to Fowl Town. This was a Seminole village. The soldiers wanted a chief there to give himself up to the Americans. They thought the chief had killed some families in Georgia. The chief would not surrender. The soldiers attacked the town. They drove the Native Americans into a swamp. The soldiers also killed about twenty men. Then they burned Fowl Town.	184	ENGLISH	1
The English used in this article may not be easy for everybody to understand. (September 2011) This was the name for the air force of Germany during the Third Reich when Adolf Hitler was in power (between 1933 and 1945). It has also been the name for the air force since it was re-established in 1955 during the era of the Cold War. Luftwaffe means Air weapon in English. The early years including World War I[change \| change source] Germany first had aeroplanes in its army in 1910, four years before the start of World War I in 1914. At that time, aeroplanes had no guns. They were being used for reconnaissance duties, that is, they would fly over the battlefield to see what the enemy was doing and fly back so that the pilots could tell their generals what they knew. The generals used that information to plan the fighting. Before aeroplanes, balloons had been used. During World War I, Germany created the Luftstreitkräfte and used a few kinds of aeroplane to fight its war, such as fighters, bombers and reconnaissance aeroplanes, but the fighter aeroplanes became very famous because of its brave pilots. The most famous German pilot of World War I was Manfred von Richthofen, also known as "The Red Baron" of Jasta 11. When he died in combat, Hermann Goering replaced him. Germany also used airships called "Zeppelins". They were named after Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, who had built the first airships in 1900, but he had wanted them to carry cargo and passengers, not bombs. He died in 1917, but people still use his name when they remember the German airships of World War I. (In fact, the Zeppelin company is still making airships today, but these are much smaller now.) Kurt Wintgens [right background] with glasses stands beside his official 13 "Credit"-an RFC 60th Squadron airplane-both crewmen killed 2 August 1916 A Hannover CL aircraft; according to the The Aerodome Forum this aircraft was possibly shot down 3 September 1918 near Inchy,France. After the war[change \| change source] In November 1918, the "Allies of World War I" (which included Britain and France) won the war, and Germany had to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty said that Germany could not have any military aeroplanes at all because it was blamed for starting the war in 1914. Germany therefore had to destroy all its military aeroplanes as a punishment, so until 1933 it had no air force at all. Between the two world wars[change \| change source] For many years, Germany pretended to have no army pilots. The German army generals did not like the idea of not having any aeroplanes, so they acted secretly and used tricks. At first, pilots would pretend to be training to become airline pilots but this was not much use because they really needed to fly fighters and bombers. The Treaty of Versailles did not allow Germany to have them, so Germany had to ask for help from Russia, its former (and future) enemy. In 1924, German army pilots started to fly Russian fighters and bombers at a secret training school near the Russian city of Lipetsk. These pilots would then become the first ones to fly for the new German air force, the Luftwaffe, when Hitler said that it now existed. The training school closed in 1933. In 1935, Adolf Hitler finally told the world that Germany had a new air force, even if the Treaty of Versailles forbade it. Hitler was defying the Allies, who had won World War I, but they did not do anything about this, because many people still remembered the war in 1914-1918. They were frightened by the idea of war and did not want another one. The Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939 gave the Germans the opportunity to test its new aircraft, pilots and weapons in battle. Hitler sent many aeroplanes and pilots to Spain because he wanted to support Francisco Franco, who wanted to get rid of the Spanish government. The aeroplanes included fighter aircraft called the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and dive bombers called the Junkers Ju 87 ‘Stuka”. During the war. German bombers attacked the city of Guernica in the Basque region of northeast Spain, and many civilians (people who were not soldiers) died in the attack. Many governments and people around the world were horrified by the attack. The artist Pablo Picasso made a painting called Guernica that has become very famous. People see the painting as a symbol of the horror of war. A copy of the painting hangs in the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. World War II[change \| change source] The new airforce in action[change \| change source] The German air force was the strongest in the world when World War II broke out in September 1939. It supported the army on the ground and the aircraft were very effective at defeating all opposition, since the German armed forces, the Wehrmacht, had practised a very new and very fast way to defeat their enemies. This was called Blitzkrieg or Lightning War. The French and the British were prepared for a trench war. It was impossible to fight back. Results[change \| change source] Within a year, Germany had conquered Poland, Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, and France. Britain supported the countries attacked by Germany but found herself on her own by June 1940 when Germany had conquered most of western Europe. Problems[change \| change source] As the war went on, things began to go badly wrong for the Luftwaffe. The leadership of the Luftwaffe began to become quite bad, as generals were arguing about what the air force should be doing and blaming each other when the Luftwaffe was unable to stop the British from attacking German aircraft factories and other industrial targets in large numbers during the night. The RAF had lost many planes when attacking by day. Not only that, but Germany was suffering a shortage of materials needed to build the aeroplanes. Things got worse for the Germans when the USA joined the war in December 1941, because the Americans brought thousands of bombers to the United Kingdom, and they attacked Germany from there. Soon, hundreds of American and British bombers were attacking Germany every day and night. Ground fighting[change \| change source] Germany could not hope to win the war on the ground. Since Russia was so huge, the government set up factories hundreds of miles away from the fighting in order to build aeroplanes, tanks, guns and other weapons for the Russian Army. This meant that the Russians would eventually start to push the Germans back west, especially after they defeated the Germans in great battles near the city of Kursk and in the city of Stalingrad itself. The Germans had failed to conquer the city of Leningrad, too. On January 1 1945 the Luftwaffe launched a desperate plan called operation 'Bodenplatte' (Baseplate), a dawn air attack aimed at multiple Allied air bases in Belgium & Holland. Over 800 German aircraft were rounded up with many veteran pilots retired from combat duty pressesd back into service. The plan cost more than it was worth, with over 280 German planes lost and 213 irreplaceble pilots killed or captured. As with the fog of war, over 100 German planes were shot down by their own ground fire who were not in on the plan. Trivia[change \| change source] Germany became famous as the country, which flew the first jet aeroplanes. In 1944, the Luftwaffe started to use the world’s first operational jet fighter plane, the Messerschmitt Me-262, even if the engines sometimes did not work properly. Once again, the shortage of materials needed to build the plane as well as the continuing bombing of Germany meant that not as many Me-262s were built as Germany would have liked. Even so, Germany also built and flew the world's first jet bomber, the Arado Ar 234, the world’s first fighter plane powered by a rocket, the Messerschmitt Me-163, the world’s first "cruise missile", the V-1, and the world’s first ballistic missile, the V-2. After the war the allies were quite impressed with Germany's technical know how & gleaned all they could from the vast array of Luftwaffe aircraft strewn across Germany. The Cold War and afterwards[change \| change source] Once again, the Allies prohibited Germany from having an air force. The Russians were in the eastern half of Germany, and this half became East Germany. The British, French and Americans were in the western half, and this half became West Germany. These became countries in their own right, and East Germany became a Russian puppet state. In case a new war started with Russia and East Germany as enemies, the Western Allies finally allowed West Germany to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), an organization of western countries which wanted there to be peace throughout the world. NATO allowed West Germany to have an air force because the country was right next to East Germany. First use[change \| change source] Germany used military aircraft in war for the first time since 1945 when they supported British aircraft in the war in Kosovo in 1999, but many people still believed that Germany should never again go to war because of what had happened in the two world wars.	<urn:uuid:65e7529d-c020-4313-9440-6ecdb202cb47>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffe	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00083.warc.gz	en	0.982334	1,980	3.34375	3	[ -0.25674572587013245, 0.37929975986480713, 0.10737204551696777, 0.06070368364453316, 0.03979860991239548, 0.2441743165254593, 0.4076828956604004, 0.14933940768241882, 0.06801314651966095, -0.2773454785346985, 0.1538604497909546, -0.14562195539474487, -0.09031488746404648, 0.226875245571136...	1	The English used in this article may not be easy for everybody to understand. (September 2011) This was the name for the air force of Germany during the Third Reich when Adolf Hitler was in power (between 1933 and 1945). It has also been the name for the air force since it was re-established in 1955 during the era of the Cold War. Luftwaffe means Air weapon in English. The early years including World War I[change \| change source] Germany first had aeroplanes in its army in 1910, four years before the start of World War I in 1914. At that time, aeroplanes had no guns. They were being used for reconnaissance duties, that is, they would fly over the battlefield to see what the enemy was doing and fly back so that the pilots could tell their generals what they knew. The generals used that information to plan the fighting. Before aeroplanes, balloons had been used. During World War I, Germany created the Luftstreitkräfte and used a few kinds of aeroplane to fight its war, such as fighters, bombers and reconnaissance aeroplanes, but the fighter aeroplanes became very famous because of its brave pilots. The most famous German pilot of World War I was Manfred von Richthofen, also known as "The Red Baron" of Jasta 11. When he died in combat, Hermann Goering replaced him. Germany also used airships called "Zeppelins". They were named after Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, who had built the first airships in 1900, but he had wanted them to carry cargo and passengers, not bombs. He died in 1917, but people still use his name when they remember the German airships of World War I. (In fact, the Zeppelin company is still making airships today, but these are much smaller now.) Kurt Wintgens [right background] with glasses stands beside his official 13 "Credit"-an RFC 60th Squadron airplane-both crewmen killed 2 August 1916 A Hannover CL aircraft; according to the The Aerodome Forum this aircraft was possibly shot down 3 September 1918 near Inchy,France. After the war[change \| change source] In November 1918, the "Allies of World War I" (which included Britain and France) won the war, and Germany had to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty said that Germany could not have any military aeroplanes at all because it was blamed for starting the war in 1914. Germany therefore had to destroy all its military aeroplanes as a punishment, so until 1933 it had no air force at all. Between the two world wars[change \| change source] For many years, Germany pretended to have no army pilots. The German army generals did not like the idea of not having any aeroplanes, so they acted secretly and used tricks. At first, pilots would pretend to be training to become airline pilots but this was not much use because they really needed to fly fighters and bombers. The Treaty of Versailles did not allow Germany to have them, so Germany had to ask for help from Russia, its former (and future) enemy. In 1924, German army pilots started to fly Russian fighters and bombers at a secret training school near the Russian city of Lipetsk. These pilots would then become the first ones to fly for the new German air force, the Luftwaffe, when Hitler said that it now existed. The training school closed in 1933. In 1935, Adolf Hitler finally told the world that Germany had a new air force, even if the Treaty of Versailles forbade it. Hitler was defying the Allies, who had won World War I, but they did not do anything about this, because many people still remembered the war in 1914-1918. They were frightened by the idea of war and did not want another one. The Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939 gave the Germans the opportunity to test its new aircraft, pilots and weapons in battle. Hitler sent many aeroplanes and pilots to Spain because he wanted to support Francisco Franco, who wanted to get rid of the Spanish government. The aeroplanes included fighter aircraft called the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and dive bombers called the Junkers Ju 87 ‘Stuka”. During the war. German bombers attacked the city of Guernica in the Basque region of northeast Spain, and many civilians (people who were not soldiers) died in the attack. Many governments and people around the world were horrified by the attack. The artist Pablo Picasso made a painting called Guernica that has become very famous. People see the painting as a symbol of the horror of war. A copy of the painting hangs in the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. World War II[change \| change source] The new airforce in action[change \| change source] The German air force was the strongest in the world when World War II broke out in September 1939. It supported the army on the ground and the aircraft were very effective at defeating all opposition, since the German armed forces, the Wehrmacht, had practised a very new and very fast way to defeat their enemies. This was called Blitzkrieg or Lightning War. The French and the British were prepared for a trench war. It was impossible to fight back. Results[change \| change source] Within a year, Germany had conquered Poland, Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, and France. Britain supported the countries attacked by Germany but found herself on her own by June 1940 when Germany had conquered most of western Europe. Problems[change \| change source] As the war went on, things began to go badly wrong for the Luftwaffe. The leadership of the Luftwaffe began to become quite bad, as generals were arguing about what the air force should be doing and blaming each other when the Luftwaffe was unable to stop the British from attacking German aircraft factories and other industrial targets in large numbers during the night. The RAF had lost many planes when attacking by day. Not only that, but Germany was suffering a shortage of materials needed to build the aeroplanes. Things got worse for the Germans when the USA joined the war in December 1941, because the Americans brought thousands of bombers to the United Kingdom, and they attacked Germany from there. Soon, hundreds of American and British bombers were attacking Germany every day and night. Ground fighting[change \| change source] Germany could not hope to win the war on the ground. Since Russia was so huge, the government set up factories hundreds of miles away from the fighting in order to build aeroplanes, tanks, guns and other weapons for the Russian Army. This meant that the Russians would eventually start to push the Germans back west, especially after they defeated the Germans in great battles near the city of Kursk and in the city of Stalingrad itself. The Germans had failed to conquer the city of Leningrad, too. On January 1 1945 the Luftwaffe launched a desperate plan called operation 'Bodenplatte' (Baseplate), a dawn air attack aimed at multiple Allied air bases in Belgium & Holland. Over 800 German aircraft were rounded up with many veteran pilots retired from combat duty pressesd back into service. The plan cost more than it was worth, with over 280 German planes lost and 213 irreplaceble pilots killed or captured. As with the fog of war, over 100 German planes were shot down by their own ground fire who were not in on the plan. Trivia[change \| change source] Germany became famous as the country, which flew the first jet aeroplanes. In 1944, the Luftwaffe started to use the world’s first operational jet fighter plane, the Messerschmitt Me-262, even if the engines sometimes did not work properly. Once again, the shortage of materials needed to build the plane as well as the continuing bombing of Germany meant that not as many Me-262s were built as Germany would have liked. Even so, Germany also built and flew the world's first jet bomber, the Arado Ar 234, the world’s first fighter plane powered by a rocket, the Messerschmitt Me-163, the world’s first "cruise missile", the V-1, and the world’s first ballistic missile, the V-2. After the war the allies were quite impressed with Germany's technical know how & gleaned all they could from the vast array of Luftwaffe aircraft strewn across Germany. The Cold War and afterwards[change \| change source] Once again, the Allies prohibited Germany from having an air force. The Russians were in the eastern half of Germany, and this half became East Germany. The British, French and Americans were in the western half, and this half became West Germany. These became countries in their own right, and East Germany became a Russian puppet state. In case a new war started with Russia and East Germany as enemies, the Western Allies finally allowed West Germany to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), an organization of western countries which wanted there to be peace throughout the world. NATO allowed West Germany to have an air force because the country was right next to East Germany. First use[change \| change source] Germany used military aircraft in war for the first time since 1945 when they supported British aircraft in the war in Kosovo in 1999, but many people still believed that Germany should never again go to war because of what had happened in the two world wars.	2,057	ENGLISH	1
Roman coinage in the name of Marcus Antonius extends from 44 to 31 BCE and the so-called legionary denarii issued in 32-31 BCE to pay his army are, by far, the most abundant Roman silver coins. The best estimate is that between 25 million and 35 million pieces were struck and tens of thousands survive today. These coins were struck between 32 – 31 BC probably at Patrae (modern-day Patras) where Antony had his military and naval base. These coins were issued in vast quantities to pay his forces. They show poor craftsmanship as they were struck in a hurry as well as in a poor quality of silver. The coins show a standard pattern: The coin’s obverse Antony’s flagship single with the bank of eight to 12 oars. Above the ship, ANT AVG abbreviates the name Antonius along with one of his titles, Augur, a priest of the Roman state religion. Below the ship is his other title III VIR. R.P.C. which loosely translates as “Triumvir for the Reorganization of the Republic”. The reverse shows a legionary eagle (Aquila) between two standards with an inscription identifying one of the units in Antony’s army. The gilded bronze eagle mounted on a pole was the legion’s sacred emblem – its loss in battle was the worst disgrace a unit could suffer. Image Courtesy: https://in.pinterest.com	<urn:uuid:84e4183d-486e-42b3-a378-77db546de174>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mintageworld.com/media/detail/11232/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00033.warc.gz	en	0.982876	309	3.375	3	[ -0.21265579760074615, 0.13331395387649536, 0.07932902872562408, -0.10589087754487991, -0.0981302261352539, -0.3151512145996094, -0.04354406148195267, 0.3321562111377716, 0.2606212794780731, -0.3400996923446655, 0.06475234031677246, -0.6823080778121948, -0.050440095365047455, 0.291139990091...	2	Roman coinage in the name of Marcus Antonius extends from 44 to 31 BCE and the so-called legionary denarii issued in 32-31 BCE to pay his army are, by far, the most abundant Roman silver coins. The best estimate is that between 25 million and 35 million pieces were struck and tens of thousands survive today. These coins were struck between 32 – 31 BC probably at Patrae (modern-day Patras) where Antony had his military and naval base. These coins were issued in vast quantities to pay his forces. They show poor craftsmanship as they were struck in a hurry as well as in a poor quality of silver. The coins show a standard pattern: The coin’s obverse Antony’s flagship single with the bank of eight to 12 oars. Above the ship, ANT AVG abbreviates the name Antonius along with one of his titles, Augur, a priest of the Roman state religion. Below the ship is his other title III VIR. R.P.C. which loosely translates as “Triumvir for the Reorganization of the Republic”. The reverse shows a legionary eagle (Aquila) between two standards with an inscription identifying one of the units in Antony’s army. The gilded bronze eagle mounted on a pole was the legion’s sacred emblem – its loss in battle was the worst disgrace a unit could suffer. Image Courtesy: https://in.pinterest.com	299	ENGLISH	1
When I was in elementary school, my teacher said to our class: "You won't know what life is really like until you start working, earning money and paying bills!" I obviously did not understand it at that time, but I certainly can attest to that now! As we've emphasized several times in our blogs, children need to have a solid foundation of money so that they can become financially literate when they grow up. A critical part of this education is from parents, who must themselves be responsible and wise when it comes to money management. We have suggested several activities and resources for parents to use with their kids...well, now it's about to get real! Give your children special tasks and assignments and pay them for their work. We're not talking about typical chores like walking the dog or cleaning their rooms because these are expected of them as they are part of the family. We're also obviously not suggesting dangerous labour like installing drywall or repairing electrical wiring(!), but we're referring to simple, age-appropriate jobs like being a little waiter/waitress at your friend's baby shower or helping out with buying groceries for elderly neighbours. Make these unique opportunities into a valuable lesson and a fun experience for your kids to earn money. Working for money will give children a new sense of appreciation of it. When they're given the money, they won't value it as much as when they've had to earn it. See for yourself how your child's behaviour is different after they worked hard for it; you might be surprised. They will probably think twice now about asking you for that $100 Lego set! Check out this article from Huffington Post; it highlights the importance of teaching kids about earning money and its value.	<urn:uuid:21926de6-8f81-4639-83c6-576eaddb9b1a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.emperoreducation.com/single-post/2017/09/17/Babysitmow-lawnssell-lemonadepaint-fences	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00213.warc.gz	en	0.984492	350	3.296875	3	[ -0.11572800576686859, -0.25102946162223816, 0.3142588138580322, -0.5426927804946899, -0.07703259587287903, 0.10360617190599442, 0.13351601362228394, -0.03941574692726135, -0.14183832705020905, 0.062206435948610306, 0.4551897346973419, 0.11561901867389679, -0.07155861705541611, 0.3563084900...	1	When I was in elementary school, my teacher said to our class: "You won't know what life is really like until you start working, earning money and paying bills!" I obviously did not understand it at that time, but I certainly can attest to that now! As we've emphasized several times in our blogs, children need to have a solid foundation of money so that they can become financially literate when they grow up. A critical part of this education is from parents, who must themselves be responsible and wise when it comes to money management. We have suggested several activities and resources for parents to use with their kids...well, now it's about to get real! Give your children special tasks and assignments and pay them for their work. We're not talking about typical chores like walking the dog or cleaning their rooms because these are expected of them as they are part of the family. We're also obviously not suggesting dangerous labour like installing drywall or repairing electrical wiring(!), but we're referring to simple, age-appropriate jobs like being a little waiter/waitress at your friend's baby shower or helping out with buying groceries for elderly neighbours. Make these unique opportunities into a valuable lesson and a fun experience for your kids to earn money. Working for money will give children a new sense of appreciation of it. When they're given the money, they won't value it as much as when they've had to earn it. See for yourself how your child's behaviour is different after they worked hard for it; you might be surprised. They will probably think twice now about asking you for that $100 Lego set! Check out this article from Huffington Post; it highlights the importance of teaching kids about earning money and its value.	348	ENGLISH	1
\|. . Introduction . . Atum, the creator. . . Khepri, the creator. . . . . . As is the case with most ancient mythologies, the Egyptians created myths to try to explain their place in the cosmos. Their understanding of the cosmic order was from direct observation of nature. Therefore their creation myths concern themselves with gods of nature; the earth, the sky, the sun, the moon, the stars, and of course, the Nile river. . . . . .Since the Nile river, with its annual floods played a critical role in this cosmic order. It should come as no surprise to find water the fundamental element in the Egyptians ideas of creation. For the Egyptians to watch the inundation of their land would have been like watching a earthly model of their ideas of a watery creation. Allow me to explain. . . . . .In the beginning there was only water, a chaos of churning, bubbling water, this the Egyptians called Nu or Nun. It was out of Nu that everything began. As with the Nile, each year the inundation no doubt caused chaos to all creatures living on the land, so this represents Nu. eventually the floods would recede and out of the chaos of water would emerge a hill of dry land, one at first, then more. On this first dry hilltop, on the first day came the first sunrise. So that is how the Egyptians explain the beginning of all things. . . . . .Not surprisingly, the sun was also among the most important elements in the Egyptians lives and therefore had an important role as a creator god. His names and attributes varied greatly. As the rising sun his name was Khepri, the great scarabbeetle, or Ra-Harakhte who was seen as a winged solar-disk or as the youthful sun of the eastern horizon. As the sun climbed toward mid-day it was called Ra, great and strong. When the sun set in the west it was known as Atum the old man, or Horus on the horizon. As a solar-disk he was known as Aten. The sun was also said to be an egg laid daily by Geb, the ‘Great Cackler’ when he took the form of a goose. . . . . .To the Egyptians the moon was any one of a number of gods. As an attribute of the god Horus the moon represented his left eye while his right was the sun. Seth was a lunar god, in his struggles with the solar god Horus, Seth is seen as a god of darkness doing constant battle with the god of light. We often find the ibis-headed god Thoth wearing a lunar creseant on his head. . . . . .To the Egyptians the sky was a goddess called Nut. She was often shown as a cow standing over the earth her eyes being the sun and the moon. She is kept from falling to earth by Shu, who was the god of air and wind, or by a circle of high mountains. As this heavenly cow, she gave birth to the sun daily. The sun would ride in the ‘Solar Barque’ across Nut’s star covered belly, which was a great cosmic ocean. Then as evening fell, Nut would swallow the sun creating darkness. She is also pictured as a giant sow, suckling many piglets. These piglets represented the stars, which she swallowed each morning before dawn.Nut was also represented as an elongated woman bending over the earth and touching the horizons with her toes and finger tips. Beneath her stretched the ocean, in the center of which lay her husband Geb, the earth-god.He is often seen leaning on one elbow, with a knee bent toward the sky, this is representive of the mountains and valleys of the earth. Green vegetation would sprout from Geb’s brown or red body. . . . . .In the beginning there was only the swirling watery chaos, called Nu. Out of these chaotic waters rose Atum, the sun god of the city of Heliopolis. It is believed that he created himself, using his thoughts and will. In the watery chaos, Atum found no place on which to stand. In the place where he first appeared, he created a hill. This hill was said to be the spot on which the temple of Heliopolis was built. Other interpretations find that Atum was the hill. In this interpretation Atum may represent the fertile, life giving hills left behind by the receding waters of the Nile’s annual flood. As early as the Fifth-Dynasty, we find Atum identified with the sun god Ra. By this time his emergence on the primeval hill can be interpreted as the coming of light into the darkness of Nu. As the god of the rising sun, his name is Khepri. . . . . .His next act was to create more gods. Because he was all alone in the world, without a mate, he made a union with his shadow. This unusual way of procreating offspring was not considered strange to the Egyptians. We find Atum regarded as a bisexual god and was sometimes called the ‘Great He-She’. The Egyptians were thus able to present Atum as the one and only creative force in the universe. . . . . .According to some texts the birth of Atum’s children took place on the primeval hill. In other texts, Atum stayed in the waters of Nu to create his son and daughter. He gave birth to his son by spitting him out. His daughter he vomited. Shu represented the air and Tefnut was a goddess of moisture. Shu and Tefnut continued the act of creation by establishing a social order. To this order Shu contributed the ‘principles of Life’ while Tefnut contributed the ‘principles of order’. . . . . .After some time Shu and Tefnut became separated from their father and lost in the watery chaos of Nu. Atum, who had only one eye, which was removable. This was called the Udjat eye. Atum removed the eye and sent it in search of his children. In time they returned with the eye. At this reunion Atum wept tears joy, where these tears hit the ground, men grew. Now Atum was ready to create the world. So Shu and Tefnut became the parents of Geb, the earth and Nut, the sky. Geb and Nut gave birth to Osiris and Isis, Seth, Nephthys. . . . . .In one Egyptian creation myth, the sun god Ra takes the form of Khepri, the scarab god who was usually credited as the great creative force of the universe. Khepri tells us,”Heaven and earth did not exist. And the things of the earth did not yet exist. I raised them out of Nu, from their stagnant state. I have made things out of that which I have already made, and they came from my mouth.” It seems that Khepri is telling us that in the beginning there is nothing. He made the watery abyss known as Nu, from which he later draws the materials needed for the creation of everything. . . . . .He goes on to say, “I found no place to stand. I cast a spell with my own heart to lay a foundation in Maat. I made everything . I was alone. I had not yet breathed the god Shu, and I had not yet spit up the goddess Tefnut. I worked alone.” We learn that by the use of magic Khepri creates land with its foundation in Maat (law, order, and stability). We also learn that from this foundation many things came into being. At this point in time Khepri is alone. The sun, which was called the eye of Nu, was hidden by the children of Nu. It was a long time before these two deities, Shu and Tefnut were raised out of the watery chaos of their father, Nu. They brought with them their fathers eye, the sun. Khepri then wept profusely, and from his tears sprang men and women. The gods then made another eye, which probably represents the moon. After this Khepri created plants and herbs, animals, reptiles and crawling things. In the mean time Shu and Tefnut gave birth to Geb and Nut, who in turn gave birth to Osiris and Isis, Seth, Nephthys. Lladro Mythological Tiger	<urn:uuid:f842ac3c-29f2-4cbc-9bed-3ad148526dd4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://egyptartsite.com/crea.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00450.warc.gz	en	0.982774	1,772	3.34375	3	[ -0.01645004376769066, 0.6417937874794006, -0.03573112562298775, 0.032623857259750366, -0.2695106863975525, 0.14357583224773407, 0.4838925004005432, -0.2319565862417221, 0.00022524269297719002, 0.16965100169181824, -0.22626905143260956, -0.6155576109886169, -0.01253710687160492, 0.114994034...	1	\|. . Introduction . . Atum, the creator. . . Khepri, the creator. . . . . . As is the case with most ancient mythologies, the Egyptians created myths to try to explain their place in the cosmos. Their understanding of the cosmic order was from direct observation of nature. Therefore their creation myths concern themselves with gods of nature; the earth, the sky, the sun, the moon, the stars, and of course, the Nile river. . . . . .Since the Nile river, with its annual floods played a critical role in this cosmic order. It should come as no surprise to find water the fundamental element in the Egyptians ideas of creation. For the Egyptians to watch the inundation of their land would have been like watching a earthly model of their ideas of a watery creation. Allow me to explain. . . . . .In the beginning there was only water, a chaos of churning, bubbling water, this the Egyptians called Nu or Nun. It was out of Nu that everything began. As with the Nile, each year the inundation no doubt caused chaos to all creatures living on the land, so this represents Nu. eventually the floods would recede and out of the chaos of water would emerge a hill of dry land, one at first, then more. On this first dry hilltop, on the first day came the first sunrise. So that is how the Egyptians explain the beginning of all things. . . . . .Not surprisingly, the sun was also among the most important elements in the Egyptians lives and therefore had an important role as a creator god. His names and attributes varied greatly. As the rising sun his name was Khepri, the great scarabbeetle, or Ra-Harakhte who was seen as a winged solar-disk or as the youthful sun of the eastern horizon. As the sun climbed toward mid-day it was called Ra, great and strong. When the sun set in the west it was known as Atum the old man, or Horus on the horizon. As a solar-disk he was known as Aten. The sun was also said to be an egg laid daily by Geb, the ‘Great Cackler’ when he took the form of a goose. . . . . .To the Egyptians the moon was any one of a number of gods. As an attribute of the god Horus the moon represented his left eye while his right was the sun. Seth was a lunar god, in his struggles with the solar god Horus, Seth is seen as a god of darkness doing constant battle with the god of light. We often find the ibis-headed god Thoth wearing a lunar creseant on his head. . . . . .To the Egyptians the sky was a goddess called Nut. She was often shown as a cow standing over the earth her eyes being the sun and the moon. She is kept from falling to earth by Shu, who was the god of air and wind, or by a circle of high mountains. As this heavenly cow, she gave birth to the sun daily. The sun would ride in the ‘Solar Barque’ across Nut’s star covered belly, which was a great cosmic ocean. Then as evening fell, Nut would swallow the sun creating darkness. She is also pictured as a giant sow, suckling many piglets. These piglets represented the stars, which she swallowed each morning before dawn.Nut was also represented as an elongated woman bending over the earth and touching the horizons with her toes and finger tips. Beneath her stretched the ocean, in the center of which lay her husband Geb, the earth-god.He is often seen leaning on one elbow, with a knee bent toward the sky, this is representive of the mountains and valleys of the earth. Green vegetation would sprout from Geb’s brown or red body. . . . . .In the beginning there was only the swirling watery chaos, called Nu. Out of these chaotic waters rose Atum, the sun god of the city of Heliopolis. It is believed that he created himself, using his thoughts and will. In the watery chaos, Atum found no place on which to stand. In the place where he first appeared, he created a hill. This hill was said to be the spot on which the temple of Heliopolis was built. Other interpretations find that Atum was the hill. In this interpretation Atum may represent the fertile, life giving hills left behind by the receding waters of the Nile’s annual flood. As early as the Fifth-Dynasty, we find Atum identified with the sun god Ra. By this time his emergence on the primeval hill can be interpreted as the coming of light into the darkness of Nu. As the god of the rising sun, his name is Khepri. . . . . .His next act was to create more gods. Because he was all alone in the world, without a mate, he made a union with his shadow. This unusual way of procreating offspring was not considered strange to the Egyptians. We find Atum regarded as a bisexual god and was sometimes called the ‘Great He-She’. The Egyptians were thus able to present Atum as the one and only creative force in the universe. . . . . .According to some texts the birth of Atum’s children took place on the primeval hill. In other texts, Atum stayed in the waters of Nu to create his son and daughter. He gave birth to his son by spitting him out. His daughter he vomited. Shu represented the air and Tefnut was a goddess of moisture. Shu and Tefnut continued the act of creation by establishing a social order. To this order Shu contributed the ‘principles of Life’ while Tefnut contributed the ‘principles of order’. . . . . .After some time Shu and Tefnut became separated from their father and lost in the watery chaos of Nu. Atum, who had only one eye, which was removable. This was called the Udjat eye. Atum removed the eye and sent it in search of his children. In time they returned with the eye. At this reunion Atum wept tears joy, where these tears hit the ground, men grew. Now Atum was ready to create the world. So Shu and Tefnut became the parents of Geb, the earth and Nut, the sky. Geb and Nut gave birth to Osiris and Isis, Seth, Nephthys. . . . . .In one Egyptian creation myth, the sun god Ra takes the form of Khepri, the scarab god who was usually credited as the great creative force of the universe. Khepri tells us,”Heaven and earth did not exist. And the things of the earth did not yet exist. I raised them out of Nu, from their stagnant state. I have made things out of that which I have already made, and they came from my mouth.” It seems that Khepri is telling us that in the beginning there is nothing. He made the watery abyss known as Nu, from which he later draws the materials needed for the creation of everything. . . . . .He goes on to say, “I found no place to stand. I cast a spell with my own heart to lay a foundation in Maat. I made everything . I was alone. I had not yet breathed the god Shu, and I had not yet spit up the goddess Tefnut. I worked alone.” We learn that by the use of magic Khepri creates land with its foundation in Maat (law, order, and stability). We also learn that from this foundation many things came into being. At this point in time Khepri is alone. The sun, which was called the eye of Nu, was hidden by the children of Nu. It was a long time before these two deities, Shu and Tefnut were raised out of the watery chaos of their father, Nu. They brought with them their fathers eye, the sun. Khepri then wept profusely, and from his tears sprang men and women. The gods then made another eye, which probably represents the moon. After this Khepri created plants and herbs, animals, reptiles and crawling things. In the mean time Shu and Tefnut gave birth to Geb and Nut, who in turn gave birth to Osiris and Isis, Seth, Nephthys. Lladro Mythological Tiger	1,753	ENGLISH	1
Classical Liberalism adopted a ‘Laissez Faire’ approach style of government. Classical liberalism stood for the principle of individual freedom and especially freedom in economic affairs. Classic liberalists believed that one should be guided by the invisible hand of the free market to maximize personal and social fulfilment. Classical liberalism relied on national self-determination; the role of the state was seen as small removing obstacles to entrepreneurship. According to classical liberalism society was a collection of unconnected individuals. Gladstone’s ‘ Laissez Faire’ approach however only emphasised the problems within society. Internally there was a recognition that the liberals had to change their ideology in favour of concentrating on a more collectivist approach. Several factors highlighted the need for the liberals to break with tradition in order to benefit society. Externally the Boer war highlighted the challenge to British supremacy faced and the inability of Britain to meet the challenge posed to them. Britain won the war but at what price? During the Boer war it became apparent that Britain was very short of European allies. The threat posed to Britain also became apparent, Britain’s world status was facing challenges from new rivals such as Germany and the U. S. A. Internally the Boer war highlighted the quality of working class male, almost a third of those who volunteered to fight in the conflict were turned away on the grounds of medical unfitness. The difficulties facing the Boers led Lloyd George to comment: ‘The country that spent 250 millions to avenge an insult levelled at her pride by an old Dutch farmer is not ashamed to see her children walking the streets hungry and in rags’ The Boer war had also demonstrated deficiencies in British defence administration and foreign policy. William Booth and Seebohm Rowntree furthermore exposed and refined the extent of poverty in Britain. They had shown that family size, low wages, unemployment, illness, old age and the death of the family’s wage earner were blamed for the poverty in Britain rather than lax class morality such as drunkenness and laziness. In London Booth and Rowntree exposed that the vast majority of working class males had experienced poverty during at least three stages of their lives and ‘vices’ such as drinking and betting were symptoms rather than causes of poverty. The growth of social ideas, the formation of labour groups such as the LRC and ILP and the recognition of a more collectivist approach in Britain were also contributing factors in why the Liberals felt that there needed to be a shift in ideology. The growth of socialistic ideas were only heightened by the formation of such party’s as the Labour Representation Committee (LRC0 and the Independent Labour Party. The LRC appealed to the working class males. The working class became more aware of their common bonds and their position and influence of their labour within a prosperous capitalist society. The formation of the labour party was dangerous to the liberals ‘ Laissez Faire’society. The LRC was gaining support and increasing social ideas. Socialism was not just a problem for nineteenth century Britain Bismarck’s Germany was also facing similar problems. Bismarck was rather unsuccessful in his attempt to repress the growing socialist movement within Germany. Socialism was proving similar to the threat posed to him by the Roman Catholic Church. Bismarck tried to repress the church in a movement called Kulterkampf, this failed and socialism was only gaining support. Bismarck decided in an attempt to curb socialism introduced a programme of state sponsored legislation. These legislations would provide every German worker with insurance against accidents at work sickness and old age. These introductions were limited but these were the most comprehensive and far-reaching system of social welfare introduced by any state in the late nineteenth century. New Liberalism was concerned with transforming and modernising liberal ideology from an almost Victorian creed concerned with individual and political liberty to a successful ideological alternative to socialism. The new liberals within the party recognised that there needed to be greater state intervention and their answer to this came in two forms. Firstly the state enacted social reforms and secondly the state imposed minimum wages to ensure those with jobs were paid an adequate wage. The liberals came back to power in the 1906 elections, they did not have a clearly outline set of social reforms. From 1906 onwards there were a package of social reforms that were partly the product of the growing interventionist concensus, the reforms were financed by a shift in fiscal policy to tax the wealthy. I feel that when looking at New liberalism and the package of social reform I need to look at what was the impact they had on society and what success was attributed to them finally I am going to look at to what extent liberal social legislation was motivated by humanitarian concern or motivated by political pragmatism. The first reforms were introduced in 1906 these were aimed at helping the children in society. The first reforms aimed at children were the Education (provision of meals) Act this entailed school meals paid for needy children at half price, but this reform came with limitations. In order for a child to receive meals the local authorities must comply but it was not compulsory therefore not a vast majority of children benefited from this reform and a government grant to fund this reform was not awarded until1914. In the following two years two more reforms were introduced for children one, which provided medical care for children and one, which established the legal rights of a child, but really this reform was only clarifying the existing situation. In 190e an Old Age Pensions Act was set up as a payment scheme for those over the age of 70 but the payments received by the elderly were deliberately kept low and before receiving these payment applicants must have passed a character test. Commencing from 1909 a set up reforms were set up in order to benefit the wage earner. In 1909 a Trade Boards Act was set up also in 1909 a Labour Exchanges Act. In 1911 the National Insurance Act was set up, it consisted of two parts, part one contained health and part two consisted of helping the unemployed. These reforms again came with problems the wage earner complained that in order to receive national insurance their already low wages were being deducted even more to fund this reforms.	<urn:uuid:9105c892-58ad-403c-bb38-2a761f546247>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://farmersfeastmanitoba.com/laissez-faire/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00226.warc.gz	en	0.98223	1,275	4.03125	4	[ -0.16666042804718018, 0.0766056701540947, -0.08610460162162781, -0.11590871214866638, 0.1011066883802414, 0.17047668993473053, -0.19622692465782166, 0.33489567041397095, 0.1266442984342575, -0.1524699628353119, -0.0002469542669132352, -0.17972879111766815, -0.24840427935123444, 0.001424104...	3	Classical Liberalism adopted a ‘Laissez Faire’ approach style of government. Classical liberalism stood for the principle of individual freedom and especially freedom in economic affairs. Classic liberalists believed that one should be guided by the invisible hand of the free market to maximize personal and social fulfilment. Classical liberalism relied on national self-determination; the role of the state was seen as small removing obstacles to entrepreneurship. According to classical liberalism society was a collection of unconnected individuals. Gladstone’s ‘ Laissez Faire’ approach however only emphasised the problems within society. Internally there was a recognition that the liberals had to change their ideology in favour of concentrating on a more collectivist approach. Several factors highlighted the need for the liberals to break with tradition in order to benefit society. Externally the Boer war highlighted the challenge to British supremacy faced and the inability of Britain to meet the challenge posed to them. Britain won the war but at what price? During the Boer war it became apparent that Britain was very short of European allies. The threat posed to Britain also became apparent, Britain’s world status was facing challenges from new rivals such as Germany and the U. S. A. Internally the Boer war highlighted the quality of working class male, almost a third of those who volunteered to fight in the conflict were turned away on the grounds of medical unfitness. The difficulties facing the Boers led Lloyd George to comment: ‘The country that spent 250 millions to avenge an insult levelled at her pride by an old Dutch farmer is not ashamed to see her children walking the streets hungry and in rags’ The Boer war had also demonstrated deficiencies in British defence administration and foreign policy. William Booth and Seebohm Rowntree furthermore exposed and refined the extent of poverty in Britain. They had shown that family size, low wages, unemployment, illness, old age and the death of the family’s wage earner were blamed for the poverty in Britain rather than lax class morality such as drunkenness and laziness. In London Booth and Rowntree exposed that the vast majority of working class males had experienced poverty during at least three stages of their lives and ‘vices’ such as drinking and betting were symptoms rather than causes of poverty. The growth of social ideas, the formation of labour groups such as the LRC and ILP and the recognition of a more collectivist approach in Britain were also contributing factors in why the Liberals felt that there needed to be a shift in ideology. The growth of socialistic ideas were only heightened by the formation of such party’s as the Labour Representation Committee (LRC0 and the Independent Labour Party. The LRC appealed to the working class males. The working class became more aware of their common bonds and their position and influence of their labour within a prosperous capitalist society. The formation of the labour party was dangerous to the liberals ‘ Laissez Faire’society. The LRC was gaining support and increasing social ideas. Socialism was not just a problem for nineteenth century Britain Bismarck’s Germany was also facing similar problems. Bismarck was rather unsuccessful in his attempt to repress the growing socialist movement within Germany. Socialism was proving similar to the threat posed to him by the Roman Catholic Church. Bismarck tried to repress the church in a movement called Kulterkampf, this failed and socialism was only gaining support. Bismarck decided in an attempt to curb socialism introduced a programme of state sponsored legislation. These legislations would provide every German worker with insurance against accidents at work sickness and old age. These introductions were limited but these were the most comprehensive and far-reaching system of social welfare introduced by any state in the late nineteenth century. New Liberalism was concerned with transforming and modernising liberal ideology from an almost Victorian creed concerned with individual and political liberty to a successful ideological alternative to socialism. The new liberals within the party recognised that there needed to be greater state intervention and their answer to this came in two forms. Firstly the state enacted social reforms and secondly the state imposed minimum wages to ensure those with jobs were paid an adequate wage. The liberals came back to power in the 1906 elections, they did not have a clearly outline set of social reforms. From 1906 onwards there were a package of social reforms that were partly the product of the growing interventionist concensus, the reforms were financed by a shift in fiscal policy to tax the wealthy. I feel that when looking at New liberalism and the package of social reform I need to look at what was the impact they had on society and what success was attributed to them finally I am going to look at to what extent liberal social legislation was motivated by humanitarian concern or motivated by political pragmatism. The first reforms were introduced in 1906 these were aimed at helping the children in society. The first reforms aimed at children were the Education (provision of meals) Act this entailed school meals paid for needy children at half price, but this reform came with limitations. In order for a child to receive meals the local authorities must comply but it was not compulsory therefore not a vast majority of children benefited from this reform and a government grant to fund this reform was not awarded until1914. In the following two years two more reforms were introduced for children one, which provided medical care for children and one, which established the legal rights of a child, but really this reform was only clarifying the existing situation. In 190e an Old Age Pensions Act was set up as a payment scheme for those over the age of 70 but the payments received by the elderly were deliberately kept low and before receiving these payment applicants must have passed a character test. Commencing from 1909 a set up reforms were set up in order to benefit the wage earner. In 1909 a Trade Boards Act was set up also in 1909 a Labour Exchanges Act. In 1911 the National Insurance Act was set up, it consisted of two parts, part one contained health and part two consisted of helping the unemployed. These reforms again came with problems the wage earner complained that in order to receive national insurance their already low wages were being deducted even more to fund this reforms.	1,283	ENGLISH	1
Development of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Obstructive sleep apnea is a disorder in which breathing is briefly and repeatedly interrupted during sleep. The "apnea" in sleep apnea refers to a breathing pause that lasts at least ten seconds. Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when the muscles in the back of the throat fail to keep the airway open, despite efforts to breathe. Another form of sleep apnea is central sleep apnea, in which the brain fails to properly control breathing during sleep. Obstructive sleep apnea is far more common than central sleep apnea. "Caleb was two when we first noticed his loud snoring," said Scott, Caleb's father. "We were alarmed but didn't really start to worry until we began hearing him gasp for air between the snores. That made my wife and me very uneasy. Nine year old Matthew was significantly overweight. "We tried to exercise with him everyday, but just walking to the park made him so tired that he could hardly stand let alone play once he got there," said Claire, Matthew's mother. "He struggled just putting on his shoes on in the morning." Matthew told his doctor that he felt like he could never get enough sleep. "He snores louder than my grandfather," Claire added. Both Caleb and Matthew were given sleep studies, and they were diagnosed with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). A surgeon removed Caleb's tonsils, and Matthew was given a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device with a child-sized mask. After his surgery, Caleb stopped snoring. Now the only noise from his room is the occasional laughter in his sleep. These days, Matthew leaps out of bed in the morning and has lost 25 pounds. "He's the child I always knew he could be," said Claire. read more>> The connection between sleep apnea and heart disease is evolving very rapidly. People with cardiovascular problems such as high blood pressure, heart failure, and stroke have a high prevalence of sleep apnea. Whether sleep apnea actually causes heart disease is still unclear, but we do know that if you have sleep apnea today, the chance that you will develop hypertension in the future increases significantly. One of the problems in defining the relationship between sleep apnea and heart disease is that people with sleep apnea often have other co-existing diseases as well. If you treat people with high blood pressure and sleep apnea, or heart failure and sleep apnea, the measures of blood pressure or heart failure are significantly improved. There is good evidence to think there is a cause-and-effect relationship between hypertension and sleep apnea. read more>> Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) is the leading therapy for sleep apnea. Patients wear a face or nasal mask during sleep. The mask, connected to a pump, provides a positive flow of air into the nasal passages in order to keep the airway open. Most insurance companies now pay for sleep testing and for CPAP treatment. Dental appliances can be prescribed for mild sleep disordered breathing, but they are not effective for everyone with OSA. Doctors recommend weight loss for overweight people who snore or have sleep apnea, since weight loss may eliminate or significantly improve breathing during sleep. However, people who are not overweight can also be afflicted with sleep apnea due to the structure and makeup of their upper airway. read more>>	<urn:uuid:d12b711a-5481-43df-8d58-62835ce94535>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sleepfoundation.org/articles/development-obstructive-sleep-apnea	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00058.warc.gz	en	0.980085	698	3.421875	3	[ 0.17004267871379852, 0.038583528250455856, 0.18065840005874634, 0.1932305097579956, -0.41546860337257385, 0.28298279643058777, 0.2688065767288208, -0.24876844882965088, 0.13774755597114563, -0.24032194912433624, -0.08485470712184906, -0.0526549369096756, 0.15914154052734375, 0.120127320289...	2	Development of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Obstructive sleep apnea is a disorder in which breathing is briefly and repeatedly interrupted during sleep. The "apnea" in sleep apnea refers to a breathing pause that lasts at least ten seconds. Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when the muscles in the back of the throat fail to keep the airway open, despite efforts to breathe. Another form of sleep apnea is central sleep apnea, in which the brain fails to properly control breathing during sleep. Obstructive sleep apnea is far more common than central sleep apnea. "Caleb was two when we first noticed his loud snoring," said Scott, Caleb's father. "We were alarmed but didn't really start to worry until we began hearing him gasp for air between the snores. That made my wife and me very uneasy. Nine year old Matthew was significantly overweight. "We tried to exercise with him everyday, but just walking to the park made him so tired that he could hardly stand let alone play once he got there," said Claire, Matthew's mother. "He struggled just putting on his shoes on in the morning." Matthew told his doctor that he felt like he could never get enough sleep. "He snores louder than my grandfather," Claire added. Both Caleb and Matthew were given sleep studies, and they were diagnosed with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). A surgeon removed Caleb's tonsils, and Matthew was given a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device with a child-sized mask. After his surgery, Caleb stopped snoring. Now the only noise from his room is the occasional laughter in his sleep. These days, Matthew leaps out of bed in the morning and has lost 25 pounds. "He's the child I always knew he could be," said Claire. read more>> The connection between sleep apnea and heart disease is evolving very rapidly. People with cardiovascular problems such as high blood pressure, heart failure, and stroke have a high prevalence of sleep apnea. Whether sleep apnea actually causes heart disease is still unclear, but we do know that if you have sleep apnea today, the chance that you will develop hypertension in the future increases significantly. One of the problems in defining the relationship between sleep apnea and heart disease is that people with sleep apnea often have other co-existing diseases as well. If you treat people with high blood pressure and sleep apnea, or heart failure and sleep apnea, the measures of blood pressure or heart failure are significantly improved. There is good evidence to think there is a cause-and-effect relationship between hypertension and sleep apnea. read more>> Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) is the leading therapy for sleep apnea. Patients wear a face or nasal mask during sleep. The mask, connected to a pump, provides a positive flow of air into the nasal passages in order to keep the airway open. Most insurance companies now pay for sleep testing and for CPAP treatment. Dental appliances can be prescribed for mild sleep disordered breathing, but they are not effective for everyone with OSA. Doctors recommend weight loss for overweight people who snore or have sleep apnea, since weight loss may eliminate or significantly improve breathing during sleep. However, people who are not overweight can also be afflicted with sleep apnea due to the structure and makeup of their upper airway. read more>>	687	ENGLISH	1
