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Who was Saint Jerome? Question: "Who was Saint Jerome?" Answer: The man who came to be known as Saint Jerome was born as Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymusin around AD 345 in Stridon, Dalmatia (possibly in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina). Jerome is considered one of the early church fathers for his work in translating the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures into Latin, the most widely used language at that time. This translation of the Bible is called the Latin Vulgate and was a critical part of the expansion of Christianity in the early centuries. Vulgate means “common or commonly known.” Jerome’s desire was that the Word of God would be readily available to the common man in a language he understood. His desire became reality, and it was the Vulgate that brought the Scriptures out of the churches and into everyday life. The Latin Vulgate is still the official Latin Bible of the Catholic Church. Jerome was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church as a saint in 1767. He is also considered a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church. (In the Bible, saints are all believers within the Body of Christ. So Jerome was a “saint” in that sense, but he is not exalted to a higher spiritual plane as the Catholic and Orthodox Churches imply.) Jerome had planned to become a lawyer, so he became fluent in several languages. However, his interests were captured by the study of Scripture and the pursuit of a simpler lifestyle. For nearly five years, Jerome lived alone in the desert, studying Hebrew and Greek. When he returned to normal life, he practiced his newly acquired language skills by translating from Greek to Latin some writings of one of his heroes, Origen. In a day when Christians and Jews were estranged, Jerome insisted upon consulting the Hebrew text for his translation rather than the popular Greek Old Testament called the Septuagint. This choice provoked great hostility in many, as the Greek Septuagint was thought by some to be inspired. However, Jerome pressed on and sought out the oldest possible Hebrew manuscripts in order to render the most accurate Latin translation possible. Although the Latin Vulgate is attributed to Jerome, he did not translate the entire Bible himself. Jerome first translated the four Gospels from Greek to Latin and then turned his attention to the Old Testament. His passion was Hebrew, and he spent much time in the Old Testament, seeking help from Jewish scholars and priests. It took 15 years to translate all the books of the Hebrew Old Testament into Latin. But the Latin Vulgate used today includes New Testament books translated by other scholars. As Jerome’s Latin Vulgate gained attention, it also drew criticism from noteworthy opponents such as Augustine. Jerome’s critics reacted negatively to the unfamiliar wording of his Latin texts and accused him of tampering with the Word of God. Because the Latin of the time often did not have words equivalent to those in Hebrew, Jerome translated thought-for-thought rather than word-for-word. This type of translation is called “dynamic equivalence.” The result at times was a rendering of familiar passages that seemed to be in error. Jerome defended his methods by stating that, while the words may differ, the meaning did not. He cited as examples the many passages in the New Testament that quote from the Old Testament loosely or incompletely. Once the Vulgate was complete, Jerome turned his interpretation skills to specific books of the Old Testament. Beginning with Obadiah, Jerome wrote commentaries on many of the prophets. While his interpretations of the words of Scripture are insightful, he also had a passion for expository writing and inserted his own opinions into his commentaries. Some of those opinions were not accepted by the established church, and for that he was further criticized. Jerome spent the latter years of his life visiting each geographical location important in the life of Christ, giving himself to study, prayer, and the pursuit of the presence of God. In Bethlehem, he moved into a cave thought to have been the birthplace of Christ. While in Bethlehem, Jerome founded a school for boys and served as a spiritual guide for the monks and nuns who had moved there to be near him. Jerome died in Bethlehem on September 30, 420. That date is still celebrated as a feast day by the Roman Catholic Church in honor of Saint Jerome. The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates June 15 as his feast day. Recommended Resource: The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation by Justo Gonzalez More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! What is Augustinianism? Who was Saint Thomas Aquinas? Who was Ignatius of Antioch? Who are the doctors of the church? What is The City of God? Questions about Church History Who was Saint Jerome?	<urn:uuid:3c4e9d2a-0e1a-48fc-846e-2519fb73d7b1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gotquestions.org/Saint-Jerome.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00172.warc.gz	en	0.983097	998	3.875	4	[ -0.012380216270685196, 0.1547967791557312, 0.3578847050666809, 0.033071115612983704, -0.1838400810956955, -0.5453826189041138, 0.1433112919330597, 0.48823386430740356, 0.24422192573547363, -0.10108648240566254, -0.26347166299819946, -0.06483915448188782, -0.26084133982658386, 0.01157803833...	1	Who was Saint Jerome? Question: "Who was Saint Jerome?" Answer: The man who came to be known as Saint Jerome was born as Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymusin around AD 345 in Stridon, Dalmatia (possibly in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina). Jerome is considered one of the early church fathers for his work in translating the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures into Latin, the most widely used language at that time. This translation of the Bible is called the Latin Vulgate and was a critical part of the expansion of Christianity in the early centuries. Vulgate means “common or commonly known.” Jerome’s desire was that the Word of God would be readily available to the common man in a language he understood. His desire became reality, and it was the Vulgate that brought the Scriptures out of the churches and into everyday life. The Latin Vulgate is still the official Latin Bible of the Catholic Church. Jerome was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church as a saint in 1767. He is also considered a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church. (In the Bible, saints are all believers within the Body of Christ. So Jerome was a “saint” in that sense, but he is not exalted to a higher spiritual plane as the Catholic and Orthodox Churches imply.) Jerome had planned to become a lawyer, so he became fluent in several languages. However, his interests were captured by the study of Scripture and the pursuit of a simpler lifestyle. For nearly five years, Jerome lived alone in the desert, studying Hebrew and Greek. When he returned to normal life, he practiced his newly acquired language skills by translating from Greek to Latin some writings of one of his heroes, Origen. In a day when Christians and Jews were estranged, Jerome insisted upon consulting the Hebrew text for his translation rather than the popular Greek Old Testament called the Septuagint. This choice provoked great hostility in many, as the Greek Septuagint was thought by some to be inspired. However, Jerome pressed on and sought out the oldest possible Hebrew manuscripts in order to render the most accurate Latin translation possible. Although the Latin Vulgate is attributed to Jerome, he did not translate the entire Bible himself. Jerome first translated the four Gospels from Greek to Latin and then turned his attention to the Old Testament. His passion was Hebrew, and he spent much time in the Old Testament, seeking help from Jewish scholars and priests. It took 15 years to translate all the books of the Hebrew Old Testament into Latin. But the Latin Vulgate used today includes New Testament books translated by other scholars. As Jerome’s Latin Vulgate gained attention, it also drew criticism from noteworthy opponents such as Augustine. Jerome’s critics reacted negatively to the unfamiliar wording of his Latin texts and accused him of tampering with the Word of God. Because the Latin of the time often did not have words equivalent to those in Hebrew, Jerome translated thought-for-thought rather than word-for-word. This type of translation is called “dynamic equivalence.” The result at times was a rendering of familiar passages that seemed to be in error. Jerome defended his methods by stating that, while the words may differ, the meaning did not. He cited as examples the many passages in the New Testament that quote from the Old Testament loosely or incompletely. Once the Vulgate was complete, Jerome turned his interpretation skills to specific books of the Old Testament. Beginning with Obadiah, Jerome wrote commentaries on many of the prophets. While his interpretations of the words of Scripture are insightful, he also had a passion for expository writing and inserted his own opinions into his commentaries. Some of those opinions were not accepted by the established church, and for that he was further criticized. Jerome spent the latter years of his life visiting each geographical location important in the life of Christ, giving himself to study, prayer, and the pursuit of the presence of God. In Bethlehem, he moved into a cave thought to have been the birthplace of Christ. While in Bethlehem, Jerome founded a school for boys and served as a spiritual guide for the monks and nuns who had moved there to be near him. Jerome died in Bethlehem on September 30, 420. That date is still celebrated as a feast day by the Roman Catholic Church in honor of Saint Jerome. The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates June 15 as his feast day. Recommended Resource: The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation by Justo Gonzalez More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! What is Augustinianism? Who was Saint Thomas Aquinas? Who was Ignatius of Antioch? Who are the doctors of the church? What is The City of God? Questions about Church History Who was Saint Jerome?	985	ENGLISH	1
Saint Patrick was a fifth-century Christian missionary and bishop in Ireland. Known as the “Apostle of Ireland”, he is the primary patron saint of the country. The dates of Patrick’s life cannot be determined, but it appears he was active in Ireland during the second half of the fifth century. He is traditionally credited with being the first bishop of Armagh, Primate of Ireland. When he was about 16, Patrick was captured by Irish pirates from his home in Great Britain, and taken as a slave to Ireland. He lived there for six years and was responsible for looking after animals. He then escaped and returned to his family. After entering religious life, he returned to northern and western Ireland. By the seventh century, he had already come to be revered as the patron saint of Ireland. St. Patrick’s Day Saint Patrick’s Day is observed on March 17th, which is said to be the date of his death. It is celebrated inside and outside Ireland as a religious and cultural holiday. In the dioceses of Ireland, it is both a solemnity and a holy day of obligation as well as a celebration of Ireland itself. Patrick uses shamrock in an illustrative parable Legend credits St. Patrick with teaching the Irish about the doctrine of the Holy Trinity by showing people the shamrock, a three-leafed plant, using it to illustrate the Christian teaching of three persons in one God. This story first appears in writing in 1726, though it may be older. The shamrock has since become a central symbol for St Patrick’s Day. Patrick banishes all snakes from Ireland The absence of snakes in Ireland gave rise to the legend that they had all been banished by St. Patrick who reputedly chased them into the sea after they attacked him during a 40-day fast he was undertaking on top of a hill. In reality, evidence suggests that post-glacial Ireland never had snakes. Patrick’s walking stick grows into a living tree Some Irish legends state that, during his evangelizing journey back to Ireland from his parent’s home, he is understood to have carried with him an ash wood walking stick or staff. He thrust this stick into the ground wherever he was evangelizing and the message took so long to get through to the people that the stick had taken root by the time he was done. Patrick speaks with ancient Irish ancestors The twelfth-century work Acallam na Senórach tells of Patrick being met by two ancient warriors, Caílte mac Rónáin and Oisín, during his evangelical travels. St. Patrick seeks to convert the warriors to Christianity, while they defend their pagan past. The heroic pagan lifestyle of the warriors, of fighting and feasting and living close to nature, is contrasted with the more peaceful, but unheroic and non-sensual life offered by Christianity. At any rate, enjoy your St. Patrick day celebration. I recently met a man from Dublin and I asked him if they celebrate as vigorously in Ireland as we do in the U.S. He rolled his eyes and told me that Americans are amateurs when it comes to St. Patrick’s Day. He told me that in Dublin, if you don’t wake up horribly hungover in a strange place with at least one black eye or a missing tooth, you didn’t celebrate properly. His response did not help to counter stereotypes, but he may have been giving me a bit o’ the Blarney.	<urn:uuid:78cb0e3f-ce4a-4aba-a9bf-5f17466b00a3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://donmassenzio.wordpress.com/2016/03/17/st-patrick-the-man-behind-the-holiday/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00328.warc.gz	en	0.981586	736	3.53125	4	[ -0.10076244175434113, 0.25675123929977417, -0.03930835425853729, -0.4677150249481201, -0.3145579993724823, -0.4807124733924866, 0.5277755856513977, -0.2653433680534363, 0.3795560300350189, -0.19988933205604553, 0.07495269179344177, -0.26587361097335815, 0.14801561832427979, 0.2229775488376...	8	Saint Patrick was a fifth-century Christian missionary and bishop in Ireland. Known as the “Apostle of Ireland”, he is the primary patron saint of the country. The dates of Patrick’s life cannot be determined, but it appears he was active in Ireland during the second half of the fifth century. He is traditionally credited with being the first bishop of Armagh, Primate of Ireland. When he was about 16, Patrick was captured by Irish pirates from his home in Great Britain, and taken as a slave to Ireland. He lived there for six years and was responsible for looking after animals. He then escaped and returned to his family. After entering religious life, he returned to northern and western Ireland. By the seventh century, he had already come to be revered as the patron saint of Ireland. St. Patrick’s Day Saint Patrick’s Day is observed on March 17th, which is said to be the date of his death. It is celebrated inside and outside Ireland as a religious and cultural holiday. In the dioceses of Ireland, it is both a solemnity and a holy day of obligation as well as a celebration of Ireland itself. Patrick uses shamrock in an illustrative parable Legend credits St. Patrick with teaching the Irish about the doctrine of the Holy Trinity by showing people the shamrock, a three-leafed plant, using it to illustrate the Christian teaching of three persons in one God. This story first appears in writing in 1726, though it may be older. The shamrock has since become a central symbol for St Patrick’s Day. Patrick banishes all snakes from Ireland The absence of snakes in Ireland gave rise to the legend that they had all been banished by St. Patrick who reputedly chased them into the sea after they attacked him during a 40-day fast he was undertaking on top of a hill. In reality, evidence suggests that post-glacial Ireland never had snakes. Patrick’s walking stick grows into a living tree Some Irish legends state that, during his evangelizing journey back to Ireland from his parent’s home, he is understood to have carried with him an ash wood walking stick or staff. He thrust this stick into the ground wherever he was evangelizing and the message took so long to get through to the people that the stick had taken root by the time he was done. Patrick speaks with ancient Irish ancestors The twelfth-century work Acallam na Senórach tells of Patrick being met by two ancient warriors, Caílte mac Rónáin and Oisín, during his evangelical travels. St. Patrick seeks to convert the warriors to Christianity, while they defend their pagan past. The heroic pagan lifestyle of the warriors, of fighting and feasting and living close to nature, is contrasted with the more peaceful, but unheroic and non-sensual life offered by Christianity. At any rate, enjoy your St. Patrick day celebration. I recently met a man from Dublin and I asked him if they celebrate as vigorously in Ireland as we do in the U.S. He rolled his eyes and told me that Americans are amateurs when it comes to St. Patrick’s Day. He told me that in Dublin, if you don’t wake up horribly hungover in a strange place with at least one black eye or a missing tooth, you didn’t celebrate properly. His response did not help to counter stereotypes, but he may have been giving me a bit o’ the Blarney.	705	ENGLISH	1
In the Penal Times, the seminaries abroad trained young men to return to Scotland to serve as priests in a country where they would be outlaws. If caught, they would be banished; if they returned and were caught again, they would be imprisoned then banished again; for a third offence the punishment was death. The only death for which we have solid evidence is that of St. John Ogilvie (1615). He did not go through the stages outlined above but King James I and VI down in London seems to have taken a personal interest in the matter, with the result that an English punishment was applied. The English Reformation was a far bloodier affair than Scotland’s: many priests and priest-helpers were hung, drawn and quartered, an English punishment, rarely used in Scotland. St. John was spared being drawn and quartered, although that was the actual sentence handed down. It is said that it was not carried out because the crowd protested at this proposed cruelty by officials of Church and State.	<urn:uuid:32c34a2f-202b-4285-b5ca-721e568f4f72>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.scalan.net/single-post/2018/10/27/Saint-John-Ogilvie	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00378.warc.gz	en	0.990978	209	3.75	4	[ -0.22583216428756714, 0.22475868463516235, 0.02002028562128544, -0.18937264382839203, 0.36894887685775757, -0.33235448598861694, -0.02808624878525734, 0.20713749527931213, 0.5653805732727051, -0.1288684755563736, -0.17127802968025208, -0.010583068244159222, 0.07851244509220123, 0.133521333...	10	In the Penal Times, the seminaries abroad trained young men to return to Scotland to serve as priests in a country where they would be outlaws. If caught, they would be banished; if they returned and were caught again, they would be imprisoned then banished again; for a third offence the punishment was death. The only death for which we have solid evidence is that of St. John Ogilvie (1615). He did not go through the stages outlined above but King James I and VI down in London seems to have taken a personal interest in the matter, with the result that an English punishment was applied. The English Reformation was a far bloodier affair than Scotland’s: many priests and priest-helpers were hung, drawn and quartered, an English punishment, rarely used in Scotland. St. John was spared being drawn and quartered, although that was the actual sentence handed down. It is said that it was not carried out because the crowd protested at this proposed cruelty by officials of Church and State.	210	ENGLISH	1
Early Russian History and its Key Figures An Antipodean travel company serving World Travellers since 1983 Early Russian History and its Key Figures It is probably unsurprisingly that the largest country in the world, encompassing Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, with its ever-changing landscapes, multiple timezones and diverse inhabitants, would also have a long and complex history. Early Russian history begins in the late 9th century with the establishment of the Rus state and from this point on, there are many twists and turns in the story of Russia. There are the early Mongol invasions, Ivan the Terrible and tsarists regimes accompanied by the conquering of foreign lands and the ages of enlightenment followed by bloody revolutions and destructive wars. Russia’s history is turbulent, dramatic and violent but for a history enthusiast it is also gripping and engrossing. While there are many household names from Russia’s modern history, such as Rasputin, Trotsky and Gorbachev, there are some equally compelling and significant figures in early Russian history, like Rurik of Rus, Ivan the Great and of course, Ivan the Terrible. In this article, we will delve into early Russian history and its key characters to gain a deeper understanding of the Russia we know today. Some of these figures have shaped the nation of Russia in consequential ways and both enriched and enfeebled different aspects of the state. This is the first article in a series of articles that will explore Russian history and its characters, from the foundation of the Rus state up until Vladimir Putin. This article is inspired by Martin Sixsmith’s book Russia: A 1000-Year Chronicle of the Wild East (Penguin House 2011) as well as other resources linked throughout. The article acts as a backgrounder for Odyssey Traveller’s small group tours that travel to Russia and those interested in the history of Eastern Europe. Currently, Odyssey Traveller offers five tours to Russia. The tours, usually involving travel by the Trans-Siberian rail across the vast country, visit St Petersburg and Moscow as well as other key sites such as Irkutsk and Lake Baikal. Travellers will get the chance to see some of the country’s main tourist attractions including Peterhof Palace, Nevsky Prospekt, the Moscow Kremlin and Lenin’s Mausoleum. For our full list of tours travelling to Russia, please click here. The Land of the Rus Archaeological evidence suggests that Indo-European, Ural-Altaic and other diverse groups occupied the area that is now Russia since 2 millennium BCE. Little is known about this period and the institutions and activities of those who populated the territory. From the 3rd century, the East Slavs emerged as a coherent group in this part of Europe. The story of how various Slavic tribes came to unite under one leader is retold in The Russian Primary Chronicle (also known as Nestor’s Chronicle and Kiev Chronicle). The Russian Primary Chronicle, thought to have been written in 1377, covers Russian history from the year 852 to the second decade of the 12th century and has been of fundamental importance to understanding this time period, thanks to several surviving editions. Novgorod (known as Veliky Novgorod) is often called the birthplace of Russia as it is considered the oldest city in the country. Prior to the 9th century Novgorod was an important staging post on the trade route that ran from the Baltic Sea in the north down to the Byzantine Empire in the south. It was here that various Slavic tribes lived, with each tribe vying for power over the others. According to The Primary Chronicle, ‘tribe rose against tribe’ with the discord between the groups quickly intensifying to war. However, before any destruction ensued, the tribes said to one another ‘Let us seek a prince who may rule over use and judge us according to the law’. In a time period marred by wars and invasions, this decision to seek a negotiated settlement was truly remarkable. The tribes decided to find a neutral leader from outside the region to rule over them and went overseas to the Vikings to pick one out. As the story goes, the Slavic tribes found a group of Vikings called Rus (as others were called Swedes and Angles) and told them of their rich but disorderly land and asked three brothers to come and reign as princes. The eldest brother, Rurik of Rus, located himself at Novgorod and the Russian land gained its name. The date that Rurik arrived in Novgorod, 862 AD, is generally regarded as the founding of the Russian nation. Rurik of Rus Rurik of Rus has almost mythological status in Russian history and is considered by many Russians to be the founder of the first Russian dynasty and the true creator of Russia. There is some dispute among historians whether he really existed or was some amalgamation of Viking princes who came and ruled in the area. However, for many Russians, Rurik, real or not, is an important figure and symbolic of the transition from disparate, warring tribes to something that resembled a nation or community. Rurik was a Varangian chieftain but little is known about his birthplace, family history or early life. Some 19th-century scholars theorised he may have been Rorik of Dorestad, a Danish Viking who died around 882 but there is not much concrete evidence to confirm this. Most historians agree Rurik and his followers likely originated from Scandinavia and were related to Norse Vikings. According the Primary Chronicle, Rurik and his brothers Sineus and Truvor and their large retinue came to the area that is now Russia between 860-862. Sineus claimed an area at what is now Belozersk, near Lake Beloye, while Trevor established himself at Pskov. Rurik first residence was allegedly in Ladoga but he moved his seat of power to Novgorod. When Sineus and Truvor both died shortly after establishing their territories, Rurik consolidated their land into his territory. He remained in power until his death (reportedly 879). It is said that on his deathbed, he declared Oleg his successor and entrusted Oleg with his son Igor, who was still too young to rule. During this time, the Rus gained a reputation for ferocity and aggression with tales in the Chronicle outlining how Rurik’s men led expeditions to Byzantine Empire, south of Rus territory, killing many Christians and laying siege to Constantinople. Rurik’s successors would eventually move the capital to Kiev, founding the state of Kievan Rus. It is said that a number of extant princely families are descended from Rurik but the last Rurikid who would rule Russia was Vasily IV. Oleg of Novgorod Oleg is thought to have been the brother-in-law of Rurik and agreed with Rurik’s death to take care of both his kingdom and his son, Igor. During his rule, Oleg seized control of new territories including the Dnieper cities. In 883 he gained power of Kiev by supposedly tricking and killing Askold and Dir, the military men who ruled the city. Oleg named Kiev the capital of Kievan Rus, his newly created state and set to work fortifying the city and ordering military expeditions around the area to neutralise any potential threats around the area. In 911, Oleg set his sights on Constantinople and ordered 80,000 men in 2,000 boats to sail down the Dnieper and besiege the city. Terrified of what Oleg might do, the Greeks agreed to negotiate with him and give him anything he wanted in return for keeping their city. As a result, the Russians were able to negotiate a very favourable trade treaty with the Greeks that helped to lay the foundations of Kiev’s future prosperity. Russians would travel to Constantinople with goods and slaves to trade and return to Kiev bearing wine, glassware, jewellery and silks. The capture of Kiev thus would lead to the Kievan Russians travelling the world, building an economy and seeking out new territory to conquer. Vladimir the Great Vladimir the Great or Vladimir I was the Grand Prince of Kiev and the ruler of Kievan Rus from 980 to 1015. He is best known for changing the state religion to Orthodox Christianity and Christianising the Kievan Rus. For this, he was made a saint after his death. Vladimir was the illegitimate son of Prince Sviatoslav of the Rurik dynasty. His mother was his father’s housekeeper, Malusha Malkovna and in Norse sagas she is described as being a prophetess who lived to the age of 100 and was brought from her cave to the palace to predict the future. While Vladimir was made Prince of Novgorod in 970, his father’s legitimate son, Yaropolk, was given control of Kiev. After the death of his father in 972, Vladimir fled to Scandinavia where he recruited a Varangian army and then returned to Kiev and conquered it, killing Yaropolk and becoming ruler of all of Kievan Rus. By 980, he had consolidated the Kievan realm from Ukraine up to the Baltic Sea. When he came to power Vladimir was a pagan, who was said to have had seven or eight wives and taken part in idolatrous rites including human sacrifice. Initially when in power, he built pagan temples and icons around Kiev. However, according to the Primary Chronicle, in 987, Vladimir sent envoys out to study the religions of neighbouring nations as many of the leaders of these nations had been encouraging Vladimir to adopt their respective faiths. The envoys returned and reported that of the Muslim Bulgarians of the Volga, there is no gladness among them and that the lack of alcohol made it undesirable as a religion for the Russians. It is often said that on this point, Vladimir remarked ‘Drinking is the joy of all the Rus. We cannot exist without that pleasure’. It was Eastern Orthodox Christianity that most impressed the envoys who were dazzled by the Byzantine Church, describing to Vladimir the overwhelming beauty of the majestic Divine Liturgy at Hagia Sophia. St. Alexander or Alexander Nevsky is a key figure of medieval Rus and recognised for his military victories over German and Swedish invaders. He was canonised as a saint in 1547. During his lifetime, Nevsky served as Prince of Novgorod, of Kiev and of Vladimir, one of the medieval capitals of Russia. While the Grand Prince of Kiev was considered to be the supreme ruler of Kievan Rus, the city states were led by individual princes who had their own armies. Nevsky was the second son of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and his grandfather was Vsevolod the Big Nest, the Grand Prince of Vladimir who brought glory to the city. In 1236, the Novgorodians summoned Alexander to become prince of Novgorod in the hopes he would defend their position in the northwest from Swedish and German invasions. In 1240, at just nineteen, Nevsky successfully attacked and defeated the Swedes and prevented Novgorod from invasion. The following year, the Teutonic Knights, a militarised group of Prussian crusaders, sought to invade Rus and spread the Catholic faith. The knights captured Pskov but as they marched on to Novgorod, the now-20-year-old Nevsky was ready to meet them. Legend has it that, even with a growing number of Russian casualties, Nevsky managed to lure the enemy forces onto the thin ice of the Lake Peipus where they went crashing through the ice into the chilly waters to meet their deaths. This became known as the Battle on the Ice. This was an important victory and is still seen a a significant event of the Middle Ages. It was unheard of at the time that foot soldiers could defeat mounted knights but this was precisely what Nevsky and his soldiers did and thus it represented an important milestone for Russia. After the victory, Nevsky proved himself to be quite a politician. He sent envoys to Norway and arranged a peace treaty that was signed between Rus and Norway in 1251. However, in the east of the country another problem was arising. Mongol armies were conquering parts of Rus and Nevsky’s father had agreed to serve the new Mongol rulers. When he died in 1246, the throne of the Grand Prince was left vacant but it was Nevsky’s younger brother, Adrei or Andrew, was installed as Grand Prince by the Great Khan. In 1252, Adrei refused to pledge allegiance to the new Great Khan and he was driven out of Russia. In his place, Alexander became Grand Prince. Despite facing opposition from the people, Nevsky continued the policy of cooperating with the Mongols and for his cooperation, he was allowed considerable freedom in how he ruled and received major concessions from the Mongol khans. While Nevsky had to pay tribute to the Mongols, he could essentially act as a deputy of them. Nevsky worked to restore Rus’ prosperity and when he died in 1263, he was greatly admired as a leader. He is remembered in Russian history for his deeply felt Christianity, his military prowess and his ability to co-exist with the Mongols. However, the invasion of the Mongols saw the last remnant of Kievan power destroyed. Medieval Russia was essentially divided into four regions and the Khan of the Golden Horde would rule European Russia until 1480. In 1938, the famous Soviet filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein made the film Alexander Nevsky, depicting the Battle of the Ice. The epic film was made in a politically charged context, against the backdrop of the rise of Nazi Germany, and the film is noted for its Stalinist propaganda. However, the Battle on the Ice scene continues to be one of the most famous audio-visual experiments in film history. The two and half centuries of Mongol rule would have a dramatic effect on Russia. Many historians argue that it was this period of Russia’s history that prevented Russia from developing as a Western state and effectively separated Russia from the West. As well as this, being isolated from Europe meant that Russia missed out on the Renaissance and, according to the political philosopher Pyotr Chaadayev, failed to acquire the universal values of duty, justice and the rule of law. The legacy of the Mongol period is that, rather than developing into a democracy, Russia was transformed into a durable autocracy and civic participation and respect for the law was replaced by judicial torture and cruel despots. Ivan the Great Ivan III or Ivan the Great was a Grand Prince of Moscow and Grand Prince of all Rus. He is remembered as tripling the territory of Russia, gaining independence from the Mongols/Tatars and laying the foundations for the Russian state. He served as ruler for 43 years and was the first Russian ruler to style himself as ‘tsar’, although it was not his official title. Ivan was born at the height of a civil war between supporters of his father, Grand Prince Vasily II of Muscovy (Moscow), and supporters of his rebellious uncles. In 1446, when Ivan was six years old, his father was captured and blinded by his uncle and his sons. Ivan was treacherously handed over to his father’s captors but his father regained power and trained Ivan in the arts of war and government. Ivan was married off to the daughter of the Grand Prince of Yver for political reasons when he was twelve years old and by the time he was 18 he had led successful military campaigns. When his father died in 1462, Ivan became the Grand Prince of Moscow. Five years later, Ivan’s child bride died (under slightly mysterious circumstances). After her death, Ivan married Zoë Palaeologus, who changed her name to Sophia after the marriage. Sophia was a Byzantine princess and the niece of the Constantine XI, the last Byzantine emperor. The marriage was thought up by Cardinal Bessarion and sponsored by the Pope in the hope of bringing Russia under the sway of the Vatican – a goal that ultimately failed. From Ivan’s point of view, the marriage could help with elevating him as a ruler and later, he took the Byzantine double eagle for his coat of arms. Ivan’s predecessors had increased Moscow’s territory from less than 600 sq miles to more than 15,000 sq miles and under Ivan, the independent duchies of different Rurikid princes were brought together and single rule was established over them. The princes became noblemen and the former semiautonomous principalities became provinces of Moscow. Ivan spent a lot of his rule engaged in war with Lithuania who had expanded into Russian territory. A peace treaty was eventually signed in 1503 in which Lithuania recognised Russian control over the Polotsk and Smolensk areas. In 1480, Ivan led a victorious campaign against Khan Ahmed of the Golden Horde that saw Moscow become an independent sovereign and no longer be seen as a vassal of the Khan. In 1490, Ivan’s eldest son from his first marriage died of gout, leaving Ivan with the predicament of who would be his heir: his eldest grandson, Dmitry, or his eldest son by Sofia, Vasily. In 1497 he nominated Dmitry as his heir, prompting his wife Sophia to plot against her husband. When Ivan discovered her plans to rebel against him, he disgraced both Sophia and Vasily and crowned Dmitry Grand Prince in 1498. In response, Vasily rebelled again and defected to the Lithuanians. At this time, Moscow was at war with Lithuania and so, in 1502, he gave the title of Grand Prince to Vasily and had Dmitry, along with his mother, imprisoned. Ivan died in 1505 and it is recognised by historians and academics today that, as a ruler of Muscovy, he did more to lay the foundations of a centralised state and strengthen the authority of the monarch than any other figure. His reign marked the beginning of Muscovite Russia and he established Muscovy as a great power to be reckoned with. His diplomatic and military successes are well documented but despite this, not much is known of Ivan himself, in terms of his personality and virtues. One thing that Ivan the Great is remembered for is his renovations of the Kremlin. Ivan carried out an ambitious building programme and endowed his city with new cathedrals and palaces. Much of the Kremlin’s current appearance comes from Ivan’s designs. Ivan commissioned a host of Italian architects to bring his vision to life and created the current skyline of golden domes high above red walls. Ivan the Terrible The first tsar or czar of Russia (derived from the term Caesar), Ivan the Terrible has an infamous reputation in Russian history, for obvious reasons. However, the original translation of his name, from the Russian word Grozny, is more likely to have meant ‘formidable’ or ‘awe-inspiring’, rather than terrible in the sense that English speakers know it. Although, in his later years it is said he was prone to rages, episodes of paranoia and mental instability. He is credited with transforming Russia from a medieval state into an empire but he also left behind hardly any written records or documentation from his reign. Ivan the Terrible became Grand Prince when he was just three years older. As a result, a band of advisers or boyars united around him, becoming known as the ‘Chosen Council’. Some say these years being advised, or manipulated in some accounts, by the boyar powers shaped Ivan and would inform his behaviour in later life and his hatred of the boyar class. In 1547, when he was 16, he was declared Tsar of All Rus, establishing the Tsardom of Russia. He was the first person to be coronated with this title and the title established a new unified Russian state. He also married Anastasia Romanovna in a union that tied him to the powerful Romanovna family. During the first few years of his reign, Ivan is said to have reformed tax collection, introduced self-government in rural areas and instituted statutory law and church reform. The Russia of Ivan the Terrible was surrounded by enemies, with Lithuania and Poland to the west, Sweden to the north and Muslim powers in the south. For this reason, Ivan found a sole ally in England and he communicated frequently, via letters, with the Queen. Some of his achievements include bringing the first printing press to Russia and establishing the Moscow Print Yard in 1553, as well as overseeing the construction of St. Basil’s Cathedral in Moscow. One of the most emblematic symbols of Russia, St. Basil’s Cathedral was commissioned by Ivan the Terrible to commemorate his conquest of Kazan, an Islamic city previously held by the Mongol empire. As well as conquering Khazan, Ivan IV oversaw two other important territorial victories. The first was the defeat of the Crimean horde, bringing southern lands back under Russia’s control. The second was the expansion of Russian territory through expeditions to parts of Siberia that had never been considered part of Russia. In the 1560, Ivan’s first wife Anastasia died in a suspected poisoning and it is said that her death had a dramatic impact on Ivan, with damaging consequences for his mental health. Ivan fell into a deep depression, becoming increasingly paranoid and behaving more and more erratically. He was convinced that Anastasia had been murdered by the boyars and threatened to abdicate the throne unless he be granted absolute power. He demanded that he should be able to execute traitors without any interference. This is what led to the creation and implementation of the oprichnina, a state policy that involved the mass repression of the boyars, public executions and confiscation of land and property. The oprichnina consisted of a separate territory within the borders of Russia where Ivan exerted exclusive power. Part of the policy also stipulated the creation of the oprichniki, a personal guard whose allegiances lay with Ivan, rather than the government or local bonds. The oprichniki were Russia’s first secret police and they had unlimited powers to crush dissent and recruit informers. For the next two decades, Ivan conducted a reign of terror, ordering the executions of thousands of people he feared were plotting against him. He alienated many of his former allies and crushed any form of civic society. He grew into a deranged and violent figure. A story that seems to encapsulate the ‘terrible’ side of Ivan is the supposed murder of his son by his hand. As the story goes, in 1581 Ivan beat his pregnant daughter-in-law, Yelena Sheremeteva, for wearing immodest clothing, causing a miscarriage. Upon learning of the beating inflicted upon his wife and unborn child, Ivan’s second son (also called Ivan) confronted his father. The resulting fight ended in Ivan the Terrible striking his son in the head with a pointed staff, killing him. Ivan had been grooming his son for the throne and with his death, the throne was left to his childless son, Feodor Ivanovich. Ivan the Terrible died in 1584 of an apparent stroke. Under the rule of his unfit son, Russia would spiral into the Time of the Troubles, which would eventually lead to the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty. Ivan the Terrible left behind a complex legacy, having transformed Russia into the expansive state we know today but harming the economy, alienating allies and destroying the boyar class. The country was left with deep political scars after his rule and this was part of the reason the nation was plunged into chaos for almost a century afterwards. Michael I Romanov Michael of Russia, also known as Mikhail Romanov, was the first monarch of the Romanov dynasty, who ruled Russia for more than three hundred years. His ascension to the throne saw the end of Russia’s ‘Time of Troubles’ (1584-1613), a period of turmoil characterised by puppet leaders, conmen pretending to be resurrected Tsars and civil war among feuding factions. Michael was elected as Tsar by a national council known as the Zemsky Sobor (Assembly of the Land). The Zemsky Sobor was a prototype of modern parliament and even some representatives of the peasantry were able to have a say in who was elected as Tsar. It was important that there was broad societal support for the new leader given the decades that the country had spent in civil unrest. Michael was chosen partly because he was the grandnephew of the Ivan the Terrible and thus connected to the Rurik dynasty rulers and thus was seen has having a link to a time when Russia had been militarily strong. Michael was just 17 when he became Tsar and, in many ways, he was very different from his great-uncle Ivan. Michael was reported to be delicate, sensitive and pious and was often described as giving little trouble to anyone. He relied heavily on the support of the Zemsky Sobor, who met annually throughout his reign, and took on the advice of his counsellors. This had mixed results given that some of his counsellors were honest and capable men and others were corrupt and determined to undermine him. Under Michael, however, Russia entered a time of prosperity. Michael invited foreign manufacturers to Russia which helped to boost Russia’s diplomatic and trade relations with other countries. Many historians credit Michael with beginning the Europeanisation of Russia by importing Western technologies and improving relations with other European nations. He also reorganised the military, laying the foundations for the creation of the regular national armed forces. After a brief first marriage (Michael’s first wife died just four months after they wed), Michael married Eudoxia Streshneva, with whom he had ten children. Four of his children reached adulthood and by all accounts the marriage was a happy one. Michael died at age 49 after falling ill in April 1645, leaving the throne to his son Alexis. Michael, with the help of his government and advisers, restored order in Russia and consolidated her territories, obtaining peace with Sweden and Poland. Peter the Great Peter the Great, who ruled the Tsardom of Russia and later the Russian Empire from 1682 to 1725, is recognised as being one of the most influential leaders in Russian history. He is best known for his extensive reforms and establishment of institutions that helped to mould Russia into a great state. His achievements include expanding the Tsardom, facilitating a cultural revolution, secularising schools, creating a strong navy, reorganising the army and administering control over the Orthodox Church. He is generally credited with bringing Russia into the modern age and intensifying the Europeanisation process Michael started. Peter was the 14th child of Tsar Alexis by his second wife and when his father died, both Peter and his sickly half-brother Ivan V ruled jointly. However, this changed in 1696 with Ivan’s death when Peter was officially declared Sovereign of All Russia. Peter was known for being a giant, both physically and intellectually. Standing at 6 ft 7 in, he is described in various accounts as being well-formed and slim but also a big drinker and reveller. His penchant for debauchery was often frowned upon by members of the aristocracy. Peter inherited a severely underdeveloped nation characterised by a distrust of the outside world and fierce conservatism. He was determined for Russia to become a great European power and after his brother’s death he travelled to London and Amsterdam, both in search of allies and in order to be able to replicate what he saw as the sophistication of the West in Russia. In 1703 he began the construction of St. Petersburg, which would become the new capital, and it is said that the city was inspired by Peter’s trip to Amsterdam. He also returned from his travels and cut his beard, even going so far as to implementing a beard tax so that citizens would look more European in appearance. Peter set the foundation for a new Russian culture that was essentially an imitation of Western Europe. He introduced art forms that had previously been forbidden by the church, including portraiture, instrumental music and theatre. By the time of his death, Russians were producing famous ballets, operas and novels. He also modernised the Russian alphabet, introduced the Julian calendar and established the first Russian newspaper. He gained access to the Black Sea and acquired territory in parts of Estonia, Latvia and Finland. There is no doubt his reign was a turning point in Russian history but while Peter did prove himself to be an effective leader, capable of introducing sweeping changes, he was also known for being cruel and tyrannical. He suppressed revolts and had many of his elite guards tortured and executed when they rebelled against him. He sent his first wife off to live in a convent and ordered his son to be beheaded. He died in 1725, at age 52, without having nominated an heir. Catherine the Great Empress of Russia for more than 30 years, Catherine the Great remains Russia’s longest-ruling female leader. Under her reign, Russia was revitalised and became recognised as a great power of Europe. Her rule is often referred to as the Golden Age of Russia and Catherine presided over the age of Russian Enlightenment. She has been described by historians as an enlightened despot. Born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, the daughter of a minor Prussian prince, she was summoned to Moscow in 1744 when she was 14 to marry the man who would become Emperor Peter III. Here the church re-christened her Catherine. At the time, Russia was ruled by Peter’s mother, Empress Elizabeth. Catherine and her new husband did not have a happy marriage, although the couple did give birth to one son, Paul. Their rocky marriage meant that both Peter and Catherine began extramarital affairs, sparking gossip that Paul was not actually fathered by the Emperor. None of Catherine’s three additional children would be fathered by Peter and this added to rumours that he was infertile or unable to consummate the marriage. When Empress Elizabeth died in January 1762, Peter III came to the throne but he was a deeply unpopular ruler. After six months in power, he was overthrown in a bloodless coup organised by Catherine and led by officer Grigory Orlov. Catherine had the support of the people and was proclaimed Empress on 9 July, 1762. Peter III abdicated and was killed eight days later. On 22 September, 1762 Catherine was crowned in Moscow with the Imperial Crown of Russia. The crown was designed specifically for the venet by the Swiss-French jeweller Jeremie Pauzie. It is considered to be one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty and features two gold and silver half spheres, 75 pearls, 4,936 Indian diamonds and a ruby spinel that belonged to Empress Elizabeth. It is currently displayed at the Moscow Kremlin Armoury Museum. During her reign, Catherine built on the legacy of Peter the Great by overseeing the expansion of the Russian Empire and further integrating Russia into Europe. She expanded Russia’s borders both southwards and westwards, adding territories which included Crimea, Belarus and Lithuania. The British ambassador to Catherine’s court, George Macartney, describes her leadership: ‘I never saw in my life a person whose port, manner and behaviour answered so strongly to the idea I had formed of her…Russia is no longer to be gazed at as a distant, glimmering star but as a great planet that has obtruded itself into our system, whose place is yet undetermined, but whose motions must powerfully affect those of every other orb’. Particularly in the early years of her reign, she was seen as ruling with tact and dignity, a progressive reformer who was determined to Westernise the country. She was fiercely intelligent and a keen reader, who enjoyed corresponding with Voltaire and studying philosophy. In 1767, she convened an All-Russian Legislative Commission and presented them with her Nakaz (‘Instruction’) to create a new code of law. The document was strikingly liberal in its approach, professing the equality of all men and rejecting capital punishment and torture. The outbreak of war against the Ottoman Empire the following year prevented its implementation but it is often cited as evidence of Catherine’s desire for a stronger civil society. While she began her reign as a political and social reformer, Catherine grew more conservative with age. She realised that she needed to exercise more control over the people and began to restrict the rights of serfs, despite once having labelled the system of serfdom as inhumane. In popular culture, Catherine the Great is notorious for her many lovers, whom she often elevated to high positions and gave large estates. While rumours abound about the aristocrats and military men she supposedly had relationships with, it was Grigory Potemkin who was considered to be the love of her life. Correspondence between the pair shows their affection for one another (Catherine wrote Potemkin a letter in which she said ‘My heart cannot be content for even an hour without love’) and scholars say the affair could be described as an open relationship with the couple staying in contact until Potemkin’s death. Catherine the Great died of a stroke on Nov. 17, 1796. Prior to her death she had been attempting to install her favourite grandson Alexander as heir to the throne, superseding her difficult son Paul, but she died before the announcement could be made. The story of the remarkable Catherine the Great concludes our journey through early Russian history, tracing the story of the Russian state from the mythological Rurik dynasty to the country’s most famous female leader. In the future articles in this series we will look at the decline of the Romanov dynasty, the rise of revolution and the dictatorship that followed. Examining the roles the leaders mentioned above have played has given a sense of how the character and identity of Russia was formed and its complicated relationship with Western Europe and its neighbouring countries. If this article has sparked your interest in a small group tour to Russia, please take a look at the tours on offer with Odyssey Traveller. Our tours visit heritage sites and key attractions as well as hidden gems and lesser-known spots, making for a unique and incredible travel experience. You will see firsthand the history discussed in this article including discovering more about Russian tsars, Russian folklore, the Iron Curtain and the days of the Soviet Union. Each tour allows you to discover colourful and beautiful Russian cities and understand the complexity of this beautiful and mighty country.	<urn:uuid:120dd5a5-8c30-420a-ae62-e46065d136f5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.odysseytraveller.com/articles/early-russian-history-and-its-key-figures/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00426.warc.gz	en	0.984013	7,222	3.359375	3	[ -0.046384669840335846, -0.36194002628326416, 0.6781495809555054, 0.1991543173789978, -0.20395123958587646, 0.027066141366958618, 0.09715934842824936, 0.20716127753257751, -0.14347735047340393, 0.06805464625358582, 0.02525578998029232, 0.04858057573437691, -0.12025682628154755, 0.6262397766...	3	Early Russian History and its Key Figures An Antipodean travel company serving World Travellers since 1983 Early Russian History and its Key Figures It is probably unsurprisingly that the largest country in the world, encompassing Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, with its ever-changing landscapes, multiple timezones and diverse inhabitants, would also have a long and complex history. Early Russian history begins in the late 9th century with the establishment of the Rus state and from this point on, there are many twists and turns in the story of Russia. There are the early Mongol invasions, Ivan the Terrible and tsarists regimes accompanied by the conquering of foreign lands and the ages of enlightenment followed by bloody revolutions and destructive wars. Russia’s history is turbulent, dramatic and violent but for a history enthusiast it is also gripping and engrossing. While there are many household names from Russia’s modern history, such as Rasputin, Trotsky and Gorbachev, there are some equally compelling and significant figures in early Russian history, like Rurik of Rus, Ivan the Great and of course, Ivan the Terrible. In this article, we will delve into early Russian history and its key characters to gain a deeper understanding of the Russia we know today. Some of these figures have shaped the nation of Russia in consequential ways and both enriched and enfeebled different aspects of the state. This is the first article in a series of articles that will explore Russian history and its characters, from the foundation of the Rus state up until Vladimir Putin. This article is inspired by Martin Sixsmith’s book Russia: A 1000-Year Chronicle of the Wild East (Penguin House 2011) as well as other resources linked throughout. The article acts as a backgrounder for Odyssey Traveller’s small group tours that travel to Russia and those interested in the history of Eastern Europe. Currently, Odyssey Traveller offers five tours to Russia. The tours, usually involving travel by the Trans-Siberian rail across the vast country, visit St Petersburg and Moscow as well as other key sites such as Irkutsk and Lake Baikal. Travellers will get the chance to see some of the country’s main tourist attractions including Peterhof Palace, Nevsky Prospekt, the Moscow Kremlin and Lenin’s Mausoleum. For our full list of tours travelling to Russia, please click here. The Land of the Rus Archaeological evidence suggests that Indo-European, Ural-Altaic and other diverse groups occupied the area that is now Russia since 2 millennium BCE. Little is known about this period and the institutions and activities of those who populated the territory. From the 3rd century, the East Slavs emerged as a coherent group in this part of Europe. The story of how various Slavic tribes came to unite under one leader is retold in The Russian Primary Chronicle (also known as Nestor’s Chronicle and Kiev Chronicle). The Russian Primary Chronicle, thought to have been written in 1377, covers Russian history from the year 852 to the second decade of the 12th century and has been of fundamental importance to understanding this time period, thanks to several surviving editions. Novgorod (known as Veliky Novgorod) is often called the birthplace of Russia as it is considered the oldest city in the country. Prior to the 9th century Novgorod was an important staging post on the trade route that ran from the Baltic Sea in the north down to the Byzantine Empire in the south. It was here that various Slavic tribes lived, with each tribe vying for power over the others. According to The Primary Chronicle, ‘tribe rose against tribe’ with the discord between the groups quickly intensifying to war. However, before any destruction ensued, the tribes said to one another ‘Let us seek a prince who may rule over use and judge us according to the law’. In a time period marred by wars and invasions, this decision to seek a negotiated settlement was truly remarkable. The tribes decided to find a neutral leader from outside the region to rule over them and went overseas to the Vikings to pick one out. As the story goes, the Slavic tribes found a group of Vikings called Rus (as others were called Swedes and Angles) and told them of their rich but disorderly land and asked three brothers to come and reign as princes. The eldest brother, Rurik of Rus, located himself at Novgorod and the Russian land gained its name. The date that Rurik arrived in Novgorod, 862 AD, is generally regarded as the founding of the Russian nation. Rurik of Rus Rurik of Rus has almost mythological status in Russian history and is considered by many Russians to be the founder of the first Russian dynasty and the true creator of Russia. There is some dispute among historians whether he really existed or was some amalgamation of Viking princes who came and ruled in the area. However, for many Russians, Rurik, real or not, is an important figure and symbolic of the transition from disparate, warring tribes to something that resembled a nation or community. Rurik was a Varangian chieftain but little is known about his birthplace, family history or early life. Some 19th-century scholars theorised he may have been Rorik of Dorestad, a Danish Viking who died around 882 but there is not much concrete evidence to confirm this. Most historians agree Rurik and his followers likely originated from Scandinavia and were related to Norse Vikings. According the Primary Chronicle, Rurik and his brothers Sineus and Truvor and their large retinue came to the area that is now Russia between 860-862. Sineus claimed an area at what is now Belozersk, near Lake Beloye, while Trevor established himself at Pskov. Rurik first residence was allegedly in Ladoga but he moved his seat of power to Novgorod. When Sineus and Truvor both died shortly after establishing their territories, Rurik consolidated their land into his territory. He remained in power until his death (reportedly 879). It is said that on his deathbed, he declared Oleg his successor and entrusted Oleg with his son Igor, who was still too young to rule. During this time, the Rus gained a reputation for ferocity and aggression with tales in the Chronicle outlining how Rurik’s men led expeditions to Byzantine Empire, south of Rus territory, killing many Christians and laying siege to Constantinople. Rurik’s successors would eventually move the capital to Kiev, founding the state of Kievan Rus. It is said that a number of extant princely families are descended from Rurik but the last Rurikid who would rule Russia was Vasily IV. Oleg of Novgorod Oleg is thought to have been the brother-in-law of Rurik and agreed with Rurik’s death to take care of both his kingdom and his son, Igor. During his rule, Oleg seized control of new territories including the Dnieper cities. In 883 he gained power of Kiev by supposedly tricking and killing Askold and Dir, the military men who ruled the city. Oleg named Kiev the capital of Kievan Rus, his newly created state and set to work fortifying the city and ordering military expeditions around the area to neutralise any potential threats around the area. In 911, Oleg set his sights on Constantinople and ordered 80,000 men in 2,000 boats to sail down the Dnieper and besiege the city. Terrified of what Oleg might do, the Greeks agreed to negotiate with him and give him anything he wanted in return for keeping their city. As a result, the Russians were able to negotiate a very favourable trade treaty with the Greeks that helped to lay the foundations of Kiev’s future prosperity. Russians would travel to Constantinople with goods and slaves to trade and return to Kiev bearing wine, glassware, jewellery and silks. The capture of Kiev thus would lead to the Kievan Russians travelling the world, building an economy and seeking out new territory to conquer. Vladimir the Great Vladimir the Great or Vladimir I was the Grand Prince of Kiev and the ruler of Kievan Rus from 980 to 1015. He is best known for changing the state religion to Orthodox Christianity and Christianising the Kievan Rus. For this, he was made a saint after his death. Vladimir was the illegitimate son of Prince Sviatoslav of the Rurik dynasty. His mother was his father’s housekeeper, Malusha Malkovna and in Norse sagas she is described as being a prophetess who lived to the age of 100 and was brought from her cave to the palace to predict the future. While Vladimir was made Prince of Novgorod in 970, his father’s legitimate son, Yaropolk, was given control of Kiev. After the death of his father in 972, Vladimir fled to Scandinavia where he recruited a Varangian army and then returned to Kiev and conquered it, killing Yaropolk and becoming ruler of all of Kievan Rus. By 980, he had consolidated the Kievan realm from Ukraine up to the Baltic Sea. When he came to power Vladimir was a pagan, who was said to have had seven or eight wives and taken part in idolatrous rites including human sacrifice. Initially when in power, he built pagan temples and icons around Kiev. However, according to the Primary Chronicle, in 987, Vladimir sent envoys out to study the religions of neighbouring nations as many of the leaders of these nations had been encouraging Vladimir to adopt their respective faiths. The envoys returned and reported that of the Muslim Bulgarians of the Volga, there is no gladness among them and that the lack of alcohol made it undesirable as a religion for the Russians. It is often said that on this point, Vladimir remarked ‘Drinking is the joy of all the Rus. We cannot exist without that pleasure’. It was Eastern Orthodox Christianity that most impressed the envoys who were dazzled by the Byzantine Church, describing to Vladimir the overwhelming beauty of the majestic Divine Liturgy at Hagia Sophia. St. Alexander or Alexander Nevsky is a key figure of medieval Rus and recognised for his military victories over German and Swedish invaders. He was canonised as a saint in 1547. During his lifetime, Nevsky served as Prince of Novgorod, of Kiev and of Vladimir, one of the medieval capitals of Russia. While the Grand Prince of Kiev was considered to be the supreme ruler of Kievan Rus, the city states were led by individual princes who had their own armies. Nevsky was the second son of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and his grandfather was Vsevolod the Big Nest, the Grand Prince of Vladimir who brought glory to the city. In 1236, the Novgorodians summoned Alexander to become prince of Novgorod in the hopes he would defend their position in the northwest from Swedish and German invasions. In 1240, at just nineteen, Nevsky successfully attacked and defeated the Swedes and prevented Novgorod from invasion. The following year, the Teutonic Knights, a militarised group of Prussian crusaders, sought to invade Rus and spread the Catholic faith. The knights captured Pskov but as they marched on to Novgorod, the now-20-year-old Nevsky was ready to meet them. Legend has it that, even with a growing number of Russian casualties, Nevsky managed to lure the enemy forces onto the thin ice of the Lake Peipus where they went crashing through the ice into the chilly waters to meet their deaths. This became known as the Battle on the Ice. This was an important victory and is still seen a a significant event of the Middle Ages. It was unheard of at the time that foot soldiers could defeat mounted knights but this was precisely what Nevsky and his soldiers did and thus it represented an important milestone for Russia. After the victory, Nevsky proved himself to be quite a politician. He sent envoys to Norway and arranged a peace treaty that was signed between Rus and Norway in 1251. However, in the east of the country another problem was arising. Mongol armies were conquering parts of Rus and Nevsky’s father had agreed to serve the new Mongol rulers. When he died in 1246, the throne of the Grand Prince was left vacant but it was Nevsky’s younger brother, Adrei or Andrew, was installed as Grand Prince by the Great Khan. In 1252, Adrei refused to pledge allegiance to the new Great Khan and he was driven out of Russia. In his place, Alexander became Grand Prince. Despite facing opposition from the people, Nevsky continued the policy of cooperating with the Mongols and for his cooperation, he was allowed considerable freedom in how he ruled and received major concessions from the Mongol khans. While Nevsky had to pay tribute to the Mongols, he could essentially act as a deputy of them. Nevsky worked to restore Rus’ prosperity and when he died in 1263, he was greatly admired as a leader. He is remembered in Russian history for his deeply felt Christianity, his military prowess and his ability to co-exist with the Mongols. However, the invasion of the Mongols saw the last remnant of Kievan power destroyed. Medieval Russia was essentially divided into four regions and the Khan of the Golden Horde would rule European Russia until 1480. In 1938, the famous Soviet filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein made the film Alexander Nevsky, depicting the Battle of the Ice. The epic film was made in a politically charged context, against the backdrop of the rise of Nazi Germany, and the film is noted for its Stalinist propaganda. However, the Battle on the Ice scene continues to be one of the most famous audio-visual experiments in film history. The two and half centuries of Mongol rule would have a dramatic effect on Russia. Many historians argue that it was this period of Russia’s history that prevented Russia from developing as a Western state and effectively separated Russia from the West. As well as this, being isolated from Europe meant that Russia missed out on the Renaissance and, according to the political philosopher Pyotr Chaadayev, failed to acquire the universal values of duty, justice and the rule of law. The legacy of the Mongol period is that, rather than developing into a democracy, Russia was transformed into a durable autocracy and civic participation and respect for the law was replaced by judicial torture and cruel despots. Ivan the Great Ivan III or Ivan the Great was a Grand Prince of Moscow and Grand Prince of all Rus. He is remembered as tripling the territory of Russia, gaining independence from the Mongols/Tatars and laying the foundations for the Russian state. He served as ruler for 43 years and was the first Russian ruler to style himself as ‘tsar’, although it was not his official title. Ivan was born at the height of a civil war between supporters of his father, Grand Prince Vasily II of Muscovy (Moscow), and supporters of his rebellious uncles. In 1446, when Ivan was six years old, his father was captured and blinded by his uncle and his sons. Ivan was treacherously handed over to his father’s captors but his father regained power and trained Ivan in the arts of war and government. Ivan was married off to the daughter of the Grand Prince of Yver for political reasons when he was twelve years old and by the time he was 18 he had led successful military campaigns. When his father died in 1462, Ivan became the Grand Prince of Moscow. Five years later, Ivan’s child bride died (under slightly mysterious circumstances). After her death, Ivan married Zoë Palaeologus, who changed her name to Sophia after the marriage. Sophia was a Byzantine princess and the niece of the Constantine XI, the last Byzantine emperor. The marriage was thought up by Cardinal Bessarion and sponsored by the Pope in the hope of bringing Russia under the sway of the Vatican – a goal that ultimately failed. From Ivan’s point of view, the marriage could help with elevating him as a ruler and later, he took the Byzantine double eagle for his coat of arms. Ivan’s predecessors had increased Moscow’s territory from less than 600 sq miles to more than 15,000 sq miles and under Ivan, the independent duchies of different Rurikid princes were brought together and single rule was established over them. The princes became noblemen and the former semiautonomous principalities became provinces of Moscow. Ivan spent a lot of his rule engaged in war with Lithuania who had expanded into Russian territory. A peace treaty was eventually signed in 1503 in which Lithuania recognised Russian control over the Polotsk and Smolensk areas. In 1480, Ivan led a victorious campaign against Khan Ahmed of the Golden Horde that saw Moscow become an independent sovereign and no longer be seen as a vassal of the Khan. In 1490, Ivan’s eldest son from his first marriage died of gout, leaving Ivan with the predicament of who would be his heir: his eldest grandson, Dmitry, or his eldest son by Sofia, Vasily. In 1497 he nominated Dmitry as his heir, prompting his wife Sophia to plot against her husband. When Ivan discovered her plans to rebel against him, he disgraced both Sophia and Vasily and crowned Dmitry Grand Prince in 1498. In response, Vasily rebelled again and defected to the Lithuanians. At this time, Moscow was at war with Lithuania and so, in 1502, he gave the title of Grand Prince to Vasily and had Dmitry, along with his mother, imprisoned. Ivan died in 1505 and it is recognised by historians and academics today that, as a ruler of Muscovy, he did more to lay the foundations of a centralised state and strengthen the authority of the monarch than any other figure. His reign marked the beginning of Muscovite Russia and he established Muscovy as a great power to be reckoned with. His diplomatic and military successes are well documented but despite this, not much is known of Ivan himself, in terms of his personality and virtues. One thing that Ivan the Great is remembered for is his renovations of the Kremlin. Ivan carried out an ambitious building programme and endowed his city with new cathedrals and palaces. Much of the Kremlin’s current appearance comes from Ivan’s designs. Ivan commissioned a host of Italian architects to bring his vision to life and created the current skyline of golden domes high above red walls. Ivan the Terrible The first tsar or czar of Russia (derived from the term Caesar), Ivan the Terrible has an infamous reputation in Russian history, for obvious reasons. However, the original translation of his name, from the Russian word Grozny, is more likely to have meant ‘formidable’ or ‘awe-inspiring’, rather than terrible in the sense that English speakers know it. Although, in his later years it is said he was prone to rages, episodes of paranoia and mental instability. He is credited with transforming Russia from a medieval state into an empire but he also left behind hardly any written records or documentation from his reign. Ivan the Terrible became Grand Prince when he was just three years older. As a result, a band of advisers or boyars united around him, becoming known as the ‘Chosen Council’. Some say these years being advised, or manipulated in some accounts, by the boyar powers shaped Ivan and would inform his behaviour in later life and his hatred of the boyar class. In 1547, when he was 16, he was declared Tsar of All Rus, establishing the Tsardom of Russia. He was the first person to be coronated with this title and the title established a new unified Russian state. He also married Anastasia Romanovna in a union that tied him to the powerful Romanovna family. During the first few years of his reign, Ivan is said to have reformed tax collection, introduced self-government in rural areas and instituted statutory law and church reform. The Russia of Ivan the Terrible was surrounded by enemies, with Lithuania and Poland to the west, Sweden to the north and Muslim powers in the south. For this reason, Ivan found a sole ally in England and he communicated frequently, via letters, with the Queen. Some of his achievements include bringing the first printing press to Russia and establishing the Moscow Print Yard in 1553, as well as overseeing the construction of St. Basil’s Cathedral in Moscow. One of the most emblematic symbols of Russia, St. Basil’s Cathedral was commissioned by Ivan the Terrible to commemorate his conquest of Kazan, an Islamic city previously held by the Mongol empire. As well as conquering Khazan, Ivan IV oversaw two other important territorial victories. The first was the defeat of the Crimean horde, bringing southern lands back under Russia’s control. The second was the expansion of Russian territory through expeditions to parts of Siberia that had never been considered part of Russia. In the 1560, Ivan’s first wife Anastasia died in a suspected poisoning and it is said that her death had a dramatic impact on Ivan, with damaging consequences for his mental health. Ivan fell into a deep depression, becoming increasingly paranoid and behaving more and more erratically. He was convinced that Anastasia had been murdered by the boyars and threatened to abdicate the throne unless he be granted absolute power. He demanded that he should be able to execute traitors without any interference. This is what led to the creation and implementation of the oprichnina, a state policy that involved the mass repression of the boyars, public executions and confiscation of land and property. The oprichnina consisted of a separate territory within the borders of Russia where Ivan exerted exclusive power. Part of the policy also stipulated the creation of the oprichniki, a personal guard whose allegiances lay with Ivan, rather than the government or local bonds. The oprichniki were Russia’s first secret police and they had unlimited powers to crush dissent and recruit informers. For the next two decades, Ivan conducted a reign of terror, ordering the executions of thousands of people he feared were plotting against him. He alienated many of his former allies and crushed any form of civic society. He grew into a deranged and violent figure. A story that seems to encapsulate the ‘terrible’ side of Ivan is the supposed murder of his son by his hand. As the story goes, in 1581 Ivan beat his pregnant daughter-in-law, Yelena Sheremeteva, for wearing immodest clothing, causing a miscarriage. Upon learning of the beating inflicted upon his wife and unborn child, Ivan’s second son (also called Ivan) confronted his father. The resulting fight ended in Ivan the Terrible striking his son in the head with a pointed staff, killing him. Ivan had been grooming his son for the throne and with his death, the throne was left to his childless son, Feodor Ivanovich. Ivan the Terrible died in 1584 of an apparent stroke. Under the rule of his unfit son, Russia would spiral into the Time of the Troubles, which would eventually lead to the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty. Ivan the Terrible left behind a complex legacy, having transformed Russia into the expansive state we know today but harming the economy, alienating allies and destroying the boyar class. The country was left with deep political scars after his rule and this was part of the reason the nation was plunged into chaos for almost a century afterwards. Michael I Romanov Michael of Russia, also known as Mikhail Romanov, was the first monarch of the Romanov dynasty, who ruled Russia for more than three hundred years. His ascension to the throne saw the end of Russia’s ‘Time of Troubles’ (1584-1613), a period of turmoil characterised by puppet leaders, conmen pretending to be resurrected Tsars and civil war among feuding factions. Michael was elected as Tsar by a national council known as the Zemsky Sobor (Assembly of the Land). The Zemsky Sobor was a prototype of modern parliament and even some representatives of the peasantry were able to have a say in who was elected as Tsar. It was important that there was broad societal support for the new leader given the decades that the country had spent in civil unrest. Michael was chosen partly because he was the grandnephew of the Ivan the Terrible and thus connected to the Rurik dynasty rulers and thus was seen has having a link to a time when Russia had been militarily strong. Michael was just 17 when he became Tsar and, in many ways, he was very different from his great-uncle Ivan. Michael was reported to be delicate, sensitive and pious and was often described as giving little trouble to anyone. He relied heavily on the support of the Zemsky Sobor, who met annually throughout his reign, and took on the advice of his counsellors. This had mixed results given that some of his counsellors were honest and capable men and others were corrupt and determined to undermine him. Under Michael, however, Russia entered a time of prosperity. Michael invited foreign manufacturers to Russia which helped to boost Russia’s diplomatic and trade relations with other countries. Many historians credit Michael with beginning the Europeanisation of Russia by importing Western technologies and improving relations with other European nations. He also reorganised the military, laying the foundations for the creation of the regular national armed forces. After a brief first marriage (Michael’s first wife died just four months after they wed), Michael married Eudoxia Streshneva, with whom he had ten children. Four of his children reached adulthood and by all accounts the marriage was a happy one. Michael died at age 49 after falling ill in April 1645, leaving the throne to his son Alexis. Michael, with the help of his government and advisers, restored order in Russia and consolidated her territories, obtaining peace with Sweden and Poland. Peter the Great Peter the Great, who ruled the Tsardom of Russia and later the Russian Empire from 1682 to 1725, is recognised as being one of the most influential leaders in Russian history. He is best known for his extensive reforms and establishment of institutions that helped to mould Russia into a great state. His achievements include expanding the Tsardom, facilitating a cultural revolution, secularising schools, creating a strong navy, reorganising the army and administering control over the Orthodox Church. He is generally credited with bringing Russia into the modern age and intensifying the Europeanisation process Michael started. Peter was the 14th child of Tsar Alexis by his second wife and when his father died, both Peter and his sickly half-brother Ivan V ruled jointly. However, this changed in 1696 with Ivan’s death when Peter was officially declared Sovereign of All Russia. Peter was known for being a giant, both physically and intellectually. Standing at 6 ft 7 in, he is described in various accounts as being well-formed and slim but also a big drinker and reveller. His penchant for debauchery was often frowned upon by members of the aristocracy. Peter inherited a severely underdeveloped nation characterised by a distrust of the outside world and fierce conservatism. He was determined for Russia to become a great European power and after his brother’s death he travelled to London and Amsterdam, both in search of allies and in order to be able to replicate what he saw as the sophistication of the West in Russia. In 1703 he began the construction of St. Petersburg, which would become the new capital, and it is said that the city was inspired by Peter’s trip to Amsterdam. He also returned from his travels and cut his beard, even going so far as to implementing a beard tax so that citizens would look more European in appearance. Peter set the foundation for a new Russian culture that was essentially an imitation of Western Europe. He introduced art forms that had previously been forbidden by the church, including portraiture, instrumental music and theatre. By the time of his death, Russians were producing famous ballets, operas and novels. He also modernised the Russian alphabet, introduced the Julian calendar and established the first Russian newspaper. He gained access to the Black Sea and acquired territory in parts of Estonia, Latvia and Finland. There is no doubt his reign was a turning point in Russian history but while Peter did prove himself to be an effective leader, capable of introducing sweeping changes, he was also known for being cruel and tyrannical. He suppressed revolts and had many of his elite guards tortured and executed when they rebelled against him. He sent his first wife off to live in a convent and ordered his son to be beheaded. He died in 1725, at age 52, without having nominated an heir. Catherine the Great Empress of Russia for more than 30 years, Catherine the Great remains Russia’s longest-ruling female leader. Under her reign, Russia was revitalised and became recognised as a great power of Europe. Her rule is often referred to as the Golden Age of Russia and Catherine presided over the age of Russian Enlightenment. She has been described by historians as an enlightened despot. Born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, the daughter of a minor Prussian prince, she was summoned to Moscow in 1744 when she was 14 to marry the man who would become Emperor Peter III. Here the church re-christened her Catherine. At the time, Russia was ruled by Peter’s mother, Empress Elizabeth. Catherine and her new husband did not have a happy marriage, although the couple did give birth to one son, Paul. Their rocky marriage meant that both Peter and Catherine began extramarital affairs, sparking gossip that Paul was not actually fathered by the Emperor. None of Catherine’s three additional children would be fathered by Peter and this added to rumours that he was infertile or unable to consummate the marriage. When Empress Elizabeth died in January 1762, Peter III came to the throne but he was a deeply unpopular ruler. After six months in power, he was overthrown in a bloodless coup organised by Catherine and led by officer Grigory Orlov. Catherine had the support of the people and was proclaimed Empress on 9 July, 1762. Peter III abdicated and was killed eight days later. On 22 September, 1762 Catherine was crowned in Moscow with the Imperial Crown of Russia. The crown was designed specifically for the venet by the Swiss-French jeweller Jeremie Pauzie. It is considered to be one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty and features two gold and silver half spheres, 75 pearls, 4,936 Indian diamonds and a ruby spinel that belonged to Empress Elizabeth. It is currently displayed at the Moscow Kremlin Armoury Museum. During her reign, Catherine built on the legacy of Peter the Great by overseeing the expansion of the Russian Empire and further integrating Russia into Europe. She expanded Russia’s borders both southwards and westwards, adding territories which included Crimea, Belarus and Lithuania. The British ambassador to Catherine’s court, George Macartney, describes her leadership: ‘I never saw in my life a person whose port, manner and behaviour answered so strongly to the idea I had formed of her…Russia is no longer to be gazed at as a distant, glimmering star but as a great planet that has obtruded itself into our system, whose place is yet undetermined, but whose motions must powerfully affect those of every other orb’. Particularly in the early years of her reign, she was seen as ruling with tact and dignity, a progressive reformer who was determined to Westernise the country. She was fiercely intelligent and a keen reader, who enjoyed corresponding with Voltaire and studying philosophy. In 1767, she convened an All-Russian Legislative Commission and presented them with her Nakaz (‘Instruction’) to create a new code of law. The document was strikingly liberal in its approach, professing the equality of all men and rejecting capital punishment and torture. The outbreak of war against the Ottoman Empire the following year prevented its implementation but it is often cited as evidence of Catherine’s desire for a stronger civil society. While she began her reign as a political and social reformer, Catherine grew more conservative with age. She realised that she needed to exercise more control over the people and began to restrict the rights of serfs, despite once having labelled the system of serfdom as inhumane. In popular culture, Catherine the Great is notorious for her many lovers, whom she often elevated to high positions and gave large estates. While rumours abound about the aristocrats and military men she supposedly had relationships with, it was Grigory Potemkin who was considered to be the love of her life. Correspondence between the pair shows their affection for one another (Catherine wrote Potemkin a letter in which she said ‘My heart cannot be content for even an hour without love’) and scholars say the affair could be described as an open relationship with the couple staying in contact until Potemkin’s death. Catherine the Great died of a stroke on Nov. 17, 1796. Prior to her death she had been attempting to install her favourite grandson Alexander as heir to the throne, superseding her difficult son Paul, but she died before the announcement could be made. The story of the remarkable Catherine the Great concludes our journey through early Russian history, tracing the story of the Russian state from the mythological Rurik dynasty to the country’s most famous female leader. In the future articles in this series we will look at the decline of the Romanov dynasty, the rise of revolution and the dictatorship that followed. Examining the roles the leaders mentioned above have played has given a sense of how the character and identity of Russia was formed and its complicated relationship with Western Europe and its neighbouring countries. If this article has sparked your interest in a small group tour to Russia, please take a look at the tours on offer with Odyssey Traveller. Our tours visit heritage sites and key attractions as well as hidden gems and lesser-known spots, making for a unique and incredible travel experience. You will see firsthand the history discussed in this article including discovering more about Russian tsars, Russian folklore, the Iron Curtain and the days of the Soviet Union. Each tour allows you to discover colourful and beautiful Russian cities and understand the complexity of this beautiful and mighty country.	7,291	ENGLISH	1
Athenian society was very dynamic in many areas while it was strict in regard to the treatment of women. Although Athenian women were protected by the state and did not know a different way of living, they were very stifled and restricted. The only exception was slaves, and heteria, prostitutes, and this was due to the fact that they had no male guardians. Since these women were on there own they had to take care of themselves, and therefore were independent. In a more recent and modern way of viewing the role of a woman, independence and freedom to do as one likes is one of the most important aspects of living. In Athens the wives had none of this freedom and the prostitutes did. Who then really had a “better” life, those who had all protection and no freedom, or those who had all freedom and independence? “Every Athenian girl expected to be married, and marriage and motherhood were considered the fulfillment of the female role.” This was what a woman’s life was headed towards and was thought to be the purpose of life. For a young girl to die before she had children was a fate thought of as being extremely sad. Women did not marry for love; the reason for marriage was usually for economic purposes or for political ties. The marriages were arranged by a kyrios, the man looking after the marriageable woman. This man was required to give her a dowry and then arrange for her marriage, usually a marriage that would in some way benefit him. The Kyrios could not keep or use the dowry, but had to give it to the husband of the female he was looking after, “the absence of a dowry could be used in court as at least circumstantial evidence that no marriage…had taken place.” The marriage was all settled without consultation of the female. “…Often I pondered the status of women: we are nothing. As small girls in our father’s house, we live the most delightful life, because ignorance keeps children happy. But when we come to the age of maturity and awareness, we are thrust out and battered away, far from the gods of our forefathers and parents, some to good homes and some to abusive ones. And after one single joyful night live, we are compelled to praise this arrangement and consider ourselves lucky.” Sophocles, Fragment 583 from terus. A scorned wife spoke this in one of Sophocles’ lost plays. Sophocles has seized the essence of what it means to be a woman in Athens at this time. The marriage of an Athenian woman and man is hard to define exactly because there has not been an exact word translated that is equivalent to the word, “marriage.” The Athenians have words that translate as physical acts for a marriage for the sake of having a child, they also have words that translate as “cohabit” or “live together.” This leads to the conclusion that our traditional connotation of marriage as a bond is not the way it was in Athens. The reasons for a man and a woman to be joined in marriage were nor for love,...	<urn:uuid:9ccd8437-f59a-456e-8e9a-9507620bf4b4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/athenian-women-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00331.warc.gz	en	0.989051	661	3.890625	4	[ 0.03613944351673126, 0.4248136281967163, 0.08598393201828003, -0.294421911239624, -0.38407233357429504, -0.14835751056671143, 0.3660750389099121, 0.414503812789917, 0.016576986759901047, 0.004386335611343384, -0.14808988571166992, 0.07718481123447418, 0.139252707362175, 0.17007078230381012...	1	Athenian society was very dynamic in many areas while it was strict in regard to the treatment of women. Although Athenian women were protected by the state and did not know a different way of living, they were very stifled and restricted. The only exception was slaves, and heteria, prostitutes, and this was due to the fact that they had no male guardians. Since these women were on there own they had to take care of themselves, and therefore were independent. In a more recent and modern way of viewing the role of a woman, independence and freedom to do as one likes is one of the most important aspects of living. In Athens the wives had none of this freedom and the prostitutes did. Who then really had a “better” life, those who had all protection and no freedom, or those who had all freedom and independence? “Every Athenian girl expected to be married, and marriage and motherhood were considered the fulfillment of the female role.” This was what a woman’s life was headed towards and was thought to be the purpose of life. For a young girl to die before she had children was a fate thought of as being extremely sad. Women did not marry for love; the reason for marriage was usually for economic purposes or for political ties. The marriages were arranged by a kyrios, the man looking after the marriageable woman. This man was required to give her a dowry and then arrange for her marriage, usually a marriage that would in some way benefit him. The Kyrios could not keep or use the dowry, but had to give it to the husband of the female he was looking after, “the absence of a dowry could be used in court as at least circumstantial evidence that no marriage…had taken place.” The marriage was all settled without consultation of the female. “…Often I pondered the status of women: we are nothing. As small girls in our father’s house, we live the most delightful life, because ignorance keeps children happy. But when we come to the age of maturity and awareness, we are thrust out and battered away, far from the gods of our forefathers and parents, some to good homes and some to abusive ones. And after one single joyful night live, we are compelled to praise this arrangement and consider ourselves lucky.” Sophocles, Fragment 583 from terus. A scorned wife spoke this in one of Sophocles’ lost plays. Sophocles has seized the essence of what it means to be a woman in Athens at this time. The marriage of an Athenian woman and man is hard to define exactly because there has not been an exact word translated that is equivalent to the word, “marriage.” The Athenians have words that translate as physical acts for a marriage for the sake of having a child, they also have words that translate as “cohabit” or “live together.” This leads to the conclusion that our traditional connotation of marriage as a bond is not the way it was in Athens. The reasons for a man and a woman to be joined in marriage were nor for love,...	628	ENGLISH	1