The major step towards polio vaccination A new technique has been designed to fight polio disease, which can prove to be very effective. One of the biggest problems of vaccination of polio is that we have to freeze its old vaccine. But now scientists have prepared a vaccine that is vaccinated without any freezing for four weeks. Scientists have prepared vaccine to eradicate polio, which is not needed to be kept in the fridge. It can also be taken in remote areas without any hassle. Researchers said that this vaccine applied through injection can be kept in normal temperature for up to four weeks. It is used in combination with water. When it was tested on the rat, it gave effective results against polio infection. Woo Jin Sheen of Southern California University in the U.S. said that keeping the vaccine structure safe from malfunctioning is not a difficult thing. So most scientists do not pay attention to this. He said that no matter how good the medicine or vaccine is, then there is no point until it is sufficiently durable to take somewhere. Polio is ending completely but In 2017, only 22 cases of polio were reported from around the world.if countries where immunization is low, there is a greater risk of children being infected by it. Recent cases of polio have come from Nigeria, Papua Guinea, Syria and Pakistan. Now that the biggest problem with polio vaccination was that its vaccine did not stay as good as possible, but now this problem is also over. In 2017, only 22 cases were reported in the whole world, which would be completely eliminated in the next few years.	<urn:uuid:6e4ba929-32aa-480e-b5f7-1f5468396916>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.technicalhint.com/2018/11/the-major-step-towards-polio-vaccination.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00204.warc.gz	en	0.982409	320	3.4375	3	[ -0.427031546831131, 0.20607486367225647, 0.25058943033218384, -0.5109774470329285, 0.03914894908666611, 0.20019805431365967, 0.18949544429779053, 0.24970172345638275, -0.5935614109039307, -0.08340578526258469, -0.1594797521829605, -0.19703055918216705, 0.424900621175766, 0.4049734771251678...	1	The major step towards polio vaccination A new technique has been designed to fight polio disease, which can prove to be very effective. One of the biggest problems of vaccination of polio is that we have to freeze its old vaccine. But now scientists have prepared a vaccine that is vaccinated without any freezing for four weeks. Scientists have prepared vaccine to eradicate polio, which is not needed to be kept in the fridge. It can also be taken in remote areas without any hassle. Researchers said that this vaccine applied through injection can be kept in normal temperature for up to four weeks. It is used in combination with water. When it was tested on the rat, it gave effective results against polio infection. Woo Jin Sheen of Southern California University in the U.S. said that keeping the vaccine structure safe from malfunctioning is not a difficult thing. So most scientists do not pay attention to this. He said that no matter how good the medicine or vaccine is, then there is no point until it is sufficiently durable to take somewhere. Polio is ending completely but In 2017, only 22 cases of polio were reported from around the world.if countries where immunization is low, there is a greater risk of children being infected by it. Recent cases of polio have come from Nigeria, Papua Guinea, Syria and Pakistan. Now that the biggest problem with polio vaccination was that its vaccine did not stay as good as possible, but now this problem is also over. In 2017, only 22 cases were reported in the whole world, which would be completely eliminated in the next few years.	332	ENGLISH	1
Andrew Forman, (born c. 1465—died March 11, 1521), Scottish prelate and diplomat during the reigns of James IV and James V. He was educated at the University of St. Andrews. James IV employed him as his emissary to Rome and to England, where he took part in negotiating James’s marriage (1503) to Margaret Tudor. From 1511 he was engaged in furthering the King’s plan for a general peace in Europe and for a great crusade against the Turks. To this end he acted as mediator between Louis XII of France and Pope Julius II, who were at war in northern Italy. Despite his record of peacemaking, Forman was blamed, perhaps unjustly, for the breach between Scotland and England leading to the death of James IV at the Battle of Flodden (Sept. 9, 1513). Forman’s career gave him opportunities of acquiring benefices in Scotland, England, and France, including the bishopric of Moray (1501) and the archbishopric of Bourges (1513), but he failed to achieve elevation to the cardinalate. In 1514 Pope Leo X nominated him to the archbishopric of St. Andrews and appointed him papal legate in Scotland, although rival claimants kept him out of his see until 1516. As archbishop he issued constitutions for the discipline of clergy and laity.	<urn:uuid:b4be4d2b-8ec7-4939-adc3-6a56a5944fbd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.britannica.com/print/article/213802	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00005.warc.gz	en	0.990519	296	3.375	3	[ -0.31460586190223694, -0.10723097622394562, 0.4739401042461395, -0.16380202770233154, -0.17007136344909668, -0.43108537793159485, -0.04316159710288048, 0.6098541617393494, -0.14991159737110138, -0.0904250368475914, -0.5635818243026733, -0.342174232006073, 0.2446971982717514, 0.318332344293...	3	Andrew Forman, (born c. 1465—died March 11, 1521), Scottish prelate and diplomat during the reigns of James IV and James V. He was educated at the University of St. Andrews. James IV employed him as his emissary to Rome and to England, where he took part in negotiating James’s marriage (1503) to Margaret Tudor. From 1511 he was engaged in furthering the King’s plan for a general peace in Europe and for a great crusade against the Turks. To this end he acted as mediator between Louis XII of France and Pope Julius II, who were at war in northern Italy. Despite his record of peacemaking, Forman was blamed, perhaps unjustly, for the breach between Scotland and England leading to the death of James IV at the Battle of Flodden (Sept. 9, 1513). Forman’s career gave him opportunities of acquiring benefices in Scotland, England, and France, including the bishopric of Moray (1501) and the archbishopric of Bourges (1513), but he failed to achieve elevation to the cardinalate. In 1514 Pope Leo X nominated him to the archbishopric of St. Andrews and appointed him papal legate in Scotland, although rival claimants kept him out of his see until 1516. As archbishop he issued constitutions for the discipline of clergy and laity.	316	ENGLISH	1
The history of Los Angeles as told through 232 objects. Los Angeles was founded on September 4, 1781. Between now and the 232nd anniversary, we are gathering the stories behind iconic objects that help explain our city. Los Angeles is older than Chicago, Atlanta or Washington, D.C. In fact, when L.A.’s founders were gathering at El Pueblo, New York City was still occupied by the British army. We have a long story to tell, let’s take a look back and see where the city came from. Feel free to add to this exhibition. Email your ideas to firstname.lastname@example.org Elvis Presley was a product of the South, but much of his persona was created in Los Angeles. His movie years are often ridiculed as the end of his career, but he had already appeared in two feature films by the time Jailhouse Rock started production in May 1957. Fairfax High graduates Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller wrote the hit song, and laid down the tracks at Radio Recorders on Santa Monica Boulevard. The singing and dancing scenes were filmed at MGM in Culver City. Elvis had already made waves in Los Angeles with his first L.A. performance at the Shrine Auditorium a year earlier and his films brought his moves to big screens all over the country. This convict costume is currently on display at the Hard Rock Café in Memphis. The song is on the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame list of songs that shaped rock and roll, and in 2004, the film Jailhouse Rock was selected for the National Film Registry at the Library Of Congress. Photo courtesy Hard Rock International	<urn:uuid:2aba4497-279e-443c-99a4-852673905ad7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.lamag.com/citythink/displa-case-65-elvis-presleys-jailhouse-rock-costume/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00499.warc.gz	en	0.981214	336	3.28125	3	[ 0.11194311827421188, -0.08342298865318298, 0.4894009530544281, -0.03463393822312355, -0.17846891283988953, 0.3484180271625519, 0.018277088180184364, -0.23220673203468323, -0.3691690266132355, -0.005470531061291695, 0.27098140120506287, 0.4516875445842743, 0.25291717052459717, 0.39506027102...	1	The history of Los Angeles as told through 232 objects. Los Angeles was founded on September 4, 1781. Between now and the 232nd anniversary, we are gathering the stories behind iconic objects that help explain our city. Los Angeles is older than Chicago, Atlanta or Washington, D.C. In fact, when L.A.’s founders were gathering at El Pueblo, New York City was still occupied by the British army. We have a long story to tell, let’s take a look back and see where the city came from. Feel free to add to this exhibition. Email your ideas to firstname.lastname@example.org Elvis Presley was a product of the South, but much of his persona was created in Los Angeles. His movie years are often ridiculed as the end of his career, but he had already appeared in two feature films by the time Jailhouse Rock started production in May 1957. Fairfax High graduates Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller wrote the hit song, and laid down the tracks at Radio Recorders on Santa Monica Boulevard. The singing and dancing scenes were filmed at MGM in Culver City. Elvis had already made waves in Los Angeles with his first L.A. performance at the Shrine Auditorium a year earlier and his films brought his moves to big screens all over the country. This convict costume is currently on display at the Hard Rock Café in Memphis. The song is on the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame list of songs that shaped rock and roll, and in 2004, the film Jailhouse Rock was selected for the National Film Registry at the Library Of Congress. Photo courtesy Hard Rock International	341	ENGLISH	1
Social Security was signed into law on August 14, 1935, by President Roosevelt with the first payments being made in January of 1937. The Social Security Act was established to provide "old age," or retirement benefits, aid to dependent children, disability insurance, and unemployment insurance. In the 1930s millions of people were still out of work, and there was an alarming concern for the elderly and retired Americans who had lost everything. The Social Security program was intended to be and still is today, a social insurance program. Social Security Today Over the years, the Act was changed or "amended" in several ways, but the basic principals are still the same. Under today's Social Security Act, the SSA still manages the program, workers still make contributions from their paychecks, and monthly payments are still made to those who are eligible for the following benefits. Retirement benefits. At age 66 or 67, workers who contributed to the trust fund may apply for payments to help with everyday living and expenses and to offset the loss of income from their jobs. You may retire at age 62, but payments are reduced if you collect benefits before age 67. The more money you make, the higher your retirement benefits will be. Survivors and death benefits. A worker's spouse and/or dependent children may receive monthly payments in certain circumstances. The SSA also pays a small lump-sum death benefit to surviving family members to help pay for funeral expenses. Disability benefits. Disability benefits are for workers who have paid into the trust fund for a certain amount of time, who have a serious mental or physical disability that interferes with their ability to work. On the other hand, the Act now provides for Medicare, which provides health care benefits to those over 65 who have paid Medicare taxes for a certain number of years.	<urn:uuid:5f6b03d7-f1a1-4d45-a1c9-048f5156f50d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.roseforpresident.net/copy-of-poverty	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00088.warc.gz	en	0.98015	370	3.296875	3	[ -0.6236690878868103, -0.040081653743982315, -0.002057318575680256, -0.6617741584777832, -0.11397475004196167, 0.47295665740966797, 0.07788307964801788, -0.26600268483161926, -0.21592974662780762, -0.21067401766777039, 0.47720587253570557, 0.6919029355049133, 0.012250558473169804, 0.0115523...	6	Social Security was signed into law on August 14, 1935, by President Roosevelt with the first payments being made in January of 1937. The Social Security Act was established to provide "old age," or retirement benefits, aid to dependent children, disability insurance, and unemployment insurance. In the 1930s millions of people were still out of work, and there was an alarming concern for the elderly and retired Americans who had lost everything. The Social Security program was intended to be and still is today, a social insurance program. Social Security Today Over the years, the Act was changed or "amended" in several ways, but the basic principals are still the same. Under today's Social Security Act, the SSA still manages the program, workers still make contributions from their paychecks, and monthly payments are still made to those who are eligible for the following benefits. Retirement benefits. At age 66 or 67, workers who contributed to the trust fund may apply for payments to help with everyday living and expenses and to offset the loss of income from their jobs. You may retire at age 62, but payments are reduced if you collect benefits before age 67. The more money you make, the higher your retirement benefits will be. Survivors and death benefits. A worker's spouse and/or dependent children may receive monthly payments in certain circumstances. The SSA also pays a small lump-sum death benefit to surviving family members to help pay for funeral expenses. Disability benefits. Disability benefits are for workers who have paid into the trust fund for a certain amount of time, who have a serious mental or physical disability that interferes with their ability to work. On the other hand, the Act now provides for Medicare, which provides health care benefits to those over 65 who have paid Medicare taxes for a certain number of years.	383	ENGLISH	1
Perception in society has a huge effect on the way people treat one another. In most cases, that perception is usually flawed. It is greatly affected by looks, height, weight, and other physical traits. An example would be a student categorizing his teacher as strict and aggressive because of his height or because of the tone of his voice. Also an overweight person is usually classified as a non athletic individual. Flawed perception had an enormous effect on the monster’s behaviour throughout his experience as a living being. Many examples of flawed perception are evident in Mary Shelley’s novel, Frankenstein. Stereotypes and fear are examples of flawed perception. The consequence of those flawed perceptions can be seen through the monster’s act of vengeance towards his creator and mankind. First of all, immediate judgment was caused due to the horrible physical features of the monster. This is what is considered stereotyping. Stereotyping is when certain negative or positive characteristics are assigned to an individual. This is caused by the lack of information about that individual therefore the human brain tries to clarify that perceived target by committing errors. In the case of the monster, everyone that came in contact with him including his creator categorized him as being a danger to society just because of his monstrous appearance. “Monster! Ugly wretch! You wish to eat me and tear me to pieces. You are an ogre. Let me go, or I will tell my papa” (Shelley 131). This quotation is an example of physical judgement. The monster was clearly trying to befriend the child. He had absolutely no intention of hurting him. However, due to his enormous size, his ugliness and his bizarre voice, the little boy placed his hands before his eyes and uttered a shrill scream. The monster’s size is intimidating and unusual. He is taller and bigger than most humans. This feature is frightening to the majority, including the boy. In consequence, the monster is instantly categorized as evil and dangerous. In other words, he is perceived as being a threat to humanity. Also, the fiend’s ugliness and deformity adds to his negative and noticeable features. It builds a repulsive force between him and the others which causes him to be rejected by everyone around him. Furthermore, those negative characteristics bury the positive qualities of the monster. His beautiful and charming personality will not be noticeable to anyone’s eyes due to his outrageous appearance. Moreover, the monster’s voice does not help him gain the acceptance of others. His deep and frightening tone unintentionally creates assertiveness and fierceness. This feature however does not have as much effect as the others but it certainly adds to the terrible judgement that is inflicted towards him. That being said, all of those negative features produce harmful stereotypes towards the monster. The consequences of all judgements cause the fiend to act accordingly to those prejudices. This clearly represents what happens in real life where people are categorized by their looks and discriminated against accordingly. An example for that would be terrorists. Most likely, everyone assumes that all Middle Eastern habitants are terrorists. One would think that wearing the “Hijab” or having a big beard would mean that they possibly possess a bomb somewhere on them. At airports, Arabs are usually stopped and searched longer than the white ethnicity. That is due to the stereotype that has spread around the world. Many other different stereotypes exist in the human race. Fortunately, there can be something done to stop all this insane discrimination. However, this type of act existed throughout history and will maintain its existence if proceeded the same way. Second of all, fear was caused in consequence of those stereotypes. Everyone including Frankenstein was fearful of his appearance. The fact that he is different from others excluded him from any human relations. At one point in the book, Mary Shelley makes the monster ask Dr Frankenstein for another creation but of a female version of himself. The goal of this situation is to let the monster live in peace and to live his own life. Frankenstein’s rejection to this offer was due to the fear that haunted him. “Even if they were to leave Europe and inhabit the deserts of the new world, yet one of the first results of those sympathies for which the demon thirsted would be children, and a race of devils would be propagated upon the earth who might make the very existence of the species of man a condition precarious and full of terror” (Shelley 155-156). This clearly states that Dr Frankenstein was scared of not only the creation of another hideous monster but of a whole new generation of monsters. If such a horrible situation should occur, not only would his own creator suffer but all of mankind as well. He was also fearful that she as well might turn with disgust from him to the superior beauty of man. If she might leave him, he will once again remain unaccompanied and exasperated by the fresh provocation of being deserted by one of his own species. Another example of fear would be the time when the monster rescued the little girl from the streaming water. As everyone would imagine, there should be a positive outcome of such nice gesture. However, this did not occur. As soon as the person whom the little girl was playing with saw the monster, he immediately darted towards him, took the girl from his arms, fled into the woods, took a gun and fired it at him. The man immediately feared the monster as soon as he saw him. His conscious mind instantly controlled him and ordered him to act violently. The person did not stop and think. He did not appreciate the monster’s bravery and daring act. The monster felt at this point hatred towards mankind. If his nice gesture did not build a connection between him and the humans, nothing would. Fear is installed in all of us. Different people fear different things. For example some are scared of heights and several can be terrified of scary movies. Once humans fear something, they lose control of their emotions and their subconscious mind takes over. They start to panic and act in an unintentional way which can provoke several bad consequences. In the monster’s case, everyone was frightened of him. He did not have anyone who accepted him as a hideous creature. They all ignored his positive attributes and let fear take them over to the point where they acted differently from their usual state. Third of all, the outcome of those flawed perceptions can be seen through the monster’s act of vengeance towards his creator and mankind. The monster got to the point where nothing stood in his way. Vengeance was his first option. “The feelings of kindness and gentleness which I had entertained but a few moments before gave place to hellish rage and gnashing of teeth. Inflamed by pain, I vowed eternal hatred and vengeance to all mankind” (Shelley 130). Frankenstein’s flawed perception towards his creation angered the monster. In order to seek revenge, he decided to murder all of Frankenstein’s friends and relatives. The author wanted to demonstrate that the monster committed these acts of retaliation in order to make Victor Frankenstein feel miserable and alone. Now the monster is outcast from society and has no one to lean on. This makes the monster not only lonely and is search of affection but also very mad. He takes out all that anger on Victor, but he doesn’t do what most people would think he would do. The monster is also self educated and he is smarter than that. So instead of taking his anger out on his directly he takes it out on all his loved ones. William, Frankenstein’s little brother was strangled to death by the hands of Victor’s creation. The cause of this act was the reveal of the father of that little boy. As soon as the monster heard William say that his father was M. Frankenstein, he killed him. This proves the fact that William’s death was only an act of revenge by the monster. In addition, Clerval’s death was due to his friendship with Frankenstein. The monster knew that they were close and that Henry’s death would have an enormous effect on Victor. As well, in order to cause even more pain to Frankenstein, he tormented his mind by telling him that he will accompany him on his wedding-night. His promise was not broken and the monster murdered his new wife Elizabeth that same day. One could imagine the pain Victor Frankenstein had to endure during this whole horrific course. Also, the rejection of being accepted by the monster’s fellow cottagers filled him with vengeance. He destroyed and burnt the cottage which they used to inhabit. The monster was not treated well by anyone all through the story. This made him a brutal killer because he learned to ignore remorse because of how people reacted with disgust and fear to his appearance. The monster created by Frankenstein was actually created/born good, hence the allusions to how little the monster knew about the world. His first experience from whom he looked up to as a father figure spurned him and name-called him. The monster desired agony and depression for his creator. His wish was to make him go through excruciating pain and suffer the way he did throughout the whole book. However, at the end of the book, Walton was having a discussion with the monster concerning his actions and Victor’s death. As soon as Frankenstein’s body lay before the monster’s eyes, he immediately regretted his horrific acts of violence. “Never pay back evil for evil to anyone. Do things in such a way that everyone can see you are honourable. Do your part to live in peace with everyone, as much as possible” (Shelly). This quote is written by Rubel Shelly. It states that an act of evil should not be avenged by another act of evil. However, it should be resolved by a nice manner in order to prove yourself m honourable. In her article, she explains her experience in her attempt to seek vengeance on her boyfriend who was found with another woman. She describes the agony that she felt throughout that period. She decided to seek vengeance by slamming her car into his vehicle. After having done the deed, she realises her mistake. It was not her former boyfriend but an individual driving the same type of car. In Frankenstein, Mary Shelley also tries to prove her point by having the monster regret his actions after having done them. An enormous outcome was produced after the regret. The monster had only one deed left. And that deed was to murder one more, himself. In conclusion, Perception in society has a huge effect on the way people treat one another. In most cases, that perception is usually flawed. Looks, height, weight, and other physical traits affect those flawed perceptions. The monster’s behaviour throughout his experience as a living being was affected by flawed perception. Stereotypes and fear are examples of flawed perception. The consequence of those flawed perceptions can be seen through the monster’s act of vengeance towards his creator and mankind. As the novel progresses, the monster grows in several ways, one of which is becoming knowledgeable of those around him and of language and books; the other is the way in which he becomes progressively evil, seeking only revenge. In humanity, are humans able to stop all the discrimination and the stereotypes in the world? Can they not judge each other by just looks? Can they finally create peace with one another? Those are questions that are still waiting to be answered.	<urn:uuid:bef2fe97-5704-4cbc-8be6-926c4c9a6e5e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bereavementpractitioners.org/essay-frankenstein-and-monster/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00290.warc.gz	en	0.986289	2,355	3.484375	3	[ 0.16653020679950714, 0.14485284686088562, 0.21504530310630798, 0.2244696468114853, -0.1661849468946457, 0.10133594274520874, 0.9070008993148804, 0.07042884826660156, -0.013714166358113289, -0.05469793081283569, 0.2786801755428314, -0.21646210551261902, 0.1692170798778534, 0.191102623939514...	2	Perception in society has a huge effect on the way people treat one another. In most cases, that perception is usually flawed. It is greatly affected by looks, height, weight, and other physical traits. An example would be a student categorizing his teacher as strict and aggressive because of his height or because of the tone of his voice. Also an overweight person is usually classified as a non athletic individual. Flawed perception had an enormous effect on the monster’s behaviour throughout his experience as a living being. Many examples of flawed perception are evident in Mary Shelley’s novel, Frankenstein. Stereotypes and fear are examples of flawed perception. The consequence of those flawed perceptions can be seen through the monster’s act of vengeance towards his creator and mankind. First of all, immediate judgment was caused due to the horrible physical features of the monster. This is what is considered stereotyping. Stereotyping is when certain negative or positive characteristics are assigned to an individual. This is caused by the lack of information about that individual therefore the human brain tries to clarify that perceived target by committing errors. In the case of the monster, everyone that came in contact with him including his creator categorized him as being a danger to society just because of his monstrous appearance. “Monster! Ugly wretch! You wish to eat me and tear me to pieces. You are an ogre. Let me go, or I will tell my papa” (Shelley 131). This quotation is an example of physical judgement. The monster was clearly trying to befriend the child. He had absolutely no intention of hurting him. However, due to his enormous size, his ugliness and his bizarre voice, the little boy placed his hands before his eyes and uttered a shrill scream. The monster’s size is intimidating and unusual. He is taller and bigger than most humans. This feature is frightening to the majority, including the boy. In consequence, the monster is instantly categorized as evil and dangerous. In other words, he is perceived as being a threat to humanity. Also, the fiend’s ugliness and deformity adds to his negative and noticeable features. It builds a repulsive force between him and the others which causes him to be rejected by everyone around him. Furthermore, those negative characteristics bury the positive qualities of the monster. His beautiful and charming personality will not be noticeable to anyone’s eyes due to his outrageous appearance. Moreover, the monster’s voice does not help him gain the acceptance of others. His deep and frightening tone unintentionally creates assertiveness and fierceness. This feature however does not have as much effect as the others but it certainly adds to the terrible judgement that is inflicted towards him. That being said, all of those negative features produce harmful stereotypes towards the monster. The consequences of all judgements cause the fiend to act accordingly to those prejudices. This clearly represents what happens in real life where people are categorized by their looks and discriminated against accordingly. An example for that would be terrorists. Most likely, everyone assumes that all Middle Eastern habitants are terrorists. One would think that wearing the “Hijab” or having a big beard would mean that they possibly possess a bomb somewhere on them. At airports, Arabs are usually stopped and searched longer than the white ethnicity. That is due to the stereotype that has spread around the world. Many other different stereotypes exist in the human race. Fortunately, there can be something done to stop all this insane discrimination. However, this type of act existed throughout history and will maintain its existence if proceeded the same way. Second of all, fear was caused in consequence of those stereotypes. Everyone including Frankenstein was fearful of his appearance. The fact that he is different from others excluded him from any human relations. At one point in the book, Mary Shelley makes the monster ask Dr Frankenstein for another creation but of a female version of himself. The goal of this situation is to let the monster live in peace and to live his own life. Frankenstein’s rejection to this offer was due to the fear that haunted him. “Even if they were to leave Europe and inhabit the deserts of the new world, yet one of the first results of those sympathies for which the demon thirsted would be children, and a race of devils would be propagated upon the earth who might make the very existence of the species of man a condition precarious and full of terror” (Shelley 155-156). This clearly states that Dr Frankenstein was scared of not only the creation of another hideous monster but of a whole new generation of monsters. If such a horrible situation should occur, not only would his own creator suffer but all of mankind as well. He was also fearful that she as well might turn with disgust from him to the superior beauty of man. If she might leave him, he will once again remain unaccompanied and exasperated by the fresh provocation of being deserted by one of his own species. Another example of fear would be the time when the monster rescued the little girl from the streaming water. As everyone would imagine, there should be a positive outcome of such nice gesture. However, this did not occur. As soon as the person whom the little girl was playing with saw the monster, he immediately darted towards him, took the girl from his arms, fled into the woods, took a gun and fired it at him. The man immediately feared the monster as soon as he saw him. His conscious mind instantly controlled him and ordered him to act violently. The person did not stop and think. He did not appreciate the monster’s bravery and daring act. The monster felt at this point hatred towards mankind. If his nice gesture did not build a connection between him and the humans, nothing would. Fear is installed in all of us. Different people fear different things. For example some are scared of heights and several can be terrified of scary movies. Once humans fear something, they lose control of their emotions and their subconscious mind takes over. They start to panic and act in an unintentional way which can provoke several bad consequences. In the monster’s case, everyone was frightened of him. He did not have anyone who accepted him as a hideous creature. They all ignored his positive attributes and let fear take them over to the point where they acted differently from their usual state. Third of all, the outcome of those flawed perceptions can be seen through the monster’s act of vengeance towards his creator and mankind. The monster got to the point where nothing stood in his way. Vengeance was his first option. “The feelings of kindness and gentleness which I had entertained but a few moments before gave place to hellish rage and gnashing of teeth. Inflamed by pain, I vowed eternal hatred and vengeance to all mankind” (Shelley 130). Frankenstein’s flawed perception towards his creation angered the monster. In order to seek revenge, he decided to murder all of Frankenstein’s friends and relatives. The author wanted to demonstrate that the monster committed these acts of retaliation in order to make Victor Frankenstein feel miserable and alone. Now the monster is outcast from society and has no one to lean on. This makes the monster not only lonely and is search of affection but also very mad. He takes out all that anger on Victor, but he doesn’t do what most people would think he would do. The monster is also self educated and he is smarter than that. So instead of taking his anger out on his directly he takes it out on all his loved ones. William, Frankenstein’s little brother was strangled to death by the hands of Victor’s creation. The cause of this act was the reveal of the father of that little boy. As soon as the monster heard William say that his father was M. Frankenstein, he killed him. This proves the fact that William’s death was only an act of revenge by the monster. In addition, Clerval’s death was due to his friendship with Frankenstein. The monster knew that they were close and that Henry’s death would have an enormous effect on Victor. As well, in order to cause even more pain to Frankenstein, he tormented his mind by telling him that he will accompany him on his wedding-night. His promise was not broken and the monster murdered his new wife Elizabeth that same day. One could imagine the pain Victor Frankenstein had to endure during this whole horrific course. Also, the rejection of being accepted by the monster’s fellow cottagers filled him with vengeance. He destroyed and burnt the cottage which they used to inhabit. The monster was not treated well by anyone all through the story. This made him a brutal killer because he learned to ignore remorse because of how people reacted with disgust and fear to his appearance. The monster created by Frankenstein was actually created/born good, hence the allusions to how little the monster knew about the world. His first experience from whom he looked up to as a father figure spurned him and name-called him. The monster desired agony and depression for his creator. His wish was to make him go through excruciating pain and suffer the way he did throughout the whole book. However, at the end of the book, Walton was having a discussion with the monster concerning his actions and Victor’s death. As soon as Frankenstein’s body lay before the monster’s eyes, he immediately regretted his horrific acts of violence. “Never pay back evil for evil to anyone. Do things in such a way that everyone can see you are honourable. Do your part to live in peace with everyone, as much as possible” (Shelly). This quote is written by Rubel Shelly. It states that an act of evil should not be avenged by another act of evil. However, it should be resolved by a nice manner in order to prove yourself m honourable. In her article, she explains her experience in her attempt to seek vengeance on her boyfriend who was found with another woman. She describes the agony that she felt throughout that period. She decided to seek vengeance by slamming her car into his vehicle. After having done the deed, she realises her mistake. It was not her former boyfriend but an individual driving the same type of car. In Frankenstein, Mary Shelley also tries to prove her point by having the monster regret his actions after having done them. An enormous outcome was produced after the regret. The monster had only one deed left. And that deed was to murder one more, himself. In conclusion, Perception in society has a huge effect on the way people treat one another. In most cases, that perception is usually flawed. Looks, height, weight, and other physical traits affect those flawed perceptions. The monster’s behaviour throughout his experience as a living being was affected by flawed perception. Stereotypes and fear are examples of flawed perception. The consequence of those flawed perceptions can be seen through the monster’s act of vengeance towards his creator and mankind. As the novel progresses, the monster grows in several ways, one of which is becoming knowledgeable of those around him and of language and books; the other is the way in which he becomes progressively evil, seeking only revenge. In humanity, are humans able to stop all the discrimination and the stereotypes in the world? Can they not judge each other by just looks? Can they finally create peace with one another? Those are questions that are still waiting to be answered.	2,311	ENGLISH	1
World War II In the late 1930’s memories of the Great War were still fresh in the minds of many people and another European conflict seemed unthinkable. Over 37 million casualties, including around 17 million deaths had generated a feeling that peace was to be preserved at almost any cost. Simply nobody could have expected or imagined the years of terror and bloodshed that lay ahead. While World War I was still fought in the trenches the second World War would prove to be an event of cataclysmic proportions. Targeted, large scale attacks on civilians, organised genocide, years of heavy battle and siege warfare resulted in more than 70 million casualties of which near to almost 50 million civilians. However, it is said we will never know the exact amount of human loss and devastation brought upon us by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi-regime. Too Little, Too Late The warning signs were there, but it was all too easy to ignore the rise of German militarism. Adolph Hitler found himself in the right place at the right time and to the demoralised German population he was the charismatic leader who could put their country back on its feet once more. The darker side of the Nazi Regime and Hitler's enormous personal ambitions were seriously overlooked. It wasn’t until Germany began to talk of annexing some German-speaking territories belonging to other nations that countries like Britain and France began to take notice. Even after his troops had marched into the Czech Sudetenland, Hitler managed to talk his way out of the crisis. He successfully persuaded British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain that he had no desire to annex any more territory. However, on 1st September 1939, the German army marched into Poland. Britain and France were treaty bound to do something and Germany was ordered to withdraw its troops. After Germany refused to comply, World War II officially began on 3rd September 1939. King Leopold III of Belgium was in a dilemma. He was very much aware that once the fighting began, both the French and the Germans would fight each other on his country’s soil. King Leopold knew that French General Gamelin and German General Von Manstein had both formulated plans to advance into Belgium and eliminate the other’s army. Throughout its history the territory that was now Belgium had only seen pain and suffering from its central position in Europe. Whenever there was a war to fight, it seemed to take place on Belgian soil. With memories of the devastation caused to his country by the Great War less than a quarter of a century old, Leopold was anxious not to plunge Belgium into a new nightmare. He was an advocate of an independent foreign policy for Belgium and had authorised the construction of a series of heavy defensive fortifications stretching from Antwerp to the edge of the Ardenne Forest near Namur along the German border. After the Great War Belgium had returned to its policy of neutrality and Leopold’s vision of armed neutrality was widely supported by the country’s population. On two occasions, even after the outbreak of war, he had advocated mediation to solve the conflict between Nazi Germany and the Western Allies. In October 1939 Leopold made a radio broadcast to the United States. Speaking in English he told his audience that the feelings of the Belgian people were based on age-long struggles fought on Belgian soil. The Belgian people simply wanted to be left alone and in peace and whatever the Allies or the Axis countries might think of each other, Belgium wanted to be left out of it. Here Come The Germans (Again) For several months not a great deal happened and then on 10th May 1940 all thoughts of a “phoney war” were shattered when the Germans issued the code word “Danzig” and put into action their invasion plan, Feld Gelb. The main attack was expected to come through central Belgium along a similar line to the German attack on France in 1914. Leopold hoped to hold off the Germans at Fort Eben Emael, north of Liege near the German border. This was a large underground fort that dominated three well-defended bridges over the Albert Canal. It was manned by over 1,200 soldiers and was considered to be impregnable. Its weakness however, was that it was vulnerable to attack from above. At dawn on 10 th May the Germans launched a daring attack using a 400-man glider force. Nine gliders were landed directly on top of the fort and paratroopers blasted their way through the roofs of the gun emplacements quickly disabling them. Heavy attacks by Stuka dive-bombers finished things off. Fighting had been fierce and there were many casualties, but the fort surrendered. With the defending artillery destroyed, the remainder of the German force was quickly able to secure two of the three bridges, allowing the German forces to cross the heavily defended Belgian border. The King, the Belgian Army, the Belgian people and the allies were stunned not only by the attack, but by the fall of the border defences. Fort Eben Emael was in its time the largest fort in the world and is open to visitors. Gathering The Troops The French and British forces were much better equipped than the Belgian army and they quickly moved north to counter the expected attack through central Belgium. However, they too were treated as invaders when they tried to cross into Belgium. Pacifist sentiment was strong and it was widely felt that any co-operation with the Allies would attract German aggression. Fortunately government officials recognised Germany as being the greater threat and did what they could by opening the border for the Allied armies. Eventually Leopold decided to come down on the side of the Allies, but by then precious time had been lost. There was a serious problem: the Allied and Belgian armies had never worked or prepared to work together. Even as war approached there was no military co-operation and two completely different command structures and ways of doing things were now expected to mesh together. Allied men and machines began pouring into Belgium ready for the major fight that was expected to take place just as it had 25 years earlier. But the invasion of the Low Countries, although strategic in nature, was really only a cover for the main invasion that was taking place through the Ardennes. Previously the Belgians and the French had believed the Ardenne Forest to be impenetrable, but after months of training in the Black Forest, the Germans had developed new military techniques and tactics. Generals Rommel and Guderian’s Blitzkrieg techniques, with Panzer divisions supported by the Luftwaffe enabled their fast-moving tank formations to break out of the Ardennes on 13th May and head west towards the coast. Belgium’s last hope in stopping the advancing German armour now pouring through the centre of the country was the so-called KW Line that been set up after the outbreak of the war as a last line of defence southeast of Brussels. The Belgians managed to hold this on their own for nearly four days, before handing over command to the French. The resistance didn’t last long though, as on 15 th May the French General Gamelin ordered the withdrawal of all French forces from Belgian soil. Five days later Gamelin was sacked for not doing more to stop the German advance. Further south, Rommel and his Panzers reached the Channel coast near Abbeville on 20th May. The Belgian army and the British Expeditionary Force were now completely surrounded and cut off from the bulk of the French army. The King’s Struggle Controversy has always surrounded King Leopold’s actions during World War II. The Germans dropped leaflets on the Belgian troops telling them that their king had deserted them. Leopold countered this by telling his men that whatever happened to them, he would share their fate. On 28th May 1940 and without consulting his cabinet, King Leopold III surrendered the Belgian army and capitulated to the Germans. This was the same day that the encircled British began their evacuation at Dunkirk. His surrender left a crucial gap in the Allied defence of Dunkirk and if the Germans had exploited this, the evacuation would not have been possible. To many Belgian people and the parliament, Leopold’s conduct was in stark contrast to those of his father, King Albert I, who had gallantly resisted the Kaiser’s army in the Great War. Other Belgians, including the two million refugees who were trapped in the pocket encircled by the Germans, supported the king’s action. His supporters say that the King saw the situation as being completely hopeless and decided to spare his people from further bloodshed by not continuing to fight in a lost cause. In the event the British Expeditionary Force lost all of its equipment, but nearly 340,000 men were evacuated from Dunkirk. Had these men been lost along with their equipment, it is hard to see how Britain could have remained in the war and how Belgium could subsequently have been liberated in 1944. For Belgium And Honour Leopold honoured his pledge to his troops to share their fate and he refused to flee to England as part of a government-in-exile, but despite this the British and the French were very critical of his actions. In 1941 he aroused further criticism, particularly in Belgium, when he married a commoner that many considered a Nazi sympathiser. In spite of this he showed great courage in stoutly refusing to administer his country on behalf of the German occupiers, which would have lent an appearance of legitimacy to the Nazi government. As a result he effectively became a prisoner of war; initially in his castle near Brussels, but when the Allies advanced towards the end of the war, at another location deep within Germany. It is said that during his imprisonment, King Leopold saved a significant number of women and children from deportation to munitions factories in Germany when in 1942 he wrote a personal letter to Hitler pleading on their behalf. Eighteen days after the German invasion and once the country had been completely overrun, civil administration was placed in the hands of the Wehrmacht, the German army. Their headquarters was set up at Wilrijk just south of Antwerp and a host of Fascist French, Flemish and Walloon collaborators assisted the occupation authorities. From here they administered the whole of Belgium, together with two departments of Northern France. Before long the first anti-Jewish measures were introduced. Just before the outbreak of war the Jewish population of Belgium was at its peak, numbering roughly 70,000. About 35,000 were living in Antwerp and 25,000 in Brussels. It is estimated that some 22,000 of this number were German refugees and that only 6% were of Belgian nationality. Initially these anti-Jewish measures were limited to stopping certain religious rites. But before long the Nazis were prohibiting Jews from professions such as law and education. By 1941 property was being confiscated, curfews were set up and Jews were confined to cities. In early 1942 Jews were ordered to wear yellow badges The Belgian Holocaust In September 1942 the first round-ups began. In all, approximately 45% of the Jews in Belgium were deported to concentration camps, primarily Auschwitz. Only 1,200 returned. Figures indicate that 28,900 Belgian Jews perished between 1942 and 1945. Belgium’s National Monument of the Jewish Martyrs is in Brussels and more than 20,000 names of Jewish dead are inscribed on its walls. Many Jews were saved as a result of an active resistance movement. A higher proportion of Jews was saved in Belgium than in most other occupied countries. The Belgian constitution does not permit the mention of religion on civil documents so initially the Germans had trouble identifying Jewish families. Many Jewish children were hidden by Christian families and with the help of the Jewish Resistance about 800 Jews were hidden in the city of Antwerp alone. Whilst in exile the Belgian government also helped fund the rescue of thousands of children by the resistance. In 2012 the Jewish Museum for Deportation and Resistance was opened at the Kazerne Dossin in Mechelen. Sleeping With The Enemy Racial purity always featured very highly on the agenda of the German occupation forces. The Flemish population of Belgium was considered to be purer than the French-speaking Walloons and the original intention was that only Flanders should be incorporated into the German Reich. The Wehrmacht stoutly resisted this since it would seriously disrupt the valuable support that Belgian industry was giving to the German war effort. Collaboration in occupied countries is always a delicate issue. Many viewed the king as a collaborator, but his role is very difficult to assess. After the successful invasion, the Germans seemed to be sweeping towards certain victory and to many people there seemed to be little point in putting up any form of resistance. There are other delicate issues: were the police who so effectively rounded up all the Jews in Antwerp and Brussels acting as collaborators? After the war no action was taken against them on the grounds that they were simply acting on the orders from superiors in their own organisation, who in turn were acting on orders from civil servants further up the chain. Although after the war a number of civil servants lost their jobs, it was felt that any major investigation would simply open a Pandora’s Box. In Antwerp collaborators even got locked up in the lion cages of the local zoo. Nationally tens of thousands were convicted for aiding the occupiers or joining the Waffen-SS and some were even executed. Putting Up A Fight Most of the population gave no thought to collaboration. Belgian Resistance was highly organised, although it took a number of different forms, with resistance fighters performing a number of different roles. These included sabotaging Nazi installations and helping to rescue shot down airmen. With most of the major rail routes between Germany and France passing through Belgium, other networks specialised in providing the Allies with intelligence on the movements of rail traffic. Resistance groups were formed immediately after the surrender. The atmosphere of resistance is described as having been “relentless”. Reportedly more Germans were killed in Belgium during 1941 than in occupied France. So many Belgian citizens expressed willingness to aid the resistance fighters that supply lines were established and evasion routes charted. Belgian resistance fighters were determined to aid the Allies in every possible way. However, there was never a unified organisation of resistance groups, which from a security point of view was probably a very good thing. An important role for the resistance was to help downed airmen. Aircrew were being shot down in their hundreds and after every raid the Germans sent out patrols with dogs and motorcycles to look for them. The resistance took great pride in finding them first. Parachutes had to be buried and airmen hidden away. The so-called Comet escape line had a series of safe houses throughout Belgium where airmen could be given civilian clothes and moved from house to house. They would be provided with false papers and guided to neutral or Allied-occupied territory. This was a highly sophisticated operation and many airmen were able to escape successfully. Capture usually meant interrogation by the Gestapo, followed by imprisonment in Belgium or transport back to a German POW camp. The Terror Of Sabotage Sabotage was another weapon in the Resistance’s armour and a good example was the attack on the Bridge over the Amblève River. German troop trains were constantly passing through Belgium and the resistance identified when and where these trains would be travelling. They planned to destroy a vital bridge between the towns of La Gleize and Stoumont, southeast of Liege. A band of 40 members of the Resistance assembled at the bridge and placed explosives under the central arch. This explosive was detonated as the train approached and, being unable to stop, the train plunged into the river killing all 600 German soldiers on board. Sabotaging trains always had spectacular consequences and the German Army lost thousands of trains to acts of sabotage. Railway lines were often targeted to disrupt the flow of materials and military personnel. The loss amounted to many millions of Reich marks. Resistance fighters lived in a world of constant danger. They were always at a risk of being captured or betrayed. The Germans had special agents whose job was to infiltrate the underground communities in order to gather intelligence. Hundreds of resistance fighters were arrested. Seemingly safe escape routes were sometimes traps and many downed airmen and resistance fighters were caught in this way. Resistance fighters caught by the Germans were imprisoned or shot. One of them was Jean (“Johnny”) Vost. He was arrested in 1942 for alleged sabotage and sent to Dachau concentration camp where, somehow, he managed to survive. He was originally from the Belgian Congo and is documented as the only black prisoner to serve time at Dachau. The achievements of the Belgian resistance movement were significant. In addition to providing an escape route for downed Allied aircrew, resistance fighters were also credited with stopping a train transporting Jewish prisoners to Auschwitz. In addition to having an important effect on the morale of German soldiers, acts of sabotage gave an enormous psychological boost to the civilian population who could plainly see that something positive was being done to get back at the occupying power. In 1940 hundreds of Belgian soldiers had managed to escape to Britain and were organised into several military units. In June 1942 the Belgian Forces in Britain were officially made available to the Allies. By the end of the year a restructuring had led to the creation of the 1st Belgian Brigade under the command of Major Jean-Baptiste Piron. It soon gained the nickname “Brigade Piron”. Belgians came from around the world to join the Brigade, which was said to contain speakers of 33 different languages. The Allied invasion of Europe, the D-day landings, took place on 6th June 1944. The Belgian brigade had trained extensively for this, but to their intense disappointment they did not take part in the landings. They had been placed in reserve to take part in the liberation of Belgium. After Major Piron lobbied to the Belgian government in exile, the Belgian Brigade arrived in Normandy on 30th July entering active service on 9th August under the command of the British 6th Airborne Division. After taking part in some very fierce fighting and sustaining a number of casualties, on 2nd September they were transferred to the 2nd British Army to allow them to move as quickly as possible to the Belgian border. After an overnight journey they entered Brussels the next day, just after the British. Needless to say, after five years of occupation the Belgian people were ecstatic. Many thought that the Brigade Piron were French Canadians since Belgian troops were the last soldiers they expected to liberate them. Other Belgian cities were quickly liberated, along with a number of V-1 “Doodlebug” launching sites. German troops tried to limit the usefulness of the port of Antwerp to the Allies by attacking it with V-1 and V-2 rockets. These attacks were far from accurate and although a considerable amount of damage was done to the city, the port facilities remained intact and were captured by the Allies on 4th September. The Final Chapter By November most of Belgium was in Allied hands, but on 16th December the Germans launched a last-ditch attack in the Ardennes. Known to the Americans, who bore the brunt of the fighting, as the Battle of the Bulge, this was launched through the same densely forested region where Rommel had made his celebrated Panzer breakthrough in 1940. The German aim was to split the British and American line in half, recapture Antwerp, encircle and destroy four Allied armies and force the Allies to negotiate a peace treaty in favour of the Axis powers. Fierce resistance from the Americans destroyed the German’s schedules before improved weather conditions enabled Allied air attacks to disrupt German supply lines. These factors combined to seal the fate of the offensive. Both sides suffered heavy casualties and around 3,000 civilians were killed. There were 89,500 American losses, including 19,000 killed; and 1,408 British losses, including 200 killed. Figures for German losses vary, but an authoritative source puts German losses at around 85,000, of whom nearly 16,000 were killed. The Germans lost just about all of their equipment and vehicles; a loss of manpower that was critical at this stage of the war. You can find out more at a recently opened museum. In spring 2013 the new Bastogne War Museum opened its doors, right next to the famous Mardasson Memorial in Bastogne. After The Smoke Had Cleared Belgium was finally declared free of German forces on Sunday 4th February 1945. The country had not suffered the damage of many other European countries, with most of the damage having been incurred during the Battle of the Bulge. King Leopold and his family were released from imprisonment in Austria, but his position was untenable and in 1951 he abdicated in favour of his son, Baudouin. The “Brigade Piron” later went on to become the nucleus of the post-war Belgian army. In the post-war era Belgium’s location has worked to its advantage. Belgium is no longer an insignificant little nation to be used as a convenient battleground. Since the founding of the European Community in 1958, Brussels has effectively become the de facto capital of the European Union and the regular meeting place of the European Council Heads of Government. How fortunes change. Information about Belgian fashion. With details on the fashion industry and fashion designers in Belgium.[ more... ] War Memorials and Cemeteries Belgium has important war memorials and cemeteries honouring those who fell on Belgian soil during the Battle of Waterloo, WWI and WWII.[ more... ] World War I Belgium and World War One. The role of Belgium and the Belgian people in WWI.[ more... ] Belgium has no single national language. In fact it has three: Dutch, French and German,[ more... ] Belgian Antiques and Flea Markets An extensive guide to some of Belgium's most important antique cities, shopping areas and flea markets in Brussels, Flanders and Wallonia.[ more... ] Nature and Wildlife Belgium is blessed with some areas of exceptional natural beauty which are well worth leaving the medieval cities for. [ more... ] Battle of Waterloo Detailed and illustrated Information about the infamous Battle of Waterloo which was fought out on what is now Belgian soil on the 18th June of 1815.[ more... ] UNESCO World Heritage Information about UNESCO World Heritage sites in Belgium and explanation why beer culture in Belgium was officially recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage.[ more... ] You must be logged in to leave a comment BRUSSELS/MONS - We’ve made our way down to the historic city of Mons (Bergen) for the eighth edition of the international Brussels Beer Challenge. A 90-strong jury is busy tasting; there are four morning sessions in a ro... [ more ] BRUGES - This city draws you back in time to the heydays of the Burgundian era. After years of renovation works the Gruuthusemuseum has re-opened its doors. This former city palace is the showca... [ more ] ANTWERP - Brewers from 59 different countries flocked to attend the Brewers of Europe Forum 2019 in the prestigious Queen Elizabeth Hall, right next to the renowned Antwerp Central Station building. ... [ more ] ERTVELDE - To track down a brewer within his own domain is a high-ranking form of sports, or that’s the impression I get. After a bit of practice I spot Jef Versele, CEO of the Van Steenberge brewery, well hidden amongst... [ more ] MECHELEN - The historic city of Mechelen, halfway between Brussels and Antwerp, is truly a hidden gem. The presence of the Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled here in the late middle ages, still permeates the ancient city centr... [ more ] The original name of this beer was IJzerenband (Iron Band). It used to be categorised as a 'provisie-bier' – a beer for storage – as it was slightly heavier in density and alcohol... [ more ] Beer Tourism Newsletter Signup Enter your name and email address on the right and click "SignUp" to join.	<urn:uuid:c5929493-3c71-46ab-80d6-7c44f3d15b9a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://belgium.beertourism.com/about-belgium/world-war-ii	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00088.warc.gz	en	0.982023	5,082	3.890625	4	[ -0.273546040058136, 0.7543166279792786, 0.13148950040340424, -0.06491481512784958, -0.03738313540816307, -0.035476237535476685, 0.1737266331911087, 0.12247565388679504, 0.1925123929977417, -0.31112241744995117, 0.2626515030860901, -0.2669232487678528, 0.41818153858184814, 0.679886579513549...	1	World War II In the late 1930’s memories of the Great War were still fresh in the minds of many people and another European conflict seemed unthinkable. Over 37 million casualties, including around 17 million deaths had generated a feeling that peace was to be preserved at almost any cost. Simply nobody could have expected or imagined the years of terror and bloodshed that lay ahead. While World War I was still fought in the trenches the second World War would prove to be an event of cataclysmic proportions. Targeted, large scale attacks on civilians, organised genocide, years of heavy battle and siege warfare resulted in more than 70 million casualties of which near to almost 50 million civilians. However, it is said we will never know the exact amount of human loss and devastation brought upon us by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi-regime. Too Little, Too Late The warning signs were there, but it was all too easy to ignore the rise of German militarism. Adolph Hitler found himself in the right place at the right time and to the demoralised German population he was the charismatic leader who could put their country back on its feet once more. The darker side of the Nazi Regime and Hitler's enormous personal ambitions were seriously overlooked. It wasn’t until Germany began to talk of annexing some German-speaking territories belonging to other nations that countries like Britain and France began to take notice. Even after his troops had marched into the Czech Sudetenland, Hitler managed to talk his way out of the crisis. He successfully persuaded British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain that he had no desire to annex any more territory. However, on 1st September 1939, the German army marched into Poland. Britain and France were treaty bound to do something and Germany was ordered to withdraw its troops. After Germany refused to comply, World War II officially began on 3rd September 1939. King Leopold III of Belgium was in a dilemma. He was very much aware that once the fighting began, both the French and the Germans would fight each other on his country’s soil. King Leopold knew that French General Gamelin and German General Von Manstein had both formulated plans to advance into Belgium and eliminate the other’s army. Throughout its history the territory that was now Belgium had only seen pain and suffering from its central position in Europe. Whenever there was a war to fight, it seemed to take place on Belgian soil. With memories of the devastation caused to his country by the Great War less than a quarter of a century old, Leopold was anxious not to plunge Belgium into a new nightmare. He was an advocate of an independent foreign policy for Belgium and had authorised the construction of a series of heavy defensive fortifications stretching from Antwerp to the edge of the Ardenne Forest near Namur along the German border. After the Great War Belgium had returned to its policy of neutrality and Leopold’s vision of armed neutrality was widely supported by the country’s population. On two occasions, even after the outbreak of war, he had advocated mediation to solve the conflict between Nazi Germany and the Western Allies. In October 1939 Leopold made a radio broadcast to the United States. Speaking in English he told his audience that the feelings of the Belgian people were based on age-long struggles fought on Belgian soil. The Belgian people simply wanted to be left alone and in peace and whatever the Allies or the Axis countries might think of each other, Belgium wanted to be left out of it. Here Come The Germans (Again) For several months not a great deal happened and then on 10th May 1940 all thoughts of a “phoney war” were shattered when the Germans issued the code word “Danzig” and put into action their invasion plan, Feld Gelb. The main attack was expected to come through central Belgium along a similar line to the German attack on France in 1914. Leopold hoped to hold off the Germans at Fort Eben Emael, north of Liege near the German border. This was a large underground fort that dominated three well-defended bridges over the Albert Canal. It was manned by over 1,200 soldiers and was considered to be impregnable. Its weakness however, was that it was vulnerable to attack from above. At dawn on 10 th May the Germans launched a daring attack using a 400-man glider force. Nine gliders were landed directly on top of the fort and paratroopers blasted their way through the roofs of the gun emplacements quickly disabling them. Heavy attacks by Stuka dive-bombers finished things off. Fighting had been fierce and there were many casualties, but the fort surrendered. With the defending artillery destroyed, the remainder of the German force was quickly able to secure two of the three bridges, allowing the German forces to cross the heavily defended Belgian border. The King, the Belgian Army, the Belgian people and the allies were stunned not only by the attack, but by the fall of the border defences. Fort Eben Emael was in its time the largest fort in the world and is open to visitors. Gathering The Troops The French and British forces were much better equipped than the Belgian army and they quickly moved north to counter the expected attack through central Belgium. However, they too were treated as invaders when they tried to cross into Belgium. Pacifist sentiment was strong and it was widely felt that any co-operation with the Allies would attract German aggression. Fortunately government officials recognised Germany as being the greater threat and did what they could by opening the border for the Allied armies. Eventually Leopold decided to come down on the side of the Allies, but by then precious time had been lost. There was a serious problem: the Allied and Belgian armies had never worked or prepared to work together. Even as war approached there was no military co-operation and two completely different command structures and ways of doing things were now expected to mesh together. Allied men and machines began pouring into Belgium ready for the major fight that was expected to take place just as it had 25 years earlier. But the invasion of the Low Countries, although strategic in nature, was really only a cover for the main invasion that was taking place through the Ardennes. Previously the Belgians and the French had believed the Ardenne Forest to be impenetrable, but after months of training in the Black Forest, the Germans had developed new military techniques and tactics. Generals Rommel and Guderian’s Blitzkrieg techniques, with Panzer divisions supported by the Luftwaffe enabled their fast-moving tank formations to break out of the Ardennes on 13th May and head west towards the coast. Belgium’s last hope in stopping the advancing German armour now pouring through the centre of the country was the so-called KW Line that been set up after the outbreak of the war as a last line of defence southeast of Brussels. The Belgians managed to hold this on their own for nearly four days, before handing over command to the French. The resistance didn’t last long though, as on 15 th May the French General Gamelin ordered the withdrawal of all French forces from Belgian soil. Five days later Gamelin was sacked for not doing more to stop the German advance. Further south, Rommel and his Panzers reached the Channel coast near Abbeville on 20th May. The Belgian army and the British Expeditionary Force were now completely surrounded and cut off from the bulk of the French army. The King’s Struggle Controversy has always surrounded King Leopold’s actions during World War II. The Germans dropped leaflets on the Belgian troops telling them that their king had deserted them. Leopold countered this by telling his men that whatever happened to them, he would share their fate. On 28th May 1940 and without consulting his cabinet, King Leopold III surrendered the Belgian army and capitulated to the Germans. This was the same day that the encircled British began their evacuation at Dunkirk. His surrender left a crucial gap in the Allied defence of Dunkirk and if the Germans had exploited this, the evacuation would not have been possible. To many Belgian people and the parliament, Leopold’s conduct was in stark contrast to those of his father, King Albert I, who had gallantly resisted the Kaiser’s army in the Great War. Other Belgians, including the two million refugees who were trapped in the pocket encircled by the Germans, supported the king’s action. His supporters say that the King saw the situation as being completely hopeless and decided to spare his people from further bloodshed by not continuing to fight in a lost cause. In the event the British Expeditionary Force lost all of its equipment, but nearly 340,000 men were evacuated from Dunkirk. Had these men been lost along with their equipment, it is hard to see how Britain could have remained in the war and how Belgium could subsequently have been liberated in 1944. For Belgium And Honour Leopold honoured his pledge to his troops to share their fate and he refused to flee to England as part of a government-in-exile, but despite this the British and the French were very critical of his actions. In 1941 he aroused further criticism, particularly in Belgium, when he married a commoner that many considered a Nazi sympathiser. In spite of this he showed great courage in stoutly refusing to administer his country on behalf of the German occupiers, which would have lent an appearance of legitimacy to the Nazi government. As a result he effectively became a prisoner of war; initially in his castle near Brussels, but when the Allies advanced towards the end of the war, at another location deep within Germany. It is said that during his imprisonment, King Leopold saved a significant number of women and children from deportation to munitions factories in Germany when in 1942 he wrote a personal letter to Hitler pleading on their behalf. Eighteen days after the German invasion and once the country had been completely overrun, civil administration was placed in the hands of the Wehrmacht, the German army. Their headquarters was set up at Wilrijk just south of Antwerp and a host of Fascist French, Flemish and Walloon collaborators assisted the occupation authorities. From here they administered the whole of Belgium, together with two departments of Northern France. Before long the first anti-Jewish measures were introduced. Just before the outbreak of war the Jewish population of Belgium was at its peak, numbering roughly 70,000. About 35,000 were living in Antwerp and 25,000 in Brussels. It is estimated that some 22,000 of this number were German refugees and that only 6% were of Belgian nationality. Initially these anti-Jewish measures were limited to stopping certain religious rites. But before long the Nazis were prohibiting Jews from professions such as law and education. By 1941 property was being confiscated, curfews were set up and Jews were confined to cities. In early 1942 Jews were ordered to wear yellow badges The Belgian Holocaust In September 1942 the first round-ups began. In all, approximately 45% of the Jews in Belgium were deported to concentration camps, primarily Auschwitz. Only 1,200 returned. Figures indicate that 28,900 Belgian Jews perished between 1942 and 1945. Belgium’s National Monument of the Jewish Martyrs is in Brussels and more than 20,000 names of Jewish dead are inscribed on its walls. Many Jews were saved as a result of an active resistance movement. A higher proportion of Jews was saved in Belgium than in most other occupied countries. The Belgian constitution does not permit the mention of religion on civil documents so initially the Germans had trouble identifying Jewish families. Many Jewish children were hidden by Christian families and with the help of the Jewish Resistance about 800 Jews were hidden in the city of Antwerp alone. Whilst in exile the Belgian government also helped fund the rescue of thousands of children by the resistance. In 2012 the Jewish Museum for Deportation and Resistance was opened at the Kazerne Dossin in Mechelen. Sleeping With The Enemy Racial purity always featured very highly on the agenda of the German occupation forces. The Flemish population of Belgium was considered to be purer than the French-speaking Walloons and the original intention was that only Flanders should be incorporated into the German Reich. The Wehrmacht stoutly resisted this since it would seriously disrupt the valuable support that Belgian industry was giving to the German war effort. Collaboration in occupied countries is always a delicate issue. Many viewed the king as a collaborator, but his role is very difficult to assess. After the successful invasion, the Germans seemed to be sweeping towards certain victory and to many people there seemed to be little point in putting up any form of resistance. There are other delicate issues: were the police who so effectively rounded up all the Jews in Antwerp and Brussels acting as collaborators? After the war no action was taken against them on the grounds that they were simply acting on the orders from superiors in their own organisation, who in turn were acting on orders from civil servants further up the chain. Although after the war a number of civil servants lost their jobs, it was felt that any major investigation would simply open a Pandora’s Box. In Antwerp collaborators even got locked up in the lion cages of the local zoo. Nationally tens of thousands were convicted for aiding the occupiers or joining the Waffen-SS and some were even executed. Putting Up A Fight Most of the population gave no thought to collaboration. Belgian Resistance was highly organised, although it took a number of different forms, with resistance fighters performing a number of different roles. These included sabotaging Nazi installations and helping to rescue shot down airmen. With most of the major rail routes between Germany and France passing through Belgium, other networks specialised in providing the Allies with intelligence on the movements of rail traffic. Resistance groups were formed immediately after the surrender. The atmosphere of resistance is described as having been “relentless”. Reportedly more Germans were killed in Belgium during 1941 than in occupied France. So many Belgian citizens expressed willingness to aid the resistance fighters that supply lines were established and evasion routes charted. Belgian resistance fighters were determined to aid the Allies in every possible way. However, there was never a unified organisation of resistance groups, which from a security point of view was probably a very good thing. An important role for the resistance was to help downed airmen. Aircrew were being shot down in their hundreds and after every raid the Germans sent out patrols with dogs and motorcycles to look for them. The resistance took great pride in finding them first. Parachutes had to be buried and airmen hidden away. The so-called Comet escape line had a series of safe houses throughout Belgium where airmen could be given civilian clothes and moved from house to house. They would be provided with false papers and guided to neutral or Allied-occupied territory. This was a highly sophisticated operation and many airmen were able to escape successfully. Capture usually meant interrogation by the Gestapo, followed by imprisonment in Belgium or transport back to a German POW camp. The Terror Of Sabotage Sabotage was another weapon in the Resistance’s armour and a good example was the attack on the Bridge over the Amblève River. German troop trains were constantly passing through Belgium and the resistance identified when and where these trains would be travelling. They planned to destroy a vital bridge between the towns of La Gleize and Stoumont, southeast of Liege. A band of 40 members of the Resistance assembled at the bridge and placed explosives under the central arch. This explosive was detonated as the train approached and, being unable to stop, the train plunged into the river killing all 600 German soldiers on board. Sabotaging trains always had spectacular consequences and the German Army lost thousands of trains to acts of sabotage. Railway lines were often targeted to disrupt the flow of materials and military personnel. The loss amounted to many millions of Reich marks. Resistance fighters lived in a world of constant danger. They were always at a risk of being captured or betrayed. The Germans had special agents whose job was to infiltrate the underground communities in order to gather intelligence. Hundreds of resistance fighters were arrested. Seemingly safe escape routes were sometimes traps and many downed airmen and resistance fighters were caught in this way. Resistance fighters caught by the Germans were imprisoned or shot. One of them was Jean (“Johnny”) Vost. He was arrested in 1942 for alleged sabotage and sent to Dachau concentration camp where, somehow, he managed to survive. He was originally from the Belgian Congo and is documented as the only black prisoner to serve time at Dachau. The achievements of the Belgian resistance movement were significant. In addition to providing an escape route for downed Allied aircrew, resistance fighters were also credited with stopping a train transporting Jewish prisoners to Auschwitz. In addition to having an important effect on the morale of German soldiers, acts of sabotage gave an enormous psychological boost to the civilian population who could plainly see that something positive was being done to get back at the occupying power. In 1940 hundreds of Belgian soldiers had managed to escape to Britain and were organised into several military units. In June 1942 the Belgian Forces in Britain were officially made available to the Allies. By the end of the year a restructuring had led to the creation of the 1st Belgian Brigade under the command of Major Jean-Baptiste Piron. It soon gained the nickname “Brigade Piron”. Belgians came from around the world to join the Brigade, which was said to contain speakers of 33 different languages. The Allied invasion of Europe, the D-day landings, took place on 6th June 1944. The Belgian brigade had trained extensively for this, but to their intense disappointment they did not take part in the landings. They had been placed in reserve to take part in the liberation of Belgium. After Major Piron lobbied to the Belgian government in exile, the Belgian Brigade arrived in Normandy on 30th July entering active service on 9th August under the command of the British 6th Airborne Division. After taking part in some very fierce fighting and sustaining a number of casualties, on 2nd September they were transferred to the 2nd British Army to allow them to move as quickly as possible to the Belgian border. After an overnight journey they entered Brussels the next day, just after the British. Needless to say, after five years of occupation the Belgian people were ecstatic. Many thought that the Brigade Piron were French Canadians since Belgian troops were the last soldiers they expected to liberate them. Other Belgian cities were quickly liberated, along with a number of V-1 “Doodlebug” launching sites. German troops tried to limit the usefulness of the port of Antwerp to the Allies by attacking it with V-1 and V-2 rockets. These attacks were far from accurate and although a considerable amount of damage was done to the city, the port facilities remained intact and were captured by the Allies on 4th September. The Final Chapter By November most of Belgium was in Allied hands, but on 16th December the Germans launched a last-ditch attack in the Ardennes. Known to the Americans, who bore the brunt of the fighting, as the Battle of the Bulge, this was launched through the same densely forested region where Rommel had made his celebrated Panzer breakthrough in 1940. The German aim was to split the British and American line in half, recapture Antwerp, encircle and destroy four Allied armies and force the Allies to negotiate a peace treaty in favour of the Axis powers. Fierce resistance from the Americans destroyed the German’s schedules before improved weather conditions enabled Allied air attacks to disrupt German supply lines. These factors combined to seal the fate of the offensive. Both sides suffered heavy casualties and around 3,000 civilians were killed. There were 89,500 American losses, including 19,000 killed; and 1,408 British losses, including 200 killed. Figures for German losses vary, but an authoritative source puts German losses at around 85,000, of whom nearly 16,000 were killed. The Germans lost just about all of their equipment and vehicles; a loss of manpower that was critical at this stage of the war. You can find out more at a recently opened museum. In spring 2013 the new Bastogne War Museum opened its doors, right next to the famous Mardasson Memorial in Bastogne. After The Smoke Had Cleared Belgium was finally declared free of German forces on Sunday 4th February 1945. The country had not suffered the damage of many other European countries, with most of the damage having been incurred during the Battle of the Bulge. King Leopold and his family were released from imprisonment in Austria, but his position was untenable and in 1951 he abdicated in favour of his son, Baudouin. The “Brigade Piron” later went on to become the nucleus of the post-war Belgian army. In the post-war era Belgium’s location has worked to its advantage. Belgium is no longer an insignificant little nation to be used as a convenient battleground. Since the founding of the European Community in 1958, Brussels has effectively become the de facto capital of the European Union and the regular meeting place of the European Council Heads of Government. How fortunes change. Information about Belgian fashion. With details on the fashion industry and fashion designers in Belgium.[ more... ] War Memorials and Cemeteries Belgium has important war memorials and cemeteries honouring those who fell on Belgian soil during the Battle of Waterloo, WWI and WWII.[ more... ] World War I Belgium and World War One. The role of Belgium and the Belgian people in WWI.[ more... ] Belgium has no single national language. In fact it has three: Dutch, French and German,[ more... ] Belgian Antiques and Flea Markets An extensive guide to some of Belgium's most important antique cities, shopping areas and flea markets in Brussels, Flanders and Wallonia.[ more... ] Nature and Wildlife Belgium is blessed with some areas of exceptional natural beauty which are well worth leaving the medieval cities for. [ more... ] Battle of Waterloo Detailed and illustrated Information about the infamous Battle of Waterloo which was fought out on what is now Belgian soil on the 18th June of 1815.[ more... ] UNESCO World Heritage Information about UNESCO World Heritage sites in Belgium and explanation why beer culture in Belgium was officially recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage.[ more... ] You must be logged in to leave a comment BRUSSELS/MONS - We’ve made our way down to the historic city of Mons (Bergen) for the eighth edition of the international Brussels Beer Challenge. A 90-strong jury is busy tasting; there are four morning sessions in a ro... [ more ] BRUGES - This city draws you back in time to the heydays of the Burgundian era. After years of renovation works the Gruuthusemuseum has re-opened its doors. This former city palace is the showca... [ more ] ANTWERP - Brewers from 59 different countries flocked to attend the Brewers of Europe Forum 2019 in the prestigious Queen Elizabeth Hall, right next to the renowned Antwerp Central Station building. ... [ more ] ERTVELDE - To track down a brewer within his own domain is a high-ranking form of sports, or that’s the impression I get. After a bit of practice I spot Jef Versele, CEO of the Van Steenberge brewery, well hidden amongst... [ more ] MECHELEN - The historic city of Mechelen, halfway between Brussels and Antwerp, is truly a hidden gem. The presence of the Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled here in the late middle ages, still permeates the ancient city centr... [ more ] The original name of this beer was IJzerenband (Iron Band). It used to be categorised as a 'provisie-bier' – a beer for storage – as it was slightly heavier in density and alcohol... [ more ] Beer Tourism Newsletter Signup Enter your name and email address on the right and click "SignUp" to join.	5,120	ENGLISH	1
The Washington coast sighted by Sir Francis Drake and claimed for England In June 1579 Sir Francis Drake sailed along the Oregon coast and possibly reached the coast of present-day Washington. He named the sighted land New Albion and claimed it for Queen Elizabeth I of England. This was the first of many strong claims the British made for possession of the Pacific Northwest. In 1577 Sir Francis Drake set out from England with five small ships on a buccaneering expedition. As a privateer, his goal was to plunder Spanish ports and treasure ships for his benefit and England’s glory. By the time he sailed through the Straits of Magellan into the Pacific Ocean only one ship remained, the Golden Hind. In raids upon Spanish ports and ships, Drake attacked Spanish ships and stole their silver and gold. However, the Golden Hind was not a large ship and became so overloaded with treasure that Drake decided he would not be able to fight his way past the Spanish ships waiting for his return. Instead he continued to sail north, in search of fair winds that would take him westward across the Pacific, around the world and home to England. By June 1579 Drake claimed to have sailed as far north as 48 degrees north; although this claim has been disputed, this latitude would have placed him roughly due west of present-day Everett, Washington. He named the sighted land New Albion and claimed it for Queen Elizabeth I of England. Drake completed his trip around the world and arrived in England both rich and famous from having completed the most successful privateering voyage in history.	<urn:uuid:f317a75b-a974-444f-9110-9b811f762cbc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sos.wa.gov/legacy/timeline/detail.aspx?id=2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00423.warc.gz	en	0.984389	320	3.8125	4	[ 0.001422097091563046, 0.015058071352541447, 0.21960973739624023, -0.22008952498435974, 0.07014179229736328, 0.15881633758544922, 0.0776398703455925, 0.12598899006843567, 0.024352839216589928, -0.034175582230091095, 0.08320298045873642, -0.8269742131233215, 0.02304762974381447, 0.2526304721...	3	The Washington coast sighted by Sir Francis Drake and claimed for England In June 1579 Sir Francis Drake sailed along the Oregon coast and possibly reached the coast of present-day Washington. He named the sighted land New Albion and claimed it for Queen Elizabeth I of England. This was the first of many strong claims the British made for possession of the Pacific Northwest. In 1577 Sir Francis Drake set out from England with five small ships on a buccaneering expedition. As a privateer, his goal was to plunder Spanish ports and treasure ships for his benefit and England’s glory. By the time he sailed through the Straits of Magellan into the Pacific Ocean only one ship remained, the Golden Hind. In raids upon Spanish ports and ships, Drake attacked Spanish ships and stole their silver and gold. However, the Golden Hind was not a large ship and became so overloaded with treasure that Drake decided he would not be able to fight his way past the Spanish ships waiting for his return. Instead he continued to sail north, in search of fair winds that would take him westward across the Pacific, around the world and home to England. By June 1579 Drake claimed to have sailed as far north as 48 degrees north; although this claim has been disputed, this latitude would have placed him roughly due west of present-day Everett, Washington. He named the sighted land New Albion and claimed it for Queen Elizabeth I of England. Drake completed his trip around the world and arrived in England both rich and famous from having completed the most successful privateering voyage in history.	326	ENGLISH	1
The 17th-century naval hero Michiel Adriaensz de Ruyter, born in Vlissingen, came from a modest background. He went to sea at the age of eleven, and quickly worked his way up to skipper. While still a seaman, in 1622 De Ruyter escaped from Spanish captivity. In these years he not only served the war fleet, but also captained merchant ships. De Ruyter took part as commander in the First Anglo-Dutch War in 1652. Both countries were fighting for dominion over the sea. De Ruyter booked many great successes, was appointed vice-admiral and remained active in the struggle against England. Under his command, in 1667 a spectacular raid was launched against the ships, docks and warehouses in Chatham, east of London on the Medway River. The pride of the English fleet, HMS Royal Charles, was also captured. The famous admiral suffered serious injuries during a naval encounter with the French off the coast of Sicily in 1676 and succumbed to his wounds one week later. A tomb in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam marks the place where De Ruyter is buried.	<urn:uuid:9dab1d80-0f78-48a6-8805-eb174ecb851d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://rijks-web.azurewebsites.net/en/rijksstudio/historical-figures/michiel-adriaensz-de-ruyter	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00063.warc.gz	en	0.982914	242	3.453125	3	[ -0.060363899916410446, 0.3021954894065857, 0.20623096823692322, -0.5193171501159668, -0.2906063199043274, -0.5369208455085754, 0.07800517976284027, 0.378709077835083, -0.4429783523082733, -0.3190747797489166, 0.423319935798645, -0.362518846988678, -0.23052576184272766, 0.42543402314186096,...	2	The 17th-century naval hero Michiel Adriaensz de Ruyter, born in Vlissingen, came from a modest background. He went to sea at the age of eleven, and quickly worked his way up to skipper. While still a seaman, in 1622 De Ruyter escaped from Spanish captivity. In these years he not only served the war fleet, but also captained merchant ships. De Ruyter took part as commander in the First Anglo-Dutch War in 1652. Both countries were fighting for dominion over the sea. De Ruyter booked many great successes, was appointed vice-admiral and remained active in the struggle against England. Under his command, in 1667 a spectacular raid was launched against the ships, docks and warehouses in Chatham, east of London on the Medway River. The pride of the English fleet, HMS Royal Charles, was also captured. The famous admiral suffered serious injuries during a naval encounter with the French off the coast of Sicily in 1676 and succumbed to his wounds one week later. A tomb in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam marks the place where De Ruyter is buried.	256	ENGLISH	1
In the past, children fulfilled a significant role in the survival of the family. Before supermarkets and washing machines, families were burdened with a tremendous amount of work. Food had to be prepared from scratch, clothes had to be handmade, wood had to be chopped, and crops and livestock had to be tended to. Washing the family’s clothes was an all day affair. The extent of the effort required was more than parents alone could accomplish. Children were a necessity for keeping the family going. The enormity of this responsibility forced children to grow up quickly. In today’s world, children are not needed to preserve the family. They have a much lower level of maturity and sense of responsibility compared to earlier generations. Children now spend much of their time uninvolved in the family. They are involved in sports, lessons, the Internet, video games, TV, and phone calls with peers. They have become “me” directed rather than “we” directed. Doing chores is a way for children to increase self-confidence, internalize values, and become cooperative family members. Parents who do not have children do chores are missing an opportunity for character building. There are three valuable benefits of doing chores. 1. Chores build responsibility. One job of a parent is to prepare children for the real world. Thus, children need to learn to be accountable. By the time they reach their later teens, they should be well on their way to having the skills for assuming responsibility and functioning independently. They should be able to wash their own clothes, prepare meals, manage money, and be responsible for the consequences of their choices and actions. 2. Chores strengthen moral development. Doing chores teaches family beliefs and values. Children learn to be cooperative, considerate, and contributing members of the family. They learn everyone pulls their weight and does their fair share. This promotes reciprocity, a sense of belonging, and good citizenship. 3. Chores enhance self-esteem. Positive self-esteem is one of the most important factors for success in life. Doing chores well creates feelings of accomplishment. When children know their efforts are regarded with value, their feelings of worth and self-esteem grow. The child sees his or her efforts contributing directly to the well-being of the family. Praise and appreciation for a job well done helps children to feel valuable and worthwhile.	<urn:uuid:22df7ccd-e2b0-4eec-b8be-b0e4cd820423>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.evergreenpsychotherapycenter.com/why-children-do-chores/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00096.warc.gz	en	0.981794	491	3.515625	4	[ -0.0146684804931283, 0.19518649578094482, 0.39732351899147034, -0.6025468707084656, -0.12324930727481842, 0.3106861412525177, 0.06693518906831741, 0.021304700523614883, -0.06137581169605255, -0.017195383086800575, 0.1975686252117157, -0.26900291442871094, 0.39661046862602234, 0.25958129763...	5	In the past, children fulfilled a significant role in the survival of the family. Before supermarkets and washing machines, families were burdened with a tremendous amount of work. Food had to be prepared from scratch, clothes had to be handmade, wood had to be chopped, and crops and livestock had to be tended to. Washing the family’s clothes was an all day affair. The extent of the effort required was more than parents alone could accomplish. Children were a necessity for keeping the family going. The enormity of this responsibility forced children to grow up quickly. In today’s world, children are not needed to preserve the family. They have a much lower level of maturity and sense of responsibility compared to earlier generations. Children now spend much of their time uninvolved in the family. They are involved in sports, lessons, the Internet, video games, TV, and phone calls with peers. They have become “me” directed rather than “we” directed. Doing chores is a way for children to increase self-confidence, internalize values, and become cooperative family members. Parents who do not have children do chores are missing an opportunity for character building. There are three valuable benefits of doing chores. 1. Chores build responsibility. One job of a parent is to prepare children for the real world. Thus, children need to learn to be accountable. By the time they reach their later teens, they should be well on their way to having the skills for assuming responsibility and functioning independently. They should be able to wash their own clothes, prepare meals, manage money, and be responsible for the consequences of their choices and actions. 2. Chores strengthen moral development. Doing chores teaches family beliefs and values. Children learn to be cooperative, considerate, and contributing members of the family. They learn everyone pulls their weight and does their fair share. This promotes reciprocity, a sense of belonging, and good citizenship. 3. Chores enhance self-esteem. Positive self-esteem is one of the most important factors for success in life. Doing chores well creates feelings of accomplishment. When children know their efforts are regarded with value, their feelings of worth and self-esteem grow. The child sees his or her efforts contributing directly to the well-being of the family. Praise and appreciation for a job well done helps children to feel valuable and worthwhile.	467	ENGLISH	1
Jan 11, 2020 RAY: It was a dark and stormy night. The dozen inhabitants of a small three-story apartment building began to worry. The rain got heavier and soon the roof began to leak. The people living in the top floor apartment sought refuge in the apartment one floor below, i.e., the second floor. When they did, the second floor people said, "We can't admit all of you, we can just accept the same number of people that we already have living here." So some people moved from the top floor to the middle floor and the rest stayed behind. Soon the rain got heavier. Those on the second floor began to get wet and sought refuge on the first floor. They were told the same thing: “We can only accept the same number of people that we have already.” And so some moved, and some stayed behind. The next morning, when the rescue workers arrived, an equal number of people emerged from each of the three apartments. The question is: How many people started out on each floor? RAY: We know the first floor must have started with two, because it wound up with four people. Remember, it accepted the same number it had, making for four. Since there are twelve people total, we had to start off on the top floor with seven, and three on the second floor. Remember, we know the first floor had two people. The top floor gave up three, ending with the requisite four. So, it had to start with seven.	<urn:uuid:9ce0618f-7cdb-4159-a4d6-eeb41f5d8c11>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cartalk.com/radio/puzzler/dark-and-stormy-night-0	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00345.warc.gz	en	0.980937	315	3.296875	3	[ -0.23846322298049927, -0.46230509877204895, -0.27890485525131226, -0.23852813243865967, -0.10932277143001556, 0.36515557765960693, 0.06906553357839584, -0.37690457701683044, 0.2106797695159912, 0.16563476622104645, 0.37569981813430786, 0.040643684566020966, -0.009344528429210186, -0.150940...	8	Jan 11, 2020 RAY: It was a dark and stormy night. The dozen inhabitants of a small three-story apartment building began to worry. The rain got heavier and soon the roof began to leak. The people living in the top floor apartment sought refuge in the apartment one floor below, i.e., the second floor. When they did, the second floor people said, "We can't admit all of you, we can just accept the same number of people that we already have living here." So some people moved from the top floor to the middle floor and the rest stayed behind. Soon the rain got heavier. Those on the second floor began to get wet and sought refuge on the first floor. They were told the same thing: “We can only accept the same number of people that we have already.” And so some moved, and some stayed behind. The next morning, when the rescue workers arrived, an equal number of people emerged from each of the three apartments. The question is: How many people started out on each floor? RAY: We know the first floor must have started with two, because it wound up with four people. Remember, it accepted the same number it had, making for four. Since there are twelve people total, we had to start off on the top floor with seven, and three on the second floor. Remember, we know the first floor had two people. The top floor gave up three, ending with the requisite four. So, it had to start with seven.	310	ENGLISH	1
The Egyptians wore amulets alongside other pieces of jewellery. They were decorative, but also served a practical purpose, being considered to bestow power and protection upon the wearer. Many of the amulets have been found inside the wrappings of mummies, as they were used to prepare the deceased for the afterlife. Amulets held different meanings, depending on their type or form. Small amulets depicting gods and goddesses seem to have induced the protective powers of the deity. On the other hand, small representations of anatomical features or creatures suggest that the wearer required protection over a specific body part, or that he/she desired the skills of a particular animal. Amulets depicting animals were very common in the Old Kingdom Period, whilst representations of deities gained popularity in the Middle Kingdom. Horus was one of the most significant Ancient Egyptian deities. He is most commonly depicted with the head of a falcon, and the body of a man. Horus was a sun and moon deity, and it was said that his right eye was the sun, and the left was the moon. The eye of Horus, also known as ‘Wedjat’, was an ancient symbol of protection, particularly for the afterlife, and was also used to deflect evil. It was highly influential in Egyptian life, with ancient sailors painting the image on the bow of their vessels to ward off evil. There are six key parts to the Eye of Horus and each has its own value: the eyebrow represents thought; the pupil stands for sight; the triangle between the pupil and the white of the eye is hearing, whereas the white of the eye is smell; the spiral curve, or tail, represents taste; and the teardrop is touch.	<urn:uuid:70615d19-6a5b-49d4-901e-d8de1bdf7829>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://antiquities.co.uk/shop/ancient-jewellery/amulets/egyptian-green-hardstone-eye-of-horus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00250.warc.gz	en	0.984036	353	3.59375	4	[ -0.09433947503566742, 0.8092049956321716, 0.054598625749349594, 0.08702186495065689, -0.5020854473114014, 0.030850527808070183, 1.0408670902252197, -0.04032323509454727, -0.1650104969739914, -0.034128498286008835, -0.22509919106960297, -0.7668907642364502, -0.0716204047203064, 0.2592451274...	2	The Egyptians wore amulets alongside other pieces of jewellery. They were decorative, but also served a practical purpose, being considered to bestow power and protection upon the wearer. Many of the amulets have been found inside the wrappings of mummies, as they were used to prepare the deceased for the afterlife. Amulets held different meanings, depending on their type or form. Small amulets depicting gods and goddesses seem to have induced the protective powers of the deity. On the other hand, small representations of anatomical features or creatures suggest that the wearer required protection over a specific body part, or that he/she desired the skills of a particular animal. Amulets depicting animals were very common in the Old Kingdom Period, whilst representations of deities gained popularity in the Middle Kingdom. Horus was one of the most significant Ancient Egyptian deities. He is most commonly depicted with the head of a falcon, and the body of a man. Horus was a sun and moon deity, and it was said that his right eye was the sun, and the left was the moon. The eye of Horus, also known as ‘Wedjat’, was an ancient symbol of protection, particularly for the afterlife, and was also used to deflect evil. It was highly influential in Egyptian life, with ancient sailors painting the image on the bow of their vessels to ward off evil. There are six key parts to the Eye of Horus and each has its own value: the eyebrow represents thought; the pupil stands for sight; the triangle between the pupil and the white of the eye is hearing, whereas the white of the eye is smell; the spiral curve, or tail, represents taste; and the teardrop is touch.	353	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 31/03/2015) Places of worship in Hinduism earlier were restricted under the trees to the open sky. Aryans started worshipping elements of nature in the open. The Dravidians worshipped the emblems of their goddesses under trees. They were surrounded with the images of snakes. Aryans and Dravidians began erecting temples for worshipping of Gods before the birth of sectarian cults. However sectarian cults like Vaishnavism gave rise to erection of temples. They followed the example of the Buddhists who had erected dagobas for the preservation of Lord Buddha's relics. In the Vedic age as such there were no temples. Fire was worshipped as it represented God. This holy fire was lit on a platform in the open air. It is uncertain when exactly the Indo-Aryans started building temples for worship. As human beings progressed temples became important as they served as a sacred meeting place for the community to revitalize their spiritual energies. To worship the village Gods or Aiyanir, a rude stone was fixed sometimes in the open-air or under a tree. Sometimes they were worshipped in a temple which was built with mud walls and thatched roof and sometimes with more substantial materials as per people's ability. The structure was used for religious purposes and for transacting the civil affairs of a village. The temples of Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva were more elaborate. They were built with massive square shaped stones; and the roof rested partly on the walls and partly on huge monoliths. The chief idol is placed in Garbha griha which is a small pyramidal structure in the temple. Earlier temple structures were possibly made of clay with thatched roofs made of straw or leaves. Cave-temples were also prevalent in remote areas and hilly terrains. Some temples were large structures that had extensive outer courts and buildings for the accommodation of priests and visitors. The entrance was under a Gopuram which was ornamented in relief with Hindu mythological characters. Figures of Gods and Goddesses were carved on the pillars and the walls which enclose these temples. The growth phase of Hindu temples has witnessed its rise and fall according to various dynasties that ruled India. The rulers in fact contributed and influenced the building of temples, especially in South India The country of India is filled with temples. Almost every village has one or more temple. The money required for daily conduct of the temple activities came from the revenues which were derived from lands given by former devotees like kings and wealthy men or voluntary gifts given by the visitors.	<urn:uuid:6ff0f016-eb02-4fdc-9f0b-1c36bf99ed34>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/52/places_worship.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00293.warc.gz	en	0.985388	539	3.765625	4	[ 0.5858538746833801, 0.2876531779766083, -0.043318890035152435, -0.20276090502738953, -0.381806880235672, 0.2616503834724426, 0.13126665353775024, -0.10032105445861816, 0.5395697355270386, -0.00957745686173439, -0.029111094772815704, -0.4785236120223999, 0.13240154087543488, 0.3032719194889...	4	(Last Updated on : 31/03/2015) Places of worship in Hinduism earlier were restricted under the trees to the open sky. Aryans started worshipping elements of nature in the open. The Dravidians worshipped the emblems of their goddesses under trees. They were surrounded with the images of snakes. Aryans and Dravidians began erecting temples for worshipping of Gods before the birth of sectarian cults. However sectarian cults like Vaishnavism gave rise to erection of temples. They followed the example of the Buddhists who had erected dagobas for the preservation of Lord Buddha's relics. In the Vedic age as such there were no temples. Fire was worshipped as it represented God. This holy fire was lit on a platform in the open air. It is uncertain when exactly the Indo-Aryans started building temples for worship. As human beings progressed temples became important as they served as a sacred meeting place for the community to revitalize their spiritual energies. To worship the village Gods or Aiyanir, a rude stone was fixed sometimes in the open-air or under a tree. Sometimes they were worshipped in a temple which was built with mud walls and thatched roof and sometimes with more substantial materials as per people's ability. The structure was used for religious purposes and for transacting the civil affairs of a village. The temples of Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva were more elaborate. They were built with massive square shaped stones; and the roof rested partly on the walls and partly on huge monoliths. The chief idol is placed in Garbha griha which is a small pyramidal structure in the temple. Earlier temple structures were possibly made of clay with thatched roofs made of straw or leaves. Cave-temples were also prevalent in remote areas and hilly terrains. Some temples were large structures that had extensive outer courts and buildings for the accommodation of priests and visitors. The entrance was under a Gopuram which was ornamented in relief with Hindu mythological characters. Figures of Gods and Goddesses were carved on the pillars and the walls which enclose these temples. The growth phase of Hindu temples has witnessed its rise and fall according to various dynasties that ruled India. The rulers in fact contributed and influenced the building of temples, especially in South India The country of India is filled with temples. Almost every village has one or more temple. The money required for daily conduct of the temple activities came from the revenues which were derived from lands given by former devotees like kings and wealthy men or voluntary gifts given by the visitors.	537	ENGLISH	1