LA PAZ, Bolivia: A 500-year-old mummy of an Incan girl has been returned to Bolivia some 129 years after it was donated to the Michigan State University Museum, marking what an official says is the first time human remains of archaeological importance have been repatriated to the Andean country. Known as Ñusta, a Quechua word for “Princess,” the mummy amazes many because of its excellent state of preservation: Its black braids seem recently combed and its hands still cling to small feathers. Experts said the mummy originally came from a region in the Andean highlands near La Paz during the last years of the Inca civilization. Radiocarbon tests also have revealed that it dates to the second half of the 15th century, confirming the likelihood that its tomb burial preceded the arrival of Christopher Columbus and the conquest of the Inca by the Spanish. “Despite the fact that it was given the name Ñusta, or ‘Princess,’ we don’t know if she was really a princess. We will only be able to answer that with DNA studies,” said William A. Lovis, an MSU emeritus professor of anthropology who worked for years to help bring the remains home. The mummy was returned more than two weeks ago with the assistance of the U.S. embassy in La Paz, and a new study is expected to be carried out by November by Bolivian academics and foreign experts. Until then, accompanying funerary objects will be exhibited to the public during a celebration that pays homage to the dead on Nov. 2. Culture Minister Wilma Alanoca said that in recent years, the Bolivian government has achieved the repatriation of several archaeological goods that were taken illegally, but this is the first time that a body has been brought back. “It’s the first time that a body has been recovered, a mummy from the Inca period,” she said. Still, many mysteries remain unsolved. The girl, who is thought to have been part of an ethnic Aymara group known as the Pacajes, had originally been placed in a stone tomb along with sandals, a small clay jar, pouches, feathers and several types of plants including maize and coca — perhaps because some Andean civilizations believed that offerings helped the dead transition into the next life. “It’s possible that the girl was an important person and that the objects placed with her had as much sacred importance as they had a useful purpose,” said Lovis. “Another possibility is that her death was an Inca sacrifice to appease or an offer to Inca deities.” Ñusta is believed to have been about 8 years old when she died and was buried in a dress made with threads from llama or alpaca, animals which were domesticated more than 4,000 years ago in the Andes and still roam the highlands of Bolivia, Peru, Argentina and Chile. David Trigo, who heads the National Archaeology Museum in La Paz, said the well-kept objects open new doors into a society that has barely been studied. “We can say that she was an important member of her ethnic group,” Trigo said, referring to Incan and Aymara traditions of building adobe or stone tombs known as chullpa for elite members of their communities. For now, the remains are being preserved in a refrigerated chamber at the National Archaeology Museum in downtown La Paz. An-Nahar is not responsible for the comments that users post below. We kindly ask you to keep this space a clean and respectful forum for discussion.	<urn:uuid:875f7406-4934-4fcf-b014-56a6f03c7d83>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.annahar.com/article/1013022-500yearold-mummy-of-incan-girl-returns-to-bolivia	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00282.warc.gz	en	0.981635	775	3.3125	3	[ -0.6204453706741333, 0.3972991704940796, 0.3664027452468872, 0.019945116713643074, -0.06859154999256134, 0.037296637892723083, 0.2668759822845459, -0.10107747465372086, -0.20770211517810822, -0.14000871777534485, 0.27520954608917236, -0.1648978590965271, 0.02312466874718666, 0.599310696125...	1	LA PAZ, Bolivia: A 500-year-old mummy of an Incan girl has been returned to Bolivia some 129 years after it was donated to the Michigan State University Museum, marking what an official says is the first time human remains of archaeological importance have been repatriated to the Andean country. Known as Ñusta, a Quechua word for “Princess,” the mummy amazes many because of its excellent state of preservation: Its black braids seem recently combed and its hands still cling to small feathers. Experts said the mummy originally came from a region in the Andean highlands near La Paz during the last years of the Inca civilization. Radiocarbon tests also have revealed that it dates to the second half of the 15th century, confirming the likelihood that its tomb burial preceded the arrival of Christopher Columbus and the conquest of the Inca by the Spanish. “Despite the fact that it was given the name Ñusta, or ‘Princess,’ we don’t know if she was really a princess. We will only be able to answer that with DNA studies,” said William A. Lovis, an MSU emeritus professor of anthropology who worked for years to help bring the remains home. The mummy was returned more than two weeks ago with the assistance of the U.S. embassy in La Paz, and a new study is expected to be carried out by November by Bolivian academics and foreign experts. Until then, accompanying funerary objects will be exhibited to the public during a celebration that pays homage to the dead on Nov. 2. Culture Minister Wilma Alanoca said that in recent years, the Bolivian government has achieved the repatriation of several archaeological goods that were taken illegally, but this is the first time that a body has been brought back. “It’s the first time that a body has been recovered, a mummy from the Inca period,” she said. Still, many mysteries remain unsolved. The girl, who is thought to have been part of an ethnic Aymara group known as the Pacajes, had originally been placed in a stone tomb along with sandals, a small clay jar, pouches, feathers and several types of plants including maize and coca — perhaps because some Andean civilizations believed that offerings helped the dead transition into the next life. “It’s possible that the girl was an important person and that the objects placed with her had as much sacred importance as they had a useful purpose,” said Lovis. “Another possibility is that her death was an Inca sacrifice to appease or an offer to Inca deities.” Ñusta is believed to have been about 8 years old when she died and was buried in a dress made with threads from llama or alpaca, animals which were domesticated more than 4,000 years ago in the Andes and still roam the highlands of Bolivia, Peru, Argentina and Chile. David Trigo, who heads the National Archaeology Museum in La Paz, said the well-kept objects open new doors into a society that has barely been studied. “We can say that she was an important member of her ethnic group,” Trigo said, referring to Incan and Aymara traditions of building adobe or stone tombs known as chullpa for elite members of their communities. For now, the remains are being preserved in a refrigerated chamber at the National Archaeology Museum in downtown La Paz. An-Nahar is not responsible for the comments that users post below. We kindly ask you to keep this space a clean and respectful forum for discussion.	739	ENGLISH	1
Ambrose Burnside was a senior Union general during the American Civil War who was criticised by some as being promoted to a rank outside of his real military ability. Outside of the American Civil War, Burnside was also a successful politician who became a state governor and US Senator. Ambrose Burnside was born on May 23rd 1824 in Liberty, Indiana. His education was disrupted when his mother died in 1841. Burnside took up work in a tailor’s but he quickly turned his attention to the army and joined the US Military Academy at West Point in 1843. After graduating in 1847, Burnside joined the 2nd US Artillery. He served on the western frontier where one of his superior officers was Braxton Bragg. After serving in Nevada, New Mexico and Rhode Island, Burnside resigned his commission in 1853. Burnside then spent his time designing and perfecting the Burnside carbine that was produced by the Burnside Arms Company. He won a $100,000 contract to supply the US Army, which was withdrawn as a result of unscrupulous behaviour by a rival gun manufacturer – he bribed J B Lloyd, the Secretary of War. To make matters worse, his newly built arms factory burnt down. Burnside had to sell the patent to his Burnside carbine to a rival to pay off his debts. He then found work as the treasurer to the Illinois Central Railroad. Burnside had his commission renewed when the American Civil War broke out in April 1861. He became a brigadier general in the Rhode Island militia and quickly became a brigade commander. His men fought at the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861. Burnside took charge of volunteers in August 1861 and was set the task of training men who would join the Army of the Potomac. Burnside was given the command of the North Carolina Expeditionary Force and between September 1861 and July 1862, he conducted a highly successful campaign along the coast of North Carolina which denied 80% of the state’s coastline to Confederate shipping. For this work, Burnside was promoted to major general and his men became the 9th Corps of the Army of the Potomac. Burnside was offered the command of the Army of the Potomac but he turned this down because he did not believe he had the necessary experience. At the Battle of Antietam, Burnside had command of both the 9th and 1st Corps. However, both corps fought at either end of the battlefield – as ordered by General McClellan – and he ordered Burnside to concern himself with just 9th Corps. However, Burnside refused to accept this and sent orders to 1st Corps as well as directly commanding 9th Corps. His men got bogged down at what is now called ‘Burnside Bridge’ on the Antietam battlefield. Burnside requested more men to force through an attack but McClellan would not send any. On November 7th 1862, Burnside was given command of the Army of the Potomac. Abraham Lincoln ordered him to be more aggressive than McClellan. Burnside targeted the Confederate capital, Richmond. This met with the President’s support. To Lincoln, Burnside appeared to be a lot more decisive and robust than his more cautious predecessor. However, the advance on Richmond, led to the disastrous Battle of Fredericksburg in December 1862. Burnside offered to resign from the Union Army but this was refused. However, a number of subordinate generals in the Army of the Potomac were openly critical of Burnside in his leadership during the Battle of Fredericksburg. He called on them to be dismissed but was himself removed from his command and replaced by General Joseph Hooker – one of his foremost critics. Lincoln did not want to lose Burnside as a military commander and gave him command of the Department of Ohio. In this command, he arrested anyone who spoke out against the war and tried them in a military court, even if they were civilians. Burnside met with greater military success in his capacity as commander of the Department of Ohio, such as at the Battle of Campbell’s Station and the Battle of Fort Sanders. He fought in the Overland Campaign (May1864) with his 9th Corps, which now stood at 21,000 men. Along with other components of the Union army, 9th Corps helped to besiege Petersburg. By digging under the Confederate positions and igniting a charge of explosives, Burnside managed to severely damage the defences of the Confederates based there. What happened next is known as the Battle of the Crater. Burnside had trained a division of African Americans to enter Petersburg once the mine had been exploded. They had been trained to go around the crater and to take advantage of the chaos and confusion that was expected in the defenders lines. However, was ordered that his Africa American troops could not be used and white troops who had not been trained were used. It led to a disastrous attack where the attackers went into the actual crater and found that they could not get out easily. They were easy prey for the Confederate sharpshooters that surrounded the crater. Men were shot as they tried to crawl out of the crater. The attack that should have been relatively easy had Burnside been allowed to do as he wanted to, proved to be a disaster. Burnside was sent on leave by General Ullyses Grant and relieved of his command. A court of inquiry placed the blame for the high casualty rate on Burnside. He resigned his commission on April 15th 1865. Burnside worked in a number of senior positions in various railway companies. He was also Governor of Rhode Island between 1866 and 1869. Burnside was also the first president of the NRA (National Rifle Association). In 1874, he was elected Senator for Rhode Island and was re-elected in 1880. Ambrose Burnside died on September 13th 1881.	<urn:uuid:72d0c364-8877-4786-ade8-b225d190449d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/the-american-civil-war/ambrose-burnside/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00242.warc.gz	en	0.992855	1,210	3.28125	3	[ -0.3195928931236267, 0.5208460092544556, 0.07668611407279968, 0.18919086456298828, 0.11235262453556061, -0.3244625926017761, 0.021533098071813583, -0.12903213500976562, -0.6337619423866272, -0.41732484102249146, 0.3442222476005554, -0.18281109631061554, 0.36327576637268066, 0.3009580969810...	8	Ambrose Burnside was a senior Union general during the American Civil War who was criticised by some as being promoted to a rank outside of his real military ability. Outside of the American Civil War, Burnside was also a successful politician who became a state governor and US Senator. Ambrose Burnside was born on May 23rd 1824 in Liberty, Indiana. His education was disrupted when his mother died in 1841. Burnside took up work in a tailor’s but he quickly turned his attention to the army and joined the US Military Academy at West Point in 1843. After graduating in 1847, Burnside joined the 2nd US Artillery. He served on the western frontier where one of his superior officers was Braxton Bragg. After serving in Nevada, New Mexico and Rhode Island, Burnside resigned his commission in 1853. Burnside then spent his time designing and perfecting the Burnside carbine that was produced by the Burnside Arms Company. He won a $100,000 contract to supply the US Army, which was withdrawn as a result of unscrupulous behaviour by a rival gun manufacturer – he bribed J B Lloyd, the Secretary of War. To make matters worse, his newly built arms factory burnt down. Burnside had to sell the patent to his Burnside carbine to a rival to pay off his debts. He then found work as the treasurer to the Illinois Central Railroad. Burnside had his commission renewed when the American Civil War broke out in April 1861. He became a brigadier general in the Rhode Island militia and quickly became a brigade commander. His men fought at the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861. Burnside took charge of volunteers in August 1861 and was set the task of training men who would join the Army of the Potomac. Burnside was given the command of the North Carolina Expeditionary Force and between September 1861 and July 1862, he conducted a highly successful campaign along the coast of North Carolina which denied 80% of the state’s coastline to Confederate shipping. For this work, Burnside was promoted to major general and his men became the 9th Corps of the Army of the Potomac. Burnside was offered the command of the Army of the Potomac but he turned this down because he did not believe he had the necessary experience. At the Battle of Antietam, Burnside had command of both the 9th and 1st Corps. However, both corps fought at either end of the battlefield – as ordered by General McClellan – and he ordered Burnside to concern himself with just 9th Corps. However, Burnside refused to accept this and sent orders to 1st Corps as well as directly commanding 9th Corps. His men got bogged down at what is now called ‘Burnside Bridge’ on the Antietam battlefield. Burnside requested more men to force through an attack but McClellan would not send any. On November 7th 1862, Burnside was given command of the Army of the Potomac. Abraham Lincoln ordered him to be more aggressive than McClellan. Burnside targeted the Confederate capital, Richmond. This met with the President’s support. To Lincoln, Burnside appeared to be a lot more decisive and robust than his more cautious predecessor. However, the advance on Richmond, led to the disastrous Battle of Fredericksburg in December 1862. Burnside offered to resign from the Union Army but this was refused. However, a number of subordinate generals in the Army of the Potomac were openly critical of Burnside in his leadership during the Battle of Fredericksburg. He called on them to be dismissed but was himself removed from his command and replaced by General Joseph Hooker – one of his foremost critics. Lincoln did not want to lose Burnside as a military commander and gave him command of the Department of Ohio. In this command, he arrested anyone who spoke out against the war and tried them in a military court, even if they were civilians. Burnside met with greater military success in his capacity as commander of the Department of Ohio, such as at the Battle of Campbell’s Station and the Battle of Fort Sanders. He fought in the Overland Campaign (May1864) with his 9th Corps, which now stood at 21,000 men. Along with other components of the Union army, 9th Corps helped to besiege Petersburg. By digging under the Confederate positions and igniting a charge of explosives, Burnside managed to severely damage the defences of the Confederates based there. What happened next is known as the Battle of the Crater. Burnside had trained a division of African Americans to enter Petersburg once the mine had been exploded. They had been trained to go around the crater and to take advantage of the chaos and confusion that was expected in the defenders lines. However, was ordered that his Africa American troops could not be used and white troops who had not been trained were used. It led to a disastrous attack where the attackers went into the actual crater and found that they could not get out easily. They were easy prey for the Confederate sharpshooters that surrounded the crater. Men were shot as they tried to crawl out of the crater. The attack that should have been relatively easy had Burnside been allowed to do as he wanted to, proved to be a disaster. Burnside was sent on leave by General Ullyses Grant and relieved of his command. A court of inquiry placed the blame for the high casualty rate on Burnside. He resigned his commission on April 15th 1865. Burnside worked in a number of senior positions in various railway companies. He was also Governor of Rhode Island between 1866 and 1869. Burnside was also the first president of the NRA (National Rifle Association). In 1874, he was elected Senator for Rhode Island and was re-elected in 1880. Ambrose Burnside died on September 13th 1881.	1,284	ENGLISH	1
The Importance of Children Playing Sports The Importance of Children Playing Sports in Summer Camp: Sports are apart of the fabric of communities to bring people closer together. In a lot of ways, sports are one of the greatest things created by humankind and one of the longest traditions in our world’s history. Sports are a way of connecting, working together, and making many memories that will carry us throughout life. As children, sports are one of the more popular activities we engage in as a younger, more energetic generation; however, it isn’t for everyone and no child should be pushed into it or they may develop an aversion to sports later in life. However, sports are very beneficial for a child’s growth and development and should always be nurtured and encouraged as a way of learning and having fun rather than just winning a game or a trophy. Sports benefit children in a myriad of different ways including physically mentally, socially and boosting emotional health. Sports allow children to learn about their bodies and their machinations. Importance of Children Playing Sports in Summer Camp It is also a way for them to stay healthy and fit, benefitting their heart and lungs to develop and become stronger as the years go on. It also aids in their growth and development as well as reducing stress and anxiety and can prevent depression which, according to the CDC, affects 3.2% of children, (approximately 1.9 million) ages 3-17 years of age. Participating in physical activity can enhance a child’s self-esteem as they develop life skills to aid them in becoming strong in summer camp, contributing member of society as an adult. Fortunately, sports are open to everyone and many take advantage at an early age. When it comes to building social skills, sports offer a long list of them. While playing sports which usually consist of teams, children learn how to work together with their teammates to score goals and potentially win games. They also learn problem-solving and how to work together to reach their goals. Sports is also an excellent way for children to develop long-lasting friendships and building trust with others as well as within themselves. These are very important social skills as they echo throughout their lives especially as they enter their teen years and then into adulthood. Children Sports in Summer Camp A Child’s self-esteem and personal confidence in their abilities are two of the many cornerstones of their entire lives as they go on to become a contributing member of society, potentially having a family of their own where they will teach their children morals and values carrying the traditions of parenthood. Character building is a crucial piece when it comes to playing sports. From children’s sports to professional sports, those with a strong moral code play the game fairly and help rather than harm others. As kids, we are taught good sportsmanship including saying “Good game” to the opposing team whether their team won or lost it’s all about being respectful and just enjoying the game itself rather than worrying about winning or losing. We learn early on how to win and how to lose; we learn that while losing can be difficult, we did all that we can do and that there are clearly things to improve on. Sports are about improvement, from the sport itself to one’s own self-improvement to the improvement of the team and overcoming obstacles such as losing game after game, physical injury, or low numbers. Obstacles such as these can shape a person in a negative or positive way, the best way to obtain the latter is to continuously nurture the children’s’ emotions and help them understand that in life, losing happens and while it is not always avoidable, it is a good way to understand their challenges and to try overcoming them. Adults, we are expected to have a strong ethical and moral code and to understand the difference between right and wrong. We grow up to be contributing members of society and to work together as a team as well as to rely on ourselves with confidence in our own abilities. We learn from mistakes and go on to improve ourselves, to learn and develop ourselves into who we want to be. Importance of Children Sports in Summer Camp Many of us learn such life skills on the court, on the ice, or on the field; for many of us, sports shaped who we are today as adults. We learned to play with others, we learned right from wrong and what is fair, and we learned what we ourselves as individuals are capable of. We learned respect for authority and others as well as ourselves. We learned to push ourselves and understand that no dream is too far away, we learned confidence and what it takes to reach and achieve goals. Sports teaches children so many life skills and in so many ways shape us to work hard and stay strong even when certain things in life aren’t going as one planned. We learn obstacles can lead us in the right direction and with time things fall into place. Sometimes we are meant for things we never imagined would happen and sometimes they make us an even better person than what we thought before. In sports, children and young teens see that occur during a game or tournament where a devastating loss may be difficult to deal with but in the long run can help them to understand that hard work is never for anything but sometimes things don’t work out the way you planned, and it isn’t a reason to stop trying. We learn to become stronger and to carry on through sports. Sports has many benefits and for some, it is just a game or an activity but for others, it is a way to grow and develop themselves into something better. Sports are good for children to build social skills and self-esteem and to obtain a skill set that will carry them throughout their lives and help them to understand who they are as an individual on a team.	<urn:uuid:ea016a28-8fb8-46fe-9b8e-17e541174484>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.kidztopros.com/importance-of-children-playing-sports/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00427.warc.gz	en	0.98042	1,204	3.40625	3	[ 0.251689076423645, 0.07133512198925018, 0.40149757266044617, -0.6801380515098572, -0.00917113944888115, 0.8948774933815002, 0.319761723279953, 0.13746649026870728, 0.11154603958129883, 0.029722847044467926, 0.032791491597890854, -0.4092053771018982, 0.3286535143852234, 0.4075777530670166, ...	4	The Importance of Children Playing Sports The Importance of Children Playing Sports in Summer Camp: Sports are apart of the fabric of communities to bring people closer together. In a lot of ways, sports are one of the greatest things created by humankind and one of the longest traditions in our world’s history. Sports are a way of connecting, working together, and making many memories that will carry us throughout life. As children, sports are one of the more popular activities we engage in as a younger, more energetic generation; however, it isn’t for everyone and no child should be pushed into it or they may develop an aversion to sports later in life. However, sports are very beneficial for a child’s growth and development and should always be nurtured and encouraged as a way of learning and having fun rather than just winning a game or a trophy. Sports benefit children in a myriad of different ways including physically mentally, socially and boosting emotional health. Sports allow children to learn about their bodies and their machinations. Importance of Children Playing Sports in Summer Camp It is also a way for them to stay healthy and fit, benefitting their heart and lungs to develop and become stronger as the years go on. It also aids in their growth and development as well as reducing stress and anxiety and can prevent depression which, according to the CDC, affects 3.2% of children, (approximately 1.9 million) ages 3-17 years of age. Participating in physical activity can enhance a child’s self-esteem as they develop life skills to aid them in becoming strong in summer camp, contributing member of society as an adult. Fortunately, sports are open to everyone and many take advantage at an early age. When it comes to building social skills, sports offer a long list of them. While playing sports which usually consist of teams, children learn how to work together with their teammates to score goals and potentially win games. They also learn problem-solving and how to work together to reach their goals. Sports is also an excellent way for children to develop long-lasting friendships and building trust with others as well as within themselves. These are very important social skills as they echo throughout their lives especially as they enter their teen years and then into adulthood. Children Sports in Summer Camp A Child’s self-esteem and personal confidence in their abilities are two of the many cornerstones of their entire lives as they go on to become a contributing member of society, potentially having a family of their own where they will teach their children morals and values carrying the traditions of parenthood. Character building is a crucial piece when it comes to playing sports. From children’s sports to professional sports, those with a strong moral code play the game fairly and help rather than harm others. As kids, we are taught good sportsmanship including saying “Good game” to the opposing team whether their team won or lost it’s all about being respectful and just enjoying the game itself rather than worrying about winning or losing. We learn early on how to win and how to lose; we learn that while losing can be difficult, we did all that we can do and that there are clearly things to improve on. Sports are about improvement, from the sport itself to one’s own self-improvement to the improvement of the team and overcoming obstacles such as losing game after game, physical injury, or low numbers. Obstacles such as these can shape a person in a negative or positive way, the best way to obtain the latter is to continuously nurture the children’s’ emotions and help them understand that in life, losing happens and while it is not always avoidable, it is a good way to understand their challenges and to try overcoming them. Adults, we are expected to have a strong ethical and moral code and to understand the difference between right and wrong. We grow up to be contributing members of society and to work together as a team as well as to rely on ourselves with confidence in our own abilities. We learn from mistakes and go on to improve ourselves, to learn and develop ourselves into who we want to be. Importance of Children Sports in Summer Camp Many of us learn such life skills on the court, on the ice, or on the field; for many of us, sports shaped who we are today as adults. We learned to play with others, we learned right from wrong and what is fair, and we learned what we ourselves as individuals are capable of. We learned respect for authority and others as well as ourselves. We learned to push ourselves and understand that no dream is too far away, we learned confidence and what it takes to reach and achieve goals. Sports teaches children so many life skills and in so many ways shape us to work hard and stay strong even when certain things in life aren’t going as one planned. We learn obstacles can lead us in the right direction and with time things fall into place. Sometimes we are meant for things we never imagined would happen and sometimes they make us an even better person than what we thought before. In sports, children and young teens see that occur during a game or tournament where a devastating loss may be difficult to deal with but in the long run can help them to understand that hard work is never for anything but sometimes things don’t work out the way you planned, and it isn’t a reason to stop trying. We learn to become stronger and to carry on through sports. Sports has many benefits and for some, it is just a game or an activity but for others, it is a way to grow and develop themselves into something better. Sports are good for children to build social skills and self-esteem and to obtain a skill set that will carry them throughout their lives and help them to understand who they are as an individual on a team.	1,157	ENGLISH	1
Introduction / History Itelmen are one of the smallest people groups in the north as well as being one of the most ancient. "Itelmen" means "an inhabitant of dry land, a human being." The name was used for the first time by Russian researchers Kamchatka Steller G. and Krasheninikov around the late 1730s. They also are known as Kamchadals, because they live in Kamchatka. The origin of the Itelmens is unknown, but what we do know is that they are native inhabitants of Kamchatka. Some people say that they moved there some 6,000-7,000 years ago from mainland Asia. In 1697, the Itelmens population was 12,680 people but it dropped to below 9,000 people in 1738 because of contagious sicknesses (pox, etc.). The Itelmen language is unlike anything else; it belongs to the Chukchi-Kamchatka group of Paloe-Asiatic languages. Native speakers are diminishing; for example, in 1979 about 350 people were recorded as speaking Itelmen, which is the same number as in 1959. During the Soviet period, the Itelmens received their written language. A unified alphabet was created for the Nordic peoples in 1930 which consisted of 28 characters based on the Latin alphabet. An Itelmen alphabet was created in Khabarovsk consisting 27 characters. Where are they located? The Itelmen do not have their own district because of their small population; however, they live mostly in between Sedanka and Sopochnoye on the western coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula. The climate is monsoon, with the average temperature in January being -11°C and in July +12°C. In the 1950s, they were gathered into larger villages because collective farms were increasing. What are their lives like? The Itelmen are typically river fishers and fur hunters, with everything else, such as hunting, secondary. They would store different wild grasses and roots for food and medicine. Along with storing things, they would make nets, weaving mats and several other things for housekeeping. They also began following the example of the Russians and started using iron tools, fishing nets, new utensils, and clothes. The Itelmen would settle on a river near their relatives with common fishing territories. All one family would live in a half-dugout. Most of the names of their forts would come from the rivers' names where they were built. Their leader was called the fort elder. All the decisions about life around the fort, all the activities, and their celebrations were all discussed in the fort elders' home. Slowly they started to accept the presence of Russians in their cities; eventually they started having mixed marriages which then created the group of Kamchadals. What are their beliefs? One of their religious beliefs is fetishism: Men and women wear amulets in the form of idols. They also practice shamanism and want to understand everything including the natural phenomenon and the spirits who live around them. When they honored those spirits, it was directly connected to assuming this would impact their material prosperity. They worshiped the spirit of the sea that gave man fish. They would hold celebrations of "purification" in November for the spirit of the sea. They also worshiped fire, which was presented as a shrine. They believed the world is eternal and souls are immortal. An ancestor, the creator of the nation, was believed to be Raven (Kutkha). All of their beliefs and signs had their own vital role. For example, you wouldn't disassemble old houses and booths in the spring because there were many "Yukol moths." It was also absolutely forbidden to save drowning people or people who got stuck in an avalanche because they were afraid of the spirits. Prayer Points * Pray that He will share His heart with the "inhabitant of dry land" by sending workers who will go to this harsh, isolated harvest field. * Ask Him to break through the veil of darkness and despair that rests over the Itelman with the saving light of His gospel. * Pray for God to give them dreams of a better life with Christ. * Pray for today's missionaries to approach the Itelman with gentleness and respect, bringing the gospel of Jesus.	<urn:uuid:a5ae5117-4433-46cf-bfa9-cc7cce16b7b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://legacy.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=12280&rog3=RS	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00172.warc.gz	en	0.985324	901	3.328125	3	[ -0.17456267774105072, 0.1413435935974121, 0.09969690442085266, 0.01721937768161297, -0.06382399797439575, -0.30067169666290283, 0.1667136251926422, -0.04947607219219208, -0.42861664295196533, -0.03329808637499809, 0.4462064206600189, -0.45434460043907166, 0.23212409019470215, -0.0076341247...	3	Introduction / History Itelmen are one of the smallest people groups in the north as well as being one of the most ancient. "Itelmen" means "an inhabitant of dry land, a human being." The name was used for the first time by Russian researchers Kamchatka Steller G. and Krasheninikov around the late 1730s. They also are known as Kamchadals, because they live in Kamchatka. The origin of the Itelmens is unknown, but what we do know is that they are native inhabitants of Kamchatka. Some people say that they moved there some 6,000-7,000 years ago from mainland Asia. In 1697, the Itelmens population was 12,680 people but it dropped to below 9,000 people in 1738 because of contagious sicknesses (pox, etc.). The Itelmen language is unlike anything else; it belongs to the Chukchi-Kamchatka group of Paloe-Asiatic languages. Native speakers are diminishing; for example, in 1979 about 350 people were recorded as speaking Itelmen, which is the same number as in 1959. During the Soviet period, the Itelmens received their written language. A unified alphabet was created for the Nordic peoples in 1930 which consisted of 28 characters based on the Latin alphabet. An Itelmen alphabet was created in Khabarovsk consisting 27 characters. Where are they located? The Itelmen do not have their own district because of their small population; however, they live mostly in between Sedanka and Sopochnoye on the western coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula. The climate is monsoon, with the average temperature in January being -11°C and in July +12°C. In the 1950s, they were gathered into larger villages because collective farms were increasing. What are their lives like? The Itelmen are typically river fishers and fur hunters, with everything else, such as hunting, secondary. They would store different wild grasses and roots for food and medicine. Along with storing things, they would make nets, weaving mats and several other things for housekeeping. They also began following the example of the Russians and started using iron tools, fishing nets, new utensils, and clothes. The Itelmen would settle on a river near their relatives with common fishing territories. All one family would live in a half-dugout. Most of the names of their forts would come from the rivers' names where they were built. Their leader was called the fort elder. All the decisions about life around the fort, all the activities, and their celebrations were all discussed in the fort elders' home. Slowly they started to accept the presence of Russians in their cities; eventually they started having mixed marriages which then created the group of Kamchadals. What are their beliefs? One of their religious beliefs is fetishism: Men and women wear amulets in the form of idols. They also practice shamanism and want to understand everything including the natural phenomenon and the spirits who live around them. When they honored those spirits, it was directly connected to assuming this would impact their material prosperity. They worshiped the spirit of the sea that gave man fish. They would hold celebrations of "purification" in November for the spirit of the sea. They also worshiped fire, which was presented as a shrine. They believed the world is eternal and souls are immortal. An ancestor, the creator of the nation, was believed to be Raven (Kutkha). All of their beliefs and signs had their own vital role. For example, you wouldn't disassemble old houses and booths in the spring because there were many "Yukol moths." It was also absolutely forbidden to save drowning people or people who got stuck in an avalanche because they were afraid of the spirits. Prayer Points * Pray that He will share His heart with the "inhabitant of dry land" by sending workers who will go to this harsh, isolated harvest field. * Ask Him to break through the veil of darkness and despair that rests over the Itelman with the saving light of His gospel. * Pray for God to give them dreams of a better life with Christ. * Pray for today's missionaries to approach the Itelman with gentleness and respect, bringing the gospel of Jesus.	935	ENGLISH	1
Between 1861 and 1864, several areas throughout the Northeast and Midwest experienced a lack of government-issued cents. The military on both sides were confiscating any type of metal that they could for the war effort. In addition, people started hoarding all types of coins from gold to copper. This made is extremely difficult for businesses to conduct business. Specifically, stores were having a hard time providing people with change. This meant that people had to either overpay for an item or just simply not purchase the item. As a result, many merchants turned to private minters to help fill this massive void in the economy. It is estimated that by 1864, there were approximately 25,000,000 Civil War tokens, each of which were valued at 1 cent. With the lack of a central authority, each area made its own type of cent. This created approximately 7000 to 8000 varieties. As the war winded down, the government eventually passed a law saying that no individual can mint their own coins. This is the same law that is still in effect today.	<urn:uuid:59c40d6f-e96d-48a7-a6fc-2364d68ddaae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://certifiedcoinconsultants.com/blogs/news/special-civil-war-tokens	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00415.warc.gz	en	0.986605	214	4	4	[ -0.19813771545886993, -0.058447856456041336, 0.2628570795059204, 0.05791511759161949, 0.2527194023132324, -0.3015761077404022, 0.24144883453845978, 0.18310175836086273, -0.5367373824119568, -0.12373100966215134, 0.18571801483631134, -0.053886737674474716, 0.1292169690132141, 0.341160088777...	4	Between 1861 and 1864, several areas throughout the Northeast and Midwest experienced a lack of government-issued cents. The military on both sides were confiscating any type of metal that they could for the war effort. In addition, people started hoarding all types of coins from gold to copper. This made is extremely difficult for businesses to conduct business. Specifically, stores were having a hard time providing people with change. This meant that people had to either overpay for an item or just simply not purchase the item. As a result, many merchants turned to private minters to help fill this massive void in the economy. It is estimated that by 1864, there were approximately 25,000,000 Civil War tokens, each of which were valued at 1 cent. With the lack of a central authority, each area made its own type of cent. This created approximately 7000 to 8000 varieties. As the war winded down, the government eventually passed a law saying that no individual can mint their own coins. This is the same law that is still in effect today.	237	ENGLISH	1
"He sat upon the deck, The Book was in his hand. 'Do not fear. Heaven is as near,' He said, 'by water as by land.' " E LIZABETH had been Queen of England for twenty years before any steps were taken to colonise the New World, towards which all eyes were turned. But while she and her adventurers were dazzled by dreams of gold in the frozen regions of the north, one of her subjects was watching the English fishermen on the coasts of Newfoundland and planning homes for them in America. This man was Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Year by year ships came from Spain and Portugal, England and France, to the shores of this Newfoundland, and here it was that Gilbert planned a little colony of his own countrymen. His most faithful friend and adviser was his step-brother, Walter Raleigh, who was hereafter to play a large part among Elizabeth's seamen. Both were Devonshire men, like Drake and Hawkins; but Gilbert was among the first Englishmen to see that the love of adventure, which was leading so many at this time to annoy the Spaniards, might be turned to better account. England, he thought, was playing an ignoble part. Instead of taking the lead in voyages of discovery, as she might have done, with the best of ships and sailors, she had given herself up to plundering the treasure-ships of Spain. Drake was the hero of the hour. The queen herself had shared his ill-gotten plunder. The cry of Elizabeth's England was for gold. So when Gilbert undertook the task of carrying English colonists to the shores of the New World, Elizabeth tried to turn him from his purpose. He was willing to brave the displeasure of his royal mistress. There was no gold to be got out of his lofty scheme, but he stood firm. He had dreams of making his colony a starting-point for the north-west passage. He was no common adventurer. He had a great mind and a great soul. "He is not worthy to live at all that, for fear or danger of death, shunneth his country's service and his own honour, seeing death is inevitable and the fame of virtue immortal," he used to say when pleading for the Arctic voyage. In 1578, when Drake was sailing round the world in his little Pelican, and Frobisher was fighting his way amid the frozen seas of the north, Sir Humphrey Gilbert was collecting ships and men to plant his colony over the seas. With eleven ships and some 500 men he sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to Newfoundland, but from the very beginning the expedition was a failure. One of the ships was lost, and misfortune after misfortune compelled the rest to return. Undaunted, he tried again. With Walter Raleigh's help he fitted out a second expedition. In 1583 the little fleet left England with a parting gift from the queen in the shape of a golden anchor. But again a series of disasters overtook the expedition. Two days after leaving harbour the largest ship in the fleet deserted. Angrily Gilbert sailed on without it, arriving in safety on the shores of Newfoundland. Summoning Spanish and Portuguese together, he raised a pillar with the arms of England engraved on it, and formally took possession of the country in the queen's name. But it was not easy to keep order. The sailors, after the manner of their day, were lawless adventurers, pirates, and robbers. They only wanted to make their fortune; they had no industry, perseverance, or endurance—qualities needed for all colonisation. Everything went wrong, and at last the would-be colonists begged to be taken home. Only two ships were left, the Squirrel and the Golden Hind. Gilbert commanded the Squirrel, the smallest of the two, and totally unfit to "pass through the ocean sea at that season of the year." But "I will not forsake my little company going homeward, with whom I have passed through so many storms and perils," said their commander. The weather was very wild, the oldest sailor on board had never seen "more outrageous seas." The Squirrel could not weather them, and one night she foundered with all hands. Gilbert was last seen, his Bible in his hand, bidding his terrified companions be of good cheer. "We are as near to heaven by water as by land," he cried as the little Squirrel went down into the deep Atlantic with her brave commander. Though he failed, Sir Humphrey Gilbert was called the Father of American colonisation, because it was he who first turned men's thoughts from plundering exploits to the higher aims of civilisation.	<urn:uuid:d9dcda4a-5390-4be5-985e-e873ba428517>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/synge/awakening/gilbert	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00149.warc.gz	en	0.989341	953	3.4375	3	[ -0.20647966861724854, 0.11242508143186569, 0.49728378653526306, 0.06851544976234436, -0.13927951455116272, -0.3796955645084381, 0.4531998634338379, 0.0890328511595726, 0.07899609953165054, -0.06849845498800278, 0.037963107228279114, -0.36249351501464844, 0.2234571874141693, 0.1364502608776...	3	"He sat upon the deck, The Book was in his hand. 'Do not fear. Heaven is as near,' He said, 'by water as by land.' " E LIZABETH had been Queen of England for twenty years before any steps were taken to colonise the New World, towards which all eyes were turned. But while she and her adventurers were dazzled by dreams of gold in the frozen regions of the north, one of her subjects was watching the English fishermen on the coasts of Newfoundland and planning homes for them in America. This man was Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Year by year ships came from Spain and Portugal, England and France, to the shores of this Newfoundland, and here it was that Gilbert planned a little colony of his own countrymen. His most faithful friend and adviser was his step-brother, Walter Raleigh, who was hereafter to play a large part among Elizabeth's seamen. Both were Devonshire men, like Drake and Hawkins; but Gilbert was among the first Englishmen to see that the love of adventure, which was leading so many at this time to annoy the Spaniards, might be turned to better account. England, he thought, was playing an ignoble part. Instead of taking the lead in voyages of discovery, as she might have done, with the best of ships and sailors, she had given herself up to plundering the treasure-ships of Spain. Drake was the hero of the hour. The queen herself had shared his ill-gotten plunder. The cry of Elizabeth's England was for gold. So when Gilbert undertook the task of carrying English colonists to the shores of the New World, Elizabeth tried to turn him from his purpose. He was willing to brave the displeasure of his royal mistress. There was no gold to be got out of his lofty scheme, but he stood firm. He had dreams of making his colony a starting-point for the north-west passage. He was no common adventurer. He had a great mind and a great soul. "He is not worthy to live at all that, for fear or danger of death, shunneth his country's service and his own honour, seeing death is inevitable and the fame of virtue immortal," he used to say when pleading for the Arctic voyage. In 1578, when Drake was sailing round the world in his little Pelican, and Frobisher was fighting his way amid the frozen seas of the north, Sir Humphrey Gilbert was collecting ships and men to plant his colony over the seas. With eleven ships and some 500 men he sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to Newfoundland, but from the very beginning the expedition was a failure. One of the ships was lost, and misfortune after misfortune compelled the rest to return. Undaunted, he tried again. With Walter Raleigh's help he fitted out a second expedition. In 1583 the little fleet left England with a parting gift from the queen in the shape of a golden anchor. But again a series of disasters overtook the expedition. Two days after leaving harbour the largest ship in the fleet deserted. Angrily Gilbert sailed on without it, arriving in safety on the shores of Newfoundland. Summoning Spanish and Portuguese together, he raised a pillar with the arms of England engraved on it, and formally took possession of the country in the queen's name. But it was not easy to keep order. The sailors, after the manner of their day, were lawless adventurers, pirates, and robbers. They only wanted to make their fortune; they had no industry, perseverance, or endurance—qualities needed for all colonisation. Everything went wrong, and at last the would-be colonists begged to be taken home. Only two ships were left, the Squirrel and the Golden Hind. Gilbert commanded the Squirrel, the smallest of the two, and totally unfit to "pass through the ocean sea at that season of the year." But "I will not forsake my little company going homeward, with whom I have passed through so many storms and perils," said their commander. The weather was very wild, the oldest sailor on board had never seen "more outrageous seas." The Squirrel could not weather them, and one night she foundered with all hands. Gilbert was last seen, his Bible in his hand, bidding his terrified companions be of good cheer. "We are as near to heaven by water as by land," he cried as the little Squirrel went down into the deep Atlantic with her brave commander. Though he failed, Sir Humphrey Gilbert was called the Father of American colonisation, because it was he who first turned men's thoughts from plundering exploits to the higher aims of civilisation.	955	ENGLISH	1
Thor Heyerdahl decided to recreate the seagoing crafts of 3,000 BC. There were written records of giant oceangoing reed boats (sailable and steerable.) There were also drawings that he used in his constructions. One book documented his two attempts at papyrus boats RA I and RA II. The second book is about his Berdi reed boat, Tigris (The Tigris Expedition.) These boats could hog and snake to their hearts content because their floatation was due to the reeds, not a hollow space. He found marsh people who still mixed tar and pitch to make waterproof coatings. Tar was too hard and pitch too thin. A careful reading of the Bible shows that it is a reed boat described. A reed boat would be unsinkable even in a storm, such as the Bible describes. I have a site that goes into detail. http://sites.google.com/site/noahsfloodsite/ As a sidelight, the claim that the world was one continent is based on one verse that says the land was divided. Probably a better interpretation is that people parceled out the land at that time, but best to stick to the thread idea, the boat that does float. That sounds like RA 1 that was not built tightly and had to be abandoned short of reaching America. The second was tied tightly and sailed all the way across the Atlantic. The Tigris was built with new knowledge that the reeds must be picked, as I remember, in December. None were built using the tar and pitch used by the ancients, but the RA II and the Tigris lasted months. One recent reed shipbuilder built the ship with dried out reeds and did not make it half way across the Atlantic. The pieces of tar that were found in ancient shipbuilding sites had grooves for the reeds on one side and barnacles on the other. Our surviving records list two standard boats, the 300 and the 100. We think that they refer to some cargo capacity, but are not sure. What we do know is that we don't know all the secrets of reed shipbuilding that the ancients discovered. We can't say that they couldn't have built large boats until we learn more. For example, what type of mast did the Mata Rangi employ? Thor Heyerdahl stressed that a single pole mast like wooden ships use would destroy the ship. It is so easy to make the mistakes that the ancients learned to avoid. I think the defining answer was several pages back when it was made clear that * the boat would shear itself to pieces, even IF it floated safely * the boat would not float upright, it would roll, yaw and pitch and spin and then sink within a few minutes of a torrential flood * the boat would spring so many leaks it wouldn't last 40 days, let alone a year, no matter how calm the waters * the boat was non-ventilated, so the animals and people would die * it would be physically impossible to fit all the animals of all the world into a space that small * it would be physically impossible to fit all the food for all the animals of the world for a year into a space that small, even IF there weren't that many animals * it would be physically impossible to keep enough food fresh enough for all the animals of all the world to eat, without magical non-electric fridges and ice that kept cool but didn't melt * it would be physically impossible for a crew of 8? 12? to muck out AND run the ship containing all the animals of all the world, for 40 days and nights (let alone a year) * it would be physically impossible, even given magic scaling-up and magic trees, for one man to make a boat (that was the wrong shape to even float safely) that large with stone-age tools, even IF it took him 40 years * it would be physically impossible for that amount of water to even appear and then disappear from the surface of the earth * it would be physically impossible for such a small tribe of people to populate the entire earth in what amounts to three generations, even IF you handwave the inability of these people to cross the great oceans and seas so, given that every. single. one. of those is an impossibility, isn't it just a tad unlikely that it ever actually happened? That is true, if they interpreted the Bible right. If, instead, the ship was a reed boat, and the flood was a once in ten millennium flood in Sumer and the animals rescued were the animals of Sumer, all a reasonable interpretation of the verses, then most of your points are not valid. Reed boats are made to twist Not sure about this point - yawing, rolling, etc. There are no such things as leeks on a reed boat. Water drains through. Ventilation depends on the interpretation - not sure It is possible to put 2-7 animals of each type in Sumer on the ark It is physically possible to fit enough dry food on the boat. not sure if any food for carnivores was needed. It is physically possible to muck out and man the boat for this much more limited # of animals. Who said that Noah did not hire people to help him make the boat? It is physically possible for a giant river flood (plus a possible landslide generated tsunami) to occur *It is physically possible for a small group and survivors from outside the flood area to repopulate Sumer. Therefore, you did a great job of proving the interpretation does not represent a real event. That does not prove that the event described in the Bible never happened. A couple of points. If the only animals on the ark were the wild animals found in the marshes of southern Sumer, the area flooded, and only the domestic animals that were adapted to the intense heat of Sumer, then there were not too many animals on the Ark. If there were no significant predators in the region, other than cats, and other small carnivores, then meat for the carnivores would not be a problem. Reed boats, like the Tigris made by Heyerdahl, remained seaworthy after months continuously in the seawater. They did not use the tar and pitch that the ancients used, which may have increased the length of time. We do know that chips of tar that we found from these ancient boats had significant sized barnacles on them, showing that they spent much more than a few weeks in the water. Reed boats are solid crafts, not hollow like wooden boats. waves washing over the boat just flows down through the reeds. It is impossible for the boats to sink. They can break apart or run aground, but they can't sink. The Hogging and other bending movements that cause wooden boats to sink are not a problem with reed boats. We have thousands of years of continuous boat building experience. What you say about wooden boats is true. We have lost most of the scientific knowledge of Reed boat building. The ancients had at least a thousand years to make many errors and learn improvements. We have only made 10 to 20 reed boats, and do not know all of their secrets. Did they solve all the problems you mentioned. When I said "I don't know." I meant that we have no scientific evidence if reed boats can overcome those problems. Yes, some verses seem to be better interpreted as a whole world flood. Other verses seem to be better interpreted as meaning a regional flood. When you examine the original Hebrew in detail, either interpretation can be supported. When two interpretations seem equally valid, I prefer the one that fits known science much better. Yes, a reed boat has problems, but more to do with sailing angles. wooden boats have a single mast that allows them to point closer into the wind. I love you who claim that they get waterlogged without examining the archaeological, historical and scientific evidence. You are the same ones who claim the Christians don't look at the science. Remember, these ships stayed in the water for over a year, the marsh floods could stay flooded for over a year, and this is a perfectly reasonable scenario. It was interesting to read how Heyerdahl hired reed boat builders from Africa (Sudan or Chad) The boat became waterlogged before it reached America. He then hired reed boat builders from Lake Titicaca who built reeds boats made firm, tied very tightly. Though tar and pitch were not used, it sailed to America easily. Then He built a bigger boat out of Mesopotamian reeds. This time, he learned that the reeds had to be picked in December. Something in the reed allowed it to resist the water far longer. Again, with no Tar and pitch, the boat sailed for many months and at the end, this still very seaworthy boat was burned in protest to the Arab/Israeli war. Recently, a group tried to build and sail a boat east from America. They took these lessons but allowed the reeds to dry out without properly rehydrating them. The boat broke apart. Again, they did not use the tar and pitch. We do not know why tar and pitch were used, but ancient Sumerians always used the mixture. They built boats they called the 100 and other boats called the 300. The 300 was clearly used to trade all the way to Pakistan. They had to wait for the monsoon winds to change to sail back. We have recovered tar chips that have reed grooves on one side and barnacles on the other side. We have not learned all the secrets of the ancient boatbuilders because we have not learned even how or why the tar and pitch were used. We have learned that, built right, they don't become waterlogged like happens with some building methods. As for size, we have proven that huge wooden boats can't be built. Giant Reed boats may or may not be possible. It has not been proven either way. As for the posts that mention the Elephants, I am not arguing for elephants. Read my posts before you criticize. Aramco reprinted part of Heyerdahl's Book, Tigris. It lists the harvesting of the reeds. I got the month wrong. Not tying the bundles tight, and harvesting in the wrong month leads to waterlogging. Done right, they claim it will last at least 9 months. Notice also the reference to loads in excess of 18 metric tons. http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198006/voyage.to.the.past.htm Another site describes the reed boats of the Euphrates but refers to the oceangoing tar chips with barnacles and also concludes that the boats were seaworthy for extended periods. They conclude that the tar helps extend the length of time that the boat/rafts remain seaworthy. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3284/is_293_76/ai_n28946720/ Sorry, it is only an interpretation of the Bible that puts all animals of the world in the Ark. It is another and very doubtful interpretation that puts extinct animals on the ark. I have studied the passage, including the Hebrew and see that another valid interpretation is that it was a local flood and only the animals of that local region that were on the ark. No that is not what I said. The ancients had thousands of years to perfect their reed boat building. We try to recreate their technology and make many of the mistakes they made. That is why I referred to the variety of mistakes we made. Though there were very good reasons that people eventually went to wooden boats, the reed boats were practical crafts. Practical Anthropology puts the theories of Theoretical anthropology to the test and often refutes theories. That has been happening with the reed boats. Even with the tar coating, we do not know why it was used. Was it waterproofing? Was it protection from wear and tear? some other reason? This is not settled. More important was the length of time before reeds became waterlogged. One additional reference on my web site was the reed huts that the marsh Arabs lived in. They were floating structures. Every year, they added more reed bundles to compensate for the old (more than one or two years old) that had become waterlogged. Again, it shows the reeds do not become waterlogged in a few weeks. At various times I have stated exactly where I stand. I believe that every word of the Bible is accurate, but the traditional interpretations are not. All along I have stated that the flood was regional, the ark was a giant reed boat/raft, and the animals rescued were only the ones that lived in the region, the Sumerian marsh area. Don't expect me to defend the traditional interpretation. Yes, once a bad interpretation is chosen, one has to keep inventing new miracles to defend the original mistaken theory. This is much like the Ptolamaic earth centered star system. Copernicus made the sun the center of the solar system and eliminated all the corrections. I read someone who claims King Arthur was a warlord in a small section of Cornwall. The Archaeology seems to agree, but later writings magnified the event. People writing after the Bible magnified the event. There are no high hills in the region of Sumer. Visibly, it is just a very flat plain with a "bowl" of the heavens above. The only hills/mountains were the proto-ziggurats. They were considered the mountains that reached into the heavens, the heavenly mountains by the Sumerians. It would make sense that the Jewish/Christian God would cover them and then have the ark land on them as an emphasis that that religion was false. All the visible "mountains" under the visible heavens were covered. Of course, if the Ark was built with reeds, as the Bible indicates, it doesn't matter if the Ark twists because it is the reeds that float, not open spaces as in wooden boats. All ocean going boats of 3,000 BC were reed boats, so this makes sense. When built right, they were very sturdy in rough weather. This would explain why it was called an Ark rather than a ship. Well, that word 'rooms' is actually a word that means erect and is a form of the word that means reeds. The word for wood is also translated stalks, and reeds fit the word stalks. Also, the only other floating craft called an ark was made of reeds. Furthermore, wood boats were only caulked at the seams with tar. The ancient reed boats and even modern reed objects of the area are coated inside and out with a mixture of tar and pitch. Rooms were built on top of the reeds. Large craft could have several stories. Thor Heyerdahl's, The Tigris Expedition, is a good book to read.	<urn:uuid:1bcff3dd-3b78-4982-b5bc-b0d64460f680>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.evcforum.net/dm.php?control=page&t=13629&mlist=on&mbrid=8330&p=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00471.warc.gz	en	0.981337	3,129	3.546875	4	[ -0.07888425141572952, 0.10054300725460052, -0.03677411004900932, -0.1912548840045929, -0.30459684133529663, -0.2330676019191742, -0.43336284160614014, 0.23121798038482666, -0.13343596458435059, 0.24259577691555023, -0.09802406281232834, -0.3205387592315674, -0.13087047636508942, 0.19048616...	1	Thor Heyerdahl decided to recreate the seagoing crafts of 3,000 BC. There were written records of giant oceangoing reed boats (sailable and steerable.) There were also drawings that he used in his constructions. One book documented his two attempts at papyrus boats RA I and RA II. The second book is about his Berdi reed boat, Tigris (The Tigris Expedition.) These boats could hog and snake to their hearts content because their floatation was due to the reeds, not a hollow space. He found marsh people who still mixed tar and pitch to make waterproof coatings. Tar was too hard and pitch too thin. A careful reading of the Bible shows that it is a reed boat described. A reed boat would be unsinkable even in a storm, such as the Bible describes. I have a site that goes into detail. http://sites.google.com/site/noahsfloodsite/ As a sidelight, the claim that the world was one continent is based on one verse that says the land was divided. Probably a better interpretation is that people parceled out the land at that time, but best to stick to the thread idea, the boat that does float. That sounds like RA 1 that was not built tightly and had to be abandoned short of reaching America. The second was tied tightly and sailed all the way across the Atlantic. The Tigris was built with new knowledge that the reeds must be picked, as I remember, in December. None were built using the tar and pitch used by the ancients, but the RA II and the Tigris lasted months. One recent reed shipbuilder built the ship with dried out reeds and did not make it half way across the Atlantic. The pieces of tar that were found in ancient shipbuilding sites had grooves for the reeds on one side and barnacles on the other. Our surviving records list two standard boats, the 300 and the 100. We think that they refer to some cargo capacity, but are not sure. What we do know is that we don't know all the secrets of reed shipbuilding that the ancients discovered. We can't say that they couldn't have built large boats until we learn more. For example, what type of mast did the Mata Rangi employ? Thor Heyerdahl stressed that a single pole mast like wooden ships use would destroy the ship. It is so easy to make the mistakes that the ancients learned to avoid. I think the defining answer was several pages back when it was made clear that * the boat would shear itself to pieces, even IF it floated safely * the boat would not float upright, it would roll, yaw and pitch and spin and then sink within a few minutes of a torrential flood * the boat would spring so many leaks it wouldn't last 40 days, let alone a year, no matter how calm the waters * the boat was non-ventilated, so the animals and people would die * it would be physically impossible to fit all the animals of all the world into a space that small * it would be physically impossible to fit all the food for all the animals of the world for a year into a space that small, even IF there weren't that many animals * it would be physically impossible to keep enough food fresh enough for all the animals of all the world to eat, without magical non-electric fridges and ice that kept cool but didn't melt * it would be physically impossible for a crew of 8? 12? to muck out AND run the ship containing all the animals of all the world, for 40 days and nights (let alone a year) * it would be physically impossible, even given magic scaling-up and magic trees, for one man to make a boat (that was the wrong shape to even float safely) that large with stone-age tools, even IF it took him 40 years * it would be physically impossible for that amount of water to even appear and then disappear from the surface of the earth * it would be physically impossible for such a small tribe of people to populate the entire earth in what amounts to three generations, even IF you handwave the inability of these people to cross the great oceans and seas so, given that every. single. one. of those is an impossibility, isn't it just a tad unlikely that it ever actually happened? That is true, if they interpreted the Bible right. If, instead, the ship was a reed boat, and the flood was a once in ten millennium flood in Sumer and the animals rescued were the animals of Sumer, all a reasonable interpretation of the verses, then most of your points are not valid. Reed boats are made to twist Not sure about this point - yawing, rolling, etc. There are no such things as leeks on a reed boat. Water drains through. Ventilation depends on the interpretation - not sure It is possible to put 2-7 animals of each type in Sumer on the ark It is physically possible to fit enough dry food on the boat. not sure if any food for carnivores was needed. It is physically possible to muck out and man the boat for this much more limited # of animals. Who said that Noah did not hire people to help him make the boat? It is physically possible for a giant river flood (plus a possible landslide generated tsunami) to occur *It is physically possible for a small group and survivors from outside the flood area to repopulate Sumer. Therefore, you did a great job of proving the interpretation does not represent a real event. That does not prove that the event described in the Bible never happened. A couple of points. If the only animals on the ark were the wild animals found in the marshes of southern Sumer, the area flooded, and only the domestic animals that were adapted to the intense heat of Sumer, then there were not too many animals on the Ark. If there were no significant predators in the region, other than cats, and other small carnivores, then meat for the carnivores would not be a problem. Reed boats, like the Tigris made by Heyerdahl, remained seaworthy after months continuously in the seawater. They did not use the tar and pitch that the ancients used, which may have increased the length of time. We do know that chips of tar that we found from these ancient boats had significant sized barnacles on them, showing that they spent much more than a few weeks in the water. Reed boats are solid crafts, not hollow like wooden boats. waves washing over the boat just flows down through the reeds. It is impossible for the boats to sink. They can break apart or run aground, but they can't sink. The Hogging and other bending movements that cause wooden boats to sink are not a problem with reed boats. We have thousands of years of continuous boat building experience. What you say about wooden boats is true. We have lost most of the scientific knowledge of Reed boat building. The ancients had at least a thousand years to make many errors and learn improvements. We have only made 10 to 20 reed boats, and do not know all of their secrets. Did they solve all the problems you mentioned. When I said "I don't know." I meant that we have no scientific evidence if reed boats can overcome those problems. Yes, some verses seem to be better interpreted as a whole world flood. Other verses seem to be better interpreted as meaning a regional flood. When you examine the original Hebrew in detail, either interpretation can be supported. When two interpretations seem equally valid, I prefer the one that fits known science much better. Yes, a reed boat has problems, but more to do with sailing angles. wooden boats have a single mast that allows them to point closer into the wind. I love you who claim that they get waterlogged without examining the archaeological, historical and scientific evidence. You are the same ones who claim the Christians don't look at the science. Remember, these ships stayed in the water for over a year, the marsh floods could stay flooded for over a year, and this is a perfectly reasonable scenario. It was interesting to read how Heyerdahl hired reed boat builders from Africa (Sudan or Chad) The boat became waterlogged before it reached America. He then hired reed boat builders from Lake Titicaca who built reeds boats made firm, tied very tightly. Though tar and pitch were not used, it sailed to America easily. Then He built a bigger boat out of Mesopotamian reeds. This time, he learned that the reeds had to be picked in December. Something in the reed allowed it to resist the water far longer. Again, with no Tar and pitch, the boat sailed for many months and at the end, this still very seaworthy boat was burned in protest to the Arab/Israeli war. Recently, a group tried to build and sail a boat east from America. They took these lessons but allowed the reeds to dry out without properly rehydrating them. The boat broke apart. Again, they did not use the tar and pitch. We do not know why tar and pitch were used, but ancient Sumerians always used the mixture. They built boats they called the 100 and other boats called the 300. The 300 was clearly used to trade all the way to Pakistan. They had to wait for the monsoon winds to change to sail back. We have recovered tar chips that have reed grooves on one side and barnacles on the other side. We have not learned all the secrets of the ancient boatbuilders because we have not learned even how or why the tar and pitch were used. We have learned that, built right, they don't become waterlogged like happens with some building methods. As for size, we have proven that huge wooden boats can't be built. Giant Reed boats may or may not be possible. It has not been proven either way. As for the posts that mention the Elephants, I am not arguing for elephants. Read my posts before you criticize. Aramco reprinted part of Heyerdahl's Book, Tigris. It lists the harvesting of the reeds. I got the month wrong. Not tying the bundles tight, and harvesting in the wrong month leads to waterlogging. Done right, they claim it will last at least 9 months. Notice also the reference to loads in excess of 18 metric tons. http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198006/voyage.to.the.past.htm Another site describes the reed boats of the Euphrates but refers to the oceangoing tar chips with barnacles and also concludes that the boats were seaworthy for extended periods. They conclude that the tar helps extend the length of time that the boat/rafts remain seaworthy. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3284/is_293_76/ai_n28946720/ Sorry, it is only an interpretation of the Bible that puts all animals of the world in the Ark. It is another and very doubtful interpretation that puts extinct animals on the ark. I have studied the passage, including the Hebrew and see that another valid interpretation is that it was a local flood and only the animals of that local region that were on the ark. No that is not what I said. The ancients had thousands of years to perfect their reed boat building. We try to recreate their technology and make many of the mistakes they made. That is why I referred to the variety of mistakes we made. Though there were very good reasons that people eventually went to wooden boats, the reed boats were practical crafts. Practical Anthropology puts the theories of Theoretical anthropology to the test and often refutes theories. That has been happening with the reed boats. Even with the tar coating, we do not know why it was used. Was it waterproofing? Was it protection from wear and tear? some other reason? This is not settled. More important was the length of time before reeds became waterlogged. One additional reference on my web site was the reed huts that the marsh Arabs lived in. They were floating structures. Every year, they added more reed bundles to compensate for the old (more than one or two years old) that had become waterlogged. Again, it shows the reeds do not become waterlogged in a few weeks. At various times I have stated exactly where I stand. I believe that every word of the Bible is accurate, but the traditional interpretations are not. All along I have stated that the flood was regional, the ark was a giant reed boat/raft, and the animals rescued were only the ones that lived in the region, the Sumerian marsh area. Don't expect me to defend the traditional interpretation. Yes, once a bad interpretation is chosen, one has to keep inventing new miracles to defend the original mistaken theory. This is much like the Ptolamaic earth centered star system. Copernicus made the sun the center of the solar system and eliminated all the corrections. I read someone who claims King Arthur was a warlord in a small section of Cornwall. The Archaeology seems to agree, but later writings magnified the event. People writing after the Bible magnified the event. There are no high hills in the region of Sumer. Visibly, it is just a very flat plain with a "bowl" of the heavens above. The only hills/mountains were the proto-ziggurats. They were considered the mountains that reached into the heavens, the heavenly mountains by the Sumerians. It would make sense that the Jewish/Christian God would cover them and then have the ark land on them as an emphasis that that religion was false. All the visible "mountains" under the visible heavens were covered. Of course, if the Ark was built with reeds, as the Bible indicates, it doesn't matter if the Ark twists because it is the reeds that float, not open spaces as in wooden boats. All ocean going boats of 3,000 BC were reed boats, so this makes sense. When built right, they were very sturdy in rough weather. This would explain why it was called an Ark rather than a ship. Well, that word 'rooms' is actually a word that means erect and is a form of the word that means reeds. The word for wood is also translated stalks, and reeds fit the word stalks. Also, the only other floating craft called an ark was made of reeds. Furthermore, wood boats were only caulked at the seams with tar. The ancient reed boats and even modern reed objects of the area are coated inside and out with a mixture of tar and pitch. Rooms were built on top of the reeds. Large craft could have several stories. Thor Heyerdahl's, The Tigris Expedition, is a good book to read.	3,117	ENGLISH	1
Asbestos was a popular building material until it was banned in the 1980s due to its hazardous effects to an individual’s health. The material is often found in residential and commercial buildings built before the 1990’s. Asbestos’ tensile strength and resistance against heat made it a top choice for builders before the material’s dangers were known. Manufacturers took advantage of the material’s various qualities and used it in several applications in buildings. This is why asbestos can be found in the most unlikely places. Below is a list of some to look out for. Earlier speaker designs often contained parts which can produce tremendous amounts of heat, such as the vacuum tubes and tube chassis. Asbestos was used to insulate against the heat from the speaker’s exterior box. The material could also help control the vibrations within the speakers in order to prevent the sound from becoming muddy. Asbestos is effective in lowering echoes and revers within a room. The type of asbestos used for acoustical panels were chrysotile or white asbestos due to its ability to resist sounds, with the material added to acoustical panels and installed in areas which generated large amounts of noise. This included recording studios, churches and theatre stages. Chrysotile was also used in some residential homes in order to provide a sound barrier between rooms. Caulk is used to seal doors and windows to prevent heat coming in and the cold leaking out. The material has also been used for cracks, breaks and other openings. Before the ban, asbestos was added to caulks. The material was able to increase the durability of the sealant in order to prevent it from falling apart. Vinyl was a popular flooring choice in the 70s and 80s. This was due to the large variety of colours and designs available. Vinyl tiles are also durable and require less maintenance than other types of flooring. Of course, the popularity of asbestos and its durability and insulating properties ensured it was added to the flooring material. Apart from tiles, asbestos was also used on wallpaper and other vinyl products. Asbestos was praised for being able to create effective protection against flames and high temperatures. This is why the material was used in jackets and clothing worn by firefighters. It was also used in aprons and mitts used by factory workers who were often exposed to intense heat. Unlike many other common fabrics, asbestos-laced clothes were also durable and had a longer lifespan. These are just some of the unusual places and objects to find asbestos. It is important to have them and any other areas checked for the material if you suspect it contains them. Asbestos Removals Australia has a team who is ready to find and remove any dangerous asbestos on your property. Request a free quote from them today to get started.	<urn:uuid:8e4b57b4-97ed-4912-8d39-314e5ba08951>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.asbestosremovalsaustralia.com.au/blog/places-youd-expect-find-asbestos/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00329.warc.gz	en	0.980658	574	3.328125	3	[ -0.1604052186012268, 0.3324354290962219, 0.44276851415634155, 0.02033473737537861, -0.09125979989767075, 0.08409237861633301, 0.5699433088302612, 0.15333938598632812, -0.47312048077583313, 0.04825215041637421, -0.2925451695919037, -0.0742037296295166, 0.027461525052785873, 0.57368689775466...	11	Asbestos was a popular building material until it was banned in the 1980s due to its hazardous effects to an individual’s health. The material is often found in residential and commercial buildings built before the 1990’s. Asbestos’ tensile strength and resistance against heat made it a top choice for builders before the material’s dangers were known. Manufacturers took advantage of the material’s various qualities and used it in several applications in buildings. This is why asbestos can be found in the most unlikely places. Below is a list of some to look out for. Earlier speaker designs often contained parts which can produce tremendous amounts of heat, such as the vacuum tubes and tube chassis. Asbestos was used to insulate against the heat from the speaker’s exterior box. The material could also help control the vibrations within the speakers in order to prevent the sound from becoming muddy. Asbestos is effective in lowering echoes and revers within a room. The type of asbestos used for acoustical panels were chrysotile or white asbestos due to its ability to resist sounds, with the material added to acoustical panels and installed in areas which generated large amounts of noise. This included recording studios, churches and theatre stages. Chrysotile was also used in some residential homes in order to provide a sound barrier between rooms. Caulk is used to seal doors and windows to prevent heat coming in and the cold leaking out. The material has also been used for cracks, breaks and other openings. Before the ban, asbestos was added to caulks. The material was able to increase the durability of the sealant in order to prevent it from falling apart. Vinyl was a popular flooring choice in the 70s and 80s. This was due to the large variety of colours and designs available. Vinyl tiles are also durable and require less maintenance than other types of flooring. Of course, the popularity of asbestos and its durability and insulating properties ensured it was added to the flooring material. Apart from tiles, asbestos was also used on wallpaper and other vinyl products. Asbestos was praised for being able to create effective protection against flames and high temperatures. This is why the material was used in jackets and clothing worn by firefighters. It was also used in aprons and mitts used by factory workers who were often exposed to intense heat. Unlike many other common fabrics, asbestos-laced clothes were also durable and had a longer lifespan. These are just some of the unusual places and objects to find asbestos. It is important to have them and any other areas checked for the material if you suspect it contains them. Asbestos Removals Australia has a team who is ready to find and remove any dangerous asbestos on your property. Request a free quote from them today to get started.	562	ENGLISH	1
Archeologists in Japan have now confirmed that the remnants of a shipwreck that was discovered last fall is part of a Mongolian armada used in a failed attempt to invade Japan during the 13th century. Discovered below the waters of the Takashima island, the remains measured twelve meters long and three meters across. It had a bow that was pointed southward. This was the second wreckage found by the team that could be linked to the Mongolians' invasion of Japan. The first was discovered in 2011. "We have successfully confirmed the two ships from the Mongolian invasion, and further research on them is expected to lead to the discovery of even more sunken Mongolian ships," said Yoshifumi Ikeda, the head of the research from the University of Ryukyus, via Asahi Shimbun. The Japanese archeologists have arrived at the conclusion by studying the structure and shape of the ship, against all the other artifacts they have found from the wreckage, which included ceramic wares, porcelain bowls, brown glaze vases for pottery, roof tiles and iron ware. These artifacts date back to the 12th or 13th century. The team of archeologists said there were there more ships on the Takashima Kozaki site, which could further suggest the invasion, according to New Historian. "One thing that we hope to learn from the wreck is the kind of materials that were used by the Mongolians 730 years ago, as well as the techniques used in the construction of the ship," said Atsuyuki Nakata of the Matsuura City Board of Education, according to The Telegraph. As history has told, Kublai Khan and his fleet attempted to take Japan in 1274, after repeatedly sending messages to the Japanese emperor to surrender. Their battle was known as the Battle Of Bun'ei. However, strong typhoons prevented the Mongols from successfully carrying out their early invasion. Many of the ships docked at Hakata Bay were destroyed by the strong winds, killing thousands of Mongol soldiers. The Japanese believed this had been the work of the gods and the Kamikaze or "divine wind."	<urn:uuid:48848759-a6fb-498a-ae86-c41a1305d793>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.hngn.com/articles/107016/20150707/archeology-japanese-experts-confirm-found-remnants-shipwreck-13th-century-invasion.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00140.warc.gz	en	0.982742	445	3.5	4	[ -0.383754700422287, 0.03294261172413826, 0.3418291211128235, -0.12051643431186676, 0.0333702377974987, -0.05128047242760658, -0.13050876557826996, 0.32528600096702576, -0.2783956825733185, -0.15218311548233032, 0.43867775797843933, -0.48236405849456787, 0.2911626696586609, 0.31453582644462...	2	Archeologists in Japan have now confirmed that the remnants of a shipwreck that was discovered last fall is part of a Mongolian armada used in a failed attempt to invade Japan during the 13th century. Discovered below the waters of the Takashima island, the remains measured twelve meters long and three meters across. It had a bow that was pointed southward. This was the second wreckage found by the team that could be linked to the Mongolians' invasion of Japan. The first was discovered in 2011. "We have successfully confirmed the two ships from the Mongolian invasion, and further research on them is expected to lead to the discovery of even more sunken Mongolian ships," said Yoshifumi Ikeda, the head of the research from the University of Ryukyus, via Asahi Shimbun. The Japanese archeologists have arrived at the conclusion by studying the structure and shape of the ship, against all the other artifacts they have found from the wreckage, which included ceramic wares, porcelain bowls, brown glaze vases for pottery, roof tiles and iron ware. These artifacts date back to the 12th or 13th century. The team of archeologists said there were there more ships on the Takashima Kozaki site, which could further suggest the invasion, according to New Historian. "One thing that we hope to learn from the wreck is the kind of materials that were used by the Mongolians 730 years ago, as well as the techniques used in the construction of the ship," said Atsuyuki Nakata of the Matsuura City Board of Education, according to The Telegraph. As history has told, Kublai Khan and his fleet attempted to take Japan in 1274, after repeatedly sending messages to the Japanese emperor to surrender. Their battle was known as the Battle Of Bun'ei. However, strong typhoons prevented the Mongols from successfully carrying out their early invasion. Many of the ships docked at Hakata Bay were destroyed by the strong winds, killing thousands of Mongol soldiers. The Japanese believed this had been the work of the gods and the Kamikaze or "divine wind."	456	ENGLISH	1
drowned while attempting to swim across lakes or streams (Chapter 7). However, dinosaurs did have some reptilian contemporaries, pterosaurs and plesiosaurs, which flew and swam, respectively (Chapter 6). These were not dinosaurs, although all three groups had common ancestors. Furthermore, no convincing evidence has revealed that dinosaurs lived underground because no dinosaur has ever been found in a burrow, nor have any burrows been attributed to them. Some anatomical evidence indicates that a few small dinosaurs were capable of climbing trees (Chapter 9), but no skeletal remains have been found in direct association with a fossil tree. Dinosaurs appear to have been well adapted to living in the many environments associated with land surfaces, which obviously worked very well for them during their 165-million-year existence. Dinosaurs are well known for the enormous size of some individual species, in comparison to modern land-dwelling animals. Indeed, some dinosaurs were the largest land animals that ever left footprints on the face of the Earth (Chapter 10). Was this article helpful?	<urn:uuid:67d3d1cb-d19a-4540-813b-46540a89c8ab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.fossilhunters.xyz/defining-dinosaurs/info-sxb.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00477.warc.gz	en	0.982169	216	3.5625	4	[ -0.07922602444887161, -0.43261149525642395, 0.5854150056838989, 0.22692887485027313, -0.3327731192111969, -0.2720998525619507, -0.05841841548681259, 0.2098551243543625, -0.022625630721449852, 0.03783998265862465, 0.1460937112569809, -0.4289403259754181, 0.05231337994337082, 0.3268138170242...	1	drowned while attempting to swim across lakes or streams (Chapter 7). However, dinosaurs did have some reptilian contemporaries, pterosaurs and plesiosaurs, which flew and swam, respectively (Chapter 6). These were not dinosaurs, although all three groups had common ancestors. Furthermore, no convincing evidence has revealed that dinosaurs lived underground because no dinosaur has ever been found in a burrow, nor have any burrows been attributed to them. Some anatomical evidence indicates that a few small dinosaurs were capable of climbing trees (Chapter 9), but no skeletal remains have been found in direct association with a fossil tree. Dinosaurs appear to have been well adapted to living in the many environments associated with land surfaces, which obviously worked very well for them during their 165-million-year existence. Dinosaurs are well known for the enormous size of some individual species, in comparison to modern land-dwelling animals. Indeed, some dinosaurs were the largest land animals that ever left footprints on the face of the Earth (Chapter 10). Was this article helpful?	220	ENGLISH	1