Difference between revisions of "How Did Black Pepper Spread in Popularity?" (→Spread of Black Pepper) \|Line 8:\|\|Line 8:\| ==Spread of Black Pepper== ==Spread of Black Pepper== Revision as of 05:05, 17 January 2017 Visiting a restaurant in the Western world or even a home often means finding salt and black pepper as common condiments on the table used to give taste to our dishes. Salt has been native to many regions and is commonly found; however, black pepper was a far more limited plant (Piper nigrum) that natively grew in South and Southeast Asia. The spread of this pepper is intertwined with ancient trade expansion that once connected the length of the Old World. In more recent times, this pepper became a fixed a daily condiment. Archaeologically, we know that black pepper was used at least by the 3rd millennium BCE in India. In fact, although pepper can be found in southeast Asia, it was probably India, and specifically in the province of Kerala, that pepper was most utilized or even strictly native to. For centuries, it most likely was not traded very far from its places of origin, remaining in India and influencing Indian cuisine to this day. Eventually, however, we begin to get archaeological data that suggest pepper made it to Egypt sometime around the 2nd millennium BCE. Traces of black pepper have been found on Ramses II, specifically in his nose, suggesting it was used in the mummification process. It was likely also used in other parts of the Near East by the 2nd millennium BCE; however, plant remains of pepper are difficult to detect so this can only be a conjecture. In fact, trade and migration of Indo-Europeans in the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE likely began to expand black pepper outside of its traditional confines in India. Indo-Europeans began to migrate across the Near East and into Europe, likely bringing their foods with them. However, archaeologically and historically, remains of pepper are very limited. This likely suggests it was either not very popular or too expensive for common consumption. Pepper can be preserved through drying easily enough, suggesting it was not preservation that would have been a major hurdle for its spread. Spread of Black Pepper Trade in black pepper seems to have expanded by the 4th century BCE, reaching the Aegean and Europe more frequently. This period represented some of the early developments of what would become the Silk Road, suggesting some of the trade in spices such as pepper and black pepper specifically would have come via this route. With the conquests of Alexander, Greek colonist were now reaching India and contacts became more common. The major turning point, however, was the knowledge of the monsoonal and climate patterns that affected the trade winds along the Indian Ocean by the end of the 1st century BCE. This open up new opportunities for direct sea voyaging between Europe and China via Egypt and the Red Sea, through land and sea routes, although an early version of the Suez Canal had also been developed. The connection via the seas also enabled China to now incorporate black pepper in its culinary diet, at least by the 2nd century BCE.	<urn:uuid:90f7d9ee-0c1b-48e0-80bb-17d503f17a00>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Black_Pepper_Spread_in_Popularity%3F&diff=next&oldid=5949	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00319.warc.gz	en	0.981416	652	3.546875	4	[ -0.11533616483211517, 0.0032305922359228134, -0.3052833080291748, -0.0594753697514534, 0.25846993923187256, -0.5249150395393372, 0.13071629405021667, -0.3492633104324341, -0.42057472467422485, -0.32607245445251465, 0.09558194130659103, -0.6879588961601257, 0.039627350866794586, 0.077777847...	1	Difference between revisions of "How Did Black Pepper Spread in Popularity?" (→Spread of Black Pepper) \|Line 8:\|\|Line 8:\| ==Spread of Black Pepper== ==Spread of Black Pepper== Revision as of 05:05, 17 January 2017 Visiting a restaurant in the Western world or even a home often means finding salt and black pepper as common condiments on the table used to give taste to our dishes. Salt has been native to many regions and is commonly found; however, black pepper was a far more limited plant (Piper nigrum) that natively grew in South and Southeast Asia. The spread of this pepper is intertwined with ancient trade expansion that once connected the length of the Old World. In more recent times, this pepper became a fixed a daily condiment. Archaeologically, we know that black pepper was used at least by the 3rd millennium BCE in India. In fact, although pepper can be found in southeast Asia, it was probably India, and specifically in the province of Kerala, that pepper was most utilized or even strictly native to. For centuries, it most likely was not traded very far from its places of origin, remaining in India and influencing Indian cuisine to this day. Eventually, however, we begin to get archaeological data that suggest pepper made it to Egypt sometime around the 2nd millennium BCE. Traces of black pepper have been found on Ramses II, specifically in his nose, suggesting it was used in the mummification process. It was likely also used in other parts of the Near East by the 2nd millennium BCE; however, plant remains of pepper are difficult to detect so this can only be a conjecture. In fact, trade and migration of Indo-Europeans in the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE likely began to expand black pepper outside of its traditional confines in India. Indo-Europeans began to migrate across the Near East and into Europe, likely bringing their foods with them. However, archaeologically and historically, remains of pepper are very limited. This likely suggests it was either not very popular or too expensive for common consumption. Pepper can be preserved through drying easily enough, suggesting it was not preservation that would have been a major hurdle for its spread. Spread of Black Pepper Trade in black pepper seems to have expanded by the 4th century BCE, reaching the Aegean and Europe more frequently. This period represented some of the early developments of what would become the Silk Road, suggesting some of the trade in spices such as pepper and black pepper specifically would have come via this route. With the conquests of Alexander, Greek colonist were now reaching India and contacts became more common. The major turning point, however, was the knowledge of the monsoonal and climate patterns that affected the trade winds along the Indian Ocean by the end of the 1st century BCE. This open up new opportunities for direct sea voyaging between Europe and China via Egypt and the Red Sea, through land and sea routes, although an early version of the Suez Canal had also been developed. The connection via the seas also enabled China to now incorporate black pepper in its culinary diet, at least by the 2nd century BCE.	662	ENGLISH	1
Though many of his formal principles are similar, Edgar Degas (1834–1917) stands out from the other major Impressionists because of his decision to depict urban spaces and the people that inhabit them, rather than natural landscapes. Arguably Degas’ most famous subject is the Parisian Opéra and its ballet dancers. Degas began portraying the Opéra—its stage, practice rooms, and dressing rooms—and ballet dancers in the late 1860s in drawings, paintings, prints, and sculpture. In the late nineteenth century, ballet dancers were essentially urban workers; they toiled away in practice rooms for countless hours at the expense of their bodies. These women were in a similar social position to Degas’ other subjects of urban labor: laundresses and prostitutes. The ballet was a subject that occupied Degas’ interest for the next forty years until his death. Though he exhibited and sold two-dimensional works of ballet dancers regularly, Degas only exhibited one sculpture in his lifetime: the Little Dancer Aged Fourteen (1878–1881). Degas sculpted many works in addition to the Little Dancer, usually in clay or wax, but did not exhibit them or had them cast permanently in metal. As he aged, Degas’ eyesight worsened, and he became increasingly sensitive to light exposure, forcing him to work indoors and in dimly lit spaces. Degas complained of his eye troubles to many of his friends, evidently worried of the affect on his work. After meeting Degas for the first time, Edmond de Goncourt wrote the next day in his journal, “this Degas is an original fellow, sickly, neurotic, and afflicted with eye trouble to the point of being afraid of going blind.” By the 1880s, his eyesight began to inhibit his ability to paint and draw, so he began to work more in wax and clay, which relied less on his sense of sight. After Degas’ death in 1917, about 150 pieces of sculpture were found scattered in his studio. One of the sculptures was the original sculpture which provided the cast for Milwaukee Art Museum’s Dancer Holding her Right Foot in her Right Hand. This sculpture is a cabinet-scale ballet dancer balanced on one leg as she reaches behind to grasp her right foot with her right hand, her left arm extended forward as a counterweight. About ten years after Degas’ death, his heirs decided to have casts made of Degas’ sculptures. Of the pieces found in his apartments, just over seventy were deemed suitable for reproduction. The heirs believed it was necessary to cast these in bronze out of fear that they may be lost over time due to their poor condition. This original looks strikingly similar to the bronze edition because of the color, though this is due to darkened wax which collected dust and dirt in Degas’ ill-kept studio. Surprisingly, Degas never took himself seriously as a sculptor; he both admired and practiced sculpture, all while discrediting his own efforts. Though he consulted with friends who were sculptors, Degas’ techniques were not traditional. In contrast to the usual monumental marbles and bronzes exhibited at the Salon, Degas’ works are mostly small scale and are built using clay, wax, and whatever Degas found around his studio for structural support, including paintbrush handles, wire, and bits of twine. Degas only had three of his works cast in plaster during his lifetime and never authorized a bronze casting. This may be because, for Degas, any work was open to alterations; he was known to ask for pieces back from buyers in order to make changes years after the sale. He is quoted as having said to François Thiébault-Sisson in 1897, “my sculptures will never give the impression of being finished, which is the termination of a sculptor’s workmanship, and after all, since no one will ever see these rough sketches, nobody will dare to talk about them, not even you.” But Degas was wrong. Many people do talk about his sculptures, both those finished and unfinished. Despite the interest in them, many scholars have difficulty placing Degas’ sculptures within the context of nineteenth-century sculpture and largely relegate discussion to Degas’ other two-dimensional depictions of ballet dancers. The problem lies in the sculptures’ difference, in both form and subject, from traditional nineteenth century sculpture, which was dominated by monumental sculptures of mythic or ideal subjects. The sculptures exist somewhere in between tradition and modernity, like much of Degas’ other work. While Degas’ materials and techniques are acceptable as sculptural studies, his decision to never work three-dimensionally in bronze or marble sets him apart from traditional sculptors of his time. In subject, the ballet was a relatively more subversive subject than it is today. Ballet dancers were often pulled from the lower, working classes. While the work was arduous and had only a small chance of success, the career of a ballet dancer offered social mobility. Often, this social mobility was afforded to a dancer by a wealthy male patron (perhaps most famously represented in Emile Zola’s Nana, whose title character achieves fame in the Opéra), leading to their association with clandestine, unregulated prostitution. In a way, these sculptures are supremely representative of Degas as an artist. They are unusually composed, created with experimental materials, portray urban subjects, and are perpetually unfinished. While Degas’ sculptures, like Dancer Holding her Right Foot in her Right Hand, have been immortalized in bronze, do we consider them to be complete works or merely studies? While it is important for viewers to remember that these sculptures were not exhibited and exist in various states of completion, Degas’ sculptures are works of art to be considered in their own right. Like any other number of incomplete or works-in-progress—such as da Vinci’s sketch books or Bernini’s bozzetti—Degas’ sculptures offer a unique insight into the artist’s genius and working process. — Jennifer Spindler, Curatorial Intern	<urn:uuid:32e98fa6-4679-467c-a00c-413cbcf3975a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.mam.org/2014/09/23/from-the-collection-dancer-holding-her-right-foot-in-her-right-hand-by-edgar-degas/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00380.warc.gz	en	0.985335	1,290	3.765625	4	[ 0.007749675307422876, 0.03713802993297577, 0.7432254552841187, 0.11350053548812866, -0.5193242430686951, 0.20441122353076935, 0.16053974628448486, 0.16252055764198303, -0.056745968759059906, -0.46130049228668213, -0.12620630860328674, -0.03256351500749588, -0.23171700537204742, 0.403037160...	15	Though many of his formal principles are similar, Edgar Degas (1834–1917) stands out from the other major Impressionists because of his decision to depict urban spaces and the people that inhabit them, rather than natural landscapes. Arguably Degas’ most famous subject is the Parisian Opéra and its ballet dancers. Degas began portraying the Opéra—its stage, practice rooms, and dressing rooms—and ballet dancers in the late 1860s in drawings, paintings, prints, and sculpture. In the late nineteenth century, ballet dancers were essentially urban workers; they toiled away in practice rooms for countless hours at the expense of their bodies. These women were in a similar social position to Degas’ other subjects of urban labor: laundresses and prostitutes. The ballet was a subject that occupied Degas’ interest for the next forty years until his death. Though he exhibited and sold two-dimensional works of ballet dancers regularly, Degas only exhibited one sculpture in his lifetime: the Little Dancer Aged Fourteen (1878–1881). Degas sculpted many works in addition to the Little Dancer, usually in clay or wax, but did not exhibit them or had them cast permanently in metal. As he aged, Degas’ eyesight worsened, and he became increasingly sensitive to light exposure, forcing him to work indoors and in dimly lit spaces. Degas complained of his eye troubles to many of his friends, evidently worried of the affect on his work. After meeting Degas for the first time, Edmond de Goncourt wrote the next day in his journal, “this Degas is an original fellow, sickly, neurotic, and afflicted with eye trouble to the point of being afraid of going blind.” By the 1880s, his eyesight began to inhibit his ability to paint and draw, so he began to work more in wax and clay, which relied less on his sense of sight. After Degas’ death in 1917, about 150 pieces of sculpture were found scattered in his studio. One of the sculptures was the original sculpture which provided the cast for Milwaukee Art Museum’s Dancer Holding her Right Foot in her Right Hand. This sculpture is a cabinet-scale ballet dancer balanced on one leg as she reaches behind to grasp her right foot with her right hand, her left arm extended forward as a counterweight. About ten years after Degas’ death, his heirs decided to have casts made of Degas’ sculptures. Of the pieces found in his apartments, just over seventy were deemed suitable for reproduction. The heirs believed it was necessary to cast these in bronze out of fear that they may be lost over time due to their poor condition. This original looks strikingly similar to the bronze edition because of the color, though this is due to darkened wax which collected dust and dirt in Degas’ ill-kept studio. Surprisingly, Degas never took himself seriously as a sculptor; he both admired and practiced sculpture, all while discrediting his own efforts. Though he consulted with friends who were sculptors, Degas’ techniques were not traditional. In contrast to the usual monumental marbles and bronzes exhibited at the Salon, Degas’ works are mostly small scale and are built using clay, wax, and whatever Degas found around his studio for structural support, including paintbrush handles, wire, and bits of twine. Degas only had three of his works cast in plaster during his lifetime and never authorized a bronze casting. This may be because, for Degas, any work was open to alterations; he was known to ask for pieces back from buyers in order to make changes years after the sale. He is quoted as having said to François Thiébault-Sisson in 1897, “my sculptures will never give the impression of being finished, which is the termination of a sculptor’s workmanship, and after all, since no one will ever see these rough sketches, nobody will dare to talk about them, not even you.” But Degas was wrong. Many people do talk about his sculptures, both those finished and unfinished. Despite the interest in them, many scholars have difficulty placing Degas’ sculptures within the context of nineteenth-century sculpture and largely relegate discussion to Degas’ other two-dimensional depictions of ballet dancers. The problem lies in the sculptures’ difference, in both form and subject, from traditional nineteenth century sculpture, which was dominated by monumental sculptures of mythic or ideal subjects. The sculptures exist somewhere in between tradition and modernity, like much of Degas’ other work. While Degas’ materials and techniques are acceptable as sculptural studies, his decision to never work three-dimensionally in bronze or marble sets him apart from traditional sculptors of his time. In subject, the ballet was a relatively more subversive subject than it is today. Ballet dancers were often pulled from the lower, working classes. While the work was arduous and had only a small chance of success, the career of a ballet dancer offered social mobility. Often, this social mobility was afforded to a dancer by a wealthy male patron (perhaps most famously represented in Emile Zola’s Nana, whose title character achieves fame in the Opéra), leading to their association with clandestine, unregulated prostitution. In a way, these sculptures are supremely representative of Degas as an artist. They are unusually composed, created with experimental materials, portray urban subjects, and are perpetually unfinished. While Degas’ sculptures, like Dancer Holding her Right Foot in her Right Hand, have been immortalized in bronze, do we consider them to be complete works or merely studies? While it is important for viewers to remember that these sculptures were not exhibited and exist in various states of completion, Degas’ sculptures are works of art to be considered in their own right. Like any other number of incomplete or works-in-progress—such as da Vinci’s sketch books or Bernini’s bozzetti—Degas’ sculptures offer a unique insight into the artist’s genius and working process. — Jennifer Spindler, Curatorial Intern	1,259	ENGLISH	1
That people rise to expectations has been an idea that has been transformed into a clichÃ© suitable for a motivational poster, but according to Alix Spiegel of NPR, research going back as far as 1964 has shown that it is very much true — at least when it comes to teachers' expectations for their students. Robert Rosenthal, then a professor at Harvard University, devised an ingenious test that allowed him to prove that when teachers expect more of certain students — even if students have no talent to distinguish them from their peers — they still show a marked uptick in achievement. The test was set in a San Francisco-area elementary school. Teachers were asked to oversee a standard IQ exam administered to their students that was disguised as a test meant to show which students were more likely to experience an intelligence "bloom." After the exam, Rosenthal picked several kids from each class at random and told their teachers that they were about to experience a dramatic growth in their IQ. Then he stepped back and watched what happened. After two years of observation the results were unambiguous: the students who were expected by their teachers to increase their IQ actually increased their IQ. But the question remained: What was the mechanism that drove their unexpected improvement? As Rosenthal did more research, he found that expectations affect teachers' moment-to-moment interactions with the children they teach in a thousand almost invisible ways. Teachers give the students that they expect to succeed more time to answer questions, more specific feedback, and more approval: They consistently touch, nod and smile at those kids more. "It's not magic, it's not mental telepathy," Rosenthal says. "It's very likely these thousands of different ways of treating people in small ways every day." Even now Rosenthal is quick to point out that the improvements didn't come about as a result of some kind of undefinable force. It was a sum of very small actions taken by teachers over the period of days, months and years. These conclusions give rise to questions about how we might harness this expectation-achievement link to improve academic outcomes of kids. Or, as Spiegel puts it, how do we help teachers set their expectations of their students high enough to help them achieve? For answers, she turned to the experts at the Curry School of Education at the University of Virginia, and turned herself over to Robert Pianta. Pianta, dean of the Curry School, has studied teachers for years, and one of the first things he told me when we sat down together was that it is truly hard for teachers to control their expectations. "It's really tough for anybody to police their own beliefs," he said. "But think about being in a classroom with 25 kids. The demands on their thinking are so great." It doesn't mean people haven't tried. The most frequently-used approach entails communicating with teachers and trying to convince them to see their students in a different light. But Pianta has tried a different path as well, aimed at retraining the teachers out of behaviors that are driven by faulty assumptions.	<urn:uuid:9bba269a-cdaa-4dd6-a68b-2d910081799c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.educationnews.org/k-12-schools/research-high-teacher-expectations-raise-student-achievement/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00496.warc.gz	en	0.986722	624	3.3125	3	[ -0.14802804589271545, 0.25007107853889465, 0.48045414686203003, 0.022708449512720108, -0.08706493675708771, 0.091775082051754, 0.1336057186126709, 0.2565780282020569, 0.24268585443496704, 0.026282601058483124, 0.16953527927398682, 0.3504682779312134, -0.00843031331896782, 0.045648824423551...	1	That people rise to expectations has been an idea that has been transformed into a clichÃ© suitable for a motivational poster, but according to Alix Spiegel of NPR, research going back as far as 1964 has shown that it is very much true — at least when it comes to teachers' expectations for their students. Robert Rosenthal, then a professor at Harvard University, devised an ingenious test that allowed him to prove that when teachers expect more of certain students — even if students have no talent to distinguish them from their peers — they still show a marked uptick in achievement. The test was set in a San Francisco-area elementary school. Teachers were asked to oversee a standard IQ exam administered to their students that was disguised as a test meant to show which students were more likely to experience an intelligence "bloom." After the exam, Rosenthal picked several kids from each class at random and told their teachers that they were about to experience a dramatic growth in their IQ. Then he stepped back and watched what happened. After two years of observation the results were unambiguous: the students who were expected by their teachers to increase their IQ actually increased their IQ. But the question remained: What was the mechanism that drove their unexpected improvement? As Rosenthal did more research, he found that expectations affect teachers' moment-to-moment interactions with the children they teach in a thousand almost invisible ways. Teachers give the students that they expect to succeed more time to answer questions, more specific feedback, and more approval: They consistently touch, nod and smile at those kids more. "It's not magic, it's not mental telepathy," Rosenthal says. "It's very likely these thousands of different ways of treating people in small ways every day." Even now Rosenthal is quick to point out that the improvements didn't come about as a result of some kind of undefinable force. It was a sum of very small actions taken by teachers over the period of days, months and years. These conclusions give rise to questions about how we might harness this expectation-achievement link to improve academic outcomes of kids. Or, as Spiegel puts it, how do we help teachers set their expectations of their students high enough to help them achieve? For answers, she turned to the experts at the Curry School of Education at the University of Virginia, and turned herself over to Robert Pianta. Pianta, dean of the Curry School, has studied teachers for years, and one of the first things he told me when we sat down together was that it is truly hard for teachers to control their expectations. "It's really tough for anybody to police their own beliefs," he said. "But think about being in a classroom with 25 kids. The demands on their thinking are so great." It doesn't mean people haven't tried. The most frequently-used approach entails communicating with teachers and trying to convince them to see their students in a different light. But Pianta has tried a different path as well, aimed at retraining the teachers out of behaviors that are driven by faulty assumptions.	620	ENGLISH	1
Reasons and Causes For The Ending of The Cold War: Demise of The Soviet Union Carl Sandin History 420 Professor Gianni November 13, 2012 While the United States and Soviet Union did join forces during World War II, against the Axis powers Germany, Italy, and Japan. There were several reasons why the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union was a very tense one. Americans had long been wary and concerned about Russian leader Joseph Stalin’s tyrannical, blood-thirsty rule of his own country. The Soviets resented the Americans’ decades-long refusal to treat the USSR as a legitimate part of the international community as well as their delayed entry into World War II, which resulted in the deaths of tens of millions of Russians. After the war ended, these grievances ripened into an overwhelming sense of mutual distrust and enmity. Many Americans were fearful of Russia’s expansion that they were trying to take control of the world. Meanwhile, the USSR came to resent the way America was building up their arms and the approach that Americans used an intervention approach to international relations. While it was a hostile environment and no one was the sole reason to blame the Cold War was inevitable. When was the Cold War? The Cold War dated from 1945 -1980. Yes right after the end of World War 2. The Cold War was a term that was used to describe the relationship between the two countries, The United States and the Soviet Union, while these two countries never fought each other because the consequences would be to appalling- each country in a sense fought for their beliefs, using a term called client states who were willing to fight for their beliefs on their behalf. An example of this would be the Vietnam War. The Soviet Union supplied weapons to North Vietnam who was a communist country, while the United States supplied South Vietnam. There was however one incident that almost pushed the envelope and that was the Cuban Missile Crisis. For thirteen day in October 1962 the world was at the brink of a nuclear war. A U-2 spy plane had photographed missile silos being built by the Soviet Union on the island of Cuba. President Kennedy did not want Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev to know that he had these photographs so President Kennedy met with his advisors and decided to set a blockade with naval ships to prevent The Soviet Union for sending in more supplies. While the United States was not sure how Khrushchev would respond not only to the naval blockade but also to U. S. demands. Nevertheless, both leaders would sit down and come to an agreement that the Soviets would dismantle the sites, and in exchange the United States would not invade Cuba, this was due to the fact that both nations realized the devastation that both could cause in the event of a nuclear war. Also, in a separate deal the United States would remove its nuclear missiles from Turkey, that deal would remain a secret for almost 25 years. 2 While there were many events leading up to the end of the Cold War such as the economy of Russia, to the number of treaties signed by both countries. In 1963, there were signs of a lessening of tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States. In his commencement address at American University, President Kennedy urged Americans to reexamine Cold War stereotypes and myths and called for a strategy of peace that would make the world safe for diversity. Two actions also signaled a warming in relations between the superpowers: the establishment of a teletype “Hotline” between the Kremlin and the White House and the signing of the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty July 25, 1963. 3 Notes 1. www. historylearningsite. co. uk 2. www. jfklibrary. org 3. http://www. fas. org/nuke/control/ltbt/index. html	<urn:uuid:af630eb1-eeb6-44fc-b968-e390181971f0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lagas.org/cold-war-6/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00402.warc.gz	en	0.980115	774	3.625	4	[ -0.5233310461044312, 0.2892804443836212, 0.15801243484020233, 0.04774785786867142, 0.24972651898860931, 0.035201046615839005, 0.3694549798965454, 0.23066866397857666, -0.21538293361663818, -0.13991571962833405, 0.2795828580856323, 0.21468570828437805, 0.5030105710029602, 0.6204670071601868...	2	Reasons and Causes For The Ending of The Cold War: Demise of The Soviet Union Carl Sandin History 420 Professor Gianni November 13, 2012 While the United States and Soviet Union did join forces during World War II, against the Axis powers Germany, Italy, and Japan. There were several reasons why the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union was a very tense one. Americans had long been wary and concerned about Russian leader Joseph Stalin’s tyrannical, blood-thirsty rule of his own country. The Soviets resented the Americans’ decades-long refusal to treat the USSR as a legitimate part of the international community as well as their delayed entry into World War II, which resulted in the deaths of tens of millions of Russians. After the war ended, these grievances ripened into an overwhelming sense of mutual distrust and enmity. Many Americans were fearful of Russia’s expansion that they were trying to take control of the world. Meanwhile, the USSR came to resent the way America was building up their arms and the approach that Americans used an intervention approach to international relations. While it was a hostile environment and no one was the sole reason to blame the Cold War was inevitable. When was the Cold War? The Cold War dated from 1945 -1980. Yes right after the end of World War 2. The Cold War was a term that was used to describe the relationship between the two countries, The United States and the Soviet Union, while these two countries never fought each other because the consequences would be to appalling- each country in a sense fought for their beliefs, using a term called client states who were willing to fight for their beliefs on their behalf. An example of this would be the Vietnam War. The Soviet Union supplied weapons to North Vietnam who was a communist country, while the United States supplied South Vietnam. There was however one incident that almost pushed the envelope and that was the Cuban Missile Crisis. For thirteen day in October 1962 the world was at the brink of a nuclear war. A U-2 spy plane had photographed missile silos being built by the Soviet Union on the island of Cuba. President Kennedy did not want Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev to know that he had these photographs so President Kennedy met with his advisors and decided to set a blockade with naval ships to prevent The Soviet Union for sending in more supplies. While the United States was not sure how Khrushchev would respond not only to the naval blockade but also to U. S. demands. Nevertheless, both leaders would sit down and come to an agreement that the Soviets would dismantle the sites, and in exchange the United States would not invade Cuba, this was due to the fact that both nations realized the devastation that both could cause in the event of a nuclear war. Also, in a separate deal the United States would remove its nuclear missiles from Turkey, that deal would remain a secret for almost 25 years. 2 While there were many events leading up to the end of the Cold War such as the economy of Russia, to the number of treaties signed by both countries. In 1963, there were signs of a lessening of tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States. In his commencement address at American University, President Kennedy urged Americans to reexamine Cold War stereotypes and myths and called for a strategy of peace that would make the world safe for diversity. Two actions also signaled a warming in relations between the superpowers: the establishment of a teletype “Hotline” between the Kremlin and the White House and the signing of the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty July 25, 1963. 3 Notes 1. www. historylearningsite. co. uk 2. www. jfklibrary. org 3. http://www. fas. org/nuke/control/ltbt/index. html	800	ENGLISH	1
What were the worldwide effects on the political expectations for self-government and individual liberty after the American Revolution and the Glorious Revolution?I believe that the American Revolution was not a fair war because the British had a huge advantage.The British had a bigger and better army, while the Americans had almost nothing.The Americans were inexperienced and were mainly comprised of farmers fighting for independence.Even though the Americans had some soldiers willing to fight, the Americans were unable to pay the soldiers enough money to fight a war and they did not have enough food, supplies, guns, ammunition, and war ships. I believe that the Glorious Revolution ended up the way that it did because the people did not like James II and did not agree with the things that he wanted to do while in power.The Glorious Revolution was fought while James II was king because he made some decisions that the people did not like. One reason why England did not like James II was because he wanted to convert the religious beliefs of the thoroughly Protestant England to a Catholic religion.The people did not agree to many of his ideas.Even though James was able to create a very strong army, he was not able to conquer other lands and gain the respect of his men.While they were at war his army abandoned James II to fight for other sides.After James was left by his men, Parliament claimed that he had abandoned his country and went into exile in France. On February 6, 1689, James II was succeeded by William of Orange as the new King and his wife, Mary, James II's daughter, became Queen of England. A few months later, James II decided that he wanted to come back to England to try and regain the throne, but failed along with his son and grandson who also tried to assume their line for the throne. Now the American Revolution was a war whose main purpose was for the Americans to escape from England&ap…	<urn:uuid:925fcc4e-a505-4e2f-bc06-a5130f76fa63>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/compare-and-contrast-the-glorious-revolution-and-the-america/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00086.warc.gz	en	0.994118	387	4	4	[ -0.021678954362869263, 0.39191749691963196, 0.6805111765861511, -0.21451927721500397, 0.13239099085330963, 0.22327211499214172, 0.04697474092245102, 0.1703173667192459, 0.07824229449033737, 0.2353300303220749, -0.1586407870054245, 0.28489428758621216, 0.22731217741966248, 0.118426024913787...	1	What were the worldwide effects on the political expectations for self-government and individual liberty after the American Revolution and the Glorious Revolution?I believe that the American Revolution was not a fair war because the British had a huge advantage.The British had a bigger and better army, while the Americans had almost nothing.The Americans were inexperienced and were mainly comprised of farmers fighting for independence.Even though the Americans had some soldiers willing to fight, the Americans were unable to pay the soldiers enough money to fight a war and they did not have enough food, supplies, guns, ammunition, and war ships. I believe that the Glorious Revolution ended up the way that it did because the people did not like James II and did not agree with the things that he wanted to do while in power.The Glorious Revolution was fought while James II was king because he made some decisions that the people did not like. One reason why England did not like James II was because he wanted to convert the religious beliefs of the thoroughly Protestant England to a Catholic religion.The people did not agree to many of his ideas.Even though James was able to create a very strong army, he was not able to conquer other lands and gain the respect of his men.While they were at war his army abandoned James II to fight for other sides.After James was left by his men, Parliament claimed that he had abandoned his country and went into exile in France. On February 6, 1689, James II was succeeded by William of Orange as the new King and his wife, Mary, James II's daughter, became Queen of England. A few months later, James II decided that he wanted to come back to England to try and regain the throne, but failed along with his son and grandson who also tried to assume their line for the throne. Now the American Revolution was a war whose main purpose was for the Americans to escape from England&ap…	380	ENGLISH	1
10 mistakes that sunk Titanic: Crew were left without binoculars as iceberg approached A new documentary has examined the myriad of factors that contributed to the sinking of the Titanic. From the crew being without binoculars to passengers opening their portholes, there were a range of reasons that the "unsinkable ship" didn't make it past its first outing. '10 Mistakes That Sunk the Titanic' aired on Channel 5 on Friday evening. The Titanic was famously built in Belfast's Harland and Wolff shipyard before setting sail from Southampton on April 10 1912 for its maiden voyage to New York. The site is now home to the Titanic Belfast visitor attraction celebrating the city's maritime heritage. Just five days after setting off the ship sank after colliding with an iceberg off the coast of Newfoundland. Over 1,500 passengers and crew died. The documentary reveals that before the Titanic left Southampton Captain Henry Wilde swapped places with Captain Edward Smith of sister ship the RMS Olympic. Please log in or register with belfasttelegraph.co.uk for free access to this article. As a result of this Second Officer David Blair also left the Titanic and it is believed he took a key to a cabin with him which contained the officer's binoculars. Simon Mills, owner of the HMS Britannic wreck, said officers could have used the binoculars to help spot the iceberg. "The best way of spotting an iceberg was basically using your natural eyesight as wide as possible on the horizon," he told the documentary. "When you see something ahead, then you would identify it with the binoculars. Interestingly enough the lack of binoculars wasn't a major concern on the bridge. "They still believed they would see a berg in plenty of time to avoid it. There were no binoculars available in the crow's nest that night." The documentary also claims that passengers opening their portholes en masse contributed to the speed at which the ship sank. Titanic expert Tim Maltin said that passengers left their portholes open when they went to deck for evacuation. "After the collision, the Titanic came to a stop and people wondered what had happened," he told the documentary "So their natural reaction was to open the portholes and have a look. Then, when they went up to the lifeboats, they left the portholes open. "As Titanic's passenger accommodation began to dip under the Atlantic, the open portholes meant that water flooded in at a much greater rate. "In fact, 12 open portholes would have doubled the iceberg damage to Titanic – of course, there were hundreds of portholes in Titanic's bow." The documentary explores how the size of the Harland and Wollf shipyard may have played a part in the Titanic's sinking. Rivets for fixing the ship's bow could only be done by hand because the bow was too big to fit into the shipyard. The hull was bult with three million mostly steel rivets which became brittle when the ship hit the iceberg due to being below freezing. High quality rivets could have been inserted using a large hydraulic machine but this was not possible due to the size of the bow, which would hae required manual crews. The plates had to have rivets made of iron which are more prone to fracture upon impact in low temperatures, when the iceberg hit the impact affected the weakest sections and flooded the liner with water. Mr Mills also speculated that the speed the ship was travelling at may have been a factor in its sinking. The ship was travelling faster than the 18 knots required to reach New York by April 17. "The simple fact is that she was going too fast - 22 knots in an ice field. Had she been going slower, she may have missed the berg, everything else would have been academic," he said. Mr Maltin speculated that Captain Edward Smith's penchant for speed could have played a part. "Captain Smith was the White Star Line's best captain," he said. "He was known as the millionaire's captain - and that's because people loved travelling with him. He was sophisticated, he looked the part. "He really liked going fast as well. He liked to get his passengers there as fast as possible, and let's face it, these passengers wanted to get there on time. They knew, come hell or high water, Smith would get them there." In the end Smith went down with his ship. The wreckage of the ship still lies on the bed of the ocean off the coast of Newfoundland.	<urn:uuid:af68187c-efcd-4528-8e2e-2e2f264d9612>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/archive/titanic/10-mistakes-that-sunk-titanic-crew-were-left-without-binoculars-as-iceberg-approached-38633723.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00033.warc.gz	en	0.983881	953	3.46875	3	[ 0.3722293972969055, -0.18337148427963257, 0.06338629871606827, -0.5088947415351868, 0.4083772897720337, 0.1342359483242035, 0.24633122980594635, 0.07999531924724579, -0.27872297167778015, -0.15009722113609314, 0.21813344955444336, -0.29594963788986206, -0.3541034162044525, 0.12895208597183...	1	10 mistakes that sunk Titanic: Crew were left without binoculars as iceberg approached A new documentary has examined the myriad of factors that contributed to the sinking of the Titanic. From the crew being without binoculars to passengers opening their portholes, there were a range of reasons that the "unsinkable ship" didn't make it past its first outing. '10 Mistakes That Sunk the Titanic' aired on Channel 5 on Friday evening. The Titanic was famously built in Belfast's Harland and Wolff shipyard before setting sail from Southampton on April 10 1912 for its maiden voyage to New York. The site is now home to the Titanic Belfast visitor attraction celebrating the city's maritime heritage. Just five days after setting off the ship sank after colliding with an iceberg off the coast of Newfoundland. Over 1,500 passengers and crew died. The documentary reveals that before the Titanic left Southampton Captain Henry Wilde swapped places with Captain Edward Smith of sister ship the RMS Olympic. Please log in or register with belfasttelegraph.co.uk for free access to this article. As a result of this Second Officer David Blair also left the Titanic and it is believed he took a key to a cabin with him which contained the officer's binoculars. Simon Mills, owner of the HMS Britannic wreck, said officers could have used the binoculars to help spot the iceberg. "The best way of spotting an iceberg was basically using your natural eyesight as wide as possible on the horizon," he told the documentary. "When you see something ahead, then you would identify it with the binoculars. Interestingly enough the lack of binoculars wasn't a major concern on the bridge. "They still believed they would see a berg in plenty of time to avoid it. There were no binoculars available in the crow's nest that night." The documentary also claims that passengers opening their portholes en masse contributed to the speed at which the ship sank. Titanic expert Tim Maltin said that passengers left their portholes open when they went to deck for evacuation. "After the collision, the Titanic came to a stop and people wondered what had happened," he told the documentary "So their natural reaction was to open the portholes and have a look. Then, when they went up to the lifeboats, they left the portholes open. "As Titanic's passenger accommodation began to dip under the Atlantic, the open portholes meant that water flooded in at a much greater rate. "In fact, 12 open portholes would have doubled the iceberg damage to Titanic – of course, there were hundreds of portholes in Titanic's bow." The documentary explores how the size of the Harland and Wollf shipyard may have played a part in the Titanic's sinking. Rivets for fixing the ship's bow could only be done by hand because the bow was too big to fit into the shipyard. The hull was bult with three million mostly steel rivets which became brittle when the ship hit the iceberg due to being below freezing. High quality rivets could have been inserted using a large hydraulic machine but this was not possible due to the size of the bow, which would hae required manual crews. The plates had to have rivets made of iron which are more prone to fracture upon impact in low temperatures, when the iceberg hit the impact affected the weakest sections and flooded the liner with water. Mr Mills also speculated that the speed the ship was travelling at may have been a factor in its sinking. The ship was travelling faster than the 18 knots required to reach New York by April 17. "The simple fact is that she was going too fast - 22 knots in an ice field. Had she been going slower, she may have missed the berg, everything else would have been academic," he said. Mr Maltin speculated that Captain Edward Smith's penchant for speed could have played a part. "Captain Smith was the White Star Line's best captain," he said. "He was known as the millionaire's captain - and that's because people loved travelling with him. He was sophisticated, he looked the part. "He really liked going fast as well. He liked to get his passengers there as fast as possible, and let's face it, these passengers wanted to get there on time. They knew, come hell or high water, Smith would get them there." In the end Smith went down with his ship. The wreckage of the ship still lies on the bed of the ocean off the coast of Newfoundland.	928	ENGLISH	1
Image credit via The Astana Times Alan Outram, a professor of archaeological science at the University of Exeter, in the United Kingdom has studied the Botai culture in North Kazakhstan over the last two decades. He and his colleagues conducted excavations at Botai and proved horses were first domesticated within what is now modern-day Kazakhstan approximately 5,500 years ago. This interview with the professor took place in the Kazakh capital as he was attending a screening of the film “Equus: History of the Horse.” Recently some scientists, including yourself, have proven that the horses were first domesticated in recent Kazakhstan territory. Please tell us a little more about that. Thank you for giving me this opportunity. We think that horses were first domesticated very early in the Botai culture in modern Kazakhstan about 5,500 years ago. We have evidence that they were milking horses at that time. We found chemical evidence in the pottery that there was once kumys (fermented horse milk) present, which obviously is a key indication that domesticated horses were being milked. We also have evidence that they were ridden because there are marks on the teeth, which showed they wore some sort of bit. Also, we found in the structure of settlement, there are corral areas where they could have kept the horses. There are a lot of all the types of horse bones around the site which is another indication horses were being kept close to the settlement. If horses were hunted away from the site, only certain parts would be transported back to Botai from where they were killed. Then actually the fact that there is a large settlement with a very large number of horses is interesting. It is highly unlikely people could settle in large village and lived almost entirely from horses if they were only hunting them. The people who came before them were mixed hunter-gatherers. They moved around the landscape in small groups hunting different animals. But in the Botai culture they suddenly settled down, focused entirely on horses. And that almost certainly means true husbandry and looking after the horses. You and other scholars such as Sandra Olsen and Ludovic Orlando have said that horses from Botai were ancestors of feral Przewalski horses. In an article, you also stated modern domesticated horses did not descend from the Botai horses. Could you elaborate? We have done ancient genetics on the Botai horses and we know while they already domesticated horses, they are not the ancestors of modern domesticates. There is a small percentage of genetics in modern horses, which is related to Botai horses, but a later breed of horses became more predominant. We actually now know that Botai type of horses are similar to Przewalski type of horse. Whilst Botai horses are the first domesticates, modern domesticates relate to a later event. Have you excavated and researched human skeletons? Yes, we have also extracted the DNA of Botai people. We found that they are a very ancient group of people that are similar to the people that lived in the region during the Ice Age. So, a very ancient group of people were still living in the local area of Kazakhstan. They do not really have any modern direct descendants. They are quite closely related to some of the groups in Siberia, but also, they shared common ancestors with native Americans who way back in the Ice Age crossed into America. What modern technology or techniques have you found most helpful? We used analytical techniques as well as extraction of ancient DNA; we do a lot of chemistry of various types. We analysed the chemistry of fat residues to find out about their horse milk. Fat, in the fabric of an unglazed piece of pottery can be preserved for thousands of years. We are now trying to look for ancient proteins of the milk as well. Although that can be tricky because protein does not survive long periods of time as well as lipids, but we are trying that. We can also look to see where animals were moving around in the landscape from the chemical signatures in their teeth. Because where an animal eats records some of the chemistry from the geology of that area. So we can see even thousands of years ago where potentially an animal was feeding and how it was moving around in the seasons. So, we can see about study aspects of nomadism in pastoral movements. How did horses contribute to the development of human civilisation? Domestication of horses is an incredibly important event in human history worldwide. Because if you think about it, the domestication of the horse created the fastest form of transport until the steam train. Actually, for most people until the common use of the motor car. So just think about changing from walking to having a horse and how that affected people in terms of being able to trade, migrate and [conduct] different types of warfare. Actually, if we start thinking about things like fast movement and different types of warfare, then a slightly later development, which is also in the Kazakhstan region, is very significant. There is another culture in the area of trans-Ural region, Russia, also Northern Kazakhstan and it’s about 4,100 years ago. They were the very first people to have chariots and were clearly warriors. Certainly, they were using horses in warfare to some extent as well. So, another major development and something else was happening very much in this region. Have you tasted horsemeat and milk? Yes. I have certainly tasted horse meat and drinks, drank kumys. In fact, yesterday I had a horse milk ice cream. It was slightly strange.	<urn:uuid:0c2d4639-3c8e-444a-81f0-ab94c5bc707b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://landofthegreatsteppe.com/botai-horses-in-kazakhstan-were-first-domesticated	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00080.warc.gz	en	0.986364	1,139	3.265625	3	[ 0.023239295929670334, 0.09870201349258423, 0.4402911067008972, 0.12995277345180511, -0.19053199887275696, -0.14633110165596008, -0.040561385452747345, 0.2529386878013611, -0.22968047857284546, 0.10077981650829315, -0.17046986520290375, -0.39519059658050537, 0.4319208860397339, 0.4774169325...	4	Image credit via The Astana Times Alan Outram, a professor of archaeological science at the University of Exeter, in the United Kingdom has studied the Botai culture in North Kazakhstan over the last two decades. He and his colleagues conducted excavations at Botai and proved horses were first domesticated within what is now modern-day Kazakhstan approximately 5,500 years ago. This interview with the professor took place in the Kazakh capital as he was attending a screening of the film “Equus: History of the Horse.” Recently some scientists, including yourself, have proven that the horses were first domesticated in recent Kazakhstan territory. Please tell us a little more about that. Thank you for giving me this opportunity. We think that horses were first domesticated very early in the Botai culture in modern Kazakhstan about 5,500 years ago. We have evidence that they were milking horses at that time. We found chemical evidence in the pottery that there was once kumys (fermented horse milk) present, which obviously is a key indication that domesticated horses were being milked. We also have evidence that they were ridden because there are marks on the teeth, which showed they wore some sort of bit. Also, we found in the structure of settlement, there are corral areas where they could have kept the horses. There are a lot of all the types of horse bones around the site which is another indication horses were being kept close to the settlement. If horses were hunted away from the site, only certain parts would be transported back to Botai from where they were killed. Then actually the fact that there is a large settlement with a very large number of horses is interesting. It is highly unlikely people could settle in large village and lived almost entirely from horses if they were only hunting them. The people who came before them were mixed hunter-gatherers. They moved around the landscape in small groups hunting different animals. But in the Botai culture they suddenly settled down, focused entirely on horses. And that almost certainly means true husbandry and looking after the horses. You and other scholars such as Sandra Olsen and Ludovic Orlando have said that horses from Botai were ancestors of feral Przewalski horses. In an article, you also stated modern domesticated horses did not descend from the Botai horses. Could you elaborate? We have done ancient genetics on the Botai horses and we know while they already domesticated horses, they are not the ancestors of modern domesticates. There is a small percentage of genetics in modern horses, which is related to Botai horses, but a later breed of horses became more predominant. We actually now know that Botai type of horses are similar to Przewalski type of horse. Whilst Botai horses are the first domesticates, modern domesticates relate to a later event. Have you excavated and researched human skeletons? Yes, we have also extracted the DNA of Botai people. We found that they are a very ancient group of people that are similar to the people that lived in the region during the Ice Age. So, a very ancient group of people were still living in the local area of Kazakhstan. They do not really have any modern direct descendants. They are quite closely related to some of the groups in Siberia, but also, they shared common ancestors with native Americans who way back in the Ice Age crossed into America. What modern technology or techniques have you found most helpful? We used analytical techniques as well as extraction of ancient DNA; we do a lot of chemistry of various types. We analysed the chemistry of fat residues to find out about their horse milk. Fat, in the fabric of an unglazed piece of pottery can be preserved for thousands of years. We are now trying to look for ancient proteins of the milk as well. Although that can be tricky because protein does not survive long periods of time as well as lipids, but we are trying that. We can also look to see where animals were moving around in the landscape from the chemical signatures in their teeth. Because where an animal eats records some of the chemistry from the geology of that area. So we can see even thousands of years ago where potentially an animal was feeding and how it was moving around in the seasons. So, we can see about study aspects of nomadism in pastoral movements. How did horses contribute to the development of human civilisation? Domestication of horses is an incredibly important event in human history worldwide. Because if you think about it, the domestication of the horse created the fastest form of transport until the steam train. Actually, for most people until the common use of the motor car. So just think about changing from walking to having a horse and how that affected people in terms of being able to trade, migrate and [conduct] different types of warfare. Actually, if we start thinking about things like fast movement and different types of warfare, then a slightly later development, which is also in the Kazakhstan region, is very significant. There is another culture in the area of trans-Ural region, Russia, also Northern Kazakhstan and it’s about 4,100 years ago. They were the very first people to have chariots and were clearly warriors. Certainly, they were using horses in warfare to some extent as well. So, another major development and something else was happening very much in this region. Have you tasted horsemeat and milk? Yes. I have certainly tasted horse meat and drinks, drank kumys. In fact, yesterday I had a horse milk ice cream. It was slightly strange.	1,130	ENGLISH	1