The first city walls in Canterbury were built by the Romans. Canterbury, then called Duverovernum Cantiacorum, was initially probably defended by a small fort but had not required any other civic defences. The security situation in Britain deteriorated in the late 3rd century AD and a circuit of defensive walls were built around the city, probably between 270 and 290. They enclosed an area of 130 acres (53 ha), cutting off the old industrial parts of the western side of the city, but incorporating a cemetery area to the south-east that had formerly been outside the city boundary. New coastal forts were also built across the region at around the same time, and a headquarters for them may have been established in Canterbury. The walls were typically 7.5 feet (2.3 m) inches thick and built of flint and mortar, with some limited use of larger sandstone blocks. The height of these walls is uncertain, but sections have survived that are up to 20 feet (6.1 m) high. The walls stood on a bank of earth between 20 feet (6.1 m) and 30 feet (9.1 m) wide and at least 7 feet (2.1 m) high, protected by a ditch, typically 59 feet (18 m) wide and 16.5 feet (5.0 m) deep, but in places up to 82 feet (25 m) wide. A 10 feet (3.0 m) wide cobbled berm ran between the ditch and the wall. The walls had at least five gates, typically positioned near angles in the city wall, although, judging from the location of Roman roads, it is possible that another two Roman gates may also have existed. The gates linked to the network of major roads that ran across Kent. The Riding Gate, which took its name from the red bricks with which it was built, had two protective towers and a pair of entrance arches for pedestrians and carriages, as probably did Burgate. The Worth Gate, the London Gate and the Queningate had simpler entrance arches. A sequence of square towers protected the walls, and at least one additional wall tower was constructed following the Saxon invasion of Britain in 367. During the 5th century, Canterbury went into decline and its Roman institutions and buildings crumbled, although the city walls survived. In 597, Augustine was sent to Kent by Pope Gregory I to convert the local population to Christianity. Augustine established Canterbury Cathedral within the city, possibly because the walled site gave them additional protection or because it was symbolically important as a former Roman city. Canterbury, now called Cantwaraburh, prospered and its population and trade increased. Much of the land within the walls had become water meadows and farmland, and an palisade may have built around the cathedral and its precinct to form a secure inner stronghold. In the late Anglo-Saxon period, the internal street layout of Canterbury was remodelled, but the line of the outer walls remained the same. A cattle market was created outside the city to the south-east, and Newingate, later renamed St George's Gate, was inserted into the walls to allow easy access to it. During this the period the main axis of the city shifted from the older line of streets running from London Gate and Riding Gate, to the new route between West Gate and Newingate. A lane was built running around the inside of the walls, in a similar way to the intramural streets built around the same time at Exeter and Winchester. Churches and chapels were built over the gates, including St Mary's above the North Gate; the Holy Cross over West Gate; St Michael's over Bargate; St Edmund's within Riding Gate; and, potentially, St George's Chapel over Newingate. Canterbury's walls were mentioned by the early chronicler, Bede, in his history of England. Despite Canterbury's walls, a Viking army successfully attacked the city in 835, killing many of the inhabitants. Scandinavian raids recommenced from 991 onwards and in 1011 a Danish army demanded fresh tribute from the city. The city walls were used to defend the city during an 11-day siege, and the chronicler Roger of Hoveden recounts how the attacking Danes were thrown off the tops of the walls to their deaths by the citizens. Roger's account may be an exaggeration, but the story shows that the city walls were in sufficiently good condition for such a story to be considered plausible at the time. After a fire broke out in the city, however, the Danes entered and pillaged Canterbury. The inhabitants of Canterbury put up no resistance to the Normans during their conquest of England in 1066. William the Conqueror instructed that a castle was to be built in the city; Canterbury Castle was built on the south side of the city and formed part of the circuit of defence, with property being destroyed to make room for it. Despite its location along the walls, historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham have observed that the castle was not an "addition" to the defences, but more an "imposition" on the town within it. The first timber motte and bailey castle was later abandoned and a second, with a square, stone keep, built in 1123. The Worth Gate became the south entrance to the castle site, and a new gate was put into the walls to the east for general use. In 1086, the Domesday Book recorded that 11 houses had been built in the ditches around the city walls, which by then appear to have been in a poor condition. The encroachment was possibly the result of population pressures on the inner, walled city, as Canterbury had spread out well beyond the walls by the mid-11th century. It is unclear how the walls were maintained during this period, and by the 12th century they were in ruins and of little practical defensive value. In the late-12th century, the walls were assigned some limited royal funding through the local sheriff, probably for the maintenance of existing structures, and just over £5 was spent in 1166–67 on these repairs. Wooden "bars" had been placed outside many of the city gates to regulate the flow of traffic by the 12th century, including Riding Gate, Worth Gate and North Gate. One area of the city beyond the wall, called the baggeberi, may also have been protected by its own earthworks during the middle of the 12th century. Canterbury was divided into wards by the 12th century, although these may potentially have been created as early as the Anglo-Saxon period. These administrative districts, named after the city gates, were termed berthae and were linked to maintenance and manning of the city walls. The wards took the form of segments, spreading out from the centre of the city, incorporating the relevant gate and sometimes the suburbs beyond that had spread outside the walls. By the 1160s Canterbury's wards included Burgate, Northgate and Newingate, with the wards of Riding Gate, Worthgate and West Gate being formed by the end of the century. After the 12th century, work on the walls appears to have stopped until the second half of the 14th century. The city walls fell further into disrepair as a result. In some places, over 1 foot (0.30 m) of debris came to cover the remaining stonework of the old Roman walls, while in another case a building was constructed directly over the top of the former defences. In the early 1360s, during the Hundred Years War, there was an increased level of concern about potential French raids or invasion along the south of England. Canterbury was particularly important for the defence of the south-east, as it formed a potential barrier to any invaders marching on London. An enquiry was carried out in 1363 into the state of Canterbury's defences, which concluded that the city was in a parlous position, as "the walls of Canterbury are for the most part fallen because of age, and the stones thereof carried away, and the ditches under the walls are obstructed". Canterbury's bailiffs were ordered to repair the walls, with similar instructions being issued to the authorities in vulnerable cities such as Colchester, Bath and Rochester. The result was what historian Hilary Turner has described as a "well-planned operation", designed to build the walls rapidly, but which still took around 30 years to complete. The city and the cathedral authorities worked closely together on the project, an unusual situation, given the local political tensions that existed between them. Money was needed to pay for this work. During the previous century, a method of taxation had been introduced to support the creation or maintenance of city walls, called murage, which was authorised by the king and applied to trade entering a city. In total, Canterbury was assigned 31 years of murage grants for its walls, starting in 1378, when five years of murage was granted by Richard II, along with a writ allowing them to use stonemasons from across the county. In 1379, a new 10-year murage grant was issued. In 1385, £100 from the issues of Kent was given to Canterbury, and the murage tax extended for a further five years. In the financial year of 1385–86, approximately £619 was spent on the walls. Despite the walls, during the Peasants Revolt of 1381, Wat Tyler and his army were able to enter Canterbury unopposed. 1399 saw another five years of murage granted, followed in 1402 by a final grant of three years. Despite this, progress was not fast enough to suit the royal authorities. Richard II ordered the city to force workmen to repair the defences, and intervened in Canterbury's local elections in 1387 to ensure that two trusted bailiffs – Henry Lincoln and John Proude – were returned to office, in order for the King to have confidence in the walls being maintained. In 1403, Henry IV sent messages to the city complaining that the defences were not being adequately maintained, and that the city was still insecure. A survey in 1402 suggested that most of the city was walled, except for part of the stretch between the West Gate and North Gate. In 1409, the city's bailiffs were allowed to acquire lands worth £20 a year to support the maintenance of the walls, and Canterbury was permitted to draw funding from the royal customs duties for the walls. Murage taxes in Canterbury gave way to the introduction of support through a system of rates, with each ward being tasked to raise money through local taxes on its citizens. The walls became an important symbol of the city, and 15th-century art from Canterbury presents the cathedral and the city wall as having equal status as key features of the city. The resulting circuit of walls followed the line of the former Roman and Anglo-Saxon defences, incorporating them where they survived in good condition. Parts of the 14th century walls, for example along Burgate Lane, have been shown to 4 feet (1.2 m) thick at the base and built of Kentish ragstone; other sections incorporated the original Roman wall, which was still up to 8 feet (2.4 m) high in places. The new walls had a continuous wall walk and were crenellated. Most of the circuit was protected by an external ditch. The city walls retained the older system of Roman and Anglo-Saxon gates. West Gate was rebuilt around 1380 by the prominent mason, Henry Yevele, an unusually prominent architect for a city wall programme. As part of this work, Holy Cross Church was moved from over the gate to a nearby site. The old Roman Riding Gate was cut through by a new archway. Defensive towers were built around the city walls, and archaeological and historical evidence suggests that there were 24 of these. The towers had a generally uniform appearance, with 16 half-circular, or "horse-shoe", hollow-backed towers and eight square towers. The horse-shoe towers followed a fashion that had been popular from around 1260 to 1390, making Canterbury's towers a late example of the trend. The square towers were a newer design, and were built around the turn of the 14th and 15th century by Thomas Chillenden of Christchurch Priory. The reconstructed walls also saw the introduction of gunports. West Gate was an innovative piece of defensive design in this regard, forming a powerful battery, carefully designed to have a wide angle of covering fire. Positioning of the gunloops is similar to those at Cooling Castle, built around the same time, and gave particular focus to the left flank along North Gate, the most likely route for any attackers. Gunports in south-west corner of the city walls are put at alternate heights, for overlapping fire. The first documentary record of Canterbury's guns appears in 1403, when it is clear that there were several kept in the West Gate. A second wave of work took place on the city walls in the late 15th century. Backed by substantial communal effort and financial contributions, Newingate was rebuilt between 1450 and 1470, and probably closely resembled the West Gate in style. Burgate was rebuilt in brick from 1475 onwards, again thanks to public contributions, but it was not completed until 1525, furnished with gunports and anachronistic battlements. Queningate was closed up at shortly after the 15th century, probably following the construction of a new postern gate nearby. West Gate was appointed the city gaol in 1453 by Henry VI, with Canterbury Castle serving as the county gaol. In contrast to Wat Tyler's entrance in 1381, in 1450, Jack Cade and 4,000 rebels were barred entry from the city at West Gate. In 1533, Canterbury reacted with concern to the news of Thomas Wyatt's rebellion in Kent; repairs were made to the walls, guns and ammunition mobilised, and the Riding Gate was blocked up. Queen Mary later thanked the city for their efforts. By 1614, the ditch outside the walls appears to have been partially filled in and the reclaimed land rented out. During the English Civil War, Canterbury was initially held by Parliamentary forces. In 1647, however, riots broke out in protest over the actions of the city's Puritan mayor and Canterbury declared its loyalty for Charles I. Parliamentary forces intervened and reoccupied the city, burning the wooden city gates and deliberately damaging, or slighting, the walls near Canterbury Castle. With the restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660, new wooden doors were installed at the West Gate. Towards the end of the 18th century, horse-drawn coaches became much more common in Canterbury, which lay at the centre of a new turnpike road system. This required extensive changes to the city streets and gateways, which were typically too narrow to be easily navigated by these vehicles. By 1779, Northgate and Burgate had been destroyed to allow wider entrances for the city. Riding Gate was demolished in 1782, but in 1791 the local citizen James Simmons built a new, brick archway on the old foundations, which was rapidly occupied by a new house, blocking most of the gateway. An iron bridge was later built over the site of Riding Gate. The Worth Gate was demolished in 1791 and reused in a local garden, a new entrance being built in its place. Newingate's drum towers were used as a water reservoir for the city, and the gatehouse was not demolished until 1801. Sections of the wall were cut away to allow new roads to be built; the walls near St Radiguns's Public Baths were demolished in 1794 and the city wall around London Gate was demolished around 1800. In other parts of Canterbury, the city walls became used for promenades by the more fashionable citizens. The Dane John Gardens were built between 1790 and 1803 by Simmons in the south-east corner of the walls, remodelling the old castle motte, and incorporating the Roman bank and the medieval wall-walk into the design. The ownership of the land was disputed, and the park was taken into the control of the city shortly after its construction. West Gate continued to be used as the city gaol, resulting in it surviving the destruction of the other city gates. When the reformer John Howard visited the gaol in the mid-1770s, he noted that it contained a large day room for male and female prisoners and two small night rooms, but no courtyard for exercise. Prison reform became an important issue during the early 19th century, and the West Gate gaol was considered unsatisfactory, being condemned as dirty, cramped and insecure, resulting in the extension of the gaol into Pound Lane and the consequent dismantling of the adjacent city wall. There was a legal attempt to demolish the West Gate altogether in 1859, in order to allow the Wombwell Circus to march a parade of elephants into the city; the gatehouse was only saved by the casting vote of Canterbury's mayor. In 1865 the prison was closed and the West Gate became used first for the storage of archives and then as a museum. During the Second World War, part of the city walls near the Dane John Gardens were turned into an ammunition depot, dug into the bank of the wall. German bombing campaigns in 1942 caused extensive damage to Canterbury, including the city walls around Riding Gate. The bomb damage provided fresh opportunities for archaeological investigation, however, and work by the Canterbury Excavation Committee began in 1944. This research disproved older theories about the shape of the Roman city walls, demonstrating that the Roman and medieval defences formed an identical circuit. In the post-war years, the city walls shaped the route of Canterbury's modern ring road system, protecting the inner core of the ancient city, despite proposals under the Holden Plan of 1945 for a radical reshaping of the city's road network. During the 1950s, a stretch of Canterbury's walls were reconstructed, including two circular towers, as part of the redevelopment of the St George district. In the early 1980s, the volume of traffic around the West Gate was causing damage to the structure of the building. The remaining walls and West Gate are protected under UK law as scheduled monuments and as a Grade I listed building. Canterbury's city walls in the 21st century are a mixture of survivals from the multiple periods of building, from Roman to the 20th century, but the majority of the visible walls are medieval in origin. Over half the original circuit survives, and historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham consider it "one of the most magnificent in Britain". Of the original 24 medieval towers along the walls, 17 remain intact, and one entranceway into the city, the West Gate, also survives. North Gate was destroyed in the 19th century, but its former location is marked by a "Cozen Stone", a marker laid down by amateur archaeologist Walter Cozens in the interwar years. Moving clockwise around the circuit from Northgate, St Mary's Church incorporates parts of the walls into its structure, and the original medieval crenellations can be seen in the stonework. Four square towers survive around the walls here, mostly somewhat reduced in height from their original medieval form, and with their gunports converted to windows. The outline of Queningate is marked out on the local road, and parts of the Roman wall discovered in archaeological investigations are presented in a local display. A further two towers beyond Queningate survive, complete with their original gunports. The former site of Burgate is marked by another Cozen Stone, and on the next stretch of wall, one tower survives, used for a period as a water cistern and now incorporated into the 19th century Zoar Chapel. The south-east stretch of the walls beyond the former site of Riding Gate, marked by a 19th-century plaque, are particularly well preserved, including the Dane John Gardens, used as a public park and decorated with sculptures. The two towers near this stretch of wall are reconstructions from the 1950s on the original medieval foundations. Another four towers survive between the former sites of Riding Gate and Wincheap Gate, one of which remains near its original height and retains its defensive crenellations. Beyond the former site of Wincheap Gate the wall has mostly been destroyed, although one tower survives, converted into a private house; the former site of Worth Gate is marked by a memorial stone. The West Gate has survived in excellent condition, and Creighton and Higham describe it as "one of the most monumental of all examples of town gate architecture". Constructed from ragstone and flint, it has two large circular towers at the front, but has a square-facing interior; although fireplaces were built into each tower in the 14th century, their flues were designed to be hidden from sight so as not to spoil its military appearance. The West Gate hosts a local museum and cafe. A final three towers survive on the stretch of the walls between West Gate and the former North Gate.	<urn:uuid:f628a407-bb8c-4820-a777-e754e93b8f34>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Canterbury-city-walls	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00191.warc.gz	en	0.983604	4,333	3.96875	4	[ -0.0024917060509324074, 0.23481787741184235, 0.41128119826316833, 0.0950685366988182, -0.5747874975204468, 0.19679021835327148, -0.2624337673187256, 0.10007800161838531, -0.04279683530330658, 0.1859782189130783, -0.2823162376880646, -0.6802199482917786, 0.17653822898864746, 0.3055030703544...	1	The first city walls in Canterbury were built by the Romans. Canterbury, then called Duverovernum Cantiacorum, was initially probably defended by a small fort but had not required any other civic defences. The security situation in Britain deteriorated in the late 3rd century AD and a circuit of defensive walls were built around the city, probably between 270 and 290. They enclosed an area of 130 acres (53 ha), cutting off the old industrial parts of the western side of the city, but incorporating a cemetery area to the south-east that had formerly been outside the city boundary. New coastal forts were also built across the region at around the same time, and a headquarters for them may have been established in Canterbury. The walls were typically 7.5 feet (2.3 m) inches thick and built of flint and mortar, with some limited use of larger sandstone blocks. The height of these walls is uncertain, but sections have survived that are up to 20 feet (6.1 m) high. The walls stood on a bank of earth between 20 feet (6.1 m) and 30 feet (9.1 m) wide and at least 7 feet (2.1 m) high, protected by a ditch, typically 59 feet (18 m) wide and 16.5 feet (5.0 m) deep, but in places up to 82 feet (25 m) wide. A 10 feet (3.0 m) wide cobbled berm ran between the ditch and the wall. The walls had at least five gates, typically positioned near angles in the city wall, although, judging from the location of Roman roads, it is possible that another two Roman gates may also have existed. The gates linked to the network of major roads that ran across Kent. The Riding Gate, which took its name from the red bricks with which it was built, had two protective towers and a pair of entrance arches for pedestrians and carriages, as probably did Burgate. The Worth Gate, the London Gate and the Queningate had simpler entrance arches. A sequence of square towers protected the walls, and at least one additional wall tower was constructed following the Saxon invasion of Britain in 367. During the 5th century, Canterbury went into decline and its Roman institutions and buildings crumbled, although the city walls survived. In 597, Augustine was sent to Kent by Pope Gregory I to convert the local population to Christianity. Augustine established Canterbury Cathedral within the city, possibly because the walled site gave them additional protection or because it was symbolically important as a former Roman city. Canterbury, now called Cantwaraburh, prospered and its population and trade increased. Much of the land within the walls had become water meadows and farmland, and an palisade may have built around the cathedral and its precinct to form a secure inner stronghold. In the late Anglo-Saxon period, the internal street layout of Canterbury was remodelled, but the line of the outer walls remained the same. A cattle market was created outside the city to the south-east, and Newingate, later renamed St George's Gate, was inserted into the walls to allow easy access to it. During this the period the main axis of the city shifted from the older line of streets running from London Gate and Riding Gate, to the new route between West Gate and Newingate. A lane was built running around the inside of the walls, in a similar way to the intramural streets built around the same time at Exeter and Winchester. Churches and chapels were built over the gates, including St Mary's above the North Gate; the Holy Cross over West Gate; St Michael's over Bargate; St Edmund's within Riding Gate; and, potentially, St George's Chapel over Newingate. Canterbury's walls were mentioned by the early chronicler, Bede, in his history of England. Despite Canterbury's walls, a Viking army successfully attacked the city in 835, killing many of the inhabitants. Scandinavian raids recommenced from 991 onwards and in 1011 a Danish army demanded fresh tribute from the city. The city walls were used to defend the city during an 11-day siege, and the chronicler Roger of Hoveden recounts how the attacking Danes were thrown off the tops of the walls to their deaths by the citizens. Roger's account may be an exaggeration, but the story shows that the city walls were in sufficiently good condition for such a story to be considered plausible at the time. After a fire broke out in the city, however, the Danes entered and pillaged Canterbury. The inhabitants of Canterbury put up no resistance to the Normans during their conquest of England in 1066. William the Conqueror instructed that a castle was to be built in the city; Canterbury Castle was built on the south side of the city and formed part of the circuit of defence, with property being destroyed to make room for it. Despite its location along the walls, historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham have observed that the castle was not an "addition" to the defences, but more an "imposition" on the town within it. The first timber motte and bailey castle was later abandoned and a second, with a square, stone keep, built in 1123. The Worth Gate became the south entrance to the castle site, and a new gate was put into the walls to the east for general use. In 1086, the Domesday Book recorded that 11 houses had been built in the ditches around the city walls, which by then appear to have been in a poor condition. The encroachment was possibly the result of population pressures on the inner, walled city, as Canterbury had spread out well beyond the walls by the mid-11th century. It is unclear how the walls were maintained during this period, and by the 12th century they were in ruins and of little practical defensive value. In the late-12th century, the walls were assigned some limited royal funding through the local sheriff, probably for the maintenance of existing structures, and just over £5 was spent in 1166–67 on these repairs. Wooden "bars" had been placed outside many of the city gates to regulate the flow of traffic by the 12th century, including Riding Gate, Worth Gate and North Gate. One area of the city beyond the wall, called the baggeberi, may also have been protected by its own earthworks during the middle of the 12th century. Canterbury was divided into wards by the 12th century, although these may potentially have been created as early as the Anglo-Saxon period. These administrative districts, named after the city gates, were termed berthae and were linked to maintenance and manning of the city walls. The wards took the form of segments, spreading out from the centre of the city, incorporating the relevant gate and sometimes the suburbs beyond that had spread outside the walls. By the 1160s Canterbury's wards included Burgate, Northgate and Newingate, with the wards of Riding Gate, Worthgate and West Gate being formed by the end of the century. After the 12th century, work on the walls appears to have stopped until the second half of the 14th century. The city walls fell further into disrepair as a result. In some places, over 1 foot (0.30 m) of debris came to cover the remaining stonework of the old Roman walls, while in another case a building was constructed directly over the top of the former defences. In the early 1360s, during the Hundred Years War, there was an increased level of concern about potential French raids or invasion along the south of England. Canterbury was particularly important for the defence of the south-east, as it formed a potential barrier to any invaders marching on London. An enquiry was carried out in 1363 into the state of Canterbury's defences, which concluded that the city was in a parlous position, as "the walls of Canterbury are for the most part fallen because of age, and the stones thereof carried away, and the ditches under the walls are obstructed". Canterbury's bailiffs were ordered to repair the walls, with similar instructions being issued to the authorities in vulnerable cities such as Colchester, Bath and Rochester. The result was what historian Hilary Turner has described as a "well-planned operation", designed to build the walls rapidly, but which still took around 30 years to complete. The city and the cathedral authorities worked closely together on the project, an unusual situation, given the local political tensions that existed between them. Money was needed to pay for this work. During the previous century, a method of taxation had been introduced to support the creation or maintenance of city walls, called murage, which was authorised by the king and applied to trade entering a city. In total, Canterbury was assigned 31 years of murage grants for its walls, starting in 1378, when five years of murage was granted by Richard II, along with a writ allowing them to use stonemasons from across the county. In 1379, a new 10-year murage grant was issued. In 1385, £100 from the issues of Kent was given to Canterbury, and the murage tax extended for a further five years. In the financial year of 1385–86, approximately £619 was spent on the walls. Despite the walls, during the Peasants Revolt of 1381, Wat Tyler and his army were able to enter Canterbury unopposed. 1399 saw another five years of murage granted, followed in 1402 by a final grant of three years. Despite this, progress was not fast enough to suit the royal authorities. Richard II ordered the city to force workmen to repair the defences, and intervened in Canterbury's local elections in 1387 to ensure that two trusted bailiffs – Henry Lincoln and John Proude – were returned to office, in order for the King to have confidence in the walls being maintained. In 1403, Henry IV sent messages to the city complaining that the defences were not being adequately maintained, and that the city was still insecure. A survey in 1402 suggested that most of the city was walled, except for part of the stretch between the West Gate and North Gate. In 1409, the city's bailiffs were allowed to acquire lands worth £20 a year to support the maintenance of the walls, and Canterbury was permitted to draw funding from the royal customs duties for the walls. Murage taxes in Canterbury gave way to the introduction of support through a system of rates, with each ward being tasked to raise money through local taxes on its citizens. The walls became an important symbol of the city, and 15th-century art from Canterbury presents the cathedral and the city wall as having equal status as key features of the city. The resulting circuit of walls followed the line of the former Roman and Anglo-Saxon defences, incorporating them where they survived in good condition. Parts of the 14th century walls, for example along Burgate Lane, have been shown to 4 feet (1.2 m) thick at the base and built of Kentish ragstone; other sections incorporated the original Roman wall, which was still up to 8 feet (2.4 m) high in places. The new walls had a continuous wall walk and were crenellated. Most of the circuit was protected by an external ditch. The city walls retained the older system of Roman and Anglo-Saxon gates. West Gate was rebuilt around 1380 by the prominent mason, Henry Yevele, an unusually prominent architect for a city wall programme. As part of this work, Holy Cross Church was moved from over the gate to a nearby site. The old Roman Riding Gate was cut through by a new archway. Defensive towers were built around the city walls, and archaeological and historical evidence suggests that there were 24 of these. The towers had a generally uniform appearance, with 16 half-circular, or "horse-shoe", hollow-backed towers and eight square towers. The horse-shoe towers followed a fashion that had been popular from around 1260 to 1390, making Canterbury's towers a late example of the trend. The square towers were a newer design, and were built around the turn of the 14th and 15th century by Thomas Chillenden of Christchurch Priory. The reconstructed walls also saw the introduction of gunports. West Gate was an innovative piece of defensive design in this regard, forming a powerful battery, carefully designed to have a wide angle of covering fire. Positioning of the gunloops is similar to those at Cooling Castle, built around the same time, and gave particular focus to the left flank along North Gate, the most likely route for any attackers. Gunports in south-west corner of the city walls are put at alternate heights, for overlapping fire. The first documentary record of Canterbury's guns appears in 1403, when it is clear that there were several kept in the West Gate. A second wave of work took place on the city walls in the late 15th century. Backed by substantial communal effort and financial contributions, Newingate was rebuilt between 1450 and 1470, and probably closely resembled the West Gate in style. Burgate was rebuilt in brick from 1475 onwards, again thanks to public contributions, but it was not completed until 1525, furnished with gunports and anachronistic battlements. Queningate was closed up at shortly after the 15th century, probably following the construction of a new postern gate nearby. West Gate was appointed the city gaol in 1453 by Henry VI, with Canterbury Castle serving as the county gaol. In contrast to Wat Tyler's entrance in 1381, in 1450, Jack Cade and 4,000 rebels were barred entry from the city at West Gate. In 1533, Canterbury reacted with concern to the news of Thomas Wyatt's rebellion in Kent; repairs were made to the walls, guns and ammunition mobilised, and the Riding Gate was blocked up. Queen Mary later thanked the city for their efforts. By 1614, the ditch outside the walls appears to have been partially filled in and the reclaimed land rented out. During the English Civil War, Canterbury was initially held by Parliamentary forces. In 1647, however, riots broke out in protest over the actions of the city's Puritan mayor and Canterbury declared its loyalty for Charles I. Parliamentary forces intervened and reoccupied the city, burning the wooden city gates and deliberately damaging, or slighting, the walls near Canterbury Castle. With the restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660, new wooden doors were installed at the West Gate. Towards the end of the 18th century, horse-drawn coaches became much more common in Canterbury, which lay at the centre of a new turnpike road system. This required extensive changes to the city streets and gateways, which were typically too narrow to be easily navigated by these vehicles. By 1779, Northgate and Burgate had been destroyed to allow wider entrances for the city. Riding Gate was demolished in 1782, but in 1791 the local citizen James Simmons built a new, brick archway on the old foundations, which was rapidly occupied by a new house, blocking most of the gateway. An iron bridge was later built over the site of Riding Gate. The Worth Gate was demolished in 1791 and reused in a local garden, a new entrance being built in its place. Newingate's drum towers were used as a water reservoir for the city, and the gatehouse was not demolished until 1801. Sections of the wall were cut away to allow new roads to be built; the walls near St Radiguns's Public Baths were demolished in 1794 and the city wall around London Gate was demolished around 1800. In other parts of Canterbury, the city walls became used for promenades by the more fashionable citizens. The Dane John Gardens were built between 1790 and 1803 by Simmons in the south-east corner of the walls, remodelling the old castle motte, and incorporating the Roman bank and the medieval wall-walk into the design. The ownership of the land was disputed, and the park was taken into the control of the city shortly after its construction. West Gate continued to be used as the city gaol, resulting in it surviving the destruction of the other city gates. When the reformer John Howard visited the gaol in the mid-1770s, he noted that it contained a large day room for male and female prisoners and two small night rooms, but no courtyard for exercise. Prison reform became an important issue during the early 19th century, and the West Gate gaol was considered unsatisfactory, being condemned as dirty, cramped and insecure, resulting in the extension of the gaol into Pound Lane and the consequent dismantling of the adjacent city wall. There was a legal attempt to demolish the West Gate altogether in 1859, in order to allow the Wombwell Circus to march a parade of elephants into the city; the gatehouse was only saved by the casting vote of Canterbury's mayor. In 1865 the prison was closed and the West Gate became used first for the storage of archives and then as a museum. During the Second World War, part of the city walls near the Dane John Gardens were turned into an ammunition depot, dug into the bank of the wall. German bombing campaigns in 1942 caused extensive damage to Canterbury, including the city walls around Riding Gate. The bomb damage provided fresh opportunities for archaeological investigation, however, and work by the Canterbury Excavation Committee began in 1944. This research disproved older theories about the shape of the Roman city walls, demonstrating that the Roman and medieval defences formed an identical circuit. In the post-war years, the city walls shaped the route of Canterbury's modern ring road system, protecting the inner core of the ancient city, despite proposals under the Holden Plan of 1945 for a radical reshaping of the city's road network. During the 1950s, a stretch of Canterbury's walls were reconstructed, including two circular towers, as part of the redevelopment of the St George district. In the early 1980s, the volume of traffic around the West Gate was causing damage to the structure of the building. The remaining walls and West Gate are protected under UK law as scheduled monuments and as a Grade I listed building. Canterbury's city walls in the 21st century are a mixture of survivals from the multiple periods of building, from Roman to the 20th century, but the majority of the visible walls are medieval in origin. Over half the original circuit survives, and historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham consider it "one of the most magnificent in Britain". Of the original 24 medieval towers along the walls, 17 remain intact, and one entranceway into the city, the West Gate, also survives. North Gate was destroyed in the 19th century, but its former location is marked by a "Cozen Stone", a marker laid down by amateur archaeologist Walter Cozens in the interwar years. Moving clockwise around the circuit from Northgate, St Mary's Church incorporates parts of the walls into its structure, and the original medieval crenellations can be seen in the stonework. Four square towers survive around the walls here, mostly somewhat reduced in height from their original medieval form, and with their gunports converted to windows. The outline of Queningate is marked out on the local road, and parts of the Roman wall discovered in archaeological investigations are presented in a local display. A further two towers beyond Queningate survive, complete with their original gunports. The former site of Burgate is marked by another Cozen Stone, and on the next stretch of wall, one tower survives, used for a period as a water cistern and now incorporated into the 19th century Zoar Chapel. The south-east stretch of the walls beyond the former site of Riding Gate, marked by a 19th-century plaque, are particularly well preserved, including the Dane John Gardens, used as a public park and decorated with sculptures. The two towers near this stretch of wall are reconstructions from the 1950s on the original medieval foundations. Another four towers survive between the former sites of Riding Gate and Wincheap Gate, one of which remains near its original height and retains its defensive crenellations. Beyond the former site of Wincheap Gate the wall has mostly been destroyed, although one tower survives, converted into a private house; the former site of Worth Gate is marked by a memorial stone. The West Gate has survived in excellent condition, and Creighton and Higham describe it as "one of the most monumental of all examples of town gate architecture". Constructed from ragstone and flint, it has two large circular towers at the front, but has a square-facing interior; although fireplaces were built into each tower in the 14th century, their flues were designed to be hidden from sight so as not to spoil its military appearance. The West Gate hosts a local museum and cafe. A final three towers survive on the stretch of the walls between West Gate and the former North Gate.	4,561	ENGLISH	1
On this day in 1796, during the nation’s first contested presidential election, the Gazette of the United States published an article accusing Thomas Jefferson, a former secretary of state, of carrying on an affair with Sarah “Sally” Hemings, one of his slaves. At the time, Jefferson was seeking the presidency as a Democratic-Republican, a political party he had co-founded with James Madison. His rival for the office was John Adams, vice president during George Washington’s two terms and a Federalist. The article was the work of Alexander Hamilton, Washington’s former treasury secretary. It was one of 25 that Hamilton wrote for the newspaper from Oct. 15 to Nov. 24, assailing Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans. They appeared under the byline of Phocion, an ancient Athenian politician. During the American Revolution, Jefferson, Madison, Adams and Hamilton had worked in tandem to end British colonial rule and found the new nation. But after Washington declined to serve a third term, the political climate turned nasty. The Federalists accused the Democratic-Republicans of supporting the French Revolution, which had grown violent, while their rivals accused the “aristocratic” Federalists of favoring monarchism. Adams won the election, carrying nine states to Jefferson’s seven, with 71 electoral votes to Jefferson’s 68. Having come in second, Jefferson became vice president. The contest was the only one in U.S. history in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing tickets. Subsequently, adoption of the 12th Amendment to the Constitution precluded this procedure from occurring again. Hemings was the half-sister of Jefferson’s late wife, Martha, by their father, John Wayles. Most historians have concluded that, as a widower, Jefferson may have had as many as six children with Hemings, maintaining a 38-year relationship with her until his death in 1826. Hemings (1773-1835) lived in Paris with Jefferson and two of his daughters from 1787 to 1789, while he was the American envoy to France. Her duties included serving as a nursemaid-companion to Jefferson’s daughter Maria (1784-1787), lady’s maid to daughters Martha and Maria (1787-1797), and working as chambermaid and seamstress for the Jefferson family. The account of their illicit relationship re-entered the public arena during Jefferson’s first term as president, which began in 1801. It has since remained a subject of discussion for more than two centuries. In September 1802, James Callender, a political journalist, a disaffected former ally of Jefferson, wrote in a Richmond, Virginia, newspaper that Jefferson had for many years “kept, as his concubine, one of his own slaves." "Her name is Sally," Callender continued, adding that Jefferson had "several children" by her. The Federalist camp picked up the story and disseminated it widely, hoping in vain to deny Jefferson a second presidential term. Jefferson offered no public response to the accusation and, so far as is known, made no public or private comments about it. SOURCE: “ALEXANDER HAMILTON,” BY RON CHERNOW (2004)	<urn:uuid:cdd14e9d-f961-404e-89ab-32d4bf4dd3ef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.politico.com/story/2017/10/19/thomas-jefferson-accused-of-having-an-affair-oct-19-1796-243831	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00440.warc.gz	en	0.983463	688	3.53125	4	[ -0.45254451036453247, 0.30008018016815186, 0.17763660848140717, -0.250064492225647, -0.6088716983795166, 0.48698559403419495, 0.09449482709169388, 0.17782434821128845, 0.2127126008272171, 0.22455279529094696, 0.4199710190296173, 0.3960602581501007, -0.14685124158859253, 0.19309526681900024...	5	On this day in 1796, during the nation’s first contested presidential election, the Gazette of the United States published an article accusing Thomas Jefferson, a former secretary of state, of carrying on an affair with Sarah “Sally” Hemings, one of his slaves. At the time, Jefferson was seeking the presidency as a Democratic-Republican, a political party he had co-founded with James Madison. His rival for the office was John Adams, vice president during George Washington’s two terms and a Federalist. The article was the work of Alexander Hamilton, Washington’s former treasury secretary. It was one of 25 that Hamilton wrote for the newspaper from Oct. 15 to Nov. 24, assailing Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans. They appeared under the byline of Phocion, an ancient Athenian politician. During the American Revolution, Jefferson, Madison, Adams and Hamilton had worked in tandem to end British colonial rule and found the new nation. But after Washington declined to serve a third term, the political climate turned nasty. The Federalists accused the Democratic-Republicans of supporting the French Revolution, which had grown violent, while their rivals accused the “aristocratic” Federalists of favoring monarchism. Adams won the election, carrying nine states to Jefferson’s seven, with 71 electoral votes to Jefferson’s 68. Having come in second, Jefferson became vice president. The contest was the only one in U.S. history in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing tickets. Subsequently, adoption of the 12th Amendment to the Constitution precluded this procedure from occurring again. Hemings was the half-sister of Jefferson’s late wife, Martha, by their father, John Wayles. Most historians have concluded that, as a widower, Jefferson may have had as many as six children with Hemings, maintaining a 38-year relationship with her until his death in 1826. Hemings (1773-1835) lived in Paris with Jefferson and two of his daughters from 1787 to 1789, while he was the American envoy to France. Her duties included serving as a nursemaid-companion to Jefferson’s daughter Maria (1784-1787), lady’s maid to daughters Martha and Maria (1787-1797), and working as chambermaid and seamstress for the Jefferson family. The account of their illicit relationship re-entered the public arena during Jefferson’s first term as president, which began in 1801. It has since remained a subject of discussion for more than two centuries. In September 1802, James Callender, a political journalist, a disaffected former ally of Jefferson, wrote in a Richmond, Virginia, newspaper that Jefferson had for many years “kept, as his concubine, one of his own slaves." "Her name is Sally," Callender continued, adding that Jefferson had "several children" by her. The Federalist camp picked up the story and disseminated it widely, hoping in vain to deny Jefferson a second presidential term. Jefferson offered no public response to the accusation and, so far as is known, made no public or private comments about it. SOURCE: “ALEXANDER HAMILTON,” BY RON CHERNOW (2004)	697	ENGLISH	1
Female Houses of Correction were referred to as Female Factories because the convicts were expected to work—to complete set tasks—whilst imprisoned therein. Many of these tasks, for each of the three Classes of convicts, were outlined in the Rules and Regulations first published in January 1829. In summary, female convicts in the: - 1st Class could be employed as cooks, task-women, wards-women, hospital attendants, or in any other manner as directed by the Principal Superintendent of Convicts. - 2nd Class could be employed in making clothes for the Factory, in getting up linen, or in any other manner as directed by the Principal Superintendent of Convicts. - 3rd Class could be employed in washing for the Factory, the Orphan Schools, or Penitentiary, in carding wool, spinning, or in any other manner as directed by the Superintendent of Convicts. Task-women were basically overseers of the prisoners in their Class. Information taken from Hertford Mercury and Reformer 15 May 1847 Also under Convict Administration, task work is mentioned in the Morning Post article: Task work was not implemented to any degree at Hobart Town and George Town Female Factories. When Launceston Female Factory opened in 1834, the following article appeared in the Launceston Advertiser(Thursday, 6 March 1834 p.3 c.2). A Correspondent, who is not ambitious of appearing in print, suggests the propriety of having the women, who may be fated to be inmates of the New Factory, employed in some useful occupations: the suggestions is a good one, and is, we believe, acted upon in Hobart Town [Cascades Female Factory]. We should think indeed, that it must have formed part of the plan contemplated by Government, the regular employment of women confined in our "factory;" in such a manner as would not only be a convenience to the public, but would form a source of revenue might tend to defray the expenses of its maintenance. Such of the women as could not work with their needle might devote themselves to the useful arts of the laundry: all could be employed; all might, we imagine, be made to support themselves. But, in a moral point of view, it is sincerely to be trusted that the Government will see that the Launceston Factory be not a duplicate of the infamous establishment at George Town. In that sink of iniquity, there appears to have been no ruling principle but that of punishment; reformation being lost sight of. The women were sentenced by Magistrates for misconduct "to the Factory at George Town;" and off they went to the Factory at George Town. The Magistrates were not especially to blame; for we believe that to be "sentenced to the Factory" is for the most part an ulterior proceeding in the routine of correction, not resorted to until all else in the way of punishment is found to be inefficacious. But so it was. The women were sent to George Town for ungovernable depravity; to learn more depravity. It has been a disgrace to those who have had the ordering of other things. But let it pass now; the new Factory is nearly finished; and a wholesome state of discipline it is hoped will distinguish its future governance. In which there will be nothing so effectual as keeping its inmates at work; for when the hands are not employed the head is. An article REFORMATION OF FEMALE CONVICTS IN VAN DIEMEN’S LAND from the Hertford Mercury and Reformer 15 May 1847 also describes the introduction of tasks for female convicts in the making of straw bonnets and shirts. REFORMATION OF FEMALE CONVICTS IN VAN DIEMEN’S LAND. At the Middlesex Sessions on Wednesday ELIZA JOHNSON aged 20 years pleaded GUILTY to indictment charging her with felony – The prisoner was rather good looking, and upon being interrogated by the Court respecting her motive for committing the offence which she acknowledged, she said she was tired of the mode of life that she had been pursuing, and she thought that to commit some theft was the readiest way of causing herself to be sent out of the country. The prisoner said that she was quite tired of her life here. What was she to do? She had no friends and it was her wish to get away from the life she had been thrown into, and which she had been compelled to leave for some time. She was quite tired of it – the learned Judge directed her to be remanded till the following morning, in order that some inquiries might be made about her. He should not, under the present state of matters with respect to females who were transported to Van Diemen’s Land, feel so much difficulty in sending out females to that country as he should have done some twelve months since. At that period the state of affairs in connection with the female transports was most lamentable. Now, however, he was happy to say that it was otherwise. An excellent institution for the reformation of female convicts had been established in that colony and placed under the superintendence of Mrs BOWDEN, the late matron of the County Lunatic Asylum at Hanwell. The views and efforts of that lady had been warmly seconded by the Government. The late Governor of Van Diemen’s Land, Sir EARDLEY WILMOT had been removed as the jury might know, and it might not be improper to say that one reason for the removal of that gentleman was, that he had not sent any reports to this country upon the subject. He (the learned Judge) had for some years been in communication with Mrs BOWDEN, while she resided at Hanwell, and had there for an opportunity of judging of her capacity of mind and fitness for situations such as she now filled. Since she had occupied her present situation, she had received material assistance from the home government in carrying out her benevolent views. Upon her arrival in VDL she was astonished to find that all the clothes of the female convicts were sent out from England readymade, and that there was no means of giving employment even by the manufacture of the very clothes they were to wear. The first step she took to correct this evil was to apply to the Government at home to have the unmade material sent out, in order that the female convicts should at least be employed to making their own wearing apparel. That, however, proved insufficient to keep them in work, and she endeavoured to obtain contracts for them to manufacture shirts. These contracts she obtained, but she met with a difficulty in reference to the price for which she had contracted to make them, it being something less that the price of those articles in the colony. Mrs BOWDEN was, in consequence, subjected to a penalty upon the protection system. She was exchequered for making shirts at an under price, but the Government interfered. There was still insufficient employment for the women, and she determined to put them to making bonnets, but upon endeavouring to set about it, to her astonishment she discovered that there was not a single individual in Hobart Town who knew how to make a bonnet. There articles were all sent to the colony readymade, although there was there some of the most beautiful straw in the world. Some of this straw was quickly obtained, and before long Mrs BOWDEN taught herself how to make one; and then teaching the women, she soon succeeded in establishing a straw bonnet manufactory, in which she employed more than 150 convicts. But even after the introduction of these improvements it was found that all the women were not fully employed. Her next efforts were turned to the establishment of a manufactory for cloth on a small scale. In that, too, she succeeded and now had a vessel, the ANSON, engaged to take out wool in the raw state for the purposes of the manufactory. The result of this energy of conduct, was, that the means of full employment were found for all the female convicts, and from a letter which he had received from Mrs BOWDEN the other day, the state of things was gratifying in the extreme, and, in consequence, he should have less difficulty in sending out female convicts in future. If a woman conducted herself well, even although transported for life, she would be benefited by the system now in operation, and she might gain a letter of leave to quit her confinement. She might set up for herself, or marry, and become once more a decent and respectable member of society. The efforts of moral influence had been witnessed by Mrs BOWDEN at the Hanwell Asylum, in the treatment of lunatics; she had applied the system to female convicts and the results had been equally successful. Information taken from Hertford Mercury and Reformer 15 May 1847 In 1849, a more formalised system of Task Work was introduced in the operating female factories—Cascades, Launceston and Ross. Convicts were expected to perform a certain amount of work each day. If they did extra work, they were looked on favourably when seeking indulgence. The Task Work system is outlined in Work of Female Convicts (ML Tas Papers 187 CY1927). The task work which convicts undertook included: - barrack duties - general work, including: A letter published in the English Newspaper, Morning Post 8 July 1846, To the Right Hon. Lord Standley, Secretary of State for the Colonies etc. mentions needlework carried out on the voyage of the Woodbridge by female convicts.	<urn:uuid:ecc3b782-29ae-4c03-ac4c-81964cd2696d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://femaleconvicts.org.au/convict-institutions/task-work	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00296.warc.gz	en	0.987895	1,982	3.390625	3	[ -0.07048459351062775, -0.02699202671647072, 0.4564882814884186, 0.21393266320228577, 0.008148880675435066, 0.1174541637301445, 0.11646156013011932, -0.3276233375072479, -0.28231531381607056, -0.04383186250925064, -0.0353831946849823, -0.38993167877197266, -0.06324323266744614, 0.0978824570...	20	Female Houses of Correction were referred to as Female Factories because the convicts were expected to work—to complete set tasks—whilst imprisoned therein. Many of these tasks, for each of the three Classes of convicts, were outlined in the Rules and Regulations first published in January 1829. In summary, female convicts in the: - 1st Class could be employed as cooks, task-women, wards-women, hospital attendants, or in any other manner as directed by the Principal Superintendent of Convicts. - 2nd Class could be employed in making clothes for the Factory, in getting up linen, or in any other manner as directed by the Principal Superintendent of Convicts. - 3rd Class could be employed in washing for the Factory, the Orphan Schools, or Penitentiary, in carding wool, spinning, or in any other manner as directed by the Superintendent of Convicts. Task-women were basically overseers of the prisoners in their Class. Information taken from Hertford Mercury and Reformer 15 May 1847 Also under Convict Administration, task work is mentioned in the Morning Post article: Task work was not implemented to any degree at Hobart Town and George Town Female Factories. When Launceston Female Factory opened in 1834, the following article appeared in the Launceston Advertiser(Thursday, 6 March 1834 p.3 c.2). A Correspondent, who is not ambitious of appearing in print, suggests the propriety of having the women, who may be fated to be inmates of the New Factory, employed in some useful occupations: the suggestions is a good one, and is, we believe, acted upon in Hobart Town [Cascades Female Factory]. We should think indeed, that it must have formed part of the plan contemplated by Government, the regular employment of women confined in our "factory;" in such a manner as would not only be a convenience to the public, but would form a source of revenue might tend to defray the expenses of its maintenance. Such of the women as could not work with their needle might devote themselves to the useful arts of the laundry: all could be employed; all might, we imagine, be made to support themselves. But, in a moral point of view, it is sincerely to be trusted that the Government will see that the Launceston Factory be not a duplicate of the infamous establishment at George Town. In that sink of iniquity, there appears to have been no ruling principle but that of punishment; reformation being lost sight of. The women were sentenced by Magistrates for misconduct "to the Factory at George Town;" and off they went to the Factory at George Town. The Magistrates were not especially to blame; for we believe that to be "sentenced to the Factory" is for the most part an ulterior proceeding in the routine of correction, not resorted to until all else in the way of punishment is found to be inefficacious. But so it was. The women were sent to George Town for ungovernable depravity; to learn more depravity. It has been a disgrace to those who have had the ordering of other things. But let it pass now; the new Factory is nearly finished; and a wholesome state of discipline it is hoped will distinguish its future governance. In which there will be nothing so effectual as keeping its inmates at work; for when the hands are not employed the head is. An article REFORMATION OF FEMALE CONVICTS IN VAN DIEMEN’S LAND from the Hertford Mercury and Reformer 15 May 1847 also describes the introduction of tasks for female convicts in the making of straw bonnets and shirts. REFORMATION OF FEMALE CONVICTS IN VAN DIEMEN’S LAND. At the Middlesex Sessions on Wednesday ELIZA JOHNSON aged 20 years pleaded GUILTY to indictment charging her with felony – The prisoner was rather good looking, and upon being interrogated by the Court respecting her motive for committing the offence which she acknowledged, she said she was tired of the mode of life that she had been pursuing, and she thought that to commit some theft was the readiest way of causing herself to be sent out of the country. The prisoner said that she was quite tired of her life here. What was she to do? She had no friends and it was her wish to get away from the life she had been thrown into, and which she had been compelled to leave for some time. She was quite tired of it – the learned Judge directed her to be remanded till the following morning, in order that some inquiries might be made about her. He should not, under the present state of matters with respect to females who were transported to Van Diemen’s Land, feel so much difficulty in sending out females to that country as he should have done some twelve months since. At that period the state of affairs in connection with the female transports was most lamentable. Now, however, he was happy to say that it was otherwise. An excellent institution for the reformation of female convicts had been established in that colony and placed under the superintendence of Mrs BOWDEN, the late matron of the County Lunatic Asylum at Hanwell. The views and efforts of that lady had been warmly seconded by the Government. The late Governor of Van Diemen’s Land, Sir EARDLEY WILMOT had been removed as the jury might know, and it might not be improper to say that one reason for the removal of that gentleman was, that he had not sent any reports to this country upon the subject. He (the learned Judge) had for some years been in communication with Mrs BOWDEN, while she resided at Hanwell, and had there for an opportunity of judging of her capacity of mind and fitness for situations such as she now filled. Since she had occupied her present situation, she had received material assistance from the home government in carrying out her benevolent views. Upon her arrival in VDL she was astonished to find that all the clothes of the female convicts were sent out from England readymade, and that there was no means of giving employment even by the manufacture of the very clothes they were to wear. The first step she took to correct this evil was to apply to the Government at home to have the unmade material sent out, in order that the female convicts should at least be employed to making their own wearing apparel. That, however, proved insufficient to keep them in work, and she endeavoured to obtain contracts for them to manufacture shirts. These contracts she obtained, but she met with a difficulty in reference to the price for which she had contracted to make them, it being something less that the price of those articles in the colony. Mrs BOWDEN was, in consequence, subjected to a penalty upon the protection system. She was exchequered for making shirts at an under price, but the Government interfered. There was still insufficient employment for the women, and she determined to put them to making bonnets, but upon endeavouring to set about it, to her astonishment she discovered that there was not a single individual in Hobart Town who knew how to make a bonnet. There articles were all sent to the colony readymade, although there was there some of the most beautiful straw in the world. Some of this straw was quickly obtained, and before long Mrs BOWDEN taught herself how to make one; and then teaching the women, she soon succeeded in establishing a straw bonnet manufactory, in which she employed more than 150 convicts. But even after the introduction of these improvements it was found that all the women were not fully employed. Her next efforts were turned to the establishment of a manufactory for cloth on a small scale. In that, too, she succeeded and now had a vessel, the ANSON, engaged to take out wool in the raw state for the purposes of the manufactory. The result of this energy of conduct, was, that the means of full employment were found for all the female convicts, and from a letter which he had received from Mrs BOWDEN the other day, the state of things was gratifying in the extreme, and, in consequence, he should have less difficulty in sending out female convicts in future. If a woman conducted herself well, even although transported for life, she would be benefited by the system now in operation, and she might gain a letter of leave to quit her confinement. She might set up for herself, or marry, and become once more a decent and respectable member of society. The efforts of moral influence had been witnessed by Mrs BOWDEN at the Hanwell Asylum, in the treatment of lunatics; she had applied the system to female convicts and the results had been equally successful. Information taken from Hertford Mercury and Reformer 15 May 1847 In 1849, a more formalised system of Task Work was introduced in the operating female factories—Cascades, Launceston and Ross. Convicts were expected to perform a certain amount of work each day. If they did extra work, they were looked on favourably when seeking indulgence. The Task Work system is outlined in Work of Female Convicts (ML Tas Papers 187 CY1927). The task work which convicts undertook included: - barrack duties - general work, including: A letter published in the English Newspaper, Morning Post 8 July 1846, To the Right Hon. Lord Standley, Secretary of State for the Colonies etc. mentions needlework carried out on the voyage of the Woodbridge by female convicts.	2,013	ENGLISH	1
Why does Timothy call Phillip "young boss"? When Timothy rescues Phillip from the sinking ship, the S. S. Hato, he refers to Phillip as "Young Bahss" which is really "Young Boss" written to mimic the way the words sound in Timothy's Caribbean dialect. This form of address was a common practice in the 1940s. However, as the story advances, the way that Phillip and Timothy address each other changes. Phillip begins by calling Timothy "Timothy" since "he didn't seem like a mister" and also "he was black." So Phillip already has assumed a casual way of addressing Timothy that is actually quite insubordinate, considering the age difference and the time-period in which children were directed to respect their elders. Timothy begins by addressing Phillip as "Young Bahss," but changes to "Phillip" as their friendship evolves. The change in their relationship can clearly be seen after Timothy gets fed up with Phillip's childish behavior and slaps him. After this, Phillip asks Timothy if he will be his friend and call him "Phillip" instead of Young Boss. Timothy agrees and tells Phillip that they have always been friends, but changing the way he addresses Phillip, now on equal terms, shows a true friendship beginning to emerge. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:8c3f13af-72ca-41f8-8738-46f364485e86>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-timothy-call-phillip-young-boss-552844?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00082.warc.gz	en	0.98141	271	3.296875	3	[ -0.5149256587028503, 0.4367942214012146, 0.24712207913398743, 0.020423877984285355, -0.2455257922410965, -0.6843045353889465, 0.23551389575004578, -0.04369053617119789, -0.19482721388339996, -0.3573630452156067, 0.35924407839775085, 0.1881064921617508, -0.002937735989689827, 0.034468710422...	2	Why does Timothy call Phillip "young boss"? When Timothy rescues Phillip from the sinking ship, the S. S. Hato, he refers to Phillip as "Young Bahss" which is really "Young Boss" written to mimic the way the words sound in Timothy's Caribbean dialect. This form of address was a common practice in the 1940s. However, as the story advances, the way that Phillip and Timothy address each other changes. Phillip begins by calling Timothy "Timothy" since "he didn't seem like a mister" and also "he was black." So Phillip already has assumed a casual way of addressing Timothy that is actually quite insubordinate, considering the age difference and the time-period in which children were directed to respect their elders. Timothy begins by addressing Phillip as "Young Bahss," but changes to "Phillip" as their friendship evolves. The change in their relationship can clearly be seen after Timothy gets fed up with Phillip's childish behavior and slaps him. After this, Phillip asks Timothy if he will be his friend and call him "Phillip" instead of Young Boss. Timothy agrees and tells Phillip that they have always been friends, but changing the way he addresses Phillip, now on equal terms, shows a true friendship beginning to emerge. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	269	ENGLISH	1
\| US CURRENCY The United States, like any other country, has it's very own currency! In terms of "bills", we have the $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100. In terms of "coins", we have the penny, which is worth one cent, the nickle, which is worth five cents, the dime, which is worth ten cents, the quarter, which is worth twenty-five cents, and the dollar coin, which people rarely use, honestly. In order to get an understanding of worth for each bit of currency, allow me to demonstrate: Say that these are pennies: ******* And these are dollars: $$$$$$ Using that information, one penny would be one , and one dollar would be one $. In order to make up one $, one would need over a hundred . Can you imagine counting that? That's why quarters are better. Let's pretend that these are quarters: @@@@@@@. In order to make up on $, one would need only four @. Much easier, right? Well, what if we needed five dollars but did not have a fiver dollar bill? Pennies would take forever. Quarters might take even longer. That's why dollar bills are useful! In order to make five $$$$$, one would need only five one-dollar bills! Much easier! Money is a very interesting thing in the US. IF you make a hundred dollars, then you earned it! And despite what others may say, that doesn't mean you are taking that hundred from another person. It simply means that they did not make a hundred dollars, but they still could. In US, you are allowed to find a job, no matter what your gender, race, sexual orientation or whatever else is! Everyone should make at least minimum wage, which is about $7.25 nowadays. It's wrong for an employer to make a person work many hours, and pay them only a dollar or a dime. They should at least make enough to afford a small living. Children in the US are not allowed to work. Of course, they can babysit or walk dogs or start their own little businesses, but they are not allowed to work in dangerous or hazardous places. Even when you get to the working age in the US, which is fifteen, you are still restricted from many different jobs because they are unsafe for young people. These are called Child Labor Laws. Once, a long time ago, the United States was a lot less fair, and it used to allow children as young as five years old work with heavy machinery. They were treated as adults are---if you got hurt, you were screwed and they might have found another worker to take your place. However, after a long time of protesting, Child Labor Laws were created to prevent children from missing out on their educations and their childhoods. Even adults have rights in the workforce here in the US. For example, if you fall or get hurt on the job, you are entitled to worker's compensation. Things like this are important to note, and sometimes go completely unexplained to undocumented immigrants in the US. That is why it's important to speak English, or know someone who does, so that you can find out this information. However, I don't know much about undocumented immigrant rights in the US, so that's why I'm only explaining this from the perspective of someone is who is already a citizen or is planning to become one! \| THE STORY OF THE AMERICAN FLAG: The American Flag is a major cultural symbol for Americans. To burn, deface, or urinate on it is a major insult to Americans. The design is sometimes called "Stars n' Stripes". The Stars represent the fifty states, and the Bars represent that original thirteen colonies. Just as the British have nicknames for their flag, like the Union Jack, American's have nicknames for our flag, like Old Glory or Stars n' Stripes. If you ever visit the US, you might notice the colors everywhere. Our nations colors are the patriotic Red, White and Blue. You will see that in many historic towns, at baseball games, and on the major US holiday, Forth of July. The truth is that nobody really knows who came up with the design. Back in the olden days, around 1700, the US did not have a flag. We were just a ragtag bunch of colonies owned by the British. Like I said earlier, there were originally thirteen colonies: Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Virginia. Despite not knowing WHO created the flag, we are definitely sure of WHY it was created. The colonies no longer wanted to be controlled by the British. Instead, they wanted to be something else---something better. The uprising which followed this realization is known in American history as the American Revolution. They say that the person who first made the flag was a woman named Betsy Ross, who owned a sewing shop and was well-known for her incredible skill. During the revolution, there were many different flags throughout the colonies. But by the end of the war, it was clear that the US needed one flag. That's the flag of today! However, originally, no one said where the horizontal stripes should go. So, people put them wherever they wanted to. The flag became a symbol of intense pride for our country, and in the war of 1812 (our only war ever with Canada), the flag inspired our national anthem,"The Star-Spangled Banner", written by Frances Scott Key. Soon after that, our flag was set in stone. The stripes were horizontal to everyone. Then, many many years later, our country was split in two by a civil war. It was a very intense war over a whole lot of differences. It was between the north and the south. This war brought about a new flag. The confederate flag. Most people in the US believe that the confederate flag stands for slavery. In some respects, it does. The South fought to keep slavery alive, which is awful. Northerners were intensely against slavery (Though much of the north depended on slavery for their factories. Without a southern slaves to pick the cotton, they never would have had running textile mills). However, to the educated southerner, the flag represents freedom, liberty, and rebellion. In my opinion, the confederate flag is better left in museums. It's a very controversial topic, even today! And the civil war was in the 1800s!	<urn:uuid:9816a996-7179-48b1-9784-c3c4d086ea3a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://blog-city.info/en/usa.php?Page=3	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00101.warc.gz	en	0.980271	1,368	3.453125	3	[ -0.40540874004364014, -0.5139558911323547, 0.026966020464897156, -0.3386184871196747, 0.09290917217731476, 0.014519492164254189, 0.05051179975271225, 0.17597515881061554, 0.002719579730182886, 0.013409757055342197, 0.30875957012176514, 0.11595523357391357, 0.08527780324220657, 0.1660798490...	3	\| US CURRENCY The United States, like any other country, has it's very own currency! In terms of "bills", we have the $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100. In terms of "coins", we have the penny, which is worth one cent, the nickle, which is worth five cents, the dime, which is worth ten cents, the quarter, which is worth twenty-five cents, and the dollar coin, which people rarely use, honestly. In order to get an understanding of worth for each bit of currency, allow me to demonstrate: Say that these are pennies: ******* And these are dollars: $$$$$$ Using that information, one penny would be one , and one dollar would be one $. In order to make up one $, one would need over a hundred . Can you imagine counting that? That's why quarters are better. Let's pretend that these are quarters: @@@@@@@. In order to make up on $, one would need only four @. Much easier, right? Well, what if we needed five dollars but did not have a fiver dollar bill? Pennies would take forever. Quarters might take even longer. That's why dollar bills are useful! In order to make five $$$$$, one would need only five one-dollar bills! Much easier! Money is a very interesting thing in the US. IF you make a hundred dollars, then you earned it! And despite what others may say, that doesn't mean you are taking that hundred from another person. It simply means that they did not make a hundred dollars, but they still could. In US, you are allowed to find a job, no matter what your gender, race, sexual orientation or whatever else is! Everyone should make at least minimum wage, which is about $7.25 nowadays. It's wrong for an employer to make a person work many hours, and pay them only a dollar or a dime. They should at least make enough to afford a small living. Children in the US are not allowed to work. Of course, they can babysit or walk dogs or start their own little businesses, but they are not allowed to work in dangerous or hazardous places. Even when you get to the working age in the US, which is fifteen, you are still restricted from many different jobs because they are unsafe for young people. These are called Child Labor Laws. Once, a long time ago, the United States was a lot less fair, and it used to allow children as young as five years old work with heavy machinery. They were treated as adults are---if you got hurt, you were screwed and they might have found another worker to take your place. However, after a long time of protesting, Child Labor Laws were created to prevent children from missing out on their educations and their childhoods. Even adults have rights in the workforce here in the US. For example, if you fall or get hurt on the job, you are entitled to worker's compensation. Things like this are important to note, and sometimes go completely unexplained to undocumented immigrants in the US. That is why it's important to speak English, or know someone who does, so that you can find out this information. However, I don't know much about undocumented immigrant rights in the US, so that's why I'm only explaining this from the perspective of someone is who is already a citizen or is planning to become one! \| THE STORY OF THE AMERICAN FLAG: The American Flag is a major cultural symbol for Americans. To burn, deface, or urinate on it is a major insult to Americans. The design is sometimes called "Stars n' Stripes". The Stars represent the fifty states, and the Bars represent that original thirteen colonies. Just as the British have nicknames for their flag, like the Union Jack, American's have nicknames for our flag, like Old Glory or Stars n' Stripes. If you ever visit the US, you might notice the colors everywhere. Our nations colors are the patriotic Red, White and Blue. You will see that in many historic towns, at baseball games, and on the major US holiday, Forth of July. The truth is that nobody really knows who came up with the design. Back in the olden days, around 1700, the US did not have a flag. We were just a ragtag bunch of colonies owned by the British. Like I said earlier, there were originally thirteen colonies: Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Virginia. Despite not knowing WHO created the flag, we are definitely sure of WHY it was created. The colonies no longer wanted to be controlled by the British. Instead, they wanted to be something else---something better. The uprising which followed this realization is known in American history as the American Revolution. They say that the person who first made the flag was a woman named Betsy Ross, who owned a sewing shop and was well-known for her incredible skill. During the revolution, there were many different flags throughout the colonies. But by the end of the war, it was clear that the US needed one flag. That's the flag of today! However, originally, no one said where the horizontal stripes should go. So, people put them wherever they wanted to. The flag became a symbol of intense pride for our country, and in the war of 1812 (our only war ever with Canada), the flag inspired our national anthem,"The Star-Spangled Banner", written by Frances Scott Key. Soon after that, our flag was set in stone. The stripes were horizontal to everyone. Then, many many years later, our country was split in two by a civil war. It was a very intense war over a whole lot of differences. It was between the north and the south. This war brought about a new flag. The confederate flag. Most people in the US believe that the confederate flag stands for slavery. In some respects, it does. The South fought to keep slavery alive, which is awful. Northerners were intensely against slavery (Though much of the north depended on slavery for their factories. Without a southern slaves to pick the cotton, they never would have had running textile mills). However, to the educated southerner, the flag represents freedom, liberty, and rebellion. In my opinion, the confederate flag is better left in museums. It's a very controversial topic, even today! And the civil war was in the 1800s!	1,367	ENGLISH	1
(CNN)On this week more than 150 years ago, dozens of Native American men were killed by the government in the largest mass execution in US history. This week is the somber anniversary of the largest mass execution in the US In the Dakota War of 1862, also known as the Sioux Uprising, groups of Dakota (part of the Sioux group of Native American tribes) were angry with the US government over broken land treaties and late annuity payments. Times were tough, too, and Dakota families were starving. Dakota natives went to war against white settlers in Minnesota, which had just become a state four years prior. The fighting lasted six weeks, according to the Minnesota History Center. More than 500 white people and 60 natives died in the fighting, the Wisconsin Historical Society reports. The uprising ended on December 26, when 38 Dakota natives were hanged in Mankato, Minnesota, in a mass execution. The remaining natives were forced to leave Minnesota -- at first being held at a camp and then being sent out of the state. Originally, more than 300 men were sentenced to hanging by then Minnesota Gov. Alexander Ramsey. The number was reduced when President Abraham Lincoln wrote a letter to the governor, listing 39 names to be hanged instead. One was later granted a reprieve.	<urn:uuid:aae19919-9c68-4fc5-b13c-cc91b7e44dab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cnn.com/2019/12/28/us/dakota-38-anniversary-trnd/index.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00479.warc.gz	en	0.9865	263	3.765625	4	[ -0.14605998992919922, 0.34446093440055847, 0.038254767656326294, -0.357119083404541, 0.07114912569522858, 0.11255937814712524, -0.1966131329536438, 0.14879989624023438, -0.2582053542137146, 0.05819655954837799, 0.20632804930210114, 0.1257077157497406, 0.09059948474168777, 0.354207336902618...	1	(CNN)On this week more than 150 years ago, dozens of Native American men were killed by the government in the largest mass execution in US history. This week is the somber anniversary of the largest mass execution in the US In the Dakota War of 1862, also known as the Sioux Uprising, groups of Dakota (part of the Sioux group of Native American tribes) were angry with the US government over broken land treaties and late annuity payments. Times were tough, too, and Dakota families were starving. Dakota natives went to war against white settlers in Minnesota, which had just become a state four years prior. The fighting lasted six weeks, according to the Minnesota History Center. More than 500 white people and 60 natives died in the fighting, the Wisconsin Historical Society reports. The uprising ended on December 26, when 38 Dakota natives were hanged in Mankato, Minnesota, in a mass execution. The remaining natives were forced to leave Minnesota -- at first being held at a camp and then being sent out of the state. Originally, more than 300 men were sentenced to hanging by then Minnesota Gov. Alexander Ramsey. The number was reduced when President Abraham Lincoln wrote a letter to the governor, listing 39 names to be hanged instead. One was later granted a reprieve.	281	ENGLISH	1
Abigail Adams Too often in society women are depreciated because of their gender, despite their numerous abilities and achievements. During the eighteenth century, a woman named Abigail Adams became an advocate for women’s rights and fought for individual freedoms that were feasible for men, but rarely for women. She refused to stand by and allow women to be suppressed of their capabilities and their rights. Abigail Adams was not only the first lady to the president, but also an early feminist voice and an abolitionist who contributed to American History. In order to comprehend why Abigail felt so strongly about her beliefs, it is important to know how her beliefs became rooted. Her maiden name was Abigail Smith and she was born on November 11, 1744 at the North Parish Congregational Church in Weymouth, Massachusetts. Abigail didn’t receive a formal education; she was frequently sick as a child, which may have been a factor that led to her lack of education. Although she couldn’t receive a formal education, her mother taught her how to read, write, and cipher. Her father’s, uncle’s, and grandfather’s large libraries enabled her to study English and French literature. As third cousins, John and Abigail had known each other since they were children. John was quickly attracted to the petite, shy, 17-year-old with a passion for reading and writing. The couple got married on October 25, 1764, in the Smith’s home in Weymouth. Within a span of 12 years, she gave birth to six children. Abigail took responsibility for the family’s financial matters, including investments. John Adams was inaugurated as the second President of the United States on March 4, 1779. Abigail took an active role in politics and policy because her husband was President, unlike most women would have during that time era. Although she was most known for her letters she wrote to John, she was also a major advocate for the right of education for women which was her greatest contribution to American History. Abigail made her purpose clear that women would no longer stand for unfair and unjust treatment. In fact, she wrote to the Continental Congress as they worked on forming the United States government to “remember the ladies”. Her lasting impact on today is her support on the fight to abolish slavery which she believed to be evil and a threat to democracy. She was extremely discontent with living in the White House due to the presence of slaves. On February 13, 1791, Abigail wrote her husband a letter about a black boy who asked her if he can go to school to learn how to read and write. Abigail immediately enrolled him in the local school, but neighbors rejected the presence of a black boy. She stuck up for the boy, which she described as a freeman, by confronting the racist whites. On December 6, 1865, the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery was ratified. On August 26, 1920, the amendment for women’s suffrage was also ratified. Abigail Adams posed the first ideas of social revolution, starting a movement that finally utilized her ideas. She challenged the society of men all around her. Though her ideas didn’t impact during her time period, it was the basis of all social revolutions since. Abigail Adams paved a path for women which is still being followed today. Work Cited Page: History.com Staff. “Abigail Adams asks her husband to “remember the ladies”.” History.com, A E Networks, 2009, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/abigail-adams-asks-her-husband-to-remember-the-ladies.Baker, Chloe. Abigail Adams’ Impact on the American Revolution…or Lack Thereof? 22 Oct. 2010, sites.google.com/site/csbhush63/home/quarter-1/essays/abigail-adams-impact-on-the-american-revolution-or-lack-thereof.Noble, Laurie Carter. “Abigail Adams.” Dictionary of Unitarian & Universalist Biography. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Oct. 2010. http://www25.uua.org/?uuhs/?duub/?articles/?abigailadams.html.	<urn:uuid:0256540d-68ca-4651-bfc1-8d2d7fcacdcf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wallaceandjames.com/abigail-to-abolish-slavery-which-she-believed-to/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00084.warc.gz	en	0.982022	922	3.71875	4	[ 0.10318464785814285, 0.44442522525787354, 0.04303760081529617, -0.025013823062181473, -0.34423941373825073, 0.34198981523513794, 0.17204035818576813, -0.15790103375911713, 0.09074226021766663, -0.2809103727340698, -0.20370060205459595, 0.24897107481956482, 0.4513886570930481, 0.03133218735...	3	Abigail Adams Too often in society women are depreciated because of their gender, despite their numerous abilities and achievements. During the eighteenth century, a woman named Abigail Adams became an advocate for women’s rights and fought for individual freedoms that were feasible for men, but rarely for women. She refused to stand by and allow women to be suppressed of their capabilities and their rights. Abigail Adams was not only the first lady to the president, but also an early feminist voice and an abolitionist who contributed to American History. In order to comprehend why Abigail felt so strongly about her beliefs, it is important to know how her beliefs became rooted. Her maiden name was Abigail Smith and she was born on November 11, 1744 at the North Parish Congregational Church in Weymouth, Massachusetts. Abigail didn’t receive a formal education; she was frequently sick as a child, which may have been a factor that led to her lack of education. Although she couldn’t receive a formal education, her mother taught her how to read, write, and cipher. Her father’s, uncle’s, and grandfather’s large libraries enabled her to study English and French literature. As third cousins, John and Abigail had known each other since they were children. John was quickly attracted to the petite, shy, 17-year-old with a passion for reading and writing. The couple got married on October 25, 1764, in the Smith’s home in Weymouth. Within a span of 12 years, she gave birth to six children. Abigail took responsibility for the family’s financial matters, including investments. John Adams was inaugurated as the second President of the United States on March 4, 1779. Abigail took an active role in politics and policy because her husband was President, unlike most women would have during that time era. Although she was most known for her letters she wrote to John, she was also a major advocate for the right of education for women which was her greatest contribution to American History. Abigail made her purpose clear that women would no longer stand for unfair and unjust treatment. In fact, she wrote to the Continental Congress as they worked on forming the United States government to “remember the ladies”. Her lasting impact on today is her support on the fight to abolish slavery which she believed to be evil and a threat to democracy. She was extremely discontent with living in the White House due to the presence of slaves. On February 13, 1791, Abigail wrote her husband a letter about a black boy who asked her if he can go to school to learn how to read and write. Abigail immediately enrolled him in the local school, but neighbors rejected the presence of a black boy. She stuck up for the boy, which she described as a freeman, by confronting the racist whites. On December 6, 1865, the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery was ratified. On August 26, 1920, the amendment for women’s suffrage was also ratified. Abigail Adams posed the first ideas of social revolution, starting a movement that finally utilized her ideas. She challenged the society of men all around her. Though her ideas didn’t impact during her time period, it was the basis of all social revolutions since. Abigail Adams paved a path for women which is still being followed today. Work Cited Page: History.com Staff. “Abigail Adams asks her husband to “remember the ladies”.” History.com, A E Networks, 2009, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/abigail-adams-asks-her-husband-to-remember-the-ladies.Baker, Chloe. Abigail Adams’ Impact on the American Revolution…or Lack Thereof? 22 Oct. 2010, sites.google.com/site/csbhush63/home/quarter-1/essays/abigail-adams-impact-on-the-american-revolution-or-lack-thereof.Noble, Laurie Carter. “Abigail Adams.” Dictionary of Unitarian & Universalist Biography. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Oct. 2010. http://www25.uua.org/?uuhs/?duub/?articles/?abigailadams.html.	891	ENGLISH	1
"I believe that the influence of woman will save the country before every other power." -Lucy Stone Women are spectacular beings that are simply wonderful at everything they do. Whether they are mothers, daughters, grandmothers, aunts, teachers, doctors, politicians, or astronauts, women have the ability to complete tasks with love, purpose, and determination. Nevertheless, it is important to state that for many decades, even centuries, young girls grew up believing that they were inferior to boys and could not complete the same grand things. After years of mistreatment, women around the world began to meet and discuss important issues; this resulted in a movement known as the suffrage. In today's article, we will discuss the most powerful women who led the suffrage and contributed to helping all types of women to earn equal rights. The story of Millicent Fawcett is not a rags to riches tale. Fawcett was born in 1847 in the region of Suffolk, England to a prosperous middle-class family. Nee Garrett, Fawcett was sent at an early age to London with her sister to study at a reputable and prestigious boarding school in Blackheath. Having received an education in London, Fawcett developed an early interest in literature and education. Nevertheless, a pivotal moment in Fawcett's life that inspired her to advocate for women's rights occurred when she was just 19 years of age. What was the occasion? She went to see a speech delivered by MP John Stuart Mill; he was an early supporter of women's rights and suffrage. Stuart Mill made a significant impact on Fawcett and she became very involved in campaigning for women's rights. Despite the age difference, Millicent Garrett married Henry Fawcett who was also a proud supporter of women's rights. After his death, she dedicated even more of her time to supporting women's rights and became the leader and president of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). Although mild in her tactics to campaign for women's rights, her efforts greatly contributed to gaining publicity that eventually resulted in women's equal voting rights in the UK in 1928. Fawcett commented the following about the 1928 decision to let women over the age of 21 vote in public elections: "It is almost exactly 61 years ago since I heard John Stuart Mill introduce his suffrage amendment to the Reform Bill on May 20th, 1867. So I have had extraordinary good luck in having seen the struggle from the beginning.” A truly fantastic woman that left her mark on the contemporary world for her efforts in campaigning for women's equal rights. What's the difference between suffragettes and suffragists? Born as Emmeline Goulden on July 14, 1858, in Manchester, England, she married Richard Mardsen Pankhurst and slowly became the legend known as Emmeline Pankhurst. It is important to state that her husband was a great friend of MP John Stuart Mill who was an early campaigner for women's rights. Emmeline Pankhurst spent her life fighting for women's rights and raising awareness about the injustice faced around the world towards women who did not have equal voting rights as men. Notable victories achieved by Pankhurst include the founding of the Women's Franchise League (WFL) which secured for married women the right to vote in elections to local offices and her active participation in the WSPU led to many achievements for women. Pankhurst was known for her militant campaign strategies that reaped results yet ended in imprisonment in many cases. Both her parents were advocates of equal rights for men and women and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia joined her in the fight against the British government to make women's suffrage a reality. Emmeline Pankhurst died in June of 1928 and the Second Representation of the People Act became law in July of that year making it completely legal for women over the age of 21 to vote. Her legacy has forever been remembered by the British people and in other countries worldwide. For example, she was named one of the 20th century's most important people and in 2015 Meryl Streep wonderfully played her on the silver screen. Dame Christabel Harriette Pankhurst Christabel Pankhurst was born into a family of women's suffrage advocates. Her mother Emmeline and Richard Pankhurst supported movements, delivered powerful speeches, and led women's groups to victory. Since Christabel was raised around the suffrage movement, it was no surprise that in 1902 she started to play an active part in helping women achieve the right to vote. Also, in 1903 she became an active founder and member of the WSPU which was led by her powerful mother Emmeline Pankhurst, probably the most famous suffragette of all time. Christabel had a powerful voice and was effective at delivering powerful speeches in front of large audiences of women. In 1912, Christabel was involved in the increasingly more aggressive campaigns led by the WSPU; harmless public demonstrations had turned into window breaking and arson. Christabel was the writer of the newspaper called The Suffragette and stood for election in 1918, after the war, as a potential candidate for the Women's Party. How did she become a dame? In 1936, her life's work of campaigning for the equal rights of women was recognised and she was made a DBE. She died in 1958 at the age of 77. Emily Wilding Davison Emily Davison was born in 1872 to parents Charles and Margaret in Greenwich, London. She went to Oxford University to become a school teacher. In 1906, Davison joined the Women's Social and Political Union and was responsible for militant actions such as arson, assault, and obstruction of public property. Many other suffragettes were in awe of Davison's daring attitude and striking techniques to get people's attention focused on the suffrage movement. Her aggressive tactics led to her imprisonment on nine different occasions. She was also involved in many hunger strikes, seven to be exact, to gain awareness for women's equal rights. While imprisoned at Halloway she attempted suicide claiming that many people were itching for a tragedy. Emily Davison died at the age of 41. How? From injuries acquired at the Epsom Derby in 1913 when she jumped in front of King George's horse while it was still running on the tracks. It is still uncertain whether Davison's actions were suicide or a powerful feminist movement to raise awareness for the suffrage movement. Nevertheless, thousands attended her funeral in support of her fierce efforts towards women's rights. Maud Arncliffe Sennett Born in 1862 in London to a family who owned a confectionery business, Maud Arncliffe Sennett became interested in the women's suffrage movement in 1906. She was an active member of both the Women's Freedom League and the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). Throughout her years of campaigning, Sennett participated in marches, public meetings, and other events to raise awareness for women's rights. While not one of the most prominent leaders of the suffragette change, she had an intriguing angle of the entire movement that she recorded in various scrapbooks. In total, she fabricated 37 volumes of scrapbooks that included press cuttings, pamphlets, leaflets and letters all pertaining to the suffrage movement in England. Her scrapbooks may have been nothing but a hobby at the time; however, after many years they have proven to provide invaluable information about the suffrage movement and noteworthy events that made it so important. Her scrapbooks now belong to the British Library since they were donated by her husband after her death. One of the most iconic photographs of the suffrage movement is of a young girl being taken away by two police officers. Who was this young girl who's story appeared on the front page of the Daily Mirror and was frequently followed by other newspapers? Dora Thewlis. Dora Thewlis was only sixteen years old at the time she took part in a mission to break into the House of Parliament in 1907. Dora had joined the WSPU and was a proud young girl who wanted to be involved in activism. Her parents fully supported her decisions since they had raised her in an environment of socialism where everyone's voice deserved to be heard. She is quite noteworthy since despite her young age she demanded to receive the same punishment of imprisonment as the other suffragettes. The six powerful women mentioned in today's article are outstanding role models for young girls who want to see their dreams come true and grow up in a world where judgement and comments of inability are a thing of the past. The suffrage movement helped women achieve equal rights so that they could also earn equal opportunities.	<urn:uuid:935fba77-a68c-4bfc-990c-b3982f4371ab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.superprof.co.in/blog/wonderful-women-leaders-and-important-figures-of-the-suffrage-era/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00343.warc.gz	en	0.985481	1,804	3.796875	4	[ -0.3402482867240906, 0.1206122487783432, -0.07695727795362473, 0.35014328360557556, -0.10189598798751831, 0.4743150472640991, -0.20860645174980164, 0.173777237534523, -0.11409586668014526, -0.10277636349201202, 0.06910523772239685, -0.001340337097644806, 0.008990675210952759, -0.2338978201...	8	"I believe that the influence of woman will save the country before every other power." -Lucy Stone Women are spectacular beings that are simply wonderful at everything they do. Whether they are mothers, daughters, grandmothers, aunts, teachers, doctors, politicians, or astronauts, women have the ability to complete tasks with love, purpose, and determination. Nevertheless, it is important to state that for many decades, even centuries, young girls grew up believing that they were inferior to boys and could not complete the same grand things. After years of mistreatment, women around the world began to meet and discuss important issues; this resulted in a movement known as the suffrage. In today's article, we will discuss the most powerful women who led the suffrage and contributed to helping all types of women to earn equal rights. The story of Millicent Fawcett is not a rags to riches tale. Fawcett was born in 1847 in the region of Suffolk, England to a prosperous middle-class family. Nee Garrett, Fawcett was sent at an early age to London with her sister to study at a reputable and prestigious boarding school in Blackheath. Having received an education in London, Fawcett developed an early interest in literature and education. Nevertheless, a pivotal moment in Fawcett's life that inspired her to advocate for women's rights occurred when she was just 19 years of age. What was the occasion? She went to see a speech delivered by MP John Stuart Mill; he was an early supporter of women's rights and suffrage. Stuart Mill made a significant impact on Fawcett and she became very involved in campaigning for women's rights. Despite the age difference, Millicent Garrett married Henry Fawcett who was also a proud supporter of women's rights. After his death, she dedicated even more of her time to supporting women's rights and became the leader and president of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). Although mild in her tactics to campaign for women's rights, her efforts greatly contributed to gaining publicity that eventually resulted in women's equal voting rights in the UK in 1928. Fawcett commented the following about the 1928 decision to let women over the age of 21 vote in public elections: "It is almost exactly 61 years ago since I heard John Stuart Mill introduce his suffrage amendment to the Reform Bill on May 20th, 1867. So I have had extraordinary good luck in having seen the struggle from the beginning.” A truly fantastic woman that left her mark on the contemporary world for her efforts in campaigning for women's equal rights. What's the difference between suffragettes and suffragists? Born as Emmeline Goulden on July 14, 1858, in Manchester, England, she married Richard Mardsen Pankhurst and slowly became the legend known as Emmeline Pankhurst. It is important to state that her husband was a great friend of MP John Stuart Mill who was an early campaigner for women's rights. Emmeline Pankhurst spent her life fighting for women's rights and raising awareness about the injustice faced around the world towards women who did not have equal voting rights as men. Notable victories achieved by Pankhurst include the founding of the Women's Franchise League (WFL) which secured for married women the right to vote in elections to local offices and her active participation in the WSPU led to many achievements for women. Pankhurst was known for her militant campaign strategies that reaped results yet ended in imprisonment in many cases. Both her parents were advocates of equal rights for men and women and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia joined her in the fight against the British government to make women's suffrage a reality. Emmeline Pankhurst died in June of 1928 and the Second Representation of the People Act became law in July of that year making it completely legal for women over the age of 21 to vote. Her legacy has forever been remembered by the British people and in other countries worldwide. For example, she was named one of the 20th century's most important people and in 2015 Meryl Streep wonderfully played her on the silver screen. Dame Christabel Harriette Pankhurst Christabel Pankhurst was born into a family of women's suffrage advocates. Her mother Emmeline and Richard Pankhurst supported movements, delivered powerful speeches, and led women's groups to victory. Since Christabel was raised around the suffrage movement, it was no surprise that in 1902 she started to play an active part in helping women achieve the right to vote. Also, in 1903 she became an active founder and member of the WSPU which was led by her powerful mother Emmeline Pankhurst, probably the most famous suffragette of all time. Christabel had a powerful voice and was effective at delivering powerful speeches in front of large audiences of women. In 1912, Christabel was involved in the increasingly more aggressive campaigns led by the WSPU; harmless public demonstrations had turned into window breaking and arson. Christabel was the writer of the newspaper called The Suffragette and stood for election in 1918, after the war, as a potential candidate for the Women's Party. How did she become a dame? In 1936, her life's work of campaigning for the equal rights of women was recognised and she was made a DBE. She died in 1958 at the age of 77. Emily Wilding Davison Emily Davison was born in 1872 to parents Charles and Margaret in Greenwich, London. She went to Oxford University to become a school teacher. In 1906, Davison joined the Women's Social and Political Union and was responsible for militant actions such as arson, assault, and obstruction of public property. Many other suffragettes were in awe of Davison's daring attitude and striking techniques to get people's attention focused on the suffrage movement. Her aggressive tactics led to her imprisonment on nine different occasions. She was also involved in many hunger strikes, seven to be exact, to gain awareness for women's equal rights. While imprisoned at Halloway she attempted suicide claiming that many people were itching for a tragedy. Emily Davison died at the age of 41. How? From injuries acquired at the Epsom Derby in 1913 when she jumped in front of King George's horse while it was still running on the tracks. It is still uncertain whether Davison's actions were suicide or a powerful feminist movement to raise awareness for the suffrage movement. Nevertheless, thousands attended her funeral in support of her fierce efforts towards women's rights. Maud Arncliffe Sennett Born in 1862 in London to a family who owned a confectionery business, Maud Arncliffe Sennett became interested in the women's suffrage movement in 1906. She was an active member of both the Women's Freedom League and the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). Throughout her years of campaigning, Sennett participated in marches, public meetings, and other events to raise awareness for women's rights. While not one of the most prominent leaders of the suffragette change, she had an intriguing angle of the entire movement that she recorded in various scrapbooks. In total, she fabricated 37 volumes of scrapbooks that included press cuttings, pamphlets, leaflets and letters all pertaining to the suffrage movement in England. Her scrapbooks may have been nothing but a hobby at the time; however, after many years they have proven to provide invaluable information about the suffrage movement and noteworthy events that made it so important. Her scrapbooks now belong to the British Library since they were donated by her husband after her death. One of the most iconic photographs of the suffrage movement is of a young girl being taken away by two police officers. Who was this young girl who's story appeared on the front page of the Daily Mirror and was frequently followed by other newspapers? Dora Thewlis. Dora Thewlis was only sixteen years old at the time she took part in a mission to break into the House of Parliament in 1907. Dora had joined the WSPU and was a proud young girl who wanted to be involved in activism. Her parents fully supported her decisions since they had raised her in an environment of socialism where everyone's voice deserved to be heard. She is quite noteworthy since despite her young age she demanded to receive the same punishment of imprisonment as the other suffragettes. The six powerful women mentioned in today's article are outstanding role models for young girls who want to see their dreams come true and grow up in a world where judgement and comments of inability are a thing of the past. The suffrage movement helped women achieve equal rights so that they could also earn equal opportunities.	1,868	ENGLISH	1
Hitler and the Nazis had firm views on race. They believed that the Germans were Aryans and therefore the "Master Race". Most other races were categorised as slave races, but some groups were labelled ‘untermensch’ or sub-human. The Slavs of Eastern Europe, “gypsies” (such as Sinti or Roma) and Jews were regarded as such. The Nazis believed that all other groups were inferior to the Aryans and they were a threat to the purity of the superior “Master Race”, particularly the “subhumans”. Many Nazi scientists believed in eugenics and selective breeding. They believed that people with disabilities or social problems were degenerates whose genes needed to be eliminated from the human bloodline.	<urn:uuid:57f14898-4e0f-4b35-b9e3-203670002e58>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z96v97h/revision/1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00140.warc.gz	en	0.983786	165	3.546875	4	[ 0.08127717673778534, 0.6980620622634888, -0.3485022783279419, 0.1748536229133606, -0.025991665199398994, 0.27512773871421814, -0.16303180158138275, 0.013902476988732815, 0.08583038300275803, 0.10411657392978668, 0.04857173562049866, -0.42199385166168213, -0.06405992060899734, 0.24109175801...	1	Hitler and the Nazis had firm views on race. They believed that the Germans were Aryans and therefore the "Master Race". Most other races were categorised as slave races, but some groups were labelled ‘untermensch’ or sub-human. The Slavs of Eastern Europe, “gypsies” (such as Sinti or Roma) and Jews were regarded as such. The Nazis believed that all other groups were inferior to the Aryans and they were a threat to the purity of the superior “Master Race”, particularly the “subhumans”. Many Nazi scientists believed in eugenics and selective breeding. They believed that people with disabilities or social problems were degenerates whose genes needed to be eliminated from the human bloodline.	151	ENGLISH	1
OUR PLANET OUR FUTURE Living on an island with clean air, beautiful nature and little pollution makes it difficult for our pupils to understand the reality of the environmental problems the world faces now and in the future. However, there are some indications to there being a problem. The area where pollution can be seen in our local environment is in the sea and on the shore where rubbish from near and far is clogging up our beaches. A governmental initiative to help clean up the shores of the coast of Norway became the inspiration for this project. Where does all this rubbish come from, who is responsible and what can be done about it were some of the questions the children at our school discussed. The school took part in helping to clean up the shore in our local area, and were shocked at the amount of rubbish that they collected. Also, they were shocked by the reports of a dead whale found in Norway, where scientists found it had died because it had eaten large amounts of plastic. This spurred teachers and pupils to look at videos and articles from around the world about the problems we are facing when it comes to pollution, global warming and other environmental issues. The children of today are the future of tomorrow. Therefore, it is important that they learn about what challenges they will meet, choices they can make for themselves and their families and how they can have an impact on political decisions. The aim of this project is to teach them what environmental problems are, the vocabulary related to the topic, to get an understanding of their own actions, how to take informed choices in regard to pollution and how to influence political decisions. As one of the focus tasks during a mobility is to have a debate where the pupils will argue their point of view, they will practise their research skills in preparation for the debate, planning skills, and oral skills. They will through this learn about how to argue their point of view, understand that different people have different views on a topic and different views about how a problem can be solved. Another important lesson is for the pupils to understand how one incident in one area, like an oil leak, has implications in a much wider area than just where it happened. In preparing for the application, the science team has been involved, as well as the head master, and the project co-ordinator. Through the learning objectives and learning tasks it is important for the school and the project to get children to think about consequences of own actions, regarding pollution and the environment. How they can take informed decisions and influence others through action and words. Also, by collaborating with other schools, both pupils and teachers will find out if the problems we are facing in the different countries and areas are the same, similar or totally different.	<urn:uuid:5dede0cd-9831-4b6f-b7ac-8955d9b6b6b3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://magdaj4.wixsite.com/ourplanetourfuture	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00334.warc.gz	en	0.980623	549	3.75	4	[ 0.23219773173332214, 0.13417303562164307, 0.5795589685440063, -0.5027065873146057, 0.3834773898124695, 0.08995862305164337, 0.08319860696792603, -0.059005431830883026, -0.09671264886856079, 0.36278605461120605, -0.1653587818145752, -0.4794168770313263, 0.16626618802547455, 0.47392815351486...	8	OUR PLANET OUR FUTURE Living on an island with clean air, beautiful nature and little pollution makes it difficult for our pupils to understand the reality of the environmental problems the world faces now and in the future. However, there are some indications to there being a problem. The area where pollution can be seen in our local environment is in the sea and on the shore where rubbish from near and far is clogging up our beaches. A governmental initiative to help clean up the shores of the coast of Norway became the inspiration for this project. Where does all this rubbish come from, who is responsible and what can be done about it were some of the questions the children at our school discussed. The school took part in helping to clean up the shore in our local area, and were shocked at the amount of rubbish that they collected. Also, they were shocked by the reports of a dead whale found in Norway, where scientists found it had died because it had eaten large amounts of plastic. This spurred teachers and pupils to look at videos and articles from around the world about the problems we are facing when it comes to pollution, global warming and other environmental issues. The children of today are the future of tomorrow. Therefore, it is important that they learn about what challenges they will meet, choices they can make for themselves and their families and how they can have an impact on political decisions. The aim of this project is to teach them what environmental problems are, the vocabulary related to the topic, to get an understanding of their own actions, how to take informed choices in regard to pollution and how to influence political decisions. As one of the focus tasks during a mobility is to have a debate where the pupils will argue their point of view, they will practise their research skills in preparation for the debate, planning skills, and oral skills. They will through this learn about how to argue their point of view, understand that different people have different views on a topic and different views about how a problem can be solved. Another important lesson is for the pupils to understand how one incident in one area, like an oil leak, has implications in a much wider area than just where it happened. In preparing for the application, the science team has been involved, as well as the head master, and the project co-ordinator. Through the learning objectives and learning tasks it is important for the school and the project to get children to think about consequences of own actions, regarding pollution and the environment. How they can take informed decisions and influence others through action and words. Also, by collaborating with other schools, both pupils and teachers will find out if the problems we are facing in the different countries and areas are the same, similar or totally different.	546	ENGLISH	1
Marcus Garvey was Jamaica’s first national hero who advocated for Black nationalism in Jamaica and particularly the United States. Born on August 17, 1887, Garvey travelled around many countries observing the poor living conditions under which black people were working at the time. In 1914, he started the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), in Jamaica, which protested against racial discrimination and encouraged self-government for black people all over the world. Garvey also founded the Black Star Line, a shipping and passenger line which promoted the return of the African diaspora to their ancestral lands. More about this Garvey went to the USA in 1916 where he preached his doctrine of freedom to the blacks who were being oppressed. His actions did not go down well with US officials, and he was imprisoned. He was later deported. He came back to Jamaica but left again after being unsuccessful in national elections he contested under the People’s Political Party (PPP), Jamaica’s first modern political party he created. He went to England and died in 1940 after a stroke which left him paralysed. Garvey, while alive, advanced a Pan-African philosophy which inspired a global mass movement known as Garveyism. Even though some black leaders condemned his methods and his support for racial segregation, Garvey still attracted a lot of people. Schools, highways, and buildings in Africa, the Caribbean, and the United States have since been named in his honour. But Garvey’s life was not without controversies. His followers saw him as a long-awaited saviour, but to his critics, he was an opportunist and a charlatan, due to the following:	<urn:uuid:0e544322-13b7-4a1f-a573-4d3dc2ec4f9a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://face2faceafrica.com/article/the-controversies-that-ended-the-rise-of-pan-african-leader-marcus-garvey	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00350.warc.gz	en	0.986923	346	3.875	4	[ -0.16395482420921326, -0.08412901312112808, 0.10073424130678177, -0.07238956540822983, -0.06414273381233215, 0.11608339101076126, 0.1311863213777542, 0.22603090107440948, -0.2034977674484253, -0.1282062828540802, 0.06387687474489212, -0.07532818615436554, -0.3378307819366455, 0.28569790720...	3	Marcus Garvey was Jamaica’s first national hero who advocated for Black nationalism in Jamaica and particularly the United States. Born on August 17, 1887, Garvey travelled around many countries observing the poor living conditions under which black people were working at the time. In 1914, he started the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), in Jamaica, which protested against racial discrimination and encouraged self-government for black people all over the world. Garvey also founded the Black Star Line, a shipping and passenger line which promoted the return of the African diaspora to their ancestral lands. More about this Garvey went to the USA in 1916 where he preached his doctrine of freedom to the blacks who were being oppressed. His actions did not go down well with US officials, and he was imprisoned. He was later deported. He came back to Jamaica but left again after being unsuccessful in national elections he contested under the People’s Political Party (PPP), Jamaica’s first modern political party he created. He went to England and died in 1940 after a stroke which left him paralysed. Garvey, while alive, advanced a Pan-African philosophy which inspired a global mass movement known as Garveyism. Even though some black leaders condemned his methods and his support for racial segregation, Garvey still attracted a lot of people. Schools, highways, and buildings in Africa, the Caribbean, and the United States have since been named in his honour. But Garvey’s life was not without controversies. His followers saw him as a long-awaited saviour, but to his critics, he was an opportunist and a charlatan, due to the following:	346	ENGLISH	1
JOHANNESBURG, South Africa – While the world mourns the death of Nelson Mandela, it is also important to remember other significant anti-apartheid activists who contributed greatly to the cause of black South African emancipation. Bishop Desmond Tutu (1931-), ordained as an Anglican priest in 1961, became the General Secretary of the South African Council of Churches in 1978 and was a top spokesperson for the end of the apartheid regime and for the rights of black South Africans. Tutu states, “I realized that I had been given a platform that was not readily available to many blacks and most of our leaders were either now in chains or in exile. And I said, ‘Well, I’m going to use this to seek to try to articulate our aspirations and the anguishes of our people.’” In 1984, he won the Nobel Peace Prize, “…not only as a gesture of support to him…but also to all individuals and groups in South Africa who, with their concern for human dignity, fraternity, and democracy, incite the admiration of the world.” He became the first black Archbishop of Cape Town and was chosen by Nelson Mandela to head the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. He remains a global leader in the fight against oppression. Oliver Tambo (1917-1993) was one of the founding members of the ANC Youth League and, in the 1950s and 1960s, served as Deputy and Acting President of the ANC. In 1959, he was served a “banning order” from the government, so the ANC sent him abroad to mobilize the global community against apartheid in South Africa. He is credited with raising the ANC’s international reputation and globally being one of the most respected black South African leaders. He lived in London during his 30-year long exile, and returned to South Africa in 1991, where he became the National Chairperson of the ANC. The city of Johannesburg’s airport bears his name. Helen Suzman (1917-2009) was the sole representative from the opposing Progressive Party in the South African parliament in 1959. The party advocated for equal rights for all South Africans during the period when it was uncommon for whites to do so. Not only was she the only voice of the oppressed in government, she was also an English-speaking Jewish woman in a parliament of primarily Afrikaaner men. While in parliament, she visited prisons, including Robben Island, to see the prisoners’ conditions, spoke against banning organizations such as the Communist Party, and took measures against gender discrimination, especially against black women. In a heated exchange with Prime Minister Both in the late 1970s, she stated her opposition confidently: “I am not frightened of you — I never have been, and I never will be. I think nothing of you.” She was a member of parliament for 36 years and continued to advocate for human rights after her tenure in government. She won the United Nations Human Rights Award in 1978. Steve Biko (1946-1977) was an activist and leader of the Black Consciousness movement, which Biko considered to be the “cultural and political revival of an oppressed people.” By the 1970s, the movement had become a pervasive ideology, and Biko was banned from public and political activities. In 1977, fearing the Black Consciousness Movement would lead to further revolt, the security police detained Biko. He was severely beaten and died of resulting brain damage. He is considered to be a martyr to the anti-apartheid movement. He is famous for the phrase, “Black is beautiful.” Ahmed “Kathy” Kathrada (1929-) left school at 17 to work at the Transvaal Passive Resistance Council, where he participated in the South African Indian Congress’ Passive Resistance Campaign against the “Ghetto Act,” which limited where Indians could live and limited their political participation. He became the chairperson for the Transvaal Indian Youth Congress which, in conjunction with the ANC (African National Congress), led the Defiance Campaign that targeted specific apartheid laws. Because of his political activities, he was found guilty of sabotage and sentenced to life in jail on Robben Island. He was released in 1989, after 18 years, and the ANC bestowed their highest honor, Isitwalandwe, on him in recognition of his service to the cause of ending apartheid. Albert Luthuli (1898-1967) is Africa’s first winner of the Nobel Peace Prize and was President-General of the ANC from 1952 until he died in 1967. In his work “The Road to Freedom is Via the Cross,” Luthuli stated his belief in non-violence, which included the idea that apartheid degrades everyone involved. During his political career, he was often subject to governmental bans from travel, publishing, and attending political meetings. Luthuli was the spokesperson for the civil disobedience campaign and led demonstrations and strikes against the government. Upon receiving the Nobel Peace Prize, Luthuli stated that the prize was “a recognition of the sacrifices made by the people of all races in South Africa – particularly the African people who have endured and suffered so much for so long.” Lillian Ngoyi (1911-1980) joined the ANC during the Defiance Campaign in 1950 and was arrested for using accommodations reserved for whites. She was elected as the president of the ANC Women’s League and became the president of the Federation of South African Women in 1956. In August of that year, she was the leader of the women’s anti-pass march in Pretoria, which was one of the largest demonstrations in South African history. That December, she became the first woman to be elected to the ANC national executive committee. During her political career, including after she returned from an illegal trip abroad, she was subject to bans, confinement, and arrests. She is affectionately called Ma Ngoyi. Joe Slovo (1926-1995) was a member of the South Africa Communist Party and founding member of the Congress of Democrats in 1953. Under the Suppression of Communism Act, Slovo was banned from public events, though he still remained active clandestinely. He was an early member of the armed wing of the ANC, Umkhonto we Sizwe, for which he was chief of staff until 1987. He was the first white member of the ANC’s national executive. After the 1994 national elections, Slovo served as the Minister of Housing but he died shortly after in 1995. Other significant anti-apartheid figures include but are not limited to: Chris Hani, Beyers Naude, Tokyo Sexwale, Walter Sisulu, Thabo Mbeki, Robert Sobukwe, and Joe Modise. – Kaylie Cordingley	<urn:uuid:9863c5c3-53aa-46ab-a06f-0447454f9c42>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.borgenmagazine.com/lesser-known-south-african-anti-apartheid-activists/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00271.warc.gz	en	0.984922	1,418	3.359375	3	[ -0.33282074332237244, 0.9100300073623657, -0.06659826636314392, -0.3955845534801483, 0.024465780705213547, 0.08803641051054001, 0.4344840943813324, -0.20179501175880432, -0.22073349356651306, 0.18504583835601807, 0.4312514662742615, -0.35500097274780273, 0.34395432472229004, 0.402872771024...	3	JOHANNESBURG, South Africa – While the world mourns the death of Nelson Mandela, it is also important to remember other significant anti-apartheid activists who contributed greatly to the cause of black South African emancipation. Bishop Desmond Tutu (1931-), ordained as an Anglican priest in 1961, became the General Secretary of the South African Council of Churches in 1978 and was a top spokesperson for the end of the apartheid regime and for the rights of black South Africans. Tutu states, “I realized that I had been given a platform that was not readily available to many blacks and most of our leaders were either now in chains or in exile. And I said, ‘Well, I’m going to use this to seek to try to articulate our aspirations and the anguishes of our people.’” In 1984, he won the Nobel Peace Prize, “…not only as a gesture of support to him…but also to all individuals and groups in South Africa who, with their concern for human dignity, fraternity, and democracy, incite the admiration of the world.” He became the first black Archbishop of Cape Town and was chosen by Nelson Mandela to head the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. He remains a global leader in the fight against oppression. Oliver Tambo (1917-1993) was one of the founding members of the ANC Youth League and, in the 1950s and 1960s, served as Deputy and Acting President of the ANC. In 1959, he was served a “banning order” from the government, so the ANC sent him abroad to mobilize the global community against apartheid in South Africa. He is credited with raising the ANC’s international reputation and globally being one of the most respected black South African leaders. He lived in London during his 30-year long exile, and returned to South Africa in 1991, where he became the National Chairperson of the ANC. The city of Johannesburg’s airport bears his name. Helen Suzman (1917-2009) was the sole representative from the opposing Progressive Party in the South African parliament in 1959. The party advocated for equal rights for all South Africans during the period when it was uncommon for whites to do so. Not only was she the only voice of the oppressed in government, she was also an English-speaking Jewish woman in a parliament of primarily Afrikaaner men. While in parliament, she visited prisons, including Robben Island, to see the prisoners’ conditions, spoke against banning organizations such as the Communist Party, and took measures against gender discrimination, especially against black women. In a heated exchange with Prime Minister Both in the late 1970s, she stated her opposition confidently: “I am not frightened of you — I never have been, and I never will be. I think nothing of you.” She was a member of parliament for 36 years and continued to advocate for human rights after her tenure in government. She won the United Nations Human Rights Award in 1978. Steve Biko (1946-1977) was an activist and leader of the Black Consciousness movement, which Biko considered to be the “cultural and political revival of an oppressed people.” By the 1970s, the movement had become a pervasive ideology, and Biko was banned from public and political activities. In 1977, fearing the Black Consciousness Movement would lead to further revolt, the security police detained Biko. He was severely beaten and died of resulting brain damage. He is considered to be a martyr to the anti-apartheid movement. He is famous for the phrase, “Black is beautiful.” Ahmed “Kathy” Kathrada (1929-) left school at 17 to work at the Transvaal Passive Resistance Council, where he participated in the South African Indian Congress’ Passive Resistance Campaign against the “Ghetto Act,” which limited where Indians could live and limited their political participation. He became the chairperson for the Transvaal Indian Youth Congress which, in conjunction with the ANC (African National Congress), led the Defiance Campaign that targeted specific apartheid laws. Because of his political activities, he was found guilty of sabotage and sentenced to life in jail on Robben Island. He was released in 1989, after 18 years, and the ANC bestowed their highest honor, Isitwalandwe, on him in recognition of his service to the cause of ending apartheid. Albert Luthuli (1898-1967) is Africa’s first winner of the Nobel Peace Prize and was President-General of the ANC from 1952 until he died in 1967. In his work “The Road to Freedom is Via the Cross,” Luthuli stated his belief in non-violence, which included the idea that apartheid degrades everyone involved. During his political career, he was often subject to governmental bans from travel, publishing, and attending political meetings. Luthuli was the spokesperson for the civil disobedience campaign and led demonstrations and strikes against the government. Upon receiving the Nobel Peace Prize, Luthuli stated that the prize was “a recognition of the sacrifices made by the people of all races in South Africa – particularly the African people who have endured and suffered so much for so long.” Lillian Ngoyi (1911-1980) joined the ANC during the Defiance Campaign in 1950 and was arrested for using accommodations reserved for whites. She was elected as the president of the ANC Women’s League and became the president of the Federation of South African Women in 1956. In August of that year, she was the leader of the women’s anti-pass march in Pretoria, which was one of the largest demonstrations in South African history. That December, she became the first woman to be elected to the ANC national executive committee. During her political career, including after she returned from an illegal trip abroad, she was subject to bans, confinement, and arrests. She is affectionately called Ma Ngoyi. Joe Slovo (1926-1995) was a member of the South Africa Communist Party and founding member of the Congress of Democrats in 1953. Under the Suppression of Communism Act, Slovo was banned from public events, though he still remained active clandestinely. He was an early member of the armed wing of the ANC, Umkhonto we Sizwe, for which he was chief of staff until 1987. He was the first white member of the ANC’s national executive. After the 1994 national elections, Slovo served as the Minister of Housing but he died shortly after in 1995. Other significant anti-apartheid figures include but are not limited to: Chris Hani, Beyers Naude, Tokyo Sexwale, Walter Sisulu, Thabo Mbeki, Robert Sobukwe, and Joe Modise. – Kaylie Cordingley	1,479	ENGLISH	1
Canadas Part in Anti-Seminism There was a time when Jewish people were victimized throughout Germamny and German-territory. Women and children seperated from men and put in to concentration camps. Most likely the women and children would be killed right away, being thrown in to pits of fire. The men were put into different camps where they would be put to work doing hard labour, given hardly any food or water so many were malnourished. Canada was just as guilty in the discrimination of Jews during World War II. The St. Louis incident in June of 1939, minimal numbers of Jewish people allowed in to the country and employment discrimination were all reasons that supported the fact that Canada was part of the Anti-Seminism towards Jews during this era. In May of 1939, a German transatlantic liner "St. Louis" set sail from Hamburg, Germany to Havana, Cuba. Almost all the passangers were Jewish people fleeing from Germany. Many of the Jews had planned on staying in Cuba, but due to political conditions it may have kept them from landing there. A small handful was let in to Cuba but the rest had to continue on the voyage. In June of 1939, the St. Louis Ocean Liner arrived off the Coast of Canada, carrying 907 Jews. All were denied entry into Cuba and other Latin-American countries. The Jewish people had no other option to but to turn to Canada with hope of finding somehwere to live. Earlier in the year Canada had accepted almost 3000 Jews in to the country, but now would not accept any. They believed that Jewish refugees would not make good settlers. The government had many requests by Canadian citizens to allow the Jewish people to enter Canada, but all requests were denied. The St. Louis was forced to turn back and head to Europe. Many passenders on the liner eventually would die in the Nazi Concentration camps. A statement given by a high Canadian goverment official was "none is to many" when asked how many Jewish people should be accepted into Canada. That statement described the policy of the government when they closed the doors to Jewish people who were escaping the Holocaust. Canadian polocies were anti-Semitic and Jews were treated differently than other Europeans. Only 5000 Jews were accepted in to Canada during the 12 year period of the German Nazi regime. Many other countries allowed thousands of Jewish immagrants to enter, because they wanted to help them survive. William Lyon Mackenzie King thought that accepting to many Jewish immigrants was a threat to Canadian society. People thought of Jews as "inassimilable". At…	<urn:uuid:c0371b17-8cd1-4353-bfd1-b9aa617b6962>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Antisemitism-Nazi-Germany-And-German-Transatlantic-606935.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00306.warc.gz	en	0.98987	529	3.953125	4	[ -0.07364527881145477, 0.46940797567367554, -0.12918388843536377, 0.06608095020055771, 0.04088418558239937, 0.12188194692134857, 0.07066639512777328, 0.26585710048675537, -0.10944852232933044, 0.32259780168533325, 0.32152438163757324, 0.03335186839103699, -0.08509820699691772, 0.30384215712...	1	Canadas Part in Anti-Seminism There was a time when Jewish people were victimized throughout Germamny and German-territory. Women and children seperated from men and put in to concentration camps. Most likely the women and children would be killed right away, being thrown in to pits of fire. The men were put into different camps where they would be put to work doing hard labour, given hardly any food or water so many were malnourished. Canada was just as guilty in the discrimination of Jews during World War II. The St. Louis incident in June of 1939, minimal numbers of Jewish people allowed in to the country and employment discrimination were all reasons that supported the fact that Canada was part of the Anti-Seminism towards Jews during this era. In May of 1939, a German transatlantic liner "St. Louis" set sail from Hamburg, Germany to Havana, Cuba. Almost all the passangers were Jewish people fleeing from Germany. Many of the Jews had planned on staying in Cuba, but due to political conditions it may have kept them from landing there. A small handful was let in to Cuba but the rest had to continue on the voyage. In June of 1939, the St. Louis Ocean Liner arrived off the Coast of Canada, carrying 907 Jews. All were denied entry into Cuba and other Latin-American countries. The Jewish people had no other option to but to turn to Canada with hope of finding somehwere to live. Earlier in the year Canada had accepted almost 3000 Jews in to the country, but now would not accept any. They believed that Jewish refugees would not make good settlers. The government had many requests by Canadian citizens to allow the Jewish people to enter Canada, but all requests were denied. The St. Louis was forced to turn back and head to Europe. Many passenders on the liner eventually would die in the Nazi Concentration camps. A statement given by a high Canadian goverment official was "none is to many" when asked how many Jewish people should be accepted into Canada. That statement described the policy of the government when they closed the doors to Jewish people who were escaping the Holocaust. Canadian polocies were anti-Semitic and Jews were treated differently than other Europeans. Only 5000 Jews were accepted in to Canada during the 12 year period of the German Nazi regime. Many other countries allowed thousands of Jewish immagrants to enter, because they wanted to help them survive. William Lyon Mackenzie King thought that accepting to many Jewish immigrants was a threat to Canadian society. People thought of Jews as "inassimilable". At…	547	ENGLISH	1
Guernica by Pablo PicassoGuernica is an oil painting on canvas by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso. The painting was made in June 1937. It is now located in a museum called Reina Sofia in the Madrid, the capital of Spain. From 1936 till 1939 a civil war took place in Spain. The war is often portrayed as a struggle between democracy and fascism (facism is a form of Nationalism). During this civil war, Guernica faced an areal bombing called the Bombing of Guernica. It was carried out on the command of the Spanish nationalist Francisco Franco. About 1650 people got killed during this catastrophe. Despite the fact that this time was terrible for Spain and its people, it also led to some good. The bombing shocked and thereby inspired the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso, making him paint this amazing artwork.In the scene of the painting there are a lot of things going on, I’m going to go over them one by one. At an open end on the left side, there is a bull standing over a lady who is grieving over a child in her arms. This shows how much sorrow the bombing caused. The centre of the painting has been occupied by a horse which is having an enormous amount of pain as if it has just been pierced by a javelin – something that also happened during that time due to the war. Under the horse there’s a dead soldier, with his hand still carrying a shattered sword from which a flower grows. To the upper right of the horse, it appears that a frightened female figure has floated in to the room through a window, witnessing the scene. You can see a shocked look on her face, emphasizing how terrible the event was. In her arm she’s holding a lit candle. The candle is positioned very close to the bulb as a symbol of hope. Beneath her, a woman is staggering towards the centre of the scene. She is looking up blankly into the light at the bulb. On the far right a woman with her arms raised is being trapped by a fire from above and below her. It is said that her right arm has the shape of an aeroplane symbolising the planes which dropped the bombs. The fact that it has only black and white colours emphasizes the sadness of the story. Guernica is one of the world’s most valued and most influential paintings. This painting was a way for Picasso to protest against Spain’s civil war, and this is still relevant to us today. The reason why we can empatize us in this painting so well is because it also means something to us nowadays, since we still have wars and conflicts and the things shown on the painting are still happening today. The tortured and distorted human and animal figures have shocked a lot of people and have shown them how much of a disaster this war was. This painting gives the world a clearer view of how things happened at that time and shows them how these things are still relevant to us today. This is why it still has such a big influence on the world.	<urn:uuid:1757a3b4-a131-4db6-b393-197fe5a9ad7b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://caveconspringfield.com/guernica-child-in-her-arms-this-shows-how/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00441.warc.gz	en	0.982048	628	3.359375	3	[ 0.5001488924026489, 0.39071351289749146, 0.11457129567861557, 0.38316088914871216, 0.5152009725570679, 0.1378549337387085, 0.138128861784935, 0.6053470969200134, -0.3010120093822479, 0.210627943277359, -0.280137836933136, -0.49263909459114075, -0.41738981008529663, 0.6419270038604736, -0...	2	Guernica by Pablo PicassoGuernica is an oil painting on canvas by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso. The painting was made in June 1937. It is now located in a museum called Reina Sofia in the Madrid, the capital of Spain. From 1936 till 1939 a civil war took place in Spain. The war is often portrayed as a struggle between democracy and fascism (facism is a form of Nationalism). During this civil war, Guernica faced an areal bombing called the Bombing of Guernica. It was carried out on the command of the Spanish nationalist Francisco Franco. About 1650 people got killed during this catastrophe. Despite the fact that this time was terrible for Spain and its people, it also led to some good. The bombing shocked and thereby inspired the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso, making him paint this amazing artwork.In the scene of the painting there are a lot of things going on, I’m going to go over them one by one. At an open end on the left side, there is a bull standing over a lady who is grieving over a child in her arms. This shows how much sorrow the bombing caused. The centre of the painting has been occupied by a horse which is having an enormous amount of pain as if it has just been pierced by a javelin – something that also happened during that time due to the war. Under the horse there’s a dead soldier, with his hand still carrying a shattered sword from which a flower grows. To the upper right of the horse, it appears that a frightened female figure has floated in to the room through a window, witnessing the scene. You can see a shocked look on her face, emphasizing how terrible the event was. In her arm she’s holding a lit candle. The candle is positioned very close to the bulb as a symbol of hope. Beneath her, a woman is staggering towards the centre of the scene. She is looking up blankly into the light at the bulb. On the far right a woman with her arms raised is being trapped by a fire from above and below her. It is said that her right arm has the shape of an aeroplane symbolising the planes which dropped the bombs. The fact that it has only black and white colours emphasizes the sadness of the story. Guernica is one of the world’s most valued and most influential paintings. This painting was a way for Picasso to protest against Spain’s civil war, and this is still relevant to us today. The reason why we can empatize us in this painting so well is because it also means something to us nowadays, since we still have wars and conflicts and the things shown on the painting are still happening today. The tortured and distorted human and animal figures have shocked a lot of people and have shown them how much of a disaster this war was. This painting gives the world a clearer view of how things happened at that time and shows them how these things are still relevant to us today. This is why it still has such a big influence on the world.	626	ENGLISH	1
Franklin County elementary students think outside the box when returning library books FRANKLIN COUNTY, Va. – Students in one Franklin County class aren't just learning science, they're putting it to work in real-life situations. Inside a third grade classroom at Callaway Elementary, students are learning how to brainstorm ideas. "You have to take what they're learning in the books and apply it for them to truly carry that learning for the rest of their lives," said Jennifer Haynes, third grade teacher. Haynes wants them to think big. Her students responded by coming up with a unique way of returning library books. They did it while studying simple machines -- which, if you can't remember that from elementary school -- those are supposed to make life easier. "Cullen came up to our table and said, 'Hey Ms. Haynes, how about we make a pulley system so we don't have to carry 20,000 books to the library a mile?'" third grader Cole Grantham said, referring to classmate Cullen Jamison. "I told them this was going to be their project. They really took it from the top and worked together," said Haynes. "They had to measure the distance between our window in the library. They had to decide how much rope was going to be (needed)." "We had to measure a lot and we had to fix our mistakes," said Cullen. "It took all day to build because I wasn't going to solve this problem for them. This was theirs," said Haynes. "They were so excited. When it worked it truly was like Christmas Day." It is 143 feet from their classroom window into the library. "I was very impressed with the way they were communicating with each other about their different ideas. They weren't saying, 'No you're wrong,'" said Haynes. "They were saying, 'I disagree with you because.' And they were giving different ideas. That is a lifelong skill." Haynes hopes students continue coming up with outside-of-the-box ideas to create this school year. Copyright 2019 by WSLS 10 - All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:ea94451b-8d68-42c6-87bf-f4421015d842>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wsls.com/education/2019/10/22/franklin-county-elementary-students-think-outside-the-box-when-returning-library-books/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00476.warc.gz	en	0.99169	445	3.3125	3	[ -0.10883545875549316, -0.2480762004852295, -0.36015844345092773, -0.10146058350801468, -0.0021186405792832375, -0.14659419655799866, -0.23472988605499268, 0.28777822852134705, -0.13401898741722107, -0.09985967725515366, 0.3540009558200836, 0.11538532376289368, -0.5610812902450562, 0.235738...	2	Franklin County elementary students think outside the box when returning library books FRANKLIN COUNTY, Va. – Students in one Franklin County class aren't just learning science, they're putting it to work in real-life situations. Inside a third grade classroom at Callaway Elementary, students are learning how to brainstorm ideas. "You have to take what they're learning in the books and apply it for them to truly carry that learning for the rest of their lives," said Jennifer Haynes, third grade teacher. Haynes wants them to think big. Her students responded by coming up with a unique way of returning library books. They did it while studying simple machines -- which, if you can't remember that from elementary school -- those are supposed to make life easier. "Cullen came up to our table and said, 'Hey Ms. Haynes, how about we make a pulley system so we don't have to carry 20,000 books to the library a mile?'" third grader Cole Grantham said, referring to classmate Cullen Jamison. "I told them this was going to be their project. They really took it from the top and worked together," said Haynes. "They had to measure the distance between our window in the library. They had to decide how much rope was going to be (needed)." "We had to measure a lot and we had to fix our mistakes," said Cullen. "It took all day to build because I wasn't going to solve this problem for them. This was theirs," said Haynes. "They were so excited. When it worked it truly was like Christmas Day." It is 143 feet from their classroom window into the library. "I was very impressed with the way they were communicating with each other about their different ideas. They weren't saying, 'No you're wrong,'" said Haynes. "They were saying, 'I disagree with you because.' And they were giving different ideas. That is a lifelong skill." Haynes hopes students continue coming up with outside-of-the-box ideas to create this school year. Copyright 2019 by WSLS 10 - All rights reserved.	440	ENGLISH	1
It’s a sad fact that some remembrance days come to be as a way of commemorating tragic and unforeseen circumstances. Such is National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day. Unsurprisingly, it takes place December 7, the date on which the United States was attacked by Japan in 1941. What may be more surprising, however, is the fact that it took 53 years for that date to be recognized as a remembrance day. The attack was on a United States military base in Hawaii, which was a United States territory at that time and not yet a state. More than 2,400 Americans were killed, with another 1,000 injured. Japan, which was aligned with Germany and Italy as part of the axis powers, had not declared war on the United States prior to the attack. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt called December 7 “a date which will live in infamy” and the idea of never forgetting the date of the attack became a sort of rallying cry. The United States entered World War II on Dec. 8 and the rest, as they say, is history. Roosevelt largely got his wish in that Dec. 7, 1941 hasn’t been forgotten, but for several years this was only true on an informal level. It took 10 more presidents until Dec. 7 was declared a remembrance day, with Bill Clinton doing the honors in 1994. In proclaiming the remembrance day, Clinton suggested that the impact of the Pearl Harbor attacks was long-lasting. “On this day, we give thanks to the noble veterans of World War II for the priceless liberty they helped to secure,” Clinton said in his proclamation. “For them, for their children, and for all the inheritors of democracy, we must remain ever vigilant in the defense of freedom.” This Dec. 7 marks the 75th anniversary of the attack. Though Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day is nationally observed, it is not a federal holiday, meaning schools and government offices will remain open. Nonetheless, one can expect to see the flag flying at half-staff in remembrance of the Americans who lost their lives on that day.	<urn:uuid:6222ac7e-c7d0-43b7-9f61-d78fc044cf2d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://longislandweekly.com/remembering-pearl-harbor-75-years-later/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00001.warc.gz	en	0.981284	430	3.71875	4	[ -0.26344558596611023, 0.4319700002670288, 0.2308797687292099, -0.016261251643300056, 0.121082603931427, 0.30484509468078613, 0.16378995776176453, -0.024878477677702904, 0.13013996183872223, -0.07571389526128769, 0.6285549998283386, 0.4717712104320526, 0.36386629939079285, 0.802352547645568...	3	It’s a sad fact that some remembrance days come to be as a way of commemorating tragic and unforeseen circumstances. Such is National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day. Unsurprisingly, it takes place December 7, the date on which the United States was attacked by Japan in 1941. What may be more surprising, however, is the fact that it took 53 years for that date to be recognized as a remembrance day. The attack was on a United States military base in Hawaii, which was a United States territory at that time and not yet a state. More than 2,400 Americans were killed, with another 1,000 injured. Japan, which was aligned with Germany and Italy as part of the axis powers, had not declared war on the United States prior to the attack. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt called December 7 “a date which will live in infamy” and the idea of never forgetting the date of the attack became a sort of rallying cry. The United States entered World War II on Dec. 8 and the rest, as they say, is history. Roosevelt largely got his wish in that Dec. 7, 1941 hasn’t been forgotten, but for several years this was only true on an informal level. It took 10 more presidents until Dec. 7 was declared a remembrance day, with Bill Clinton doing the honors in 1994. In proclaiming the remembrance day, Clinton suggested that the impact of the Pearl Harbor attacks was long-lasting. “On this day, we give thanks to the noble veterans of World War II for the priceless liberty they helped to secure,” Clinton said in his proclamation. “For them, for their children, and for all the inheritors of democracy, we must remain ever vigilant in the defense of freedom.” This Dec. 7 marks the 75th anniversary of the attack. Though Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day is nationally observed, it is not a federal holiday, meaning schools and government offices will remain open. Nonetheless, one can expect to see the flag flying at half-staff in remembrance of the Americans who lost their lives on that day.	451	ENGLISH	1
(c. 780-c.850AD) Baghdad Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī was born around 780 in Baghdad and died there in or around 850. We know little of his life. He was born in the epicentre of an Islamic empire (Abbasid Caliphate) which then stretched from the Mediterranean to India. This was a very fortuitous time for Persian learning. The rulers of the Abbasid dynasty who were leading this huge empire, founded an academy in Baghdad called the House of Wisdom where the learned men collected and translated all the scientific works that they could get hold of. House of Wisdom had a large library – first famous library established after the library of Alexandria was destroyed. Al-Khwārizmī was one of the learned men who worked in the House of Wisdom. His interests lied in the fields of algebra, geometry, astronomy and geography. His now most famous work is that from which we got the name for algebra itself – Al-kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābal. It is not often these days that we talk about Persian or Arabic mathematics, but the period in which al-Khwārizmī lived and the House of Wisdom in which he worked, preserved for us most of the Greek and Byzantine mathematics and science that eventually led to the revival of learning in Europe.	<urn:uuid:8d6c9d2d-5101-4f22-91b0-9787412be17a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://themathsquad.co.uk/category/algebra	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00090.warc.gz	en	0.982305	306	3.265625	3	[ -0.30307042598724365, 0.6331824064254761, 0.47039151191711426, 0.08239389210939407, -0.5160635709762573, -0.32858598232269287, 0.03611460328102112, 0.3730132579803467, -0.24447950720787048, 0.2653679847717285, 0.010423697531223297, -0.2285904437303543, 0.2865807116031647, 0.244087740778923...	18	(c. 780-c.850AD) Baghdad Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī was born around 780 in Baghdad and died there in or around 850. We know little of his life. He was born in the epicentre of an Islamic empire (Abbasid Caliphate) which then stretched from the Mediterranean to India. This was a very fortuitous time for Persian learning. The rulers of the Abbasid dynasty who were leading this huge empire, founded an academy in Baghdad called the House of Wisdom where the learned men collected and translated all the scientific works that they could get hold of. House of Wisdom had a large library – first famous library established after the library of Alexandria was destroyed. Al-Khwārizmī was one of the learned men who worked in the House of Wisdom. His interests lied in the fields of algebra, geometry, astronomy and geography. His now most famous work is that from which we got the name for algebra itself – Al-kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābal. It is not often these days that we talk about Persian or Arabic mathematics, but the period in which al-Khwārizmī lived and the House of Wisdom in which he worked, preserved for us most of the Greek and Byzantine mathematics and science that eventually led to the revival of learning in Europe.	306	ENGLISH	1
Born March 14: Albert Einstein The United States commemorative stamp honoring Albert Einstein was issued March 4, 1979, to mark the famous physicist's 100th birth centenary. Albert Einstein was born in the southern German city of Ulm on March 14, 1879. Acclaimed as a principal founder of 20th century theoretical physics, Einstein developed his special theory of relativity and an understanding of the photoelectric effect when he was in his mid-20s. It was his explanation of the photoelectric effect — describing how electrons are emitted from a surface when light shines upon it — that resulted in his winning the 1921 Nobel Prize for physics, and which eventually led to the practical use of solar panels. The Nobel Prize was also awarded for Einstein's "services to Theoretical Physics," according to the prize committee. Einstein struggled in school and dropped out before graduation, but would resume his studies in Switzerland at the Federal Polytechnical School in Zurich. After his papers on relativity and other subjects were published, he gained recognition in the scientific community and he accepted a position at the University of Berlin. He completed his general theory of relativity in 1915, but the rise of Nazi power in Germany convinced him to leave for the United States in 1932, where he accepted a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, N.J. He became an American citizen in 1940. Einstein died April 18, 1955, at age 76. A purple 8¢ stamp honoring Einstein was issued March 14, 1966, as part of the Prominent Americans definitive series. To commemorate the 100th anniversary of his birth, a 15¢ brown stamp was issued March 4, 1979. MORE RELATED ARTICLES US StampsJan 24, 2020, 1 PM US StampsJan 23, 2020, 9 PM World StampsJan 23, 2020, 8 PM World StampsJan 23, 2020, 3 PM	<urn:uuid:49cf2f6b-8924-49cc-b9c5-c18046461817>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.linns.com/news/us-stamps-postal-history/2015/march/born-march-14-albert-einstein.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00194.warc.gz	en	0.98238	391	3.6875	4	[ -0.26714712381362915, 0.5714744925498962, -0.2423003762960434, 0.26271793246269226, -0.29067015647888184, 0.06227320805191994, 0.24788177013397217, 0.21970289945602417, -0.2142898291349411, -0.0653131976723671, 0.6298388242721558, -0.4075947105884552, 0.008219005540013313, 0.42175534367561...	1	Born March 14: Albert Einstein The United States commemorative stamp honoring Albert Einstein was issued March 4, 1979, to mark the famous physicist's 100th birth centenary. Albert Einstein was born in the southern German city of Ulm on March 14, 1879. Acclaimed as a principal founder of 20th century theoretical physics, Einstein developed his special theory of relativity and an understanding of the photoelectric effect when he was in his mid-20s. It was his explanation of the photoelectric effect — describing how electrons are emitted from a surface when light shines upon it — that resulted in his winning the 1921 Nobel Prize for physics, and which eventually led to the practical use of solar panels. The Nobel Prize was also awarded for Einstein's "services to Theoretical Physics," according to the prize committee. Einstein struggled in school and dropped out before graduation, but would resume his studies in Switzerland at the Federal Polytechnical School in Zurich. After his papers on relativity and other subjects were published, he gained recognition in the scientific community and he accepted a position at the University of Berlin. He completed his general theory of relativity in 1915, but the rise of Nazi power in Germany convinced him to leave for the United States in 1932, where he accepted a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, N.J. He became an American citizen in 1940. Einstein died April 18, 1955, at age 76. A purple 8¢ stamp honoring Einstein was issued March 14, 1966, as part of the Prominent Americans definitive series. To commemorate the 100th anniversary of his birth, a 15¢ brown stamp was issued March 4, 1979. MORE RELATED ARTICLES US StampsJan 24, 2020, 1 PM US StampsJan 23, 2020, 9 PM World StampsJan 23, 2020, 8 PM World StampsJan 23, 2020, 3 PM	468	ENGLISH	1
When your child was an infant, he engaged in solitary play (playing alone). When your child was a toddler, he engaged in both solitary play and parallel play (playing beside other children rather than with them). During both forms of play, your child was only interested in what he was doing. Now your child wants to experience what it is like to really have a relationship with a peer whom they may later call a best friend. Your child’s social skills have developed so much that associative play is what he wants to do. Associative play is when children play together. Your child’s cooperation with other children grows as he develops more empathy regarding others’ feelings and wants. Two year olds will borrow from peers and share toys, but this does not mean that they will necessarily play cooperatively. When children turn three, you will see more cooperative play experiences take place. As your child grows older it is amazing to see how he learns to cooperate more with another person through the use of verbal interaction and understanding that relationship building involves give and take. It is important for your child to be able to interact with others in a positive way because this skill will support him well into adulthood. Interacting well includes your child being able to cooperate, communicate, and work through problems that can and will happen during ordinary play with peers. Every stride your child makes in social development brings him closer to forming healthy, positive relationships with you and others in his environment. Support opportunities for him to engage with others on a regular basis.	<urn:uuid:e7a535c8-a0dc-4afd-8805-55d5ca6c867a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wholechild.app/area/age-2/social-emotional/social-development?action=play	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00410.warc.gz	en	0.980653	315	4.15625	4	[ 0.03936226665973663, -0.370989590883255, 0.23739440739154816, -0.5538979768753052, -0.48325690627098083, 0.13572800159454346, 0.524848997592926, -0.15385901927947998, 0.056694395840168, -0.4322963058948517, 0.49833565950393677, -0.17242664098739624, 0.4113137722015381, 0.27548834681510925,...	2	When your child was an infant, he engaged in solitary play (playing alone). When your child was a toddler, he engaged in both solitary play and parallel play (playing beside other children rather than with them). During both forms of play, your child was only interested in what he was doing. Now your child wants to experience what it is like to really have a relationship with a peer whom they may later call a best friend. Your child’s social skills have developed so much that associative play is what he wants to do. Associative play is when children play together. Your child’s cooperation with other children grows as he develops more empathy regarding others’ feelings and wants. Two year olds will borrow from peers and share toys, but this does not mean that they will necessarily play cooperatively. When children turn three, you will see more cooperative play experiences take place. As your child grows older it is amazing to see how he learns to cooperate more with another person through the use of verbal interaction and understanding that relationship building involves give and take. It is important for your child to be able to interact with others in a positive way because this skill will support him well into adulthood. Interacting well includes your child being able to cooperate, communicate, and work through problems that can and will happen during ordinary play with peers. Every stride your child makes in social development brings him closer to forming healthy, positive relationships with you and others in his environment. Support opportunities for him to engage with others on a regular basis.	301	ENGLISH	1
Winston Churchill: Opening the Door to Peace As Britain’s prime minister from 1940-1945, Winston Churchill is best remembered for leading us through the Second World War. Many people regard him as the best prime minister of all time, as a result of his inspiring speeches and his refusal to give up in the face of adversity. Born in 1874 at the family home, Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire, Churchill spent time in the British Army and was also a war reporter in his youth, travelling to South Africa in 1899 to report on the Boer War. After being captured by enemy forces, he was made a prisoner of war, but his daring escape made him a celebrity back in Britain. © BiblioArchives / LibraryArchives In 1900, he became the Conservative Member of Parliament for Oldham, but ruffled a lot of feathers by often voting with the Liberals against the government. In May 1904, he finally defected to the Liberals. He became Home Secretary in 1910. Churchill was responsible for a great deal of important legislation put before the Commons in the early 20th century, including introducing improved safety standards for coal miners, better conditions for shop employees and the National Insurance Act of 1911. World War I During the First World War, Churchill was in charge of Britain’s naval war effort and was instrumental in transporting 120,000 British troops across the English Channel to France in just two weeks. In September 1914, he took over the role of spearheading Britain’s defences and travelled to France several times to personally oversee the war effort. He also spoke at all-party recruitment rallies back in the UK. Returning to the British Army in 1915, he remained an MP, while gaining front-line experience with the 2nd Battalion Grenadier Guards. He was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel of the 6th Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers in 1916 and experienced first-hand the horrors of venturing into no man’s land. After the war, he was made Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air in 1919. He returned to the Conservative Party in the 1920s. World War II In the 1930s, Churchill warned the nation about Hitler and the rise of Nazis Germany, calling for Britain to arm itself against the growing threat. When Britain declared war on Germany on 3rd September 1939, Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty – a position he had held during the Great War. He became a member of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain’s War Cabinet. In May 1940, after Germany’s lightning advance across Europe, Chamberlain resigned and Churchill became Prime Minister. The American editor and publisher Ralph Ingersoll, in a newspaper report in late 1940, said that people admired Churchill for his “energy and courage”. He had heard it said that they “didn’t know what Britain would do without him”. One of the PM’s main tasks was to keep Britain united – a challenge he achieved admirably. As an eccentric character, whose rousing speeches were quite unique, he became a heartening and endearing figure to the British public. Meeting soldiers and members of the public, he was often seen around the cities of Britain, wearing a pinstripe suit and bow-tie, and with the familiar cigar in his mouth. He became known as a true man of the people. Parliament continued to sit throughout the war and publicly debated its progress. During the dark months of 1941 and 1942, he frequently had to report disasters, always assuming full responsibility. In foreign affairs, he engaged the sympathy of the United States and forged a crucial military alliance in December 1941. He had already found an ally in the shape of the Soviet Union. The “grand alliance”, as it became known, was held together by Churchill, who travelled thousands of miles during the war to meet with Roosevelt and Stalin to keep the alliance together. A new concept at the time, a number of summit meetings of national leaders were held, most notably the meeting in Iran at the Tehran Conference in 1943, where many discussions crucial to the war effort took place – in particular, the combined military strategy against Germany and Japan was discussed and shaped, including America’s commitment to invading northern France in May 1944, called Operation Overlord. His vast experience during World War I, including in government and as a soldier himself, helped Churchill to shape the strategies that were vital to the Allies’ victory in World War II. He had many ideas himself which he would put to the Army and Navy chiefs for exhaustive consideration. One of his beliefs was that the generals tended to plan and move too slowly. His own zeal for aggressive activity prevented the British armed forces from lapsing into solely defensive mode early on in the war. After the war ended in 1945, it was agreed almost universally that Churchill’s efforts during the war to save democracy and the liberty of Western Europe had been an enormous achievement, opening the door to peace after six years of conflict. His inspirational speeches are still quoted today, urging people never to give up and to keep on fighting, even in the face of adversity. His words of wisdom include, “Success consists of going from failure to failure without loss of enthusiasm,” and, “Success is not final, failure is not fatal: it is the courage to continue that counts.” He also said, “Never give in, except to convictions of honour and good sense.” This means you should never give in if you know you’re doing the right thing, but that you should know when to give up if it’s sensible to do so, admitting to yourself that you’re wrong. “Courage is what it takes to stand up and speak. Courage is also what it takes to sit down and listen,” summed up his attitude. One of his universal quotes was, “One always measures friendships by how they show up in bad weather,” – hence the phrase “fairweather friend”, meaning someone whose friendship can’t be relied upon in times of difficulty. Perhaps his most famous quote of all time was: “Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few,” – when he spoke of the bravery of the Royal Air Force pilots who were fighting the Battle of Britain at the time. As Remembrance Sunday approaches, on 11th November, people across Britain will be uniting to pay tribute to those brave members of the Armed Forces who made the ultimate sacrifice during times of conflict. It will be the 101st anniversary of the end of World War I this year and the two-minute silence at 11am will be particularly poignant. Slide or Fold joins the nation in commemorating the great sacrifices our ancestors made to ensure future generations’ freedom. We will remember them.	<urn:uuid:b5472555-fa66-4889-afd7-5e4f2d6ddd12>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://slideorfold.co.uk/blog/winston-churchill-opening-the-door-to-peace/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00334.warc.gz	en	0.980216	1,433	3.609375	4	[ -0.2608889043331146, 0.1465647667646408, 0.4953709840774536, -0.3617502450942993, -0.06848381459712982, 0.18054896593093872, 0.533911406993866, -0.24436026811599731, -0.004256869666278362, 0.1582360863685608, 0.19668731093406677, -0.30325791239738464, 0.41692838072776794, 0.540777981281280...	10	Winston Churchill: Opening the Door to Peace As Britain’s prime minister from 1940-1945, Winston Churchill is best remembered for leading us through the Second World War. Many people regard him as the best prime minister of all time, as a result of his inspiring speeches and his refusal to give up in the face of adversity. Born in 1874 at the family home, Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire, Churchill spent time in the British Army and was also a war reporter in his youth, travelling to South Africa in 1899 to report on the Boer War. After being captured by enemy forces, he was made a prisoner of war, but his daring escape made him a celebrity back in Britain. © BiblioArchives / LibraryArchives In 1900, he became the Conservative Member of Parliament for Oldham, but ruffled a lot of feathers by often voting with the Liberals against the government. In May 1904, he finally defected to the Liberals. He became Home Secretary in 1910. Churchill was responsible for a great deal of important legislation put before the Commons in the early 20th century, including introducing improved safety standards for coal miners, better conditions for shop employees and the National Insurance Act of 1911. World War I During the First World War, Churchill was in charge of Britain’s naval war effort and was instrumental in transporting 120,000 British troops across the English Channel to France in just two weeks. In September 1914, he took over the role of spearheading Britain’s defences and travelled to France several times to personally oversee the war effort. He also spoke at all-party recruitment rallies back in the UK. Returning to the British Army in 1915, he remained an MP, while gaining front-line experience with the 2nd Battalion Grenadier Guards. He was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel of the 6th Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers in 1916 and experienced first-hand the horrors of venturing into no man’s land. After the war, he was made Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air in 1919. He returned to the Conservative Party in the 1920s. World War II In the 1930s, Churchill warned the nation about Hitler and the rise of Nazis Germany, calling for Britain to arm itself against the growing threat. When Britain declared war on Germany on 3rd September 1939, Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty – a position he had held during the Great War. He became a member of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain’s War Cabinet. In May 1940, after Germany’s lightning advance across Europe, Chamberlain resigned and Churchill became Prime Minister. The American editor and publisher Ralph Ingersoll, in a newspaper report in late 1940, said that people admired Churchill for his “energy and courage”. He had heard it said that they “didn’t know what Britain would do without him”. One of the PM’s main tasks was to keep Britain united – a challenge he achieved admirably. As an eccentric character, whose rousing speeches were quite unique, he became a heartening and endearing figure to the British public. Meeting soldiers and members of the public, he was often seen around the cities of Britain, wearing a pinstripe suit and bow-tie, and with the familiar cigar in his mouth. He became known as a true man of the people. Parliament continued to sit throughout the war and publicly debated its progress. During the dark months of 1941 and 1942, he frequently had to report disasters, always assuming full responsibility. In foreign affairs, he engaged the sympathy of the United States and forged a crucial military alliance in December 1941. He had already found an ally in the shape of the Soviet Union. The “grand alliance”, as it became known, was held together by Churchill, who travelled thousands of miles during the war to meet with Roosevelt and Stalin to keep the alliance together. A new concept at the time, a number of summit meetings of national leaders were held, most notably the meeting in Iran at the Tehran Conference in 1943, where many discussions crucial to the war effort took place – in particular, the combined military strategy against Germany and Japan was discussed and shaped, including America’s commitment to invading northern France in May 1944, called Operation Overlord. His vast experience during World War I, including in government and as a soldier himself, helped Churchill to shape the strategies that were vital to the Allies’ victory in World War II. He had many ideas himself which he would put to the Army and Navy chiefs for exhaustive consideration. One of his beliefs was that the generals tended to plan and move too slowly. His own zeal for aggressive activity prevented the British armed forces from lapsing into solely defensive mode early on in the war. After the war ended in 1945, it was agreed almost universally that Churchill’s efforts during the war to save democracy and the liberty of Western Europe had been an enormous achievement, opening the door to peace after six years of conflict. His inspirational speeches are still quoted today, urging people never to give up and to keep on fighting, even in the face of adversity. His words of wisdom include, “Success consists of going from failure to failure without loss of enthusiasm,” and, “Success is not final, failure is not fatal: it is the courage to continue that counts.” He also said, “Never give in, except to convictions of honour and good sense.” This means you should never give in if you know you’re doing the right thing, but that you should know when to give up if it’s sensible to do so, admitting to yourself that you’re wrong. “Courage is what it takes to stand up and speak. Courage is also what it takes to sit down and listen,” summed up his attitude. One of his universal quotes was, “One always measures friendships by how they show up in bad weather,” – hence the phrase “fairweather friend”, meaning someone whose friendship can’t be relied upon in times of difficulty. Perhaps his most famous quote of all time was: “Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few,” – when he spoke of the bravery of the Royal Air Force pilots who were fighting the Battle of Britain at the time. As Remembrance Sunday approaches, on 11th November, people across Britain will be uniting to pay tribute to those brave members of the Armed Forces who made the ultimate sacrifice during times of conflict. It will be the 101st anniversary of the end of World War I this year and the two-minute silence at 11am will be particularly poignant. Slide or Fold joins the nation in commemorating the great sacrifices our ancestors made to ensure future generations’ freedom. We will remember them.	1,445	ENGLISH	1
missionary, was born in Connecticut, USA in February 1801. He spent some years as a teacher, then studied theology and graduated in 1833. He was invited by the Boston Board of Missions to lead an exploratory voyage to Patagonia to see if a mission could be established among the Indians there. With the Reverend Mr Arms, Coan sailed from New York for the Straits of Magellan in August 1833 in the sealing schooner Mary Jane under Captain William Clift, reaching their destination after an arduous voyage lasting 88 days. The two men set up their Tent Tabernacle on the shore of the Magellan Straits on 16 November 1833 with few belongings (two saddles, a small medicine chest, some food, fishing tackle and clothes) which attracted the close interest of the natives. In January 1834, Coan and Arms decided they had had sufficient experience of primitive savages and were pleased to spot a sail in the Straits. They met the schooner Antarctic of 173 tons from New York whose master, James Nash, offered to take them on board. They sailed from the Strait of Magellan on 26 January with the idea of taking stores in the Falkland Islands before finding another vessel to take them north and home. As they headed east out of the Strait, they passed a brig with the appearance of a man-of-war: it was HMS Beagle with Charles DARWIN aboard. Antarctic dropped anchor on 28 January in a quiet West Falkland bay and found the schooner Caroline, also of New York, anchored nearby. A visit ashore for game was rewarded in a short time with 30 geese and ducks. The following day, a call was made first to Albemarle Harbour and then to another small island for some sealing among a sea lion colony. At daylight on 30 January, they proceeded up Falkland Sound passing two more vessels and anchoring at Salvador at 4pm. Landing in search of more game, they were greeted on the beach by a large sea elephant which was killed for its three barrels of oil. On 1 February 1834, three men appeared on horseback on Salvador beach opposite the ship. The captain sent his boat ashore to communicate and established they were mestizos* and Indians from Buenos Aires who lived in Port Louis but roamed the island slaughtering wild cattle and other game. Coan records: 'they are called gauchos; we hear that there has been a massacre in Port Louis of late'. The gauchos offered seven fat bullocks at US$ 5 per head and accepted payment in powder, balls, tobacco and rum. The next day, the ship's boat went on to another secluded bay and found seven armed Spaniards and Indians described as 'wild and suspicious' who were presumed to have been involved in the massacre the previous August. On 3 February, six more men appeared on the shore nearby armed with double-barrelled guns, pistols, dirks and knives and led by a Spaniard known as Captain Antook (Diego Antonio RIVERO) and payment was made for the bullocks. Next morning, a boat was sent to Rincon Grande beach and contact made with an Englishman and an Indian sent by the officer in charge, Lieutenant SMITH, to enquire about the vessel. In the afternoon, the Englishman came aboard with a letter from Smith to Captain Nash containing details of the massacre. On 5 February, Smith came personally: he strongly disapproved of the trading between Nash and the assumed perpetrators of the massacre. He said that he viewed it as an act of hostility against His Majesty's Government and would have seized the Antarctic if he had the means to do so. After this unpromising start, relationships calmed down and Coan and Arms were invited to visit Port Louis, four and a quarter hour's walk away. Smith's house consisted of one room containing an old Franklin stove*, a table, an old sideboard, a dingy sofa, a chest of drawers, a crib and a few chairs: it was the room in which Matthew BRISBANE had been murdered. Coan and Arms spent a pleasant evening in conversation with Smith and returned to the ship at Salvador the next morning. In all, Titus Coan spent 40 days travelling throughout the Falklands observing and recording the terrain, the wildlife and the men of many nations that he encountered. He left on board the schooner Talma on 9 March 1834, arrived at New London on 7 May and subsequently reported to the Board that had sent him that it was not currently possible to establish a Mission in Patagonia. That November, Coan married Fidelia Church and a month later they sailed as missionaries to the island of Hilo in Hawaii where Coan made a great impact. He became a powerful speaker in the local language and his energy, affectionate nature and charming personal presence brought great success. He is reported to have brought a total of 13,000 people into his Hilo church, the largest single congregation in the world. Much of this change in fortunes was clearly due to the wise aid and counsel of Mrs Coan, described as a woman of fine mind and great charm. She died in Hilo in September 1872 but Coan himself survived for another ten years. In 1880, Coan published his book Adventure in Patagonia which includes a description of the months he spent with the Indians and of his time in the Falklands. See: Titus Coan - a memorial (held in the Library of Congress) June 2019 Two new photographs added January 2020 Three additional photographs added; one external link added; one references added	<urn:uuid:b0142835-b131-4ea1-b6f1-d45f3f38240c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://falklandsbiographies.org/biographies/118	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00164.warc.gz	en	0.981642	1,159	3.375	3	[ 0.008242294192314148, 0.30031949281692505, 0.1281205415725708, -0.5270726680755615, -0.06620839238166809, -0.23848551511764526, -0.07558324933052063, 0.07229308784008026, -0.20255523920059204, -0.2634889483451843, 0.4787120223045349, -0.35730722546577454, 0.11114539206027985, 0.22814360260...	18	missionary, was born in Connecticut, USA in February 1801. He spent some years as a teacher, then studied theology and graduated in 1833. He was invited by the Boston Board of Missions to lead an exploratory voyage to Patagonia to see if a mission could be established among the Indians there. With the Reverend Mr Arms, Coan sailed from New York for the Straits of Magellan in August 1833 in the sealing schooner Mary Jane under Captain William Clift, reaching their destination after an arduous voyage lasting 88 days. The two men set up their Tent Tabernacle on the shore of the Magellan Straits on 16 November 1833 with few belongings (two saddles, a small medicine chest, some food, fishing tackle and clothes) which attracted the close interest of the natives. In January 1834, Coan and Arms decided they had had sufficient experience of primitive savages and were pleased to spot a sail in the Straits. They met the schooner Antarctic of 173 tons from New York whose master, James Nash, offered to take them on board. They sailed from the Strait of Magellan on 26 January with the idea of taking stores in the Falkland Islands before finding another vessel to take them north and home. As they headed east out of the Strait, they passed a brig with the appearance of a man-of-war: it was HMS Beagle with Charles DARWIN aboard. Antarctic dropped anchor on 28 January in a quiet West Falkland bay and found the schooner Caroline, also of New York, anchored nearby. A visit ashore for game was rewarded in a short time with 30 geese and ducks. The following day, a call was made first to Albemarle Harbour and then to another small island for some sealing among a sea lion colony. At daylight on 30 January, they proceeded up Falkland Sound passing two more vessels and anchoring at Salvador at 4pm. Landing in search of more game, they were greeted on the beach by a large sea elephant which was killed for its three barrels of oil. On 1 February 1834, three men appeared on horseback on Salvador beach opposite the ship. The captain sent his boat ashore to communicate and established they were mestizos* and Indians from Buenos Aires who lived in Port Louis but roamed the island slaughtering wild cattle and other game. Coan records: 'they are called gauchos; we hear that there has been a massacre in Port Louis of late'. The gauchos offered seven fat bullocks at US$ 5 per head and accepted payment in powder, balls, tobacco and rum. The next day, the ship's boat went on to another secluded bay and found seven armed Spaniards and Indians described as 'wild and suspicious' who were presumed to have been involved in the massacre the previous August. On 3 February, six more men appeared on the shore nearby armed with double-barrelled guns, pistols, dirks and knives and led by a Spaniard known as Captain Antook (Diego Antonio RIVERO) and payment was made for the bullocks. Next morning, a boat was sent to Rincon Grande beach and contact made with an Englishman and an Indian sent by the officer in charge, Lieutenant SMITH, to enquire about the vessel. In the afternoon, the Englishman came aboard with a letter from Smith to Captain Nash containing details of the massacre. On 5 February, Smith came personally: he strongly disapproved of the trading between Nash and the assumed perpetrators of the massacre. He said that he viewed it as an act of hostility against His Majesty's Government and would have seized the Antarctic if he had the means to do so. After this unpromising start, relationships calmed down and Coan and Arms were invited to visit Port Louis, four and a quarter hour's walk away. Smith's house consisted of one room containing an old Franklin stove*, a table, an old sideboard, a dingy sofa, a chest of drawers, a crib and a few chairs: it was the room in which Matthew BRISBANE had been murdered. Coan and Arms spent a pleasant evening in conversation with Smith and returned to the ship at Salvador the next morning. In all, Titus Coan spent 40 days travelling throughout the Falklands observing and recording the terrain, the wildlife and the men of many nations that he encountered. He left on board the schooner Talma on 9 March 1834, arrived at New London on 7 May and subsequently reported to the Board that had sent him that it was not currently possible to establish a Mission in Patagonia. That November, Coan married Fidelia Church and a month later they sailed as missionaries to the island of Hilo in Hawaii where Coan made a great impact. He became a powerful speaker in the local language and his energy, affectionate nature and charming personal presence brought great success. He is reported to have brought a total of 13,000 people into his Hilo church, the largest single congregation in the world. Much of this change in fortunes was clearly due to the wise aid and counsel of Mrs Coan, described as a woman of fine mind and great charm. She died in Hilo in September 1872 but Coan himself survived for another ten years. In 1880, Coan published his book Adventure in Patagonia which includes a description of the months he spent with the Indians and of his time in the Falklands. See: Titus Coan - a memorial (held in the Library of Congress) June 2019 Two new photographs added January 2020 Three additional photographs added; one external link added; one references added	1,209	ENGLISH	1