Jessica Savan English Composition I 1101-74 Beowulf Talk is easy, but actions speak louder than words. In Beowulf’s case, his actions spoke just as loud as his words. This quote from the book, “Anyone with gumption and a sharp mind will take measure of two things: what’s said, and what’s done” (Heaney 21) can be directly related to Beowulf. Many figures have had much to say, but what have they done? Beowulf made certain to stay true to his promises, far-fetched as they may have been. If he said he was going to kill a man-eating monster, there was no doubt that he would do it. Beowulf was born into a royal family. Almost everyone knew of him and respected him. He was incredibly “likable”. He did not have to convince anyone to approve of him or think highly of him. To Beowulf, it seemed that it did not matter what others thought of him. He thought highly of himself and although he was not respected in his youth, he grew to be quite something. I believe that he gained more respect than ever when he sought out to kill Grendel, and actually succeeded. Like him or not, Beowulf reminds us in some way or another of what we look for in a hero. He didn’t put a price on life. Everything he did, he did without fear. He would enter duels and battles with the utmost courage and confidence in his soon-to-be victory. Perhaps this is what set him apart from any other man of his time. Many people who read Beowulf now could consider him to be somewhat boastful, but it was this extreme confidence that led him to victory time and time again. In his time, this “boastfulness” that we consider rude now, was cherished then. If a man as great as Beowulf didn’t boast every moment that he had a chance to, then there wouldn’t have been any songs sung in his honor, no odes written for him, and no praises directed towards him. He boasted often but had reason to, and those around him loved it. Beowulf carried his virtues wherever he would go. He was marked by honesty, courage, and trust. “Often, for undaunted courage, fate spares the man it has not already marked” (Heaney 39). This quote from the poem definitely refers directly to Beowulf. Beowulf continues to surprise the readers with this “undaunted courage” described in the poem. His courage caused fate to spare him. There were so many circumstances in which it would have been easy for Beowulf to die. He was put in situations where the reader’s teeth start gritting because of the brutality of the scene, but there was just something about Beowulf that wouldn’t let him die. For example, when Beowulf had his encounter with Grendel, due to previous descriptions of Grendel’s nature, it seemed almost certain that Beowulf had no chance of survival. Maybe, just like in the previous quote, it was fate that didn’t let him die. Whatever it was, it allowed Beowulf to come out of duels and battles victorious, and kept him marching forward. Personally, I admire Beowulf and see him to be a role model for all of us. If only we could all display the same level of courage and go through life, tackling our day to day struggles fearlessly, I’m sure that a lot more of us would reach successes in life that, as of now, we fear are not within our grasp. Beowulf teaches us to ignore the statements of others, ignore the odds of winning, and to not doubt what we are capable of. Beowulf is a poem of courage, and it was this courage that made Beowulf one of the greatest men of his time.	<urn:uuid:a2f5b12b-6b69-4539-9047-1ec50cf306c1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lagas.org/grendels-mother-and-beowulf/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00287.warc.gz	en	0.992421	841	3.53125	4	[ -0.43228909373283386, 0.14568501710891724, 0.2937578856945038, 0.050416674464941025, -0.8421672582626343, 0.23445957899093628, 0.6862884163856506, -0.022751562297344208, -0.05235299468040466, -0.37156686186790466, -0.2908684015274048, -0.22953003644943237, 0.5087511539459229, 0.21117815375...	2	Jessica Savan English Composition I 1101-74 Beowulf Talk is easy, but actions speak louder than words. In Beowulf’s case, his actions spoke just as loud as his words. This quote from the book, “Anyone with gumption and a sharp mind will take measure of two things: what’s said, and what’s done” (Heaney 21) can be directly related to Beowulf. Many figures have had much to say, but what have they done? Beowulf made certain to stay true to his promises, far-fetched as they may have been. If he said he was going to kill a man-eating monster, there was no doubt that he would do it. Beowulf was born into a royal family. Almost everyone knew of him and respected him. He was incredibly “likable”. He did not have to convince anyone to approve of him or think highly of him. To Beowulf, it seemed that it did not matter what others thought of him. He thought highly of himself and although he was not respected in his youth, he grew to be quite something. I believe that he gained more respect than ever when he sought out to kill Grendel, and actually succeeded. Like him or not, Beowulf reminds us in some way or another of what we look for in a hero. He didn’t put a price on life. Everything he did, he did without fear. He would enter duels and battles with the utmost courage and confidence in his soon-to-be victory. Perhaps this is what set him apart from any other man of his time. Many people who read Beowulf now could consider him to be somewhat boastful, but it was this extreme confidence that led him to victory time and time again. In his time, this “boastfulness” that we consider rude now, was cherished then. If a man as great as Beowulf didn’t boast every moment that he had a chance to, then there wouldn’t have been any songs sung in his honor, no odes written for him, and no praises directed towards him. He boasted often but had reason to, and those around him loved it. Beowulf carried his virtues wherever he would go. He was marked by honesty, courage, and trust. “Often, for undaunted courage, fate spares the man it has not already marked” (Heaney 39). This quote from the poem definitely refers directly to Beowulf. Beowulf continues to surprise the readers with this “undaunted courage” described in the poem. His courage caused fate to spare him. There were so many circumstances in which it would have been easy for Beowulf to die. He was put in situations where the reader’s teeth start gritting because of the brutality of the scene, but there was just something about Beowulf that wouldn’t let him die. For example, when Beowulf had his encounter with Grendel, due to previous descriptions of Grendel’s nature, it seemed almost certain that Beowulf had no chance of survival. Maybe, just like in the previous quote, it was fate that didn’t let him die. Whatever it was, it allowed Beowulf to come out of duels and battles victorious, and kept him marching forward. Personally, I admire Beowulf and see him to be a role model for all of us. If only we could all display the same level of courage and go through life, tackling our day to day struggles fearlessly, I’m sure that a lot more of us would reach successes in life that, as of now, we fear are not within our grasp. Beowulf teaches us to ignore the statements of others, ignore the odds of winning, and to not doubt what we are capable of. Beowulf is a poem of courage, and it was this courage that made Beowulf one of the greatest men of his time.	809	ENGLISH	1
Crossword clues for amendments n. (plural of amendment English) Usage examples of "amendments". Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments has thereby been violated irreversibly since the whereabouts of said remains are not now known. Constitution became even more acceptable to the public at large after the first Congress, responding to criticism, passed a series of amendments known as the Bill of Rights. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, plus the set of laws passed in the late 1860s and early 1870s, gave the President enough authority to wipe out racial discrimination. The amendments are set for a vote Tuesday, and opponents will be out in force. That amendments to the constitution of the government can be adopted only by being proposed by a convention of all the States in the Union, or by being proposed, by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress, and ratified by three-fourths of the States, is simply a conventional ordinance, which the convention can change at its pleasure. They lose, besides incurring, so far as disloyal, the pains and penalties of treason, their political rights, or right, as has just been said, to be in their own department self-governing communities, with the right of representation in Congress and the electoral colleges, and to sit in the national convention, or of being counted in the ratification of amendments to the constitution--precisely what it was shown a Territorial people gain by being admitted as a State into the Union.	<urn:uuid:31ca9903-f39b-485b-99aa-7b919851f1ec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://findwords.info/term/amendments	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00438.warc.gz	en	0.981838	307	3.65625	4	[ -0.7755686044692993, -0.6387051939964294, 0.38489535450935364, -0.30192890763282776, -0.4162196218967438, 0.38042500615119934, 0.5238006114959717, -0.053889449685811996, -0.12110843509435654, 0.2909179627895355, 0.3600578010082245, 0.320321261882782, -0.10983906686306, 0.15348471701145172,...	1	Crossword clues for amendments n. (plural of amendment English) Usage examples of "amendments". Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments has thereby been violated irreversibly since the whereabouts of said remains are not now known. Constitution became even more acceptable to the public at large after the first Congress, responding to criticism, passed a series of amendments known as the Bill of Rights. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, plus the set of laws passed in the late 1860s and early 1870s, gave the President enough authority to wipe out racial discrimination. The amendments are set for a vote Tuesday, and opponents will be out in force. That amendments to the constitution of the government can be adopted only by being proposed by a convention of all the States in the Union, or by being proposed, by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress, and ratified by three-fourths of the States, is simply a conventional ordinance, which the convention can change at its pleasure. They lose, besides incurring, so far as disloyal, the pains and penalties of treason, their political rights, or right, as has just been said, to be in their own department self-governing communities, with the right of representation in Congress and the electoral colleges, and to sit in the national convention, or of being counted in the ratification of amendments to the constitution--precisely what it was shown a Territorial people gain by being admitted as a State into the Union.	308	ENGLISH	1
Getting started with ratios! We pretested ratios, rates, and proportions last week, and I found mixed results in the item analysis. I was surprised to find that very few students were able to write a ratio (the pretest question was: there are 2 hamsters and 1 gerbil - write a ratio of gerbils to hamsters). It wasn't that they wrote the ratio as hamsters to gerbils rather than gerbils to hamsters....they either left it blank, or wrote something that did not resemble a ratio. So, I was glad that I had prepared a couple of Fold it Ups for them to use this week! I think this is the first time I've used this version of Fold it Up (with the triangles folded in) this year, and a few students commented that they like this version better than others (like the one I made for Wed...bummer), because this type won't rip as easily. This one is quick and easy to use - students just cut out the square that makes up the fold it up, and then they fold each triangular section into the center, so the words are showing. (I did have students who folded the words to the inside of the fold it up, so they couldn't see the words...watch for that:-). Then they just need to add the notes under the appropriate flaps, and they're done! You can click the image on the left, below, to go to TPT and download the fold it up (free). Do you have a favorite note-taking method for ratios and rates? I'd love to hear!	<urn:uuid:d24d7e23-681d-4221-b2b2-d4855d153b9e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cognitivecardiowithmsmm.com/cognitive-cardio-blog/ratios-fold-it-up	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00310.warc.gz	en	0.983509	333	3.5	4	[ -0.4110466539859772, -0.2834451496601105, 0.055819496512413025, -0.3893827795982361, -0.1919851452112198, 0.03782492130994797, -0.16965511441230774, 0.11693845689296722, -0.14024437963962555, -0.09615256637334824, -0.16142039000988007, -0.31905561685562134, -0.07592522352933884, 0.14388003...	4	Getting started with ratios! We pretested ratios, rates, and proportions last week, and I found mixed results in the item analysis. I was surprised to find that very few students were able to write a ratio (the pretest question was: there are 2 hamsters and 1 gerbil - write a ratio of gerbils to hamsters). It wasn't that they wrote the ratio as hamsters to gerbils rather than gerbils to hamsters....they either left it blank, or wrote something that did not resemble a ratio. So, I was glad that I had prepared a couple of Fold it Ups for them to use this week! I think this is the first time I've used this version of Fold it Up (with the triangles folded in) this year, and a few students commented that they like this version better than others (like the one I made for Wed...bummer), because this type won't rip as easily. This one is quick and easy to use - students just cut out the square that makes up the fold it up, and then they fold each triangular section into the center, so the words are showing. (I did have students who folded the words to the inside of the fold it up, so they couldn't see the words...watch for that:-). Then they just need to add the notes under the appropriate flaps, and they're done! You can click the image on the left, below, to go to TPT and download the fold it up (free). Do you have a favorite note-taking method for ratios and rates? I'd love to hear!	328	ENGLISH	1
We encourage our students to understand ingredients, try new flavors and develop their palates. While the weather permitted, the students tended to fruit and vegetable patches in the school garden, learning about seasons and where their food comes from. They helped sow seeds, and water the plants, until the vegetables were ready to be harvested. They made salsa with tomatoes and basil that they helped grow, and enjoyed cucumber sticks with a yoghurt dip. Gardening helps them understand nature, the concept of seasons, and how to care for the environment. Apart from this, we also make lunch with them on Wednesdays; each student is asked to bring a vegetable from home, which they wash and chop. We use all the vegetables to make soup, which becomes the afternoon meal for the students. Cooking introduces them to math and the joys of teamwork. While some children can be fussy eaters on other days or at home, we find that they all finish their bowls of soup on Wednesdays. The fun of being involved in every step of its making makes a huge difference to how they eat.	<urn:uuid:bd676d89-3811-4c7c-8e4a-b5d93eb03d02>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://elementspreschoolblog.wordpress.com/2016/01/03/play-learn-3/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00515.warc.gz	en	0.980108	223	3.921875	4	[ -0.13682477176189423, 0.12015152722597122, 0.503162145614624, -0.4409302771091461, 0.10702690482139587, -0.19337870180606842, 0.1688329577445984, -0.08165314048528671, -0.21972355246543884, -0.09786584228277206, 0.20815454423427582, -0.24505119025707245, 0.35104453563690186, 0.126552805304...	2	We encourage our students to understand ingredients, try new flavors and develop their palates. While the weather permitted, the students tended to fruit and vegetable patches in the school garden, learning about seasons and where their food comes from. They helped sow seeds, and water the plants, until the vegetables were ready to be harvested. They made salsa with tomatoes and basil that they helped grow, and enjoyed cucumber sticks with a yoghurt dip. Gardening helps them understand nature, the concept of seasons, and how to care for the environment. Apart from this, we also make lunch with them on Wednesdays; each student is asked to bring a vegetable from home, which they wash and chop. We use all the vegetables to make soup, which becomes the afternoon meal for the students. Cooking introduces them to math and the joys of teamwork. While some children can be fussy eaters on other days or at home, we find that they all finish their bowls of soup on Wednesdays. The fun of being involved in every step of its making makes a huge difference to how they eat.	219	ENGLISH	1
Shire (Middle-earth) facts for kids It is a region in the northwest of Middle-earth, one of the continents of the fictional world of Arda where elapses the most part of J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium. It is, in turn, within the great region of Eriador, where previously existed the kingdom of Arnor. Is inhabited only by hobbits, a race similar to the men and characterized by their short stature. Founded in the middle of the Third Age, their known history is small and with little significants events because the peaceful nature of its inhabitants, with the exception of the events that took place during the War of the Ring. Even if is not mentioned as such in the novel The Hobbit, J. R. R. Tolkien already was then an idea of what was the Shire, was created "officially" during the composition of the first chapter of The Lord of the Rings and inspired principally in the neighborhood of Sarehole, Birmingham, where the author lived during his childhood. The Shire in the languages of the Middle-Earth Hobbits sometimes call it Sûza (which means "Shire") or Sûzat ("the Shire"), terms that have their origin in the Rohirric, the language of Rohan with which they came in contact before colonizing the Shire. On the other hand, in the Elvish language Sindarin they call it i Drann. It is also called "Four frames", the name refers to their territorial division. According to Tolkien, the Shire measured 40 leagues (193 km, 120 miles) from the Far Downs in the west to the Brandywine Bridge in the east, and 50 leagues (241 km, 150 miles) from the northern moors to the marshes in the south, This is confirmed in an essay by Tolkien on translating The Lord of the Rings, where he describes the Shire as having an area of 18,000 square miles (47,000 km²). The original territory of the Shire was bounded on the east by the Baranduin River, on the north by uplands rising to the old centre of Arnor, on the west by the White Downs, and on the south by marshland south of the River Shirebourne. After the original settlement, hobbits also expanded to the east into Buckland between the Baranduin and the Old Forest, and (much later) to the west into the Westmarch between the White Downs and the Tower Hills. The Shire was originally divided into four Farthings. The outlying lands of Buckland and the Westmarch were formally added after the War of the Ring when they were officially granted by King Elessar. Within the Farthings there are some smaller unofficial clan homelands: the Tooks nearly all live in or near Tuckborough in Tookland, for instance. A Hobbit surname often indicates where the family came from: Samwise Gamgee's last name derives from Gamwich, where the family originated. Buckland was named for the Oldbucks (later called the Brandybucks). The Shire was densely populated, with many towns and few cities, but still had large areas of forests and wetlands. It is described as a "small land", but beautiful and fruitful, beloved by its inhabitants. Their location gives it a natural fertility and therefore the hobbits have an extensive farming system, being able to find many supplies such as cereals, fruits, wood and pipe-weed (one of the favorite pleasures of the hobbits). However, its economy is almost self-sufficient and hobbits typically consume all the products of their crops, or reserve them for gifts. The Shire is a region of low elevations, and these are no higher than hills. The main ones are: - Far Hills, also called Faraway Downs, is between the Tower Hills, west, and the White Downs to the east. They were originally the western frontier of the Shire, but after expansion "in 32" of the "Fourth Age of the Sun," were included in it and became part of the Westfarthing. They found the village of Greenholm - White Downs: also called White Hills, are in the Westframe, on the east of Far Hills, where he was "Michel Delving." The Free Fair, which was elected Mayor of the Shire, was held here. - Scary Hills: in the Eastframe and extend from the river Baranduin until near the border with the Northframe. Scary and Quarry villages are close to the hills, ob the south, while Dachshund is at his feet. - Green Hills, extending from the Westframe, through the Southframe and ending in the Eastframe, going into the Woody End. All the lands who occupied were called the "Green Hills Lands", which were the "Took Land" and the towns of "Ravines of Took." "Tucker" and "Tuft". In these hills born the river of the Shire and the river of the Cardoon. The climate in the Shire was primarily temperate maritime or ocean, depending on the area. In general, temperatures are slightly warmer in the south than in the north and seasonal changes of temperature are lightly more pronounced (hotter summers and colder winters) in the extreme east than the extreme west. The rainfalls are moderate throughout the whole year and especially in the Northframe, Can snow during the occasional visits of polar air from the north. The Shire is populated exclusively by hobbits and in the time of the War of the Ring, the whole race, except a few who lived in the nearby town of Bree, was there. The hobbits are characterized by short stature, between 60 and 120 centimeters, and the abundant hairs grow them on the tops of the feet. Although there were various branches of hobbits, all ended by unite when the Albos founded the Shire mixing thus their physical characteristics. The residents of marshes, descended of the Forts,are the only ones that can differ slightly from the rest hobbits because to them grow fuzz on his chin, while the rest have absolutely no beard. In Marish had also lived the "family Gamoviejo" before moving to "Buckland" and change his last name to Brandybuck. Between the known families are the "Took","Handbag","Bolger","Gamgee","Brandybuck","Sackville","Cornet","Boffin","Proudfoot","Burrow","Dachshund", and "Round". Each family usually have a land or town in which usually sits and takes his name or any derivative, for example Gamgyi come from "Town of Gamwich" and "Took" live mostly on the "Took Land" in Green Hills. Images for kids Shire (Middle-earth) Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	<urn:uuid:3c530985-4ff3-477b-9aac-f727dbba52cc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.kiddle.co/Shire_(Middle-earth)	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00148.warc.gz	en	0.98042	1,429	3.53125	4	[ -0.21253250539302826, -0.006586998235434294, 0.13346894085407257, 0.09096841514110565, -0.35380819439888, -0.11715862154960632, 0.09793785214424133, 0.13091520965099335, -0.6297778487205505, 0.054678261280059814, 0.028553031384944916, -0.42937344312667847, 0.30992722511291504, 0.4478012919...	2	Shire (Middle-earth) facts for kids It is a region in the northwest of Middle-earth, one of the continents of the fictional world of Arda where elapses the most part of J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium. It is, in turn, within the great region of Eriador, where previously existed the kingdom of Arnor. Is inhabited only by hobbits, a race similar to the men and characterized by their short stature. Founded in the middle of the Third Age, their known history is small and with little significants events because the peaceful nature of its inhabitants, with the exception of the events that took place during the War of the Ring. Even if is not mentioned as such in the novel The Hobbit, J. R. R. Tolkien already was then an idea of what was the Shire, was created "officially" during the composition of the first chapter of The Lord of the Rings and inspired principally in the neighborhood of Sarehole, Birmingham, where the author lived during his childhood. The Shire in the languages of the Middle-Earth Hobbits sometimes call it Sûza (which means "Shire") or Sûzat ("the Shire"), terms that have their origin in the Rohirric, the language of Rohan with which they came in contact before colonizing the Shire. On the other hand, in the Elvish language Sindarin they call it i Drann. It is also called "Four frames", the name refers to their territorial division. According to Tolkien, the Shire measured 40 leagues (193 km, 120 miles) from the Far Downs in the west to the Brandywine Bridge in the east, and 50 leagues (241 km, 150 miles) from the northern moors to the marshes in the south, This is confirmed in an essay by Tolkien on translating The Lord of the Rings, where he describes the Shire as having an area of 18,000 square miles (47,000 km²). The original territory of the Shire was bounded on the east by the Baranduin River, on the north by uplands rising to the old centre of Arnor, on the west by the White Downs, and on the south by marshland south of the River Shirebourne. After the original settlement, hobbits also expanded to the east into Buckland between the Baranduin and the Old Forest, and (much later) to the west into the Westmarch between the White Downs and the Tower Hills. The Shire was originally divided into four Farthings. The outlying lands of Buckland and the Westmarch were formally added after the War of the Ring when they were officially granted by King Elessar. Within the Farthings there are some smaller unofficial clan homelands: the Tooks nearly all live in or near Tuckborough in Tookland, for instance. A Hobbit surname often indicates where the family came from: Samwise Gamgee's last name derives from Gamwich, where the family originated. Buckland was named for the Oldbucks (later called the Brandybucks). The Shire was densely populated, with many towns and few cities, but still had large areas of forests and wetlands. It is described as a "small land", but beautiful and fruitful, beloved by its inhabitants. Their location gives it a natural fertility and therefore the hobbits have an extensive farming system, being able to find many supplies such as cereals, fruits, wood and pipe-weed (one of the favorite pleasures of the hobbits). However, its economy is almost self-sufficient and hobbits typically consume all the products of their crops, or reserve them for gifts. The Shire is a region of low elevations, and these are no higher than hills. The main ones are: - Far Hills, also called Faraway Downs, is between the Tower Hills, west, and the White Downs to the east. They were originally the western frontier of the Shire, but after expansion "in 32" of the "Fourth Age of the Sun," were included in it and became part of the Westfarthing. They found the village of Greenholm - White Downs: also called White Hills, are in the Westframe, on the east of Far Hills, where he was "Michel Delving." The Free Fair, which was elected Mayor of the Shire, was held here. - Scary Hills: in the Eastframe and extend from the river Baranduin until near the border with the Northframe. Scary and Quarry villages are close to the hills, ob the south, while Dachshund is at his feet. - Green Hills, extending from the Westframe, through the Southframe and ending in the Eastframe, going into the Woody End. All the lands who occupied were called the "Green Hills Lands", which were the "Took Land" and the towns of "Ravines of Took." "Tucker" and "Tuft". In these hills born the river of the Shire and the river of the Cardoon. The climate in the Shire was primarily temperate maritime or ocean, depending on the area. In general, temperatures are slightly warmer in the south than in the north and seasonal changes of temperature are lightly more pronounced (hotter summers and colder winters) in the extreme east than the extreme west. The rainfalls are moderate throughout the whole year and especially in the Northframe, Can snow during the occasional visits of polar air from the north. The Shire is populated exclusively by hobbits and in the time of the War of the Ring, the whole race, except a few who lived in the nearby town of Bree, was there. The hobbits are characterized by short stature, between 60 and 120 centimeters, and the abundant hairs grow them on the tops of the feet. Although there were various branches of hobbits, all ended by unite when the Albos founded the Shire mixing thus their physical characteristics. The residents of marshes, descended of the Forts,are the only ones that can differ slightly from the rest hobbits because to them grow fuzz on his chin, while the rest have absolutely no beard. In Marish had also lived the "family Gamoviejo" before moving to "Buckland" and change his last name to Brandybuck. Between the known families are the "Took","Handbag","Bolger","Gamgee","Brandybuck","Sackville","Cornet","Boffin","Proudfoot","Burrow","Dachshund", and "Round". Each family usually have a land or town in which usually sits and takes his name or any derivative, for example Gamgyi come from "Town of Gamwich" and "Took" live mostly on the "Took Land" in Green Hills. Images for kids Shire (Middle-earth) Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	1,443	ENGLISH	1
A person who does not sleep for more than a day may have symptoms of schizophrenia. This conclusion was made by an international group of scientists led by King’s College and University of Bonn in London. According to scientists, it is no secret that a sleepless night lowers concentration. “But we were more surprised by how pronounced and how wide the spectrum of symptoms that resemble schizophrenia,” said one of the authors of the study, Professor Ulrich Oettinger from the University of Bonn. 24 volunteers aged 18 to 40 years were invited to participate in the study. At the first stage of the experiment, the participants in the experiment were allowed to sleep in the laboratory in the usual way. After about a week, the subjects had to stay awake all night. Throughout the night, they were allowed to watch movies, play, chat with each other and take short walks. With the onset of the morning, the participants in the experiment were asked to tell about their feelings and thoughts. In addition, to evaluate the ability of the brain to filter information, they were evaluated for pre-pulse inhibition. It turns out that after a sleepless night, the filtering functions were significantly reduced. The attention deficit that is inherent in schizophrenics was clearly expressed. In addition, during the survey, participants revealed a slightly increased sensitivity to light, brightness, or color. They also changed their sense of time and sense of smell.	<urn:uuid:1e68913b-03f8-40f1-b177-5154a8792496>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://no-sleep-disorders.com/blog/insomnia-may-cause-symptoms-of-schizophrenia/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00266.warc.gz	en	0.984123	291	3.625	4	[ -0.12371916323900223, 0.6509925723075867, -0.091066375374794, 0.249838188290596, -0.002489321632310748, 0.5726292729377747, 0.7128555774688721, 0.06306333839893341, 0.011674473993480206, -0.2150888741016388, 0.03130228444933891, -0.11730712652206421, 0.13234281539916992, 0.5040995478630066...	3	A person who does not sleep for more than a day may have symptoms of schizophrenia. This conclusion was made by an international group of scientists led by King’s College and University of Bonn in London. According to scientists, it is no secret that a sleepless night lowers concentration. “But we were more surprised by how pronounced and how wide the spectrum of symptoms that resemble schizophrenia,” said one of the authors of the study, Professor Ulrich Oettinger from the University of Bonn. 24 volunteers aged 18 to 40 years were invited to participate in the study. At the first stage of the experiment, the participants in the experiment were allowed to sleep in the laboratory in the usual way. After about a week, the subjects had to stay awake all night. Throughout the night, they were allowed to watch movies, play, chat with each other and take short walks. With the onset of the morning, the participants in the experiment were asked to tell about their feelings and thoughts. In addition, to evaluate the ability of the brain to filter information, they were evaluated for pre-pulse inhibition. It turns out that after a sleepless night, the filtering functions were significantly reduced. The attention deficit that is inherent in schizophrenics was clearly expressed. In addition, during the survey, participants revealed a slightly increased sensitivity to light, brightness, or color. They also changed their sense of time and sense of smell.	287	ENGLISH	1
It can be hard to get your child to do his or her homework. You need to motivate your child so that they develop good study habits for later in life. Here are some tips to help you motivate your child to do his or her homework: Do not bribe your child- do not bribe your child with candy, money, or privileges for doing their homework. As a parent, you have a job and going to school is your child’s job. Do not fight with your child about their home work- do not argue with your child about their homework. You need to make your homework policy known. Your child needs to understand that they have to do their homework before they can do anything that is fun. Give your child one on one attention when they are doing their homework- children love getting attention from their parents. This can help you give your child guidance on their homework. Children need to see you get involved in their schooling. If you show them that doing their homework makes you happy then they are more likely to want to please you by doing their homework. Make homework time fun- homework time needs to be fun for your child. You should have light music going in the background. You should come up with ways to make the homework experience interactive. For instance, if your child is doing a science project, then take them on a special trip to the local science museum to give your child inspiration. If your child enjoys homework time, then it will be easier to get them to complete their assignments on time. Give your child breaks- give your child breaks during their homework time. It can be hard for a child to concentrate for long periods of time. You need to give your child breaks so that they can stretch their legs and feel a little bit refreshed. Give your child a snack during homework time- children are usually hungry right after they come home from school. The snack needs to be small and light so that your child still wants to eat their dinner. Giving your child a snack can help them concentrate better on their studies because they will not be thinking about how hungry they are. It is important to be involved in your child’s education. Many parents do not help their children with their homework and have no idea about what their children are studying in school. As a parent, you need to know how well your child is doing well in school. Report cards do not tell you the whole story. You need to see what your child’s strengths and weaknesses are so that they can excel at school.	<urn:uuid:9c125201-9282-47e5-bf11-b29f25f53205>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://yuptab.com/how-to-motivate-your-child-to-do-their-homework/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00081.warc.gz	en	0.984333	514	3.5	4	[ -0.0874083936214447, -0.0887606292963028, 0.4082566201686859, -0.5247844457626343, -0.5106105804443359, 0.06189607083797455, 0.2654172480106354, -0.015250446274876595, -0.24004265666007996, -0.19871041178703308, 0.3136330842971802, -0.1108805313706398, 0.308573842048645, 0.5445733666419983...	2	It can be hard to get your child to do his or her homework. You need to motivate your child so that they develop good study habits for later in life. Here are some tips to help you motivate your child to do his or her homework: Do not bribe your child- do not bribe your child with candy, money, or privileges for doing their homework. As a parent, you have a job and going to school is your child’s job. Do not fight with your child about their home work- do not argue with your child about their homework. You need to make your homework policy known. Your child needs to understand that they have to do their homework before they can do anything that is fun. Give your child one on one attention when they are doing their homework- children love getting attention from their parents. This can help you give your child guidance on their homework. Children need to see you get involved in their schooling. If you show them that doing their homework makes you happy then they are more likely to want to please you by doing their homework. Make homework time fun- homework time needs to be fun for your child. You should have light music going in the background. You should come up with ways to make the homework experience interactive. For instance, if your child is doing a science project, then take them on a special trip to the local science museum to give your child inspiration. If your child enjoys homework time, then it will be easier to get them to complete their assignments on time. Give your child breaks- give your child breaks during their homework time. It can be hard for a child to concentrate for long periods of time. You need to give your child breaks so that they can stretch their legs and feel a little bit refreshed. Give your child a snack during homework time- children are usually hungry right after they come home from school. The snack needs to be small and light so that your child still wants to eat their dinner. Giving your child a snack can help them concentrate better on their studies because they will not be thinking about how hungry they are. It is important to be involved in your child’s education. Many parents do not help their children with their homework and have no idea about what their children are studying in school. As a parent, you need to know how well your child is doing well in school. Report cards do not tell you the whole story. You need to see what your child’s strengths and weaknesses are so that they can excel at school.	503	ENGLISH	1
Confucius was born between 551-479BC in Lu, which today is known as Shandong. His parents originally named him k'ung Fu-Tse, meaning master Kong. Hey don't say that! Remember Confucius's golden rule? "Do unto others as you would have done to yourself." Your shirt is ugly! When Confucius was young, he turned his house into a school that allowed everyone in, he taught things such as the 5 constants of Confucianism. Sir you are a ruler, you must fix any imperfections, if you don't you're rule is useless Confucius's fame grew as he went through the government starting as building minister. Though Confucius never actually wrote anything, since he'd rather communicate. Though I shall soon pass, remember all my sayings and continue what I have taught you, and share it to the world. The teachings of Confucius spread quickly and were given attention daily. For example, Confucius golden rule was, " Do unto others as you would have done to yourself." Confucius continued his teachings. One famous historical quote is, "If man is led by laws and obedience to them is enforce by the threat of punishment, he will try to avoid his punishment, but will never be ashamed of his misdemeanors." Confucius passed in 479 BC. Though he has passed his teachings are still well known to this day, and many people following his teachings in a religion called confusionism.	<urn:uuid:68d68ded-7189-4f9e-9ee3-cee60afb25f0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/db2d0dbd/history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00389.warc.gz	en	0.992911	316	3.59375	4	[ -0.3306860327720642, 0.04911389201879501, 0.39318418502807617, -0.22327479720115662, 0.15442706644535065, 0.032748568803071976, 0.6987136602401733, 0.08672904968261719, 0.037074774503707886, -0.11687854677438736, 0.29634180665016174, -0.566647469997406, 0.5189274549484253, 0.11697970330715...	1	Confucius was born between 551-479BC in Lu, which today is known as Shandong. His parents originally named him k'ung Fu-Tse, meaning master Kong. Hey don't say that! Remember Confucius's golden rule? "Do unto others as you would have done to yourself." Your shirt is ugly! When Confucius was young, he turned his house into a school that allowed everyone in, he taught things such as the 5 constants of Confucianism. Sir you are a ruler, you must fix any imperfections, if you don't you're rule is useless Confucius's fame grew as he went through the government starting as building minister. Though Confucius never actually wrote anything, since he'd rather communicate. Though I shall soon pass, remember all my sayings and continue what I have taught you, and share it to the world. The teachings of Confucius spread quickly and were given attention daily. For example, Confucius golden rule was, " Do unto others as you would have done to yourself." Confucius continued his teachings. One famous historical quote is, "If man is led by laws and obedience to them is enforce by the threat of punishment, he will try to avoid his punishment, but will never be ashamed of his misdemeanors." Confucius passed in 479 BC. Though he has passed his teachings are still well known to this day, and many people following his teachings in a religion called confusionism.	313	ENGLISH	1
The Battle of Chancellorsville was fought between April 30th and May 6th, 1863, near the city of Fredericksburg, Virginia, where the Confederates had scored a major victory in December. Union General Joseph Hooker, recently named Commander of the Army of Potomac, planned to launch a massive assault against Lee's Army of Northern Virginia by attacking them at the front and the rear. Hooker's Army was roughly twice the size of Lee's and was well rested and provisioned. On May 1, 1863, Hooker launched his attack on Lee's Army at Chancellorsville. Lee, in an unconventional military move, decided to split his smaller army into two parts, leaving a small force at nearby Fredericksburg, Virginia, and confronting Hooker's assault with roughly 80% of his army. Union General Hooker, inexperienced and perhaps unconfident in handling such a massive force, ordered his forces to withdraw to defensive positions in the nearby forests around Chancellorsville in the wake of Lee's assaults. On May 2, 1863, Confederate General Stonewall Jackson attacked the right flank of the Union Army entrenched around Chancellorsville. Jackson marched his forces of 28,000 men 12 miles undetected to reach the Union right flank. At dinnertime, Confederate forces screaming their "rebel yell" stormed out of the forest and attacked the Union right flank. Union forces were totally unprepared and many were eating dinner. Within an hour, the right flank was totally disintegrated and was in full retreat. They suffered at least 2,500 casualties. Later that evening, however, General Stonewall Jackson was mistaken for Union cavalry and was shot in the arm as he rode out to investigate the feasibility of launching a nighttime attack on the Federals. Jackson contracted pneumonia and died on May 10th. Jackson's death was devastating to the Confederate cause and to Lee's battle strategies through the remainder of the war. Despite the initial setback, Union forces were still in control. Nearly 76,000 Union soldiers were still in positions defending Chancellorsville compared to 43,000 soldiers available to the Confederacy. The two largest parts of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia were positioned on either side of Union forces that occupied an area of high ground known as Hazel's Grove. Luckily for the Confederacy, General Hooker ordered those soldiers, under the command of General Sickles, to a different position on a local road called the Plank Road. Confederate forces proceed to occupy the high ground, where they placed thirty heavy guns. At 5:30 in the morning on May 3, Confederate forces now under the leadership of J.E.B. Stuart (after Jackson was wounded and after the next in command, A.P. Hill, was also wounded) launched a massive attack on the Federal positions around Chancellorsville, aided by the newly installed guns. Fires were sparked in the woods around Chancellorsville, confusing soldiers and killing wounded soldiers rendered immobile. Confederate forces overwhelmed their Union counterparts and Hooker ordered a retreat. Hooker was wounded in the fighting, but refused to turn over command, despite being rendered unconscious for over an hour. Meanwhile, Union forces under John Sedgwick were defeated in their attempts to salvage the battle and the Union Army ultimately withdrew across the Rappahannock River on May 6. In what is considered one of the most decisive Confederate victories of the Civil War, Confederate forces suffered over 13,000 casualties, while Union forces suffered over 17,000. Confederate forces, however, suffered a much greater percentage of casualties. Hooker's reputation was forever tarnished in his handling of the battle. After the battle, he blamed the "incompetence" of his subordinate generals despite the fact that over half of his available soldiers were never deployed into combat. On the Confederate side, the battle is often called "Lee's greatest victory," and gave him the feeling his army was destined to win the war. The victory at Chancellorsville gave Lee the confidence that his army could win in the North and resulted in his invasion of Pennsylvania and ultimately the Battle of Gettysburg.	<urn:uuid:c6c60b46-5595-473d-af08-12ae17e7ff48>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/uploads/activities/civil-war-battles/chancellorsville2.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00032.warc.gz	en	0.981327	838	3.78125	4	[ -0.3722599148750305, 0.3199634253978729, 0.2531813383102417, 0.07421959936618805, 0.02042417787015438, 0.23652766644954681, -0.2093638926744461, 0.1403803825378418, -0.28873148560523987, 0.00016677507665008307, -0.3433391749858856, -0.2352006584405899, -0.11522486805915833, 0.1554520130157...	2	The Battle of Chancellorsville was fought between April 30th and May 6th, 1863, near the city of Fredericksburg, Virginia, where the Confederates had scored a major victory in December. Union General Joseph Hooker, recently named Commander of the Army of Potomac, planned to launch a massive assault against Lee's Army of Northern Virginia by attacking them at the front and the rear. Hooker's Army was roughly twice the size of Lee's and was well rested and provisioned. On May 1, 1863, Hooker launched his attack on Lee's Army at Chancellorsville. Lee, in an unconventional military move, decided to split his smaller army into two parts, leaving a small force at nearby Fredericksburg, Virginia, and confronting Hooker's assault with roughly 80% of his army. Union General Hooker, inexperienced and perhaps unconfident in handling such a massive force, ordered his forces to withdraw to defensive positions in the nearby forests around Chancellorsville in the wake of Lee's assaults. On May 2, 1863, Confederate General Stonewall Jackson attacked the right flank of the Union Army entrenched around Chancellorsville. Jackson marched his forces of 28,000 men 12 miles undetected to reach the Union right flank. At dinnertime, Confederate forces screaming their "rebel yell" stormed out of the forest and attacked the Union right flank. Union forces were totally unprepared and many were eating dinner. Within an hour, the right flank was totally disintegrated and was in full retreat. They suffered at least 2,500 casualties. Later that evening, however, General Stonewall Jackson was mistaken for Union cavalry and was shot in the arm as he rode out to investigate the feasibility of launching a nighttime attack on the Federals. Jackson contracted pneumonia and died on May 10th. Jackson's death was devastating to the Confederate cause and to Lee's battle strategies through the remainder of the war. Despite the initial setback, Union forces were still in control. Nearly 76,000 Union soldiers were still in positions defending Chancellorsville compared to 43,000 soldiers available to the Confederacy. The two largest parts of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia were positioned on either side of Union forces that occupied an area of high ground known as Hazel's Grove. Luckily for the Confederacy, General Hooker ordered those soldiers, under the command of General Sickles, to a different position on a local road called the Plank Road. Confederate forces proceed to occupy the high ground, where they placed thirty heavy guns. At 5:30 in the morning on May 3, Confederate forces now under the leadership of J.E.B. Stuart (after Jackson was wounded and after the next in command, A.P. Hill, was also wounded) launched a massive attack on the Federal positions around Chancellorsville, aided by the newly installed guns. Fires were sparked in the woods around Chancellorsville, confusing soldiers and killing wounded soldiers rendered immobile. Confederate forces overwhelmed their Union counterparts and Hooker ordered a retreat. Hooker was wounded in the fighting, but refused to turn over command, despite being rendered unconscious for over an hour. Meanwhile, Union forces under John Sedgwick were defeated in their attempts to salvage the battle and the Union Army ultimately withdrew across the Rappahannock River on May 6. In what is considered one of the most decisive Confederate victories of the Civil War, Confederate forces suffered over 13,000 casualties, while Union forces suffered over 17,000. Confederate forces, however, suffered a much greater percentage of casualties. Hooker's reputation was forever tarnished in his handling of the battle. After the battle, he blamed the "incompetence" of his subordinate generals despite the fact that over half of his available soldiers were never deployed into combat. On the Confederate side, the battle is often called "Lee's greatest victory," and gave him the feeling his army was destined to win the war. The victory at Chancellorsville gave Lee the confidence that his army could win in the North and resulted in his invasion of Pennsylvania and ultimately the Battle of Gettysburg.	887	ENGLISH	1
The resource has been added to your collection After reading several stories of children who lived during the Holocaust, the students are to write a narrative from their perspective of how their life would have been like if they were a child of the Holocaust. They may choose to write it as an essay or as a journal entry. In their narrative they are to include; an account of their life before the Holocaust, what they endured during the Holocaust, their name, age, location in Europe, if and where they are hiding, a description of the Nazi`s and how they treated them, a description of their family and their family`s whereabouts during the Holocaust, actual dates from the Holocaust along with actual accounts of the Holocaust. While writing, they are also expected to pay close attention to their writing mechanics and grammar because their work will be graded and published in a class book. Through their writing, I will be able to assess if they understand the events of the Holocaust and how life was during the time period. The group work portion will be assessed by the notes they turn in. In order to assure each student in the group is reading along, they are expected to take notes on at least five different stories of a child during the Holocaust. These notes will be collected and turned in for a group participation grade. This resource was reviewed using the Curriki Review rubric and received an overall Curriki Review System rating of 3, as of 2010-06-01.	<urn:uuid:77e2baf5-38c3-42a4-891e-749cd0a0c2d5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.curriki.org/oer/Children-of-the-Holocaust	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00252.warc.gz	en	0.984722	295	3.859375	4	[ -0.007242374122142792, 0.3855067491531372, -0.0015767186414450407, -0.010759595781564713, -0.19157253205776215, 0.30728214979171753, -0.13779586553573608, 0.25870946049690247, -0.24123044312000275, -0.2506920397281647, 0.17260587215423584, 0.246271014213562, -0.1429443359375, 0.33232435584...	1	The resource has been added to your collection After reading several stories of children who lived during the Holocaust, the students are to write a narrative from their perspective of how their life would have been like if they were a child of the Holocaust. They may choose to write it as an essay or as a journal entry. In their narrative they are to include; an account of their life before the Holocaust, what they endured during the Holocaust, their name, age, location in Europe, if and where they are hiding, a description of the Nazi`s and how they treated them, a description of their family and their family`s whereabouts during the Holocaust, actual dates from the Holocaust along with actual accounts of the Holocaust. While writing, they are also expected to pay close attention to their writing mechanics and grammar because their work will be graded and published in a class book. Through their writing, I will be able to assess if they understand the events of the Holocaust and how life was during the time period. The group work portion will be assessed by the notes they turn in. In order to assure each student in the group is reading along, they are expected to take notes on at least five different stories of a child during the Holocaust. These notes will be collected and turned in for a group participation grade. This resource was reviewed using the Curriki Review rubric and received an overall Curriki Review System rating of 3, as of 2010-06-01.	299	ENGLISH	1
Over the centuries, Macbeth's accountability in Macbethand Shakesperare's intent have been discussed at length. This tragedy can be classified by one of two theories. One theory suggests that the tragic hero, Macbeth, is led down an unescapable road of doom by an outside force; namely the three witches. The second suggests that there is no supernatural force working against Macbeth, which therefore makes him responsible for his own actions and inevitable downfall. These forces had no direct control over his actions but simply pointed out different paths for him to follow. Ultimately, Macbeth chose the path of darkness. He knows what he is doing is wrong even before he murders Duncan. His own conscience is nagging at him but he allows Lady Macbeth and greed to cloud his judgement. He allows himself to be swayed by the woman he loves. Lady Macbeth gave him an ultimatum and provoked him by saying: When you durst do it, then you were a man; And to be more than what you were, you would Be so much more the man…. I, vii, She provokes him by questioning his manhood and then saying that he would be a much greater man if he were to go through with the deed. Macbeth then had to make a decision. He willingly chose to follow the path of death and destruction. Lady Macbeth simply showed him that path. It is easy to believe that the witches controlled Macbeth and made him follow a path of doom. The predictions they give, coupled with their unholy ways suggest that they are in control of him. Hail to thee Thane of Cawdor! All they have done is foretold his future. It is a warning that Macbeth ignores. He is so enraptured by the prophecies of the witches that he consciously follows a path of darkness in an effort to fulfil the prophecies It can also be shown that the witches definitely have no physical control over Macbeth. This in turn will cause his sleeplessness. Though his bark cannot be lost, Yet it shall be tempest-tossed I, iii, The witches can do no more to Macbeth than they did to the sailor. The witch can toss the ship about but she cannot cause its sinking nor can she directly cause the sailor to go without sleep. Only Macbeth controls his actions. In the soliloquy that Macbeth gives before he murders Duncan, he states: These are not the words of a man who is merely being led down a self destructive path of doom, with no will of his own. They are the words of a man who realizes not only the graveness of his actions, but, also the reasons behind them. Macbeth is a fully cognizant person and not a mindless puppet of the supernatural. Later the head witch, Hecate, declares: Hath been but for a wayward son, Spiteful and wrathful, who, as others do, Loves for his own ends, not for you. He willingly committed the crimes to fulfil his ambitions; not because of a spell cast by the witches. While purposely played in a mysterious setting, the location is not meant to cloud the true theme of the play with the supernatural. Macbeth simply succumbs to natural urges and his own ambitions which lead him to a fate of his own making. He was not supernaturally controlled by the black magic of the witches nor was he purposefully led down a path of destruction. Everyone has character flaws that they must live with; Macbeth simply allowed those flaws to destroy him.Macbeth had a choice to not do what he did, however he despite his conscience urging him not take the path to death and destruction, he continued to repeatedly murder various characters, which made him ultimately responsible for his own downfall.3/5(4). OPUS ARTE OA D ‘Lord, what fools these mortals be!’ William Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream is one of his most popular, beguiling and frequently performed plays. Macbeth, despite influences of the witches and Lady Macbeth, is responsible for his downfall. In Shakespeare’s play Macbeth, Macbeth is a tragic hero who destroys himself by his own wicked and selfish ambitions. At the beginning of the play, Macbeth is portrayed as a courageous, noble hero of Scotland who has bravely won the war. Macbeth is completely and solely responsible for his own downfall. He lead himself to defeat by falling to his fatal flaws. Manipulation, ambition, and power got the better of him creating great inner turmoil, and bringing him to an abrupt end. Macbeth is resposible for his own downfall because his human nature, the witches prophecies and Lady Macbeths persuasions also play a part in Macbeth's downfall. Read the study guide: Macbeth. Although ultimately it was Macbeth’s own blind and greedy ambition which both Essay on Macbeth Was Responsible for His Own Downfall Words \| 7 Pages. More about Macbeth Is Entirely Responsible for His Own Demise Essay.	<urn:uuid:3e128b34-9815-4616-8429-c6106addee86>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://halyfococi.barnweddingvt.com/macbeth-is-ultimately-responsible-for-his-own-downfall-29310ez.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00455.warc.gz	en	0.980074	1,094	3.390625	3	[ -0.22532139718532562, 0.013679864816367626, 0.25907325744628906, 0.2123546153306961, -0.17389383912086487, -0.2640371322631836, 0.6856392621994019, 0.28142040967941284, 0.04594278335571289, -0.06537409126758575, -0.08248570561408997, -0.38056784868240356, -0.5623104572296143, 0.35340356826...	1	Over the centuries, Macbeth's accountability in Macbethand Shakesperare's intent have been discussed at length. This tragedy can be classified by one of two theories. One theory suggests that the tragic hero, Macbeth, is led down an unescapable road of doom by an outside force; namely the three witches. The second suggests that there is no supernatural force working against Macbeth, which therefore makes him responsible for his own actions and inevitable downfall. These forces had no direct control over his actions but simply pointed out different paths for him to follow. Ultimately, Macbeth chose the path of darkness. He knows what he is doing is wrong even before he murders Duncan. His own conscience is nagging at him but he allows Lady Macbeth and greed to cloud his judgement. He allows himself to be swayed by the woman he loves. Lady Macbeth gave him an ultimatum and provoked him by saying: When you durst do it, then you were a man; And to be more than what you were, you would Be so much more the man…. I, vii, She provokes him by questioning his manhood and then saying that he would be a much greater man if he were to go through with the deed. Macbeth then had to make a decision. He willingly chose to follow the path of death and destruction. Lady Macbeth simply showed him that path. It is easy to believe that the witches controlled Macbeth and made him follow a path of doom. The predictions they give, coupled with their unholy ways suggest that they are in control of him. Hail to thee Thane of Cawdor! All they have done is foretold his future. It is a warning that Macbeth ignores. He is so enraptured by the prophecies of the witches that he consciously follows a path of darkness in an effort to fulfil the prophecies It can also be shown that the witches definitely have no physical control over Macbeth. This in turn will cause his sleeplessness. Though his bark cannot be lost, Yet it shall be tempest-tossed I, iii, The witches can do no more to Macbeth than they did to the sailor. The witch can toss the ship about but she cannot cause its sinking nor can she directly cause the sailor to go without sleep. Only Macbeth controls his actions. In the soliloquy that Macbeth gives before he murders Duncan, he states: These are not the words of a man who is merely being led down a self destructive path of doom, with no will of his own. They are the words of a man who realizes not only the graveness of his actions, but, also the reasons behind them. Macbeth is a fully cognizant person and not a mindless puppet of the supernatural. Later the head witch, Hecate, declares: Hath been but for a wayward son, Spiteful and wrathful, who, as others do, Loves for his own ends, not for you. He willingly committed the crimes to fulfil his ambitions; not because of a spell cast by the witches. While purposely played in a mysterious setting, the location is not meant to cloud the true theme of the play with the supernatural. Macbeth simply succumbs to natural urges and his own ambitions which lead him to a fate of his own making. He was not supernaturally controlled by the black magic of the witches nor was he purposefully led down a path of destruction. Everyone has character flaws that they must live with; Macbeth simply allowed those flaws to destroy him.Macbeth had a choice to not do what he did, however he despite his conscience urging him not take the path to death and destruction, he continued to repeatedly murder various characters, which made him ultimately responsible for his own downfall.3/5(4). OPUS ARTE OA D ‘Lord, what fools these mortals be!’ William Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream is one of his most popular, beguiling and frequently performed plays. Macbeth, despite influences of the witches and Lady Macbeth, is responsible for his downfall. In Shakespeare’s play Macbeth, Macbeth is a tragic hero who destroys himself by his own wicked and selfish ambitions. At the beginning of the play, Macbeth is portrayed as a courageous, noble hero of Scotland who has bravely won the war. Macbeth is completely and solely responsible for his own downfall. He lead himself to defeat by falling to his fatal flaws. Manipulation, ambition, and power got the better of him creating great inner turmoil, and bringing him to an abrupt end. Macbeth is resposible for his own downfall because his human nature, the witches prophecies and Lady Macbeths persuasions also play a part in Macbeth's downfall. Read the study guide: Macbeth. Although ultimately it was Macbeth’s own blind and greedy ambition which both Essay on Macbeth Was Responsible for His Own Downfall Words \| 7 Pages. More about Macbeth Is Entirely Responsible for His Own Demise Essay.	1,028	ENGLISH	1