The Battle of the Philippine Sea took place between June 19th and June 20th, 1944. This battle was said to be the last great carrier battle of World War Two. The Battle of Midway in 1942 had done a great deal to damage Japan’s carrier force, but even into 1944, Japan statistically had a larger carrier force than America. Despite America’s huge military capability, the Japanese Navy still represented a threat to her – especially in America’s desire to advance to the Marianas. In November 1943, America launched the start of a major assault through the Central Pacific and at the heart of the Japanese defence system. This started with the assault on the Gilbert Islands and moved, in February 1944, to the main atolls of the Marshall Islands. The ferocity of the American attack forced the Japanese to move their fleet to Singapore. As the Americans moved relentlessly east through the Central Pacific, the Japanese came to the conclusion that only a major sea battle with America would redress the balance at sea. Without control of the sea, the Japanese believed, the Americans could no longer maintain their advance as all their successes had been amphibious based. Without control of the sea, the Americans could not longer move her troops to shore. The next stage in the American campaign was an attack on the Marianas, which was scheduled for June 1944. The Northern Attack Force, led by Vice-Admiral Richmond Turner, was assembled at Hawaii in readiness to attack Saipan. The Southern Attack Force, commanded by Rear-Admiral R L Conolly assembled at Guadalcanal and Tulagi in preparation for an attack on Guam. There were 71,000 assault troops in the Northern Force and 56,000 in the Southern; a combined total of 127,000. The Japanese had planned for an attack on the Marianas with ‘Operation A-Go’. Her Commander-in-Chief, Admiral Toyoda, had developed a complex plan to lure the American fleet to either the Palau’s or the Western Carolinas. Once in either region, America’s ships would be in range of Japan’s land based air force. Toyoda envisaged that they would finish off America’s naval power in the Central Pacific. So what would entice the Americans to where the Japanese wanted to get them? Toyoda decided that part of his fleet would be used to lure the Americans to either the Palau’s or the Western Carolinas. Little attempt would be made to conceal the movement of the Japanese force that was to be the bait – a force commanded by Vice-Admiral Ozawa. The Japanese gathered 1,700 planes at their shore bases in Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and New Guinea. More than 500 planes were based on Tinian, Guam and Saipan in the Marianas. Toyoda planned that the planes would attack whatever fleet America sent and damage it so badly that the second phase, a naval battle, could only result in a Japanese victory. While the Northern and Southern forces were in training, America continued its advance led by Douglas MacArthur. In March, 1944, MacArthur attacked Hollandia in New Guinea. In this assault, he was assisted by Task Force 58 – a massive carrier component of the 5th Fleet. Planes from the carriers also attacked Truk that had a Japanese air base on it, and various other targets – all of which allowed the American pilots to keep their skills honed. The attack on Saipan was scheduled for June 15th and the two forces, Northern and Southern, moved to their forward bases at Eniwetok and Kwajalein respectively. The invasion fleet was protected by a vast force – 7 battleships, 12 escort carriers, 11 cruisers and 91 destroyers or destroyer escorts. Task Force 58 had already started to soften up targets on Saipan on June 11th. Task Force 58 was commanded by Vice-Admiral Marc Mitscher who flew his flag on the ‘USS Lexington’. The Americans had planned for air superiority over Saipan before the assault took place. Over 200 Hellcat fighters from Mitscher’s carriers attacked Japanese positions on the island on a regular basis. The ships in Task Force 58 were divided into four battle groups. - TG58-1 with the carriers Hornet and Yorktown had 265 aircraft in it. - TG58-2 was led by the carrier Bunker Hill and had 242 planes at its disposal. - TG58-3 had the carriers Enterprise and Lexington in it and could call on 227 aircraft. - TG58-4 was led by the carrier Essex and had 162 aircraft in it. Each battle group was protected by battleships and cruisers. In all, Task Force 58 could call on 896 planes – nearly all were the Grumman F6F Hellcat – a plane with a deserved reputation in combat. Such was the improvement in communications since the Battle of Coral Sea in 1942, that each battle group could operate on its own very effectively but could support any other one (or fight as a complete unit) when required to do so. By the evening of June 13th, the planes from Task Force 58 had gained air superiority over the Japanese in Saipan and Tinian. On the same day, 16-inch and 14 –inch guns from American battleships pounded targets on the shoreline. Toyoda had placed a great deal of faith in the 500 Japanese planes based on the Marianas. They had now been destroyed or had moved out of the battle zone. This was a serious blow to the Japanese – and one that they failed to inform Ozawa of as he attempted to ‘lure’ out the Americans. On June 13th, Toyoda gave the go-ahead for ‘Operation A-Go’ to start. On June 15th, American forces landed at Saipan – the Northern Force. Therefore, the coming naval battle was to be in the vicinity of Saipan. The Japanese ordered more ships to the region to support Ozawa – including the battleships Yamato and Musashi. They were accompanied by two heavy cruisers, one light cruiser and three destroyers. It seems that at this point any intention to lure the Americans to a specific spot was dropped and that a simple full-scale sea battle was envisaged. All the Japanese ships met together on June 16th. The following message was sent to every Japanese ship: \|“The fate of the Empire rests on this one battle. Every man is expected to do his utmost.”\| However, American submarines had tracked both parts that made up the Japanese fleet – and informed Admiral Raymond Spruance, commander of the 5th Fleet, accordingly. He had to offer sea protection to the troops on Saipan even though his instinct was to sail to the enemy and meet them away from Saipan itself. Knowing that such a move would be risky as there was always the chance that he would lose the battle, Spruance decided to wait for the Japanese to move towards his fleet. Intelligence had informed Spruance that the Japanese would not reach the area where the Americans were until June 19th. During the time that this took, Spruance organised his force so that it was 180 west of Tinian. Seven battleships were taken from task groups 58-1 and 58-4 to form a battleship force supported by four heavy cruisers and thirteen destroyers. The primary task of this awesome force was to stop the Japanese getting near the American aircraft carriers. The planes from task group 58-4 were used to give the battleship group air cover. On June 18th, the American submarine ‘Cavalla’ spotted the Japanese fleet 780 miles to the west of Saipan. As it approached the Americans, the Japanese split the fleet in three: A Force had three large carriers attached to it and could muster 430 planes B Force had two carriers and one light carrier in it and had 135 planes in it. C Force had three light carriers in it and had 88 aircraft in it. C Force was kept 100 miles from the other two forces, in the hope that the Americans would concentrate their resources on this force as a large number of ships were attached to it including four battleships and five cruisers. In this way, Ozama hoped that the carriers in A and B would not be the main target of America. However, there was a delay in intelligence reaching Spruance and not even land based airplanes could find the Japanese fleet despite the information given by the ‘Cavalla’. So at this vital moment, Spruance was short of vital information. The same was not true for the Japanese. They launched sea planes from their large warships and the whereabouts of Task Force 58 was soon known. The Japanese held the advantage as there was 400 miles between them and the American fleet. Japanese carrier-launched planes could attack the Americans but the American planes did not have this distance in them. Scouting seaplanes gave Ozawa the information he needed and at 08.30 he ordered an attack. Forty-five Zero fighter-bombers, eight torpedo bombers and 16 Zero fighters were launched from C Force. A Force sent out a force of 128 planes and B Force launched 47 planes. In just one hour, the Japanese sent out 244 planes. However, Ozawa’s plan suffered a series of setbacks from the start. The US submarine ‘Albacore’ attacked the carrier ‘Taiho’. The carrier continued to operate but the simple fact that it had been hit by a torpedo salvo undermined confidence. Also the strike force of Japanese planes attacked ships from C Force – Japanese ships that were sailing in advance of the main bulk of C Force. The ships fired back and two planes were shot down and eight had to return to their carrier for repairs. Such an occurrence was symptomatic of how the rest of the battle would go – the so-called ‘Great Marianas Turkey Shoot’. Spruance had sent up Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters at dawn to give his fleet aerial cover. At 10.00 on June 19th, American radar picked up a very large swarm of Japanese planes approaching. More planes were launched from the American carrier force – 300 in all. The American planes intercepted the Japanese between 45 and 60 miles from the American fleet. Many Japanese planes were shot down. Japan had lost many experienced naval pilots at Coral Sea and Midway and this experience had never been fully replaced. Many who fought in this battle had not finished their training, and paid the price. In the first Japanese strike, 42 planes were shot down out of a total of 69, an attrition rate of 61%. In Europe, Bomber Command and the USAAF deemed a bomber loss of 5% as being unacceptable. From the second strike, out of 128 planes, about 20 got through the US fighter cover but hit the massed guns of American battleships, cruisers and destroyers. A few got passed the battleship line and attacked the carriers. Only minor damage was done to the ‘Bunker Hill’ and ‘Wasp’. Out of the 128 planes that attacked this time, only 30 returned. Along with these losses, Ozama suffered another when the carrier ‘Shokaku’ was sunk by the submarine USS Cavalla. This carrier had been in on the attack on Pearl Harbour in December 1941, so her loss did a lot to lower morale. The ‘Taiho’, hit by an earlier torpedo attack, also went down when fumes from ruptured petrol tanks were ignited and tore open the hull of the carrier. The second air strike by the Japanese was also a failure. Some failed to find a target. Those that did had to cope with the Hellcats protecting the fleet. Another air fleet attacked from the carriers of Forces A and B. This attack involved 87 planes. They had been ordered to land in Guam after the attack without knowing that the runways there had been badly damaged. Also at Guam they flew into another defence force of Hellcats and 30 were shot down. Only 19 planes out of the 87 got to any base – be it carrier or land. The Japanese tried to land more planes at Guam or Rota from air forces elsewhere, but many were shot down by the Americans before they could land. In all, the Japanese had launched 373 planes from its carriers and only 130 returned – nearly a two-thirds rate of loss. Only 102 were serviceable to any degree. Only 29 Americans planes were destroyed. A carrier fleet without planes was useless. The Battle of the Philippine Sea effectively spelt the end of whatever carrier strength the Japanese Navy had. However, Ozawa was never fully aware of what had happened to his plane force carried by his carriers. Those pilots that had returned had brought back stories of four American carriers being sunk and many US planes destroyed! He prepared to continue the battle. However, he was never given the chance. At 16.30, 77 dive-bombers, 54 torpedo-planes and 85 fighters took off from American carriers to attack the Japanese fleet. Ozawa had very few planes with which to fight back and his losses were severe. The carriers ‘Hiyo’, ‘Zuikaku’ and ‘Chiyoda’ were hit. The battleship ‘Haruna’ was also hit. The Japanese lost a further 65 planes and by the end of the attack, Ozama’s fleet only had 35 planes left. The total American loss in this attack was 14 planes. Ozama realised that he had no hope of continuing the fight and signaled Toyoda that he was retreating to Okinawa. He had lost 375 planes in total. The problem the Americans now experienced was getting back to the carriers as darkness was falling and few pilots were trained to land in the dark. The carriers broke all the rules imaginable by essentially flood lighting themselves so that the returning pilots had as good a view of the deck as was possible. Luckily no carrier fell prey to Japanese submarines despite illuminating themselves. The Americans lost 80 planes that either crashed into the deck or went over the side. However, as a result of a massive rescue operation only 16 pilots and 33 aircrew remained missing by first light on June 20th. The Japanese still had carriers but very few planes to operate on them. More important, they had few aircrew who had any degree of experience. The Battle of the Philippine Sea was an overwhelming victory for the Americans. The next major concern they had at sea were the kamikazes. - The Battle of the Philippine Sea took place between June 19th and June 20th, 1944. This battle was said to be the last great carrier… - The Battle of the Philippine Sea took place between June 19th and June 20th, 1944. This battle was said to be the last great carrier… - The Battle of Midway, fought in June 1942, must be considered one of the most decisive battles of World War Two. The Battle of Midway…	<urn:uuid:ca5c70fb-e052-431b-9c77-d47d036842b6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/the-pacific-war-1941-to-1945/the-battle-of-the-philippine-sea/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00145.warc.gz	en	0.985769	3,113	3.53125	4	[ -0.20231208205223083, 0.04308914393186569, 0.13038595020771027, -0.4846181571483612, -0.23310545086860657, 0.05821486562490463, -0.04288134723901749, 0.3101319372653961, -0.2547903060913086, -0.2242792844772339, 0.3515150547027588, -0.3287131190299988, 0.12667632102966309, 0.64606857299804...	7	The Battle of the Philippine Sea took place between June 19th and June 20th, 1944. This battle was said to be the last great carrier battle of World War Two. The Battle of Midway in 1942 had done a great deal to damage Japan’s carrier force, but even into 1944, Japan statistically had a larger carrier force than America. Despite America’s huge military capability, the Japanese Navy still represented a threat to her – especially in America’s desire to advance to the Marianas. In November 1943, America launched the start of a major assault through the Central Pacific and at the heart of the Japanese defence system. This started with the assault on the Gilbert Islands and moved, in February 1944, to the main atolls of the Marshall Islands. The ferocity of the American attack forced the Japanese to move their fleet to Singapore. As the Americans moved relentlessly east through the Central Pacific, the Japanese came to the conclusion that only a major sea battle with America would redress the balance at sea. Without control of the sea, the Japanese believed, the Americans could no longer maintain their advance as all their successes had been amphibious based. Without control of the sea, the Americans could not longer move her troops to shore. The next stage in the American campaign was an attack on the Marianas, which was scheduled for June 1944. The Northern Attack Force, led by Vice-Admiral Richmond Turner, was assembled at Hawaii in readiness to attack Saipan. The Southern Attack Force, commanded by Rear-Admiral R L Conolly assembled at Guadalcanal and Tulagi in preparation for an attack on Guam. There were 71,000 assault troops in the Northern Force and 56,000 in the Southern; a combined total of 127,000. The Japanese had planned for an attack on the Marianas with ‘Operation A-Go’. Her Commander-in-Chief, Admiral Toyoda, had developed a complex plan to lure the American fleet to either the Palau’s or the Western Carolinas. Once in either region, America’s ships would be in range of Japan’s land based air force. Toyoda envisaged that they would finish off America’s naval power in the Central Pacific. So what would entice the Americans to where the Japanese wanted to get them? Toyoda decided that part of his fleet would be used to lure the Americans to either the Palau’s or the Western Carolinas. Little attempt would be made to conceal the movement of the Japanese force that was to be the bait – a force commanded by Vice-Admiral Ozawa. The Japanese gathered 1,700 planes at their shore bases in Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and New Guinea. More than 500 planes were based on Tinian, Guam and Saipan in the Marianas. Toyoda planned that the planes would attack whatever fleet America sent and damage it so badly that the second phase, a naval battle, could only result in a Japanese victory. While the Northern and Southern forces were in training, America continued its advance led by Douglas MacArthur. In March, 1944, MacArthur attacked Hollandia in New Guinea. In this assault, he was assisted by Task Force 58 – a massive carrier component of the 5th Fleet. Planes from the carriers also attacked Truk that had a Japanese air base on it, and various other targets – all of which allowed the American pilots to keep their skills honed. The attack on Saipan was scheduled for June 15th and the two forces, Northern and Southern, moved to their forward bases at Eniwetok and Kwajalein respectively. The invasion fleet was protected by a vast force – 7 battleships, 12 escort carriers, 11 cruisers and 91 destroyers or destroyer escorts. Task Force 58 had already started to soften up targets on Saipan on June 11th. Task Force 58 was commanded by Vice-Admiral Marc Mitscher who flew his flag on the ‘USS Lexington’. The Americans had planned for air superiority over Saipan before the assault took place. Over 200 Hellcat fighters from Mitscher’s carriers attacked Japanese positions on the island on a regular basis. The ships in Task Force 58 were divided into four battle groups. - TG58-1 with the carriers Hornet and Yorktown had 265 aircraft in it. - TG58-2 was led by the carrier Bunker Hill and had 242 planes at its disposal. - TG58-3 had the carriers Enterprise and Lexington in it and could call on 227 aircraft. - TG58-4 was led by the carrier Essex and had 162 aircraft in it. Each battle group was protected by battleships and cruisers. In all, Task Force 58 could call on 896 planes – nearly all were the Grumman F6F Hellcat – a plane with a deserved reputation in combat. Such was the improvement in communications since the Battle of Coral Sea in 1942, that each battle group could operate on its own very effectively but could support any other one (or fight as a complete unit) when required to do so. By the evening of June 13th, the planes from Task Force 58 had gained air superiority over the Japanese in Saipan and Tinian. On the same day, 16-inch and 14 –inch guns from American battleships pounded targets on the shoreline. Toyoda had placed a great deal of faith in the 500 Japanese planes based on the Marianas. They had now been destroyed or had moved out of the battle zone. This was a serious blow to the Japanese – and one that they failed to inform Ozawa of as he attempted to ‘lure’ out the Americans. On June 13th, Toyoda gave the go-ahead for ‘Operation A-Go’ to start. On June 15th, American forces landed at Saipan – the Northern Force. Therefore, the coming naval battle was to be in the vicinity of Saipan. The Japanese ordered more ships to the region to support Ozawa – including the battleships Yamato and Musashi. They were accompanied by two heavy cruisers, one light cruiser and three destroyers. It seems that at this point any intention to lure the Americans to a specific spot was dropped and that a simple full-scale sea battle was envisaged. All the Japanese ships met together on June 16th. The following message was sent to every Japanese ship: \|“The fate of the Empire rests on this one battle. Every man is expected to do his utmost.”\| However, American submarines had tracked both parts that made up the Japanese fleet – and informed Admiral Raymond Spruance, commander of the 5th Fleet, accordingly. He had to offer sea protection to the troops on Saipan even though his instinct was to sail to the enemy and meet them away from Saipan itself. Knowing that such a move would be risky as there was always the chance that he would lose the battle, Spruance decided to wait for the Japanese to move towards his fleet. Intelligence had informed Spruance that the Japanese would not reach the area where the Americans were until June 19th. During the time that this took, Spruance organised his force so that it was 180 west of Tinian. Seven battleships were taken from task groups 58-1 and 58-4 to form a battleship force supported by four heavy cruisers and thirteen destroyers. The primary task of this awesome force was to stop the Japanese getting near the American aircraft carriers. The planes from task group 58-4 were used to give the battleship group air cover. On June 18th, the American submarine ‘Cavalla’ spotted the Japanese fleet 780 miles to the west of Saipan. As it approached the Americans, the Japanese split the fleet in three: A Force had three large carriers attached to it and could muster 430 planes B Force had two carriers and one light carrier in it and had 135 planes in it. C Force had three light carriers in it and had 88 aircraft in it. C Force was kept 100 miles from the other two forces, in the hope that the Americans would concentrate their resources on this force as a large number of ships were attached to it including four battleships and five cruisers. In this way, Ozama hoped that the carriers in A and B would not be the main target of America. However, there was a delay in intelligence reaching Spruance and not even land based airplanes could find the Japanese fleet despite the information given by the ‘Cavalla’. So at this vital moment, Spruance was short of vital information. The same was not true for the Japanese. They launched sea planes from their large warships and the whereabouts of Task Force 58 was soon known. The Japanese held the advantage as there was 400 miles between them and the American fleet. Japanese carrier-launched planes could attack the Americans but the American planes did not have this distance in them. Scouting seaplanes gave Ozawa the information he needed and at 08.30 he ordered an attack. Forty-five Zero fighter-bombers, eight torpedo bombers and 16 Zero fighters were launched from C Force. A Force sent out a force of 128 planes and B Force launched 47 planes. In just one hour, the Japanese sent out 244 planes. However, Ozawa’s plan suffered a series of setbacks from the start. The US submarine ‘Albacore’ attacked the carrier ‘Taiho’. The carrier continued to operate but the simple fact that it had been hit by a torpedo salvo undermined confidence. Also the strike force of Japanese planes attacked ships from C Force – Japanese ships that were sailing in advance of the main bulk of C Force. The ships fired back and two planes were shot down and eight had to return to their carrier for repairs. Such an occurrence was symptomatic of how the rest of the battle would go – the so-called ‘Great Marianas Turkey Shoot’. Spruance had sent up Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters at dawn to give his fleet aerial cover. At 10.00 on June 19th, American radar picked up a very large swarm of Japanese planes approaching. More planes were launched from the American carrier force – 300 in all. The American planes intercepted the Japanese between 45 and 60 miles from the American fleet. Many Japanese planes were shot down. Japan had lost many experienced naval pilots at Coral Sea and Midway and this experience had never been fully replaced. Many who fought in this battle had not finished their training, and paid the price. In the first Japanese strike, 42 planes were shot down out of a total of 69, an attrition rate of 61%. In Europe, Bomber Command and the USAAF deemed a bomber loss of 5% as being unacceptable. From the second strike, out of 128 planes, about 20 got through the US fighter cover but hit the massed guns of American battleships, cruisers and destroyers. A few got passed the battleship line and attacked the carriers. Only minor damage was done to the ‘Bunker Hill’ and ‘Wasp’. Out of the 128 planes that attacked this time, only 30 returned. Along with these losses, Ozama suffered another when the carrier ‘Shokaku’ was sunk by the submarine USS Cavalla. This carrier had been in on the attack on Pearl Harbour in December 1941, so her loss did a lot to lower morale. The ‘Taiho’, hit by an earlier torpedo attack, also went down when fumes from ruptured petrol tanks were ignited and tore open the hull of the carrier. The second air strike by the Japanese was also a failure. Some failed to find a target. Those that did had to cope with the Hellcats protecting the fleet. Another air fleet attacked from the carriers of Forces A and B. This attack involved 87 planes. They had been ordered to land in Guam after the attack without knowing that the runways there had been badly damaged. Also at Guam they flew into another defence force of Hellcats and 30 were shot down. Only 19 planes out of the 87 got to any base – be it carrier or land. The Japanese tried to land more planes at Guam or Rota from air forces elsewhere, but many were shot down by the Americans before they could land. In all, the Japanese had launched 373 planes from its carriers and only 130 returned – nearly a two-thirds rate of loss. Only 102 were serviceable to any degree. Only 29 Americans planes were destroyed. A carrier fleet without planes was useless. The Battle of the Philippine Sea effectively spelt the end of whatever carrier strength the Japanese Navy had. However, Ozawa was never fully aware of what had happened to his plane force carried by his carriers. Those pilots that had returned had brought back stories of four American carriers being sunk and many US planes destroyed! He prepared to continue the battle. However, he was never given the chance. At 16.30, 77 dive-bombers, 54 torpedo-planes and 85 fighters took off from American carriers to attack the Japanese fleet. Ozawa had very few planes with which to fight back and his losses were severe. The carriers ‘Hiyo’, ‘Zuikaku’ and ‘Chiyoda’ were hit. The battleship ‘Haruna’ was also hit. The Japanese lost a further 65 planes and by the end of the attack, Ozama’s fleet only had 35 planes left. The total American loss in this attack was 14 planes. Ozama realised that he had no hope of continuing the fight and signaled Toyoda that he was retreating to Okinawa. He had lost 375 planes in total. The problem the Americans now experienced was getting back to the carriers as darkness was falling and few pilots were trained to land in the dark. The carriers broke all the rules imaginable by essentially flood lighting themselves so that the returning pilots had as good a view of the deck as was possible. Luckily no carrier fell prey to Japanese submarines despite illuminating themselves. The Americans lost 80 planes that either crashed into the deck or went over the side. However, as a result of a massive rescue operation only 16 pilots and 33 aircrew remained missing by first light on June 20th. The Japanese still had carriers but very few planes to operate on them. More important, they had few aircrew who had any degree of experience. The Battle of the Philippine Sea was an overwhelming victory for the Americans. The next major concern they had at sea were the kamikazes. - The Battle of the Philippine Sea took place between June 19th and June 20th, 1944. This battle was said to be the last great carrier… - The Battle of the Philippine Sea took place between June 19th and June 20th, 1944. This battle was said to be the last great carrier… - The Battle of Midway, fought in June 1942, must be considered one of the most decisive battles of World War Two. The Battle of Midway…	3,268	ENGLISH	1
- Search This Blog - What we do - Clothing Rationing in Britain During WWII - World War II Rationing - World War II Rationing Search This Blog The scheme was designed to ensure fair shares for all at a time when resources were tight. It would allow more precious cloth to be used for making military uniforms and enable factories to focus on other types of manufacturing. Meanwhile men were forced to wear single-breasted suits and the prohibition of turn-ups on trousers was greeted with dismay. One upside for the male population was that women began to show more leg as hemlines were raised to save on fabric. Clothes rationing was to last for nine years, even affecting the Queen on her wedding day and the rigours of those dark days are highlighted in a new exhibition at the Imperial War Museum North, held to mark the 75th anniversary of the start of rationing on 1 June In theory the allowance was supposed to allow one new set of clothes every year, with new mothers and brides-to-be receiving a few extra coupons to help with their particular needs. But in reality it was never enough. A new adult Mackintosh meant using 16 coupons, while a pair of trousers cost eight, as did a night-shirt. As the war continued matters got worse — the number of coupons per person was slashed to just 48 annually and ultimately a miserly three per month. As the war went on people became very creative. Indeed, armed with handy tips such as how to unpick old jumpers, create decorative patches for concealing holes in worn-out garments and protect against the menace of moths, we became a nation of tailors. An immediate effect of rationing was that clothes became more functional. People walked further, due to petrol shortages and many were growing their own food. Clothing reflected this culture of everyone mucking in together. Make-up and jewellery, though not rationed, were also in short supply and expensive. What we do Women eked out the last remnants from their lipstick tubes, or used a dab of beetroot juice instead, and trinkets were fashioned from pieces of scrap metal including aircraft components. The fact that so many people were in uniform influenced fashion. There was a trend for military-style narrow skirts and smart suits but despite battledress chic becoming all the rage do not imagine that everyone was dressing in khaki. Wartime designers, such as Hardy Amies and Mayfair couturier Peter Russell, were enlisted by the government to create clothes which complied with austerity regulations but still looked desirable. They and eight other leading designers became members of the Incorporated Society of London Fashion Designers.piodrivesprepnos.ga/kuz-quedadas-entre-tios.php Clothing Rationing in Britain During WWII Senate House, the headquarters of the Ministry of Information, is clearly visible behind them. For women there was much more colour and variety, but what people quickly became aware of was the need to use the clothes they already had and make them last longer. Therefore they had to perform conversions of clothes — for example to take a garment like a coat and turn it into a little waistcoat in order to give it a longer life. Even if you were somebody with quite a lot of money, rationing prevented the purchase of new clothes to quite an extent. The latter is something that we see in the Make do and Mend scheme, which began with a government pamphlet issued by the British Ministry of Information and provided housewives with useful tips on how to be both frugal and stylish. Shopping became tiring, people were constantly having to do sums in their head about what they were going to spend. Clothes rationing was a bit freer than food rationing, where, for example, you had to register with a butcher and you could only use that butcher. With clothes you could still go to any shop you wanted to and retailers were still quite actively encouraging advertising and shopping in a way we might find surprising during a war. With rationing you would not be allowed to buy many clothes at all. As the rationing allowance diminished over time it got worse and shabbiness became the norm as the war progressed. People became very sick and tired of clothes rationing and unfortunately rationing continued until , so austerity became very draining for people. Two models pose for the camera on a Bloomsbury rooftop. The model on the left is holding a camera as if taking a photograph and is wearing a blue flecked tweed Utility suit from Dereta, whilst her colleague sports an emerald green woollen frock with a matching jacket, designed by Norman Hartnell, costing 22 coupons. A barrage balloon can be seen in the sky behind them. Copyright IWM One of the problems of clothes rationing, which was introduced in , was the inequality that emerged from it. If you were very rich you could afford with the same number of coupons to buy a very nice jumper that would last, and the same number of coupons would also buy something cheap that would wear out in no time. So the Utility scheme democratised fashion and made good quality clothing more affordable for more people. Another main driver was the need to free up factory space and factory workers and turn them over to wartime works. But the government knew it had to try and make the clothes attractive to both the retailers selling them and the people buying them, so they asked some pretty high end fashion designers to get involved through the Incorporated Society of London Fashion Designers. People like Digby Morton and Hardy Amies contributed to the scheme by designing a prototype range of clothes. World War II Rationing They realised that for a good price you could get some really good quality clothes. We have a whole plinth in the exhibition devoted to it and when people see the clothes and how well they endure, they will be surprised at how good quality this stuff is. In terms of public perception, the different branches of the armed forces were certainly considered more attractive than others. The RAF were much luckier; ordinary airmen had a very neat blazer that showed off the shirt and tie and it looked much more dashing. World War II Rationing And you could see that through clothing. The Womens Royal Naval Service outfit was however coveted, and the WRNS was the most popular service for women to try to join — even though it was the smallest. Included here are two types of luminous arm band, luminous discs and button badges, and luminous adhesive tape which could be added to the edges of clothing. The aim was to make the wearer more visible to pedestrians and vehicles in the blackout. But in terms of practical wartime fashions there was a real opportunistic commercialism that developed with retailers responding to wartime conditions and the dangers people were living under, so it was a chance to flog people some potentially useful items. Luminous buttons, pin-on brooches, luminous handbags and white coloured coats were sold in order for people to be seen in the blackout, which was one of the most invasive things for ordinary people during the war. But the problem with the blackout was a steep and sudden rise in collisions in the street between cars and pedestrians. As a result some retailers cultivated the desire to incorporate high visibility with accessories that had some panache and style. You see this with respirators; rather than carrying the mask around in a very tedious looking cardboard box with a piece of string, the gas mask handbag with a special compartment for the gas mask became a wartime trend. Some people wanted a more attractive solution and it reminds you of the ways retailers were trying to appeal to customers to come through the door and spend their money. Jacqmar of London made propaganda scarves from and were based in Mayfair. Jacqmar silk scarves were wonderful and they were quite niche and high end in terms of affordability.	<urn:uuid:d8bb8fd3-c36b-4963-8843-2b453620e4d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ifomisuqap.tk/lyhanytuv/7.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00155.warc.gz	en	0.986038	1,631	3.546875	4	[ -0.242385596036911, 0.3820415735244751, 0.16587314009666443, -0.38451382517814636, 0.2895318865776062, 0.1259373426437378, -0.025563903152942657, 0.09101568162441254, -0.22182554006576538, -0.07757861912250519, -0.029698748141527176, -0.4518023431301117, -0.008028415963053703, 0.5393698215...	1	- Search This Blog - What we do - Clothing Rationing in Britain During WWII - World War II Rationing - World War II Rationing Search This Blog The scheme was designed to ensure fair shares for all at a time when resources were tight. It would allow more precious cloth to be used for making military uniforms and enable factories to focus on other types of manufacturing. Meanwhile men were forced to wear single-breasted suits and the prohibition of turn-ups on trousers was greeted with dismay. One upside for the male population was that women began to show more leg as hemlines were raised to save on fabric. Clothes rationing was to last for nine years, even affecting the Queen on her wedding day and the rigours of those dark days are highlighted in a new exhibition at the Imperial War Museum North, held to mark the 75th anniversary of the start of rationing on 1 June In theory the allowance was supposed to allow one new set of clothes every year, with new mothers and brides-to-be receiving a few extra coupons to help with their particular needs. But in reality it was never enough. A new adult Mackintosh meant using 16 coupons, while a pair of trousers cost eight, as did a night-shirt. As the war continued matters got worse — the number of coupons per person was slashed to just 48 annually and ultimately a miserly three per month. As the war went on people became very creative. Indeed, armed with handy tips such as how to unpick old jumpers, create decorative patches for concealing holes in worn-out garments and protect against the menace of moths, we became a nation of tailors. An immediate effect of rationing was that clothes became more functional. People walked further, due to petrol shortages and many were growing their own food. Clothing reflected this culture of everyone mucking in together. Make-up and jewellery, though not rationed, were also in short supply and expensive. What we do Women eked out the last remnants from their lipstick tubes, or used a dab of beetroot juice instead, and trinkets were fashioned from pieces of scrap metal including aircraft components. The fact that so many people were in uniform influenced fashion. There was a trend for military-style narrow skirts and smart suits but despite battledress chic becoming all the rage do not imagine that everyone was dressing in khaki. Wartime designers, such as Hardy Amies and Mayfair couturier Peter Russell, were enlisted by the government to create clothes which complied with austerity regulations but still looked desirable. They and eight other leading designers became members of the Incorporated Society of London Fashion Designers.piodrivesprepnos.ga/kuz-quedadas-entre-tios.php Clothing Rationing in Britain During WWII Senate House, the headquarters of the Ministry of Information, is clearly visible behind them. For women there was much more colour and variety, but what people quickly became aware of was the need to use the clothes they already had and make them last longer. Therefore they had to perform conversions of clothes — for example to take a garment like a coat and turn it into a little waistcoat in order to give it a longer life. Even if you were somebody with quite a lot of money, rationing prevented the purchase of new clothes to quite an extent. The latter is something that we see in the Make do and Mend scheme, which began with a government pamphlet issued by the British Ministry of Information and provided housewives with useful tips on how to be both frugal and stylish. Shopping became tiring, people were constantly having to do sums in their head about what they were going to spend. Clothes rationing was a bit freer than food rationing, where, for example, you had to register with a butcher and you could only use that butcher. With clothes you could still go to any shop you wanted to and retailers were still quite actively encouraging advertising and shopping in a way we might find surprising during a war. With rationing you would not be allowed to buy many clothes at all. As the rationing allowance diminished over time it got worse and shabbiness became the norm as the war progressed. People became very sick and tired of clothes rationing and unfortunately rationing continued until , so austerity became very draining for people. Two models pose for the camera on a Bloomsbury rooftop. The model on the left is holding a camera as if taking a photograph and is wearing a blue flecked tweed Utility suit from Dereta, whilst her colleague sports an emerald green woollen frock with a matching jacket, designed by Norman Hartnell, costing 22 coupons. A barrage balloon can be seen in the sky behind them. Copyright IWM One of the problems of clothes rationing, which was introduced in , was the inequality that emerged from it. If you were very rich you could afford with the same number of coupons to buy a very nice jumper that would last, and the same number of coupons would also buy something cheap that would wear out in no time. So the Utility scheme democratised fashion and made good quality clothing more affordable for more people. Another main driver was the need to free up factory space and factory workers and turn them over to wartime works. But the government knew it had to try and make the clothes attractive to both the retailers selling them and the people buying them, so they asked some pretty high end fashion designers to get involved through the Incorporated Society of London Fashion Designers. People like Digby Morton and Hardy Amies contributed to the scheme by designing a prototype range of clothes. World War II Rationing They realised that for a good price you could get some really good quality clothes. We have a whole plinth in the exhibition devoted to it and when people see the clothes and how well they endure, they will be surprised at how good quality this stuff is. In terms of public perception, the different branches of the armed forces were certainly considered more attractive than others. The RAF were much luckier; ordinary airmen had a very neat blazer that showed off the shirt and tie and it looked much more dashing. World War II Rationing And you could see that through clothing. The Womens Royal Naval Service outfit was however coveted, and the WRNS was the most popular service for women to try to join — even though it was the smallest. Included here are two types of luminous arm band, luminous discs and button badges, and luminous adhesive tape which could be added to the edges of clothing. The aim was to make the wearer more visible to pedestrians and vehicles in the blackout. But in terms of practical wartime fashions there was a real opportunistic commercialism that developed with retailers responding to wartime conditions and the dangers people were living under, so it was a chance to flog people some potentially useful items. Luminous buttons, pin-on brooches, luminous handbags and white coloured coats were sold in order for people to be seen in the blackout, which was one of the most invasive things for ordinary people during the war. But the problem with the blackout was a steep and sudden rise in collisions in the street between cars and pedestrians. As a result some retailers cultivated the desire to incorporate high visibility with accessories that had some panache and style. You see this with respirators; rather than carrying the mask around in a very tedious looking cardboard box with a piece of string, the gas mask handbag with a special compartment for the gas mask became a wartime trend. Some people wanted a more attractive solution and it reminds you of the ways retailers were trying to appeal to customers to come through the door and spend their money. Jacqmar of London made propaganda scarves from and were based in Mayfair. Jacqmar silk scarves were wonderful and they were quite niche and high end in terms of affordability.	1,597	ENGLISH	1
The Gettysburg Women’s Memorial is a tribute to the women of Gettysburg who served and suffered because of the battle. It depicts Elizabeth Thorn, wife of the caretaker of Evergreen Cemetery. At the time of the battle she was six months pregnant and caring for three sons and her elderly parents. Her husband was away serving with the 138th Pennsylvania Infantry, which was serving in Virginia during the Gettysburg Campaign. During the battle Thorn and her family were forced to flee their home in the gatehouse, which was witness to hand-to-hand fighting on July 2nd. She returned to find her food and possessions stolen and dead bodies lying unburied everywhere. As caretaker of the cemetery, she was ordered to begin burying casualties, Men were detailed to help but one by one they slipped away, unable to bear the work. The statue depicts a weary Thorn leaning on a shovel as she rests from burying 91 casualties from the battle. Elizabeth gave birth to a daughter, Rose Meade, that month. The child was never healthy, though, and died at the age of 14. Elizabeth always believed the stress of the battle and her work burying its victims affected her unborn daughter. Elizabeth’s husband returned safely after Appomattox, and the couple stayed at the cemetery until 1874. The monument was dedicated in 2002. It was created by sculptor Ron Tunison, who also created the bas relief on the Delaware State Monument, the Friend to Friend Masonic Memorial and the General Crawford monument at Gettysburg and the bas reliefs on the Irish Brigade monument at Antietam.	<urn:uuid:98aa597a-cfcd-4b1f-8184-7203331338f4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://gettysburg.stonesentinels.com/other-monuments/womens-memorial/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00512.warc.gz	en	0.985148	327	3.421875	3	[ -0.3134133517742157, 0.6549755930900574, 0.214609295129776, 0.49071982502937317, -0.3697291612625122, 0.41923126578330994, 0.6925837993621826, -0.1055617481470108, -0.6851946711540222, -0.35755789279937744, -0.049208864569664, -0.1808551549911499, 0.20857097208499908, 0.42323267459869385, ...	1	The Gettysburg Women’s Memorial is a tribute to the women of Gettysburg who served and suffered because of the battle. It depicts Elizabeth Thorn, wife of the caretaker of Evergreen Cemetery. At the time of the battle she was six months pregnant and caring for three sons and her elderly parents. Her husband was away serving with the 138th Pennsylvania Infantry, which was serving in Virginia during the Gettysburg Campaign. During the battle Thorn and her family were forced to flee their home in the gatehouse, which was witness to hand-to-hand fighting on July 2nd. She returned to find her food and possessions stolen and dead bodies lying unburied everywhere. As caretaker of the cemetery, she was ordered to begin burying casualties, Men were detailed to help but one by one they slipped away, unable to bear the work. The statue depicts a weary Thorn leaning on a shovel as she rests from burying 91 casualties from the battle. Elizabeth gave birth to a daughter, Rose Meade, that month. The child was never healthy, though, and died at the age of 14. Elizabeth always believed the stress of the battle and her work burying its victims affected her unborn daughter. Elizabeth’s husband returned safely after Appomattox, and the couple stayed at the cemetery until 1874. The monument was dedicated in 2002. It was created by sculptor Ron Tunison, who also created the bas relief on the Delaware State Monument, the Friend to Friend Masonic Memorial and the General Crawford monument at Gettysburg and the bas reliefs on the Irish Brigade monument at Antietam.	343	ENGLISH	1
People often mistake empty Dungeness shells strewn along beaches for dead crabs. Crabs shed and grow new shells regularly as part of their growth process. The old shell splits at the back and along the sides so the crab can back out. The shell the crab leaves behind is an almost intact replica of the crab. Dungeness crabs are typically light brown in color. These creatures have one pair of claws and four pairs of walking legs. Their claws are serrated and so are the edges of their shells from the eyes down to the middle of the body. Crabs are measured by the width of their shells. A male Dungeness crab can grow to a width of about 230 mm and can weigh up to about 2 kg. The Dungeness crab’s slender, light-colored claw tips distinguish it from other crab species, as does its relatively large size. As a predator, the Dungeness crab eats clams, mussels, crabs and other crustaceans as well as some small fish. Crabs pursue prey more actively at night, tending to bury themselves in the sand during the day. When moving along the sea bottom, these crabs find and capture prey by probing the sand with their legs or claws. Dungeness crabs can move in any direction-quickly enough to give a scuba diver a run for his money! The Dungeness crab is distributed along the west coast from Mexico to Alaska. It inhabits waters up to depths of about 180 meters. Although these crabs can sometimes be spotted on mud and gravel, they prefer sandy bottoms and shallow cool waters around eelgrass. Predators of the Dungeness crab include octopus, halibut, dogfish, sculpin, birds and other crabs. Crabs are most vulnerable immediately after they’ve molted when their bodies are soft and lack the protection of a hard shell. When I was a young man, my friend Jimmy and I were hand logging up in Blunden Harbor across from Port Hardy. We had no way of freezing meat, so we were on a diet of canned meats for the 3 to 4 months we would be in there. So we would supplement this diet with the odd Canada goose or mallard duck along with fish and we also set out crab and prawn traps. One day, a crab trap I was pulling up seemed to be very heavy and I assumed that a large starfish had attached itself to the outside of the trap. But as I got the trap up to where I could see it in the water, I realized that it was a very large and I mean giant Dungeness crab. This crab was on the outside of the trap and hanging on. I started to pull as fast as I could and just as I was getting the trap into the skiff, the crab fell off, but it landed in the boat. This was the biggest crab I had ever seen, even to this day.	<urn:uuid:c9fc7ae3-11cb-46b4-9d81-66070bcddecc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gohiking.ca/animals/fish/crustaceans/dungeness-crabs/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00296.warc.gz	en	0.98203	604	3.265625	3	[ 0.16419988870620728, -0.3089539408683777, -0.04186161607503891, -0.4021749496459961, 0.11749885976314545, 0.0911174938082695, 0.3758213222026825, -0.19759272038936615, -0.2871028184890747, -0.39309513568878174, 0.42361578345298767, -0.5595149397850037, 0.13065455853939056, 0.09252160787582...	1	People often mistake empty Dungeness shells strewn along beaches for dead crabs. Crabs shed and grow new shells regularly as part of their growth process. The old shell splits at the back and along the sides so the crab can back out. The shell the crab leaves behind is an almost intact replica of the crab. Dungeness crabs are typically light brown in color. These creatures have one pair of claws and four pairs of walking legs. Their claws are serrated and so are the edges of their shells from the eyes down to the middle of the body. Crabs are measured by the width of their shells. A male Dungeness crab can grow to a width of about 230 mm and can weigh up to about 2 kg. The Dungeness crab’s slender, light-colored claw tips distinguish it from other crab species, as does its relatively large size. As a predator, the Dungeness crab eats clams, mussels, crabs and other crustaceans as well as some small fish. Crabs pursue prey more actively at night, tending to bury themselves in the sand during the day. When moving along the sea bottom, these crabs find and capture prey by probing the sand with their legs or claws. Dungeness crabs can move in any direction-quickly enough to give a scuba diver a run for his money! The Dungeness crab is distributed along the west coast from Mexico to Alaska. It inhabits waters up to depths of about 180 meters. Although these crabs can sometimes be spotted on mud and gravel, they prefer sandy bottoms and shallow cool waters around eelgrass. Predators of the Dungeness crab include octopus, halibut, dogfish, sculpin, birds and other crabs. Crabs are most vulnerable immediately after they’ve molted when their bodies are soft and lack the protection of a hard shell. When I was a young man, my friend Jimmy and I were hand logging up in Blunden Harbor across from Port Hardy. We had no way of freezing meat, so we were on a diet of canned meats for the 3 to 4 months we would be in there. So we would supplement this diet with the odd Canada goose or mallard duck along with fish and we also set out crab and prawn traps. One day, a crab trap I was pulling up seemed to be very heavy and I assumed that a large starfish had attached itself to the outside of the trap. But as I got the trap up to where I could see it in the water, I realized that it was a very large and I mean giant Dungeness crab. This crab was on the outside of the trap and hanging on. I started to pull as fast as I could and just as I was getting the trap into the skiff, the crab fell off, but it landed in the boat. This was the biggest crab I had ever seen, even to this day.	606	ENGLISH	1
Today, the works of Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) are among the most well known and celebrated in the world. In Sunflowers, The Starry Night, Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear, and many paintings and drawings beyond, we recognize an artist uniquely dexterous in the portrayal of mood and place through paint, pencil, charcoal, or chalk. Yet as he was deploying the lurid colors, emphatic brushwork, and contoured forms that would subsequently make his name, van Gogh battled not only the disinterest of his contemporary audience but also devastating bouts of mental illness. His episodes of depression and anxiety would eventually claim his life, when, in 1890, he committed suicide shortly after his 37th birthday. This richly illustrated introduction follows Vincent van Gogh's story from his earliest pictures of peasants and rural workers, through his bright Parisian period, to his final, feverish burst of creative energy in the South of France during the last two and a half years of his life.	<urn:uuid:1df3fa69-fbe6-4883-b4cb-86569327a9c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thezinestand.com/products/van-gogh-the-complete-paintings-by-rainer-metzger-hardcover	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00325.warc.gz	en	0.982005	209	3.296875	3	[ -0.10167494416236877, 0.35451817512512207, -0.04194028675556183, 0.021974872797727585, 0.13435077667236328, 0.14039461314678192, 0.21247616410255432, 0.2113897055387497, 0.1807834357023239, 0.12570859491825104, 0.33534666895866394, 0.05973583832383156, -0.05474371463060379, 0.4586359262466...	6	Today, the works of Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) are among the most well known and celebrated in the world. In Sunflowers, The Starry Night, Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear, and many paintings and drawings beyond, we recognize an artist uniquely dexterous in the portrayal of mood and place through paint, pencil, charcoal, or chalk. Yet as he was deploying the lurid colors, emphatic brushwork, and contoured forms that would subsequently make his name, van Gogh battled not only the disinterest of his contemporary audience but also devastating bouts of mental illness. His episodes of depression and anxiety would eventually claim his life, when, in 1890, he committed suicide shortly after his 37th birthday. This richly illustrated introduction follows Vincent van Gogh's story from his earliest pictures of peasants and rural workers, through his bright Parisian period, to his final, feverish burst of creative energy in the South of France during the last two and a half years of his life.	217	ENGLISH	1
Rumors abound that territorial governor and Mormon prophet Brigham Young ordered Mormon gold to be cached in a number of remote places, although, like so many urban myths and frontier legends, there is little evidence to support the claim. After all, Mormon settlers didn’t have many worldly possessions, let alone reserves of gold, so where would such treasure have come from? Early Mormons shunned the idea of prospecting for gold, and did so under threat of excommunication, but the gold rush of 1849 brought $20,000 worth of refined gold from California to Utah, where it was used for the minting of coins, establishing new settlements and decorating temples. With gold in so much demand, and most of it in circulation, there wasn’t much left to hide. Years later, however, attitudes toward prospecting changed, and building up the Kingdom of God in a desert became an expensive proposition. The city of St. George wasn’t established until 1861, and by that time, the church purportedly had access to at least 40 gold mines, including the infamous Rhoades Mine in the Uinta Mountains. With so much gold now at his disposal, Brother Brigham may very well have ordered much of it hidden, some of it in Bloomington Cave near St. George, to keep it safe from ruffians, thieves, and perhaps even government tax collectors. As the fifth largest cave in Utah, Bloomington is an extensive complex of narrow caverns with two entrances that were once thought to be separate caves, but were later found to be connected. It would have made an ideal repository for concealing a fortune. Many prominent members of the early church had homes in St. George, including Brigham himself, and there were plenty of able-bodied men to guard the church’s wealth. Prior to his death in 1877, Brigham could have ordered the gold to be removed from Bloomington Cave and hidden elsewhere, or put into circulation to fund Utah’s growing communities and the construction of temples. Or, it could have been stolen by someone entrusted with its secret; someone for whom the temptation of gold was just too great. With a history of visitation dating back to pioneer times, thousands of people have explored Bloomington Cave over the last 150 years, some looking for Brigham’s gold, others seeking adventure, but so far, none of them has laid claim to the cave’s legendary treasure. Dead Boy on Webb Hill In December of 1998, on a windswept rise known as Webb Hill, just south of St. George, three boys noticed a tiny patch of fabric protruding from a crack in an unnatural-looking wall of stone. Curious, they began to chip away at the rocky veneer that had been deliberately and carefully stacked, as if to hide a mystery. As the wall crumbled away and light poured in, there, sequestered in a musty, closet-sized cavern, sat the desiccated remains of a young man about 15-years-old. A plaid flannel shirt, blue jeans, boots and a blanket covered his weathered skeleton, which had been subjected to decades of summer heat and winter cold. A rivet from the boy’s pants was dated to around 1918, and his boots were factory-made, but investigations into his identity revealed nothing. He was never reported missing, no one claimed his body, and his name remains lost to history. Did someone kill him, then conceal his body behind a wall of stone? Did he take shelter and barricade himself from the cold? Forensics indicates that he may have been a victim of influenza – an often fatal condition at the time. If so, did he climb Webb Hill to die, sick and alone? Where was his family and why did no one search for him? Who was the young man in the flannel shirt who died mysteriously on Webb Hill nearly 100 years ago? Some secrets are as elusive and valuable as gold. How useful was this post? Click on a star to rate it! Average rating / 5. Vote count: No votes so far! Be the first to rate this post.	<urn:uuid:48b7891e-fe3d-4f2d-b512-dc0abb3dda72>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://utahstories.com/2016/07/the-legend-of-brighams-gold/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00476.warc.gz	en	0.982636	855	3.265625	3	[ -0.10213582217693329, 0.02129349671304226, 0.09974925220012665, 0.16836097836494446, -0.02966761402785778, 0.012218168005347252, 0.008937026374042034, 0.027948634698987007, -0.1808791160583496, -0.11798550188541412, 0.44242018461227417, 0.2623737156391144, 0.3974791169166565, 0.29385513067...	1	Rumors abound that territorial governor and Mormon prophet Brigham Young ordered Mormon gold to be cached in a number of remote places, although, like so many urban myths and frontier legends, there is little evidence to support the claim. After all, Mormon settlers didn’t have many worldly possessions, let alone reserves of gold, so where would such treasure have come from? Early Mormons shunned the idea of prospecting for gold, and did so under threat of excommunication, but the gold rush of 1849 brought $20,000 worth of refined gold from California to Utah, where it was used for the minting of coins, establishing new settlements and decorating temples. With gold in so much demand, and most of it in circulation, there wasn’t much left to hide. Years later, however, attitudes toward prospecting changed, and building up the Kingdom of God in a desert became an expensive proposition. The city of St. George wasn’t established until 1861, and by that time, the church purportedly had access to at least 40 gold mines, including the infamous Rhoades Mine in the Uinta Mountains. With so much gold now at his disposal, Brother Brigham may very well have ordered much of it hidden, some of it in Bloomington Cave near St. George, to keep it safe from ruffians, thieves, and perhaps even government tax collectors. As the fifth largest cave in Utah, Bloomington is an extensive complex of narrow caverns with two entrances that were once thought to be separate caves, but were later found to be connected. It would have made an ideal repository for concealing a fortune. Many prominent members of the early church had homes in St. George, including Brigham himself, and there were plenty of able-bodied men to guard the church’s wealth. Prior to his death in 1877, Brigham could have ordered the gold to be removed from Bloomington Cave and hidden elsewhere, or put into circulation to fund Utah’s growing communities and the construction of temples. Or, it could have been stolen by someone entrusted with its secret; someone for whom the temptation of gold was just too great. With a history of visitation dating back to pioneer times, thousands of people have explored Bloomington Cave over the last 150 years, some looking for Brigham’s gold, others seeking adventure, but so far, none of them has laid claim to the cave’s legendary treasure. Dead Boy on Webb Hill In December of 1998, on a windswept rise known as Webb Hill, just south of St. George, three boys noticed a tiny patch of fabric protruding from a crack in an unnatural-looking wall of stone. Curious, they began to chip away at the rocky veneer that had been deliberately and carefully stacked, as if to hide a mystery. As the wall crumbled away and light poured in, there, sequestered in a musty, closet-sized cavern, sat the desiccated remains of a young man about 15-years-old. A plaid flannel shirt, blue jeans, boots and a blanket covered his weathered skeleton, which had been subjected to decades of summer heat and winter cold. A rivet from the boy’s pants was dated to around 1918, and his boots were factory-made, but investigations into his identity revealed nothing. He was never reported missing, no one claimed his body, and his name remains lost to history. Did someone kill him, then conceal his body behind a wall of stone? Did he take shelter and barricade himself from the cold? Forensics indicates that he may have been a victim of influenza – an often fatal condition at the time. If so, did he climb Webb Hill to die, sick and alone? Where was his family and why did no one search for him? Who was the young man in the flannel shirt who died mysteriously on Webb Hill nearly 100 years ago? Some secrets are as elusive and valuable as gold. How useful was this post? Click on a star to rate it! Average rating / 5. Vote count: No votes so far! Be the first to rate this post.	855	ENGLISH	1
Athens vs. Sparta During the times of Ancient Greece, two major forms of government existed, democracy and oligarchy. The city-states of Athens and Sparta are the best representatives of democracy and oligarchy, respectively. The focus of the times was directed towards military capabilities, while the Athenians were more interested in comfort and culture. It was the oligarchy in Sparta that put a war-like attitude as its first priority and best met the needs of Ancient Greece. These factors empowered Sparta and led to the development of an authoritative and potent state. Other contrasting issues included women’s rights, social classes, and value of human life. Four rulers, Draco, Solon, Pisistratus, and Cleithenes, greatly influenced the political development of Athens. However, Athenian democracy cannot really be called a true democracy since there were several flaws in the government and the way in which it functioned. Upper class male citizens over the age of thirty were the only Athenians who held any right to vote. The democracy in Athens consisted of an executive, legislative, and judicial branch. Together, nine anchors, a Council of five hundred, an Assembly, and a court chosen by lot governed the city-state with limited power. The Assembly was made up of five hundred men who were chosen from a list of those who were eligible to serve on the council. All branches of the government were capable of vetoing one another. It was also customary to expel from the country any speaker who became too powerful. This rule could easily be abused and often infringed on the freedom of speech that most democracies have. However, as stated in the Athenian Constitution, male citizens were equal and the government’s focus was on the individual rather than the state as a whole. This form of government could have run smoothly if it had not existed in a time led my military empires. The government in Sparta followed a very different coarse than that of the Athenians. It was controlled by an oligarchy in which the power was held by a group of five men called ephors. Working below the ephors was the Council of Elders and an Assembly. Male citizens over age sixty could serve on the Council while anyone, male or female, over the age of twenty could be a member of the Assembly. Though the citizens had little say in the decisions made by the government, the system worked effectively. Over the years, the Spartan's brutal reputation in war grew so great that other nations and city-states were too frightened to attack Sparta even though the Spartan army was no larger then eight thousand men. The Spartan Constitution called for all men to begin their military education at the age of seven, where they were trained to be tough and self-sufficient. Every man in the army fought with a great deal of passion for his country. Life in Sparta may have been rough, but the rest of the Greeks envied the Spartans for their simplicity, straight...	<urn:uuid:04ecc005-5652-42d4-9ef5-10c0e91426ad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/athens-vs-sparta-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00501.warc.gz	en	0.985702	604	4.09375	4	[ -0.2306479513645172, 0.17265218496322632, 0.4552505612373352, -0.4081595242023468, -0.34874141216278076, -0.17438644170761108, -0.008521818555891514, 0.4682207703590393, -0.3272203207015991, 0.08975239843130112, -0.4498940110206604, 0.04842834919691086, -0.003326946869492531, 0.38343223929...	1	Athens vs. Sparta During the times of Ancient Greece, two major forms of government existed, democracy and oligarchy. The city-states of Athens and Sparta are the best representatives of democracy and oligarchy, respectively. The focus of the times was directed towards military capabilities, while the Athenians were more interested in comfort and culture. It was the oligarchy in Sparta that put a war-like attitude as its first priority and best met the needs of Ancient Greece. These factors empowered Sparta and led to the development of an authoritative and potent state. Other contrasting issues included women’s rights, social classes, and value of human life. Four rulers, Draco, Solon, Pisistratus, and Cleithenes, greatly influenced the political development of Athens. However, Athenian democracy cannot really be called a true democracy since there were several flaws in the government and the way in which it functioned. Upper class male citizens over the age of thirty were the only Athenians who held any right to vote. The democracy in Athens consisted of an executive, legislative, and judicial branch. Together, nine anchors, a Council of five hundred, an Assembly, and a court chosen by lot governed the city-state with limited power. The Assembly was made up of five hundred men who were chosen from a list of those who were eligible to serve on the council. All branches of the government were capable of vetoing one another. It was also customary to expel from the country any speaker who became too powerful. This rule could easily be abused and often infringed on the freedom of speech that most democracies have. However, as stated in the Athenian Constitution, male citizens were equal and the government’s focus was on the individual rather than the state as a whole. This form of government could have run smoothly if it had not existed in a time led my military empires. The government in Sparta followed a very different coarse than that of the Athenians. It was controlled by an oligarchy in which the power was held by a group of five men called ephors. Working below the ephors was the Council of Elders and an Assembly. Male citizens over age sixty could serve on the Council while anyone, male or female, over the age of twenty could be a member of the Assembly. Though the citizens had little say in the decisions made by the government, the system worked effectively. Over the years, the Spartan's brutal reputation in war grew so great that other nations and city-states were too frightened to attack Sparta even though the Spartan army was no larger then eight thousand men. The Spartan Constitution called for all men to begin their military education at the age of seven, where they were trained to be tough and self-sufficient. Every man in the army fought with a great deal of passion for his country. Life in Sparta may have been rough, but the rest of the Greeks envied the Spartans for their simplicity, straight...	596	ENGLISH	1
Socrates begins his speech by distinguishing between truth and persuasion. He, Socrates, speaks the truth in a plain way, while his accusers speak falsehoods in an eloquent way. This reflects Socrates' continuing battle with the Sophists, who taught their students (for a large fee) how to speak persuasively regardless of the truth of what they were saying. It also illustrates Socrates' famous use of irony. Next he distinguishes between his present accusers (who claimed that he corrupted the youth of Athens by turning them against religion) and his long-time accusers, who accuse him of being a wise man who studies things beyond the earth, and is able to "make the worse argument stronger." The latter accusers will be addressed first, since their charges have become deeply ingrained. Socrates had been accused of making claims to knowledge of the supernatural ("saying he was walking on air"), but this is false, as many people know. What was the origin of the false charges against Socrates? They center around Socrates' wisdom. The oracle at Delphi (a kind of prophet) had said that no man is wiser than Socrates. Yet upon pondering this answer, Socrates was perplexed, since he had thought that he was not wise at all, yet the oracle does not lie. Undertaking to find someone wiser than himself, Socrates sought out men with the reputation for wisdom and found them to be unwise. He proved it to them, thus incurring their displeasure. Further, he discovered that there is an inverse relation between reputation and wisdom: those reputed to most wise were least so, and vice versa. The politicians knew practically nothing, while the poets at least had some inspiration, though not knowledge. The crasftsmen had knowledge of their crafts but claimed knowledge of other things. The result of the investigation was that Socrates concluded that what the oracle meant is the human wisdom is worthless, and at least he, Socrates, understood that. By exposing the pretensions of those who believed themselves wise, Socrates was doing service for the oracle. The specific charge that Socrates corrupted the youth of Athens is now explained: young followers of Socrates imitated his method and exposed other people as unwise. The accusers have no explanation of how Socrates does it, other than vague charges leveled at all philosophers: that they dabble in the supernatural, that they deny the existence of the gods, and that they make weaker arguments appear stonger. Now Socrates confronts his accuser, Meletus. He charges him with being irresponsible in bringing his charges, in that he does not really care about the issues in question. First, Socrates gets Meletus to admit that bad people do harm to those around them, so that if Socrates is corrupting youth, he is endangering himself. But he is not so ignorant as to do this deliberately, so either he does not corrupt the youth at all, or else he does not do so willingly. In neither case should charges be brought against him. The charge of atheism is taken up next. Meletus repeats his accusation that Socrates believes in no gods at all, yet Socrates gets him to admit that anyone who engages in divine activities must believe in a god, and that he, Socrates, engages in divine activities. Socrates held that he was carring out the divine will (which he later says he first heard as a child) in living the philosophical life. Someone in divine service should not fear death, and indeed, fear of death is another indication of pretended wisdom, since it is based on the assumption that death is bad for us, while we are ignorant of the matter. Although Socrates claims no knowledge of the underworld (the place of life after death), he does know "that it is wicked and shameful to do wrong, to disobey one's superior, either god or man." Socrates' mission is to teach that each person should achieve the best possible state of the soul. It is excellence of the soul which leads to wealth and other material goods, rather than vice-versa. Socrates turns the tables on the proceedings, claiming not to be arguing on his own behalf, but on behalf of the jury. He claims that he cannot be harmed by his accusers, since the soul of a better man cannot be harmed by the acts of the worse. But the jury can bring harm on themselves by condeming the man who is carrying out a useful mission from the gods. There would be no one left to puncture their pretensions. The mission in a way is unnatural, as Socrates has neglected all ordinary affairs, without profit to himself, to persuade the Athenians to care for virtue. And this life must be private, for anyone arguing for justice in the official forum would not survive very long. A case in point is a time when Socrates was the rightful dissenter in a case which saw six men executed, and the majority of the jury wanted to prosecute him. Another was when he refused to obey an unjust order; he would have been executed had the government not fallen. But Socrates was never concerned with death, but only not to do anything unjust or impious. Socrates claims not to have been a teacher, and his discussions never depended on money. He allowed anyone to partake in his discussions, and he questioned anyone -- rich or poor. People like to see the pretentious cut down to size, but Socrates does it only because he thinks he is divinely inspired to do so. And none of those he allegedly "corrupted" or any of their relatives have made any charge against him. The speech ends with Socrates' explanation of his refusal to beg for mercy: it is shameful to do so. Instead, he seeks to teach and persuade the jury, so that they may uphold the law. After the guilty verdict has been delivered and Meletus has asked for the death penalty, Socrates discusses his counter-proposal. His irony shows through again: since he has benefitted people more than Olympic champions, he should get free meals at the place of celebration. The point is that if he proposed some lesser sentence than death for himself, he would be recommending that some evil be done to him. He does not want to be imprisioned, and he has no money for a fine. As for exile, he would met the same fate in another city, being driven out again, because he cannot be quiet. In the end, Socrates proposes a fine, to be made good by Plato and some others. The jury sentences Socrates to death, however. Now Socrates admonishes them that they will bring shame upon themselves for doing what they are about to do, killing a man widely thought to be wise. He would have died soon anyway, given his advanced age of 70. Socrates states that he was convicted because he refused to humble himself before the jury. "I would much rather die after this kind of defence than live after making the other kind." Death is not hard to avoid, if one is shameless enough, but wickedness is. The jury through its actions has condemned itself to wickedness and injustice. Socrates prophesizes that the jury will have created even more of a problem by eliminating Socrates. His followers, who have been held back, will hound them; and they are more numerous and vigorous than Socrates himself. One cannot escape reproach for failing to live a good life. "To escape such tests is neither possible nor good, but it is best and easiest not to discredit others but to prepare oneself to be as good as possible." A further reason Socrates is convinced he has done the right thing is that his divine sign has not opposed any action in his defense, though it has opposed him many times before. Socrates takes that to indicate that death is a good thing for him. There is also a rational argument to this conclusion: either death is unconsciousness or it is a passage to another life. A dreamless sleep is a blessing, as we know from experience. If it is a passage to another life, so much the better. One would be judged by upright judges and enjoy the company of the dead sages. Moreover, Socrates could continue to carry out his task of testing the apparently wise. A good man cannot be harmed in life or in death. What has happened to Socrates apparently was meant to happen. But the blameworthy judges should be avenged by Socrates' offspring by hounding those who care for money more than virtue, or are falsely puffed up. "Reproach them as I reproach you, that they do not care for the right things and think they are worthy when they are not worthy of anything." Introduction to Philosophy Home Page	<urn:uuid:6504cba6-639f-4285-9a0c-5f8155ee4ea5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://hume.ucdavis.edu/mattey/phi001/apolnote.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00195.warc.gz	en	0.983746	1,763	3.5625	4	[ -0.013718968257308006, 0.3833087384700775, -0.08962332457304001, -0.3412041664123535, -0.6198758482933044, -0.3135043680667877, 0.717880368232727, 0.18748778104782104, 0.014644330367445946, -0.15894842147827148, 0.044420599937438965, -0.05936092510819435, -0.0055733323097229, 0.28009164333...	1	Socrates begins his speech by distinguishing between truth and persuasion. He, Socrates, speaks the truth in a plain way, while his accusers speak falsehoods in an eloquent way. This reflects Socrates' continuing battle with the Sophists, who taught their students (for a large fee) how to speak persuasively regardless of the truth of what they were saying. It also illustrates Socrates' famous use of irony. Next he distinguishes between his present accusers (who claimed that he corrupted the youth of Athens by turning them against religion) and his long-time accusers, who accuse him of being a wise man who studies things beyond the earth, and is able to "make the worse argument stronger." The latter accusers will be addressed first, since their charges have become deeply ingrained. Socrates had been accused of making claims to knowledge of the supernatural ("saying he was walking on air"), but this is false, as many people know. What was the origin of the false charges against Socrates? They center around Socrates' wisdom. The oracle at Delphi (a kind of prophet) had said that no man is wiser than Socrates. Yet upon pondering this answer, Socrates was perplexed, since he had thought that he was not wise at all, yet the oracle does not lie. Undertaking to find someone wiser than himself, Socrates sought out men with the reputation for wisdom and found them to be unwise. He proved it to them, thus incurring their displeasure. Further, he discovered that there is an inverse relation between reputation and wisdom: those reputed to most wise were least so, and vice versa. The politicians knew practically nothing, while the poets at least had some inspiration, though not knowledge. The crasftsmen had knowledge of their crafts but claimed knowledge of other things. The result of the investigation was that Socrates concluded that what the oracle meant is the human wisdom is worthless, and at least he, Socrates, understood that. By exposing the pretensions of those who believed themselves wise, Socrates was doing service for the oracle. The specific charge that Socrates corrupted the youth of Athens is now explained: young followers of Socrates imitated his method and exposed other people as unwise. The accusers have no explanation of how Socrates does it, other than vague charges leveled at all philosophers: that they dabble in the supernatural, that they deny the existence of the gods, and that they make weaker arguments appear stonger. Now Socrates confronts his accuser, Meletus. He charges him with being irresponsible in bringing his charges, in that he does not really care about the issues in question. First, Socrates gets Meletus to admit that bad people do harm to those around them, so that if Socrates is corrupting youth, he is endangering himself. But he is not so ignorant as to do this deliberately, so either he does not corrupt the youth at all, or else he does not do so willingly. In neither case should charges be brought against him. The charge of atheism is taken up next. Meletus repeats his accusation that Socrates believes in no gods at all, yet Socrates gets him to admit that anyone who engages in divine activities must believe in a god, and that he, Socrates, engages in divine activities. Socrates held that he was carring out the divine will (which he later says he first heard as a child) in living the philosophical life. Someone in divine service should not fear death, and indeed, fear of death is another indication of pretended wisdom, since it is based on the assumption that death is bad for us, while we are ignorant of the matter. Although Socrates claims no knowledge of the underworld (the place of life after death), he does know "that it is wicked and shameful to do wrong, to disobey one's superior, either god or man." Socrates' mission is to teach that each person should achieve the best possible state of the soul. It is excellence of the soul which leads to wealth and other material goods, rather than vice-versa. Socrates turns the tables on the proceedings, claiming not to be arguing on his own behalf, but on behalf of the jury. He claims that he cannot be harmed by his accusers, since the soul of a better man cannot be harmed by the acts of the worse. But the jury can bring harm on themselves by condeming the man who is carrying out a useful mission from the gods. There would be no one left to puncture their pretensions. The mission in a way is unnatural, as Socrates has neglected all ordinary affairs, without profit to himself, to persuade the Athenians to care for virtue. And this life must be private, for anyone arguing for justice in the official forum would not survive very long. A case in point is a time when Socrates was the rightful dissenter in a case which saw six men executed, and the majority of the jury wanted to prosecute him. Another was when he refused to obey an unjust order; he would have been executed had the government not fallen. But Socrates was never concerned with death, but only not to do anything unjust or impious. Socrates claims not to have been a teacher, and his discussions never depended on money. He allowed anyone to partake in his discussions, and he questioned anyone -- rich or poor. People like to see the pretentious cut down to size, but Socrates does it only because he thinks he is divinely inspired to do so. And none of those he allegedly "corrupted" or any of their relatives have made any charge against him. The speech ends with Socrates' explanation of his refusal to beg for mercy: it is shameful to do so. Instead, he seeks to teach and persuade the jury, so that they may uphold the law. After the guilty verdict has been delivered and Meletus has asked for the death penalty, Socrates discusses his counter-proposal. His irony shows through again: since he has benefitted people more than Olympic champions, he should get free meals at the place of celebration. The point is that if he proposed some lesser sentence than death for himself, he would be recommending that some evil be done to him. He does not want to be imprisioned, and he has no money for a fine. As for exile, he would met the same fate in another city, being driven out again, because he cannot be quiet. In the end, Socrates proposes a fine, to be made good by Plato and some others. The jury sentences Socrates to death, however. Now Socrates admonishes them that they will bring shame upon themselves for doing what they are about to do, killing a man widely thought to be wise. He would have died soon anyway, given his advanced age of 70. Socrates states that he was convicted because he refused to humble himself before the jury. "I would much rather die after this kind of defence than live after making the other kind." Death is not hard to avoid, if one is shameless enough, but wickedness is. The jury through its actions has condemned itself to wickedness and injustice. Socrates prophesizes that the jury will have created even more of a problem by eliminating Socrates. His followers, who have been held back, will hound them; and they are more numerous and vigorous than Socrates himself. One cannot escape reproach for failing to live a good life. "To escape such tests is neither possible nor good, but it is best and easiest not to discredit others but to prepare oneself to be as good as possible." A further reason Socrates is convinced he has done the right thing is that his divine sign has not opposed any action in his defense, though it has opposed him many times before. Socrates takes that to indicate that death is a good thing for him. There is also a rational argument to this conclusion: either death is unconsciousness or it is a passage to another life. A dreamless sleep is a blessing, as we know from experience. If it is a passage to another life, so much the better. One would be judged by upright judges and enjoy the company of the dead sages. Moreover, Socrates could continue to carry out his task of testing the apparently wise. A good man cannot be harmed in life or in death. What has happened to Socrates apparently was meant to happen. But the blameworthy judges should be avenged by Socrates' offspring by hounding those who care for money more than virtue, or are falsely puffed up. "Reproach them as I reproach you, that they do not care for the right things and think they are worthy when they are not worthy of anything." Introduction to Philosophy Home Page	1,794	ENGLISH	1
Just for APs: Moving Toward Restorative Justice In the first of my two-part post about how assistant principals can model respectful discipline for teachers, I discussed the notion of using logical consequences. Instead of punishment for punishment’s sake, logical consequences attempt to connect the infraction with a consequence that makes sense in light of the misbehavior; for example, “If you make a mess, your consequence is to clean it up on your own time.” Restorative justice teaches logical consequences and apology skills A related idea is restorative justice. This takes logical consequences a step further, righting the wrong if the behavior had a negative impact on someone else. A natural first step is an apology. As a principal, I found that many students did not have the skills needed to apologize. I had them practice; for example, “Look Tom in the eye and make eye contact. When you say, ‘I’m sorry,’ say it like you mean it.” We also practiced receiving apologies: “Please say, ‘Apology accepted.’” Coaching students on how to address their mistakes Sometimes a class apology was called for if the student had disrupted the classroom with inappropriate behavior. One of my sixth graders once entertained his friends after school by trampling the flowers that a first-grade class had just planted along the walkway to their classroom. Upon learning of this, I asked the student what he thought an appropriate consequence would be. As often was the case in the beginning of my tenure as principal at this school, he couldn’t think of one. I told him that the most appropriate thing would be for him to go to the first-grade class during his own recess (when the first graders were in class) and apologize to the class for damaging their flowers. I told him I would also contact his family to let them know of the behavior, and ask them to purchase new plants for him to plant, after school, in place of those he had trampled. Accountability and parental awareness In hindsight, a better strategy — which I often employed as I became more adept at handling student discipline — would have been to have the student call his own parent in my presence. In this case, it turned out that the family had no phone (this was before the pervasive presence of cell phones). But doing so would’ve involved the student directly in the cause and effect of what was done and what had to occur: making parents aware and talking through what happened. This holds students accountable for their actions, connecting their school life with their home life to show that this did not happen in isolation and issues need to be addressed immediately and directly. Behavior that causes injuries may require another discipline strategy If misbehavior leads to another student getting hurt, using restorative justice is more complicated. My school had such a high suspension rate when I arrived that addressing students’ proclivity to fight was a problem I had to work through on several fronts. But there are many helpful resources to explore, as well as other, similar approaches such as teaching social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies to help students and staff communicate more effectively. Together, you can all move toward solutions, focusing on logical consequences, apologizing and owning mistakes, and being held accountable. Learn More: Click to view related resources.	<urn:uuid:cd32c720-fdcf-4e11-a028-021294d5c438>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/leaders-link/just-for-aps-moving-toward-restorative-justice/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00105.warc.gz	en	0.983512	695	3.421875	3	[ -0.3025897741317749, 0.10426974296569824, 0.22183088958263397, -0.4220443665981293, -0.596830427646637, -0.21793274581432343, 0.23733744025230408, 0.05341388285160065, 0.5130427479743958, -0.2568055987358093, -0.24060732126235962, 0.12499824166297913, -0.10198105126619339, 0.23536461591720...	1	Just for APs: Moving Toward Restorative Justice In the first of my two-part post about how assistant principals can model respectful discipline for teachers, I discussed the notion of using logical consequences. Instead of punishment for punishment’s sake, logical consequences attempt to connect the infraction with a consequence that makes sense in light of the misbehavior; for example, “If you make a mess, your consequence is to clean it up on your own time.” Restorative justice teaches logical consequences and apology skills A related idea is restorative justice. This takes logical consequences a step further, righting the wrong if the behavior had a negative impact on someone else. A natural first step is an apology. As a principal, I found that many students did not have the skills needed to apologize. I had them practice; for example, “Look Tom in the eye and make eye contact. When you say, ‘I’m sorry,’ say it like you mean it.” We also practiced receiving apologies: “Please say, ‘Apology accepted.’” Coaching students on how to address their mistakes Sometimes a class apology was called for if the student had disrupted the classroom with inappropriate behavior. One of my sixth graders once entertained his friends after school by trampling the flowers that a first-grade class had just planted along the walkway to their classroom. Upon learning of this, I asked the student what he thought an appropriate consequence would be. As often was the case in the beginning of my tenure as principal at this school, he couldn’t think of one. I told him that the most appropriate thing would be for him to go to the first-grade class during his own recess (when the first graders were in class) and apologize to the class for damaging their flowers. I told him I would also contact his family to let them know of the behavior, and ask them to purchase new plants for him to plant, after school, in place of those he had trampled. Accountability and parental awareness In hindsight, a better strategy — which I often employed as I became more adept at handling student discipline — would have been to have the student call his own parent in my presence. In this case, it turned out that the family had no phone (this was before the pervasive presence of cell phones). But doing so would’ve involved the student directly in the cause and effect of what was done and what had to occur: making parents aware and talking through what happened. This holds students accountable for their actions, connecting their school life with their home life to show that this did not happen in isolation and issues need to be addressed immediately and directly. Behavior that causes injuries may require another discipline strategy If misbehavior leads to another student getting hurt, using restorative justice is more complicated. My school had such a high suspension rate when I arrived that addressing students’ proclivity to fight was a problem I had to work through on several fronts. But there are many helpful resources to explore, as well as other, similar approaches such as teaching social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies to help students and staff communicate more effectively. Together, you can all move toward solutions, focusing on logical consequences, apologizing and owning mistakes, and being held accountable. Learn More: Click to view related resources.	660	ENGLISH	1