The tiny, transparent worm Caenorhabditis elegans can be born either as a male, typically with one X chromosome, or as a hermaphrodite, with two. When Barbara Meyer began a professorship at MIT in the 1980s, she wanted to pinpoint the genetic pathway that determined the worm’s sexual fate. There was evidence that this process was tied to dosage compensation, a delicate balancing act that ensures X-chromosome expression is matched between the two forms—a condition necessary for survival not only in worms, but also in humans, fruit flies, and other animals in which one sex carries two X chromosomes, while the other carries only one. Meyer suspected that the gene responsible would control the levels of X chromosome expression in only one form of the worm—either it would limit expression in XX C. elegans, or it would boost expression in individuals with only a single X—and failure to do so would result in the animal’s death. Her team, however, struggled to find such a gene. Then, one day, a “eureka moment” almost got thrown down the drain. In one experiment, her team was growing hermaphrodites with a mutation in a sex-specific gene they knew was involved in X dosage compensation. At first, as expected, the nematodes were growing poorly and dying, but then a lab technician noticed that they suddenly looked healthy and started multiplying. Thinking that there was a problem with the culture, he started to discard the samples in the sink. From across the room, Meyer shouted, “Stop!” She suspected that those healthy worms might contain the answer to her question, and she was right. There had been a spontaneous mutation in what turned out to be the master sex-switch gene, responsible for both determining sex and repressing the expression of X chromosomes in hermaphroditic worms (Cell, 48:25–37, 1987). “In that [culture], through serendipity, was the long-sought-after gene that I wanted,” Meyer says. An unexpected path Growing up in Stockton, a small city in California’s Central Valley, in the 1950s, Meyer never thought she’d become a scientist. She was fascinated by the sciences, which she encountered both through interactions with an uncle who was an aeronautical engineer and via a wide selection of nonfiction books. But when asked in high school to write an essay about what she envisioned as her future career, Meyer wrote that she would become a medical lab tech. “[I wasn’t] even dreaming that I’d be able to have a PhD,” Meyer recalls. In her town, “there was no model for being a scientist . . . certainly not for a girl.” Meyer longed to escape Stockton, which she describes as a rather isolated place. She imagined traveling the world like another of her uncles, a globetrotter who would visit with exotic gifts from faraway places. She got her first travel opportunity after she was accepted into Stanford University, which allowed her to study abroad. She spent a semester at the Stanford campus in Stuttgart, West Germany, in 1969. On one of her visits to Berlin, where the infamous wall split the city in two, Meyer remembers encountering a distressing sight: soldiers shooting at people who were trying to escape across the border into the West. “When you see these kinds of things, it makes you happier thinking about science because there’s some logic to it, rather than watching people get shot,” Meyer says. “That compelled me even more [to go into science].” After completing her undergraduate studies, Meyer joined the lab of David Clayton, a developmental biologist at Stanford’s California campus. There, she used herpes simplex virus and mouse mitochondria to investigate a nucleotide-forming enzyme called thymidine kinase. “That convinced me that I really wanted to do [research],” she says. “Whether I could or not was another question, but I really wanted it.” While working in Clayton’s lab, Meyer decided she wanted to pursue medical research and applied to medical school. During the application process, several interviewers told her that they saw her more as a researcher than a physician, or that if they offered her a position in a medical program, she would simply get married, pregnant, and drop out, Meyer recalls. She was ultimately rejected. That was a demoralizing experience, she says, but it turned out for the best. She had also applied to graduate school, and soon after her med school rejections, she learned she’d been accepted into a program at the University of California, Berkeley—where she would not only earn her PhD, but eventually go on to become a leader in the study of genetic switches. A fateful switch In graduate school, Meyer focused on viruses that infect bacteria. One such bacteriophage, the famous lambda phage, can live one of two lifestyles: a peaceful one, where it stays dormant in a host’s DNA, or a violent one, where it hijacks the host’s cellular machinery to replicate, then releases its progeny into the environment. When Meyer started at Berkeley, she was intrigued by the factors that influenced how the lambda phage ended up on one of these two paths. At the time, scientists had discovered that the phage itself carried a repressor, a protein that inhibits gene expression by binding to DNA. They knew this protein was involved in determining a phage’s fate, but the mechanism behind its function was an open question. “The fact that there was a genetic switch that enabled that decision—I really wanted to understand that,” Meyer says. Her advisor, Harrison Echols—a biologist who conducted pioneering work on bacteriophage lambda—thought that trying to understand the genetic switch was too difficult for her to pursue, Meyer recalls; as an alternative, he suggested she map out all the promoter sequences for RNA polymerases in the lambda phage’s DNA. So, she put her passion project on hold and began mapping polymerase promoters. A few months later, she sat in on a seminar by molecular biologist Mark Ptashne, then a professor at Harvard University. Ptashne had been the first to isolate the lambda repressor protein, and his lab was in the process of investigating how it controlled the phage’s fate. According to Meyer, he too discouraged her from trying to tackle the question of the bacteriophage lambda’s genetic switch. “He said, you can’t possibly compete with us, so forget about it,” she recalls. But when she ran into him again a year later at a conference at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York, Ptashne asked her to sit in on meeting with a few members of his team, where he surprised Meyer by inviting her to his lab at Harvard to conduct the experiments on bacteriophage lambda that she was dying to do. “I had been dreaming about this for a whole year, and then this miracle happened,” she says. After Echols approved the transfer, Meyer packed her bags and moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts. Within a few weeks of joining Ptashne’s lab, she had demonstrated that the lambda repressor regulated the transcription of its own genes in a test tube (PNAS, 72:4785–89, 1975). For her, this was an “aha” moment that led to a cascade of follow-up experiments and around a dozen papers during her PhD studies alone. Working with Ptashne taught Meyer to be both a rigorous scientist and an expert communicator, she says. Ptashne is “a master at figuring out how to get messages across. . . . Plus, he had little patience, so your experiments had to be perfect for him to believe them,” she tells The Scientist. “I think that was all part of my education.” Sex and death decisions After completing her doctoral studies in 1979, Meyer wanted to find a research question that she could make her own—and a more complex organism in which to study developmental biology. For her postdoc, she moved across the Atlantic to Cambridge, England, to work at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology. There, she joined the lab of Sydney Brenner, a biologist who later would win the Nobel Prize for his groundbreaking work on C. elegans. Meyer chose to study the nematode because she was drawn by the question of how its sex is determined. “I was fascinated again by a binary developmental decision,” Meyer says. “It was the same idea [as with the lambda phage], but on a much huger scale.” Jonathan Hodgkin, a nematode biologist who had been a graduate student in Brenner’s lab, had already identified a mutation that caused genetic males to become hermaphrodites, and vice versa. But Meyer wasn’t convinced that this mutation explained the sex switch, because there had been hints from previous research that the switch might be linked to dosage compensation of X-linked genes. Too much or too little X expression is lethal, so “I thought I couldn’t just look for sex reversal, because the animal I’m looking for might be dead,” Meyer explains. Years earlier, biologists Victor Nigon and Robert Herman had shown that C. elegans embryos were sensitive to the number of X chromosomes relative to sets of non-sex chromosomes called autosomes in their genomes. By studying animals that carried two, three, and four sets of autosomes, they discovered that worms born with an X chromosome:autosome ratio between 0.5 and 0.67 would be male, while ratios between 0.75 and 1 would be hermaphrodites. (Other ratios would either be lethal or impossible to generate.) There had also been work by Thomas Cline, a geneticist who was then at Princeton University, that revealed a link between sex determination and dosage compensation in fruit flies. Meyer decided to work backwards in the worms, screening for genes that were involved in dosage compensation. Eventually she found autosomal genes that, when disrupted by mutation, led to abnormal levels of X-chromosome expression (Cell, 47:871–81, 1986). “Barbara is a brilliant and creative scientist,” says Cynthia Kenyon, the vice president of Calico, a San Francisco-based biotech company. Kenyon, who met Meyer while the two were both graduate students at Harvard in the 1970s, says that Meyer will “stop at nothing to figure out how to dissect a system of incredible complexity.” Meyer continued her work on C. elegans at MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where she started a professorship in the early 1980s. Anne Villeneuve, a Stanford University geneticist who was one of Meyer’s first graduate students at MIT, says she was inspired by Meyer’s boldness in the early days of her lab. “She had to have confidence in the system that she was building from scratch, and she had to believe that it was going to work out,” Villeneuve says. “Once it was built, everyone could see how cool it was.” Her worm system led to the drain-dumping-turned-eureka moment, as well as to many other important insights into the molecular machinery involved both in dosage compensation and in other fundamental cellular processes, such as meiosis. A brush with fate During Meyer’s early days of working on C. elegans, Princeton’s Cline was but a faceless author on papers she’d read with great interest. She was amazed by the quality of the manuscripts, and because he was the only author on many of them, she suspected that he must have had a long career in academia—and thus was many decades older than her. Meyer later learned that this was not the case: Cline was, in fact, only a few years her senior. The two met for the first time at a developmental biology conference in 1981 and bonded over their shared scientific interests. They started dating several years later, in 1986, and once their romance began, things moved quickly—within a month of getting together, they were married. “I fell in love with him from reading his papers,” Meyer says. When the couple got married, they were professors in different states: Cline was in New Jersey, and Meyer in Massachusetts. Cline, like Meyer, was from California, and he wanted to return. Although Meyer loved MIT and the fast-paced lifestyle of the East Coast, managing her father’s health care from across the country was proving to be a challenge. After her father had a heart attack, Meyer and Cline moved back to their home state, where they both obtained faculty positions at Berkeley. One of the defining features of the couple’s now decades-long relationship has been a common passion for science. Together, they have coauthored a handful of review articles, and to this day, they edit each other’s papers. “We’re each other’s best critics,” Meyer says. The two also share a love of hiking and have trekked along numerous, sometimes-treacherous trails around the world. On one evening outing with Cline on Costa Rica’s Osa Peninsula in 1999, Meyer took a wrong step in the dark and fell off a 12-foot-high cliff. She landed on her back and shattered her ankle, but she considers herself lucky: there was a block of concrete right by her head, and iron rods jutting out from the space between her legs. “It makes me realize that anything can happen at any moment, and you better live your life well,” she says. “It made me think really hard about what could happen in the future—so I’m very good at troubleshooting in advance.” That preparedness has served Meyer well both inside and outside of the lab. Throughout her career, she has juggled many tasks, from running her lab and mentoring countless students to organizing scientific meetings and serving on numerous advisory boards for universities, professional societies, and both governmental and nonprofit organizations. And, she’s still determined to crack more scientific mysteries—for example, to further unravel the biochemical mechanisms underlying dosage compensation and to understand how chromosome structure affects gene expression. “There are quite number of big questions left,” she says. Diana Kwon is a Berlin-based freelance journalist. Follow her on Twitter @DianaMKwon.	<urn:uuid:1c135c30-e3d6-47c0-9050-7d6c7cd9446a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.the-scientist.com/profile/switch-master--a-profile-of-barbara-meyer-66892	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00382.warc.gz	en	0.980058	3,093	3.671875	4	[ -0.11561213433742523, 0.016698569059371948, 0.2827012538909912, 0.040320783853530884, -0.3836667835712433, 0.11537047475576401, 0.2041928470134735, 0.39717286825180054, -0.15633270144462585, 0.10463301837444305, 0.07862475514411926, -0.1515536904335022, 0.5299832820892334, -0.1367891430854...	10	The tiny, transparent worm Caenorhabditis elegans can be born either as a male, typically with one X chromosome, or as a hermaphrodite, with two. When Barbara Meyer began a professorship at MIT in the 1980s, she wanted to pinpoint the genetic pathway that determined the worm’s sexual fate. There was evidence that this process was tied to dosage compensation, a delicate balancing act that ensures X-chromosome expression is matched between the two forms—a condition necessary for survival not only in worms, but also in humans, fruit flies, and other animals in which one sex carries two X chromosomes, while the other carries only one. Meyer suspected that the gene responsible would control the levels of X chromosome expression in only one form of the worm—either it would limit expression in XX C. elegans, or it would boost expression in individuals with only a single X—and failure to do so would result in the animal’s death. Her team, however, struggled to find such a gene. Then, one day, a “eureka moment” almost got thrown down the drain. In one experiment, her team was growing hermaphrodites with a mutation in a sex-specific gene they knew was involved in X dosage compensation. At first, as expected, the nematodes were growing poorly and dying, but then a lab technician noticed that they suddenly looked healthy and started multiplying. Thinking that there was a problem with the culture, he started to discard the samples in the sink. From across the room, Meyer shouted, “Stop!” She suspected that those healthy worms might contain the answer to her question, and she was right. There had been a spontaneous mutation in what turned out to be the master sex-switch gene, responsible for both determining sex and repressing the expression of X chromosomes in hermaphroditic worms (Cell, 48:25–37, 1987). “In that [culture], through serendipity, was the long-sought-after gene that I wanted,” Meyer says. An unexpected path Growing up in Stockton, a small city in California’s Central Valley, in the 1950s, Meyer never thought she’d become a scientist. She was fascinated by the sciences, which she encountered both through interactions with an uncle who was an aeronautical engineer and via a wide selection of nonfiction books. But when asked in high school to write an essay about what she envisioned as her future career, Meyer wrote that she would become a medical lab tech. “[I wasn’t] even dreaming that I’d be able to have a PhD,” Meyer recalls. In her town, “there was no model for being a scientist . . . certainly not for a girl.” Meyer longed to escape Stockton, which she describes as a rather isolated place. She imagined traveling the world like another of her uncles, a globetrotter who would visit with exotic gifts from faraway places. She got her first travel opportunity after she was accepted into Stanford University, which allowed her to study abroad. She spent a semester at the Stanford campus in Stuttgart, West Germany, in 1969. On one of her visits to Berlin, where the infamous wall split the city in two, Meyer remembers encountering a distressing sight: soldiers shooting at people who were trying to escape across the border into the West. “When you see these kinds of things, it makes you happier thinking about science because there’s some logic to it, rather than watching people get shot,” Meyer says. “That compelled me even more [to go into science].” After completing her undergraduate studies, Meyer joined the lab of David Clayton, a developmental biologist at Stanford’s California campus. There, she used herpes simplex virus and mouse mitochondria to investigate a nucleotide-forming enzyme called thymidine kinase. “That convinced me that I really wanted to do [research],” she says. “Whether I could or not was another question, but I really wanted it.” While working in Clayton’s lab, Meyer decided she wanted to pursue medical research and applied to medical school. During the application process, several interviewers told her that they saw her more as a researcher than a physician, or that if they offered her a position in a medical program, she would simply get married, pregnant, and drop out, Meyer recalls. She was ultimately rejected. That was a demoralizing experience, she says, but it turned out for the best. She had also applied to graduate school, and soon after her med school rejections, she learned she’d been accepted into a program at the University of California, Berkeley—where she would not only earn her PhD, but eventually go on to become a leader in the study of genetic switches. A fateful switch In graduate school, Meyer focused on viruses that infect bacteria. One such bacteriophage, the famous lambda phage, can live one of two lifestyles: a peaceful one, where it stays dormant in a host’s DNA, or a violent one, where it hijacks the host’s cellular machinery to replicate, then releases its progeny into the environment. When Meyer started at Berkeley, she was intrigued by the factors that influenced how the lambda phage ended up on one of these two paths. At the time, scientists had discovered that the phage itself carried a repressor, a protein that inhibits gene expression by binding to DNA. They knew this protein was involved in determining a phage’s fate, but the mechanism behind its function was an open question. “The fact that there was a genetic switch that enabled that decision—I really wanted to understand that,” Meyer says. Her advisor, Harrison Echols—a biologist who conducted pioneering work on bacteriophage lambda—thought that trying to understand the genetic switch was too difficult for her to pursue, Meyer recalls; as an alternative, he suggested she map out all the promoter sequences for RNA polymerases in the lambda phage’s DNA. So, she put her passion project on hold and began mapping polymerase promoters. A few months later, she sat in on a seminar by molecular biologist Mark Ptashne, then a professor at Harvard University. Ptashne had been the first to isolate the lambda repressor protein, and his lab was in the process of investigating how it controlled the phage’s fate. According to Meyer, he too discouraged her from trying to tackle the question of the bacteriophage lambda’s genetic switch. “He said, you can’t possibly compete with us, so forget about it,” she recalls. But when she ran into him again a year later at a conference at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York, Ptashne asked her to sit in on meeting with a few members of his team, where he surprised Meyer by inviting her to his lab at Harvard to conduct the experiments on bacteriophage lambda that she was dying to do. “I had been dreaming about this for a whole year, and then this miracle happened,” she says. After Echols approved the transfer, Meyer packed her bags and moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts. Within a few weeks of joining Ptashne’s lab, she had demonstrated that the lambda repressor regulated the transcription of its own genes in a test tube (PNAS, 72:4785–89, 1975). For her, this was an “aha” moment that led to a cascade of follow-up experiments and around a dozen papers during her PhD studies alone. Working with Ptashne taught Meyer to be both a rigorous scientist and an expert communicator, she says. Ptashne is “a master at figuring out how to get messages across. . . . Plus, he had little patience, so your experiments had to be perfect for him to believe them,” she tells The Scientist. “I think that was all part of my education.” Sex and death decisions After completing her doctoral studies in 1979, Meyer wanted to find a research question that she could make her own—and a more complex organism in which to study developmental biology. For her postdoc, she moved across the Atlantic to Cambridge, England, to work at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology. There, she joined the lab of Sydney Brenner, a biologist who later would win the Nobel Prize for his groundbreaking work on C. elegans. Meyer chose to study the nematode because she was drawn by the question of how its sex is determined. “I was fascinated again by a binary developmental decision,” Meyer says. “It was the same idea [as with the lambda phage], but on a much huger scale.” Jonathan Hodgkin, a nematode biologist who had been a graduate student in Brenner’s lab, had already identified a mutation that caused genetic males to become hermaphrodites, and vice versa. But Meyer wasn’t convinced that this mutation explained the sex switch, because there had been hints from previous research that the switch might be linked to dosage compensation of X-linked genes. Too much or too little X expression is lethal, so “I thought I couldn’t just look for sex reversal, because the animal I’m looking for might be dead,” Meyer explains. Years earlier, biologists Victor Nigon and Robert Herman had shown that C. elegans embryos were sensitive to the number of X chromosomes relative to sets of non-sex chromosomes called autosomes in their genomes. By studying animals that carried two, three, and four sets of autosomes, they discovered that worms born with an X chromosome:autosome ratio between 0.5 and 0.67 would be male, while ratios between 0.75 and 1 would be hermaphrodites. (Other ratios would either be lethal or impossible to generate.) There had also been work by Thomas Cline, a geneticist who was then at Princeton University, that revealed a link between sex determination and dosage compensation in fruit flies. Meyer decided to work backwards in the worms, screening for genes that were involved in dosage compensation. Eventually she found autosomal genes that, when disrupted by mutation, led to abnormal levels of X-chromosome expression (Cell, 47:871–81, 1986). “Barbara is a brilliant and creative scientist,” says Cynthia Kenyon, the vice president of Calico, a San Francisco-based biotech company. Kenyon, who met Meyer while the two were both graduate students at Harvard in the 1970s, says that Meyer will “stop at nothing to figure out how to dissect a system of incredible complexity.” Meyer continued her work on C. elegans at MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where she started a professorship in the early 1980s. Anne Villeneuve, a Stanford University geneticist who was one of Meyer’s first graduate students at MIT, says she was inspired by Meyer’s boldness in the early days of her lab. “She had to have confidence in the system that she was building from scratch, and she had to believe that it was going to work out,” Villeneuve says. “Once it was built, everyone could see how cool it was.” Her worm system led to the drain-dumping-turned-eureka moment, as well as to many other important insights into the molecular machinery involved both in dosage compensation and in other fundamental cellular processes, such as meiosis. A brush with fate During Meyer’s early days of working on C. elegans, Princeton’s Cline was but a faceless author on papers she’d read with great interest. She was amazed by the quality of the manuscripts, and because he was the only author on many of them, she suspected that he must have had a long career in academia—and thus was many decades older than her. Meyer later learned that this was not the case: Cline was, in fact, only a few years her senior. The two met for the first time at a developmental biology conference in 1981 and bonded over their shared scientific interests. They started dating several years later, in 1986, and once their romance began, things moved quickly—within a month of getting together, they were married. “I fell in love with him from reading his papers,” Meyer says. When the couple got married, they were professors in different states: Cline was in New Jersey, and Meyer in Massachusetts. Cline, like Meyer, was from California, and he wanted to return. Although Meyer loved MIT and the fast-paced lifestyle of the East Coast, managing her father’s health care from across the country was proving to be a challenge. After her father had a heart attack, Meyer and Cline moved back to their home state, where they both obtained faculty positions at Berkeley. One of the defining features of the couple’s now decades-long relationship has been a common passion for science. Together, they have coauthored a handful of review articles, and to this day, they edit each other’s papers. “We’re each other’s best critics,” Meyer says. The two also share a love of hiking and have trekked along numerous, sometimes-treacherous trails around the world. On one evening outing with Cline on Costa Rica’s Osa Peninsula in 1999, Meyer took a wrong step in the dark and fell off a 12-foot-high cliff. She landed on her back and shattered her ankle, but she considers herself lucky: there was a block of concrete right by her head, and iron rods jutting out from the space between her legs. “It makes me realize that anything can happen at any moment, and you better live your life well,” she says. “It made me think really hard about what could happen in the future—so I’m very good at troubleshooting in advance.” That preparedness has served Meyer well both inside and outside of the lab. Throughout her career, she has juggled many tasks, from running her lab and mentoring countless students to organizing scientific meetings and serving on numerous advisory boards for universities, professional societies, and both governmental and nonprofit organizations. And, she’s still determined to crack more scientific mysteries—for example, to further unravel the biochemical mechanisms underlying dosage compensation and to understand how chromosome structure affects gene expression. “There are quite number of big questions left,” she says. Diana Kwon is a Berlin-based freelance journalist. Follow her on Twitter @DianaMKwon.	2,943	ENGLISH	1
Walter “Walt” Whitman (; May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist, and journalist. A humanist , he was a part of the transition between transcendentalism and realism, incorporating both views in his works. Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon, often called the father of free verse. His work was very controversial in its time, particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass, which was described as obscene for its overt sexuality. Born in Huntington on Long Island, Whitman worked as a journalist, a teacher, a government clerk, andin addition to publishing his poetrywas a volunteer nurse during the American Civil War. Early in his career, he also produced a temperance novel, Franklin Evans (1842). Whitman’s major work, Leaves of Grass, was first published in 1855 with his own money. The work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person with an American epic. He continued expanding and revising it until his death in 1892. After a stroke towards the end of his life, he moved to Camden, New Jersey, where his health further declined. When he died at age 72, his funeral became a public spectacle. Life and work Walter Whitman was born on May 31, 1819, in West Hills, Town of Huntington, Long Island, to parents with interests in Quaker thought, Walter (1789-1855) and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman (1795-1873). The second of nine children, he was immediately nicknamed “Walt” to distinguish him from his father. Walter Whitman, Sr. named three of his seven sons after American leaders: Andrew Jackson, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson. The oldest was named Jesse and another boy died unnamed at the age of six months. The couple’s sixth son, the youngest, was named Edward. At age four, Whitman moved with his family from West Hills to Brooklyn, living in a series of homes, in part due to bad investments. Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy, given his family’s difficult economic status. One happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by the Marquis de Lafayette during a celebration in Brooklyn on July 4, 1825. At age eleven Whitman concluded formal schooling. He then sought employment for further income for his family; he was an office boy for two lawyers and later was an apprentice and printer’s devil for the weekly Long Island newspaper the Patriot, edited by Samuel E. Clements. There, Whitman learned about the printing press and typesetting. He may have written “sentimental bits” of filler material for occasional issues. Clements aroused controversy when he and two friends attempted to dig up the corpse of Elias Hicks to create a plaster mold of his head. Clements left the Patriot shortly afterward, possibly as a result of the controversy. The following summer Whitman worked for another printer, Erastus Worthington, in Brooklyn. His family moved back to West Hills in the spring, but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner, editor of the leading Whig weekly newspaper the Long-Island Star. While at the Star, Whitman became a regular patron of the local library, joined a town debating society, began attending theater performances, and anonymously published some of his earliest poetry in the New-York Mirror. At age 16 in May 1835, Whitman left the Star and Brooklyn. He moved to New York City to work as a compositor though, in later years, Whitman could not remember where. He attempted to find further work but had difficulty, in part due to a severe fire in the printing and publishing district, and in part due to a general collapse in the economy leading up to the Panic of 1837. In May 1836, he rejoined his family, now living in Hempstead, Long Island. Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838, though he was not satisfied as a teacher. After his teaching attempts, Whitman went back to Huntington, New York, to found his own newspaper, the Long-Islander. Whitman served as publisher, editor, pressman, and distributor and even provided home delivery. After ten months, he sold the publication to E. O. Crowell, whose first issue appeared on July 12, 1839. There are no known surviving copies of the Long-Islander published under Whitman. By the summer of 1839, he found a job as a typesetter in Jamaica, Queens with the Long Island Democrat, edited by James J. Brenton. He left shortly thereafter, and made another attempt at teaching from the winter of 1840 to the spring of 1841. One story, possibly apocryphal, tells of Whitman’s being chased away from a teaching job in Southold, New York, in 1840. After a local preacher called him a “Sodomite“, Whitman was allegedly tarred and feathered. Biographer Justin Kaplan notes that the story is likely untrue, because Whitman regularly vacationed in the town thereafter. Biographer Jerome Loving calls the incident a “myth”. During this time, Whitman published a series of ten editorials, called “Sun-Down PapersFrom the Desk of a Schoolmaster”, in three newspapers between the winter of 1840 and July 1841. In these essays, he adopted a constructed persona, a technique he would employ throughout his career. Whitman moved to New York City in May, initially working a low-level job at the New World, working under Park Benjamin, Sr. and Rufus Wilmot Griswold. He continued working for short periods of time for various newspapers; in 1842 he was editor of the Aurora and from 1846 to 1848 he was editor of the Brooklyn Eagle. He also contributed freelance fiction and poetry throughout the 1840s. Whitman lost his position at the Brooklyn Eagle in 1848 after siding with the free-soil “Barnburner” wing of the Democratic party against the newspaper’s owner, Isaac Van Anden, who belonged to the conservative, or “Hunker“, wing of the party. Whitman was a delegate to the 1848 founding convention of the Free Soil Party, which was concerned about the threat slavery would pose to free white labor and northern businessmen moving into the newly colonised western territories. Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison derided the party philosophy as “white manism.” In 1852, he serialized a novel titled Life and Adventures of Jack Engle: An Auto-Biography: A Story of New York at the Present Time in which the Reader Will Find Some Familiar Characters in six installments of New York’s The Sunday Dispatch. In 1858, Whitman published a 47,000 word series called Manly Health and Training under the pen name Mose Velsor. Apparently he drew the name Velsor from Van Velsor, his mother’s family name. This self-help guide recommends beards, nude sunbathing, comfortable shoes, bathing daily in cold water, eating meat almost exclusively, plenty of fresh air, and getting up early each morning. Present-day writers have called Manly Health and Training “quirky”, “so over the top”, “a pseudoscientific tract”, and “wacky”. Leaves of Grass Whitman claimed that after years of competing for “the usual rewards”, he determined to become a poet. He first experimented with a variety of popular literary genres which appealed to the cultural tastes of the period. As early as 1850, he began writing what would become Leaves of Grass, a collection of poetry which he would continue editing and revising until his death. Whitman intended to write a distinctly American epic and used free verse with a cadence based on the Bible. At the end of June 1855, Whitman surprised his brothers with the already-printed first edition of Leaves of Grass. George “didn’t think it worth reading”. Whitman paid for the publication of the first edition of Leaves of Grass himself and had it printed at a local print shop during their breaks from commercial jobs. A total of 795 copies were printed. No name is given as author; instead, facing the title page was an engraved portrait done by Samuel Hollyer, but 500 lines into the body of the text he calls himself “Walt Whitman, an American, one of the roughs, a kosmos, disorderly, fleshly, and sensual, no sentimentalist, no stander above men or women or apart from them, no more modest than immodest”. The inaugural volume of poetry was preceded by a prose preface of 827 lines. The succeeding untitled twelve poems totaled 2315 lines1336 lines belonging to the first untitled poem, later called “Song of Myself“. The book received its strongest praise from Ralph Waldo Emerson, who wrote a flattering five-page letter to Whitman and spoke highly of the book to friends. The first edition of Leaves of Grass was widely distributed and stirred up significant interest, in part due to Emerson’s approval, but was occasionally criticized for the seemingly “obscene” nature of the poetry. Geologist John Peter Lesley wrote to Emerson, calling the book “trashy, profane & obscene” and the author “a pretentious ass”. On July 11, 1855, a few days after Leaves of Grass was published, Whitman’s father died at the age of 65. In the months following the first edition of Leaves of Grass, critical responses began focusing more on the potentially offensive sexual themes. Though the second edition was already printed and bound, the publisher almost did not release it. In the end, the edition went to retail, with 20 additional poems, in August 1856.Leaves of Grass was revised and re-released in 1860 again in 1867, and several more times throughout the remainder of Whitman’s life. Several well-known writers admired the work enough to visit Whitman, including Amos Bronson Alcott and Henry David Thoreau. During the first publications of Leaves of Grass, Whitman had financial difficulties and was forced to work as a journalist again, specifically with Brooklyn’s Daily Times starting in May 1857. As an editor, he oversaw the paper’s contents, contributed book reviews, and wrote editorials. He left the job in 1859, though it is unclear whether he was fired or chose to leave. Whitman, who typically kept detailed notebooks and journals, left very little information about himself in the late 1850s. Civil War years As the American Civil War was beginning, Whitman published his poem “Beat! Beat! Drums!” as a patriotic rally call for the North. Whitman’s brother George had joined the Union army and began sending Whitman several vividly detailed letters of the battle front. On December 16, 1862, a listing of fallen and wounded soldiers in the New York Tribune included “First Lieutenant G. W. Whitmore”, which Whitman worried was a reference to his brother George. He made his way south immediately to find him, though his wallet was stolen on the way. “Walking all day and night, unable to ride, trying to get information, trying to get access to big people”, Whitman later wrote, he eventually found George alive, with only a superficial wound on his cheek. Whitman, profoundly affected by seeing the wounded soldiers and the heaps of their amputated limbs, left for Washington on December 28, 1862, with the intention of never returning to New York. In Washington, D.C., Whitman’s friend Charley Eldridge helped him obtain part-time work in the army paymaster’s office, leaving time for Whitman to volunteer as a nurse in the army hospitals. He would write of this experience in “The Great Army of the Sick”, published in a New York newspaper in 1863 and, 12 years later, in a book called Memoranda During the War. He then contacted Emerson, this time to ask for help in obtaining a government post. Another friend, John Trowbridge, passed on a letter of recommendation from Emerson to Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, hoping he would grant Whitman a position in that department. Chase, however, did not want to hire the author of such a disreputable book as Leaves of Grass. The Whitman family had a difficult end to 1864. On September 30, 1864, Whitman’s brother George was captured by Confederates in Virginia, and another brother, Andrew Jackson, died of tuberculosis compounded by alcoholism on December 3. That month, Whitman committed his brother Jesse to the Kings County Lunatic Asylum. Whitman’s spirits were raised, however, when he finally got a better-paying government post as a low-grade clerk in the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of the Interior, thanks to his friend William Douglas O’Connor. O’Connor, a poet, daguerreotypist and an editor at The Saturday Evening Post, had written to William Tod Otto, Assistant Secretary of the Interior, on Whitman’s behalf. Whitman began the new appointment on January 24, 1865, with a yearly salary of $1,200. A month later, on February 24, 1865, George was released from capture and granted a furlough because of his poor health. By May 1, Whitman received a promotion to a slightly higher clerkship and published Drum-Taps. Effective June 30, 1865, however, Whitman was fired from his job. His dismissal came from the new Secretary of the Interior, former Iowa Senator James Harlan. Though Harlan dismissed several clerks who “were seldom at their respective desks”, he may have fired Whitman on moral grounds after finding an 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass. O’Connor protested until J. Hubley Ashton had Whitman transferred to the Attorney General’s office on July 1. O’Connor, though, was still upset and vindicated Whitman by publishing a biased and exaggerated biographical study, The Good Gray Poet, in January 1866. The fifty-cent pamphlet defended Whitman as a wholesome patriot, established the poet’s nickname and increased his popularity. Also aiding in his popularity was the publication of “O Captain! My Captain!“, a relatively conventional poem on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the only poem to appear in anthologies during Whitman’s lifetime. Part of Whitman’s role at the Attorney General’s office was interviewing former Confederate soldiers for Presidential pardons. “There are real characters among them”, he later wrote, “and you know I have a fancy for anything out of the ordinary.” In August 1866, he took a month off in order to prepare a new edition of Leaves of Grass which would not be published until 1867 after difficulty in finding a publisher. He hoped it would be its last edition. In February 1868, Poems of Walt Whitman was published in England thanks to the influence of William Michael Rossetti, with minor changes that Whitman reluctantly approved. The edition became popular in England, especially with endorsements from the highly respected writer Anne Gilchrist. Another edition of Leaves of Grass was issued in 1871, the same year it was mistakenly reported that its author died in a railroad accident. As Whitman’s international fame increased, he remained at the attorney general’s office until January 1872. He spent much of 1872 caring for his mother who was now nearly eighty and struggling with arthritis. He also traveled and was invited to Dartmouth College to give the commencement address on June 26, 1872. Health decline and death After suffering a paralytic stroke in early 1873, Whitman was induced to move from Washington to the home of his brotherGeorge Washington Whitman, an engineerat 431 Stevens Street in Camden, New Jersey. His mother, having fallen ill, was also there and died that same year in May. Both events were difficult for Whitman and left him depressed. He remained at his brother’s home until buying his own in 1884. However, before purchasing his home, he spent the greatest period of his residence in Camden at his brother’s home in Stevens Street. While in residence there he was very productive, publishing three versions of Leaves of Grass among other works. He was also last fully physically active in this house, receiving both Oscar Wilde and Thomas Eakins. His other brother, Edward, an “invalid” since birth, lived in the house. When his brother and sister-in-law were forced to move for business reasons, he bought his own house at 328 Mickle Street (now 330 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard). First taken care of by tenants, he was completely bedridden for most of his time in Mickle Street. During this time, he began socializing with Mary Oakes Davisthe widow of a sea captain. She was a neighbor, boarding with a family in Bridge Avenue just a few blocks from Mickle Street. She moved in with Whitman on February 24, 1885, to serve as his housekeeper in exchange for free rent. She brought with her a cat, a dog, two turtledoves, a canary, and other assorted animals. During this time, Whitman produced further editions of Leaves of Grass in 1876, 1881, and 1889. While in Southern New Jersey, Whitman spent a good portion of his time in the then quite pastoral community of Laurel Springs, between 1876 and 1884, converting one of the Stafford Farm buildings to his summer home. The restored summer home has been preserved as a museum by the local historical society. Part of his Leaves of Grass was written here, and in his Specimen Days he wrote of the spring, creek and lake. To him, Laurel Lake was “the prettiest lake in: either America or Europe.” As the end of 1891 approached, he prepared a final edition of Leaves of Grass, a version that has been nicknamed the “Deathbed Edition.” He wrote, “L. of G. at last completeafter 33 y’rs of hackling at it, all times & moods of my life, fair weather & foul, all parts of the land, and peace & war, young & old.” Preparing for death, Whitman commissioned a granite mausoleum shaped like a house for $4,000 and visited it often during construction. In the last week of his life, he was too weak to lift a knife or fork and wrote: “I suffer all the time: I have no relief, no escape: it is monotonymonotonymonotonyin pain.” An 1890 recording thought to be Walt Whitman reading the opening four lines of his poem “America”. Problems playing this file? See media help. Whitman died on March 26, 1892. An autopsy revealed his lungs had diminished to one-eighth their normal breathing capacity, a result of bronchial pneumonia, and that an egg-sized abscess on his chest had eroded one of his ribs. The cause of death was officially listed as “pleurisy of the left side, consumption of the right lung, general miliary tuberculosis and parenchymatous nephritis.” A public viewing of his body was held at his Camden home; over 1,000 people visited in three hours. Whitman’s oak coffin was barely visible because of all the flowers and wreaths left for him. Four days after his death, he was buried in his tomb at Harleigh Cemetery in Camden. Another public ceremony was held at the cemetery, with friends giving speeches, live music, and refreshments. Whitman’s friend, the orator Robert Ingersoll, delivered the eulogy. Later, the remains of Whitman’s parents and two of his brothers and their families were moved to the mausoleum. Whitman’s work breaks the boundaries of poetic form and is generally prose-like. He also used unusual images and symbols in his poetry, including rotting leaves, tufts of straw, and debris. He also openly wrote about death and sexuality, including prostitution. He is often labeled as the father of free verse, though he did not invent it. Whitman wrote in the preface to the 1855 edition of Leaves of Grass, “The proof of a poet is that his country absorbs him as affectionately as he has absorbed it.” He believed there was a vital, symbiotic relationship between the poet and society. This connection was emphasized especially in “Song of Myself” by using an all-powerful first-person narration. As an American epic, it deviated from the historic use of an elevated hero and instead assumed the identity of the common people.Leaves of Grass also responded to the impact that recent urbanization in the United States had on the masses. Lifestyle and beliefs Whitman was a vocal proponent of temperance and in his youth rarely drank alcohol. He once stated he did not taste “strong liquor” until he was 30 and occasionally argued for prohibition. One of his earliest long fiction works, the novel Franklin Evans; or, The Inebriate, first published November 23, 1842, is a temperance novel. Whitman wrote the novel at the height of popularity of the Washingtonian movement though the movement itself was plagued with contradictions, as was Franklin Evans. Years later Whitman claimed he was embarrassed by the book and called it “damned rot”. He dismissed it by saying he wrote the novel in three days solely for money while he was under the influence of alcohol himself. Even so, he wrote other pieces recommending temperance, including The Madman and a short story “Reuben’s Last Wish”. Later in life he was more liberal with alcohol, enjoying local wines and champagne. Whitman was deeply influenced by deism. He denied any one faith was more important than another, and embraced all religions equally. In “Song of Myself”, he gave an inventory of major religions and indicated he respected and accepted all of thema sentiment he further emphasized in his poem “With Antecedents”, affirming: “I adopt each theory, myth, god, and demi-god, / I see that the old accounts, bibles, genealogies, are true, without exception”. In 1874, he was invited to write a poem about the Spiritualism movement, to which he responded, “It seems to me nearly altogether a poor, cheap, crude humbug.” Whitman was a religious skeptic: though he accepted all churches, he believed in none. God, to Whitman, was both immanent and transcendent and the human soul was immortal and in a state of progressive development.American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia classes him as one of several figures who “took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world.” Though biographers continue to debate Whitman’s sexuality, he is usually described as either homosexual or bisexual in his feelings and attractions. Whitman’s sexual orientation is generally assumed on the basis of his poetry, though this assumption has been disputed. His poetry depicts love and sexuality in a more earthy, individualistic way common in American culture before the medicalization of sexuality in the late 19th century. Though Leaves of Grass was often labeled pornographic or obscene, only one critic remarked on its author’s presumed sexual activity: in a November 1855 review, Rufus Wilmot Griswold suggested Whitman was guilty of “that horrible sin not to be mentioned among Christians.” Whitman had intense friendships with many men and boys throughout his life. Some biographers have suggested that he may not have actually engaged in sexual relationships with males, while others cite letters, journal entries, and other sources that they claim as proof of the sexual nature of some of his relationships. English poet and critic John Addington Symonds spent 20 years in correspondence trying to pry the answer from him. In 1890 he wrote to Whitman, “In your conception of Comradeship, do you contemplate the possible intrusion of those semi-sexual emotions and actions which no doubt do occur between men?” In reply, Whitman denied that his work had any such implication, asserting “hat the calamus part has even allow’d the possibility of such construction as mention’d is terribleI am fain to hope the pages themselves are not to be even mention’d for such gratuitous and quite at this time entirely undream’d & unreck’d possibility of morbid inferenceswh’ are disavow’d by me and seem damnable,” and insisting that he had fathered six illegitimate children. Some contemporary scholars are skeptical of the veracity of Whitman’s denial or the existence of the children he claimed. Peter Doyle may be the most likely candidate for the love of Whitman’s life. Doyle was a bus conductor whom Whitman met around 1866, and the two were inseparable for several years. Interviewed in 1895, Doyle said: “We were familiar at onceI put my hand on his kneewe understood. He did not get out at the end of the tripin fact went all the way back with me.” In his notebooks, Whitman disguised Doyle’s initials using the code “16.4” (P.D. being the 16th and 4th letters of the alphabet).Oscar Wilde met Whitman in America in 1882 and told the homosexual-rights activist George Cecil Ives that Whitman’s sexual orientation was beyond question “I have the kiss of Walt Whitman still on my lips.” The only explicit description of Whitman’s sexual activities is secondhand. In 1924, Edward Carpenter told Gavin Arthur of a sexual encounter in his youth with Whitman, the details of which Arthur recorded in his journal. Late in his life, when Whitman was asked outright whether his “Calamus” poems were homosexual, he chose not to respond. The manuscript of his love poem “Once I Pass’d Through A Populous City”, written when Whitman was 29, indicates it was originally about a man. Another possible lover was Bill Duckett. As a teenager, he lived on the same street in Camden and moved in with Whitman, living with him a number of years and serving him in various roles. Duckett was 15 when Whitman bought his house at 328 Mickle Street. From at least 1880, Duckett and his grandmother, Lydia Watson, were boarders, subletting space from another family at 334 Mickle Street. Because of this proximity, it is obvious that Duckett and Whitman met as neighbors. Their relationship was close, with the youth sharing Whitman’s money when he had it. Whitman described their friendship as “thick”. Though some biographers describe him as a boarder, others identify him as a lover. Their photograph is described as “modeled on the conventions of a marriage portrait”, part of a series of portraits of the poet with his young male friends, and encrypting male-male desire. Yet another intense relationship of Whitman with a young man was the one with Harry Stafford, with whose family Whitman stayed when at Timber Creek, and whom he first met when Stafford was 18, in 1876. Whitman gave Stafford a ring, which was returned and re-given over the course of a stormy relationship lasting several years. Of that ring, Stafford wrote to Whitman, “You know when you put it on there was but one thing to part it from me, and that was death.” There is also some evidence that Whitman may have had sexual relationships with women. He had a romantic friendship with a New York actress, Ellen Grey, in the spring of 1862, but it is not known whether it was also sexual. He still had a photograph of her decades later, when he moved to Camden, and he called her “an old sweetheart of mine”. In a letter, dated August 21, 1890, he claimed, “I have had six childrentwo are dead”. This claim has never been corroborated. Toward the end of his life, he often told stories of previous girlfriends and sweethearts and denied an allegation from the New York Herald that he had “never had a love affair”. As Whitman biographer Jerome Loving wrote, “the discussion of Whitman’s sexual orientation will probably continue in spite of whatever evidence emerges.” Sunbathing and swimming Whitman reportedly enjoyed bathing naked and sunbathing nude. In his work Manly Health and Training written under the pseudonym Mose Velsor, he advises men to swim naked. In A Sun-bathed Nakedness, he wrote, Never before did I get so close to Nature; never before did she come so close to me Nature was naked, and I was also Sweet, sane, still Nakedness in Nature! – ah if poor, sick, prurient humanity in cities might really know you once more! Is not nakedness indecent? No, not inherently. It is your thought, your sophistication, your fear, your respectability, that is indecent. There come moods when these clothes of ours are not only too irksome to wear, but are themselves indecent. Whitman was an adherent of the Shakespeare authorship question, refusing to believe in the historical attribution of the works to William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon. Whitman comments in his November Boughs (1888) regarding Shakespeare’s historical plays: Conceiv’d out of the fullest heat and pulse of European feudalismpersonifying in unparalleled ways the medieval aristocracy, its towering spirit of ruthless and gigantic caste, with its own peculiar air and arrogance (no mere imitation)only one of the “wolfish earls” so plenteous in the plays themselves, or some born descendant and knower, might seem to be the true author of those amazing worksworks in some respects greater than anything else in recorded literature. Whitman opposed the extension of slavery in the United States and supported the Wilmot Proviso. At first he was opposed to abolitionism, believing the movement did more harm than good. In 1846, he wrote that the abolitionists had, in fact, slowed the advancement of their cause by their “ultraism and officiousness”. His main concern was that their methods disrupted the democratic process, as did the refusal of the Southern states to put the interests of the nation as a whole above their own. In 1856, in his unpublished The Eighteenth Presidency, addressing the men of the South, he wrote “you are either to abolish slavery or it will abolish you”. Whitman also subscribed to the widespread opinion that even free African-Americans should not vote and was concerned at the increasing number of African-Americans in the legislature. George Hutchinson and David Drews have argued, without providing textual evidence from Whitman’s own early writings or other sources, that what little that “is known about the early development of Whitman’s racial awareness suggests that he imbibed the prevailing white prejudices of his time and place, thinking of black people as servile, shiftless, ignorant, and given to stealing, although he would remember individual blacks of his youth in positive terms”. Walt Whitman is often described as Americas national poet, creating an image of America for itself. “Although he is often considered a champion of democracy and equality, Whitman constructs a hierarchy with himself at the head, America below, and the rest of the world in a subordinate position.” In his study, “The Pragmatic Whitman: Reimagining American Democracy”, Stephen John Mack suggests that critics, who tend to ignore it, should look again at Whitmans nationalism: Whitmans seemingly mawkish celebrations of the United States one of those problematic features of his works that teachers and critics read past or explain away (xv-xvi). Nathanael OReilly in an essay on “Walt Whitmans Nationalism in the First Edition of Leaves of Grass” claims that “Whitmans imagined America is arrogant, expansionist, hierarchical, racist and exclusive; such an America is unacceptable to Native Americans, African-Americans, immigrants, the disabled, the infertile, and all those who value equal rights.” Whitman’s imaginative “mawkish” nationalism avoided issues concerning the genocide of Native Americans. As George Hutchinson and David Drews further suggest in an essay “Racial attitudes”,”Clearly, Whitman could not consistently reconcile the ingrained, even foundational, racist character of the United States with its egalitarian ideals. He could not even reconcile such contradictions in his own psyche.” The authors concluded their essay with: Because of the radically democratic and egalitarian aspects of his poetry, readers generally expect, and desire for, Whitman to be among the literary heroes that transcended the racist pressures that abounded in all spheres of public discourse during the nineteenth century. He did not, at least not consistently; nonetheless his poetry has been a model for democratic poets of all nations and races, right up to our own day. How Whitman could have been so prejudiced, and yet so effective in conveying an egalitarian and antiracist sensibility in his poetry, is a puzzle yet to be adequately addressed. Legacy and influence Walt Whitman has been claimed as America’s first “poet of democracy”, a title meant to reflect his ability to write in a singularly American character. A British friend of Walt Whitman, Mary Smith Whitall Costelloe, wrote: “You cannot really understand America without Walt Whitman, without Leaves of Grass… He has expressed that civilization, ‘up to date,’ as he would say, and no student of the philosophy of history can do without him.”Modernist poet Ezra Pound called Whitman “America’s poet… He is America.”Andrew Carnegie called him “the great poet of America so far”. Whitman considered himself a messiah-like figure in poetry. Others agreed: one of his admirers, William Sloane Kennedy, speculated that “people will be celebrating the birth of Walt Whitman as they are now the birth of Christ”. The literary critic, Harold Bloom wrote, as the introduction for the 150th anniversary of Leaves of Grass: If you are American, then Walt Whitman is your imaginative father and mother, even if, like myself, you have never composed a line of verse. You can nominate a fair number of literary works as candidates for the secular Scripture of the United States. They might include Melville’s Moby-Dick, Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, and Emerson’s two series of Essays and The Conduct of Life. None of those, not even Emerson’s, are as central as the first edition of Leaves of Grass. In his own time, Whitman attracted an influential coterie of disciples and admirers. Some, like Oscar Wilde and Edward Carpenter, viewed Whitman both as a prophet of a utopian future and of same-sex desire – the passion of comrades. This aligned with their own desires for a future of brotherly socialism. Whitman’s vagabond lifestyle was adopted by the Beat movement and its leaders such as Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac in the 1950s and 1960s as well as anti-war poets like Adrienne Rich and Gary Snyder.Lawrence Ferlinghetti numbered himself among Whitman’s “wild children”, and the title of his 1961 collection Starting from San Francisco is a deliberate reference to Whitman’s Starting from Paumanok. Whitman also influenced Bram Stoker, author of Dracula, and was the model for the character of Dracula. Stoker said in his notes that Dracula represented the quintessential male which, to Stoker, was Whitman, with whom he corresponded until Whitman’s death. Other admirers included the Eagle Street College, an informal group established in 1885 at the home of James William Wallace in Eagle Street, Bolton, to read and discuss the poetry of Whitman. The group subsequently became known as the Bolton Whitman Fellowship or Whitmanites. Its members held an annual ‘Whitman Day’ celebration around the poet’s birthday. Musical renditions and audio recordings Whitman’s poetry has been set to music by a large number of composers; indeed it has been suggested his poetry has been set to music more than that of any other American poet except for Emily Dickinson and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Those who have set his poems to music have included John Adams; Ernst Bacon; Leonard Bernstein; Benjamin Britten; Rhoda Coghill; Ronald Corp; George Crumb; Frederick Delius; Howard Hanson; Karl Amadeus Hartmann; Hans Werner Henze; Paul Hindemith; Ned Rorem; Ralph Vaughan Williams; Kurt Weill; and Roger Sessions. Crossing, an opera composed by Matthew Aucoin and inspired by Whitman’s Civil War diaries, premiered in 2015. In 2014, German publisher Hrbuch Hamburg issued the bilingual double-CD audio book of the Kinder Adams/Children of Adam cycle, based on translations by Kai Grehn in the 2005 Children of Adam from Leaves of Grass (Galerie Vevais), accompanying a collection of nude photography by Paul Cava. The audio release included a complete reading by Iggy Pop, as well as readings by Marianne Sgebrecht; Martin Wuttke; Birgit Minichmayr; Alexander Fehling; Lars Rudolph; Volker Bruch; Paula Beer; Josef Osterndorf; Ronald Lippok; Jule Bwe; and Robert Gwisdek. In 2014 composer John Zorn released On Leaves of Grass, an album inspired by and dedicated to Whitman. Namesakes and recognitions The Walt Whitman Bridge, which crosses the Delaware River near his home in Camden, was opened on May 16, 1957. In 1997, the Walt Whitman Community School opened, becoming the first private high school catering to LGBT youth. His other namesakes include Walt Whitman High School in Bethesda, Maryland and Walt Whitman Shops (formerly called “Walt Whitman Mall”) in Huntington Station, Long Island, New York, near his birthplace.	<urn:uuid:0c9655e0-9e08-41fb-ae6a-b5fd64865102>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://legendshub.com/walt-whitman/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00464.warc.gz	en	0.980167	8,051	3.421875	3	[ -0.04922871291637421, 0.4087541103363037, 0.012010845355689526, -0.07779805362224579, 0.13543495535850525, 0.04872581362724304, 0.41162192821502686, -0.14756807684898376, -0.1762302964925766, -0.006829706486314535, 0.1310727298259735, 0.1404741406440735, 0.22222742438316345, 0.793384850025...	2	Walter “Walt” Whitman (; May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist, and journalist. A humanist , he was a part of the transition between transcendentalism and realism, incorporating both views in his works. Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon, often called the father of free verse. His work was very controversial in its time, particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass, which was described as obscene for its overt sexuality. Born in Huntington on Long Island, Whitman worked as a journalist, a teacher, a government clerk, andin addition to publishing his poetrywas a volunteer nurse during the American Civil War. Early in his career, he also produced a temperance novel, Franklin Evans (1842). Whitman’s major work, Leaves of Grass, was first published in 1855 with his own money. The work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person with an American epic. He continued expanding and revising it until his death in 1892. After a stroke towards the end of his life, he moved to Camden, New Jersey, where his health further declined. When he died at age 72, his funeral became a public spectacle. Life and work Walter Whitman was born on May 31, 1819, in West Hills, Town of Huntington, Long Island, to parents with interests in Quaker thought, Walter (1789-1855) and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman (1795-1873). The second of nine children, he was immediately nicknamed “Walt” to distinguish him from his father. Walter Whitman, Sr. named three of his seven sons after American leaders: Andrew Jackson, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson. The oldest was named Jesse and another boy died unnamed at the age of six months. The couple’s sixth son, the youngest, was named Edward. At age four, Whitman moved with his family from West Hills to Brooklyn, living in a series of homes, in part due to bad investments. Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy, given his family’s difficult economic status. One happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by the Marquis de Lafayette during a celebration in Brooklyn on July 4, 1825. At age eleven Whitman concluded formal schooling. He then sought employment for further income for his family; he was an office boy for two lawyers and later was an apprentice and printer’s devil for the weekly Long Island newspaper the Patriot, edited by Samuel E. Clements. There, Whitman learned about the printing press and typesetting. He may have written “sentimental bits” of filler material for occasional issues. Clements aroused controversy when he and two friends attempted to dig up the corpse of Elias Hicks to create a plaster mold of his head. Clements left the Patriot shortly afterward, possibly as a result of the controversy. The following summer Whitman worked for another printer, Erastus Worthington, in Brooklyn. His family moved back to West Hills in the spring, but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner, editor of the leading Whig weekly newspaper the Long-Island Star. While at the Star, Whitman became a regular patron of the local library, joined a town debating society, began attending theater performances, and anonymously published some of his earliest poetry in the New-York Mirror. At age 16 in May 1835, Whitman left the Star and Brooklyn. He moved to New York City to work as a compositor though, in later years, Whitman could not remember where. He attempted to find further work but had difficulty, in part due to a severe fire in the printing and publishing district, and in part due to a general collapse in the economy leading up to the Panic of 1837. In May 1836, he rejoined his family, now living in Hempstead, Long Island. Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838, though he was not satisfied as a teacher. After his teaching attempts, Whitman went back to Huntington, New York, to found his own newspaper, the Long-Islander. Whitman served as publisher, editor, pressman, and distributor and even provided home delivery. After ten months, he sold the publication to E. O. Crowell, whose first issue appeared on July 12, 1839. There are no known surviving copies of the Long-Islander published under Whitman. By the summer of 1839, he found a job as a typesetter in Jamaica, Queens with the Long Island Democrat, edited by James J. Brenton. He left shortly thereafter, and made another attempt at teaching from the winter of 1840 to the spring of 1841. One story, possibly apocryphal, tells of Whitman’s being chased away from a teaching job in Southold, New York, in 1840. After a local preacher called him a “Sodomite“, Whitman was allegedly tarred and feathered. Biographer Justin Kaplan notes that the story is likely untrue, because Whitman regularly vacationed in the town thereafter. Biographer Jerome Loving calls the incident a “myth”. During this time, Whitman published a series of ten editorials, called “Sun-Down PapersFrom the Desk of a Schoolmaster”, in three newspapers between the winter of 1840 and July 1841. In these essays, he adopted a constructed persona, a technique he would employ throughout his career. Whitman moved to New York City in May, initially working a low-level job at the New World, working under Park Benjamin, Sr. and Rufus Wilmot Griswold. He continued working for short periods of time for various newspapers; in 1842 he was editor of the Aurora and from 1846 to 1848 he was editor of the Brooklyn Eagle. He also contributed freelance fiction and poetry throughout the 1840s. Whitman lost his position at the Brooklyn Eagle in 1848 after siding with the free-soil “Barnburner” wing of the Democratic party against the newspaper’s owner, Isaac Van Anden, who belonged to the conservative, or “Hunker“, wing of the party. Whitman was a delegate to the 1848 founding convention of the Free Soil Party, which was concerned about the threat slavery would pose to free white labor and northern businessmen moving into the newly colonised western territories. Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison derided the party philosophy as “white manism.” In 1852, he serialized a novel titled Life and Adventures of Jack Engle: An Auto-Biography: A Story of New York at the Present Time in which the Reader Will Find Some Familiar Characters in six installments of New York’s The Sunday Dispatch. In 1858, Whitman published a 47,000 word series called Manly Health and Training under the pen name Mose Velsor. Apparently he drew the name Velsor from Van Velsor, his mother’s family name. This self-help guide recommends beards, nude sunbathing, comfortable shoes, bathing daily in cold water, eating meat almost exclusively, plenty of fresh air, and getting up early each morning. Present-day writers have called Manly Health and Training “quirky”, “so over the top”, “a pseudoscientific tract”, and “wacky”. Leaves of Grass Whitman claimed that after years of competing for “the usual rewards”, he determined to become a poet. He first experimented with a variety of popular literary genres which appealed to the cultural tastes of the period. As early as 1850, he began writing what would become Leaves of Grass, a collection of poetry which he would continue editing and revising until his death. Whitman intended to write a distinctly American epic and used free verse with a cadence based on the Bible. At the end of June 1855, Whitman surprised his brothers with the already-printed first edition of Leaves of Grass. George “didn’t think it worth reading”. Whitman paid for the publication of the first edition of Leaves of Grass himself and had it printed at a local print shop during their breaks from commercial jobs. A total of 795 copies were printed. No name is given as author; instead, facing the title page was an engraved portrait done by Samuel Hollyer, but 500 lines into the body of the text he calls himself “Walt Whitman, an American, one of the roughs, a kosmos, disorderly, fleshly, and sensual, no sentimentalist, no stander above men or women or apart from them, no more modest than immodest”. The inaugural volume of poetry was preceded by a prose preface of 827 lines. The succeeding untitled twelve poems totaled 2315 lines1336 lines belonging to the first untitled poem, later called “Song of Myself“. The book received its strongest praise from Ralph Waldo Emerson, who wrote a flattering five-page letter to Whitman and spoke highly of the book to friends. The first edition of Leaves of Grass was widely distributed and stirred up significant interest, in part due to Emerson’s approval, but was occasionally criticized for the seemingly “obscene” nature of the poetry. Geologist John Peter Lesley wrote to Emerson, calling the book “trashy, profane & obscene” and the author “a pretentious ass”. On July 11, 1855, a few days after Leaves of Grass was published, Whitman’s father died at the age of 65. In the months following the first edition of Leaves of Grass, critical responses began focusing more on the potentially offensive sexual themes. Though the second edition was already printed and bound, the publisher almost did not release it. In the end, the edition went to retail, with 20 additional poems, in August 1856.Leaves of Grass was revised and re-released in 1860 again in 1867, and several more times throughout the remainder of Whitman’s life. Several well-known writers admired the work enough to visit Whitman, including Amos Bronson Alcott and Henry David Thoreau. During the first publications of Leaves of Grass, Whitman had financial difficulties and was forced to work as a journalist again, specifically with Brooklyn’s Daily Times starting in May 1857. As an editor, he oversaw the paper’s contents, contributed book reviews, and wrote editorials. He left the job in 1859, though it is unclear whether he was fired or chose to leave. Whitman, who typically kept detailed notebooks and journals, left very little information about himself in the late 1850s. Civil War years As the American Civil War was beginning, Whitman published his poem “Beat! Beat! Drums!” as a patriotic rally call for the North. Whitman’s brother George had joined the Union army and began sending Whitman several vividly detailed letters of the battle front. On December 16, 1862, a listing of fallen and wounded soldiers in the New York Tribune included “First Lieutenant G. W. Whitmore”, which Whitman worried was a reference to his brother George. He made his way south immediately to find him, though his wallet was stolen on the way. “Walking all day and night, unable to ride, trying to get information, trying to get access to big people”, Whitman later wrote, he eventually found George alive, with only a superficial wound on his cheek. Whitman, profoundly affected by seeing the wounded soldiers and the heaps of their amputated limbs, left for Washington on December 28, 1862, with the intention of never returning to New York. In Washington, D.C., Whitman’s friend Charley Eldridge helped him obtain part-time work in the army paymaster’s office, leaving time for Whitman to volunteer as a nurse in the army hospitals. He would write of this experience in “The Great Army of the Sick”, published in a New York newspaper in 1863 and, 12 years later, in a book called Memoranda During the War. He then contacted Emerson, this time to ask for help in obtaining a government post. Another friend, John Trowbridge, passed on a letter of recommendation from Emerson to Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, hoping he would grant Whitman a position in that department. Chase, however, did not want to hire the author of such a disreputable book as Leaves of Grass. The Whitman family had a difficult end to 1864. On September 30, 1864, Whitman’s brother George was captured by Confederates in Virginia, and another brother, Andrew Jackson, died of tuberculosis compounded by alcoholism on December 3. That month, Whitman committed his brother Jesse to the Kings County Lunatic Asylum. Whitman’s spirits were raised, however, when he finally got a better-paying government post as a low-grade clerk in the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of the Interior, thanks to his friend William Douglas O’Connor. O’Connor, a poet, daguerreotypist and an editor at The Saturday Evening Post, had written to William Tod Otto, Assistant Secretary of the Interior, on Whitman’s behalf. Whitman began the new appointment on January 24, 1865, with a yearly salary of $1,200. A month later, on February 24, 1865, George was released from capture and granted a furlough because of his poor health. By May 1, Whitman received a promotion to a slightly higher clerkship and published Drum-Taps. Effective June 30, 1865, however, Whitman was fired from his job. His dismissal came from the new Secretary of the Interior, former Iowa Senator James Harlan. Though Harlan dismissed several clerks who “were seldom at their respective desks”, he may have fired Whitman on moral grounds after finding an 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass. O’Connor protested until J. Hubley Ashton had Whitman transferred to the Attorney General’s office on July 1. O’Connor, though, was still upset and vindicated Whitman by publishing a biased and exaggerated biographical study, The Good Gray Poet, in January 1866. The fifty-cent pamphlet defended Whitman as a wholesome patriot, established the poet’s nickname and increased his popularity. Also aiding in his popularity was the publication of “O Captain! My Captain!“, a relatively conventional poem on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the only poem to appear in anthologies during Whitman’s lifetime. Part of Whitman’s role at the Attorney General’s office was interviewing former Confederate soldiers for Presidential pardons. “There are real characters among them”, he later wrote, “and you know I have a fancy for anything out of the ordinary.” In August 1866, he took a month off in order to prepare a new edition of Leaves of Grass which would not be published until 1867 after difficulty in finding a publisher. He hoped it would be its last edition. In February 1868, Poems of Walt Whitman was published in England thanks to the influence of William Michael Rossetti, with minor changes that Whitman reluctantly approved. The edition became popular in England, especially with endorsements from the highly respected writer Anne Gilchrist. Another edition of Leaves of Grass was issued in 1871, the same year it was mistakenly reported that its author died in a railroad accident. As Whitman’s international fame increased, he remained at the attorney general’s office until January 1872. He spent much of 1872 caring for his mother who was now nearly eighty and struggling with arthritis. He also traveled and was invited to Dartmouth College to give the commencement address on June 26, 1872. Health decline and death After suffering a paralytic stroke in early 1873, Whitman was induced to move from Washington to the home of his brotherGeorge Washington Whitman, an engineerat 431 Stevens Street in Camden, New Jersey. His mother, having fallen ill, was also there and died that same year in May. Both events were difficult for Whitman and left him depressed. He remained at his brother’s home until buying his own in 1884. However, before purchasing his home, he spent the greatest period of his residence in Camden at his brother’s home in Stevens Street. While in residence there he was very productive, publishing three versions of Leaves of Grass among other works. He was also last fully physically active in this house, receiving both Oscar Wilde and Thomas Eakins. His other brother, Edward, an “invalid” since birth, lived in the house. When his brother and sister-in-law were forced to move for business reasons, he bought his own house at 328 Mickle Street (now 330 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard). First taken care of by tenants, he was completely bedridden for most of his time in Mickle Street. During this time, he began socializing with Mary Oakes Davisthe widow of a sea captain. She was a neighbor, boarding with a family in Bridge Avenue just a few blocks from Mickle Street. She moved in with Whitman on February 24, 1885, to serve as his housekeeper in exchange for free rent. She brought with her a cat, a dog, two turtledoves, a canary, and other assorted animals. During this time, Whitman produced further editions of Leaves of Grass in 1876, 1881, and 1889. While in Southern New Jersey, Whitman spent a good portion of his time in the then quite pastoral community of Laurel Springs, between 1876 and 1884, converting one of the Stafford Farm buildings to his summer home. The restored summer home has been preserved as a museum by the local historical society. Part of his Leaves of Grass was written here, and in his Specimen Days he wrote of the spring, creek and lake. To him, Laurel Lake was “the prettiest lake in: either America or Europe.” As the end of 1891 approached, he prepared a final edition of Leaves of Grass, a version that has been nicknamed the “Deathbed Edition.” He wrote, “L. of G. at last completeafter 33 y’rs of hackling at it, all times & moods of my life, fair weather & foul, all parts of the land, and peace & war, young & old.” Preparing for death, Whitman commissioned a granite mausoleum shaped like a house for $4,000 and visited it often during construction. In the last week of his life, he was too weak to lift a knife or fork and wrote: “I suffer all the time: I have no relief, no escape: it is monotonymonotonymonotonyin pain.” An 1890 recording thought to be Walt Whitman reading the opening four lines of his poem “America”. Problems playing this file? See media help. Whitman died on March 26, 1892. An autopsy revealed his lungs had diminished to one-eighth their normal breathing capacity, a result of bronchial pneumonia, and that an egg-sized abscess on his chest had eroded one of his ribs. The cause of death was officially listed as “pleurisy of the left side, consumption of the right lung, general miliary tuberculosis and parenchymatous nephritis.” A public viewing of his body was held at his Camden home; over 1,000 people visited in three hours. Whitman’s oak coffin was barely visible because of all the flowers and wreaths left for him. Four days after his death, he was buried in his tomb at Harleigh Cemetery in Camden. Another public ceremony was held at the cemetery, with friends giving speeches, live music, and refreshments. Whitman’s friend, the orator Robert Ingersoll, delivered the eulogy. Later, the remains of Whitman’s parents and two of his brothers and their families were moved to the mausoleum. Whitman’s work breaks the boundaries of poetic form and is generally prose-like. He also used unusual images and symbols in his poetry, including rotting leaves, tufts of straw, and debris. He also openly wrote about death and sexuality, including prostitution. He is often labeled as the father of free verse, though he did not invent it. Whitman wrote in the preface to the 1855 edition of Leaves of Grass, “The proof of a poet is that his country absorbs him as affectionately as he has absorbed it.” He believed there was a vital, symbiotic relationship between the poet and society. This connection was emphasized especially in “Song of Myself” by using an all-powerful first-person narration. As an American epic, it deviated from the historic use of an elevated hero and instead assumed the identity of the common people.Leaves of Grass also responded to the impact that recent urbanization in the United States had on the masses. Lifestyle and beliefs Whitman was a vocal proponent of temperance and in his youth rarely drank alcohol. He once stated he did not taste “strong liquor” until he was 30 and occasionally argued for prohibition. One of his earliest long fiction works, the novel Franklin Evans; or, The Inebriate, first published November 23, 1842, is a temperance novel. Whitman wrote the novel at the height of popularity of the Washingtonian movement though the movement itself was plagued with contradictions, as was Franklin Evans. Years later Whitman claimed he was embarrassed by the book and called it “damned rot”. He dismissed it by saying he wrote the novel in three days solely for money while he was under the influence of alcohol himself. Even so, he wrote other pieces recommending temperance, including The Madman and a short story “Reuben’s Last Wish”. Later in life he was more liberal with alcohol, enjoying local wines and champagne. Whitman was deeply influenced by deism. He denied any one faith was more important than another, and embraced all religions equally. In “Song of Myself”, he gave an inventory of major religions and indicated he respected and accepted all of thema sentiment he further emphasized in his poem “With Antecedents”, affirming: “I adopt each theory, myth, god, and demi-god, / I see that the old accounts, bibles, genealogies, are true, without exception”. In 1874, he was invited to write a poem about the Spiritualism movement, to which he responded, “It seems to me nearly altogether a poor, cheap, crude humbug.” Whitman was a religious skeptic: though he accepted all churches, he believed in none. God, to Whitman, was both immanent and transcendent and the human soul was immortal and in a state of progressive development.American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia classes him as one of several figures who “took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world.” Though biographers continue to debate Whitman’s sexuality, he is usually described as either homosexual or bisexual in his feelings and attractions. Whitman’s sexual orientation is generally assumed on the basis of his poetry, though this assumption has been disputed. His poetry depicts love and sexuality in a more earthy, individualistic way common in American culture before the medicalization of sexuality in the late 19th century. Though Leaves of Grass was often labeled pornographic or obscene, only one critic remarked on its author’s presumed sexual activity: in a November 1855 review, Rufus Wilmot Griswold suggested Whitman was guilty of “that horrible sin not to be mentioned among Christians.” Whitman had intense friendships with many men and boys throughout his life. Some biographers have suggested that he may not have actually engaged in sexual relationships with males, while others cite letters, journal entries, and other sources that they claim as proof of the sexual nature of some of his relationships. English poet and critic John Addington Symonds spent 20 years in correspondence trying to pry the answer from him. In 1890 he wrote to Whitman, “In your conception of Comradeship, do you contemplate the possible intrusion of those semi-sexual emotions and actions which no doubt do occur between men?” In reply, Whitman denied that his work had any such implication, asserting “hat the calamus part has even allow’d the possibility of such construction as mention’d is terribleI am fain to hope the pages themselves are not to be even mention’d for such gratuitous and quite at this time entirely undream’d & unreck’d possibility of morbid inferenceswh’ are disavow’d by me and seem damnable,” and insisting that he had fathered six illegitimate children. Some contemporary scholars are skeptical of the veracity of Whitman’s denial or the existence of the children he claimed. Peter Doyle may be the most likely candidate for the love of Whitman’s life. Doyle was a bus conductor whom Whitman met around 1866, and the two were inseparable for several years. Interviewed in 1895, Doyle said: “We were familiar at onceI put my hand on his kneewe understood. He did not get out at the end of the tripin fact went all the way back with me.” In his notebooks, Whitman disguised Doyle’s initials using the code “16.4” (P.D. being the 16th and 4th letters of the alphabet).Oscar Wilde met Whitman in America in 1882 and told the homosexual-rights activist George Cecil Ives that Whitman’s sexual orientation was beyond question “I have the kiss of Walt Whitman still on my lips.” The only explicit description of Whitman’s sexual activities is secondhand. In 1924, Edward Carpenter told Gavin Arthur of a sexual encounter in his youth with Whitman, the details of which Arthur recorded in his journal. Late in his life, when Whitman was asked outright whether his “Calamus” poems were homosexual, he chose not to respond. The manuscript of his love poem “Once I Pass’d Through A Populous City”, written when Whitman was 29, indicates it was originally about a man. Another possible lover was Bill Duckett. As a teenager, he lived on the same street in Camden and moved in with Whitman, living with him a number of years and serving him in various roles. Duckett was 15 when Whitman bought his house at 328 Mickle Street. From at least 1880, Duckett and his grandmother, Lydia Watson, were boarders, subletting space from another family at 334 Mickle Street. Because of this proximity, it is obvious that Duckett and Whitman met as neighbors. Their relationship was close, with the youth sharing Whitman’s money when he had it. Whitman described their friendship as “thick”. Though some biographers describe him as a boarder, others identify him as a lover. Their photograph is described as “modeled on the conventions of a marriage portrait”, part of a series of portraits of the poet with his young male friends, and encrypting male-male desire. Yet another intense relationship of Whitman with a young man was the one with Harry Stafford, with whose family Whitman stayed when at Timber Creek, and whom he first met when Stafford was 18, in 1876. Whitman gave Stafford a ring, which was returned and re-given over the course of a stormy relationship lasting several years. Of that ring, Stafford wrote to Whitman, “You know when you put it on there was but one thing to part it from me, and that was death.” There is also some evidence that Whitman may have had sexual relationships with women. He had a romantic friendship with a New York actress, Ellen Grey, in the spring of 1862, but it is not known whether it was also sexual. He still had a photograph of her decades later, when he moved to Camden, and he called her “an old sweetheart of mine”. In a letter, dated August 21, 1890, he claimed, “I have had six childrentwo are dead”. This claim has never been corroborated. Toward the end of his life, he often told stories of previous girlfriends and sweethearts and denied an allegation from the New York Herald that he had “never had a love affair”. As Whitman biographer Jerome Loving wrote, “the discussion of Whitman’s sexual orientation will probably continue in spite of whatever evidence emerges.” Sunbathing and swimming Whitman reportedly enjoyed bathing naked and sunbathing nude. In his work Manly Health and Training written under the pseudonym Mose Velsor, he advises men to swim naked. In A Sun-bathed Nakedness, he wrote, Never before did I get so close to Nature; never before did she come so close to me Nature was naked, and I was also Sweet, sane, still Nakedness in Nature! – ah if poor, sick, prurient humanity in cities might really know you once more! Is not nakedness indecent? No, not inherently. It is your thought, your sophistication, your fear, your respectability, that is indecent. There come moods when these clothes of ours are not only too irksome to wear, but are themselves indecent. Whitman was an adherent of the Shakespeare authorship question, refusing to believe in the historical attribution of the works to William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon. Whitman comments in his November Boughs (1888) regarding Shakespeare’s historical plays: Conceiv’d out of the fullest heat and pulse of European feudalismpersonifying in unparalleled ways the medieval aristocracy, its towering spirit of ruthless and gigantic caste, with its own peculiar air and arrogance (no mere imitation)only one of the “wolfish earls” so plenteous in the plays themselves, or some born descendant and knower, might seem to be the true author of those amazing worksworks in some respects greater than anything else in recorded literature. Whitman opposed the extension of slavery in the United States and supported the Wilmot Proviso. At first he was opposed to abolitionism, believing the movement did more harm than good. In 1846, he wrote that the abolitionists had, in fact, slowed the advancement of their cause by their “ultraism and officiousness”. His main concern was that their methods disrupted the democratic process, as did the refusal of the Southern states to put the interests of the nation as a whole above their own. In 1856, in his unpublished The Eighteenth Presidency, addressing the men of the South, he wrote “you are either to abolish slavery or it will abolish you”. Whitman also subscribed to the widespread opinion that even free African-Americans should not vote and was concerned at the increasing number of African-Americans in the legislature. George Hutchinson and David Drews have argued, without providing textual evidence from Whitman’s own early writings or other sources, that what little that “is known about the early development of Whitman’s racial awareness suggests that he imbibed the prevailing white prejudices of his time and place, thinking of black people as servile, shiftless, ignorant, and given to stealing, although he would remember individual blacks of his youth in positive terms”. Walt Whitman is often described as Americas national poet, creating an image of America for itself. “Although he is often considered a champion of democracy and equality, Whitman constructs a hierarchy with himself at the head, America below, and the rest of the world in a subordinate position.” In his study, “The Pragmatic Whitman: Reimagining American Democracy”, Stephen John Mack suggests that critics, who tend to ignore it, should look again at Whitmans nationalism: Whitmans seemingly mawkish celebrations of the United States one of those problematic features of his works that teachers and critics read past or explain away (xv-xvi). Nathanael OReilly in an essay on “Walt Whitmans Nationalism in the First Edition of Leaves of Grass” claims that “Whitmans imagined America is arrogant, expansionist, hierarchical, racist and exclusive; such an America is unacceptable to Native Americans, African-Americans, immigrants, the disabled, the infertile, and all those who value equal rights.” Whitman’s imaginative “mawkish” nationalism avoided issues concerning the genocide of Native Americans. As George Hutchinson and David Drews further suggest in an essay “Racial attitudes”,”Clearly, Whitman could not consistently reconcile the ingrained, even foundational, racist character of the United States with its egalitarian ideals. He could not even reconcile such contradictions in his own psyche.” The authors concluded their essay with: Because of the radically democratic and egalitarian aspects of his poetry, readers generally expect, and desire for, Whitman to be among the literary heroes that transcended the racist pressures that abounded in all spheres of public discourse during the nineteenth century. He did not, at least not consistently; nonetheless his poetry has been a model for democratic poets of all nations and races, right up to our own day. How Whitman could have been so prejudiced, and yet so effective in conveying an egalitarian and antiracist sensibility in his poetry, is a puzzle yet to be adequately addressed. Legacy and influence Walt Whitman has been claimed as America’s first “poet of democracy”, a title meant to reflect his ability to write in a singularly American character. A British friend of Walt Whitman, Mary Smith Whitall Costelloe, wrote: “You cannot really understand America without Walt Whitman, without Leaves of Grass… He has expressed that civilization, ‘up to date,’ as he would say, and no student of the philosophy of history can do without him.”Modernist poet Ezra Pound called Whitman “America’s poet… He is America.”Andrew Carnegie called him “the great poet of America so far”. Whitman considered himself a messiah-like figure in poetry. Others agreed: one of his admirers, William Sloane Kennedy, speculated that “people will be celebrating the birth of Walt Whitman as they are now the birth of Christ”. The literary critic, Harold Bloom wrote, as the introduction for the 150th anniversary of Leaves of Grass: If you are American, then Walt Whitman is your imaginative father and mother, even if, like myself, you have never composed a line of verse. You can nominate a fair number of literary works as candidates for the secular Scripture of the United States. They might include Melville’s Moby-Dick, Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, and Emerson’s two series of Essays and The Conduct of Life. None of those, not even Emerson’s, are as central as the first edition of Leaves of Grass. In his own time, Whitman attracted an influential coterie of disciples and admirers. Some, like Oscar Wilde and Edward Carpenter, viewed Whitman both as a prophet of a utopian future and of same-sex desire – the passion of comrades. This aligned with their own desires for a future of brotherly socialism. Whitman’s vagabond lifestyle was adopted by the Beat movement and its leaders such as Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac in the 1950s and 1960s as well as anti-war poets like Adrienne Rich and Gary Snyder.Lawrence Ferlinghetti numbered himself among Whitman’s “wild children”, and the title of his 1961 collection Starting from San Francisco is a deliberate reference to Whitman’s Starting from Paumanok. Whitman also influenced Bram Stoker, author of Dracula, and was the model for the character of Dracula. Stoker said in his notes that Dracula represented the quintessential male which, to Stoker, was Whitman, with whom he corresponded until Whitman’s death. Other admirers included the Eagle Street College, an informal group established in 1885 at the home of James William Wallace in Eagle Street, Bolton, to read and discuss the poetry of Whitman. The group subsequently became known as the Bolton Whitman Fellowship or Whitmanites. Its members held an annual ‘Whitman Day’ celebration around the poet’s birthday. Musical renditions and audio recordings Whitman’s poetry has been set to music by a large number of composers; indeed it has been suggested his poetry has been set to music more than that of any other American poet except for Emily Dickinson and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Those who have set his poems to music have included John Adams; Ernst Bacon; Leonard Bernstein; Benjamin Britten; Rhoda Coghill; Ronald Corp; George Crumb; Frederick Delius; Howard Hanson; Karl Amadeus Hartmann; Hans Werner Henze; Paul Hindemith; Ned Rorem; Ralph Vaughan Williams; Kurt Weill; and Roger Sessions. Crossing, an opera composed by Matthew Aucoin and inspired by Whitman’s Civil War diaries, premiered in 2015. In 2014, German publisher Hrbuch Hamburg issued the bilingual double-CD audio book of the Kinder Adams/Children of Adam cycle, based on translations by Kai Grehn in the 2005 Children of Adam from Leaves of Grass (Galerie Vevais), accompanying a collection of nude photography by Paul Cava. The audio release included a complete reading by Iggy Pop, as well as readings by Marianne Sgebrecht; Martin Wuttke; Birgit Minichmayr; Alexander Fehling; Lars Rudolph; Volker Bruch; Paula Beer; Josef Osterndorf; Ronald Lippok; Jule Bwe; and Robert Gwisdek. In 2014 composer John Zorn released On Leaves of Grass, an album inspired by and dedicated to Whitman. Namesakes and recognitions The Walt Whitman Bridge, which crosses the Delaware River near his home in Camden, was opened on May 16, 1957. In 1997, the Walt Whitman Community School opened, becoming the first private high school catering to LGBT youth. His other namesakes include Walt Whitman High School in Bethesda, Maryland and Walt Whitman Shops (formerly called “Walt Whitman Mall”) in Huntington Station, Long Island, New York, near his birthplace.	8,190	ENGLISH	1
It may come as a surprise to some younger Americans, but the US did not always have income tax. In fact, one of the main catalysts behind the American Revolution and resulting War of Independence was the colonial protest against British taxation policy in the 1760s. Then, in the beginning, the independent nation collected taxes on imports, whiskey, and (for a while) on glass windows, even as states and localities collected poll taxes on voters and property taxes on land and commercial buildings. In addition, there were state and federal excise taxes. But all throughout, there was no official income tax for nearly a century and a half. Yet while the United States imposed income taxes briefly during the Civil War and the 1890s, it was not until the 16th Amendment was ratified that the US permanently legalized a federal income tax in 1913. Incidentally, that was the same momentous year - just before the start of World War I - that another milestone event in US history took place: the birth of the Federal Reserve. Shortly thereafter, states also began collecting sales taxes in the 1930s. Ever since then, the history of US taxation has been on of "optimal" outcomes, of progressive policies, and ultimately, of wealth redistribution according to whatever party or ideological bent was in control. Yet no matter what one though of US tax policy, one thing was immutable: it was always and only in the hands of the Federal and State government to impose whatever taxation was deemed appropriate. For better or worse, tax was synonymous with politics. That may be changing. Fast forward to 2019, when after a decade of unprecedented inequality spurred by the Federal Reserve's policies, which made the rich richer, and the poor and middle classes poorer to the point that just 1% of the US population now owns as much wealth as the middle and lower classes combined...	<urn:uuid:9041be24-3e3d-46bb-b1f8-a2f1aac763e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.freedomsphoenix.com/News/272350-2019-11-25-feds-kashkari-says-its-time-for-the-federal-reserve-to.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00349.warc.gz	en	0.981633	375	3.515625	4	[ -0.5406129956245422, -0.01624184101819992, 0.16173873841762543, -0.07303618639707565, 0.029944289475679398, 0.4226604104042053, -0.28499940037727356, 0.28668907284736633, -0.04025895148515701, 0.30066198110580444, 0.18604843318462372, 0.5883438587188721, -0.2674776017665863, 0.306889951229...	3	It may come as a surprise to some younger Americans, but the US did not always have income tax. In fact, one of the main catalysts behind the American Revolution and resulting War of Independence was the colonial protest against British taxation policy in the 1760s. Then, in the beginning, the independent nation collected taxes on imports, whiskey, and (for a while) on glass windows, even as states and localities collected poll taxes on voters and property taxes on land and commercial buildings. In addition, there were state and federal excise taxes. But all throughout, there was no official income tax for nearly a century and a half. Yet while the United States imposed income taxes briefly during the Civil War and the 1890s, it was not until the 16th Amendment was ratified that the US permanently legalized a federal income tax in 1913. Incidentally, that was the same momentous year - just before the start of World War I - that another milestone event in US history took place: the birth of the Federal Reserve. Shortly thereafter, states also began collecting sales taxes in the 1930s. Ever since then, the history of US taxation has been on of "optimal" outcomes, of progressive policies, and ultimately, of wealth redistribution according to whatever party or ideological bent was in control. Yet no matter what one though of US tax policy, one thing was immutable: it was always and only in the hands of the Federal and State government to impose whatever taxation was deemed appropriate. For better or worse, tax was synonymous with politics. That may be changing. Fast forward to 2019, when after a decade of unprecedented inequality spurred by the Federal Reserve's policies, which made the rich richer, and the poor and middle classes poorer to the point that just 1% of the US population now owns as much wealth as the middle and lower classes combined...	393	ENGLISH	1
By this period the Roman Republic had ended its Civil Wars, from which Augustus emerged victorious as Emperor of Rome. Already dominant around the Mediterranean, Rome set about strengthening her grip on areas further North and East engaging in conflicts with many different opponents. This is the period most people think of when they think of Ancient Rome and her soldiers in their segmented armor with big, curved, rectangular shields. While the legionaries were the core of the Roman Army, there were typically about as many auxiliary troops that fought alongside the Legion. Mainly infantry, or less often cavalry in chainmail shirts with a spear and an oval shield, along with other auxiliaries armed with bows or slings. In both sieges and open battle Romans also typically brought their war engines to bear. As well as troops from within the Empire, the Romans were also known to field tribal troops from outside their borders under native or Roman officers. Best known from Trajan's Column in Rome, which commemorates Trajan's victory over the Dacians and the incorporation of Dacia into the Empire, the Dacians were a difficult opponent. During the reign of the emperor Domitian the Dacians butchered a Roman army and forced the Romans to negotiate a peace treaty. Famed for their use of the deadly falx, a three foot haft with a sickle like blade on the end, the Dacian warbands also used javelins and spears, supported by archers. The Dacian cavalry was supplemented by troops from the neighboring Sarmatian tribes and included Sarmatian cataphracts - armored men on armored horses. Part of a Celtic culture that stretched from Ireland all the way across to the Galatians of Turkey, the Gauls occupied France and maintained cultural links with the Ancient British. Gallic and British armies would have a core of infantry warbands composed of warriors with shields, spears or swords, some armored, some not. A few tribesmen would instead be armed with bows or, particularly in Britain, slings. Nobles were better armored and rode horses or, in Britain, chariots. Gaesatae were fanatics who charged into battle naked, relying on their skill at arms and the shock value of their ferocious reputation for protection. The Sarmatians were a large Iranian confederation that existed in classical antiquity, flourishing from about the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD. Originating in the central parts of the Eurasian Steppe, they were part of the wider Scythian cultures. They started migrating westward around the 4th and 3rd centuries BC and at their greatest extent ranged from the Vistula river to the Volga. Sarmatia covered modern day central and south-eastern Ukraine, southern Russia, the Volga and South-Ural regions, as well as areas of the north-eastern Balkans and around Moldova. In the 1st century AD, the Sarmatians began encroaching upon the Roman Empire in alliance with Germanic tribes until the 3rd century AD when their dominance of the Pontic Steppe was broken by the Germanic Goths. With the Hunnic invasions of the 4th century, many Sarmatians joined the Goths and other Germanic tribes (Vandals) in the settlement of the Western Roman Empire.	<urn:uuid:2c1ccd52-5669-4e93-9da1-d244cb3fe883>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://darkhorsehobbies.com/10mm-ancient-early-imperial-rome-gaming-miniatures-560	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00101.warc.gz	en	0.980618	684	3.703125	4	[ -0.38629353046417236, 0.6344877481460571, 0.591658353805542, -0.03529055416584015, -0.4708132743835449, -0.3160058856010437, -0.23553141951560974, 0.421417772769928, 0.18091800808906555, -0.5131621956825256, -0.268022358417511, -0.6232355833053589, -0.04534781724214554, 0.4150630831718445,...	11	By this period the Roman Republic had ended its Civil Wars, from which Augustus emerged victorious as Emperor of Rome. Already dominant around the Mediterranean, Rome set about strengthening her grip on areas further North and East engaging in conflicts with many different opponents. This is the period most people think of when they think of Ancient Rome and her soldiers in their segmented armor with big, curved, rectangular shields. While the legionaries were the core of the Roman Army, there were typically about as many auxiliary troops that fought alongside the Legion. Mainly infantry, or less often cavalry in chainmail shirts with a spear and an oval shield, along with other auxiliaries armed with bows or slings. In both sieges and open battle Romans also typically brought their war engines to bear. As well as troops from within the Empire, the Romans were also known to field tribal troops from outside their borders under native or Roman officers. Best known from Trajan's Column in Rome, which commemorates Trajan's victory over the Dacians and the incorporation of Dacia into the Empire, the Dacians were a difficult opponent. During the reign of the emperor Domitian the Dacians butchered a Roman army and forced the Romans to negotiate a peace treaty. Famed for their use of the deadly falx, a three foot haft with a sickle like blade on the end, the Dacian warbands also used javelins and spears, supported by archers. The Dacian cavalry was supplemented by troops from the neighboring Sarmatian tribes and included Sarmatian cataphracts - armored men on armored horses. Part of a Celtic culture that stretched from Ireland all the way across to the Galatians of Turkey, the Gauls occupied France and maintained cultural links with the Ancient British. Gallic and British armies would have a core of infantry warbands composed of warriors with shields, spears or swords, some armored, some not. A few tribesmen would instead be armed with bows or, particularly in Britain, slings. Nobles were better armored and rode horses or, in Britain, chariots. Gaesatae were fanatics who charged into battle naked, relying on their skill at arms and the shock value of their ferocious reputation for protection. The Sarmatians were a large Iranian confederation that existed in classical antiquity, flourishing from about the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD. Originating in the central parts of the Eurasian Steppe, they were part of the wider Scythian cultures. They started migrating westward around the 4th and 3rd centuries BC and at their greatest extent ranged from the Vistula river to the Volga. Sarmatia covered modern day central and south-eastern Ukraine, southern Russia, the Volga and South-Ural regions, as well as areas of the north-eastern Balkans and around Moldova. In the 1st century AD, the Sarmatians began encroaching upon the Roman Empire in alliance with Germanic tribes until the 3rd century AD when their dominance of the Pontic Steppe was broken by the Germanic Goths. With the Hunnic invasions of the 4th century, many Sarmatians joined the Goths and other Germanic tribes (Vandals) in the settlement of the Western Roman Empire.	689	ENGLISH	1
Cordell Hull Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Cordell Hull was an American politician who is best known for serving as United States Secretary of State for the Franklin Delano Roosevelt administration and his role in the founding of the United Nations. Childhood And Early Life Cordell Hull was born on 2 October 1871 in Olympus, Tennessee. His parents were William Hull and Elizabeth née Riley. His father worked as a lumber merchant and a farmer. Hull attended Montvale Academy, an elementary school in Celina. He studied at the National Normal University in Ohio. Hull was interested in politics from an early age and at the age of nineteen became the chairman of the Democratic Party in his county. In 1891, he graduated from Cumberland University earning a degree in law and passing the bar. In 1893, he was elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives and served there for four years. During the Spanish-American War, he served in the Tennessee Volunteer Infantry as a captain and saw combat in Cuba. Cordell Hull worked as a judge from 1903 to 1907; he was then elected to the United States House of Representatives. He represented Tennessee’s 4th District until 1921. He was defeated in 1921 and became the chairman of the Democratic Party’s National Convention. He was reelected to the House of Representatives in 1923 and held the seat until 1931. While in the House of Representatives Hull was involved in the creation of income tax and inheritance tax laws. In 1928, he was among the contenders for the Democratic Party’s presidential nominees. In 1931, Cordell Hull became a United States Senator, and in 1933 he was made Secretary of State by Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Hull headed to the American delegation at the 1933 London Economic Conference. The conference was organized to tackle the effects of the Great Depression which had devastated the world. Hull was also present at Seventh Pan-American Conference in Uruguay. At the conference, Hull put forward the ‘Good Neighbour’ policy for the United States to prevent the spread of Fascist influences in South America. The policy promised that America would not interfere in the domestic affairs of other nations. In 1939, Cordell Hull advised the president to prevent the entry of 936 Jewish refugees from Germany into the United States. The refugees were passengers on the S.S t Louis and were sent back to Germany where the Nazis killed many. Hull famously met with Japanese ambassador on the day of the Pearl Harbour attacks. Hull maintained contact with the Vichy French government during the Second World War. This communication with the Vichy French was seen as key in aiding the landing of American troops in North Africa during Operation Torch. During the war, Hull was accused of covering up news of the atrocities being committed against the Jews in Europe while America was still neutral. Cordell Hull attended the 1943 Moscow Conference at which the Allied powers drew up the foundations of the future United Nations. In 1944, Hull resigned his position as Secretary of State due to failing health. He still holds the record as the longest-serving United States Secretary of State. Upon his resignation, he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize and was awarded the prize in 1945. In 1917, Cordell Hull married Rose Frances Whitney. Whitney was from an Austrian Jewish family. The couple had no children. The marriage lasted until 1954 when Whitney died. Cordell Hull died of sarcoidosis on 23 July 1955. He is buried in a tomb at the Washington National Cathedral. The Cordell Hull State Office Building in Tennessee, which holds the Attorney General’s office, is named in his honor. More People From Tennessee Tennessee Ernie Ford Lisa Marie Presley Nathan Bedford Forrest	<urn:uuid:56edc992-b40b-487f-a42c-157ddb56592d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/cordell-hull/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00207.warc.gz	en	0.984214	757	3.328125	3	[ 0.08531446754932404, 0.03865521401166916, 0.3361511826515198, -0.2697387933731079, 0.17250777781009674, 0.1233619824051857, -0.05554699897766113, 0.28757721185684204, -0.06579790264368057, -0.025505758821964264, 0.70059734582901, -0.02894241362810135, -0.22393974661827087, 0.27396285533905...	1	Cordell Hull Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Cordell Hull was an American politician who is best known for serving as United States Secretary of State for the Franklin Delano Roosevelt administration and his role in the founding of the United Nations. Childhood And Early Life Cordell Hull was born on 2 October 1871 in Olympus, Tennessee. His parents were William Hull and Elizabeth née Riley. His father worked as a lumber merchant and a farmer. Hull attended Montvale Academy, an elementary school in Celina. He studied at the National Normal University in Ohio. Hull was interested in politics from an early age and at the age of nineteen became the chairman of the Democratic Party in his county. In 1891, he graduated from Cumberland University earning a degree in law and passing the bar. In 1893, he was elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives and served there for four years. During the Spanish-American War, he served in the Tennessee Volunteer Infantry as a captain and saw combat in Cuba. Cordell Hull worked as a judge from 1903 to 1907; he was then elected to the United States House of Representatives. He represented Tennessee’s 4th District until 1921. He was defeated in 1921 and became the chairman of the Democratic Party’s National Convention. He was reelected to the House of Representatives in 1923 and held the seat until 1931. While in the House of Representatives Hull was involved in the creation of income tax and inheritance tax laws. In 1928, he was among the contenders for the Democratic Party’s presidential nominees. In 1931, Cordell Hull became a United States Senator, and in 1933 he was made Secretary of State by Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Hull headed to the American delegation at the 1933 London Economic Conference. The conference was organized to tackle the effects of the Great Depression which had devastated the world. Hull was also present at Seventh Pan-American Conference in Uruguay. At the conference, Hull put forward the ‘Good Neighbour’ policy for the United States to prevent the spread of Fascist influences in South America. The policy promised that America would not interfere in the domestic affairs of other nations. In 1939, Cordell Hull advised the president to prevent the entry of 936 Jewish refugees from Germany into the United States. The refugees were passengers on the S.S t Louis and were sent back to Germany where the Nazis killed many. Hull famously met with Japanese ambassador on the day of the Pearl Harbour attacks. Hull maintained contact with the Vichy French government during the Second World War. This communication with the Vichy French was seen as key in aiding the landing of American troops in North Africa during Operation Torch. During the war, Hull was accused of covering up news of the atrocities being committed against the Jews in Europe while America was still neutral. Cordell Hull attended the 1943 Moscow Conference at which the Allied powers drew up the foundations of the future United Nations. In 1944, Hull resigned his position as Secretary of State due to failing health. He still holds the record as the longest-serving United States Secretary of State. Upon his resignation, he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize and was awarded the prize in 1945. In 1917, Cordell Hull married Rose Frances Whitney. Whitney was from an Austrian Jewish family. The couple had no children. The marriage lasted until 1954 when Whitney died. Cordell Hull died of sarcoidosis on 23 July 1955. He is buried in a tomb at the Washington National Cathedral. The Cordell Hull State Office Building in Tennessee, which holds the Attorney General’s office, is named in his honor. More People From Tennessee Tennessee Ernie Ford Lisa Marie Presley Nathan Bedford Forrest	818	ENGLISH	1