Harriet Tubman and Sojourner Truth \|Jun 24 - Jun 27 morning / afternoon These two women, born into slavery, growing up when it was literally illegal for them to learn to read and write, refused to be cowed. They stood up for what was right. Harriet Tubman was known as the “Black Moses” because she led more than 300 slaves to freedom in Canada… and all of them got away. Sojourner Truth took that name for herself; she was born Isabella Baumfree. As a slave, she couldn’t choose her own husband; her master gave her one. She escaped from slavery when she was in her 20’s and eventually became the first Black woman to sue a White man and win. She led a challenging, amazing life and stood up for what she believed. The stories of Tubman and Truth will lead us into a discussion of slavery, the building of America, and the origins of the American Civil War. Signups are closed for this class.	<urn:uuid:6f50e543-0df7-4f00-a0a1-0ad47ed48f76>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://rvaschool.org/events/tubman-truth/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00218.warc.gz	en	0.988724	216	3.8125	4	[ -0.001567151048220694, 0.09112522751092911, 0.10198705643415451, 0.26020902395248413, -0.1301116645336151, 0.05954708158969879, 0.13876570761203766, -0.1554146260023117, -0.23563818633556366, 0.38191577792167664, 0.13327185809612274, -0.315301775932312, -0.14230942726135254, 0.053550597280...	9	Harriet Tubman and Sojourner Truth \|Jun 24 - Jun 27 morning / afternoon These two women, born into slavery, growing up when it was literally illegal for them to learn to read and write, refused to be cowed. They stood up for what was right. Harriet Tubman was known as the “Black Moses” because she led more than 300 slaves to freedom in Canada… and all of them got away. Sojourner Truth took that name for herself; she was born Isabella Baumfree. As a slave, she couldn’t choose her own husband; her master gave her one. She escaped from slavery when she was in her 20’s and eventually became the first Black woman to sue a White man and win. She led a challenging, amazing life and stood up for what she believed. The stories of Tubman and Truth will lead us into a discussion of slavery, the building of America, and the origins of the American Civil War. Signups are closed for this class.	215	ENGLISH	1
Located on Prt Lot 50 DP 1169550, Pt Lot 416 DP 728666 and Pt Road Reservation - Brunswick Terrace, the Coastal Cypress Pines were planted on the foreshore of Simpson's Creek, a tributary of the Brunswick River, Brunswick Heads in northern NSW. The Coastal Cypress Pine (Callitris columellaris), a native species, was chosen by returned diggers from Gallipoli and the Western Front to represent the Battle of Lone Pine. The land area was determined to represent the battle front. Coastal Cypress Pines were planted in grid formation about 4 to 5m apart. The entire plantings were done over time, in working bees drawing from the surrounding settlements of Burringbah, Bangalow, Billnudgel, Byron Bay, Mullumbimby and Brunswick Heads on monthy rotation. These working bees became family affairs. Boys from Brunswick Heads Primary School were entrusted with assisting the watering of the seedlings. They were known as 'Gunga Dins'. The location was chosen because the foreshore was considered central to the surrounding towns and villages and it was a known peaceful place and a sacred place to the local Aboriginal peoples. It has been estimated that 500 pines were planted of which 103 are extant. Help us record history by adding to its record.	<urn:uuid:b6a96cd2-aa18-43c1-befc-912bd7a046f5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.warmemorialsregister.nsw.gov.au/content/ww1-memorial-pine-park-brunswick-heads	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00287.warc.gz	en	0.981649	274	3.3125	3	[ 0.0030740462243556976, 0.11378194391727448, 0.019491441547870636, 0.017926063388586044, 0.1232246533036232, 0.02701951377093792, 0.1462218165397644, -0.11180157214403152, -0.018167829141020775, 0.1867404580116272, 0.2818763554096222, -0.9130663871765137, 0.20049726963043213, 0.477822899818...	1	Located on Prt Lot 50 DP 1169550, Pt Lot 416 DP 728666 and Pt Road Reservation - Brunswick Terrace, the Coastal Cypress Pines were planted on the foreshore of Simpson's Creek, a tributary of the Brunswick River, Brunswick Heads in northern NSW. The Coastal Cypress Pine (Callitris columellaris), a native species, was chosen by returned diggers from Gallipoli and the Western Front to represent the Battle of Lone Pine. The land area was determined to represent the battle front. Coastal Cypress Pines were planted in grid formation about 4 to 5m apart. The entire plantings were done over time, in working bees drawing from the surrounding settlements of Burringbah, Bangalow, Billnudgel, Byron Bay, Mullumbimby and Brunswick Heads on monthy rotation. These working bees became family affairs. Boys from Brunswick Heads Primary School were entrusted with assisting the watering of the seedlings. They were known as 'Gunga Dins'. The location was chosen because the foreshore was considered central to the surrounding towns and villages and it was a known peaceful place and a sacred place to the local Aboriginal peoples. It has been estimated that 500 pines were planted of which 103 are extant. Help us record history by adding to its record.	287	ENGLISH	1
Humanities › English What Are Contractions? Share Flipboard Email Print Derek Abella, ThoughtCo English English Grammar An Introduction to Punctuation Writing by Richard Nordquist Dr. Richard Nordquist is professor emeritus of rhetoric and English at Georgia Southern University and the author of several university-level grammar and composition textbooks. Updated July 10, 2019 A contraction is a word or phrase that has been shortened by dropping one or more letters. In writing, an apostrophe is used to indicate the place of the missing letters. Contractions are commonly used in speech (or written dialogue), informal forms of writing, and where space is at a premium, such as in advertising. In very formal writing, such as academic papers, grant proposals, or other works that need to appear professional, you may not want to use contractions at all. Why Do We Use Contractions? We rely on contractions all the time in normal conversation. When people speak to each other, there is typically an expectation that they will use contractions (can't, won't, shouldn't) whenever they can, as doing so saves time. Some people are under the impression that contractions should never appear in writing, but this belief is mistaken. The use of contractions is directly related to tone. In informal writing (from text messages and blogs to memos and personal essays), we often rely on contractions to maintain a colloquial tone. In more formal writing assignments (such as academic reports or term papers), avoiding contractions is a way of establishing a more serious tone. Before deciding whether to use contractions in a writing assignment, consider your audience and your purpose for writing. The Contractive Apostrophe In telescoped words and phrases (e.g., doesn't, there's, sou'wester), an apostrophe marks the spot where one or more letters have been omitted. It is not necessarily where the words have been joined together. This apostrophe is also known as the contractive apostrophe. Some people, including the Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw, have been in favor of eliminating apostrophes entirely. Shaw called them "uncouth bacilli," though it's unlikely that Shaw's analogy to bacteria will help the apostrophe go away anytime soon. Contracted Nouns and Pronouns In casual conversation, contractions involving nouns are fairly common ("My dad'll be home soon"). In writing, however, they're much rarer than contractions with pronouns such as I'll, he'd, and she's. You can contract proper nouns to mean is or has, such as in the sentence "Shelly's coming with us," or "Jeff's bought a new computer." Watch out for the homonyms who's and whose; the contraction is "who is" or "who has," and the whole word is possessive, as in "Whose car is that?" And of course, if you're visiting the South, you'll likely hear the colloquial "y'all" for "you all." Negative Contractions and Verb Contractions Contractions are often made with auxiliary, or helping, verbs, such as to be, do, have, and can. We can say "it isn't raining" or "it's not raining." But we cannot say "it'sn't raining." In negative clauses, we have a choice between using negative contractions like not (n't) and contracting the pronoun and verb (it's). But we can't do both. Contracting 'Not' The contracted form of not (n't) can be attached to finite forms of the helping verbs be, do, and have. However, amn't (mainly Scottish and Irish) is extremely rare, unlike the disparaged ain't. The n't form can also be attached to most of the modal auxiliaries such as can't, couldn't, mustn't, shouldn't, won't, and wouldn't. Yet, you won't hear many Americans saying mayn't or shan't; even those contractions are too formal. Contractions in Tag Questions A tag question is a short question added to the end of a declarative sentence, usually to make sure that something has been done or understood. For example, "It's a tag question, isn't it?" Because of their colloquial nature, negative tags are commonly contracted: didn't we? haven't you? aren't they? This is much less formal than did not we? or did we not? Ambiguous Contractions Most contractions ending in 'd and 's are ambiguous. The 'd can represent either had or would; 's can represent either has or is. All the same, the meaning of these contractions is usually clear from their context. For instance, "Sam's finished his term paper" implies completion in the past (Sam has finished), while "Sam's tired" is in the present tense, meaning Sam is. Multiple Contractions They may look odd in print, but certain multiple contractions such as I'd've (or I'd'a) and wouldn't've are fairly common in speech. We like shortcuts, so it's easy to say something like, "If I'd've told you the real reason, you probably wouldn't've come back with me." Quite often, we don't even notice it. The words just run together as we talk. Under the category of rarities, there are a few double and even triple contracted nautical terms. These include words like bo's'n (short for boatswain) and fo'c's'le (a variant of forecastle), words that landlubbers can probably live without. Before you start recklessly sprinkling apostrophes everywhere, make sure you're not putting an apostrophe plus s on something that should actually be plural: i.e., the greengrocer's apostrophe. Aphaeresis, Syncope, and Apocope Another common type of linguistic shortening (or elision) is the omission of certain sounds or letters from an individual word. In phonetics, elision at the beginning of a word (for instance, gator from alligator) is called aphaeresis. In the middle of a word (ma'am from madam), it is a syncope. When it appears at the end of a word (ad from advertisement), we call it an apocope. Aphaeresis and apocope can occur together, as in flu—a clipped form of influenza. Standard Contractions in English In the following table, you'll find a list of more than 70 contractions in English. aren't are not can't cannot couldn't could not could've could have didn't did not doesn't does not don't do not e'er ever hadn't had not hasn't has not haven't have not he'd he had; he would he'll he will; he shall he's he is; he has I'd I had; I would I'll I will; I shall I'm I am I've I have isn't is not it'd it would it'll it shall; it will it's it is; it has let's let us ma'am madam mightn't might not might've might have mustn't must not must've must have 'n' and needn't need not ne'er never o'er over ol' old oughtn't ought not shan't shall not she'd she had; she would she'll she will; she shall she's she is; she has shouldn't should not should've should have that'd that would that's that is; that has there'd there had; there would there'll there shall; there will there's there has; there is they'd they had; they would they'll they will; they shall they're they are they've they have 'twas it was wasn't was not we'd we had; we would we'll we will we're we are we've we have weren't were not what'll what will; what shall what're what are what's what is; what has; what does what've what have where'd where did where's where is; where has who'd who had; who would who'll who will; who shall who's who is; who has who've who have why'd why did won't will not wouldn't would not would've would have you'd you had; you would you'll you will; you shall you're you are you've you have Continue Reading What Are Negative Contractions and How Are They Used? How to Use English Contractions for ESL Students What Is Clipping in Language? How to Use Direct Object Pronouns in the Past Tense What's the Difference Between Its and It's? How to Use the Tricky Punctuation Mark Known as the Apostrophe The Group Genitive: 'The Man Next Door's Cat' 100 Key Terms Used in the Study of English Grammar Celebrate in Spanish With This "Joy to the World" Translation! 'Ain't' Is a Word That Ain't Had It Easy 10 Facts About Spanish Adjectives You Need To Know Learn About Noun Phrases in English Grammar and Get Examples Syncope: The Disappearance of Unstressed Vowels Go for It With Pa’lante 10 Words to Avoid in Formal Writing What's New on the Redesigned SAT Writing and Language Test?	<urn:uuid:0cc3d54f-4cee-44f9-b0d3-b2b18a44b57e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thoughtco.com/contractions-commonly-used-informal-english-1692651	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00315.warc.gz	en	0.981759	1,923	4.4375	4	[ -0.3378656804561615, -0.3648349642753601, 0.21050693094730377, -0.042375706136226654, -0.4482276439666748, -0.36267393827438354, 0.06175560876727104, 0.04160524532198906, 0.4268561601638794, -0.051493000239133835, -0.2204345166683197, -0.36636435985565186, -0.0685165673494339, 0.2688882350...	1	Humanities › English What Are Contractions? Share Flipboard Email Print Derek Abella, ThoughtCo English English Grammar An Introduction to Punctuation Writing by Richard Nordquist Dr. Richard Nordquist is professor emeritus of rhetoric and English at Georgia Southern University and the author of several university-level grammar and composition textbooks. Updated July 10, 2019 A contraction is a word or phrase that has been shortened by dropping one or more letters. In writing, an apostrophe is used to indicate the place of the missing letters. Contractions are commonly used in speech (or written dialogue), informal forms of writing, and where space is at a premium, such as in advertising. In very formal writing, such as academic papers, grant proposals, or other works that need to appear professional, you may not want to use contractions at all. Why Do We Use Contractions? We rely on contractions all the time in normal conversation. When people speak to each other, there is typically an expectation that they will use contractions (can't, won't, shouldn't) whenever they can, as doing so saves time. Some people are under the impression that contractions should never appear in writing, but this belief is mistaken. The use of contractions is directly related to tone. In informal writing (from text messages and blogs to memos and personal essays), we often rely on contractions to maintain a colloquial tone. In more formal writing assignments (such as academic reports or term papers), avoiding contractions is a way of establishing a more serious tone. Before deciding whether to use contractions in a writing assignment, consider your audience and your purpose for writing. The Contractive Apostrophe In telescoped words and phrases (e.g., doesn't, there's, sou'wester), an apostrophe marks the spot where one or more letters have been omitted. It is not necessarily where the words have been joined together. This apostrophe is also known as the contractive apostrophe. Some people, including the Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw, have been in favor of eliminating apostrophes entirely. Shaw called them "uncouth bacilli," though it's unlikely that Shaw's analogy to bacteria will help the apostrophe go away anytime soon. Contracted Nouns and Pronouns In casual conversation, contractions involving nouns are fairly common ("My dad'll be home soon"). In writing, however, they're much rarer than contractions with pronouns such as I'll, he'd, and she's. You can contract proper nouns to mean is or has, such as in the sentence "Shelly's coming with us," or "Jeff's bought a new computer." Watch out for the homonyms who's and whose; the contraction is "who is" or "who has," and the whole word is possessive, as in "Whose car is that?" And of course, if you're visiting the South, you'll likely hear the colloquial "y'all" for "you all." Negative Contractions and Verb Contractions Contractions are often made with auxiliary, or helping, verbs, such as to be, do, have, and can. We can say "it isn't raining" or "it's not raining." But we cannot say "it'sn't raining." In negative clauses, we have a choice between using negative contractions like not (n't) and contracting the pronoun and verb (it's). But we can't do both. Contracting 'Not' The contracted form of not (n't) can be attached to finite forms of the helping verbs be, do, and have. However, amn't (mainly Scottish and Irish) is extremely rare, unlike the disparaged ain't. The n't form can also be attached to most of the modal auxiliaries such as can't, couldn't, mustn't, shouldn't, won't, and wouldn't. Yet, you won't hear many Americans saying mayn't or shan't; even those contractions are too formal. Contractions in Tag Questions A tag question is a short question added to the end of a declarative sentence, usually to make sure that something has been done or understood. For example, "It's a tag question, isn't it?" Because of their colloquial nature, negative tags are commonly contracted: didn't we? haven't you? aren't they? This is much less formal than did not we? or did we not? Ambiguous Contractions Most contractions ending in 'd and 's are ambiguous. The 'd can represent either had or would; 's can represent either has or is. All the same, the meaning of these contractions is usually clear from their context. For instance, "Sam's finished his term paper" implies completion in the past (Sam has finished), while "Sam's tired" is in the present tense, meaning Sam is. Multiple Contractions They may look odd in print, but certain multiple contractions such as I'd've (or I'd'a) and wouldn't've are fairly common in speech. We like shortcuts, so it's easy to say something like, "If I'd've told you the real reason, you probably wouldn't've come back with me." Quite often, we don't even notice it. The words just run together as we talk. Under the category of rarities, there are a few double and even triple contracted nautical terms. These include words like bo's'n (short for boatswain) and fo'c's'le (a variant of forecastle), words that landlubbers can probably live without. Before you start recklessly sprinkling apostrophes everywhere, make sure you're not putting an apostrophe plus s on something that should actually be plural: i.e., the greengrocer's apostrophe. Aphaeresis, Syncope, and Apocope Another common type of linguistic shortening (or elision) is the omission of certain sounds or letters from an individual word. In phonetics, elision at the beginning of a word (for instance, gator from alligator) is called aphaeresis. In the middle of a word (ma'am from madam), it is a syncope. When it appears at the end of a word (ad from advertisement), we call it an apocope. Aphaeresis and apocope can occur together, as in flu—a clipped form of influenza. Standard Contractions in English In the following table, you'll find a list of more than 70 contractions in English. aren't are not can't cannot couldn't could not could've could have didn't did not doesn't does not don't do not e'er ever hadn't had not hasn't has not haven't have not he'd he had; he would he'll he will; he shall he's he is; he has I'd I had; I would I'll I will; I shall I'm I am I've I have isn't is not it'd it would it'll it shall; it will it's it is; it has let's let us ma'am madam mightn't might not might've might have mustn't must not must've must have 'n' and needn't need not ne'er never o'er over ol' old oughtn't ought not shan't shall not she'd she had; she would she'll she will; she shall she's she is; she has shouldn't should not should've should have that'd that would that's that is; that has there'd there had; there would there'll there shall; there will there's there has; there is they'd they had; they would they'll they will; they shall they're they are they've they have 'twas it was wasn't was not we'd we had; we would we'll we will we're we are we've we have weren't were not what'll what will; what shall what're what are what's what is; what has; what does what've what have where'd where did where's where is; where has who'd who had; who would who'll who will; who shall who's who is; who has who've who have why'd why did won't will not wouldn't would not would've would have you'd you had; you would you'll you will; you shall you're you are you've you have Continue Reading What Are Negative Contractions and How Are They Used? How to Use English Contractions for ESL Students What Is Clipping in Language? How to Use Direct Object Pronouns in the Past Tense What's the Difference Between Its and It's? How to Use the Tricky Punctuation Mark Known as the Apostrophe The Group Genitive: 'The Man Next Door's Cat' 100 Key Terms Used in the Study of English Grammar Celebrate in Spanish With This "Joy to the World" Translation! 'Ain't' Is a Word That Ain't Had It Easy 10 Facts About Spanish Adjectives You Need To Know Learn About Noun Phrases in English Grammar and Get Examples Syncope: The Disappearance of Unstressed Vowels Go for It With Pa’lante 10 Words to Avoid in Formal Writing What's New on the Redesigned SAT Writing and Language Test?	1,910	ENGLISH	1
Edmund Burke Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Edmund Burke was a British Politician, Statesman, Author, Orator, Political Theorist/ Philosopher, born during the first half of the eighteenth century. As a politician, Burke had a great impact, serving as a member of parliament in British House of Commons for many years. Burke is best remembered for his strong legendary opposition to the French revolution and support for American Revolution. Burke possessed a moral sense of obligation to always do right about his religion, family, and friends. Due to this, Burke is also remembered greatly for his contribution and support for Catholic emancipation. Childhood and early life Edmund Burke was born on 12th January 1729 in Dublin, Republic of Ireland. His parents were Mary Nagle and Richard. His mother was a Roman Catholic while his father went to the Church of Ireland, but is believed to have been born Catholic. Burke's father Richard was a solicitor and worked in the superior courts located in Dublin. He had to take an oath of allegiance to secure his job because of his faith conversion. The family was made up of four other children, a daughter and a son named Juliana and Garrett Edmund. Richard was quite temperamental, pragmatic and honest but always had best interests for his son’s future career. It is alleged that he took the oath of allegiance not only to secure his job but also the future of his sons even though they were not born yet. Edmund Burke was brought up mostly at a place called Blackwater valley in County Cork, where his mother’s family lived. Here Burke had a close relationship with his uncle Patrick Nagle and looked up to him for his entire life as a father figure. Burke attained some formal education in a `Hedge school,’ and was located in the castle of Monanimy ruins to avoid persecution. While here, Edmund Burke discovered the level of persecution that was inflicted on Catholic and the impact of his father’s conversion. This had a lifelong effect on Burke Hence by the time Edmund Burke left for Dublin later on, he was more wise and knowledgeable. Edmund Burke followed his father’s faith through his life. Burke attained his education in Ballitore, County Kildare. The school is believed to have been a Quaker school. Later, Burke joined Trinity College Dublin in 1744, which was a Protestant school and did not allow Catholics in their system. In 1747, Edmund Burke founded a debating society named `Edmund Burke’s Club’ which became College Historical society later on and is first undergraduate society in history. The minutes and recordings of this club are still stored in the Historical Society collection. Burke completed his studies at the Trinity in 1748, and went to Middle temple in London, intending to study law according to his father’s instructions. However, he gave up law studies and began traveling in Continental Europe. When Edmund Burke was sent to London to pursue law, he wanted to continue his interest in literature at the same time. Burke did not like Law studies and found them dull. Soon, Burke's plan to pursue both law and literature proved delusional. Edmund became more involved in his literature interest and spent a lot of his time listening to writer and learning about the city’s cultural world. At this time, Edmund developed a close relationship with an Irish Doctor called Christopher Nugent and his daughter and had intentions of marrying her. His father soon found out about this and that he had given up his law studies, cut off his financial support. As a result, Edmund’s writing career kicked off as he had to write and support himself financially. He published his first work in 1756, titled `A Vindication of Natural Society: A view of miseries and Evils arising to Mankind.’ This publication is considered as an expression of Philosophical anarchism, which was the first of its kind. Edmund's second publication came by in 1757, entitled `A philosophical inquiry into the Origin of our ideas of the sublime and beautiful.’ It enjoyed great attention from various renowned philosophers and writers at the time. Some of Edmund Burke's other writing works at the time include; `An account of the European Settlements’ in 1957, and` The annual register’ in collaboration with Robert Dodsley in 1758. Burke also signed a contract to write the History of England but gave up half way when a similar publication was made. Edmund Burke met William Gerard Hamilton in 1758, who later became a chief secretary for Ireland in 1761. He appointed Burke to be his Private Secretary, and he had to relocate to Dublin. However they had a conflict after about three years, and Burke ended the job and moved back to London. In 1765, Burke again became a private secretary to the Prime minister of Great Britain then, named Rockingham. At this time Edmund Burke put his primary focus on reconciliation of American colonies and supported the multi coached stamp act. Due to this, Burke gained a lot of popularity with the colonists. Despite Rockingham’s government failing in 1766 and Burke being offered a similar job in the current administration, he remained loyal to him until his death in 1782. Edmund Burke was always steadfast and relentless in support for motions, policies, and bills he believed were right. Some of these are; he was against unrestrained royal power and supported a motion on revising Irish trade restrictions. However Edmund's firm stand on issues was not appreciated by all, and he lost an electoral seat in 1780. In 1781 Edmund Burke was appointed the chairman of the Select committee on East Indian Affairs and later worked as a paymaster for the forces. Burke mainly worked in the opposition for most of his political career. Edmund Burke then retired from parliament at around 1794, when he unsuccessfully tried to impeach Warren Hastings. Edmund Burke married Mary Nugent the daughter of the Irish doctor Christopher Nugent. The couple had one son named Richard Burke, who later became a member of parliament but died in 1794. Edmund Burke developed some stomach ailments that led to his death on 9th July 1797 and was buried in a Parish church where his son and brother were buried. More People From Leinster More People From Republic of Ireland Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet Sir William Rowan Hamilton	<urn:uuid:106ae2f5-512b-4b7d-8012-a963981277eb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/edmund-burke/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00484.warc.gz	en	0.989724	1,324	3.625	4	[ -0.032305583357810974, 0.21656128764152527, 0.23344536125659943, -0.29928261041641235, -0.0063012633472681046, 0.029161451384425163, 0.5709326267242432, -0.5013533234596252, 0.11406650394201279, -0.030186157673597336, -0.3287937641143799, -0.5075803995132446, -0.00871539581567049, 0.335660...	1	Edmund Burke Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Edmund Burke was a British Politician, Statesman, Author, Orator, Political Theorist/ Philosopher, born during the first half of the eighteenth century. As a politician, Burke had a great impact, serving as a member of parliament in British House of Commons for many years. Burke is best remembered for his strong legendary opposition to the French revolution and support for American Revolution. Burke possessed a moral sense of obligation to always do right about his religion, family, and friends. Due to this, Burke is also remembered greatly for his contribution and support for Catholic emancipation. Childhood and early life Edmund Burke was born on 12th January 1729 in Dublin, Republic of Ireland. His parents were Mary Nagle and Richard. His mother was a Roman Catholic while his father went to the Church of Ireland, but is believed to have been born Catholic. Burke's father Richard was a solicitor and worked in the superior courts located in Dublin. He had to take an oath of allegiance to secure his job because of his faith conversion. The family was made up of four other children, a daughter and a son named Juliana and Garrett Edmund. Richard was quite temperamental, pragmatic and honest but always had best interests for his son’s future career. It is alleged that he took the oath of allegiance not only to secure his job but also the future of his sons even though they were not born yet. Edmund Burke was brought up mostly at a place called Blackwater valley in County Cork, where his mother’s family lived. Here Burke had a close relationship with his uncle Patrick Nagle and looked up to him for his entire life as a father figure. Burke attained some formal education in a `Hedge school,’ and was located in the castle of Monanimy ruins to avoid persecution. While here, Edmund Burke discovered the level of persecution that was inflicted on Catholic and the impact of his father’s conversion. This had a lifelong effect on Burke Hence by the time Edmund Burke left for Dublin later on, he was more wise and knowledgeable. Edmund Burke followed his father’s faith through his life. Burke attained his education in Ballitore, County Kildare. The school is believed to have been a Quaker school. Later, Burke joined Trinity College Dublin in 1744, which was a Protestant school and did not allow Catholics in their system. In 1747, Edmund Burke founded a debating society named `Edmund Burke’s Club’ which became College Historical society later on and is first undergraduate society in history. The minutes and recordings of this club are still stored in the Historical Society collection. Burke completed his studies at the Trinity in 1748, and went to Middle temple in London, intending to study law according to his father’s instructions. However, he gave up law studies and began traveling in Continental Europe. When Edmund Burke was sent to London to pursue law, he wanted to continue his interest in literature at the same time. Burke did not like Law studies and found them dull. Soon, Burke's plan to pursue both law and literature proved delusional. Edmund became more involved in his literature interest and spent a lot of his time listening to writer and learning about the city’s cultural world. At this time, Edmund developed a close relationship with an Irish Doctor called Christopher Nugent and his daughter and had intentions of marrying her. His father soon found out about this and that he had given up his law studies, cut off his financial support. As a result, Edmund’s writing career kicked off as he had to write and support himself financially. He published his first work in 1756, titled `A Vindication of Natural Society: A view of miseries and Evils arising to Mankind.’ This publication is considered as an expression of Philosophical anarchism, which was the first of its kind. Edmund's second publication came by in 1757, entitled `A philosophical inquiry into the Origin of our ideas of the sublime and beautiful.’ It enjoyed great attention from various renowned philosophers and writers at the time. Some of Edmund Burke's other writing works at the time include; `An account of the European Settlements’ in 1957, and` The annual register’ in collaboration with Robert Dodsley in 1758. Burke also signed a contract to write the History of England but gave up half way when a similar publication was made. Edmund Burke met William Gerard Hamilton in 1758, who later became a chief secretary for Ireland in 1761. He appointed Burke to be his Private Secretary, and he had to relocate to Dublin. However they had a conflict after about three years, and Burke ended the job and moved back to London. In 1765, Burke again became a private secretary to the Prime minister of Great Britain then, named Rockingham. At this time Edmund Burke put his primary focus on reconciliation of American colonies and supported the multi coached stamp act. Due to this, Burke gained a lot of popularity with the colonists. Despite Rockingham’s government failing in 1766 and Burke being offered a similar job in the current administration, he remained loyal to him until his death in 1782. Edmund Burke was always steadfast and relentless in support for motions, policies, and bills he believed were right. Some of these are; he was against unrestrained royal power and supported a motion on revising Irish trade restrictions. However Edmund's firm stand on issues was not appreciated by all, and he lost an electoral seat in 1780. In 1781 Edmund Burke was appointed the chairman of the Select committee on East Indian Affairs and later worked as a paymaster for the forces. Burke mainly worked in the opposition for most of his political career. Edmund Burke then retired from parliament at around 1794, when he unsuccessfully tried to impeach Warren Hastings. Edmund Burke married Mary Nugent the daughter of the Irish doctor Christopher Nugent. The couple had one son named Richard Burke, who later became a member of parliament but died in 1794. Edmund Burke developed some stomach ailments that led to his death on 9th July 1797 and was buried in a Parish church where his son and brother were buried. More People From Leinster More People From Republic of Ireland Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet Sir William Rowan Hamilton	1,343	ENGLISH	1
There are no contemporaneous portraits of Du Fu; this is a later artist's impression. Gongyi, Henan, China \|Died\|\|770 (aged 57–58)\| Tanzhou, Hunan, China \|Relatives\|\|Du Shenyan (grandfather)\| Du Xian (father) Du Fu (Wade–Giles: Tu Fu; Chinese: 杜甫; 712 – 770) was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty. Along with Li Bai (Li Po), he is frequently called the greatest of the Chinese poets. His greatest ambition was to serve his country as a successful civil servant, but he proved unable to make the necessary accommodations. His life, like the whole country, was devastated by the An Lushan Rebellion of 755, and his last 15 years were a time of almost constant unrest. Although initially he was little-known to other writers, his works came to be hugely influential in both Chinese and Japanese literary culture. Of his poetic writing, nearly fifteen hundred poems have been preserved over the ages. He has been called the "Poet-Historian" and the "Poet-Sage" by Chinese critics, while the range of his work has allowed him to be introduced to Western readers as "the Chinese Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Shakespeare, Milton, Burns, Wordsworth, Béranger, Hugo or Baudelaire". Traditional Chinese literary criticism emphasized the life of the author when interpreting a work, a practice which the American scholar Burton Watson attributed to "the close links that traditional Chinese thought posits between art and morality". Since many of Du Fu's poems feature morality and history, this practice is particularly important. Another reason, identified by the Chinese historian William Hung, is that Chinese poems are typically concise, omitting context that might be relevant, but which an informed contemporary could be assumed to know. For modern Western readers, "The less accurately we know the time, the place and the circumstances in the background, the more liable we are to imagine it incorrectly, and the result will be that we either misunderstand the poem or fail to understand it altogether". Stephen Owen suggests a third factor particular to Du Fu, arguing that the variety of the poet's work required consideration of his whole life, rather than the "reductive" categorizations used for more limited poets. \|Also known as:\|\|Dù Shàolíng 杜少陵 Du of Shaoling\| Dù Gōngbù 杜工部 Du of the Ministry of Works Shàolíng Yělǎo 少陵野老 Shīshèng, 詩聖, The Saint of Poem Most of what is known of Du Fu's life comes from his poems. His paternal grandfather was Du Shenyan, a noted politician and poet during the reign of Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690–705). Du Fu was born in 712; the exact birthplace is unknown, except that it was near Luoyang, Henan province (Gong county is a favourite candidate). In later life, he considered himself to belong to the capital city of Chang'an, ancestral hometown of the Du family. Du Fu's mother died shortly after he was born, and he was partially raised by his aunt. He had an elder brother, who died young. He also had three half brothers and one half sister, to whom he frequently refers in his poems, although he never mentions his stepmother. The son of a minor scholar-official, his youth was spent on the standard education of a future civil servant: study and memorisation of the Confucian classics of philosophy, history and poetry. He later claimed to have produced creditable poems by his early teens, but these have been lost. In the early 730s, he travelled in the Jiangsu/Zhejiang area; his earliest surviving poem, describing a poetry contest, is thought to date from the end of this period, around 735. In that year, he took the Imperial examination , likely in Chang'an. He failed, to his surprise and that of centuries of later critics. Hung concludes that he probably failed because his prose style at the time was too dense and obscure, while Chou suggests his failure to cultivate connections in the capital may have been to blame. After this failure, he went back to traveling, this time around Shandong and Hebei. His father died around 740. Du Fu would have been allowed to enter the civil service because of his father's rank, but he is thought to have given up the privilege in favour of one of his half brothers. He spent the next four years living in the Luoyang area, fulfilling his duties in domestic affairs. In the autumn of 744, he met Li Bai (Li Po) for the first time, and the two poets formed a friendship. David Young describes this as "the most significant formative element in Du Fu's artistic development" because it gave him a living example of the reclusive poet-scholar life to which he was attracted after his failure in the civil service exam. The relationship was somewhat one-sided, however. Du Fu was by some years the younger, while Li Bai was already a poetic star. We have twelve poems to or about Li Bai from the younger poet, but only one in the other direction. They met again only once, in 745. In 746, he moved to the capital in an attempt to resurrect his official career. He took the civil service exam a second time during the following year, but all the candidates were failed by the prime minister (apparently in order to prevent the emergence of possible rivals). He never again attempted the examinations, instead petitioning the emperor directly in 751, 754 and probably again in 755. He married around 752, and by 757 the couple had had five children—three sons and two daughters—but one of the sons died in infancy in 755. From 754 he began to have lung problems (probably asthma), the first of a series of ailments which dogged him for the rest of his life. It was in that year that Du Fu was forced to move his family due to the turmoil of a famine brought about by massive floods in the region. In 755, he received an appointment as Registrar of the Right Commandant's office of the Crown Prince's Palace. Although this was a minor post, in normal times it would have been at least the start of an official career. Even before he had begun work, however, the position was swept away by events. The An Lushan Rebellion began in December 755, and was not completely suppressed for almost eight years. It caused enormous disruption to Chinese society: the census of 754 recorded 52.9 million people, but ten years later, the census counted just 16.9 million, the remainder having been displaced or killed. During this time, Du Fu led a largely itinerant life unsettled by wars, associated famines and imperial displeasure. This period of unhappiness was the making of Du Fu as a poet: Eva Shan Chou has written that, "What he saw around him—the lives of his family, neighbors, and strangers– what he heard, and what he hoped for or feared from the progress of various campaigns—these became the enduring themes of his poetry". Even when he learned of the death of his youngest child, he turned to the suffering of others in his poetry instead of dwelling upon his own misfortunes. Du Fu wrote: Brooding on what I have lived through, if even I know such suffering, the common man must surely be rattled by the winds. In 756, Emperor Xuanzong was forced to flee the capital and abdicate. Du Fu, who had been away from the city, took his family to a place of safety and attempted to join the court of the new emperor (Suzong), but he was captured by the rebels and taken to Chang'an. In the autumn, his youngest son, Du Zongwu (Baby Bear), was born. Around this time Du Fu is thought to have contracted malaria. He escaped from Chang'an the following year, and was appointed Reminder when he rejoined the court in May 757. This post gave access to the emperor but was largely ceremonial. Du Fu's conscientiousness compelled him to try to make use of it: he caused trouble for himself by protesting the removal of his friend and patron Fang Guan on a petty charge. He was arrested but was pardoned in June. He was granted leave to visit his family in September, but he soon rejoined the court and on December 8, 757, he returned to Chang'an with the emperor following its recapture by government forces. However, his advice continued to be unappreciated, and in the summer of 758 he was demoted to a post as Commissioner of Education in Huazhou. The position was not to his taste: in one poem, he wrote: I am about to scream madly in the office / Especially when they bring more papers to pile higher on my desk. He moved on in the summer of 759; this has traditionally been ascribed to famine, but Hung believes that frustration is a more likely reason. He next spent around six weeks in Qinzhou (now Tianshui, Gansu province), where he wrote more than sixty poems. In December 759, he briefly stayed in Tonggu (modern Gansu). He departed on December 24 for Chengdu (Sichuan province), where he was hosted by local Prefect and fellow poet Pei Di. Du subsequently based himself in Sichuan for most of the next five years. By the autumn of that year he was in financial trouble, and sent poems begging help to various acquaintances. He was relieved by Yan Wu, a friend and former colleague who was appointed governor general at Chengdu. Despite his financial problems, this was one of the happiest and most peaceful periods of his life. Many of Du's poems from this period are peaceful depictions of his life at Du Fu Thatched Cottage. In 762, he left the city to escape a rebellion, but he returned in summer 764 when he was appointed an advisor to Yan, who was involved in campaigns against the Tibetan Empire. Luoyang, the region of his birthplace, was recovered by government forces in the winter of 762, and in the spring of 765 Du Fu and his family sailed down the Yangtze, apparently with the intention of making their way there. They traveled slowly, held up by his ill-health (by this time he was suffering from poor eyesight, deafness and general old age in addition to his previous ailments). They stayed in Kuizhou (in what is now Baidicheng, Chongqing) at the entrance to the Three Gorges for almost two years from late spring 766. This period was Du Fu's last great poetic flowering, and here he wrote 400 poems in his dense, late style. In autumn 766, Bo Maolin became governor of the region: he supported Du Fu financially and employed him as his unofficial secretary. In March 768, he resumed his journey and got as far as Hunan province, where he died in Tanzhou (now Changsha) in November or December 770, in his 58th year. He was survived by his wife and two sons, who remained in the area for some years at least. His last known descendant is a grandson who requested a grave inscription for the poet from Yuan Zhen in 813. Hung summarises his life by concluding that, "He appeared to be a filial son, an affectionate father, a generous brother, a faithful husband, a loyal friend, a dutiful official, and a patriotic subject." Below is an example of one of Du Fu's later works, To My Retired Friend Wei (Chinese: 贈衛八處士). Like many other poems in the Tang it featured the theme of a long parting between friends, which was often due to officials being frequently transferred to the provinces: 人生不相見， It is almost as hard for friends to meet 動如參與商。 As for the Orion and Scorpius. 今夕復何夕， Tonight then is a rare event, 共此燈燭光。 Joining, in the candlelight, 少壯能幾時， Two men who were young not long ago 鬢髮各已蒼。 But now are turning grey at the temples. 訪舊半為鬼， To find that half our friends are dead 驚呼熱中腸。 Shocks us, burns our hearts with grief. 焉知二十載， We little guessed it would be twenty years 重上君子堂。 Before I could visit you again. 昔別君未婚， When I went away, you were still unmarried; 兒女忽成行。 But now these boys and girls in a row 怡然敬父執， Are very kind to their father's old friend. 問我來何方。 They ask me where I have been on my journey; 問答乃未已， And then, when we have talked awhile, 兒女羅酒漿。 They bring and show me wines and dishes, 夜雨翦春韭， Spring chives cut in the night-rain 新炊間黃粱。 And brown rice cooked freshly a special way. 主稱會面難， My host proclaims it a festival, 一舉累十觴。 He urges me to drink ten cups— 十觴亦不醉， But what ten cups could make me as drunk 感子故意長。 As I always am with your love in my heart? 明日隔山嶽， Tomorrow the mountains will separate us; 世事兩茫茫。 After tomorrow - who can say? Du Fu is the first person in the historical record identified as a diabetic patient. In his later years, he suffered from diabetes and pulmonary tuberculosis, and died on board a ship on the Yangtze River, aged 58 years old. Criticism of Du Fu's works has focused on his strong sense of history, his moral engagement, and his technical excellence. Since the Song dynasty, critics have called Du Fu the "poet saint" (詩聖 shī shèng). The most directly historical of his poems are those commenting on military tactics or the successes and failures of the government, or the poems of advice which he wrote to the emperor. Indirectly, he wrote about the effect of the times in which he lived on himself, and on the ordinary people of China. As Watson notes, this is information "of a kind seldom found in the officially compiled histories of the era". Du Fu's political comments are based on emotion rather than calculation: his prescriptions have been paraphrased as, "Let us all be less selfish, let us all do what we are supposed to do". Since his views were impossible to disagree with, his forcefully expressed truisms enabled his installation as the central figure of Chinese poetic history. A second favourite epithet of Chinese critics is that of "poet sage" (詩聖 shī shèng), a counterpart to the philosophical sage, Confucius. One of the earliest surviving works, The Song of the Wagons (from around 750), gives voice to the sufferings of a conscript soldier in the imperial army and a clear-sighted consciousness of suffering. These concerns are continuously articulated in poems on the lives of both soldiers and civilians produced by Du Fu throughout his life. Although Du Fu's frequent references to his own difficulties can give the impression of an all-consuming solipsism, Hawkes argues that his "famous compassion in fact includes himself, viewed quite objectively and almost as an afterthought". He therefore "lends grandeur" to the wider picture by comparing it to "his own slightly comical triviality". Du Fu's compassion, for himself and for others, was part of his general broadening of the scope of poetry: he devoted many works to topics which had previously been considered unsuitable for poetic treatment. Zhang Jie wrote that for Du Fu, "everything in this world is poetry", Du wrote extensively on subjects such as domestic life, calligraphy, paintings, animals, and other poems. Du Fu's work is notable above all for its range. Chinese critics traditionally used the term 集大成 (jídàchéng- "complete symphony"), a reference to Mencius' description of Confucius. Yuan Zhen was the first to note the breadth of Du Fu's achievement, writing in 813 that his predecessor, "united in his work traits which previous men had displayed only singly". He mastered all the forms of Chinese poetry: Chou says that in every form he "either made outstanding advances or contributed outstanding examples". Furthermore, his poems use a wide range of registers, from the direct and colloquial to the allusive and self-consciously literary. This variety is manifested even within individual works: Owen identifies the, "rapid stylistic and thematic shifts" in poems which enable the poet to represent different facets of a situation, while Chou uses the term "juxtaposition" as the major analytical tool in her work. Du Fu is noted for having written more on poetics and painting than any other writer of his time. He wrote eighteen poems on painting alone, more than any other Tang poet. Du Fu's seemingly negative commentary on the prized horse paintings of Han Gan ignited a controversy that has persisted to the present day. The tenor of his work changed as he developed his style and adapted to his surroundings ("chameleon-like" according to Watson): his earliest works are in a relatively derivative, courtly style, but he came into his own in the years of the rebellion. Owen comments on the "grim simplicity" of the Qinzhou poems, which mirrors the desert landscape; the works from his Chengdu period are "light, often finely observed"; while the poems from the late Kuizhou period have a "density and power of vision". Although he wrote in all poetic forms, Du Fu is best known for his lǜshi, a type of poem with strict constraints on form and content, for example: Reply to a Friend's Advice Leaving the Audience by the quiet corridors, Stately and beautiful, we pass through the Palace gates, Turning in different directions: you go to the West With the Ministers of State. I, otherwise. On my side, the willow-twigs are fragile, greening. You are struck by scarlet flowers over there. Our separate ways! You write so well, so kindly, To caution, in vain, a garrulous old man. About two thirds of Du Fu's 1500 extant works are in this form, and he is generally considered to be its leading exponent. His best lǜshi use the parallelisms required by the form to add expressive content rather than as mere technical restrictions. Hawkes comments that, "it is amazing that Tu Fu is able to use so immensely stylized a form in so natural a manner". According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Du Fu's writings are considered by many literary critics to be among the greatest of all time, and it states "his dense, compressed language makes use of all the connotative overtones of a phrase and of all the intonational potentials of the individual word, qualities that no translation can ever reveal." In his lifetime and immediately following his death, Du Fu was not greatly appreciated. In part this can be attributed to his stylistic and formal innovations, some of which are still "considered extremely daring and bizarre by Chinese critics." There are few contemporary references to him—only eleven poems from six writers—and these describe him in terms of affection, but not as a paragon of poetic or moral ideals. Du Fu is also poorly represented in contemporary anthologies of poetry. However, as Hung notes, he "is the only Chinese poet whose influence grew with time", and his works began to increase in popularity in the ninth century. Early positive comments came from Bai Juyi, who praised the moral sentiments of some of Du Fu's works (although he found these in only a small fraction of the poems), and from Han Yu, who wrote a piece defending Du Fu and Li Bai on aesthetic grounds from attacks made against them. Both these writers showed the influence of Du Fu in their own poetic work. By the beginning of the 10th century, Wei Zhuang constructed the first replica of his thatched cottage in Sichuan. It was in the 11th century, during the Northern Song era that Du Fu's reputation reached its peak. In this period a comprehensive re-evaluation of earlier poets took place, in which Wang Wei, Li Bai and Du Fu came to be regarded as representing respectively the Buddhist, Daoist and Confucian strands of Chinese culture. At the same time, the development of Neo-Confucianism ensured that Du Fu, as its poetic exemplar, occupied the paramount position. Su Shi famously expressed this reasoning when he wrote that Du Fu was "preeminent ... because ... through all his vicissitudes, he never for the space of a meal forgot his sovereign". His influence was helped by his ability to reconcile apparent opposites: political conservatives were attracted by his loyalty to the established order, while political radicals embraced his concern for the poor. Literary conservatives could look to his technical mastery, while literary radicals were inspired by his innovations. Since the establishment of the People's Republic of China, Du Fu's loyalty to the state and concern for the poor have been interpreted as embryonic nationalism and socialism, and he has been praised for his use of simple, "people's language". Du Fu's popularity grew to such an extent that it is as hard to measure his influence as that of Shakespeare in England: it was hard for any Chinese poet not to be influenced by him. While there was never another Du Fu, individual poets followed in the traditions of specific aspects of his work: Bai Juyi's concern for the poor, Lu You's patriotism, and Mei Yaochen's reflections on the quotidian are a few examples. More broadly, Du Fu's work in transforming the lǜshi from mere word play into "a vehicle for serious poetic utterance" set the stage for every subsequent writer in the genre. In the 20th century, he was the favourite poet of Kenneth Rexroth, who has described him as "the greatest non-epic, non-dramatic poet who has survived in any language", and commented that, "he has made me a better man, as a moral agent and as a perceiving organism". Du Fu's poetry has made a profound impact on Japanese literature, especially on the literature from the Muromachi period and on scholars and poets in the Edo period, including Matsuo Bashō, the very greatest of all haiku poets. Even in modern Japanese, the term Saint of Poetry (詩聖, shisei) is mostly synonymous with Du Fu. Until the 13th century, the Japanese preferred Bai Juyi above all poets and there were few references to Du Fu, although his influence can be seen in some kanshi ("Chinese poetry made by Japanese poets") anthologies such as Bunka Shūreishū in the 9th century. The first notable Japanese appreciator of Du Fu's poetry was Kokan Shiren (1278–1346), a Rinzai Zen patriarch and one of the most prominent authors of the literature of the Five Mountains; he highly praised Du Fu and made a commentary on some poems of Du Fu from the perspective of a Zen priest in Vol. 11 of Saihokushū. His student Chūgan Engetsu composed many kanshi which were clearly stated "influenced by Du Fu" in their prefaces. Chūgan's student Gidō Shūshin had close connection with the Court and Ashikaga Shogunate and propagated Du Fu's poetry in the mundane world; one day Nijō Yoshimoto, the Kampaku regent of the Court and the highest authority of renga poetry, asked Gidō, "Should I learn the poetry of Du Fu and Li Bai?" Gidō dared to reply, "Yes if you do have enough capability. No if do not." Since then, there had been many seminars on Du Fu's poetry both in Zen temples and in the aristocratic society, and as a result his poetry was often cited in Japanese literature in the Muromachi period, e.g., Taiheiki, a historical epic in the late 14th century, and some noh plays such as Hyakuman, Bashō, and Shunkan. During the Kan'ei era of the Edo period (1624–1643), Shào Chuán (邵傳) of the Ming Dynasty's Collective Commentary on Du Fu's Lǜshi (杜律集解, Toritsu Shikkai) was imported into Japan, and it gained explosive popularity in Confucian scholars and chōnin (townspeople) class. The commentary established Du Fu's fame as the highest of all poets; for instance, Hayashi Shunsai, a notable Confucian scholar, commented in Vol. 37 of Gahō Bunshū that Zǐměi [Du Fu] was the very best poet in history and praised Shào Chuán's commentary for its simplicity and readability, while he criticized old commentaries during the Yuan Dynasty were too unfathomable. Matsuo Bashō, the greatest haiku poet, was also strongly influenced by Du Fu; in Oku no Hosomichi, his masterpiece, he cites the first two lines of A Spring View (春望) before a haiku as its introduction and also many of his other haiku have similar wording and themes. It is said that when he died in Osaka during a long travel, a copy of Du Fu's poetry was found with him as one of a few precious items which he was able to carry around. A variety of styles have been used in efforts to translate Du Fu's work into English. As Burton Watson remarks in The Selected Poems of Du Fu, "There are many different ways to approach the problems involved in translating Du Fu, which is why we need as many different translations as possible" (p. xxii). The translators have had to contend with bringing out the formal constraints of the original without sounding laboured to a Western ear (particularly when translating regulated verse, or lǜshi), and accommodating the complex allusions contained particularly in the later works (Hawkes writes that "his poems do not as a rule come through very well in translation"—p. ix). One extreme on each issue is represented by Kenneth Rexroth's One Hundred Poems From the Chinese. His are free translations, which seek to conceal the parallelisms through enjambement and expansion and contraction of the content; his responses to the allusions are firstly to omit most of these poems from his selection, and secondly to "translate out" the references in those works which he does select. Arthur Cooper also translated selected poems of Du Fu and Li Bai, which were published under the Penguin Classics imprint. Other translators have placed much greater weight on trying to convey a sense of the poetic forms used by Du Fu. Vikram Seth in Three Chinese Poets uses English-style rhyme schemes, whereas Keith Holyoak in Facing the Moon approximates the Chinese rhyme scheme; both use end-stopped lines and preserve some degree of parallelism. In The Selected Poems of Du Fu, Burton Watson follows the parallelisms quite strictly, persuading the western reader to adapt to the poems rather than vice versa. Similarly, he deals with the allusion of the later works by combining literal translation with extensive annotation. Tu Fu, Chinese poet, considered by many literary critics to be the greatest of all time. \|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Du Fu\| \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Du Fu.\|	<urn:uuid:f1aae4b2-ca0c-44d1-a1ec-d7d3a9fe56b3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikiredia.info/wiki/Du_Fu	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00170.warc.gz	en	0.98034	6,058	3.390625	3	[ -0.42602214217185974, 0.06413368880748749, 0.23230959475040436, 0.06407720595598221, 0.1752016693353653, 0.26509878039360046, 0.3610571026802063, 0.13949289917945862, -0.03238291293382645, -0.1368316113948822, 0.21371127665042877, -0.30200570821762085, 0.322892427444458, 0.2715015709400177...	1	There are no contemporaneous portraits of Du Fu; this is a later artist's impression. Gongyi, Henan, China \|Died\|\|770 (aged 57–58)\| Tanzhou, Hunan, China \|Relatives\|\|Du Shenyan (grandfather)\| Du Xian (father) Du Fu (Wade–Giles: Tu Fu; Chinese: 杜甫; 712 – 770) was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty. Along with Li Bai (Li Po), he is frequently called the greatest of the Chinese poets. His greatest ambition was to serve his country as a successful civil servant, but he proved unable to make the necessary accommodations. His life, like the whole country, was devastated by the An Lushan Rebellion of 755, and his last 15 years were a time of almost constant unrest. Although initially he was little-known to other writers, his works came to be hugely influential in both Chinese and Japanese literary culture. Of his poetic writing, nearly fifteen hundred poems have been preserved over the ages. He has been called the "Poet-Historian" and the "Poet-Sage" by Chinese critics, while the range of his work has allowed him to be introduced to Western readers as "the Chinese Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Shakespeare, Milton, Burns, Wordsworth, Béranger, Hugo or Baudelaire". Traditional Chinese literary criticism emphasized the life of the author when interpreting a work, a practice which the American scholar Burton Watson attributed to "the close links that traditional Chinese thought posits between art and morality". Since many of Du Fu's poems feature morality and history, this practice is particularly important. Another reason, identified by the Chinese historian William Hung, is that Chinese poems are typically concise, omitting context that might be relevant, but which an informed contemporary could be assumed to know. For modern Western readers, "The less accurately we know the time, the place and the circumstances in the background, the more liable we are to imagine it incorrectly, and the result will be that we either misunderstand the poem or fail to understand it altogether". Stephen Owen suggests a third factor particular to Du Fu, arguing that the variety of the poet's work required consideration of his whole life, rather than the "reductive" categorizations used for more limited poets. \|Also known as:\|\|Dù Shàolíng 杜少陵 Du of Shaoling\| Dù Gōngbù 杜工部 Du of the Ministry of Works Shàolíng Yělǎo 少陵野老 Shīshèng, 詩聖, The Saint of Poem Most of what is known of Du Fu's life comes from his poems. His paternal grandfather was Du Shenyan, a noted politician and poet during the reign of Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690–705). Du Fu was born in 712; the exact birthplace is unknown, except that it was near Luoyang, Henan province (Gong county is a favourite candidate). In later life, he considered himself to belong to the capital city of Chang'an, ancestral hometown of the Du family. Du Fu's mother died shortly after he was born, and he was partially raised by his aunt. He had an elder brother, who died young. He also had three half brothers and one half sister, to whom he frequently refers in his poems, although he never mentions his stepmother. The son of a minor scholar-official, his youth was spent on the standard education of a future civil servant: study and memorisation of the Confucian classics of philosophy, history and poetry. He later claimed to have produced creditable poems by his early teens, but these have been lost. In the early 730s, he travelled in the Jiangsu/Zhejiang area; his earliest surviving poem, describing a poetry contest, is thought to date from the end of this period, around 735. In that year, he took the Imperial examination , likely in Chang'an. He failed, to his surprise and that of centuries of later critics. Hung concludes that he probably failed because his prose style at the time was too dense and obscure, while Chou suggests his failure to cultivate connections in the capital may have been to blame. After this failure, he went back to traveling, this time around Shandong and Hebei. His father died around 740. Du Fu would have been allowed to enter the civil service because of his father's rank, but he is thought to have given up the privilege in favour of one of his half brothers. He spent the next four years living in the Luoyang area, fulfilling his duties in domestic affairs. In the autumn of 744, he met Li Bai (Li Po) for the first time, and the two poets formed a friendship. David Young describes this as "the most significant formative element in Du Fu's artistic development" because it gave him a living example of the reclusive poet-scholar life to which he was attracted after his failure in the civil service exam. The relationship was somewhat one-sided, however. Du Fu was by some years the younger, while Li Bai was already a poetic star. We have twelve poems to or about Li Bai from the younger poet, but only one in the other direction. They met again only once, in 745. In 746, he moved to the capital in an attempt to resurrect his official career. He took the civil service exam a second time during the following year, but all the candidates were failed by the prime minister (apparently in order to prevent the emergence of possible rivals). He never again attempted the examinations, instead petitioning the emperor directly in 751, 754 and probably again in 755. He married around 752, and by 757 the couple had had five children—three sons and two daughters—but one of the sons died in infancy in 755. From 754 he began to have lung problems (probably asthma), the first of a series of ailments which dogged him for the rest of his life. It was in that year that Du Fu was forced to move his family due to the turmoil of a famine brought about by massive floods in the region. In 755, he received an appointment as Registrar of the Right Commandant's office of the Crown Prince's Palace. Although this was a minor post, in normal times it would have been at least the start of an official career. Even before he had begun work, however, the position was swept away by events. The An Lushan Rebellion began in December 755, and was not completely suppressed for almost eight years. It caused enormous disruption to Chinese society: the census of 754 recorded 52.9 million people, but ten years later, the census counted just 16.9 million, the remainder having been displaced or killed. During this time, Du Fu led a largely itinerant life unsettled by wars, associated famines and imperial displeasure. This period of unhappiness was the making of Du Fu as a poet: Eva Shan Chou has written that, "What he saw around him—the lives of his family, neighbors, and strangers– what he heard, and what he hoped for or feared from the progress of various campaigns—these became the enduring themes of his poetry". Even when he learned of the death of his youngest child, he turned to the suffering of others in his poetry instead of dwelling upon his own misfortunes. Du Fu wrote: Brooding on what I have lived through, if even I know such suffering, the common man must surely be rattled by the winds. In 756, Emperor Xuanzong was forced to flee the capital and abdicate. Du Fu, who had been away from the city, took his family to a place of safety and attempted to join the court of the new emperor (Suzong), but he was captured by the rebels and taken to Chang'an. In the autumn, his youngest son, Du Zongwu (Baby Bear), was born. Around this time Du Fu is thought to have contracted malaria. He escaped from Chang'an the following year, and was appointed Reminder when he rejoined the court in May 757. This post gave access to the emperor but was largely ceremonial. Du Fu's conscientiousness compelled him to try to make use of it: he caused trouble for himself by protesting the removal of his friend and patron Fang Guan on a petty charge. He was arrested but was pardoned in June. He was granted leave to visit his family in September, but he soon rejoined the court and on December 8, 757, he returned to Chang'an with the emperor following its recapture by government forces. However, his advice continued to be unappreciated, and in the summer of 758 he was demoted to a post as Commissioner of Education in Huazhou. The position was not to his taste: in one poem, he wrote: I am about to scream madly in the office / Especially when they bring more papers to pile higher on my desk. He moved on in the summer of 759; this has traditionally been ascribed to famine, but Hung believes that frustration is a more likely reason. He next spent around six weeks in Qinzhou (now Tianshui, Gansu province), where he wrote more than sixty poems. In December 759, he briefly stayed in Tonggu (modern Gansu). He departed on December 24 for Chengdu (Sichuan province), where he was hosted by local Prefect and fellow poet Pei Di. Du subsequently based himself in Sichuan for most of the next five years. By the autumn of that year he was in financial trouble, and sent poems begging help to various acquaintances. He was relieved by Yan Wu, a friend and former colleague who was appointed governor general at Chengdu. Despite his financial problems, this was one of the happiest and most peaceful periods of his life. Many of Du's poems from this period are peaceful depictions of his life at Du Fu Thatched Cottage. In 762, he left the city to escape a rebellion, but he returned in summer 764 when he was appointed an advisor to Yan, who was involved in campaigns against the Tibetan Empire. Luoyang, the region of his birthplace, was recovered by government forces in the winter of 762, and in the spring of 765 Du Fu and his family sailed down the Yangtze, apparently with the intention of making their way there. They traveled slowly, held up by his ill-health (by this time he was suffering from poor eyesight, deafness and general old age in addition to his previous ailments). They stayed in Kuizhou (in what is now Baidicheng, Chongqing) at the entrance to the Three Gorges for almost two years from late spring 766. This period was Du Fu's last great poetic flowering, and here he wrote 400 poems in his dense, late style. In autumn 766, Bo Maolin became governor of the region: he supported Du Fu financially and employed him as his unofficial secretary. In March 768, he resumed his journey and got as far as Hunan province, where he died in Tanzhou (now Changsha) in November or December 770, in his 58th year. He was survived by his wife and two sons, who remained in the area for some years at least. His last known descendant is a grandson who requested a grave inscription for the poet from Yuan Zhen in 813. Hung summarises his life by concluding that, "He appeared to be a filial son, an affectionate father, a generous brother, a faithful husband, a loyal friend, a dutiful official, and a patriotic subject." Below is an example of one of Du Fu's later works, To My Retired Friend Wei (Chinese: 贈衛八處士). Like many other poems in the Tang it featured the theme of a long parting between friends, which was often due to officials being frequently transferred to the provinces: 人生不相見， It is almost as hard for friends to meet 動如參與商。 As for the Orion and Scorpius. 今夕復何夕， Tonight then is a rare event, 共此燈燭光。 Joining, in the candlelight, 少壯能幾時， Two men who were young not long ago 鬢髮各已蒼。 But now are turning grey at the temples. 訪舊半為鬼， To find that half our friends are dead 驚呼熱中腸。 Shocks us, burns our hearts with grief. 焉知二十載， We little guessed it would be twenty years 重上君子堂。 Before I could visit you again. 昔別君未婚， When I went away, you were still unmarried; 兒女忽成行。 But now these boys and girls in a row 怡然敬父執， Are very kind to their father's old friend. 問我來何方。 They ask me where I have been on my journey; 問答乃未已， And then, when we have talked awhile, 兒女羅酒漿。 They bring and show me wines and dishes, 夜雨翦春韭， Spring chives cut in the night-rain 新炊間黃粱。 And brown rice cooked freshly a special way. 主稱會面難， My host proclaims it a festival, 一舉累十觴。 He urges me to drink ten cups— 十觴亦不醉， But what ten cups could make me as drunk 感子故意長。 As I always am with your love in my heart? 明日隔山嶽， Tomorrow the mountains will separate us; 世事兩茫茫。 After tomorrow - who can say? Du Fu is the first person in the historical record identified as a diabetic patient. In his later years, he suffered from diabetes and pulmonary tuberculosis, and died on board a ship on the Yangtze River, aged 58 years old. Criticism of Du Fu's works has focused on his strong sense of history, his moral engagement, and his technical excellence. Since the Song dynasty, critics have called Du Fu the "poet saint" (詩聖 shī shèng). The most directly historical of his poems are those commenting on military tactics or the successes and failures of the government, or the poems of advice which he wrote to the emperor. Indirectly, he wrote about the effect of the times in which he lived on himself, and on the ordinary people of China. As Watson notes, this is information "of a kind seldom found in the officially compiled histories of the era". Du Fu's political comments are based on emotion rather than calculation: his prescriptions have been paraphrased as, "Let us all be less selfish, let us all do what we are supposed to do". Since his views were impossible to disagree with, his forcefully expressed truisms enabled his installation as the central figure of Chinese poetic history. A second favourite epithet of Chinese critics is that of "poet sage" (詩聖 shī shèng), a counterpart to the philosophical sage, Confucius. One of the earliest surviving works, The Song of the Wagons (from around 750), gives voice to the sufferings of a conscript soldier in the imperial army and a clear-sighted consciousness of suffering. These concerns are continuously articulated in poems on the lives of both soldiers and civilians produced by Du Fu throughout his life. Although Du Fu's frequent references to his own difficulties can give the impression of an all-consuming solipsism, Hawkes argues that his "famous compassion in fact includes himself, viewed quite objectively and almost as an afterthought". He therefore "lends grandeur" to the wider picture by comparing it to "his own slightly comical triviality". Du Fu's compassion, for himself and for others, was part of his general broadening of the scope of poetry: he devoted many works to topics which had previously been considered unsuitable for poetic treatment. Zhang Jie wrote that for Du Fu, "everything in this world is poetry", Du wrote extensively on subjects such as domestic life, calligraphy, paintings, animals, and other poems. Du Fu's work is notable above all for its range. Chinese critics traditionally used the term 集大成 (jídàchéng- "complete symphony"), a reference to Mencius' description of Confucius. Yuan Zhen was the first to note the breadth of Du Fu's achievement, writing in 813 that his predecessor, "united in his work traits which previous men had displayed only singly". He mastered all the forms of Chinese poetry: Chou says that in every form he "either made outstanding advances or contributed outstanding examples". Furthermore, his poems use a wide range of registers, from the direct and colloquial to the allusive and self-consciously literary. This variety is manifested even within individual works: Owen identifies the, "rapid stylistic and thematic shifts" in poems which enable the poet to represent different facets of a situation, while Chou uses the term "juxtaposition" as the major analytical tool in her work. Du Fu is noted for having written more on poetics and painting than any other writer of his time. He wrote eighteen poems on painting alone, more than any other Tang poet. Du Fu's seemingly negative commentary on the prized horse paintings of Han Gan ignited a controversy that has persisted to the present day. The tenor of his work changed as he developed his style and adapted to his surroundings ("chameleon-like" according to Watson): his earliest works are in a relatively derivative, courtly style, but he came into his own in the years of the rebellion. Owen comments on the "grim simplicity" of the Qinzhou poems, which mirrors the desert landscape; the works from his Chengdu period are "light, often finely observed"; while the poems from the late Kuizhou period have a "density and power of vision". Although he wrote in all poetic forms, Du Fu is best known for his lǜshi, a type of poem with strict constraints on form and content, for example: Reply to a Friend's Advice Leaving the Audience by the quiet corridors, Stately and beautiful, we pass through the Palace gates, Turning in different directions: you go to the West With the Ministers of State. I, otherwise. On my side, the willow-twigs are fragile, greening. You are struck by scarlet flowers over there. Our separate ways! You write so well, so kindly, To caution, in vain, a garrulous old man. About two thirds of Du Fu's 1500 extant works are in this form, and he is generally considered to be its leading exponent. His best lǜshi use the parallelisms required by the form to add expressive content rather than as mere technical restrictions. Hawkes comments that, "it is amazing that Tu Fu is able to use so immensely stylized a form in so natural a manner". According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Du Fu's writings are considered by many literary critics to be among the greatest of all time, and it states "his dense, compressed language makes use of all the connotative overtones of a phrase and of all the intonational potentials of the individual word, qualities that no translation can ever reveal." In his lifetime and immediately following his death, Du Fu was not greatly appreciated. In part this can be attributed to his stylistic and formal innovations, some of which are still "considered extremely daring and bizarre by Chinese critics." There are few contemporary references to him—only eleven poems from six writers—and these describe him in terms of affection, but not as a paragon of poetic or moral ideals. Du Fu is also poorly represented in contemporary anthologies of poetry. However, as Hung notes, he "is the only Chinese poet whose influence grew with time", and his works began to increase in popularity in the ninth century. Early positive comments came from Bai Juyi, who praised the moral sentiments of some of Du Fu's works (although he found these in only a small fraction of the poems), and from Han Yu, who wrote a piece defending Du Fu and Li Bai on aesthetic grounds from attacks made against them. Both these writers showed the influence of Du Fu in their own poetic work. By the beginning of the 10th century, Wei Zhuang constructed the first replica of his thatched cottage in Sichuan. It was in the 11th century, during the Northern Song era that Du Fu's reputation reached its peak. In this period a comprehensive re-evaluation of earlier poets took place, in which Wang Wei, Li Bai and Du Fu came to be regarded as representing respectively the Buddhist, Daoist and Confucian strands of Chinese culture. At the same time, the development of Neo-Confucianism ensured that Du Fu, as its poetic exemplar, occupied the paramount position. Su Shi famously expressed this reasoning when he wrote that Du Fu was "preeminent ... because ... through all his vicissitudes, he never for the space of a meal forgot his sovereign". His influence was helped by his ability to reconcile apparent opposites: political conservatives were attracted by his loyalty to the established order, while political radicals embraced his concern for the poor. Literary conservatives could look to his technical mastery, while literary radicals were inspired by his innovations. Since the establishment of the People's Republic of China, Du Fu's loyalty to the state and concern for the poor have been interpreted as embryonic nationalism and socialism, and he has been praised for his use of simple, "people's language". Du Fu's popularity grew to such an extent that it is as hard to measure his influence as that of Shakespeare in England: it was hard for any Chinese poet not to be influenced by him. While there was never another Du Fu, individual poets followed in the traditions of specific aspects of his work: Bai Juyi's concern for the poor, Lu You's patriotism, and Mei Yaochen's reflections on the quotidian are a few examples. More broadly, Du Fu's work in transforming the lǜshi from mere word play into "a vehicle for serious poetic utterance" set the stage for every subsequent writer in the genre. In the 20th century, he was the favourite poet of Kenneth Rexroth, who has described him as "the greatest non-epic, non-dramatic poet who has survived in any language", and commented that, "he has made me a better man, as a moral agent and as a perceiving organism". Du Fu's poetry has made a profound impact on Japanese literature, especially on the literature from the Muromachi period and on scholars and poets in the Edo period, including Matsuo Bashō, the very greatest of all haiku poets. Even in modern Japanese, the term Saint of Poetry (詩聖, shisei) is mostly synonymous with Du Fu. Until the 13th century, the Japanese preferred Bai Juyi above all poets and there were few references to Du Fu, although his influence can be seen in some kanshi ("Chinese poetry made by Japanese poets") anthologies such as Bunka Shūreishū in the 9th century. The first notable Japanese appreciator of Du Fu's poetry was Kokan Shiren (1278–1346), a Rinzai Zen patriarch and one of the most prominent authors of the literature of the Five Mountains; he highly praised Du Fu and made a commentary on some poems of Du Fu from the perspective of a Zen priest in Vol. 11 of Saihokushū. His student Chūgan Engetsu composed many kanshi which were clearly stated "influenced by Du Fu" in their prefaces. Chūgan's student Gidō Shūshin had close connection with the Court and Ashikaga Shogunate and propagated Du Fu's poetry in the mundane world; one day Nijō Yoshimoto, the Kampaku regent of the Court and the highest authority of renga poetry, asked Gidō, "Should I learn the poetry of Du Fu and Li Bai?" Gidō dared to reply, "Yes if you do have enough capability. No if do not." Since then, there had been many seminars on Du Fu's poetry both in Zen temples and in the aristocratic society, and as a result his poetry was often cited in Japanese literature in the Muromachi period, e.g., Taiheiki, a historical epic in the late 14th century, and some noh plays such as Hyakuman, Bashō, and Shunkan. During the Kan'ei era of the Edo period (1624–1643), Shào Chuán (邵傳) of the Ming Dynasty's Collective Commentary on Du Fu's Lǜshi (杜律集解, Toritsu Shikkai) was imported into Japan, and it gained explosive popularity in Confucian scholars and chōnin (townspeople) class. The commentary established Du Fu's fame as the highest of all poets; for instance, Hayashi Shunsai, a notable Confucian scholar, commented in Vol. 37 of Gahō Bunshū that Zǐměi [Du Fu] was the very best poet in history and praised Shào Chuán's commentary for its simplicity and readability, while he criticized old commentaries during the Yuan Dynasty were too unfathomable. Matsuo Bashō, the greatest haiku poet, was also strongly influenced by Du Fu; in Oku no Hosomichi, his masterpiece, he cites the first two lines of A Spring View (春望) before a haiku as its introduction and also many of his other haiku have similar wording and themes. It is said that when he died in Osaka during a long travel, a copy of Du Fu's poetry was found with him as one of a few precious items which he was able to carry around. A variety of styles have been used in efforts to translate Du Fu's work into English. As Burton Watson remarks in The Selected Poems of Du Fu, "There are many different ways to approach the problems involved in translating Du Fu, which is why we need as many different translations as possible" (p. xxii). The translators have had to contend with bringing out the formal constraints of the original without sounding laboured to a Western ear (particularly when translating regulated verse, or lǜshi), and accommodating the complex allusions contained particularly in the later works (Hawkes writes that "his poems do not as a rule come through very well in translation"—p. ix). One extreme on each issue is represented by Kenneth Rexroth's One Hundred Poems From the Chinese. His are free translations, which seek to conceal the parallelisms through enjambement and expansion and contraction of the content; his responses to the allusions are firstly to omit most of these poems from his selection, and secondly to "translate out" the references in those works which he does select. Arthur Cooper also translated selected poems of Du Fu and Li Bai, which were published under the Penguin Classics imprint. Other translators have placed much greater weight on trying to convey a sense of the poetic forms used by Du Fu. Vikram Seth in Three Chinese Poets uses English-style rhyme schemes, whereas Keith Holyoak in Facing the Moon approximates the Chinese rhyme scheme; both use end-stopped lines and preserve some degree of parallelism. In The Selected Poems of Du Fu, Burton Watson follows the parallelisms quite strictly, persuading the western reader to adapt to the poems rather than vice versa. Similarly, he deals with the allusion of the later works by combining literal translation with extensive annotation. Tu Fu, Chinese poet, considered by many literary critics to be the greatest of all time. \|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Du Fu\| \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Du Fu.\|	5,867	ENGLISH	1
The earliest known open water swim in New Zealand was that of Hinepoupou, a woman of the Ngāti Kuia tribe, who lived in the mid-18th century. Early one morning her husband and his brother set off by canoe from Kāpiti Island, off the south-west of the North Island, to Rangitoto ki te Tonga (D’Urville) Island in the Marlborough Sounds, abandoning Hinepoupou. Bravely, she decided to swim across Raukawa (Cook Strait) to her father’s home on Rangitoto. She took advantage of the tides, and she rested on rocks and islands along the way. On the way she was accompanied by a guardian dolphin, which Ngāti Kuia called Kaikaiawaro, though other traditions believed it was called Kahurangi. The swim took her three days. After arriving safely, Hinepoupou planned revenge on her husband and his brother. They were taken by her father to a fishing ground she had discovered on her swim. While they were busy fishing, Hinepoupou said a karakia (incantation). A storm came up and her husband and his brother drowned. In the wake of Hinepoupou In 1990, six swimmers, including former Cook Strait conquerors Philip Rush, Donna Bouzaid, Karen Bisley and Perry Cameron, as well as Christine Harris and Kaine Thompson, retraced the likely course of Hinepoupou’s legendary swim as a relay. It took four days for the team to complete the swim. Keeping to the route was made particularly difficult by the strait’s notoriously complex tides. Swimming for dear life On occasion open water swimming could be a matter of life or death. In 1831 Whakarua-tapu of Ngāi Tahu was a captive on a canoe of the Ngāti Toa leader Te Rauparaha. As the canoe neared the North Island he leapt overboard and swam back to the South Island. At Gallipoli in 1915, during the First World War, the future governor-general, Bernard Freyberg, heroically swam ashore from a troopship to light diversionary flares at Bulair. He won a medal for this feat of stamina, foreshadowed a few years earlier when he had swum 22.5 kilometres along New Zealand’s Waihou River. Open water distance swimming in New Zealand as a sport dates from the early 20th century, but it was especially popular from the 1960s to the 1980s. There have been solo and group attempts on major courses, such as Cook Strait, and competitions between a number of swimmers. In the late 1970s and early 1980s national open water competitions involved a series of events around the country. In the early 2000s regular open water swims were held by the New Zealand Masters Swimming Association.	<urn:uuid:332bc83d-2685-4f78-a9e6-a2443dcb0f4f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://teara.govt.nz/mi/open-water-swimming/page-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00294.warc.gz	en	0.984362	615	3.328125	3	[ -0.20640519261360168, 0.1495310366153717, 0.12648144364356995, 0.002351965755224228, -0.39380353689193726, -0.0470966175198555, 0.37933552265167236, 0.1716894507408142, -0.03203627094626427, 0.13378764688968658, -0.26342231035232544, -0.7838514447212219, 0.09222572296857834, 0.478094875812...	8	The earliest known open water swim in New Zealand was that of Hinepoupou, a woman of the Ngāti Kuia tribe, who lived in the mid-18th century. Early one morning her husband and his brother set off by canoe from Kāpiti Island, off the south-west of the North Island, to Rangitoto ki te Tonga (D’Urville) Island in the Marlborough Sounds, abandoning Hinepoupou. Bravely, she decided to swim across Raukawa (Cook Strait) to her father’s home on Rangitoto. She took advantage of the tides, and she rested on rocks and islands along the way. On the way she was accompanied by a guardian dolphin, which Ngāti Kuia called Kaikaiawaro, though other traditions believed it was called Kahurangi. The swim took her three days. After arriving safely, Hinepoupou planned revenge on her husband and his brother. They were taken by her father to a fishing ground she had discovered on her swim. While they were busy fishing, Hinepoupou said a karakia (incantation). A storm came up and her husband and his brother drowned. In the wake of Hinepoupou In 1990, six swimmers, including former Cook Strait conquerors Philip Rush, Donna Bouzaid, Karen Bisley and Perry Cameron, as well as Christine Harris and Kaine Thompson, retraced the likely course of Hinepoupou’s legendary swim as a relay. It took four days for the team to complete the swim. Keeping to the route was made particularly difficult by the strait’s notoriously complex tides. Swimming for dear life On occasion open water swimming could be a matter of life or death. In 1831 Whakarua-tapu of Ngāi Tahu was a captive on a canoe of the Ngāti Toa leader Te Rauparaha. As the canoe neared the North Island he leapt overboard and swam back to the South Island. At Gallipoli in 1915, during the First World War, the future governor-general, Bernard Freyberg, heroically swam ashore from a troopship to light diversionary flares at Bulair. He won a medal for this feat of stamina, foreshadowed a few years earlier when he had swum 22.5 kilometres along New Zealand’s Waihou River. Open water distance swimming in New Zealand as a sport dates from the early 20th century, but it was especially popular from the 1960s to the 1980s. There have been solo and group attempts on major courses, such as Cook Strait, and competitions between a number of swimmers. In the late 1970s and early 1980s national open water competitions involved a series of events around the country. In the early 2000s regular open water swims were held by the New Zealand Masters Swimming Association.	640	ENGLISH	1
1. The Mexican War Ended – 1848 With the end of the Mexican War, America was ceded western territories. This posed a problem: as these new territories would be admitted as states, would they be free or slave? To deal with this, Congress passed the Compromise of 1850 which basically made California free and allowed the people to pick in Utah and New Mexico. This ability of a state to decide whether it would allow slavery was called popular sovereignty. 2. Fugitive Slave Act – 1850 The Fugitive Slave Act was passed as part of the Compromise of 1850. This act forced any federal official who did not arrest a runaway slave liable to pay a fine. This was the most controversial part of the Compromise of 1850 and caused many abolitionists to increase their efforts against slavery. This act increased the Underground Railroad activity as fleeing slaves made their way to Canada. 3. Uncle Tom’s Cabin Was Released Uncle Tom’s Cabin or Life Among the Lowly was written in 1852 by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Stowe was an abolitionist who wrote this book to show the evils of slavery. This book, which was a best seller at the time, had a huge impact on the way that northerners viewed slavery. It helped further the cause of abolition and even Abraham Lincoln recognized that this book was one of the events that led to the outbreak of the Civil War. 4. Bleeding Kansas shocked Northerners In 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed allowing the Kansas and Nebraska territories to decide for themselves using popular sovereignty whether they wanted to be free or slave. By 1856, Kansas had become a hotbed of violence as pro and anti-slavery forces fought over the state’s future. The widely reported violent events were a small taste of the violence to come with the Civil War. 5. Charles Sumner is Attacked by Preston on the Floor of the Senate One of the most publicized events in Bleeding Kansas was when on May 21, 1856 Border Ruffians ransacked Lawrence, Kansas which was known to be a staunch free-state area. One day later, violence occurred on the floor of the U.S. Senate. Pro-slavery Congressman Preston Brooks attacked Charles Sumner with a cane after Sumner had given a speech attacking the pro-slavery forces for the violence occurring in Kansas. 6. Dred Scott Decision In 1857, Dred Scott lost his case proving that he should be free because he had been held as a slave while living in a free state. The Court ruled that his petition could not be seen because he did not hold any property. But it went further, to state that even though he had been taken by his ‘owner’ into a free state, he was still a slave because slaves were to be considered property of their owners. This decision furthered the cause of abolitionists as they increased their efforts to fight against slavery. 7. Lecompton Constitution Rejected When the Kansas-Nebraska Act passed, Kansas was allowed to determine whether it would enter the union as free or slave. Numerous constitutions were advanced by the territory to make this decision. In 1857, the Lecompton Constitution was created allowing for Kansas to be a slave state. Pro-slavery forces supported by President James Buchanan attempted to push the Constitution through the US Congress for acceptance. However, there was enough opposition that in 1858 it was sent back to Kansas for a vote. Even though it delayed statehood, Kansas voters rejected the Constitution and Kansas became a free state. 8. John Brown Raided Harper’s Ferry John Brown was a radical abolitionist who had been involved in anti-slavery violence in Kansas. On October 16, 1859, he led a group of seventeen including five black members to raid the arsenal located in Harper’s Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia). His goal was to start a slave uprising using the captured weapons. However, after capturing several buildings, Brown and his men were surrounded and eventually killed or captured by troops led by Colonel Robert E. Lee. Brown was tried and hanged for treason. This event was one more in the growing abolitionist movement that helped lead to open warfare in 1861. 9. Abraham Lincoln Was Elected President With the election of Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln on November 6, 1860, South Carolina followed by six other states seceded from the Union. Even though his views about slavery were considered moderate during the nomination and election, South Carolina had warned it would secede if he won. Lincoln agreed with the majority of the Republican Party that the South was becoming too powerful and made it part of their platform that slavery would not be extended to any new territories or states added to the union.	<urn:uuid:5569c0cf-ddf1-4c67-b84f-b5c62db4a503>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.4to40.com/history-for-kids/events-that-led-to-american-civil-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00556.warc.gz	en	0.985595	991	4.1875	4	[ -0.16412372887134552, 0.2963296175003052, 0.4448533356189728, 0.12495192885398865, 0.023673411458730698, -0.28659936785697937, -0.38796502351760864, 0.1159636527299881, -0.32175564765930176, -0.08006284385919571, 0.3738696873188019, 0.10486844182014465, -0.24105390906333923, 0.259403467178...	4	1. The Mexican War Ended – 1848 With the end of the Mexican War, America was ceded western territories. This posed a problem: as these new territories would be admitted as states, would they be free or slave? To deal with this, Congress passed the Compromise of 1850 which basically made California free and allowed the people to pick in Utah and New Mexico. This ability of a state to decide whether it would allow slavery was called popular sovereignty. 2. Fugitive Slave Act – 1850 The Fugitive Slave Act was passed as part of the Compromise of 1850. This act forced any federal official who did not arrest a runaway slave liable to pay a fine. This was the most controversial part of the Compromise of 1850 and caused many abolitionists to increase their efforts against slavery. This act increased the Underground Railroad activity as fleeing slaves made their way to Canada. 3. Uncle Tom’s Cabin Was Released Uncle Tom’s Cabin or Life Among the Lowly was written in 1852 by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Stowe was an abolitionist who wrote this book to show the evils of slavery. This book, which was a best seller at the time, had a huge impact on the way that northerners viewed slavery. It helped further the cause of abolition and even Abraham Lincoln recognized that this book was one of the events that led to the outbreak of the Civil War. 4. Bleeding Kansas shocked Northerners In 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed allowing the Kansas and Nebraska territories to decide for themselves using popular sovereignty whether they wanted to be free or slave. By 1856, Kansas had become a hotbed of violence as pro and anti-slavery forces fought over the state’s future. The widely reported violent events were a small taste of the violence to come with the Civil War. 5. Charles Sumner is Attacked by Preston on the Floor of the Senate One of the most publicized events in Bleeding Kansas was when on May 21, 1856 Border Ruffians ransacked Lawrence, Kansas which was known to be a staunch free-state area. One day later, violence occurred on the floor of the U.S. Senate. Pro-slavery Congressman Preston Brooks attacked Charles Sumner with a cane after Sumner had given a speech attacking the pro-slavery forces for the violence occurring in Kansas. 6. Dred Scott Decision In 1857, Dred Scott lost his case proving that he should be free because he had been held as a slave while living in a free state. The Court ruled that his petition could not be seen because he did not hold any property. But it went further, to state that even though he had been taken by his ‘owner’ into a free state, he was still a slave because slaves were to be considered property of their owners. This decision furthered the cause of abolitionists as they increased their efforts to fight against slavery. 7. Lecompton Constitution Rejected When the Kansas-Nebraska Act passed, Kansas was allowed to determine whether it would enter the union as free or slave. Numerous constitutions were advanced by the territory to make this decision. In 1857, the Lecompton Constitution was created allowing for Kansas to be a slave state. Pro-slavery forces supported by President James Buchanan attempted to push the Constitution through the US Congress for acceptance. However, there was enough opposition that in 1858 it was sent back to Kansas for a vote. Even though it delayed statehood, Kansas voters rejected the Constitution and Kansas became a free state. 8. John Brown Raided Harper’s Ferry John Brown was a radical abolitionist who had been involved in anti-slavery violence in Kansas. On October 16, 1859, he led a group of seventeen including five black members to raid the arsenal located in Harper’s Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia). His goal was to start a slave uprising using the captured weapons. However, after capturing several buildings, Brown and his men were surrounded and eventually killed or captured by troops led by Colonel Robert E. Lee. Brown was tried and hanged for treason. This event was one more in the growing abolitionist movement that helped lead to open warfare in 1861. 9. Abraham Lincoln Was Elected President With the election of Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln on November 6, 1860, South Carolina followed by six other states seceded from the Union. Even though his views about slavery were considered moderate during the nomination and election, South Carolina had warned it would secede if he won. Lincoln agreed with the majority of the Republican Party that the South was becoming too powerful and made it part of their platform that slavery would not be extended to any new territories or states added to the union.	1,014	ENGLISH	1
The Knights Templar were a knightly order formed just after the First Crusade and officially recognized by the church in 1128 at the Council of Troyes. They were formed to provide protection to those on pilgrimage from Jaffa to the holy city of Jerusalem and were housed in the palace of King Baldwin, which stood on the supposed site of King Solomon’s Temple. This is how they became known as the Order of Poor Knights of the Temple of Solomon, or, The Knights Templar. Their lodging in close proximity to the site of King Solomon’s Temple also played a big role in the mystery of the Knights Templar and the various legends and myths that have sprung up around them. Knights Templar History – Their Humble Beginnings In those first few years, the Knights Templar were laymen who lived as monks, praying at set times and observing a strict code of behavior. They were fed and housed by King Baldwin, and were probably under his command in those first years. Their duties were carried out in relative obscurity to the Christian world, which led their leader, Hugues de Payns, to travel to Europe in order to rally support and seek funds for the impoverished Knights Templar. In 1128, a church council was held in Troyes and was attended by many bishops and abbots, including St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux. St. Bernard was already a legendary speaker, and the concept of a military order of religious knights fit perfectly into his vision of a new world order. With St. Bernard’s help, the Knights Templar were officially recognized by the Church at the Council of Troyes. The Knights Rise to Power While the idea of a Christian order of knights who spilled the blood of men was in sharp contrast to the clergy who were forbidden to shed blood, the Knights Templar earned the approval of Europe within a few years of the Council of Troyes. They quickly became a favored charity for those wishing to fund the crusades in the Holy Lands and were even courted by King Alfonso I of Spain, who hoped to have the Templar’s support in the Iberian war against the Muslims. The Knights themselves were often noble born, with many a noble who had been found guilty of criminal behavior electing to join the Knights Templar in order to The Knights Templar quickly became the servants and friends to Kings, and their financial dealings led them straight into royal treasuries. In the early thirteenth century, the Temple in Paris was essentially the French Royal Treasury, and under Henry III, a Templar was in charge of the main household money offices. The Templar also became known as a major force in battle, often riding out in front in order to break the enemy lines. But it was their dealings with money and their growing relations with Kings and Princes that made up the seat of their power, and perhaps these very things that led to their eventual downfall. The Downfall of the Knights Templar The Knights Templar were given sweeping power by the Church, and this led to major resentment among the Bishops of the church. The Templar were given papal privilege and were able to use these powers even when a Bishop had put an area under church interdict and suspended services. This, in effect, meant the Templar could override the will of the Bishops, which turned a powerful faction of the Church against the Templar. One such bishop, William of Tyre, often wrote about the greed of the Templar during the twelfth century. In one such accounting, he writes about how the greed of the Templar led them to alone penetrate through a breach in the city walls in order to be the first to plunder the city, the result being that fifty knights and a Grandmaster of the Templar were cut off from the army and subsequently killed. Another key factor in the downfall of the Knights Templar was the failing Christian military in Syria. As the former strongholds fell and the Christians forces were swept from their occupied lands, the need for the knighthood decreased. This left them a powerful and very rich organization without an overriding purpose. Knights Templar History – Their Trial and Burning After a resurfacing of charges of heresy against the Knights Templar, Pope Clement V sent a letter to Philip IV, King of France, to look into the matter. On Friday the 13th of October 1307, the agents of the King Phillip arrested every known member of the Knights Templar in the kingdom based on suspicion of heresy. This is from the royal letter of arrest: “Like beasts of burden deprived of reason, in fact exceeding the unreasonableness of beasts in their bestiality, they have abandoned God their maker and sacrificed to demons and not to God.” Within a few weeks, over half of the arrested Templar had confessed. This was after rounds of torture that were considered gruesome even for this time, as perhaps the very height of power the Templar had obtained was responsible for just how far they fell. And, in fact, many of the Templar did not even live long enough to give a confession, having died due to the extreme nature of the torture. On November 22, 1307, Philip convinced Pope Clement to issue a decree urging other European Monarchs to arrest the Templar. Pope Clement called for papal hearings, and some Templar who had previously confessed recanted those confessions, but they were ultimately found guilty in the trials of 1310. In all, 54 Templars were burned in 1310, each asserting to the end their Catholic loyalty, and 2 Templar leaders burned in 1314. Why did King Philip so vehemently seize upon the opportunity to destroy the Templar? Most believe that it was the treasure of the temple, held just outside of Paris, that was Philip’s real target. Soon after the arrest, King Philip seized the treasure of the temple. Another theory is that he hoped to use the arrests to combine the Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller under his own rule in order to continue the holy crusades.	<urn:uuid:516e57bc-c815-419d-82f7-983f64452e77>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://blogtimesherald.com/author/snoitan/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00002.warc.gz	en	0.987157	1,220	3.453125	3	[ -0.3213942050933838, 0.264443576335907, 0.10638022422790527, -0.21356916427612305, -0.3548756241798401, -0.18629807233810425, -0.12472537904977798, 0.25779256224632263, 0.37890881299972534, 0.15503369271755219, 0.22038471698760986, -0.11072959005832672, -0.11306576430797577, 0.253964841365...	24	The Knights Templar were a knightly order formed just after the First Crusade and officially recognized by the church in 1128 at the Council of Troyes. They were formed to provide protection to those on pilgrimage from Jaffa to the holy city of Jerusalem and were housed in the palace of King Baldwin, which stood on the supposed site of King Solomon’s Temple. This is how they became known as the Order of Poor Knights of the Temple of Solomon, or, The Knights Templar. Their lodging in close proximity to the site of King Solomon’s Temple also played a big role in the mystery of the Knights Templar and the various legends and myths that have sprung up around them. Knights Templar History – Their Humble Beginnings In those first few years, the Knights Templar were laymen who lived as monks, praying at set times and observing a strict code of behavior. They were fed and housed by King Baldwin, and were probably under his command in those first years. Their duties were carried out in relative obscurity to the Christian world, which led their leader, Hugues de Payns, to travel to Europe in order to rally support and seek funds for the impoverished Knights Templar. In 1128, a church council was held in Troyes and was attended by many bishops and abbots, including St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux. St. Bernard was already a legendary speaker, and the concept of a military order of religious knights fit perfectly into his vision of a new world order. With St. Bernard’s help, the Knights Templar were officially recognized by the Church at the Council of Troyes. The Knights Rise to Power While the idea of a Christian order of knights who spilled the blood of men was in sharp contrast to the clergy who were forbidden to shed blood, the Knights Templar earned the approval of Europe within a few years of the Council of Troyes. They quickly became a favored charity for those wishing to fund the crusades in the Holy Lands and were even courted by King Alfonso I of Spain, who hoped to have the Templar’s support in the Iberian war against the Muslims. The Knights themselves were often noble born, with many a noble who had been found guilty of criminal behavior electing to join the Knights Templar in order to The Knights Templar quickly became the servants and friends to Kings, and their financial dealings led them straight into royal treasuries. In the early thirteenth century, the Temple in Paris was essentially the French Royal Treasury, and under Henry III, a Templar was in charge of the main household money offices. The Templar also became known as a major force in battle, often riding out in front in order to break the enemy lines. But it was their dealings with money and their growing relations with Kings and Princes that made up the seat of their power, and perhaps these very things that led to their eventual downfall. The Downfall of the Knights Templar The Knights Templar were given sweeping power by the Church, and this led to major resentment among the Bishops of the church. The Templar were given papal privilege and were able to use these powers even when a Bishop had put an area under church interdict and suspended services. This, in effect, meant the Templar could override the will of the Bishops, which turned a powerful faction of the Church against the Templar. One such bishop, William of Tyre, often wrote about the greed of the Templar during the twelfth century. In one such accounting, he writes about how the greed of the Templar led them to alone penetrate through a breach in the city walls in order to be the first to plunder the city, the result being that fifty knights and a Grandmaster of the Templar were cut off from the army and subsequently killed. Another key factor in the downfall of the Knights Templar was the failing Christian military in Syria. As the former strongholds fell and the Christians forces were swept from their occupied lands, the need for the knighthood decreased. This left them a powerful and very rich organization without an overriding purpose. Knights Templar History – Their Trial and Burning After a resurfacing of charges of heresy against the Knights Templar, Pope Clement V sent a letter to Philip IV, King of France, to look into the matter. On Friday the 13th of October 1307, the agents of the King Phillip arrested every known member of the Knights Templar in the kingdom based on suspicion of heresy. This is from the royal letter of arrest: “Like beasts of burden deprived of reason, in fact exceeding the unreasonableness of beasts in their bestiality, they have abandoned God their maker and sacrificed to demons and not to God.” Within a few weeks, over half of the arrested Templar had confessed. This was after rounds of torture that were considered gruesome even for this time, as perhaps the very height of power the Templar had obtained was responsible for just how far they fell. And, in fact, many of the Templar did not even live long enough to give a confession, having died due to the extreme nature of the torture. On November 22, 1307, Philip convinced Pope Clement to issue a decree urging other European Monarchs to arrest the Templar. Pope Clement called for papal hearings, and some Templar who had previously confessed recanted those confessions, but they were ultimately found guilty in the trials of 1310. In all, 54 Templars were burned in 1310, each asserting to the end their Catholic loyalty, and 2 Templar leaders burned in 1314. Why did King Philip so vehemently seize upon the opportunity to destroy the Templar? Most believe that it was the treasure of the temple, held just outside of Paris, that was Philip’s real target. Soon after the arrest, King Philip seized the treasure of the temple. Another theory is that he hoped to use the arrests to combine the Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller under his own rule in order to continue the holy crusades.	1,262	ENGLISH	1
Who was more responsible for the development of the Cold War 1945-49? In some ways, the USA was more responsible for the development of the Cold War between 1945-1949. Their development of the atomic bomb at the end of the Second World War contributed to this. The USA felt that they were powerful enough on their own and no longer needed to be allied to the USSR. As a result, they became less tolerant of the USSR’s actions and policies. Furthermore, the USA made the decision to not share this new technology with the USSR. Stalin could not understand why as an ally, the technology had not been shared with him. The USSR began to see the USA as an increased threat and worried that the USA planned to use the weapon against them in the future. This increased tensions between the two nations. The USA’s disagreements with the USSR over Poland and the division of Germany further increased the tensions between the two nations. The Soviet Union wanted the extra piece of and in Poland and the USA did not approve of this simply because they did not want the USSR to become more powerful. Regarding the division of Germany, the USA had the same attitude and wanted the USSR to benefit as little as possible. This could be seen in decision to divide Berlin into four parts, simply because it was a valuable area and was deep in Soviet zone. The Soviets felt that these policies were extremely unfair towards them and could not understand why the USA did not want them to become a more powerful nation. Also regarding the division of Germany and the reparations, the USA’s distrust of the USSR also contributed to the development of the Cold War. The USA felt the USSR was an increasing threat and wanted to rebuild a strong Germany to act as a buffer zone against them. The USSR in turn had wanted Germany to be crippled so that they would not have to face the threat again in the future. The USSR felt the USA’s policy was seemingly hostile towards them as they saw this as the USA wanting to create an enemy against them. Stalin’s suspicion of the Western allies was intensified. The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid were both anti-communist. Up until that point, there had been no public declaration of the mutual dislike of the two countries for each other. Despite the USA trying to masquerade the Truman Doctrine as a policy to resists ‘armed minorities’ and ‘totalitarian regimes’, the USSR and everyone else was well aware that the Truman Doctrine was anti-Soviet. Stalin saw this as a declaration of aggression against the USSR. The policy was closely followed by Marshall Aid, a program set up by the USA with the intention to stop the spread of communism. The USA’s establishment of NATO also contributed to the tensions as there was no real need to sign a pact as it indicated preparation for war, and it made the USSR feel extremely insecure and threatened, intensifying the tensions between both nations. However, in some other ways, the USSR was more responsible for the development of the Cold War. For example, the disagreements with the USA over Poland and the Division of Germany could be attributed to the fact that the USSR was trying to become more powerful. The USA viewed this as the USSR trying to expand unnecessarily and hence tried to stop them. Furthermore, while Stalin disapproved of Marshall Aid, he did not have to make his dislike for it so public. The USA became annoyed at how he advertised Marshall Aid as economic imperialism and said that the USA was trying to take over Europe. Next, he did not allow Eastern European countries to receive any help from the USA and set a Comecon, which was a clear response to Marshall Aid. The USA saw this as the USSR trying to slander and rival them, and saw Comecon as a union of the communist countries, which in their opinion was a threat. The Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe alarmed the USA. The countries were becoming communist via aggressive methods, such as in Czechoslovakia when all the non-communist parties were banned and had their leaders murdered in 1948. The USA saw this as the USSR trying to build an empire and saw them as an aggressive expansionist country. This reinforced the anti-communist beliefs in the USA as many people saw this as proof that the USSR was trying to take-over and had to be stopped. The Berlin Blockade further contributed to the tensions between the USA and the Soviet Union. The people in West Berlin suffered because of it and Stalin tried to move people over to East Berlin. The USA saw these methods as being ruthless and this made them dislike the USSR even more. They felt that the USSR was trying to challenge them and this increased the division between the two nations. As a result of it, the division and establishment of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and the Federal Republic of Germany (FDG) highlighted the differences of the East and the West. Lastly, the Warsaw Pact was unnecessary as well as the USA saw this as a response to NATO, and this showed the clear divisions of the East and the West. Some historians argue that neither side was responsible and that the Cold War was instead caused by mutual misunderstandings. For example, the different political and economic systems of the USA and the USSR made the nations believe that they could not co-exist with each other. The USA was constantly suspicious of the USSR trying to expand communism and the USSR always felt that the USA wanted to destroy them. Furthermore, the personalities of the leaders also contributed to the war because Truman’s strong anti-communist beliefs increased tensions and Stalin’s paranoia made him take unnecessary action. The Iron Curtain speech represents another misunderstanding between the nations as Churchill was only trying to convince the USA to take on an aggressive policy towards the Soviets and the USSR felt that the British and the Americans were allying against him. Marshall Aid was also a misunderstanding between the nations because while the USA only intended to help others, the soviets thought they were trying to take over Europe. Lastly, the establishments of NATO and the Warsaw Pact were also misunderstandings because both sides thought they were signing defense pacts but saw the others side’s as an aggression pact. Overall, I felt worth noting that many of the earlier factors were due to the actions of the USA. However, I do not think that these factors alone were responsible for the development of the Cold War, but they did fuel the aggressive actions of the USSR later on, which led to the Cold War. However, I felt that both sides were equally as responsible as each other as many of the factors that caused the Cold War were due to mutual misunderstandings. Low Jie Wei	<urn:uuid:670998df-8b50-4d9e-a4ec-60061c858318>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/Who-Was-More-Responsible-For-The-63824395.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00445.warc.gz	en	0.988877	1,343	3.796875	4	[ -0.683256983757019, 0.09009672701358795, 0.06314156949520111, -0.062380291521549225, 0.42817023396492004, 0.06937658786773682, 0.05024909973144531, 0.14986877143383026, -0.49487754702568054, -0.16580665111541748, 0.32344794273376465, 0.017898982390761375, 0.624449610710144, 0.3844055533409...	1	Who was more responsible for the development of the Cold War 1945-49? In some ways, the USA was more responsible for the development of the Cold War between 1945-1949. Their development of the atomic bomb at the end of the Second World War contributed to this. The USA felt that they were powerful enough on their own and no longer needed to be allied to the USSR. As a result, they became less tolerant of the USSR’s actions and policies. Furthermore, the USA made the decision to not share this new technology with the USSR. Stalin could not understand why as an ally, the technology had not been shared with him. The USSR began to see the USA as an increased threat and worried that the USA planned to use the weapon against them in the future. This increased tensions between the two nations. The USA’s disagreements with the USSR over Poland and the division of Germany further increased the tensions between the two nations. The Soviet Union wanted the extra piece of and in Poland and the USA did not approve of this simply because they did not want the USSR to become more powerful. Regarding the division of Germany, the USA had the same attitude and wanted the USSR to benefit as little as possible. This could be seen in decision to divide Berlin into four parts, simply because it was a valuable area and was deep in Soviet zone. The Soviets felt that these policies were extremely unfair towards them and could not understand why the USA did not want them to become a more powerful nation. Also regarding the division of Germany and the reparations, the USA’s distrust of the USSR also contributed to the development of the Cold War. The USA felt the USSR was an increasing threat and wanted to rebuild a strong Germany to act as a buffer zone against them. The USSR in turn had wanted Germany to be crippled so that they would not have to face the threat again in the future. The USSR felt the USA’s policy was seemingly hostile towards them as they saw this as the USA wanting to create an enemy against them. Stalin’s suspicion of the Western allies was intensified. The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid were both anti-communist. Up until that point, there had been no public declaration of the mutual dislike of the two countries for each other. Despite the USA trying to masquerade the Truman Doctrine as a policy to resists ‘armed minorities’ and ‘totalitarian regimes’, the USSR and everyone else was well aware that the Truman Doctrine was anti-Soviet. Stalin saw this as a declaration of aggression against the USSR. The policy was closely followed by Marshall Aid, a program set up by the USA with the intention to stop the spread of communism. The USA’s establishment of NATO also contributed to the tensions as there was no real need to sign a pact as it indicated preparation for war, and it made the USSR feel extremely insecure and threatened, intensifying the tensions between both nations. However, in some other ways, the USSR was more responsible for the development of the Cold War. For example, the disagreements with the USA over Poland and the Division of Germany could be attributed to the fact that the USSR was trying to become more powerful. The USA viewed this as the USSR trying to expand unnecessarily and hence tried to stop them. Furthermore, while Stalin disapproved of Marshall Aid, he did not have to make his dislike for it so public. The USA became annoyed at how he advertised Marshall Aid as economic imperialism and said that the USA was trying to take over Europe. Next, he did not allow Eastern European countries to receive any help from the USA and set a Comecon, which was a clear response to Marshall Aid. The USA saw this as the USSR trying to slander and rival them, and saw Comecon as a union of the communist countries, which in their opinion was a threat. The Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe alarmed the USA. The countries were becoming communist via aggressive methods, such as in Czechoslovakia when all the non-communist parties were banned and had their leaders murdered in 1948. The USA saw this as the USSR trying to build an empire and saw them as an aggressive expansionist country. This reinforced the anti-communist beliefs in the USA as many people saw this as proof that the USSR was trying to take-over and had to be stopped. The Berlin Blockade further contributed to the tensions between the USA and the Soviet Union. The people in West Berlin suffered because of it and Stalin tried to move people over to East Berlin. The USA saw these methods as being ruthless and this made them dislike the USSR even more. They felt that the USSR was trying to challenge them and this increased the division between the two nations. As a result of it, the division and establishment of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and the Federal Republic of Germany (FDG) highlighted the differences of the East and the West. Lastly, the Warsaw Pact was unnecessary as well as the USA saw this as a response to NATO, and this showed the clear divisions of the East and the West. Some historians argue that neither side was responsible and that the Cold War was instead caused by mutual misunderstandings. For example, the different political and economic systems of the USA and the USSR made the nations believe that they could not co-exist with each other. The USA was constantly suspicious of the USSR trying to expand communism and the USSR always felt that the USA wanted to destroy them. Furthermore, the personalities of the leaders also contributed to the war because Truman’s strong anti-communist beliefs increased tensions and Stalin’s paranoia made him take unnecessary action. The Iron Curtain speech represents another misunderstanding between the nations as Churchill was only trying to convince the USA to take on an aggressive policy towards the Soviets and the USSR felt that the British and the Americans were allying against him. Marshall Aid was also a misunderstanding between the nations because while the USA only intended to help others, the soviets thought they were trying to take over Europe. Lastly, the establishments of NATO and the Warsaw Pact were also misunderstandings because both sides thought they were signing defense pacts but saw the others side’s as an aggression pact. Overall, I felt worth noting that many of the earlier factors were due to the actions of the USA. However, I do not think that these factors alone were responsible for the development of the Cold War, but they did fuel the aggressive actions of the USSR later on, which led to the Cold War. However, I felt that both sides were equally as responsible as each other as many of the factors that caused the Cold War were due to mutual misunderstandings. Low Jie Wei	1,332	ENGLISH	1
Born on this day in 1830, Emily Dickinson eventually became not only one of the great American poets, but also one of the most elusive literary figures in the country’s history. While she published only 10 poems in her lifetime, she wrote over 1,800 of them. A contemporary thinker to Henry David Thoreau and Walt Whitman, her work included meditations on nature, art, and spirituality, but also developed a new language with which to discuss them. Though her poems were not collected until after her death, they became an immediate and incredible success. Beyond her words, there has been another unusual element of Dickinson’s life that has been the object of much speculation over the last 130 or so years: her famed white dress. As the legend goes, the writer began regularly wearing a white dress in her 30s. So often did she wear the ensemble that it became noteworthy to her neighbors, mythic to those who had never even met her. When writer Thomas Wentworth Higginson visited her home in 1870, he famously described her as “a little plain woman with two smooth bands of reddish hair...in a very plain [and] exquisitely white pique [and] a blue net worsted shawl.” The dress itself was what was known at the time as a “wrapper,” this one of white cotton pique with mother of pearl buttons, and worn around the house to do chores or for other very informal activities only in a lady’s home. It was by no means a special garment at the time—white was much easier to clean than a printed or colored fabric—but with Dickinson it took on a storied quality, perhaps because she took to wearing it beyond the scope of its original intentions; that is, she would eschew traditional day dress with its corsets and petticoats to wear just the far more uncomplicated white dress. Though people of Dickinson’s town became used to it after a while, it was still considered unusual behavior at the time, causing Mabel Loomis Todd, who would later collect her poems, to notably quip, “she dresses wholly in white, [and] her mind is said to be perfectly wonderful.” While the legend goes that Dickinson only wore white toward the end of her life, the idea has been proven untrue by her own writing, where she described a penchant for browns, wools, and calico prints. Even so, theories remain as to why she wore the white dress so often. One idea is that it was an homage to Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s epic poem “Aurora Leigh,” in which Browning writes that the title character wears “a clean white morning gown,” while other literary inspirations may have been Charles Dickens’s Miss Havisham in Great Expectations, Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Snow Maiden in his story “The Snow-Image: A Childish Miracle,” and even the Bible’s book of Revelations. The latter text leads to another theory, that Dickinson’s fondness of white signaled a spiritual choice; while Dickinson refused to join her family’s church, she may have been creating a devotional space in her own way, as Victorian novitiates and Dominican nuns at the time also wore white. Yet another idea is that it was a symbol of eternal life–the poet was also buried in a white dress and a white casket. There are even more theories, but the truth died with the poet, who was reclusive toward the end of her life. Only mysteries and her poems remain.	<urn:uuid:9e3efe47-7016-4bb1-a698-bd64e45f4405>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.crfashionbook.com/culture/a30173046/emily-dickinson-white-dress-history-birthday/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00405.warc.gz	en	0.986316	752	4.03125	4	[ -0.12822601199150085, -0.03366754576563835, 0.28935694694519043, 0.27817267179489136, 0.0010594865307211876, 0.2225959450006485, 0.24452778697013855, 0.22565245628356934, -0.39586859941482544, -0.03051656484603882, 0.24330002069473267, 0.4153631329536438, -0.09437118470668793, 0.1021126508...	9	Born on this day in 1830, Emily Dickinson eventually became not only one of the great American poets, but also one of the most elusive literary figures in the country’s history. While she published only 10 poems in her lifetime, she wrote over 1,800 of them. A contemporary thinker to Henry David Thoreau and Walt Whitman, her work included meditations on nature, art, and spirituality, but also developed a new language with which to discuss them. Though her poems were not collected until after her death, they became an immediate and incredible success. Beyond her words, there has been another unusual element of Dickinson’s life that has been the object of much speculation over the last 130 or so years: her famed white dress. As the legend goes, the writer began regularly wearing a white dress in her 30s. So often did she wear the ensemble that it became noteworthy to her neighbors, mythic to those who had never even met her. When writer Thomas Wentworth Higginson visited her home in 1870, he famously described her as “a little plain woman with two smooth bands of reddish hair...in a very plain [and] exquisitely white pique [and] a blue net worsted shawl.” The dress itself was what was known at the time as a “wrapper,” this one of white cotton pique with mother of pearl buttons, and worn around the house to do chores or for other very informal activities only in a lady’s home. It was by no means a special garment at the time—white was much easier to clean than a printed or colored fabric—but with Dickinson it took on a storied quality, perhaps because she took to wearing it beyond the scope of its original intentions; that is, she would eschew traditional day dress with its corsets and petticoats to wear just the far more uncomplicated white dress. Though people of Dickinson’s town became used to it after a while, it was still considered unusual behavior at the time, causing Mabel Loomis Todd, who would later collect her poems, to notably quip, “she dresses wholly in white, [and] her mind is said to be perfectly wonderful.” While the legend goes that Dickinson only wore white toward the end of her life, the idea has been proven untrue by her own writing, where she described a penchant for browns, wools, and calico prints. Even so, theories remain as to why she wore the white dress so often. One idea is that it was an homage to Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s epic poem “Aurora Leigh,” in which Browning writes that the title character wears “a clean white morning gown,” while other literary inspirations may have been Charles Dickens’s Miss Havisham in Great Expectations, Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Snow Maiden in his story “The Snow-Image: A Childish Miracle,” and even the Bible’s book of Revelations. The latter text leads to another theory, that Dickinson’s fondness of white signaled a spiritual choice; while Dickinson refused to join her family’s church, she may have been creating a devotional space in her own way, as Victorian novitiates and Dominican nuns at the time also wore white. Yet another idea is that it was a symbol of eternal life–the poet was also buried in a white dress and a white casket. There are even more theories, but the truth died with the poet, who was reclusive toward the end of her life. Only mysteries and her poems remain.	731	ENGLISH	1
The other author who tells us about Socrates is Xenophon. We owe him much. In addition to writing down what he remembered of conversations with Socrates, he wrote a short account of the Peloponnesian War after 411 (Thucydides only completed his history up to that year, although he lived until 400 B.C). His most famous work was the Anabasis (“March up Country”). This describes how (401 B.C.) he joined a Greek force which had been hired by Cyrus, brother of the Persian King, in the hope of seizing the throne. The fact that Cyrus had been the ally of Sparta and that this mercenary force contained a large body of Spartans did not worry Xenophon. Cyrus led them and a large Persian army inland from Sardis and after a time made it clear that his object was to seize the throne of his brother, Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The “Ten Thousand” (we remember the Greek contingent by their numbers) marched through Asia Minor and along the Euphrates to Babylon together with the rest of the rebel army. Outside Babylon there was a battle in which Cyrus was killed. Soon afterwards the Greek generals were murdered and Xenophon found himself in command. He could not move back along the Euphrates, the way they had come, because no supplies were available. So he went north through the highlands of Kurdistan. After months of great hardship the advance guard’s cry: “The sea! the sea!” was passed excitedly down the straggling column and gave the men new hope. They had reached Trapezus (Trebizond), a Greek colony on the Black Sea, whence many were able to return home (399). However, the story of this remarkable journey cut no ice at Athens and Xenophon was banished for having helped Cyrus, the friend of Sparta. After that he made his home with the Spartans and sometimes fought for them. He wrote a number of books in addition to the Anabasis. Some are not very interesting, but Xenophon’s are the earliest ordinary Greek books which we have. All the authors mentioned so far in this “Outline” –the poets, the tragedians, the historians — were extraordinary. It is pleasant for a change, to have a book about dogs and a book which includes instructions on household management. Xenophon believed in transferring the orderliness of military life to the household which his wife took charge of when at the age of fifteen she married him. Pots, pans and even boots were to be arranged in neat rows. Everything had its proper place — best clothes, ordinary clothes, weapons, blankets, corn, wine and equipment for spinning, bread-making or washing. Xenophon also lectured his wife about make-up. He was against it; he said the way to get colour into your cheeks was to work hard in the house, to mix flour, knead dough and shake out cloaks and bedding. The Anabasis, though the record of a splendid achievement, is rather heavy going for the reader of to-day; but if, as some think, it was read by Alexander, he may have learned from it lessons about Greek strength and Persian weakness which eventually took him from Macedon to the Indus.	<urn:uuid:7ba91c06-17ec-4430-af28-8f4305c01ee8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://worldhistoryvolume.com/hellenes-ancient-greece/xenophon/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00470.warc.gz	en	0.988002	683	3.53125	4	[ -0.3695559501647949, 0.44339197874069214, 0.5632342100143433, -0.2104427069425583, -0.4106213450431824, -0.5374000072479248, -0.24256685376167297, 0.6089780926704407, -0.02571728825569153, 0.0040269107557833195, -0.2234555184841156, -0.17101559042930603, -0.22449079155921936, 0.35809355974...	3	The other author who tells us about Socrates is Xenophon. We owe him much. In addition to writing down what he remembered of conversations with Socrates, he wrote a short account of the Peloponnesian War after 411 (Thucydides only completed his history up to that year, although he lived until 400 B.C). His most famous work was the Anabasis (“March up Country”). This describes how (401 B.C.) he joined a Greek force which had been hired by Cyrus, brother of the Persian King, in the hope of seizing the throne. The fact that Cyrus had been the ally of Sparta and that this mercenary force contained a large body of Spartans did not worry Xenophon. Cyrus led them and a large Persian army inland from Sardis and after a time made it clear that his object was to seize the throne of his brother, Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The “Ten Thousand” (we remember the Greek contingent by their numbers) marched through Asia Minor and along the Euphrates to Babylon together with the rest of the rebel army. Outside Babylon there was a battle in which Cyrus was killed. Soon afterwards the Greek generals were murdered and Xenophon found himself in command. He could not move back along the Euphrates, the way they had come, because no supplies were available. So he went north through the highlands of Kurdistan. After months of great hardship the advance guard’s cry: “The sea! the sea!” was passed excitedly down the straggling column and gave the men new hope. They had reached Trapezus (Trebizond), a Greek colony on the Black Sea, whence many were able to return home (399). However, the story of this remarkable journey cut no ice at Athens and Xenophon was banished for having helped Cyrus, the friend of Sparta. After that he made his home with the Spartans and sometimes fought for them. He wrote a number of books in addition to the Anabasis. Some are not very interesting, but Xenophon’s are the earliest ordinary Greek books which we have. All the authors mentioned so far in this “Outline” –the poets, the tragedians, the historians — were extraordinary. It is pleasant for a change, to have a book about dogs and a book which includes instructions on household management. Xenophon believed in transferring the orderliness of military life to the household which his wife took charge of when at the age of fifteen she married him. Pots, pans and even boots were to be arranged in neat rows. Everything had its proper place — best clothes, ordinary clothes, weapons, blankets, corn, wine and equipment for spinning, bread-making or washing. Xenophon also lectured his wife about make-up. He was against it; he said the way to get colour into your cheeks was to work hard in the house, to mix flour, knead dough and shake out cloaks and bedding. The Anabasis, though the record of a splendid achievement, is rather heavy going for the reader of to-day; but if, as some think, it was read by Alexander, he may have learned from it lessons about Greek strength and Persian weakness which eventually took him from Macedon to the Indus.	677	ENGLISH	1
Learn about key events in history and their connections to today. On Jan. 12, 1915, the United States House of Representatives voted, 204-174, to reject a constitutional amendment to give women the right to vote. The New York Times recounted the House’s 10 hours of debate in front of galleries packed with suffragists. The Times noted that it was a “solemn day in the galleries” as the “women there were slow to laugh, and they seemed too much awed by the speaker’s call for order to applaud even their strongest champion.” The speaker ordered silence from the galleries three times, once for hissing during a speech made by anti-suffrage Representative Stanley Bowdle of Ohio. Mr. Bowdle proclaimed: “The women of this smart capital are beautiful. Their beauty is disturbing to business; their feet are beautiful; their ankles are beautiful, but here I must pause — for they are not interested in the state.” The vote was the second defeat for a suffrage amendment in less than a year, as the Senate had voted against one in March 1914. Nonetheless, suffragist leaders were pleased to have had the issue discussed in Congress, which had gone 46 years without voting on whether women should be allowed to vote. The only other time was in 1868, when the suffrage amendment was first brought before Congress. The optimism of the suffragists was well founded. In 1918, a suffrage amendment was passed in the House, but fell two votes short in the Senate. The next year, the House and the Senate voted in favor of suffrage, passing the 19th Amendment, which declared that the right “to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.” Connect to Today: Switzerland was among the last countries in western Europe to grant women the right to vote — in 1971. Yet in 2010, Switzerland was one of the few to have more women than men serving in government. In September 2011, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia announced that Saudi women would be granted the right to vote and run for office in municipal elections for the first time, starting in 2015. Saudi Arabia, a monarchy with strict Islamic influence, places many restrictions on women in its society, barring them from driving cars or being in public without a male chaperon. How does the late emergence of women’s suffrage in Switzerland in the 1970s and Saudi Arabia today compare with the United States in the early 20th century? What do you think the new voting law might mean for women in Saudi Arabia? Could it lead to greater freedoms and greater government participation?	<urn:uuid:41b5555d-2c0f-4f55-9743-b4df4280bbc4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/12/jan-12-1915-congress-votes-against-womens-suffrage-amendment/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00480.warc.gz	en	0.981238	558	4.0625	4	[ -0.2115083634853363, -0.015933146700263023, 0.1966913342475891, 0.06048589199781418, -0.2427724301815033, 0.32360583543777466, -0.1467321813106537, 0.20128484070301056, 0.13785120844841003, 0.2644084095954895, 0.11373698711395264, 0.3496582508087158, 0.36641550064086914, -0.062267236411571...	5	Learn about key events in history and their connections to today. On Jan. 12, 1915, the United States House of Representatives voted, 204-174, to reject a constitutional amendment to give women the right to vote. The New York Times recounted the House’s 10 hours of debate in front of galleries packed with suffragists. The Times noted that it was a “solemn day in the galleries” as the “women there were slow to laugh, and they seemed too much awed by the speaker’s call for order to applaud even their strongest champion.” The speaker ordered silence from the galleries three times, once for hissing during a speech made by anti-suffrage Representative Stanley Bowdle of Ohio. Mr. Bowdle proclaimed: “The women of this smart capital are beautiful. Their beauty is disturbing to business; their feet are beautiful; their ankles are beautiful, but here I must pause — for they are not interested in the state.” The vote was the second defeat for a suffrage amendment in less than a year, as the Senate had voted against one in March 1914. Nonetheless, suffragist leaders were pleased to have had the issue discussed in Congress, which had gone 46 years without voting on whether women should be allowed to vote. The only other time was in 1868, when the suffrage amendment was first brought before Congress. The optimism of the suffragists was well founded. In 1918, a suffrage amendment was passed in the House, but fell two votes short in the Senate. The next year, the House and the Senate voted in favor of suffrage, passing the 19th Amendment, which declared that the right “to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.” Connect to Today: Switzerland was among the last countries in western Europe to grant women the right to vote — in 1971. Yet in 2010, Switzerland was one of the few to have more women than men serving in government. In September 2011, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia announced that Saudi women would be granted the right to vote and run for office in municipal elections for the first time, starting in 2015. Saudi Arabia, a monarchy with strict Islamic influence, places many restrictions on women in its society, barring them from driving cars or being in public without a male chaperon. How does the late emergence of women’s suffrage in Switzerland in the 1970s and Saudi Arabia today compare with the United States in the early 20th century? What do you think the new voting law might mean for women in Saudi Arabia? Could it lead to greater freedoms and greater government participation?	579	ENGLISH	1
According to Author/Historian D.Laurence Rogers, Paul Bunyan may have been based on a real person in Michigan. The lumber industry in Michigan was once a booming business. The white pine was like “green gold” and many people became millionaires. This also attracted a rowdy, rough element which could have included a character like Paul Bunyan who may have been murdered in Michigan. The British, and later the Americans, used Michigan’s hardwoods to build merchant and war ships. The original white pines were over 200 years old, two hundred feet in height and five feet in diameter. “Michigan’s pine became important as the supply of trees in the northeast was used. By 1880, Michigan was producing as much lumber as the next three states combined.” “The first area where many mills were built was Saginaw. Six rivers converge to form the Saginaw River which empties into Saginaw Bay and then Lake Huron. The rivers are the Chippewa, Tittabawassee, Cass, Bad, Shiawassee, and Flint. Rivers played a very important part for the loggers because the lumber had to be floated to the mills and then to market.” “The logs were far too big and heavy to take from the woods by dragging, so the loggers made ice-covered roads, where the logs could be pulled on sleds. The loads were often extremely big and contests were held between rival camps to see which could stack a load the highest. The logs were taken to the banks of rivers, where they were piled twenty to thirty feet high, awaiting the spring thaw.” “The first group of people to set up lumbering operations were from New England, especially Maine and New York. The forests there were almost entirely cut, so the owners and experienced crews followed the work. Many felt that the huge forests of Michigan would last for many, many years, yet within a 20 year period, 1870 to 1890, most of the trees were cut.” “When rivers melted, the logs were pushed into the swollen rivers and floated to the mills. At the mills, the logs were sorted in the boom area, each identified by a log mark on the end of the logs. They were then sorted in the boom area, each company’s logs together.” - A Brief history of lumbering in Michigan - Library of Congress	<urn:uuid:8476c155-74a6-4c29-a521-6926a83cd30d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://daysgoneby.me/michigan-paul-bunyan-real-character-murdered-bay-city/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00421.warc.gz	en	0.989497	510	3.46875	3	[ -0.17007146775722504, 0.05838114023208618, 0.07763640582561493, 0.019431056454777718, 0.5579368472099304, -0.11457805335521698, -0.13121622800827026, 0.019424699246883392, -0.34523850679397583, 0.2330751121044159, 0.10666824877262115, 0.09568140655755997, -0.2658452093601227, 0.36752936244...	3	According to Author/Historian D.Laurence Rogers, Paul Bunyan may have been based on a real person in Michigan. The lumber industry in Michigan was once a booming business. The white pine was like “green gold” and many people became millionaires. This also attracted a rowdy, rough element which could have included a character like Paul Bunyan who may have been murdered in Michigan. The British, and later the Americans, used Michigan’s hardwoods to build merchant and war ships. The original white pines were over 200 years old, two hundred feet in height and five feet in diameter. “Michigan’s pine became important as the supply of trees in the northeast was used. By 1880, Michigan was producing as much lumber as the next three states combined.” “The first area where many mills were built was Saginaw. Six rivers converge to form the Saginaw River which empties into Saginaw Bay and then Lake Huron. The rivers are the Chippewa, Tittabawassee, Cass, Bad, Shiawassee, and Flint. Rivers played a very important part for the loggers because the lumber had to be floated to the mills and then to market.” “The logs were far too big and heavy to take from the woods by dragging, so the loggers made ice-covered roads, where the logs could be pulled on sleds. The loads were often extremely big and contests were held between rival camps to see which could stack a load the highest. The logs were taken to the banks of rivers, where they were piled twenty to thirty feet high, awaiting the spring thaw.” “The first group of people to set up lumbering operations were from New England, especially Maine and New York. The forests there were almost entirely cut, so the owners and experienced crews followed the work. Many felt that the huge forests of Michigan would last for many, many years, yet within a 20 year period, 1870 to 1890, most of the trees were cut.” “When rivers melted, the logs were pushed into the swollen rivers and floated to the mills. At the mills, the logs were sorted in the boom area, each identified by a log mark on the end of the logs. They were then sorted in the boom area, each company’s logs together.” - A Brief history of lumbering in Michigan - Library of Congress	492	ENGLISH	1
Voltore means “vulture,” and, true to his name, Voltore is one of the Italian men lurking around Volpone’s deathbed hoping to inherit his wealth. He is a well-spoken lawyer, and Mosca praises him disingenuously for his ability to speak so well and argue any side of a case. Later in the play, when Volpone is accused of raping Celia, Voltore uses his masterful language skills to convince the court (the Avocatori) that Volpone seem innocent. Voltore seems go back and forth between being ruled by a conscience and by his greed. When he believes that Volpone is dead and Mosca has been named the heir, he recants his testimony before the Avocatori out of guilt. But when Voltore learns that he still might inherit Volpone’s fortune, he pretends to be possessed by the devil to argue that his original false testimony was true. The play emphasizes the importance of language, which might be the reason (in addition to his flashes of moral integrity) that Voltore’s punishment at the play’s end is less severe than the punishments of other characters.	<urn:uuid:05a40f18-5866-49db-b3a5-694dd4b0789d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.litcharts.com/lit/volpone/characters/voltore	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00369.warc.gz	en	0.986382	249	3.328125	3	[ -0.5352562665939331, 0.34250614047050476, -0.03659158945083618, 0.059173259884119034, -0.04626644402742386, -0.26796984672546387, 0.9520400166511536, -0.12393781542778015, 0.2026987373828888, -0.295013427734375, -0.0342891551554203, -0.22955064475536346, 0.14990419149398804, 0.194544330239...	9	Voltore means “vulture,” and, true to his name, Voltore is one of the Italian men lurking around Volpone’s deathbed hoping to inherit his wealth. He is a well-spoken lawyer, and Mosca praises him disingenuously for his ability to speak so well and argue any side of a case. Later in the play, when Volpone is accused of raping Celia, Voltore uses his masterful language skills to convince the court (the Avocatori) that Volpone seem innocent. Voltore seems go back and forth between being ruled by a conscience and by his greed. When he believes that Volpone is dead and Mosca has been named the heir, he recants his testimony before the Avocatori out of guilt. But when Voltore learns that he still might inherit Volpone’s fortune, he pretends to be possessed by the devil to argue that his original false testimony was true. The play emphasizes the importance of language, which might be the reason (in addition to his flashes of moral integrity) that Voltore’s punishment at the play’s end is less severe than the punishments of other characters.	232	ENGLISH	1
Watch and read: Part 2 (6:52 minutes) This is the Archives of the Diocese of St. Augustine. Inside its walls are the oldest American documents in the United States. It is here where researchers like Dr. Francis gain insight into America’s first colony and its’ multi-ethnic beginnings. Something you notice immediately going through the parish records is how often you see marriage unions between Spaniards, other Europeans and Africans. Hidden for centuries in the archive records are scenes like this Spanish colonial wedding. And it’s ubiquitous in the records, they’re everywhere from the early period all the way through to the 18th century. There are large numbers of unions, between predominantly of course African women and European men. While these interracial marriages largely occurred between Spanish soldiers and others who didn’t have noble blood lines to protect, it would still be some 400 years later that these same marriages would need to get Supreme Court Approval in order to be accepted in all 50 of the United states. Part of the main missions given to the St. Augustine colonists was to spread the catholic faith in the New World. This document dates back to 1606. It denotes the baptism of a free black child in Spanish Florida before Jamestown was founded. You mentioned that we have those sacramental records of baptisms of Blacks and Indians and such. It was just, if I may say, the normal course of events because this was the responsibility that the Spanish colonists were given and they took it quite seriously. By the late 1600’s, the colony of St. Augustine had been in existence for over a century and was continuing to grow and thrive as a multi-racial, multi-cultural society. But, this version of Spanish Florida might never have existed. In 1565 Pedro Menendez de Aviles signed a contract with the Spanish Crown. In that contract Menendez was assigned 500 slaves to Florida with the idea that those slaves would work on developing a sugar plantation economy for northeast Florida. Now that economy never unfolded, Menendez never brought 500 slaves to Florida. In fact, in the entire first Spanish period there are never 500 slaves in Spanish Florida. St. Augustine certainly had it share of slaves, but newly discovered documents show that during these early years, the slave owners were as mixed as the slaves themselves. Here in St. Augustine among the Spaniards there were white slaves, galley slaves, people who had committed a crime and were sentenced to 5 years in the galleys, they were slaves then. Anyone could be a slave, Christian, Jew, Moore, you could be enslaved and likely would be enslaved if you were captured in warfare for example. It was considered a punishment. But it was not considered a status into which you were born. Most of the slaves that were brought to Spanish Florida were domestic slaves or royal slaves who had very specific, highly refined skills. African women, for example, you see them performing tasks as domestic servants. You also see African women in the late 16th Century/early 17th century who serves really as the first nurse in the hospital of Santa Barbara in St. Augustine By the mid-to-late 1700s… Their mission of keeping La Florida to themselves had failed… and a plantation economy took root in the Carolinas. For Blacks, there were now two Americas, one English, one Spanish.. and the difference between them could not be more striking. First thing we have to understand is that the Spanish and the English had two very different ideas for North America. The English tried to colonize North America with, at first, indentured servants and a promise of 7 years of labor. What they will find is that being a slave for 7 years, it might as well be a lifetime and half of them will die and that the first slaves in North America were Native Americans. And that the people working the fields as un-free people in Jamestown,were both red, black and white. Once the English began to say that our survival depends upon this stable labor supply. there was nothing that was “out-of-bounds” in terms of their morality as well. Because it all came down to their survival. This is how we are going to live and survive. Slaves had guaranteed rights under Spanish legal codes. Families, for example, were not to be split or separated. You yourself would know that if you lived under a system where your family could be broken up and sold for sale. If you have that fear that your child could be sold. That is a true definition of chattel slavery. Slaves were not ignorant, by far they did not live in a vacuum. They were well aware of the world and the surroundings around them, they just did not have the ability to change it. And there are plenty of instances throughout St. Augustine’s early history where slaves petition, they lobby, they sue, often successfully for freedom. Now, the Spanish did not shy away from large scale, ruthless enslavement of Natives or Africans. Prior to colonizing Spanish Florida, their conquest approach to colonization included large-scale destruction and mass murder in the Caribbean, Mexico and Latin America. So while it is true that Spanish Florida slaves had pathways to freedom, it would be wrong to think or believe that slavery under Spanish rule was somehow better than the unending brutality African slaves endured under British or American Rule. Next, Carolina slaves hear about a better life in Spanish Florida and risk their lives for a chance at freedom…	<urn:uuid:8f0184c8-0689-44c3-b505-1fababa3020a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nwahomepage.com/journey-2016/part-2-multi-ethnic-beginnings/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00370.warc.gz	en	0.98323	1,145	3.421875	3	[ -0.020361654460430145, 0.36073094606399536, -0.010076097212731838, -0.3857112228870392, 0.155859112739563, -0.007135702762752771, -0.5729711055755615, -0.04640355333685875, 0.46258872747421265, 0.08123511075973511, -0.22636330127716064, 0.2979477047920227, -0.33074504137039185, 0.648813247...	10	Watch and read: Part 2 (6:52 minutes) This is the Archives of the Diocese of St. Augustine. Inside its walls are the oldest American documents in the United States. It is here where researchers like Dr. Francis gain insight into America’s first colony and its’ multi-ethnic beginnings. Something you notice immediately going through the parish records is how often you see marriage unions between Spaniards, other Europeans and Africans. Hidden for centuries in the archive records are scenes like this Spanish colonial wedding. And it’s ubiquitous in the records, they’re everywhere from the early period all the way through to the 18th century. There are large numbers of unions, between predominantly of course African women and European men. While these interracial marriages largely occurred between Spanish soldiers and others who didn’t have noble blood lines to protect, it would still be some 400 years later that these same marriages would need to get Supreme Court Approval in order to be accepted in all 50 of the United states. Part of the main missions given to the St. Augustine colonists was to spread the catholic faith in the New World. This document dates back to 1606. It denotes the baptism of a free black child in Spanish Florida before Jamestown was founded. You mentioned that we have those sacramental records of baptisms of Blacks and Indians and such. It was just, if I may say, the normal course of events because this was the responsibility that the Spanish colonists were given and they took it quite seriously. By the late 1600’s, the colony of St. Augustine had been in existence for over a century and was continuing to grow and thrive as a multi-racial, multi-cultural society. But, this version of Spanish Florida might never have existed. In 1565 Pedro Menendez de Aviles signed a contract with the Spanish Crown. In that contract Menendez was assigned 500 slaves to Florida with the idea that those slaves would work on developing a sugar plantation economy for northeast Florida. Now that economy never unfolded, Menendez never brought 500 slaves to Florida. In fact, in the entire first Spanish period there are never 500 slaves in Spanish Florida. St. Augustine certainly had it share of slaves, but newly discovered documents show that during these early years, the slave owners were as mixed as the slaves themselves. Here in St. Augustine among the Spaniards there were white slaves, galley slaves, people who had committed a crime and were sentenced to 5 years in the galleys, they were slaves then. Anyone could be a slave, Christian, Jew, Moore, you could be enslaved and likely would be enslaved if you were captured in warfare for example. It was considered a punishment. But it was not considered a status into which you were born. Most of the slaves that were brought to Spanish Florida were domestic slaves or royal slaves who had very specific, highly refined skills. African women, for example, you see them performing tasks as domestic servants. You also see African women in the late 16th Century/early 17th century who serves really as the first nurse in the hospital of Santa Barbara in St. Augustine By the mid-to-late 1700s… Their mission of keeping La Florida to themselves had failed… and a plantation economy took root in the Carolinas. For Blacks, there were now two Americas, one English, one Spanish.. and the difference between them could not be more striking. First thing we have to understand is that the Spanish and the English had two very different ideas for North America. The English tried to colonize North America with, at first, indentured servants and a promise of 7 years of labor. What they will find is that being a slave for 7 years, it might as well be a lifetime and half of them will die and that the first slaves in North America were Native Americans. And that the people working the fields as un-free people in Jamestown,were both red, black and white. Once the English began to say that our survival depends upon this stable labor supply. there was nothing that was “out-of-bounds” in terms of their morality as well. Because it all came down to their survival. This is how we are going to live and survive. Slaves had guaranteed rights under Spanish legal codes. Families, for example, were not to be split or separated. You yourself would know that if you lived under a system where your family could be broken up and sold for sale. If you have that fear that your child could be sold. That is a true definition of chattel slavery. Slaves were not ignorant, by far they did not live in a vacuum. They were well aware of the world and the surroundings around them, they just did not have the ability to change it. And there are plenty of instances throughout St. Augustine’s early history where slaves petition, they lobby, they sue, often successfully for freedom. Now, the Spanish did not shy away from large scale, ruthless enslavement of Natives or Africans. Prior to colonizing Spanish Florida, their conquest approach to colonization included large-scale destruction and mass murder in the Caribbean, Mexico and Latin America. So while it is true that Spanish Florida slaves had pathways to freedom, it would be wrong to think or believe that slavery under Spanish rule was somehow better than the unending brutality African slaves endured under British or American Rule. Next, Carolina slaves hear about a better life in Spanish Florida and risk their lives for a chance at freedom…	1,136	ENGLISH	1
Sojourner Truth was born a slave named Isabella Baumfree sometime in 1797 in Ulster county, New York. The exact date of her birth is to this day unknown, but it is believed to have been sometime during the fall. She developed her characteristics of courage and dependability from her mother, Mau Mau Bett, at an early age. Isabella was first owned by a Dutch named Charles, who was happened to be a decent slave owner. At his death, she was separated from her mother and auctioned to another set of plantation owners, the Neelys. Isabella was highly mistreated here as they took their dislike of the Dutch community out on Isabella, who spoke hardly a word of English. She was bought and sold three times within the next twenty-four months, the final purchaser being a man named John Dumont for the incredibly low bargaining price of three hundred dollars. . Dumont needed more slaves for his New York plantation. He always bragged that Isabella was the hardest working slave on the plantation. Seeing this, he forced her to marry a fellow slave known as Tom. Isabella gave birth to five children within the next five years. Two years before the emancipation act of 1828, in which all slaves within New York were freed, Dumont promised Isabella that if she were to work extra hard the next year, he would set her free a year early. She did just that; she was the even harder working already hardest working slave on the plantation. . In her speeches, she spoke of the living conditions many slaves were forced to endure, crowded together into cabins with no privacy, overworked, fed scraps in many cases, and clothed raggedy scraps. Her audiences must have felt the shame as Truth recalled the auction block, upon which men and women alike were frequently forced to strip and stand before potential buyers, who would search their bodies for marks of the whip or of wrist or leg irons, the presence of which would indicate the slave had been frequently punished.	<urn:uuid:87aa9f0b-5569-4a3c-956a-3dc76dc4e2aa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/19360.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00191.warc.gz	en	0.991792	412	3.421875	3	[ -0.049005843698978424, 0.4619653522968292, 0.0358811616897583, 0.16691090166568756, -0.2534162402153015, -0.3006192445755005, 0.02642989717423916, -0.3113418519496918, -0.04423007369041443, -0.13836584985256195, 0.02725893445312977, -0.19829045236110687, -0.5192359089851379, 0.193931132555...	2	Sojourner Truth was born a slave named Isabella Baumfree sometime in 1797 in Ulster county, New York. The exact date of her birth is to this day unknown, but it is believed to have been sometime during the fall. She developed her characteristics of courage and dependability from her mother, Mau Mau Bett, at an early age. Isabella was first owned by a Dutch named Charles, who was happened to be a decent slave owner. At his death, she was separated from her mother and auctioned to another set of plantation owners, the Neelys. Isabella was highly mistreated here as they took their dislike of the Dutch community out on Isabella, who spoke hardly a word of English. She was bought and sold three times within the next twenty-four months, the final purchaser being a man named John Dumont for the incredibly low bargaining price of three hundred dollars. . Dumont needed more slaves for his New York plantation. He always bragged that Isabella was the hardest working slave on the plantation. Seeing this, he forced her to marry a fellow slave known as Tom. Isabella gave birth to five children within the next five years. Two years before the emancipation act of 1828, in which all slaves within New York were freed, Dumont promised Isabella that if she were to work extra hard the next year, he would set her free a year early. She did just that; she was the even harder working already hardest working slave on the plantation. . In her speeches, she spoke of the living conditions many slaves were forced to endure, crowded together into cabins with no privacy, overworked, fed scraps in many cases, and clothed raggedy scraps. Her audiences must have felt the shame as Truth recalled the auction block, upon which men and women alike were frequently forced to strip and stand before potential buyers, who would search their bodies for marks of the whip or of wrist or leg irons, the presence of which would indicate the slave had been frequently punished.	416	ENGLISH	1
Cameroon and Saudi Arabia: Official legislation against witchcraft is still found in Saudi Arabia and Cameroon. From at least the 1930s, the term "witch-hunt" has been used figuratively to describe activities by governments (and, occasionally, by business entities) to seek out and expose perceived enemies, often apparently as a means of directing public opinion by fostering a degree of moral panic. Some events, while not without precedent, show a new way of perceiving the world. The concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments. The fundamental difficulty of studying modern history is the fact that a plethora of it has been documented up to the present day. It is imperative to consider the reliability of the information obtained from these records. Historians in recent decades have argued that from a worldwide standpoint, the most important feature of the early modern period was its globalizing character. The period witnessed the exploration and colonization of the Americas and the rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe. The historical powers became involved in global trade. This world trading of goods, plants, animals, and food crops saw exchange in the Old World and the New World. The Columbian exchange greatly affected the human environment. The period of witch trials in Early Modern Europe were a widespread moral panic suggesting that malevolent Satanicwitches were operating as an organized threat to Christendom during the 15th to 18th centuries. Those accused of witchcraft were portrayed as being worshippers of the Devil, who engaged in such acts as malevolent sorcery at meetings known as Witches' Sabbaths. Many people were subsequently accused of being witches, and were put on trial for the crime, with varying punishments being applicable in different regions and at different times. While early trials fall still within the Late Medieval period, the peak of the witch hunt was during the period of the European wars of religion, peaking between about 1580 and 1630. The witch hunts declined in the early 18th century. In Great Britain, their end is marked by the Witchcraft Act of 1735. But sporadic witch-trials continued to be held during the second half of the 18th century, the last known dating to 1782, though a prosecution was commenced in Tennessee as recently as 1833.	<urn:uuid:211a24cb-5c29-4242-8f3f-f7fbcc36459a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wn.com/Witch_trials_in_the_Early_Modern_period	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00466.warc.gz	en	0.980524	468	3.578125	4	[ 0.07862146198749542, 0.5997850298881531, 0.4578486979007721, -0.09279982000589371, 0.3411216139793396, -0.23418863117694855, 0.1681780219078064, -0.02185489796102047, 0.09557010233402252, 0.2792831361293793, -0.019099608063697815, 0.04175524041056633, -0.2498040497303009, 0.088930614292621...	1	Cameroon and Saudi Arabia: Official legislation against witchcraft is still found in Saudi Arabia and Cameroon. From at least the 1930s, the term "witch-hunt" has been used figuratively to describe activities by governments (and, occasionally, by business entities) to seek out and expose perceived enemies, often apparently as a means of directing public opinion by fostering a degree of moral panic. Some events, while not without precedent, show a new way of perceiving the world. The concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments. The fundamental difficulty of studying modern history is the fact that a plethora of it has been documented up to the present day. It is imperative to consider the reliability of the information obtained from these records. Historians in recent decades have argued that from a worldwide standpoint, the most important feature of the early modern period was its globalizing character. The period witnessed the exploration and colonization of the Americas and the rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe. The historical powers became involved in global trade. This world trading of goods, plants, animals, and food crops saw exchange in the Old World and the New World. The Columbian exchange greatly affected the human environment. The period of witch trials in Early Modern Europe were a widespread moral panic suggesting that malevolent Satanicwitches were operating as an organized threat to Christendom during the 15th to 18th centuries. Those accused of witchcraft were portrayed as being worshippers of the Devil, who engaged in such acts as malevolent sorcery at meetings known as Witches' Sabbaths. Many people were subsequently accused of being witches, and were put on trial for the crime, with varying punishments being applicable in different regions and at different times. While early trials fall still within the Late Medieval period, the peak of the witch hunt was during the period of the European wars of religion, peaking between about 1580 and 1630. The witch hunts declined in the early 18th century. In Great Britain, their end is marked by the Witchcraft Act of 1735. But sporadic witch-trials continued to be held during the second half of the 18th century, the last known dating to 1782, though a prosecution was commenced in Tennessee as recently as 1833.	491	ENGLISH	1
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War broke out after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The Greeks swore revenge, joined forces and sent their huge army to the city of Troy in Anatolia, resulting in a long siege. The city was known as Ilion and it was generally thought that nothing could penetrate its massive walls. Homer's Iliad, the epic poem created in the 8th century B.C., tells of events that happened during a short period of the war. It does not say how the more than 10-year-long war ended. According to legend, Odysseus, King of Ithaca, saw one of his soldiers carve a horse out of wood. This gave him an idea for his plans. He had a huge wooden horse built with space inside to hide Greek soldiers, including Achilles. The Greeks pretended to sail away, but actually docked at an island nearby. The Trojans thought the Greeks had given up the siege. Sinon, a Greek warrior taught by Odysseus, successfully convinced Priam, King of Ilion, that he was a traitor, that the horse was a gift for the Gods and that it would protect the city from within its walls. Cassandra, the Oracle, and Laocoön, a priest of Apollo, warned the king against it, but he did not believe them. The Trojans pulled the horse into the city as a trophy of victory and organized a feast. When they finally fell asleep, Sinon let the warriors out of the horse. They then opened the gates for the rest of the Greek army. The city, left unprotected, was destroyed and burnt down by the Greeks.	<urn:uuid:60b932d0-cadd-4159-b466-05bf972d49ba>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mozaweb.com/en_US/Extra-3D_scenes-Trojan_horse-146821	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00469.warc.gz	en	0.984649	351	3.96875	4	[ 0.044296495616436005, 0.34936031699180603, 0.2952309250831604, 0.07339859753847122, -0.4336000978946686, -0.616556704044342, -0.07122408598661423, 0.620521605014801, 0.17103782296180725, -0.11313282698392868, -0.0841088816523552, -0.2598130404949188, -0.26924869418144226, 0.605153322219848...	1	In Greek mythology, the Trojan War broke out after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The Greeks swore revenge, joined forces and sent their huge army to the city of Troy in Anatolia, resulting in a long siege. The city was known as Ilion and it was generally thought that nothing could penetrate its massive walls. Homer's Iliad, the epic poem created in the 8th century B.C., tells of events that happened during a short period of the war. It does not say how the more than 10-year-long war ended. According to legend, Odysseus, King of Ithaca, saw one of his soldiers carve a horse out of wood. This gave him an idea for his plans. He had a huge wooden horse built with space inside to hide Greek soldiers, including Achilles. The Greeks pretended to sail away, but actually docked at an island nearby. The Trojans thought the Greeks had given up the siege. Sinon, a Greek warrior taught by Odysseus, successfully convinced Priam, King of Ilion, that he was a traitor, that the horse was a gift for the Gods and that it would protect the city from within its walls. Cassandra, the Oracle, and Laocoön, a priest of Apollo, warned the king against it, but he did not believe them. The Trojans pulled the horse into the city as a trophy of victory and organized a feast. When they finally fell asleep, Sinon let the warriors out of the horse. They then opened the gates for the rest of the Greek army. The city, left unprotected, was destroyed and burnt down by the Greeks.	348	ENGLISH	1
Greeks became more religious and superstitious as the faiths of the conquered welled up from below. We have already said that the social structure of the primitive Aryans was a two-class system of nobles and commoners, the classes not very sharply marked off from each other, and led in warfare by a king who was simply the head of one of the noble families, primus inter pares, a leader among his equals. With the conquest of the aboriginal population and with the building of towns there was added to this simple social arrangement of two classes a lower stratum of farm-workers and skilled and unskilled workers, who were for the most part slaves. But all the Greek communities were not of this "conquest" type. Some were "refugee" cities representing smashed communities, and in these the aboriginal substratum would be missing. In many of the former cases the survivors of the earlier population formed a subject class, slaves of the state as a whole, as, for instance, the Helots in Sparta. The nobles and commoners became landlords and gentlemen farmers; it was they who directed the shipbuilding and engaged in trade. But some of the poorer free citizens followed mechanic arts, and, as we have already noted, would even pull an oar in a galley for pay. Such priests as there were in this Greek world were either the guardians of shrines and temples or sacrificial functionaries; Aristotle, in his Politics, makes them a mere subdivision of his official class. The citizen served as warrior in youth, ruler in his maturity, priest in his old age. The priestly class, in comparison with the equivalent class in Egypt and Babylonia, was small and insignificant. The gods of the Greeks proper, the gods of the heroic Greeks, were, as we have already noted, glorified human beings, and they were treated without very much fear or awe; but beneath these gods of the conquering freemen lurked other gods of the subjugated peoples, who found their furtive followers among slaves and women. The original Aryan gods were not expected to work miracles or control men's lives. But Greece, like most of the Eastern world in the thousand years b.c., was much addicted to consulting oracles or soothsayers. Delphi was particularly famous for its oracle. "When the Oldest - See Zimmern's Greek Commonwealth, Bury's History of Greece, and Barker's Greek Political Theory.	<urn:uuid:1d2de1bc-e3c4-4aa3-be6f-8d03a6c83cc4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/329	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00044.warc.gz	en	0.984086	503	3.40625	3	[ 0.20591332018375397, 0.3772487938404083, 0.11613211780786514, -0.45208853483200073, -0.4645325243473053, -0.37119486927986145, -0.13926541805267334, 0.3418411910533905, 0.04852953180670738, -0.11203355342149734, -0.31516820192337036, -0.16348622739315033, 0.1289166957139969, 0.402558803558...	1	Greeks became more religious and superstitious as the faiths of the conquered welled up from below. We have already said that the social structure of the primitive Aryans was a two-class system of nobles and commoners, the classes not very sharply marked off from each other, and led in warfare by a king who was simply the head of one of the noble families, primus inter pares, a leader among his equals. With the conquest of the aboriginal population and with the building of towns there was added to this simple social arrangement of two classes a lower stratum of farm-workers and skilled and unskilled workers, who were for the most part slaves. But all the Greek communities were not of this "conquest" type. Some were "refugee" cities representing smashed communities, and in these the aboriginal substratum would be missing. In many of the former cases the survivors of the earlier population formed a subject class, slaves of the state as a whole, as, for instance, the Helots in Sparta. The nobles and commoners became landlords and gentlemen farmers; it was they who directed the shipbuilding and engaged in trade. But some of the poorer free citizens followed mechanic arts, and, as we have already noted, would even pull an oar in a galley for pay. Such priests as there were in this Greek world were either the guardians of shrines and temples or sacrificial functionaries; Aristotle, in his Politics, makes them a mere subdivision of his official class. The citizen served as warrior in youth, ruler in his maturity, priest in his old age. The priestly class, in comparison with the equivalent class in Egypt and Babylonia, was small and insignificant. The gods of the Greeks proper, the gods of the heroic Greeks, were, as we have already noted, glorified human beings, and they were treated without very much fear or awe; but beneath these gods of the conquering freemen lurked other gods of the subjugated peoples, who found their furtive followers among slaves and women. The original Aryan gods were not expected to work miracles or control men's lives. But Greece, like most of the Eastern world in the thousand years b.c., was much addicted to consulting oracles or soothsayers. Delphi was particularly famous for its oracle. "When the Oldest - See Zimmern's Greek Commonwealth, Bury's History of Greece, and Barker's Greek Political Theory.	508	ENGLISH	1