0 / 0 "Be thou strong and very courageous."—Joshua 1:7 . THE words of our text were addressed by the Lord to Joshua, who was leader of Israel after the death of Moses. He had special need of these encouraging words. The Israelites were a stiff-necked generation. It was difficult for any one to be their leader. Especially difficult was it because Moses had been for many years with them. It is always difficult for a smaller man to take a larger man's place. In some respects it was easier to direct Israel while they were anticipating the coming into the Promised Land, before they had entered it. During the forty years in the wilderness they had learned to depend on the Lord. In a few brief words we have given us quite a clear idea of the Lord's manner of dealing with His people during these forty years. Moses, in exhorting the people to fear and love the Lord, and in recounting their provocations of Him, tells them that they shall possess the Land, and adds, "And thou shalt remember all the way which the Lord thy God led thee these forty years in the wilderness, to humble thee and to prove thee, to know what was in thine heart, whether thou wouldest keep His commandments, or no. And He humbled thee, and suffered thee to hunger, and fed thee with manna, which thou knewest not, neither did thy fathers know; that He might make thee know that man doth not live by bread only, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of the Lord doth man live. "Thy raiment waxed not old upon thee, neither did thy foot swell, these forty years. Thou shalt also consider in thine heart, that as a man chasteneth his son, so the Lord thy God chasteneth thee." (Deut. 8:2-5.) Israel had very few battles during the time of their wandering. The Amalekites had had some little skirmishes with them, but on the whole they had experienced very little trouble, [R5296 : page 251] and yet they had rebelled against the Lord and against Moses more than once. Now, their enemies were entrenched in the Land of Canaan, and it would require strength and courage to take the Land. Their instructions from the Lord were that they should occupy Canaan. God was taking the land from the Canaanites because, like the Sodomites, they had gone as far in their wickedness as Divine Wisdom saw best to permit. Instead of taking the Canaanites away as the Sodomites had been taken away, the Lord caused the Israelites to conquer them and to wrest the land from them. In Israel's taking possession of the land of Canaan, we believe there was a typical significance. In some respects the Israelites, warring against the Canaanites, typified the war that the New Creature has with the flesh. In proportion as the New Creature takes possession of the entrenched positions of the old creature, it overcomes and gets possession of the land. The New Creatures, God's people, are under the leadership of the antitypical Joshua. They are to overcome the weaknesses and meannesses of the fallen nature, to the best of their ability. In the case of Natural Israelites with the Canaanites, the latter were strongly entrenched in the land, and they were not to be overcome without many battles. The Canaanites had their mountain fastnesses, to which they could retreat. These typify the fastnesses in our nature to which the fallen inclinations retreat when we find it impossible as New Creatures to vanquish them. As St. Paul says, "Ye cannot do the things that ye would." (Gal. 5:17.) But our ability to gain the victory will be in proportion to our faith in God and our reliance on Him. Thus it was with the Israelites. In proportion as they trusted the Lord, they had success in getting possession of the land, conquering their inheritance. With the exception of the tribe of Levi, a certain inheritance was given to each tribe. So with us as individual New Creatures. There is a certain inheritance to be apportioned to each of us. We cannot conquer for each other. Each must conquer his own inheritance individually. The words of our text were addressed to Joshua, the leader of Israel. The words can be understood as referring to all the Israelites, but especially to Joshua because he was their leader. The word Joshua means savior, deliverer. The Greek form of the Hebrew word Joshua is Jesus. As Joshua was to deliver the Lord's people, and give them possession of the Land of Promise, so Jesus is to deliver God's Spiritual Israel, and give them their inheritance. The words of our text then implied that there would be trials and difficulties connected with the conquest of Canaan: "Be thou strong and very courageous." Those trials and difficulties would require strength and courage in the typical Israelite. Likewise this is true of all who would be sharers with our Lord in the antitypical Promised Land. There is a difference between being strong and being courageous. One might be strong, invulnerable in the position he has taken, and yet not be courageous for further conquests. The difference between these two qualities is particularly illustrated in the Little Flock and the Great Company. The Lord's true people should be strong in their determination to lay down their lives in self-sacrifice, that by laying down the earthly life they may become partakers of the Divine life. God has no blessing for those who will not put forth earnest effort. Even the Great Company must be strong, or they will not get the palms of victory. The difference between the Little Flock and the Great Company is that while the Great Company will finally overcome, with the Lord's help, yet they will not have been very courageous. Therefore they cannot be of the Little Flock, who are close followers of the great Leader, our Joshua, in battling for their life, gladly laying down their lives in the service of Jehovah. Joshua represents the "more than conqueror" class. The strength of the Lord is supplied to this class. Therefore they are very courageous in overcoming everything that is in opposition to the Divine will.	<urn:uuid:ddcff855-8056-4a81-b268-48384ef34fc3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://htdb.space/1913/r5296.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00119.warc.gz	en	0.980076	1,288	3.34375	3	[ -0.5736278295516968, 0.32353174686431885, -0.02913404069840908, 0.007439986802637577, -0.27001863718032837, -0.08789768069982529, 0.5522078275680542, -0.05650409683585167, -0.16432076692581177, -0.20958146452903748, -0.1472357213497162, -0.20456452667713165, 0.5082699656486511, 0.110842347...	2	0 / 0 "Be thou strong and very courageous."—Joshua 1:7 . THE words of our text were addressed by the Lord to Joshua, who was leader of Israel after the death of Moses. He had special need of these encouraging words. The Israelites were a stiff-necked generation. It was difficult for any one to be their leader. Especially difficult was it because Moses had been for many years with them. It is always difficult for a smaller man to take a larger man's place. In some respects it was easier to direct Israel while they were anticipating the coming into the Promised Land, before they had entered it. During the forty years in the wilderness they had learned to depend on the Lord. In a few brief words we have given us quite a clear idea of the Lord's manner of dealing with His people during these forty years. Moses, in exhorting the people to fear and love the Lord, and in recounting their provocations of Him, tells them that they shall possess the Land, and adds, "And thou shalt remember all the way which the Lord thy God led thee these forty years in the wilderness, to humble thee and to prove thee, to know what was in thine heart, whether thou wouldest keep His commandments, or no. And He humbled thee, and suffered thee to hunger, and fed thee with manna, which thou knewest not, neither did thy fathers know; that He might make thee know that man doth not live by bread only, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of the Lord doth man live. "Thy raiment waxed not old upon thee, neither did thy foot swell, these forty years. Thou shalt also consider in thine heart, that as a man chasteneth his son, so the Lord thy God chasteneth thee." (Deut. 8:2-5.) Israel had very few battles during the time of their wandering. The Amalekites had had some little skirmishes with them, but on the whole they had experienced very little trouble, [R5296 : page 251] and yet they had rebelled against the Lord and against Moses more than once. Now, their enemies were entrenched in the Land of Canaan, and it would require strength and courage to take the Land. Their instructions from the Lord were that they should occupy Canaan. God was taking the land from the Canaanites because, like the Sodomites, they had gone as far in their wickedness as Divine Wisdom saw best to permit. Instead of taking the Canaanites away as the Sodomites had been taken away, the Lord caused the Israelites to conquer them and to wrest the land from them. In Israel's taking possession of the land of Canaan, we believe there was a typical significance. In some respects the Israelites, warring against the Canaanites, typified the war that the New Creature has with the flesh. In proportion as the New Creature takes possession of the entrenched positions of the old creature, it overcomes and gets possession of the land. The New Creatures, God's people, are under the leadership of the antitypical Joshua. They are to overcome the weaknesses and meannesses of the fallen nature, to the best of their ability. In the case of Natural Israelites with the Canaanites, the latter were strongly entrenched in the land, and they were not to be overcome without many battles. The Canaanites had their mountain fastnesses, to which they could retreat. These typify the fastnesses in our nature to which the fallen inclinations retreat when we find it impossible as New Creatures to vanquish them. As St. Paul says, "Ye cannot do the things that ye would." (Gal. 5:17.) But our ability to gain the victory will be in proportion to our faith in God and our reliance on Him. Thus it was with the Israelites. In proportion as they trusted the Lord, they had success in getting possession of the land, conquering their inheritance. With the exception of the tribe of Levi, a certain inheritance was given to each tribe. So with us as individual New Creatures. There is a certain inheritance to be apportioned to each of us. We cannot conquer for each other. Each must conquer his own inheritance individually. The words of our text were addressed to Joshua, the leader of Israel. The words can be understood as referring to all the Israelites, but especially to Joshua because he was their leader. The word Joshua means savior, deliverer. The Greek form of the Hebrew word Joshua is Jesus. As Joshua was to deliver the Lord's people, and give them possession of the Land of Promise, so Jesus is to deliver God's Spiritual Israel, and give them their inheritance. The words of our text then implied that there would be trials and difficulties connected with the conquest of Canaan: "Be thou strong and very courageous." Those trials and difficulties would require strength and courage in the typical Israelite. Likewise this is true of all who would be sharers with our Lord in the antitypical Promised Land. There is a difference between being strong and being courageous. One might be strong, invulnerable in the position he has taken, and yet not be courageous for further conquests. The difference between these two qualities is particularly illustrated in the Little Flock and the Great Company. The Lord's true people should be strong in their determination to lay down their lives in self-sacrifice, that by laying down the earthly life they may become partakers of the Divine life. God has no blessing for those who will not put forth earnest effort. Even the Great Company must be strong, or they will not get the palms of victory. The difference between the Little Flock and the Great Company is that while the Great Company will finally overcome, with the Lord's help, yet they will not have been very courageous. Therefore they cannot be of the Little Flock, who are close followers of the great Leader, our Joshua, in battling for their life, gladly laying down their lives in the service of Jehovah. Joshua represents the "more than conqueror" class. The strength of the Lord is supplied to this class. Therefore they are very courageous in overcoming everything that is in opposition to the Divine will.	1,303	ENGLISH	1
Many of the Shanty Towns that sprung up all over the United States during the Depression were facetiously called Hoovervilles because so many people at the time blamed President Herbert Hoover for letting the nation slide into the Great Depression. In October of 1929, the stock market experienced a devastating crash resulting in an unprecedented number of people in the U.S. without homes or jobs, a period of history now known as the Clutch Plague. While homelessness was present prior to the crash, the group was relatively small and cities were able to provide adequate shelter through various municipal housing projects. However, as the Depression set in, demand grew and the overflow became far too overwhelming and unmanageable for government resources to keep up with. Homeless people in large cities began to build their own houses out of found materials, and some even built more permanent structures from brick. Small shanty towns—later named Hoovervilles after President Hoover—began to spring up in vacant lots, public land and empty alleys. Three of these pop-up villages were located in New York City; the largest of them was on what is now Central Park’s Great Lawn. See more »	<urn:uuid:2ce21e98-9455-4714-8857-77e3b36ca1b0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.blogarama.com/humor-blogs/55099-egomania-dipshittery-blog/20162992-hoovervilles-1930s-amazing-vintage-photographs-capture-everyday-life-shanty-towns-during-great-depression	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00128.warc.gz	en	0.984141	239	3.484375	3	[ 0.015006656758487225, -0.16969580948352814, 0.011929676868021488, 0.2543484568595886, 0.0638439953327179, 0.5274126529693604, 0.05892752856016159, -0.10085414350032806, -0.06758454442024231, 0.1340741366147995, 0.1985243856906891, 0.22595980763435364, 0.18244412541389465, 0.220536440610885...	1	Many of the Shanty Towns that sprung up all over the United States during the Depression were facetiously called Hoovervilles because so many people at the time blamed President Herbert Hoover for letting the nation slide into the Great Depression. In October of 1929, the stock market experienced a devastating crash resulting in an unprecedented number of people in the U.S. without homes or jobs, a period of history now known as the Clutch Plague. While homelessness was present prior to the crash, the group was relatively small and cities were able to provide adequate shelter through various municipal housing projects. However, as the Depression set in, demand grew and the overflow became far too overwhelming and unmanageable for government resources to keep up with. Homeless people in large cities began to build their own houses out of found materials, and some even built more permanent structures from brick. Small shanty towns—later named Hoovervilles after President Hoover—began to spring up in vacant lots, public land and empty alleys. Three of these pop-up villages were located in New York City; the largest of them was on what is now Central Park’s Great Lawn. See more »	239	ENGLISH	1
Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr. later known as Muhammad Ali, was a black boxer, and was proud of it. Many African Americans were ashamed of their color, but Ali was different. He was the first boxer to win the Heavyweight Championship 3 different times. He had a great personality and was liked by the people. During his life, he made big decisions that changed the course of his life completely. Muhammad Ali's journey through life was a great inspiration for African American people, but Ali himself deserves the admiration of everyone. Muhammad Ali was a man made to box. He had a great career before him since he made his first professional fight under President Eisenhower presidency. His Professional Career was really impressive. His had a great balance and was able to move his hands and feet in great speed and coordination. Ali was said to dance in the ring while destroying his opponents. Ali started fighting at a very short age, and his first teacher was Joe Martin (Hauser 18). Through hard work and discipline, he became a professional fighter and eventually the Heavyweight champion of the world. Although he lost the title twice, he regained it three times, putting him in the history books. His boxing career was put to an end when he started suffering from Parkinson's disease. This was the end of his boxing, but his greatness will never die. Muhammad Ali was not the kind of person that gets taken away with fame and money. He is a simple, unsophisticated person with a very loving heart, and very determined (Hauser 186). He did not care much about himself, he enjoyed making people happy. While training, he let people come and see him, charging them to see the show. Doing so, he earned about $1000 a day. After the training was over, he went home and gave away every cent to needy people, especially kids (Hauser 149). This was the kind of person Ali was. His big dream was to see peace in the country, racial peace. Also, he was not totally convinced with the idea of segregation because it is not good to make people be together against their will. This way of thinking and qualities is what Malcolm X saw in Ali, and therefore thought Ali could be a great messenger for the African Americans (Hauser 110). Ali's ideas and actions distinguished him from the rest, he was an inborn leader. During his life, Ali was forced to make some tough decisions, and always made them his own way. At the time of Ali's fighting, the United States were involved in the Vietnam War. As a result, young Americans were been drafted to serve in the military. When political figures saw Ali fighting, they decided to stop the hurting of our own and draft him, so he hurts the people in Vietnam. Ali was not pleased with this decision, because ha had just won the Heavyweight Championship and because he said, "I ain't got no quarrel with them Vietcong"(Hauser 144). His final decision on the issue was that he would not go to war. He was not willing to go and kill...	<urn:uuid:239d4231-fc0b-42e9-ade3-6af8dea0b686>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/muhammad-ali	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00002.warc.gz	en	0.994632	627	3.328125	3	[ 0.028272880241274834, 0.5710017681121826, 0.09669021517038345, 0.25609830021858215, -0.5436813235282898, 0.006466582417488098, 0.8722554445266724, -0.09588144719600677, 0.08505330979824066, 0.01942209154367447, 0.19700497388839722, -0.41630733013153076, 0.17855486273765564, 0.2224765717983...	1	Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr. later known as Muhammad Ali, was a black boxer, and was proud of it. Many African Americans were ashamed of their color, but Ali was different. He was the first boxer to win the Heavyweight Championship 3 different times. He had a great personality and was liked by the people. During his life, he made big decisions that changed the course of his life completely. Muhammad Ali's journey through life was a great inspiration for African American people, but Ali himself deserves the admiration of everyone. Muhammad Ali was a man made to box. He had a great career before him since he made his first professional fight under President Eisenhower presidency. His Professional Career was really impressive. His had a great balance and was able to move his hands and feet in great speed and coordination. Ali was said to dance in the ring while destroying his opponents. Ali started fighting at a very short age, and his first teacher was Joe Martin (Hauser 18). Through hard work and discipline, he became a professional fighter and eventually the Heavyweight champion of the world. Although he lost the title twice, he regained it three times, putting him in the history books. His boxing career was put to an end when he started suffering from Parkinson's disease. This was the end of his boxing, but his greatness will never die. Muhammad Ali was not the kind of person that gets taken away with fame and money. He is a simple, unsophisticated person with a very loving heart, and very determined (Hauser 186). He did not care much about himself, he enjoyed making people happy. While training, he let people come and see him, charging them to see the show. Doing so, he earned about $1000 a day. After the training was over, he went home and gave away every cent to needy people, especially kids (Hauser 149). This was the kind of person Ali was. His big dream was to see peace in the country, racial peace. Also, he was not totally convinced with the idea of segregation because it is not good to make people be together against their will. This way of thinking and qualities is what Malcolm X saw in Ali, and therefore thought Ali could be a great messenger for the African Americans (Hauser 110). Ali's ideas and actions distinguished him from the rest, he was an inborn leader. During his life, Ali was forced to make some tough decisions, and always made them his own way. At the time of Ali's fighting, the United States were involved in the Vietnam War. As a result, young Americans were been drafted to serve in the military. When political figures saw Ali fighting, they decided to stop the hurting of our own and draft him, so he hurts the people in Vietnam. Ali was not pleased with this decision, because ha had just won the Heavyweight Championship and because he said, "I ain't got no quarrel with them Vietcong"(Hauser 144). His final decision on the issue was that he would not go to war. He was not willing to go and kill...	644	ENGLISH	1
Benito Mussolini was an Italian leader who founded Fascism in Italy. Discover more about "His Excellency, Benito Mussolini". Birth Date: 29 July 1883 Died on: 28 April 1945 Profession: Politician, Journalist, Novelist, Teacher Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, Italy, on July 29, 1883. He was born in a poor family. His father, Alessandro Mussolini, worked as a blacksmith. Alessandro was an Anarchist activist. His mother, Rosa Mussolini (née Maltoni), was an elementary school teacher. Mussolini was an intelligent child. With such humble beginnings, one wonders how he managed to become the most powerful man in Italy. We shall go back in time and trace some important events in this once-upon-a-time great leader’s life. The Life of Mussolini Although intelligent, he had a violent temper and a huge ego. He was a poor student at school, due to which he was expelled. He was sent to a boarding school in Faenza, Italy, from where, he again got expelled, but this time, for stabbing a fellow student. After receiving his diploma from a new school, he did a brief stint as a secondary school teacher. “So long as the Duce lives, one can rest assured that Italy will seize every opportunity to achieve its imperialistic aims.” – Adolf Hitler, late November 1939 His Stint as a Journalist In 1902, he went to Switzerland to avoid military service. It was here, that he became associated with many socialists. In 1904, Mussolini returned to Italy. He became a journalist and worked for the Milan socialist paper “Avanti”. He soon became a well-known socialist in Italy and started to promote his views for war against Germany during World War I. This did not go down well with the socialists, who were against the war. Mussolini soon broke free from socialism and launched his own paper, “Il Popolo d’Italia”. He continued to extend his support to the war through his newspaper. Finally, when Italy joined the Allies in the war against Germany, Mussolini enlisted himself in the “Esercito”, the Italian Army. Mussolini rose to the rank of Corporal, but was discharged in 1917 due to shrapnel wounds. Journey in Politics Mussolini contested the parliamentary elections but lost. On March 15, 1921, Mussolini again contested the elections and was elected to the Italian Chamber of deputies along with 35 other Fascists. In 1913, he published “Giovanni Hus, il veridico” (Jan Hus, true prophet), a historical and political biography about the life of Czech ecclesiastic reformer “Jan Hus” Mussolini soon enjoyed the support from the church, farmers, military and the industry. Many thought, that his solutions were the key to their problems, like, organizing the middle class youth. He wanted to control the workers and thought of a tough central government to bring in “law and order”. The ruling Leftist Government had ordered a general strike of the nation. This enraged Mussolini, who declared that if the government did not end the strike, the Fascists’ party would. King Vittorio Emmanuele III (1869-1947), telephoned Mussolini on 29 October 1922 and invited Mussolini to Rome to form a government. Mussolini took a train to Rome and was greeted by thousands of Blackshirt supporters. He ended the strike and assumed powers of all government offices. He stabilized the economy and saved Italy from an economic turmoil. The people soon called him ‘II Duce’- the leader. He was given the official title, “His Excellency Benito Mussolini”, Head of Government, Duce of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire”. In 1929, on behalf of the Italian government, Mussolini signed the Lateran Concordat with the Vatican. This helped to settle the historic differences between the Italian State and the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Pius XI (1857-1939) declared that Mussolini was sent by ‘Divine Providence’. Mussolini’s Atheism came to the fore, when once he was dragged by force due to his refusal to go to morning mass. The Beginning of His Dictatorship Mussolini moved from the pacifists’ anti-imperialism to form aggressive nationalism. His bombardment of Corfu in 1923 is an early example of his change in foreign policy. He soon set up a puppet regime in Albania. He reconquered Libya, a colony in North Africa, since 1912. He had dreams of a glorious Roman Empire and of making the Mediterranean Sea ‘mare nostrum’, translated as ‘our sea’. A large naval base was established on the Greek island of ‘Leros’. It was seen as a strategic hold on the eastern Mediterranean. By the 1930s, the parliamentary system became virtually non-existent and Mussolini took over as a dictator. All school and university teachers had to take an oath to defend the fascists’ regime. Mussolini hand-picked the newspaper editors. Journalism could be practiced only by those who received certificate of approval from the Fascist party. Mussolini won the war against Ethiopia in 1935-1936. He was strongly opposed by the League of Nations, which forced him to seek an alliance with Nazi Germany. He actively supported General Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. The war ended the hopes of reconciliation between France and Britain. As a result, Mussolini accepted the German annexation of Austria in 1938 and dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in 1939. In September 1939, at the Munich Conference, he wore a mask of a moderate, working for European peace, helping Nazi Germany seize control of Sudetenland. Mussolini coined the term, “Axis Powers” in November 1936 in reference that the European nations will soon revolve around Italy and Germany. This treaty was signed on October 25, 1936. This “Axis” became stronger in May 1939, Mussolini then signed a treaty, namely the “Pact of Steel” with Nazi Germany. The German interference in the Italian politics was not welcomed by the Italian citizens. King Victor Emmanuel III also found it unacceptable and favored the old allies in Britain and France. The Fall of Mussolini Joining Hands with Hitler Towards the end of the 1930s, Mussolini started losing the support of his own people. As the Second World War approached, he pushed his men into the war against their wishes. Although, he preached military preparedness for 15 years, his army was absolutely unprepared when Hitler invaded Poland. “My star has fallen. I have no fight left in me. I work and I try, yet know that all is but a farce… I await the end of the tragedy and strangely detached from everything, I do not feel any more an actor. I feel I am the last of spectators”. – Mussolini in an interview 1945 Mussolini declared war, after the fall of France, assuming that the war would last a few more weeks. With a poor military show during the attack on Greece in October, he was left with no choice, but to follow Hitler. Mussolini supported Hitler’s call for the war on Russia in June 1941 and United States in December 1941. However, Mussolini overlooked the only lesson of the First World War, that the United States alone had decided the outcome of that war. It was the United States that was a superpower and not Germany. Italy suffered defeats on all fronts and following the Anglo-American landing in Sicily, most of Mussolini’s aides had turned against him during the meeting of Fascist Grand Council on July 25, 1943. This gave the King a chance to order dismissal and arrest Mussolini. King Victor Emanuel III appointed Field Marshall Pietro Badoglio as the new Prime Minister of Italy. Mussolini was rescued a few months later by the Germans from a mountain top resort, where he was held captive. He was relocated to Northern Italy, where he tried to set up a new Fascist state. He remained a puppet in the hands of Germany. Mussolini gave in to the pressures of Hitler and the few loyal fascists who formed the government of Republic of Salo, and engineered the execution of those who betrayed him. He became the Head of State and Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Italian Social Republic. This part of northern Italy was under the control of Germany. During this time, he wrote many memoirs. Da Capo press, combined and published “My Rise and Fall” – his autobiography along with the memoirs. The dead bodies of Mussolini and other fascists were hung upside down from the roof of a gas station and were then stoned by civilians from below. Last Days of Mussolini Benito Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci were arrested by the Italian police on April 27, 1945. They were apprehended near the village of Dongo. They were trying to board a plane to Switzerland in order to escape to Spain. Mussolini was traveling with the fleeing German army. He tried to escape by wearing a German military uniform. Several unsuccessful attempts were made to take them to Como. They were finally taken to Mezzegra, where they spent their last night with the De Maria family. Mussolini and Petacci were taken to the village of Giulino di Mezzegra the next day, to be shot dead. The National Liberation Committee ordered Colonel Valerio to carry out the sentence. Colonel Valerio’s real name was Walter Audisio. He transported Mussolini, Petacci and other fascists in trucks. They were taken to an empty place, where Petacci hugged Mussolini and refused to let him go. Petacci was shot and as her limp body fell, Mussolini opened his shirt and shouted, “Shoot me in the chest!” He was shot in the chest by Audisio. Mussolini fell, but did not die. Audisio went near the heavily breathing Mussolini and fired one more bullet in his chest. Their bodies were hung upside down the next day for the public to see. “Finally, O Duce, you are with us. We will cover you with roses, but the smell of your virtue will overpower the smell of those roses.” – Neo-Fascists 1946. Italy Post Mussolini Mussolini’s wife, Donna Rachele Mussolini, their sons: Vittorio and Romano and daughter Edda survived. Mussolini’s third son Bruno was killed in an air crash in 1941. Mussolini was killed two days before Hitler committed suicide. After the World War II, Italy lost its colonies – Ethiopia, Somalia and Libya. There was a rift between the political parties in Italy, which gave rise to a civil war from 1943 to 1945. In 1946, monarchy was dissolved and in 1948 the first political election was held. The Republic won and Democrazia Cristiana, the democratic party of Italy, dominated power for the next 50 years. Mussolini condemned the war during the start of World War I. There was a drastic change of his views during the war. This may be due to the influence of his father’s nationalism. Mussolini answered his country’s call when it was needed. He attempted to make an Italian empire that would hold the ultimate power in the world. Mussolini was a great leader who got drunk with absolute power, which led to his downfall and ended his dream of an imperial Italy.	<urn:uuid:a39c8be5-9911-4e4e-814b-4dc6dd7c38a6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historyplex.com/biography-of-benito-mussolini	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00174.warc.gz	en	0.984146	2,475	3.265625	3	[ -0.37066349387168884, 0.5784907341003418, 0.15283483266830444, -0.09707365930080414, -0.45470964908599854, -0.01144532673060894, 0.36076945066452026, 0.014499173499643803, 0.040178291499614716, -0.1909855604171753, 0.12730908393859863, -0.02815507911145687, 0.5417909622192383, 0.8886259794...	8	Benito Mussolini was an Italian leader who founded Fascism in Italy. Discover more about "His Excellency, Benito Mussolini". Birth Date: 29 July 1883 Died on: 28 April 1945 Profession: Politician, Journalist, Novelist, Teacher Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, Italy, on July 29, 1883. He was born in a poor family. His father, Alessandro Mussolini, worked as a blacksmith. Alessandro was an Anarchist activist. His mother, Rosa Mussolini (née Maltoni), was an elementary school teacher. Mussolini was an intelligent child. With such humble beginnings, one wonders how he managed to become the most powerful man in Italy. We shall go back in time and trace some important events in this once-upon-a-time great leader’s life. The Life of Mussolini Although intelligent, he had a violent temper and a huge ego. He was a poor student at school, due to which he was expelled. He was sent to a boarding school in Faenza, Italy, from where, he again got expelled, but this time, for stabbing a fellow student. After receiving his diploma from a new school, he did a brief stint as a secondary school teacher. “So long as the Duce lives, one can rest assured that Italy will seize every opportunity to achieve its imperialistic aims.” – Adolf Hitler, late November 1939 His Stint as a Journalist In 1902, he went to Switzerland to avoid military service. It was here, that he became associated with many socialists. In 1904, Mussolini returned to Italy. He became a journalist and worked for the Milan socialist paper “Avanti”. He soon became a well-known socialist in Italy and started to promote his views for war against Germany during World War I. This did not go down well with the socialists, who were against the war. Mussolini soon broke free from socialism and launched his own paper, “Il Popolo d’Italia”. He continued to extend his support to the war through his newspaper. Finally, when Italy joined the Allies in the war against Germany, Mussolini enlisted himself in the “Esercito”, the Italian Army. Mussolini rose to the rank of Corporal, but was discharged in 1917 due to shrapnel wounds. Journey in Politics Mussolini contested the parliamentary elections but lost. On March 15, 1921, Mussolini again contested the elections and was elected to the Italian Chamber of deputies along with 35 other Fascists. In 1913, he published “Giovanni Hus, il veridico” (Jan Hus, true prophet), a historical and political biography about the life of Czech ecclesiastic reformer “Jan Hus” Mussolini soon enjoyed the support from the church, farmers, military and the industry. Many thought, that his solutions were the key to their problems, like, organizing the middle class youth. He wanted to control the workers and thought of a tough central government to bring in “law and order”. The ruling Leftist Government had ordered a general strike of the nation. This enraged Mussolini, who declared that if the government did not end the strike, the Fascists’ party would. King Vittorio Emmanuele III (1869-1947), telephoned Mussolini on 29 October 1922 and invited Mussolini to Rome to form a government. Mussolini took a train to Rome and was greeted by thousands of Blackshirt supporters. He ended the strike and assumed powers of all government offices. He stabilized the economy and saved Italy from an economic turmoil. The people soon called him ‘II Duce’- the leader. He was given the official title, “His Excellency Benito Mussolini”, Head of Government, Duce of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire”. In 1929, on behalf of the Italian government, Mussolini signed the Lateran Concordat with the Vatican. This helped to settle the historic differences between the Italian State and the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Pius XI (1857-1939) declared that Mussolini was sent by ‘Divine Providence’. Mussolini’s Atheism came to the fore, when once he was dragged by force due to his refusal to go to morning mass. The Beginning of His Dictatorship Mussolini moved from the pacifists’ anti-imperialism to form aggressive nationalism. His bombardment of Corfu in 1923 is an early example of his change in foreign policy. He soon set up a puppet regime in Albania. He reconquered Libya, a colony in North Africa, since 1912. He had dreams of a glorious Roman Empire and of making the Mediterranean Sea ‘mare nostrum’, translated as ‘our sea’. A large naval base was established on the Greek island of ‘Leros’. It was seen as a strategic hold on the eastern Mediterranean. By the 1930s, the parliamentary system became virtually non-existent and Mussolini took over as a dictator. All school and university teachers had to take an oath to defend the fascists’ regime. Mussolini hand-picked the newspaper editors. Journalism could be practiced only by those who received certificate of approval from the Fascist party. Mussolini won the war against Ethiopia in 1935-1936. He was strongly opposed by the League of Nations, which forced him to seek an alliance with Nazi Germany. He actively supported General Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. The war ended the hopes of reconciliation between France and Britain. As a result, Mussolini accepted the German annexation of Austria in 1938 and dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in 1939. In September 1939, at the Munich Conference, he wore a mask of a moderate, working for European peace, helping Nazi Germany seize control of Sudetenland. Mussolini coined the term, “Axis Powers” in November 1936 in reference that the European nations will soon revolve around Italy and Germany. This treaty was signed on October 25, 1936. This “Axis” became stronger in May 1939, Mussolini then signed a treaty, namely the “Pact of Steel” with Nazi Germany. The German interference in the Italian politics was not welcomed by the Italian citizens. King Victor Emmanuel III also found it unacceptable and favored the old allies in Britain and France. The Fall of Mussolini Joining Hands with Hitler Towards the end of the 1930s, Mussolini started losing the support of his own people. As the Second World War approached, he pushed his men into the war against their wishes. Although, he preached military preparedness for 15 years, his army was absolutely unprepared when Hitler invaded Poland. “My star has fallen. I have no fight left in me. I work and I try, yet know that all is but a farce… I await the end of the tragedy and strangely detached from everything, I do not feel any more an actor. I feel I am the last of spectators”. – Mussolini in an interview 1945 Mussolini declared war, after the fall of France, assuming that the war would last a few more weeks. With a poor military show during the attack on Greece in October, he was left with no choice, but to follow Hitler. Mussolini supported Hitler’s call for the war on Russia in June 1941 and United States in December 1941. However, Mussolini overlooked the only lesson of the First World War, that the United States alone had decided the outcome of that war. It was the United States that was a superpower and not Germany. Italy suffered defeats on all fronts and following the Anglo-American landing in Sicily, most of Mussolini’s aides had turned against him during the meeting of Fascist Grand Council on July 25, 1943. This gave the King a chance to order dismissal and arrest Mussolini. King Victor Emanuel III appointed Field Marshall Pietro Badoglio as the new Prime Minister of Italy. Mussolini was rescued a few months later by the Germans from a mountain top resort, where he was held captive. He was relocated to Northern Italy, where he tried to set up a new Fascist state. He remained a puppet in the hands of Germany. Mussolini gave in to the pressures of Hitler and the few loyal fascists who formed the government of Republic of Salo, and engineered the execution of those who betrayed him. He became the Head of State and Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Italian Social Republic. This part of northern Italy was under the control of Germany. During this time, he wrote many memoirs. Da Capo press, combined and published “My Rise and Fall” – his autobiography along with the memoirs. The dead bodies of Mussolini and other fascists were hung upside down from the roof of a gas station and were then stoned by civilians from below. Last Days of Mussolini Benito Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci were arrested by the Italian police on April 27, 1945. They were apprehended near the village of Dongo. They were trying to board a plane to Switzerland in order to escape to Spain. Mussolini was traveling with the fleeing German army. He tried to escape by wearing a German military uniform. Several unsuccessful attempts were made to take them to Como. They were finally taken to Mezzegra, where they spent their last night with the De Maria family. Mussolini and Petacci were taken to the village of Giulino di Mezzegra the next day, to be shot dead. The National Liberation Committee ordered Colonel Valerio to carry out the sentence. Colonel Valerio’s real name was Walter Audisio. He transported Mussolini, Petacci and other fascists in trucks. They were taken to an empty place, where Petacci hugged Mussolini and refused to let him go. Petacci was shot and as her limp body fell, Mussolini opened his shirt and shouted, “Shoot me in the chest!” He was shot in the chest by Audisio. Mussolini fell, but did not die. Audisio went near the heavily breathing Mussolini and fired one more bullet in his chest. Their bodies were hung upside down the next day for the public to see. “Finally, O Duce, you are with us. We will cover you with roses, but the smell of your virtue will overpower the smell of those roses.” – Neo-Fascists 1946. Italy Post Mussolini Mussolini’s wife, Donna Rachele Mussolini, their sons: Vittorio and Romano and daughter Edda survived. Mussolini’s third son Bruno was killed in an air crash in 1941. Mussolini was killed two days before Hitler committed suicide. After the World War II, Italy lost its colonies – Ethiopia, Somalia and Libya. There was a rift between the political parties in Italy, which gave rise to a civil war from 1943 to 1945. In 1946, monarchy was dissolved and in 1948 the first political election was held. The Republic won and Democrazia Cristiana, the democratic party of Italy, dominated power for the next 50 years. Mussolini condemned the war during the start of World War I. There was a drastic change of his views during the war. This may be due to the influence of his father’s nationalism. Mussolini answered his country’s call when it was needed. He attempted to make an Italian empire that would hold the ultimate power in the world. Mussolini was a great leader who got drunk with absolute power, which led to his downfall and ended his dream of an imperial Italy.	2,515	ENGLISH	1
Rhodesia refers to a territory that was located in South Africa from 1965 to 1979. The inhabitants deemed the territory, which had a similar size to present-day Zimbabwe, as a state although it was not internationally recognized. Before its formation, the region was a British colony known as Southern Rhodesia, which had been self-governing itself since 1923. Rhodesia, which had an area of about 150,800 square miles, was bordered to the south by South Africa, Botswana to the southwest, the northwest by Zambia, while the east was bound by Mozambique. The main reason why the state was formed was the panic that was created by the decolonization of Africa in the earlier stages of the 1960s. In a bid to delay the transition of power to black Africans, the white leaders of Rhodesia declared its independence from the UK on November 11, 1965. Following the withdrawal of the British from South Africa, power in the country was supposed to be handed back to black residents. However, circumstances had forced the territory of Rhodesia to govern itself outside the direct influence of the British government. Consequently, the region decided to stay on in Africa even after the British decided to leave by declaring a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI), which stated that Rhodesia had cut off ties with the British government. However, attempts by Rhodesia to be recognized internationally as an independent state did not yield desired results because powerful nations such as the UK and the US refused to recognize its legality. Even their sympathetic neighbor, South Africa, failed to recognize Rhodesia as a sovereign state. Eventually, the territory voted to completely cut off all ties with the British in 1969 and established itself as a republic later on. The Bush War The Bush War refers to a struggle between black activists and their supporters who were fighting for the removal of the white leadership minority. Also known as the Zimbabwe Liberation Struggle or the Second Chimurenga, the struggle began in the early 1960s and ended in the later years of the 1970s. Activists such as Ndabaningi Sithole and Joshua Nkomo led the struggle, which eventually led to the establishment of the Republic of Zimbabwe. In April 1979, under an Internal Settlement between the whites and the blacks, elections were held and Bishop Abel Muzorewa became the first black Prime Minister of the country. The Internal Settlement was, at its core, a power-sharing deal between the white and the black population. Eventually, on April 18, 1980, the country became an internationally recognized republic with Robert Mugabe as the first president of the republic. The major sector was agriculture, which produced products such as tobacco and chrome. After the 1930s recession, there was a large number of white populations who migrated to the region. The whites ended up transforming the region into an economic powerhouse, which had industries of things such as steel and iron as well as modern mining techniques. In fact, the economy was so strong that it was able to sustain plenty of economic sanctions for at least a decade after the UDI. About the Author Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:c81f7f61-01e2-44ec-9c94-1d9bcebc15a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/where-was-rhodesia-located.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00403.warc.gz	en	0.985057	693	3.9375	4	[ -0.3166218400001526, 0.6119592189788818, 0.34631019830703735, 0.3075459599494934, -0.07356269657611847, 0.2000957876443863, 0.2771168053150177, -0.3656761348247528, -0.03324809670448303, 0.5316357612609863, 0.6679090261459351, -0.36171597242355347, 0.07221222668886185, 0.5690089464187622, ...	2	Rhodesia refers to a territory that was located in South Africa from 1965 to 1979. The inhabitants deemed the territory, which had a similar size to present-day Zimbabwe, as a state although it was not internationally recognized. Before its formation, the region was a British colony known as Southern Rhodesia, which had been self-governing itself since 1923. Rhodesia, which had an area of about 150,800 square miles, was bordered to the south by South Africa, Botswana to the southwest, the northwest by Zambia, while the east was bound by Mozambique. The main reason why the state was formed was the panic that was created by the decolonization of Africa in the earlier stages of the 1960s. In a bid to delay the transition of power to black Africans, the white leaders of Rhodesia declared its independence from the UK on November 11, 1965. Following the withdrawal of the British from South Africa, power in the country was supposed to be handed back to black residents. However, circumstances had forced the territory of Rhodesia to govern itself outside the direct influence of the British government. Consequently, the region decided to stay on in Africa even after the British decided to leave by declaring a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI), which stated that Rhodesia had cut off ties with the British government. However, attempts by Rhodesia to be recognized internationally as an independent state did not yield desired results because powerful nations such as the UK and the US refused to recognize its legality. Even their sympathetic neighbor, South Africa, failed to recognize Rhodesia as a sovereign state. Eventually, the territory voted to completely cut off all ties with the British in 1969 and established itself as a republic later on. The Bush War The Bush War refers to a struggle between black activists and their supporters who were fighting for the removal of the white leadership minority. Also known as the Zimbabwe Liberation Struggle or the Second Chimurenga, the struggle began in the early 1960s and ended in the later years of the 1970s. Activists such as Ndabaningi Sithole and Joshua Nkomo led the struggle, which eventually led to the establishment of the Republic of Zimbabwe. In April 1979, under an Internal Settlement between the whites and the blacks, elections were held and Bishop Abel Muzorewa became the first black Prime Minister of the country. The Internal Settlement was, at its core, a power-sharing deal between the white and the black population. Eventually, on April 18, 1980, the country became an internationally recognized republic with Robert Mugabe as the first president of the republic. The major sector was agriculture, which produced products such as tobacco and chrome. After the 1930s recession, there was a large number of white populations who migrated to the region. The whites ended up transforming the region into an economic powerhouse, which had industries of things such as steel and iron as well as modern mining techniques. In fact, the economy was so strong that it was able to sustain plenty of economic sanctions for at least a decade after the UDI. About the Author Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	737	ENGLISH	1
Throughout the course of history, every society has had to address enduring issues with different results one enduring issue is power. Power was shown during the medieval times when there was a spit in Christianity caused by the decision on who should be the head of the church. Like with all enduring issues this one has affected and is still affecting people and continues to be a recurring issue. In medieval Europe, the roman catholic church had a strong amount of power over every individual which is described by document 2. The church had a great impact in the lives of the richest king to the lowest serf since their births In document 2 it stated “The role of the church was very large in medieval Europe. More than any institution, it unified Europeans and gave every person a sense of how the world worked.” The church had the power to keep medieval Europe unified by advertising that people need to pay heavy taxes to support the church and in return, the people would have a long happy life. The people listened and obeyed everything that the church said for they thought doing what they were told by the church would help better their lives. An example of this would be when the church started the crusades for the pope told the people if they went to fight to recover the holy land they would be forgiven for any sins they committed and would be able to go to heaven. In addition in document 2, it stated: “the church to become very powerful, and it often used this power to influence kings to do as wanted.” Meaning that the church was extremely influential at that this time period that they impacted the ruler's actions. The church was able to kick out rulers who did not agree with their actions. The church had and still continues to have power in the lives of people who practice this religion. Christians all over the world still listen to the pope who is located in Italy.	<urn:uuid:0f8cf82a-752d-478b-8a77-75d807ed4d89>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ostatic.com/essays/endurring-issue-during-middle-ages-pre-ap-goble-history-essay-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00148.warc.gz	en	0.992204	379	3.546875	4	[ -0.275913804769516, 0.6363409757614136, 0.09066391736268997, -0.15244321525096893, -0.1594230979681015, 0.21191176772117615, -0.4702857434749603, 0.07837046682834625, 0.3288112282752991, 0.0010247932514175773, -0.02586778998374939, 0.26126864552497864, 0.32540929317474365, -0.0308887958526...	12	Throughout the course of history, every society has had to address enduring issues with different results one enduring issue is power. Power was shown during the medieval times when there was a spit in Christianity caused by the decision on who should be the head of the church. Like with all enduring issues this one has affected and is still affecting people and continues to be a recurring issue. In medieval Europe, the roman catholic church had a strong amount of power over every individual which is described by document 2. The church had a great impact in the lives of the richest king to the lowest serf since their births In document 2 it stated “The role of the church was very large in medieval Europe. More than any institution, it unified Europeans and gave every person a sense of how the world worked.” The church had the power to keep medieval Europe unified by advertising that people need to pay heavy taxes to support the church and in return, the people would have a long happy life. The people listened and obeyed everything that the church said for they thought doing what they were told by the church would help better their lives. An example of this would be when the church started the crusades for the pope told the people if they went to fight to recover the holy land they would be forgiven for any sins they committed and would be able to go to heaven. In addition in document 2, it stated: “the church to become very powerful, and it often used this power to influence kings to do as wanted.” Meaning that the church was extremely influential at that this time period that they impacted the ruler's actions. The church was able to kick out rulers who did not agree with their actions. The church had and still continues to have power in the lives of people who practice this religion. Christians all over the world still listen to the pope who is located in Italy.	372	ENGLISH	1

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