As the title of the second book in the Waxwood Series, False Fathers, suggests, the idea of fathers plays a huge role in the story and in the psychological reality of Jake Alderdice, the main character. Like everything else in the Gilded Age, fatherhood was a complex and changing concept in the late 19th century. Before the 19th century, the role of the father was less removed from the family. Since so many Americans lived in rural towns and kept farms or other small ma-and-pa businesses, fathers worked close to home and sometimes even alongside their families. Their involvement with their wives and children was more intimate because of their close proximity to their families. But this changed in the 19th century, and the concept of the separate spheres played a role. As industrialization and urbanization became the norm for many families (that is, families moved to the cities, and men worked in larger companies owned by someone other than themselves), men’s “place” was regulated more to the pubic sphere. That is, their attention shifted to the larger spaces of business, law, and finance. As such, fathers were more detached from what went on in the home, though they still maintained a certain level of control as the main disciplinarians and educators of their children. The separate spheres also put women more firmly in private places such as the home. Their role as mothers and caregivers became more important, thus removing fathers even further from the day-to-day workings of the family. We also want to remember the characteristics of the Gilded Age — success at any price, excess, and flaunting wealth. This was an ideal many American men wanted to achieve and, as such, they needed to put all of their focus on their business and financial endeavors to get it. This didn’t leave them much time or emotional energy to devote to their families. Thus, the identity of the father became one of the bread-winner. There was something else that factored into the extrication of fathers from family life — public schooling. Up until the 1850’s, sending children to public schools was optional. As I mention above, many Americans were still living in rural areas and tending to farms or small businesses. In this atmosphere, children were often times given a very spotty education that depended more upon when they were needed to help out with the family (for example, on the family farm or during harvest seasons) than upon the idea that children should get a steady education. But in the 1850’s, that began to change as states issued laws that made sending children to public schools mandatory. Although the transition to mandatory public schooling for all states didn’t happen until the late 1910’s, it took the role of educator out of the hands of many fathers. But while fathers lost their hold on their children as educators, their role shifted to business advisors, mainly for their sons (since most women did not and weren’t expected to work). This put the emotional connection between fathers and sons on a different level, a more authority-oriented level that we can imagine may have been somewhat less affectionate than it had been in earlier times. This is indeed the role various father figures take in relation to Jake in False Fathers. Much of his struggle for masculine identity lies in what his future success in the public sphere will look like. In this, he asks and receives help from a number of older men in the book. I realize this paints a pretty dismal picture of fatherhood in the 19th century, since it makes it sound as if men were little more than bread-winners and business advisors for their families. This is not to say that fathers were emotionally remote from their wives and children by any means (as the painting above shows). And, in the 1920’s, when women had earned more of their rights, they began to demand men share in the raising of their families, both physically and psychologically. In turn, men themselves were advocating for this, starting a Fatherhood Movement which, thankfully, has gained a lot of ground today and continues to do so. To read more about False Fathers (which is now on sale at a special preorder price), you can go here. If you want to find out more about Jake and other characters in the Waxwood Series, read the series page here. And if you’d like to read an excerpt from False Fathers, you can join my readers group. I’m not ashamed to say I’m a feminist. I became a feminist in college when I began studying literature and women’s fiction. I came from a very patriarchal house where my parents supported the idea that men ruled, and women’s purpose in life was to serve everyone around them — parents, husband, children, community. I don’t blame them, as they grew up in an age that still believed in these antiquated ideas about gender roles. Thankfully, much has changed. In my guest blog post for Lisa Lickel’s Living Our Faith Out Loud, I talked about Vivian and her destiny as a Gilded Age debutante and the expectations put upon her. But where did these expectations come from? Partly, from the upper class society in which she lives but also from an idea that emerged in the 18th century and carried through well in the 19th — the separate spheres. I first learned about the separate spheres when I was in graduate school. One of the signature academic texts on the subject is Barbara Welter’s “The Cult Of True Womanhood: 1820 – 1860” written in 1966 (not coincidentally, not long before the second wave feminist movement began making its appearance on the political stage). The article made a huge impression on me, especially the discussion of the separate spheres and its sister ideology, the cult of true womanhood . In the late 1960’s, writers, theorists, and scholars were beginning to take a more critical look at gender roles, stereotypes, and gender ideologies from the past, and they were exploring their relevance and repercussions on the present and future. To put it as simply as I can, the term “separate spheres” embraces the idea that men and women each have a very specific “place” in the world. I use the word “place” here a bit ironically, because confinement in the physical, emotional, and spiritual sense has been one of the greatest battles women have had to fight against socially, politically and psychologically. In the 19th century, philosophers, religious leaders, and intellectuals believed men were born for the public sphere (which included politics, business, and law) and women for the private sphere (home, family, and community). In other words, men’s purpose in life was to go out and make money, make laws, and run the country, and women’s purpose was to take care of the home, have and raise the children, and participate in community events. This is a very simplified vision, of course, but it gives you an idea of how the spaces which men and women could occupy according to this ideology were limited. What’s interesting when we look at the separate spheres more closely is not only do they define what women (and men) could do but what they couldn’t. Women were expected to stay out of medicine, for example, because they “did not belong there”. Similarly, the idea of a stay-at-home dad was inconceivable in this ideology since the home was the domain of women. Of course, each was allowed to reap the rewards of the other sphere. For women, this meant financial support, for men, it meant a comfortable home and loving family. What is most relevant about the separate spheres when it comes to my fiction is not so much the physical spaces it represents but the psychological ones. In the mid-19th century, the world of business, politics, and industry were developing at a rapid pace. Because of this, jobs were opening up in the cities and people flocked to them, leaving behind the slower, simpler life they had had in the country. At the same time, in the minds of many people, industry was a big bad monster (hence Frank Norris’ allegory of the octopus to illustrate the brutality of the railroad industry in his book The Octopus) capable of luring people, especially the young, into greed and sin, soiling their minds, souls, and bodies. In this atmosphere of dirty business and dirty politics, the home became an idealized symbol of purity, comfort and refuge (which is one reason why Victorian homes were so ornate and overstuffed). And who better to take care of it than pure, unsoiled women? They were the “angels in the house”, the eyelash-fluttering sweethearts who spent their days cleaning, cooking, shopping, attending children, and, for some, engaging in religious and charitable work. This ideal of the angel in the house had always existed, but it took on a more important role in the minds and hearts of people living in the nineteenth century. Many saw the divide of the spheres so distinctly they couldn’t fathom allowing women into the arena of politics, business, and law, all notoriously corrupt and dirty at that time. Women had to be protected and, even more, they were the protectors of the morals and values of men. Is it any wonder that author Virginia Woolf once wrote that for a woman to get any significant work done, she had to kill the angel in the house? The ideal of the angel in the house actually derived from a poem written in 1854 by poet Coventry Patmore and the model for this ideal was Patmore’s wife, pictured above. The description above might sound like a gross stereotype, but it illustrates the whole idea behind the separate spheres. It was, after all an ideology – the way people wished things would be or believed they were supposed to be. In Book 1 of my Waxwood Series, The Specter, the image Patmore’s angel in the house becomes the defining characteristic of the public persona of Penelope Alderdice, Vivian’s grandmother. It is, in fact, such a domineering archetype that her gravestone is carved with a verse from Patmore’s poem. In the book, part of Vivian’s journey leads her to pick apart this persona to reach a deeper understanding of who her grandmother really was and, in doing so, understand her own future. The problem with the angel in the house and the separate spheres was that they created a model of womanhood most women found impossible to live up to, not to mention greatly unsatisfying (think: 19th century version of Betty Friedan’s “The Problem With No Name”). A great example of this comes from Natalie Dykstra’s book Clover Adams: A Gilded and Heartbreaking Life. Dykstra describes historian Henry Adams’ mother in typical “angel in the house” terms: “Mrs. Adams, lively but pampered, had been a social ornament when young. What had charmed her wealthy father… had also captivated her husband — her buoyancy, her love of conversation, her open affection.” (location 949). However, as with many women, Mrs. Adams’ role as the angel in the house proved anything but satisfying: “[F]ollowing marriage and the birth of seven children within fifteen years… Mrs. Adams found little to engage her beyond her family. Simmering unhappiness had become tightly braided with chronic physical debility — crushing headaches, sleeplessness, and constant noises in her ears.” (Dykstra, location 949). It was not uncommon for women to become ill because their temperaments did not fit into the sphere to which they were confined. A famous example of this is Charlotte Perkins Gilman story “The Yellow Wallpaper”, which I discuss here. Welter refers to the cult of true womanhood, but it should really be called the myth of true womanhood. Ideologies take on the proportions of myths because these narratives cannot be realized as anything but legends. Thankfully, the idea of the separate spheres was beginning to crumble by the end of the nineteenth century when women began to enter the public sphere through politically progressive movements like suffragism and worker’s rights (which is a topic for another blog post). The images of the New Woman and the Gibson Girl (also topics for future blog posts) emerged during this time. Both overshadowed the image of the Angel in the House that had kept so many women chained in previous decades. One of my passions is to give a picture of characters who were both products of their time and rebels of it. So it’s not surprising that many of my characters (the women especially, but also some of the men) refuse to stay in their sphere and venture outside of it. In my Waxwood series. I talked earlier about Vivian Alderdice, whose journey takes her away from the confined space of the separate spheres. Similarly, In Book 3, goes through her own journey when the darker consequences of this ideology present themselves in her mentally unstable Aunt Helen. In my upcoming historical mystery series, The Paper Chase Mysteries, Adele Gossling rubs the people of the small town of Arrojo the wrong way precisely because she is a one of these New Women mentioned above and not ashamed to proclaim it. Both the separate spheres and the cult of true womanhood weren’t just about where a woman should be, but what she should do while she was there. It overlooked more salient questions such as whether she wanted to be there at all, and what the consequences of her being there if she didn’t could be. To find out more about my book, The Specter, and purchase a copy, go here.	<urn:uuid:cbdff078-13ed-4a1f-b269-bcb435e29c27>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tammayauthor.com/tag/separate-spheres	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00381.warc.gz	en	0.980407	2,892	3.375	3	[ 0.4784499704837799, 0.4055144786834717, 0.035572439432144165, -0.3161080479621887, -0.10658993571996689, 0.20389968156814575, -0.2052314579486847, 0.08271505683660507, -0.16394609212875366, -0.3041818141937256, 0.083716481924057, 0.32062309980392456, 0.028073925524950027, 0.299308896064758...	2	As the title of the second book in the Waxwood Series, False Fathers, suggests, the idea of fathers plays a huge role in the story and in the psychological reality of Jake Alderdice, the main character. Like everything else in the Gilded Age, fatherhood was a complex and changing concept in the late 19th century. Before the 19th century, the role of the father was less removed from the family. Since so many Americans lived in rural towns and kept farms or other small ma-and-pa businesses, fathers worked close to home and sometimes even alongside their families. Their involvement with their wives and children was more intimate because of their close proximity to their families. But this changed in the 19th century, and the concept of the separate spheres played a role. As industrialization and urbanization became the norm for many families (that is, families moved to the cities, and men worked in larger companies owned by someone other than themselves), men’s “place” was regulated more to the pubic sphere. That is, their attention shifted to the larger spaces of business, law, and finance. As such, fathers were more detached from what went on in the home, though they still maintained a certain level of control as the main disciplinarians and educators of their children. The separate spheres also put women more firmly in private places such as the home. Their role as mothers and caregivers became more important, thus removing fathers even further from the day-to-day workings of the family. We also want to remember the characteristics of the Gilded Age — success at any price, excess, and flaunting wealth. This was an ideal many American men wanted to achieve and, as such, they needed to put all of their focus on their business and financial endeavors to get it. This didn’t leave them much time or emotional energy to devote to their families. Thus, the identity of the father became one of the bread-winner. There was something else that factored into the extrication of fathers from family life — public schooling. Up until the 1850’s, sending children to public schools was optional. As I mention above, many Americans were still living in rural areas and tending to farms or small businesses. In this atmosphere, children were often times given a very spotty education that depended more upon when they were needed to help out with the family (for example, on the family farm or during harvest seasons) than upon the idea that children should get a steady education. But in the 1850’s, that began to change as states issued laws that made sending children to public schools mandatory. Although the transition to mandatory public schooling for all states didn’t happen until the late 1910’s, it took the role of educator out of the hands of many fathers. But while fathers lost their hold on their children as educators, their role shifted to business advisors, mainly for their sons (since most women did not and weren’t expected to work). This put the emotional connection between fathers and sons on a different level, a more authority-oriented level that we can imagine may have been somewhat less affectionate than it had been in earlier times. This is indeed the role various father figures take in relation to Jake in False Fathers. Much of his struggle for masculine identity lies in what his future success in the public sphere will look like. In this, he asks and receives help from a number of older men in the book. I realize this paints a pretty dismal picture of fatherhood in the 19th century, since it makes it sound as if men were little more than bread-winners and business advisors for their families. This is not to say that fathers were emotionally remote from their wives and children by any means (as the painting above shows). And, in the 1920’s, when women had earned more of their rights, they began to demand men share in the raising of their families, both physically and psychologically. In turn, men themselves were advocating for this, starting a Fatherhood Movement which, thankfully, has gained a lot of ground today and continues to do so. To read more about False Fathers (which is now on sale at a special preorder price), you can go here. If you want to find out more about Jake and other characters in the Waxwood Series, read the series page here. And if you’d like to read an excerpt from False Fathers, you can join my readers group. I’m not ashamed to say I’m a feminist. I became a feminist in college when I began studying literature and women’s fiction. I came from a very patriarchal house where my parents supported the idea that men ruled, and women’s purpose in life was to serve everyone around them — parents, husband, children, community. I don’t blame them, as they grew up in an age that still believed in these antiquated ideas about gender roles. Thankfully, much has changed. In my guest blog post for Lisa Lickel’s Living Our Faith Out Loud, I talked about Vivian and her destiny as a Gilded Age debutante and the expectations put upon her. But where did these expectations come from? Partly, from the upper class society in which she lives but also from an idea that emerged in the 18th century and carried through well in the 19th — the separate spheres. I first learned about the separate spheres when I was in graduate school. One of the signature academic texts on the subject is Barbara Welter’s “The Cult Of True Womanhood: 1820 – 1860” written in 1966 (not coincidentally, not long before the second wave feminist movement began making its appearance on the political stage). The article made a huge impression on me, especially the discussion of the separate spheres and its sister ideology, the cult of true womanhood . In the late 1960’s, writers, theorists, and scholars were beginning to take a more critical look at gender roles, stereotypes, and gender ideologies from the past, and they were exploring their relevance and repercussions on the present and future. To put it as simply as I can, the term “separate spheres” embraces the idea that men and women each have a very specific “place” in the world. I use the word “place” here a bit ironically, because confinement in the physical, emotional, and spiritual sense has been one of the greatest battles women have had to fight against socially, politically and psychologically. In the 19th century, philosophers, religious leaders, and intellectuals believed men were born for the public sphere (which included politics, business, and law) and women for the private sphere (home, family, and community). In other words, men’s purpose in life was to go out and make money, make laws, and run the country, and women’s purpose was to take care of the home, have and raise the children, and participate in community events. This is a very simplified vision, of course, but it gives you an idea of how the spaces which men and women could occupy according to this ideology were limited. What’s interesting when we look at the separate spheres more closely is not only do they define what women (and men) could do but what they couldn’t. Women were expected to stay out of medicine, for example, because they “did not belong there”. Similarly, the idea of a stay-at-home dad was inconceivable in this ideology since the home was the domain of women. Of course, each was allowed to reap the rewards of the other sphere. For women, this meant financial support, for men, it meant a comfortable home and loving family. What is most relevant about the separate spheres when it comes to my fiction is not so much the physical spaces it represents but the psychological ones. In the mid-19th century, the world of business, politics, and industry were developing at a rapid pace. Because of this, jobs were opening up in the cities and people flocked to them, leaving behind the slower, simpler life they had had in the country. At the same time, in the minds of many people, industry was a big bad monster (hence Frank Norris’ allegory of the octopus to illustrate the brutality of the railroad industry in his book The Octopus) capable of luring people, especially the young, into greed and sin, soiling their minds, souls, and bodies. In this atmosphere of dirty business and dirty politics, the home became an idealized symbol of purity, comfort and refuge (which is one reason why Victorian homes were so ornate and overstuffed). And who better to take care of it than pure, unsoiled women? They were the “angels in the house”, the eyelash-fluttering sweethearts who spent their days cleaning, cooking, shopping, attending children, and, for some, engaging in religious and charitable work. This ideal of the angel in the house had always existed, but it took on a more important role in the minds and hearts of people living in the nineteenth century. Many saw the divide of the spheres so distinctly they couldn’t fathom allowing women into the arena of politics, business, and law, all notoriously corrupt and dirty at that time. Women had to be protected and, even more, they were the protectors of the morals and values of men. Is it any wonder that author Virginia Woolf once wrote that for a woman to get any significant work done, she had to kill the angel in the house? The ideal of the angel in the house actually derived from a poem written in 1854 by poet Coventry Patmore and the model for this ideal was Patmore’s wife, pictured above. The description above might sound like a gross stereotype, but it illustrates the whole idea behind the separate spheres. It was, after all an ideology – the way people wished things would be or believed they were supposed to be. In Book 1 of my Waxwood Series, The Specter, the image Patmore’s angel in the house becomes the defining characteristic of the public persona of Penelope Alderdice, Vivian’s grandmother. It is, in fact, such a domineering archetype that her gravestone is carved with a verse from Patmore’s poem. In the book, part of Vivian’s journey leads her to pick apart this persona to reach a deeper understanding of who her grandmother really was and, in doing so, understand her own future. The problem with the angel in the house and the separate spheres was that they created a model of womanhood most women found impossible to live up to, not to mention greatly unsatisfying (think: 19th century version of Betty Friedan’s “The Problem With No Name”). A great example of this comes from Natalie Dykstra’s book Clover Adams: A Gilded and Heartbreaking Life. Dykstra describes historian Henry Adams’ mother in typical “angel in the house” terms: “Mrs. Adams, lively but pampered, had been a social ornament when young. What had charmed her wealthy father… had also captivated her husband — her buoyancy, her love of conversation, her open affection.” (location 949). However, as with many women, Mrs. Adams’ role as the angel in the house proved anything but satisfying: “[F]ollowing marriage and the birth of seven children within fifteen years… Mrs. Adams found little to engage her beyond her family. Simmering unhappiness had become tightly braided with chronic physical debility — crushing headaches, sleeplessness, and constant noises in her ears.” (Dykstra, location 949). It was not uncommon for women to become ill because their temperaments did not fit into the sphere to which they were confined. A famous example of this is Charlotte Perkins Gilman story “The Yellow Wallpaper”, which I discuss here. Welter refers to the cult of true womanhood, but it should really be called the myth of true womanhood. Ideologies take on the proportions of myths because these narratives cannot be realized as anything but legends. Thankfully, the idea of the separate spheres was beginning to crumble by the end of the nineteenth century when women began to enter the public sphere through politically progressive movements like suffragism and worker’s rights (which is a topic for another blog post). The images of the New Woman and the Gibson Girl (also topics for future blog posts) emerged during this time. Both overshadowed the image of the Angel in the House that had kept so many women chained in previous decades. One of my passions is to give a picture of characters who were both products of their time and rebels of it. So it’s not surprising that many of my characters (the women especially, but also some of the men) refuse to stay in their sphere and venture outside of it. In my Waxwood series. I talked earlier about Vivian Alderdice, whose journey takes her away from the confined space of the separate spheres. Similarly, In Book 3, goes through her own journey when the darker consequences of this ideology present themselves in her mentally unstable Aunt Helen. In my upcoming historical mystery series, The Paper Chase Mysteries, Adele Gossling rubs the people of the small town of Arrojo the wrong way precisely because she is a one of these New Women mentioned above and not ashamed to proclaim it. Both the separate spheres and the cult of true womanhood weren’t just about where a woman should be, but what she should do while she was there. It overlooked more salient questions such as whether she wanted to be there at all, and what the consequences of her being there if she didn’t could be. To find out more about my book, The Specter, and purchase a copy, go here.	2,819	ENGLISH	1
Our last week of Science club and the children chose to use the electricity equipment and managed to light bulbs and an energy stick. Great fun. This week in Science club the children were tasked with trying to ping a spoon so that it landed in a cup. The children after several attempts managed to do this successfully. We then looked at how our bodies balance and tried to get out of a chair from a sitting position without using our hands or leaning forward. Then we tried standing up, bending our bodies to hold onto our toes and tried to jump without letting go of our feet. Lots of laughter was had trying these out. This week the children looked at different optical illusions, they tried to work out what they were seeing and why some pictures appeared to move. This week the children were given a collection of shells and were asked to put them into 2 groups of their choosing, for example, shiny, smooth shells and spiky, bumpy shells. Then we discussed what animals might live in some of these shells. Lastly the children were given magnetic rocks and experimented with attraction and repelling of magnets, they also investigated magnetic surfaces around the room. They also found out that magnets work through surfaces like tables. They were able to put one magnet on top of a table and then move it around by placing the other magnetic underneath the table. Welcome back to Science club. This week in Y2 we made snow as part of our Science learning and since all were very excited to see this process and play with the snow we thought we would do it again in Science club. So this week we made and played with snow, some made snow men and others snowballs. Welcome to week 4 of Science club. This week the children looked at forces, by pushing one coin into the end of a line of coins, it moves the other end. How far could they get the furthest coin to move? What techniques did they use? Welcome to week 3 of Science club. This week the children explored their brains and coordination. We first crossed our arms over and interlocked our fingers. We then were asked to move a certain finger, most found this really hard to do without moving other fingers at the same time. The next activity was in pairs, one to draw a simple picture, then the other with a blindfold on had to draw the same picture only given verbal instructions to follow. The children found this very amusing and some were peeping!! This week in Science club we were problem solving using forces. The children had to build a card tower considering the mass and shape of the cards to balance them. They all did very well, after we shut the classroom windows!! Well done Science club Our first Science club this week. This week the children had to avoid the alligator pit by problem solving using physical agility and balance and a consideration of individual difference in size and strength. They had to try and balance on a ball together. This proved tricky so they found that by using the beanbag/cushions they could stabilise the ball better for balancing on. We all had great fun and thankfully no one got eaten by the crocodiles!	<urn:uuid:54ea92fa-2e35-486a-b31e-83c65932cf59>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.larchfieldschool.co.uk/science/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00317.warc.gz	en	0.981164	636	3.765625	4	[ -0.2082529217004776, -0.1445842981338501, 0.008297044783830643, -0.001690003671683371, 0.021795600652694702, 0.3310706317424774, 0.11658471822738647, 0.34381815791130066, -0.36647140979766846, 0.03831484913825989, 0.412104070186615, -0.24206829071044922, 0.21817903220653534, 0.297177761793...	7	Our last week of Science club and the children chose to use the electricity equipment and managed to light bulbs and an energy stick. Great fun. This week in Science club the children were tasked with trying to ping a spoon so that it landed in a cup. The children after several attempts managed to do this successfully. We then looked at how our bodies balance and tried to get out of a chair from a sitting position without using our hands or leaning forward. Then we tried standing up, bending our bodies to hold onto our toes and tried to jump without letting go of our feet. Lots of laughter was had trying these out. This week the children looked at different optical illusions, they tried to work out what they were seeing and why some pictures appeared to move. This week the children were given a collection of shells and were asked to put them into 2 groups of their choosing, for example, shiny, smooth shells and spiky, bumpy shells. Then we discussed what animals might live in some of these shells. Lastly the children were given magnetic rocks and experimented with attraction and repelling of magnets, they also investigated magnetic surfaces around the room. They also found out that magnets work through surfaces like tables. They were able to put one magnet on top of a table and then move it around by placing the other magnetic underneath the table. Welcome back to Science club. This week in Y2 we made snow as part of our Science learning and since all were very excited to see this process and play with the snow we thought we would do it again in Science club. So this week we made and played with snow, some made snow men and others snowballs. Welcome to week 4 of Science club. This week the children looked at forces, by pushing one coin into the end of a line of coins, it moves the other end. How far could they get the furthest coin to move? What techniques did they use? Welcome to week 3 of Science club. This week the children explored their brains and coordination. We first crossed our arms over and interlocked our fingers. We then were asked to move a certain finger, most found this really hard to do without moving other fingers at the same time. The next activity was in pairs, one to draw a simple picture, then the other with a blindfold on had to draw the same picture only given verbal instructions to follow. The children found this very amusing and some were peeping!! This week in Science club we were problem solving using forces. The children had to build a card tower considering the mass and shape of the cards to balance them. They all did very well, after we shut the classroom windows!! Well done Science club Our first Science club this week. This week the children had to avoid the alligator pit by problem solving using physical agility and balance and a consideration of individual difference in size and strength. They had to try and balance on a ball together. This proved tricky so they found that by using the beanbag/cushions they could stabilise the ball better for balancing on. We all had great fun and thankfully no one got eaten by the crocodiles!	632	ENGLISH	1
By Kirby Vickery on the December 2019 Edition As with all civilizations, the Mesoamerican people played a variety of games. Some had religious connections and even others were used by the better competitors to gamble and make a living. One such game of skill resembled bowling. There is very little information on it except that the Dominican Historian, Diego Durán, states that there isn’t any information on the type of ball or pins used but that he did talk to a man who “… was a great player of “Pins”, and his vice was such that he played not only on holidays but on workdays. This individual seems to have been a professional Pin gambler who attributed his success in gambling to invoking divine intervention from one of the Aztec deities.” There were also board games, one of which might be similar to checkers. Durán called it by its Spanish name, Alquerque. Although the Mesoamerican peoples didn’t have playing cards, they did follow the social rules of all societies and make sporting competitions from war and fighting. As with Europe and other world societies, the rulers and the ‘upper crust’ enjoyed bow and arrow contests, hunting small animals and birds with blow guns firing small pellets. During the season in which all the trees drop their fruit (a drought), the Nahuatl speakers, starting with the Olmecs, would have a celebration (in one version) to honor Xocotl Huetrzi (an Aztec name). An effigy of the god was then put on the top of the pole and two wings of white paper were then stuck to it, depicting two eagles. The execution of dances and songs preceded the ascent of some young men, one at a time, towards the top of this sort of tree of “plenty”. Today, this is performed by the ritual ceremony of the Voladores. In some cultures, a fertility thing, back then it was done by aristocratic young men to honor Xocotl Huetzi, who wasn’t a god, but a term used for the sour or acidic fruits that were being dropped. The Aztecs also had a game which was played the day after their festival for the goddess, Ilama Tecutli, aka, Ilamatecutli. She was about the only goddess in the Aztec pantheon of deities that doesn’t appear to have any sexual duality. She is the goddess of midwifery, subsequently fertility. The Aztec festival consisted of human sacrifice and other games for joy and happiness, mock battles, and other religious rites. The next day, the men (boys) in the town would prepare soft net bags filled with picked flowers or stripped out corn (maize) leaves. These they would attach to long ropes and start swinging at all the ladies. Some women, anticipating the situation, took a staff or a branch of the “devil-fruit-thorn” for defense. At times, boys were so rough that it made the girls cry. In Mexico today, the major outside sport is football, known to her northern neighbors as soccer. The Aztecs’ version is known as Ulama and is still played, with minor variations, today in some parts of Central America. The original game had no other name other than “ballgame.” The sport started with the Olmec and was played throughout Pre-Columbian times by every culture in Central America. The court was usually the second thing built after the alter in a new town. Sometimes chronicled as “Hipball,” the players had to keep the ball from hitting the ground for over an hour. In some cases, they came out of a game fairly beaten up, in spite of the leather guards they wore, all while trying to hit the ball through rings placed high on the walls of a court. In most Mesoamerican cultures, it had strong religious affiliations. The Maya even designated a portion to one of their five worlds or creation stories to it. There were both amateur and professional players. In some cultures, only the losers were sacrificed. In some cases, all the players were sacrificed. In still others, all the players were either slaves or captured warriors, or from another caste who were trying to win their freedom, and sometimes they were allowed to live to play another day. ‘The Game’ was a team sport and had a distinctive court known as the Tlachtli or Tlachco. Each team had anywhere from two to seven players and the idea was to put a hard rubber ball through rings placed on the side walls of the court without using your hands, arms, feet (in some cases) knees or legs. There were a few cases where other means of scoring were provided. The betting on these matches was always heavy for both the amateur and professional teams, as well as on individual players. It was not unheard of for a man to bet his wife or children into slavery, or even himself sometimes. That’s not to mention his home, fields, corn supplies and maguey plants. Again, probably for the older set, the Mesoamerican culture had a dice game called Patolli. It reminds me a little of Parcheesi, which is originally from India. Here is a popular dice game, which was played by people that just wanted to sit and have a nice game of Patolli, and by those that relied on the game for their livelihood. Designed to be played mostly on feast days, it was very portable and designed to be gambled on. Historians report that people would crowd into a place just to watch and place wagers on this game or others protected and blessed (as it were) by their gods. Some say Patolli was a blood game. But, if you look over the pantheon of games and of their gods, you will see that here was a series of cultures that looked to human sacrifice for a continued existence and they liked to gamble a lot. Kirby was born in a little burg just south of El Paso, Texas called Fabens. As he understand it, they we were passing through. His history reads like a road atlas. By the time he started school, he had lived in five places in two states. By the time he started high school, that list went to five states, four countries on three continents. Then he joined the Air Force after high school and one year of college and spent 23 years stationed in eleven or twelve places and traveled all over the place doing administrative, security, and electronic things. His final stay was being in charge of Air Force Recruiting in San Diego, Imperial, and Yuma counties. Upon retirement he went back to New England as a Quality Assurance Manager in electronics manufacturing before he was moved to Production Manager for the company’s Mexico operations. He moved to the Phoenix area and finally got his education and ended up teaching. He parted with the university and moved to Whidbey Island, Washington where he was introduced to Manzanillo, Mexico. It was there that he started to publish his monthly article for the Manzanillo Sun. He currently reside in Coupeville, WA, Edmonton, AB, and Manzanillo, Colima, Mexico, depending on whose having what medical problems and the time of year. His time is spent dieting, writing his second book, various articles and short stories, and sightseeing Canada, although that seems to be limited in the winter up there.	<urn:uuid:0ed9aaad-287f-44f0-a3e8-429639667622>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.manzanillosun.com/mesoamerican-sports/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00097.warc.gz	en	0.989408	1,562	3.34375	3	[ -0.10379931330680847, 0.5063341856002808, 0.19793285429477692, -0.09894923865795135, -0.16015174984931946, 0.012954795733094215, 0.20734459161758423, 0.23495781421661377, 0.25959110260009766, 0.13283401727676392, -0.18007072806358337, -0.03412029147148132, 0.031066223978996277, -0.12514191...	13	By Kirby Vickery on the December 2019 Edition As with all civilizations, the Mesoamerican people played a variety of games. Some had religious connections and even others were used by the better competitors to gamble and make a living. One such game of skill resembled bowling. There is very little information on it except that the Dominican Historian, Diego Durán, states that there isn’t any information on the type of ball or pins used but that he did talk to a man who “… was a great player of “Pins”, and his vice was such that he played not only on holidays but on workdays. This individual seems to have been a professional Pin gambler who attributed his success in gambling to invoking divine intervention from one of the Aztec deities.” There were also board games, one of which might be similar to checkers. Durán called it by its Spanish name, Alquerque. Although the Mesoamerican peoples didn’t have playing cards, they did follow the social rules of all societies and make sporting competitions from war and fighting. As with Europe and other world societies, the rulers and the ‘upper crust’ enjoyed bow and arrow contests, hunting small animals and birds with blow guns firing small pellets. During the season in which all the trees drop their fruit (a drought), the Nahuatl speakers, starting with the Olmecs, would have a celebration (in one version) to honor Xocotl Huetrzi (an Aztec name). An effigy of the god was then put on the top of the pole and two wings of white paper were then stuck to it, depicting two eagles. The execution of dances and songs preceded the ascent of some young men, one at a time, towards the top of this sort of tree of “plenty”. Today, this is performed by the ritual ceremony of the Voladores. In some cultures, a fertility thing, back then it was done by aristocratic young men to honor Xocotl Huetzi, who wasn’t a god, but a term used for the sour or acidic fruits that were being dropped. The Aztecs also had a game which was played the day after their festival for the goddess, Ilama Tecutli, aka, Ilamatecutli. She was about the only goddess in the Aztec pantheon of deities that doesn’t appear to have any sexual duality. She is the goddess of midwifery, subsequently fertility. The Aztec festival consisted of human sacrifice and other games for joy and happiness, mock battles, and other religious rites. The next day, the men (boys) in the town would prepare soft net bags filled with picked flowers or stripped out corn (maize) leaves. These they would attach to long ropes and start swinging at all the ladies. Some women, anticipating the situation, took a staff or a branch of the “devil-fruit-thorn” for defense. At times, boys were so rough that it made the girls cry. In Mexico today, the major outside sport is football, known to her northern neighbors as soccer. The Aztecs’ version is known as Ulama and is still played, with minor variations, today in some parts of Central America. The original game had no other name other than “ballgame.” The sport started with the Olmec and was played throughout Pre-Columbian times by every culture in Central America. The court was usually the second thing built after the alter in a new town. Sometimes chronicled as “Hipball,” the players had to keep the ball from hitting the ground for over an hour. In some cases, they came out of a game fairly beaten up, in spite of the leather guards they wore, all while trying to hit the ball through rings placed high on the walls of a court. In most Mesoamerican cultures, it had strong religious affiliations. The Maya even designated a portion to one of their five worlds or creation stories to it. There were both amateur and professional players. In some cultures, only the losers were sacrificed. In some cases, all the players were sacrificed. In still others, all the players were either slaves or captured warriors, or from another caste who were trying to win their freedom, and sometimes they were allowed to live to play another day. ‘The Game’ was a team sport and had a distinctive court known as the Tlachtli or Tlachco. Each team had anywhere from two to seven players and the idea was to put a hard rubber ball through rings placed on the side walls of the court without using your hands, arms, feet (in some cases) knees or legs. There were a few cases where other means of scoring were provided. The betting on these matches was always heavy for both the amateur and professional teams, as well as on individual players. It was not unheard of for a man to bet his wife or children into slavery, or even himself sometimes. That’s not to mention his home, fields, corn supplies and maguey plants. Again, probably for the older set, the Mesoamerican culture had a dice game called Patolli. It reminds me a little of Parcheesi, which is originally from India. Here is a popular dice game, which was played by people that just wanted to sit and have a nice game of Patolli, and by those that relied on the game for their livelihood. Designed to be played mostly on feast days, it was very portable and designed to be gambled on. Historians report that people would crowd into a place just to watch and place wagers on this game or others protected and blessed (as it were) by their gods. Some say Patolli was a blood game. But, if you look over the pantheon of games and of their gods, you will see that here was a series of cultures that looked to human sacrifice for a continued existence and they liked to gamble a lot. Kirby was born in a little burg just south of El Paso, Texas called Fabens. As he understand it, they we were passing through. His history reads like a road atlas. By the time he started school, he had lived in five places in two states. By the time he started high school, that list went to five states, four countries on three continents. Then he joined the Air Force after high school and one year of college and spent 23 years stationed in eleven or twelve places and traveled all over the place doing administrative, security, and electronic things. His final stay was being in charge of Air Force Recruiting in San Diego, Imperial, and Yuma counties. Upon retirement he went back to New England as a Quality Assurance Manager in electronics manufacturing before he was moved to Production Manager for the company’s Mexico operations. He moved to the Phoenix area and finally got his education and ended up teaching. He parted with the university and moved to Whidbey Island, Washington where he was introduced to Manzanillo, Mexico. It was there that he started to publish his monthly article for the Manzanillo Sun. He currently reside in Coupeville, WA, Edmonton, AB, and Manzanillo, Colima, Mexico, depending on whose having what medical problems and the time of year. His time is spent dieting, writing his second book, various articles and short stories, and sightseeing Canada, although that seems to be limited in the winter up there.	1,509	ENGLISH	1
Perhaps the one thing that George Washington and Jean-Paul Marat share most commonly is that they have both taken part in a revolution, even though those revolutions had been on different continents, an ocean apart. George Washington was present during the American Revolution, just like Jean-Paul Marat was there when the French Revolution occurred. But where Washington was a warrior, a general and a commander of an army, Marat was a writer. Both of these were strong and powerful men who have single-handedly changed the history, as well as the map, of the world. Both of these men were intelligent and knew how to play right in the harsh times of despair and despondency. Washington realized early in the civil war that the best strategy he was to use was to harass the British. He continued to do so in the battlefield as well as in the political arena. He was one of the most vigorous advocates of the constitution and he was perhaps the prime mover of the steps that led to the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia in 1787. It was due to his hard work and his loyalty to the nation that he was elected as the First President of the United States. It were due to his personality and his dedicated lifestyle that he was able to lead the nation into victory and help it establish a constituency that was free and is still free to this day today. Marat, on the other hand, was a journalist, writer and a doctor. His influence amongst the elite of France was what led him to become interested in the politics of the country. He had written many books and essays on the human soul and it were these philosophical thoughts that led him into joining the politics of France in hopes of making it better. He was a very active person before as well as during the French Revolution. He gave the French an idea of'meritocracy' and told them that it was all right for the people and normal citizens to have a say in the politics o	<urn:uuid:2a16e5c7-66a2-4113-8c41-13e4e6bfb8d2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/compare-contrast-on-washington/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00171.warc.gz	en	0.995779	394	3.265625	3	[ -0.26146838068962097, 0.5027899146080017, 0.330592542886734, -0.22145016491413116, -0.4053555428981781, 0.5542467832565308, 0.18269705772399902, 0.8225281238555908, -0.019664468243718147, 0.09583856165409088, 0.36087512969970703, 0.33960652351379395, 0.09287992119789124, 0.564234733581543,...	1	Perhaps the one thing that George Washington and Jean-Paul Marat share most commonly is that they have both taken part in a revolution, even though those revolutions had been on different continents, an ocean apart. George Washington was present during the American Revolution, just like Jean-Paul Marat was there when the French Revolution occurred. But where Washington was a warrior, a general and a commander of an army, Marat was a writer. Both of these were strong and powerful men who have single-handedly changed the history, as well as the map, of the world. Both of these men were intelligent and knew how to play right in the harsh times of despair and despondency. Washington realized early in the civil war that the best strategy he was to use was to harass the British. He continued to do so in the battlefield as well as in the political arena. He was one of the most vigorous advocates of the constitution and he was perhaps the prime mover of the steps that led to the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia in 1787. It was due to his hard work and his loyalty to the nation that he was elected as the First President of the United States. It were due to his personality and his dedicated lifestyle that he was able to lead the nation into victory and help it establish a constituency that was free and is still free to this day today. Marat, on the other hand, was a journalist, writer and a doctor. His influence amongst the elite of France was what led him to become interested in the politics of the country. He had written many books and essays on the human soul and it were these philosophical thoughts that led him into joining the politics of France in hopes of making it better. He was a very active person before as well as during the French Revolution. He gave the French an idea of'meritocracy' and told them that it was all right for the people and normal citizens to have a say in the politics o	394	ENGLISH	1
From the early seventh century the sources available to us are more numerous and more evenly distributed across the west. By this period, the ‘ethnic’ armies descended from the late Roman field armies had evolved into armies raised from classes of landowners. This evolution continued through the seventh century. The seventh-century Lombard territories appear at first to have raised armies on the model common throughout the west in the sixth century. As far as can be ascertained, though, this system, and taxation with it, seems soon to have withered and there is no evidence for its persistence by the time we have sufficient documentary evidence to examine such issues (in the eighth century). The development of Lombard armies from the ethnic forces of the very early period to Liutprand’s armies in the eighth century is difficult to follow. The documentary evidence from Lombard Italy is most uneven in its survival; we have little other than laws for the seventh century, but laws (of a generally different kind from those of the seventh century) and charters in the eighth. The forms of archaeological evidence also change. These differences in evidential nature and survival suggest that there was change between the seventh and eighth centuries, and make it problematic to argue back from the eighth-century situation. Nevertheless, in Rothari’s Edict, the political community of the Lombard kingdom is referred to as the army (exercitus) and an equation of Lombard ethnicity with military service might be implied. The term exercitalis (‘army man’) is used but only in a context where it could simply mean ‘soldier’, although it could have a broader meaning as a member of the social group which formed the army. It is not really possible to examine the status of these people in detail until the eighth century. The Lombard kings were on the offensive for much of the seventh century, engaged in repeated warfare against the East Roman territories in Italy. Serious attacks into Italy by the Franks petered out by the early seventh century and although Avar raids and Byzantine counter-attacks were significant problems, the persistent campaigning provided ample opportunities for the acquisition of booty and land, and to gain prestige and office through good service. This may have helped to strengthen royal power but the extent of royal power over the dukes in the seventh century is difficult to gauge. Seventh-century Lombard royal succession was fairly turbulent. On the other hand, some cemeteries of furnished burials in the kingdom of Italy suggest a competition for local authority, which might have led to the importance of ducal or possibly royal patronage in local society, as in sixth-century Gaul. Certainly it suggests that local authority was expressed through the use of military symbols. Mid-7th century Lombard territories The importance of the retinues of royal officers and of other wealthy aristocrats should not be underestimated. Though it can be argued that this never became too significant in Lombard Italy, on the basis of the eighth-century evidence, it is not impossible that the situation differed in the seventh century. Early in the Lombard period, the settlement of the Lombard newcomers may have been organised, to some extent, by farae. The farae were once thought to have been large, clan-like, kin-based groupings. The evidence for this is unclear, though, and they may have been smaller military groupings. By the time that we know much about Lombard social and political structures, their importance appears to have waned; the only reference to a fara in the laws does imply that it is a family group, if perhaps a small one. As yet, the only members of such followings who concerned the lawmakers were those legally dependent upon a freeman. In Rothari’s Edict, freedmen (in other words, men freed from some form of servitude) are referred to in the service (gasindium) of dukes or in the obsequium of freemen or dukes. Freedmen were, because of their poverty, usually heavily dependent upon the individual who had granted them their freedom. These individuals owned weapons, which were to be inherited, presumably as signs of their legal status. Other gifts from their lords or patrons, if the freedman had not paid back these gifts through his service, were to revert to his lord. Otherwise, any links between members of the broad class of the free were based upon gift and counter-gift, and somewhat informal, as elsewhere at this date. Some Lombard warlords still periodically took service with the Byzantine enemies of the Lombard kingdom and led distinguished military careers with them. They presumably took with them their bands of military followers and dependants. The organisation of the Lombard kingdom was based upon the civitas but in Italy these units were governed by dukes rather than by counts. The city district was thus also the principal unit of military organisation. The duke, assisted by his ‘judges’ would call up the Lombard freemen within his territory. Lombard law made clear that those liable to military service were obliged to serve when the duke called out the army, as well as when the call-up was on royal initiative. The frontier dukes of the Lombard kingdom were often engaged in warfare and their military successes could make them political rivals of the kings in Pavia. The Lombard kings created the institution of the gastald as an officer who reported directly to the king and could, to some extent, act as a counterweight to the duke in local politics. This was an interesting royal response to the problems of ruling an early medieval polity and to the dynamic tension between political core and local society. (Source: “Warfare and society in the barbarian West, 450–900”, by Guy Halsall) Research-Selection for NovoScriptorium: Anastasius Philoponus	<urn:uuid:ccda6800-14bf-4f0e-82f3-f3dec91e1358>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://novoscriptorium.com/2020/01/09/raising-an-army-in-post-roman-europe-the-seventh-century-lombard-italy/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00361.warc.gz	en	0.980422	1,211	3.390625	3	[ -0.7773417830467224, 0.6594975590705872, 0.44974052906036377, 0.10907589644193649, -0.1469845175743103, 0.15590745210647583, -0.49638187885284424, -0.023704037070274353, -0.1715662181377411, -0.2964138984680176, -0.15097521245479584, -0.5391048789024353, 0.2718474864959717, 0.1852342784404...	12	From the early seventh century the sources available to us are more numerous and more evenly distributed across the west. By this period, the ‘ethnic’ armies descended from the late Roman field armies had evolved into armies raised from classes of landowners. This evolution continued through the seventh century. The seventh-century Lombard territories appear at first to have raised armies on the model common throughout the west in the sixth century. As far as can be ascertained, though, this system, and taxation with it, seems soon to have withered and there is no evidence for its persistence by the time we have sufficient documentary evidence to examine such issues (in the eighth century). The development of Lombard armies from the ethnic forces of the very early period to Liutprand’s armies in the eighth century is difficult to follow. The documentary evidence from Lombard Italy is most uneven in its survival; we have little other than laws for the seventh century, but laws (of a generally different kind from those of the seventh century) and charters in the eighth. The forms of archaeological evidence also change. These differences in evidential nature and survival suggest that there was change between the seventh and eighth centuries, and make it problematic to argue back from the eighth-century situation. Nevertheless, in Rothari’s Edict, the political community of the Lombard kingdom is referred to as the army (exercitus) and an equation of Lombard ethnicity with military service might be implied. The term exercitalis (‘army man’) is used but only in a context where it could simply mean ‘soldier’, although it could have a broader meaning as a member of the social group which formed the army. It is not really possible to examine the status of these people in detail until the eighth century. The Lombard kings were on the offensive for much of the seventh century, engaged in repeated warfare against the East Roman territories in Italy. Serious attacks into Italy by the Franks petered out by the early seventh century and although Avar raids and Byzantine counter-attacks were significant problems, the persistent campaigning provided ample opportunities for the acquisition of booty and land, and to gain prestige and office through good service. This may have helped to strengthen royal power but the extent of royal power over the dukes in the seventh century is difficult to gauge. Seventh-century Lombard royal succession was fairly turbulent. On the other hand, some cemeteries of furnished burials in the kingdom of Italy suggest a competition for local authority, which might have led to the importance of ducal or possibly royal patronage in local society, as in sixth-century Gaul. Certainly it suggests that local authority was expressed through the use of military symbols. Mid-7th century Lombard territories The importance of the retinues of royal officers and of other wealthy aristocrats should not be underestimated. Though it can be argued that this never became too significant in Lombard Italy, on the basis of the eighth-century evidence, it is not impossible that the situation differed in the seventh century. Early in the Lombard period, the settlement of the Lombard newcomers may have been organised, to some extent, by farae. The farae were once thought to have been large, clan-like, kin-based groupings. The evidence for this is unclear, though, and they may have been smaller military groupings. By the time that we know much about Lombard social and political structures, their importance appears to have waned; the only reference to a fara in the laws does imply that it is a family group, if perhaps a small one. As yet, the only members of such followings who concerned the lawmakers were those legally dependent upon a freeman. In Rothari’s Edict, freedmen (in other words, men freed from some form of servitude) are referred to in the service (gasindium) of dukes or in the obsequium of freemen or dukes. Freedmen were, because of their poverty, usually heavily dependent upon the individual who had granted them their freedom. These individuals owned weapons, which were to be inherited, presumably as signs of their legal status. Other gifts from their lords or patrons, if the freedman had not paid back these gifts through his service, were to revert to his lord. Otherwise, any links between members of the broad class of the free were based upon gift and counter-gift, and somewhat informal, as elsewhere at this date. Some Lombard warlords still periodically took service with the Byzantine enemies of the Lombard kingdom and led distinguished military careers with them. They presumably took with them their bands of military followers and dependants. The organisation of the Lombard kingdom was based upon the civitas but in Italy these units were governed by dukes rather than by counts. The city district was thus also the principal unit of military organisation. The duke, assisted by his ‘judges’ would call up the Lombard freemen within his territory. Lombard law made clear that those liable to military service were obliged to serve when the duke called out the army, as well as when the call-up was on royal initiative. The frontier dukes of the Lombard kingdom were often engaged in warfare and their military successes could make them political rivals of the kings in Pavia. The Lombard kings created the institution of the gastald as an officer who reported directly to the king and could, to some extent, act as a counterweight to the duke in local politics. This was an interesting royal response to the problems of ruling an early medieval polity and to the dynamic tension between political core and local society. (Source: “Warfare and society in the barbarian West, 450–900”, by Guy Halsall) Research-Selection for NovoScriptorium: Anastasius Philoponus	1,180	ENGLISH	1
One winter night in 2012, in a small Spanish city not far from Barcelona, a 10-year-old girl saw something streak through the sky and fall to Earth. The object, whatever it was, was glowing. The little girl waited, until she could pick the object up and bring it home. She showed it to her relatives, and they wondered. Where had this object had come from? What exactly was it that had fallen from the sky? The family brought the girl’s discovery to a local museum. They were directed to an astronomical organization, who handed the object to the Institute of Space Sciences. To the scientists there, who specialize in studying meteorites, one thing was immediately clear. This object, round, black and rock-like, was not a meteorite. If it were a meteorite, it would have been heavier. The scientists were intrigued. “The sample was so weird and challenging we decided to study it carefully,” they wrote, in a report presented at the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (from which the details above are drawn). The scientists wanted to preserve the object, but they needed to know what it was made of. They sliced into one corner, to obtain thin sections of the material. When they saw the interior, they were even more certain it was not a meteorite. First, it didn’t look like the interior of “any known meteorite,” they wrote. Also, it had bubbles inside.	<urn:uuid:d0df1e8b-67f8-4c8d-b720-386dc9aba778>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://asteroidday.org/updates/this-man-made-meteor-wrong-fell-from-space/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00252.warc.gz	en	0.990981	304	3.84375	4	[ 0.06404642760753632, 0.4235297739505768, 0.26307904720306396, -0.07667192071676254, 0.11636003106832504, 0.052873436361551285, 0.3790808618068695, 0.3175947666168213, -0.3525627553462982, -0.040555864572525024, 0.02488408423960209, -0.2227218747138977, -0.05953222140669823, 0.4546476900577...	1	One winter night in 2012, in a small Spanish city not far from Barcelona, a 10-year-old girl saw something streak through the sky and fall to Earth. The object, whatever it was, was glowing. The little girl waited, until she could pick the object up and bring it home. She showed it to her relatives, and they wondered. Where had this object had come from? What exactly was it that had fallen from the sky? The family brought the girl’s discovery to a local museum. They were directed to an astronomical organization, who handed the object to the Institute of Space Sciences. To the scientists there, who specialize in studying meteorites, one thing was immediately clear. This object, round, black and rock-like, was not a meteorite. If it were a meteorite, it would have been heavier. The scientists were intrigued. “The sample was so weird and challenging we decided to study it carefully,” they wrote, in a report presented at the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (from which the details above are drawn). The scientists wanted to preserve the object, but they needed to know what it was made of. They sliced into one corner, to obtain thin sections of the material. When they saw the interior, they were even more certain it was not a meteorite. First, it didn’t look like the interior of “any known meteorite,” they wrote. Also, it had bubbles inside.	294	ENGLISH	1
来源：沪江听写酷 2011-09-25 12:00 You may remember that a few weeks ago we discussed the question of what photography is. Is it art or is it a method of reproducing images? Do photographs belong in museums or just in our homes? Today I want to talk about a person who tried to make his professional life an answer to such questions. Alfred Stieglitz went from the United States to Germany to study engineering. While he was there, he became interested in photography and began to experiment with his camera. He took pictures under conditions that most photographers considered too difficult - he took them at night, in the rain, and of people and objects reflected in windows. When he returned to the United States , he continued these revolutionary efforts. Stieglitz was the first person to photograph skyscrapers, clouds, and views from an airplane. What Stieglitz was trying to do in these photographs was what he tried to do throughout his life: make photography an art. He thought that photography could be just as good a form of self-expression as painting or drawing. For Stieglitz, his camera was his brush. While many photographers of the late 1800s and early 1900s thought of their work as a reproduction of identical images, Stieglitz saw his as a creative art form. He understood the power of the camera to capture the moment. In fact, he never retouched his prints or made copies of them. If he were in this classroom today, I'm sure he'd say, "Well, painters don't normally make extra copies of their paintings, do they?"	<urn:uuid:6f924633-46ea-4cfd-b23f-d4bb98e4ec8f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.hjenglish.com/tuofu/p225366/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00536.warc.gz	en	0.993193	347	3.328125	3	[ 0.07697722315788269, 0.16080714762210846, -0.0941835269331932, -0.1707306206226349, 0.35681238770484924, -0.005764615256339312, 0.04303734004497528, -0.18330156803131104, -0.316853791475296, 0.24115289747714996, 0.2785734236240387, 0.26675528287887573, 0.3970133364200592, 0.606193184852600...	2	来源：沪江听写酷 2011-09-25 12:00 You may remember that a few weeks ago we discussed the question of what photography is. Is it art or is it a method of reproducing images? Do photographs belong in museums or just in our homes? Today I want to talk about a person who tried to make his professional life an answer to such questions. Alfred Stieglitz went from the United States to Germany to study engineering. While he was there, he became interested in photography and began to experiment with his camera. He took pictures under conditions that most photographers considered too difficult - he took them at night, in the rain, and of people and objects reflected in windows. When he returned to the United States , he continued these revolutionary efforts. Stieglitz was the first person to photograph skyscrapers, clouds, and views from an airplane. What Stieglitz was trying to do in these photographs was what he tried to do throughout his life: make photography an art. He thought that photography could be just as good a form of self-expression as painting or drawing. For Stieglitz, his camera was his brush. While many photographers of the late 1800s and early 1900s thought of their work as a reproduction of identical images, Stieglitz saw his as a creative art form. He understood the power of the camera to capture the moment. In fact, he never retouched his prints or made copies of them. If he were in this classroom today, I'm sure he'd say, "Well, painters don't normally make extra copies of their paintings, do they?"	348	ENGLISH	1
The 19th amendment to the US Constitution guarantees that all American women have the right to vote. To achieve this milestone, a difficult and lengthy struggle was required. and this victory had taken decades of protest and agitation. The next lesson: The United States Government It began around the middle of the 19th century, and it needed many generations of woman supporters who wrote, lectured, lobbied, marched, and practiced some serious civil disobedience to attain something that many Americans in those days considered one radical constitutional change. In fact, there weren’t many first-hour supporters that lived to see victory, finally in 1920. Starting in the 1800s, American women organize, petition, and picket for winning voting rights. It took them, however, many decades to see their purpose come true. Between 1878, the year this amendment was initially introduced in the U.S. Congress, and 1920 when it was ratified on August 18th, many champions of American women voting rights were working tirelessly but strategies for reaching their goals were varying greatly. Some women tried to get suffrage acts passed in all states and actually, by 1912, nine western states had already adopted woman suffrage legislation. Others were challenging their state’s voting male-only laws in court, and some militant suffragists were using tactics like hunger strikes, parades, or silent vigils but very often, their supporters were facing fierce resistance. Their opponents jailed, heckled, and even physically abused them. By 1916, practically all of the big suffrage organizations had come together to achieve their goal of an amendment to the Constitution in unity. When in 1917, New York State adopted woman voting rights and President Wilson was changing his position in 1918 and supported an amendment, the political clout and balance started to shift. In 1919, on May 21st, the U.S. House of Representatives had passed the important amendment and just two weeks later, the U.S. Senate followed suit. So when in 1920 the state of Tennessee was the 36th state that ratified this amendment on August 18th, the amendment had passed the final hurdle as it obtained the required okay from three-fourths of all states. That year, on August 26th, Bainbridge Colby, U.S. Secretary of State, certified this ratification which changed the American electorate’s face forever. Last Updated on	<urn:uuid:15eea1ea-cbb8-48b1-8387-68829e1eafe2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bestgedclasses.org/19th-amendment-women-the-right-to-vote/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00219.warc.gz	en	0.981543	488	4.625	5	[ -0.45315802097320557, -0.12239207327365875, 0.09885884821414948, 0.18838167190551758, -0.4925808012485504, 0.5165402889251709, -0.2905430793762207, 0.20521493256092072, -0.26141148805618286, -0.017468083649873734, -0.009835811331868172, 0.32094666361808777, 0.09495165199041367, -0.16757646...	1	The 19th amendment to the US Constitution guarantees that all American women have the right to vote. To achieve this milestone, a difficult and lengthy struggle was required. and this victory had taken decades of protest and agitation. The next lesson: The United States Government It began around the middle of the 19th century, and it needed many generations of woman supporters who wrote, lectured, lobbied, marched, and practiced some serious civil disobedience to attain something that many Americans in those days considered one radical constitutional change. In fact, there weren’t many first-hour supporters that lived to see victory, finally in 1920. Starting in the 1800s, American women organize, petition, and picket for winning voting rights. It took them, however, many decades to see their purpose come true. Between 1878, the year this amendment was initially introduced in the U.S. Congress, and 1920 when it was ratified on August 18th, many champions of American women voting rights were working tirelessly but strategies for reaching their goals were varying greatly. Some women tried to get suffrage acts passed in all states and actually, by 1912, nine western states had already adopted woman suffrage legislation. Others were challenging their state’s voting male-only laws in court, and some militant suffragists were using tactics like hunger strikes, parades, or silent vigils but very often, their supporters were facing fierce resistance. Their opponents jailed, heckled, and even physically abused them. By 1916, practically all of the big suffrage organizations had come together to achieve their goal of an amendment to the Constitution in unity. When in 1917, New York State adopted woman voting rights and President Wilson was changing his position in 1918 and supported an amendment, the political clout and balance started to shift. In 1919, on May 21st, the U.S. House of Representatives had passed the important amendment and just two weeks later, the U.S. Senate followed suit. So when in 1920 the state of Tennessee was the 36th state that ratified this amendment on August 18th, the amendment had passed the final hurdle as it obtained the required okay from three-fourths of all states. That year, on August 26th, Bainbridge Colby, U.S. Secretary of State, certified this ratification which changed the American electorate’s face forever. Last Updated on	523	ENGLISH	1
Art is a lie that makes us realize the truth. — Pablo Picasso The names read like an invocation of art: Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Clito Ruiz y Picasso. Pablo Picasso remains one the most influential artists in the world. Because not only did he change the entire course of the art world but he remains relevant today, having created works of enduring appeal and impact. His influence continues to resonate. Born 25 October 1881 Picasso was a Spanish painter, draughtsman and sculptor. Best known for founding the Cubist movement and for the wide variety of styles embodied in his work, his most famous works are the proto-Cubist Les Demoiselles (1907) and Guernica (1937), his portrayal of the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. By the time he died on 8 April 1973 he had revolutionized the art world. ‘Others have seen what is and asked why. I have seen what could be and asked why not.’ – Pablo Picasso. His father was a professor of art and by the time Picasso was a teenager his father felt his son had surpassed him and he vowed to give up painting. Picasso was a child prodigy, capable of painting elaborate classical portraits and his teachers at university found he was so advanced they were unable to teach him anything. He toured the galleries of Europe as a young man, studying the masters. He painted in poverty in Paris, often burning his canvases to keep warm. He developed cubism during the time he lived with George Braque, the lesser known cubist painter. Together they pioneered the cubist movement, which consisted of deconstructing the world as we see it. Analytic cubism is a style that uses monochrome brownish and neutral colours. Objects are deconstructed and analysed in terms of their shapes. One of the reasons we look at art is to see at the world differently, a great painting will show a fresh perspective, it will make the world new. And that is exactly what Picasso achieved in his paintings. By breaking up form he forced the viewer to look at the canvas and reinterpret the world around him. Iconoclastic and irreverent towards the art world, Picasso had so many imitators by the end of his life, that he would often walk round art galleries pointing at paintings that bore his name saying they were not his. Sometimes they were, and he enjoyed taunting the gallery owners with their own ignorance. The road to fame was a hard one, in which Picasso endured much poverty and hardship. However, by 1905 he had become a favourite of American art collectors Leo and Gertrude Stein. In Paris, Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in the Montmartre and Montparnasse quarters, including Andre Breton, poet Guillaume Apollinaire, and writer Alfred Jarry. Then there were the women. In 1927 Picasso met Marie-Therese Walter and began a secret affair with her while still married to Khokhlova. He chose not to divorce her and separated from her instead, since he did not want her to obtain half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova’s death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Thérèse Walter and fathered a daughter, Maia, with her. Marie-Thérèse lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso’s death. Throughout his life Picasso maintained a number of mistresses in addition to his wife or primary partner. He was married twice and had four children by three women. During the Second World War, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. His artistic style did not fit the Nazi views of art. They wanted political propaganda, so Picasso was not able to show his works during this time. In 1944, after the liberation of Paris, Picasso started a new relationship with a young art student, named Francoise Gilot. Having grown tired of his mistress Dora Maar, Picasso and Gilot began to live together. After his relationship with Gilot fell apart, and she left; Picasso continued to have affairs. While still involved with Gilot in 1951 Picasso had a six-week affair with Genevieve Laporte (1926), who in June 2005 auctioned off drawings that Picasso made of her and gave to her as a gift. Eventually Picasso began to come to terms with his advancing age and his waning attraction to young women, by incorporating the idea into his new work, expressing the perception that, now in his 70s, he had become a grotesque and comic figure to young women. A number of works including paintings, ink drawings and prints from this period explore the theme of the hideous old dwarf as accompaniment to a doting lover of a beautiful young model. He depicted himself as tumescent bull lusting after women. In addition to his artistic accomplishments, Picasso had a film career, including a cameo appearance in Jean Cocteau’s Testament of Orpheus. Picasso always played himself in his film appearances. In 1955 he helped make the film Le Mystère Picasso (The Mystery of Picasso) directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot. Pablo Picasso died on 8 April 1973 in Mougins, France, while he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. His final words were “Drink to me, drink to my health, you know I can’t drink any more.” He was buried at the Chateau of Vauvenargues near Aix-en-Provence, a property he had acquired in 1958 and lived in with Jacqueline between 1959 and 1962. Jacqueline Roque prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral. Devastated and lonely after the death of Picasso, Jacqueline Roque took her own life by gunshot in 1986 when she was 60 years old. The legacy he left is monumental. Picasso’s work spanned various periods. The Blue period consisted of sombre paintings rendered in shades of blue and green. The Rose Period was characterised by a cheery style with orange and pink colours. The African-influenced period gave way to Cubism. And towards the end of his life he returned to classicism, coupling it with surrealism. Femme aux Bras Croises, 1902, Blue Period Garcon a la Pipe, 1905, Rose period Picasso was exceptionally prolific throughout his long lifetime. The total number of artworks he produced has been estimated at 50,000, comprising 1,885 paintings; 1,228 sculptures; 2,880 ceramics, roughly 12,000 drawings, many thousands of prints, and numerous tapestries and rugs. He was innovative throughout. One of his most striking and arresting sculptures consists simply of a pair of bicycle handle bars placed on a bicycle seat. It is a sculpture of a bull’s head and its realism is all the more powerful when you consider the simplicity of the materials he used to make it. Picasso said that art is everywhere and he would find objects and use them for his sculptures. His virtuosity isn’t surprising when you consider the speed with which he worked, visible in the films taken of him in his studio and the comment he once made when asked why he was always working. ‘Inspiration exists, but it has to find us working.’ Bio: RICHARD GODWINis a prolific writer of powerful, dark fiction.His essential blog is here .His short story ART is here. His short story The Iconoclast is here. Links to his other work can be found here.	<urn:uuid:da9476ba-062c-4ee7-b587-95ace21c9500>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pauldbrazill.com/art/guest-blogger-richard-godwin-pablo-picasso/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00451.warc.gz	en	0.983676	1,673	3.5	4	[ 0.2094196081161499, 0.136042058467865, 0.3162376284599304, 0.2888794243335724, 0.004080391023308039, 0.27816683053970337, 0.3362872004508972, 0.05762895941734314, -0.02538122981786728, 0.26046985387802124, 0.11703916639089584, -0.2563362121582031, -0.10005943477153778, 0.4616532325744629, ...	1	Art is a lie that makes us realize the truth. — Pablo Picasso The names read like an invocation of art: Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Clito Ruiz y Picasso. Pablo Picasso remains one the most influential artists in the world. Because not only did he change the entire course of the art world but he remains relevant today, having created works of enduring appeal and impact. His influence continues to resonate. Born 25 October 1881 Picasso was a Spanish painter, draughtsman and sculptor. Best known for founding the Cubist movement and for the wide variety of styles embodied in his work, his most famous works are the proto-Cubist Les Demoiselles (1907) and Guernica (1937), his portrayal of the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. By the time he died on 8 April 1973 he had revolutionized the art world. ‘Others have seen what is and asked why. I have seen what could be and asked why not.’ – Pablo Picasso. His father was a professor of art and by the time Picasso was a teenager his father felt his son had surpassed him and he vowed to give up painting. Picasso was a child prodigy, capable of painting elaborate classical portraits and his teachers at university found he was so advanced they were unable to teach him anything. He toured the galleries of Europe as a young man, studying the masters. He painted in poverty in Paris, often burning his canvases to keep warm. He developed cubism during the time he lived with George Braque, the lesser known cubist painter. Together they pioneered the cubist movement, which consisted of deconstructing the world as we see it. Analytic cubism is a style that uses monochrome brownish and neutral colours. Objects are deconstructed and analysed in terms of their shapes. One of the reasons we look at art is to see at the world differently, a great painting will show a fresh perspective, it will make the world new. And that is exactly what Picasso achieved in his paintings. By breaking up form he forced the viewer to look at the canvas and reinterpret the world around him. Iconoclastic and irreverent towards the art world, Picasso had so many imitators by the end of his life, that he would often walk round art galleries pointing at paintings that bore his name saying they were not his. Sometimes they were, and he enjoyed taunting the gallery owners with their own ignorance. The road to fame was a hard one, in which Picasso endured much poverty and hardship. However, by 1905 he had become a favourite of American art collectors Leo and Gertrude Stein. In Paris, Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in the Montmartre and Montparnasse quarters, including Andre Breton, poet Guillaume Apollinaire, and writer Alfred Jarry. Then there were the women. In 1927 Picasso met Marie-Therese Walter and began a secret affair with her while still married to Khokhlova. He chose not to divorce her and separated from her instead, since he did not want her to obtain half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova’s death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Thérèse Walter and fathered a daughter, Maia, with her. Marie-Thérèse lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso’s death. Throughout his life Picasso maintained a number of mistresses in addition to his wife or primary partner. He was married twice and had four children by three women. During the Second World War, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. His artistic style did not fit the Nazi views of art. They wanted political propaganda, so Picasso was not able to show his works during this time. In 1944, after the liberation of Paris, Picasso started a new relationship with a young art student, named Francoise Gilot. Having grown tired of his mistress Dora Maar, Picasso and Gilot began to live together. After his relationship with Gilot fell apart, and she left; Picasso continued to have affairs. While still involved with Gilot in 1951 Picasso had a six-week affair with Genevieve Laporte (1926), who in June 2005 auctioned off drawings that Picasso made of her and gave to her as a gift. Eventually Picasso began to come to terms with his advancing age and his waning attraction to young women, by incorporating the idea into his new work, expressing the perception that, now in his 70s, he had become a grotesque and comic figure to young women. A number of works including paintings, ink drawings and prints from this period explore the theme of the hideous old dwarf as accompaniment to a doting lover of a beautiful young model. He depicted himself as tumescent bull lusting after women. In addition to his artistic accomplishments, Picasso had a film career, including a cameo appearance in Jean Cocteau’s Testament of Orpheus. Picasso always played himself in his film appearances. In 1955 he helped make the film Le Mystère Picasso (The Mystery of Picasso) directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot. Pablo Picasso died on 8 April 1973 in Mougins, France, while he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. His final words were “Drink to me, drink to my health, you know I can’t drink any more.” He was buried at the Chateau of Vauvenargues near Aix-en-Provence, a property he had acquired in 1958 and lived in with Jacqueline between 1959 and 1962. Jacqueline Roque prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral. Devastated and lonely after the death of Picasso, Jacqueline Roque took her own life by gunshot in 1986 when she was 60 years old. The legacy he left is monumental. Picasso’s work spanned various periods. The Blue period consisted of sombre paintings rendered in shades of blue and green. The Rose Period was characterised by a cheery style with orange and pink colours. The African-influenced period gave way to Cubism. And towards the end of his life he returned to classicism, coupling it with surrealism. Femme aux Bras Croises, 1902, Blue Period Garcon a la Pipe, 1905, Rose period Picasso was exceptionally prolific throughout his long lifetime. The total number of artworks he produced has been estimated at 50,000, comprising 1,885 paintings; 1,228 sculptures; 2,880 ceramics, roughly 12,000 drawings, many thousands of prints, and numerous tapestries and rugs. He was innovative throughout. One of his most striking and arresting sculptures consists simply of a pair of bicycle handle bars placed on a bicycle seat. It is a sculpture of a bull’s head and its realism is all the more powerful when you consider the simplicity of the materials he used to make it. Picasso said that art is everywhere and he would find objects and use them for his sculptures. His virtuosity isn’t surprising when you consider the speed with which he worked, visible in the films taken of him in his studio and the comment he once made when asked why he was always working. ‘Inspiration exists, but it has to find us working.’ Bio: RICHARD GODWINis a prolific writer of powerful, dark fiction.His essential blog is here .His short story ART is here. His short story The Iconoclast is here. Links to his other work can be found here.	1,656	ENGLISH	1
WHY THE PORCUPINE HAS QUILLS Long, long ago, the Porcupines had no quills. One day, a Porcupine was out in the woods. A Bear came along and would have eaten Porcupine, but he managed to get up a tree where the Bear couldn't get him. The next day Porcupine was out again and he went underneath a hawthorn tree, and he noticed how the thorns pricked him. He broke some branches off and put them on his back, then he went into the woods. Along came Bear and he jumped on Porcupine, who just curled himself up. The Bear just left him alone because the thorns pricked him so much. Wenebojo was watching them. He called to Porcupine and asked "How did you think of that trick?" Porcupine told him that he was in danger when Bear was around. Then Wenebojo took some thorns and peeled the bark off of them until they were all white. Then he got some clay and put it all over Porcupine's back and stuck the thorns in it. Wenebojo used his magic to make it into a proper skin, and told Porcupine come with him into the woods. When they got there, Wenebojo hid behind a tree. Wolf came along and saw Porcupine and jumped on him, but the new quills pricked at him and Wolf ran away. Bear was also afraid of the quills and Porcupine was safe. That is why Porcupines have quills. Source: (Adapted from G.E. Laidlaw, 1922, "Ojibwe Myths and Tales," Wisconsin Archeologist 1:28-38.) Excerpt from the article titled: "PORCUPINE QUILLS, TAILS AND TALES" by Beth Gruber Ojibwa legend tells that long ago, when the world was young, porcupines had no quills. One day in the woods Bear came along and wanted to eat Porcupine but he escaped to safety by climbing a tree. The following day Porcupine was under a Hawthorne tree and noticed how the thorns pricked him. He broke off some of the branches and put them on his back. Then he went back into the woods and waited. Along came Bear, who jumped on top of Porcupine. But the little animal just curled up into a ball. Bear had to go away because the thorns pricked him so much. Nanabozho (an Ojibwa trickster figure and culture hero) saw what happened. After Porcupine explained, Nanabozho took some Hawthorne branches and peeled the bark off until they were white. Then he put some clay on the back of Porcupine and stuck the thorns in it. Nanabozho used his magic to make it part of Porcupine’s skin, then they went back to the forest and waited. Wolf came along and saw Porcupine and jumped on him, but the new quills pricked at him and Wolf ran away. Bear was also afraid of the quills and Porcupine was safe. This is why all porcupines have quills today. Another Ojibwa legend counsels what can happen when you don’t respect the porcupine. Two young girls went out to set traps one nice winter day. When they happened upon a porcupine, the older girl said, “Let’s take that porcupine and pull out all his quills so he freezes.” The younger girl said, “No, no! Don’t do such a thing.”But the first girl caught the porcupine and plucked out his quills and hair. Once she let him go, he climbed to safety in a tree. When he reached the top, he faced north and sang to Ka-bi-bo-na-kay (the north wind) asking him to send the greatest snow storm ever known. Soon it began to blow from the north, terribly cold, with driving snow. The girls became frightened and started for home, but in the blinding snow they lost their way and became separated. The younger girl at last stumbled into camp, exhausted and half frozen, but the girl who had tortured the porcupine was never seen again. LEGEND OF WINABOJO AND THE BIRCH TREE There was once an old woman living all alone on the shore of Lake Superior. She had a little girl living with her whom she called her daughter, though she did not know exactly where the child came from. They were very poor and the little girl went into the woods and dug wild potatoes or gathered rose betties for them to eat. The little girl grew up to be a woman, but she kept on doing the same work, getting potatoes and berries and picking up fish that were washed ashore. One day when doing this she had a strange feeling as though the wind were blowing underneath her clothing. She looked around her but saw no signs of anyone. After a while she went home. As soon as she entered the house her mother saw that she looked troubled and bewildered. Her mother asked, “Did you see anyone? Did anyone speak to you? The girl replied, “I saw no one and heard no one speak to me.” After a time the mother noticed that the girl was pregnant and questioned her again but the girl replied as before, that she had seen no one. The only thing strange to her was the sensation of the wind blowing about her which she had described to her mother. When the time came for her to be delivered there was a sound as of an explosion and the girl disappeared, leaving absolutely no trace. The old woman threw herself on the ground and wailed because her daughter had disappeared. She searched everywhere but could find no trace of her. Finally, in looking among the leaves, she saw a drop of blood on a leaf. She picked it up carefully and put it beside her pillow. After a while, as she lay there, she thought she heard some one shivering and breathing near her head. She lay still, not knowing what to do. She heard the breathing near her head constantly. As she lay there wondering what it could be she heard a sound like that of a human being. She said, “I guess I am going to be blessed.” As she lay there a voice spoke and said, “Grandmother, get up and build a fire. I am freezing.” The old woman arose and looked around, and there beside her lay a little boy. She took him up and caressed him. She got up and made a fire to warm him, and behold the child was Winabojo. All the spirits that roam the earth were frightened at the birth of Winabojo, for they knew his power. Throughout his human life he was a mysterious being with miraculous powers. He grew rapidly in strength and soon began to help his grandmother. He dug potatoes and brought fish and berries for her. One day, when he had grown to be almost a man, he asked his grandmother what was the largest fish in the lake. She replied, “Why do you ask? It is not good for you to know. There is a large fish that lives over by that ledge of rock, but it is very powerful and would do great harm to you.” Winabojo asked, “Could the great fish be killed?” His grandmother replied, “No, for he lives below the rocks and no one could get down there to kill him.” Winabojo began to think about this and he made up his mind that he would learn to fight so that he could kill the great fish. He got some wood and began to make bows and arrows. Then he asked his grandmother if she knew of any bird whose feathers he could put on the arrows to make them effective. The old woman replied “No. The only bird whose feathers would make the arrows effective is a bird that lives in the sky, at the opening of the clouds. One would have to go up there to get the feathers.” Winabojo began to think how he could go up there and get the feathers that he was determined to have. At last he said to himself, “There is a high cliff on the edge of the lake. I will go up there and stay a while.” When he reached the high cliff he wished that he might change into a little rabbit. So he became a little rabbit and lived there. One day he went on a very high part of the cliff and called to a big bird, saying, “Eagle, come here. I am a cunning little animal. I would be a nice plaything for your children.” The bird flew down and saw the little rabbit playing there. The rabbit was the cunningest thing he had ever seen. The big bird was the thunderbird and he alighted on the top of the high cliff, near the little rabbit. Finally he took the little rabbit and flew up, up toward the opening in the sky. When the thunderbird came to his nest he called to his children, “I have brought you something very cunning to play with.” His wife spoke to him very crossly and said, “Why did you bring that rabbit up here? Have you not heard that Winabojo is on the earth? There is no knowing what you have picked up.” But the little rabbit was very meek and quiet, letting the children play with him as they liked. The big birds were seldom at home as they went away to get food for their children. All at once one day, Winabojo began to talk to himself and he said, “There children throw me around as though I was nothing. Don’t they know I came here to get some of their feathers.” The next time the old birds went away he changed into his human form, took a club, killed the little thunderbirds and pulled off their feathers. He hurried around and tied the feathers up in bundles for he was sure the old birds would soon be home. When all was ready he jumped off. He was not killed because he was a manido (spirit) and nothing could hurt him. He was unconscious for a time after he fell on the earth but he was not hurt. Soon there was a great roaring in the sky with flashes of lightning. The thunderbirds were coming after him. Winabojo jumped up when he saw the flashes of lightning and heard the thunder. The lightning was the flash of the thunderbirds’ eyes and the roaring was their terrible voices. He snatched up the bundles of feathers and ran for his life. Wherever he went the flashes and the roaring followed him, but he held on to the feathers. He had gotten what he wanted and he did not intend to lose them. The thunderbirds kept after him and at last he felt that they were tiring him out. He began to fear that he would be killed after all. The thunderbirds came so close that they almost grasped him with their claws. He was getting bewildered. They were almost upon him when he saw an old, fallen birch tree that was hollow. He crept into the hollow just in time to save his life. As he got in the thunderbirds almost had their claws on him. The thunderbirds said, “Winabojo, you have chose the right protection. You have fled to a king-child.” There they stopped. They could not touch him for the birch tree was their own child and he had fled to it for protection. There he lay while the thunder rolled away and the flashes of the thunderbirds’ eyes grew less bright. He was safe. When the thunderbirds had gone away Winabojo came out of the hollow birch tree and said, “As long as the world stands this tree will be a protection and benefit to the human race. If they want to preserve anything they must wrap it in birch bark and it will not decay. The bark of this tree will be useful in many ways, and when people want to take the bark from the tree they must offer tobacco to express their gratitude.” So Winabojo blessed the birch tree to the good of the human race. Then he went home, fixed his arrows with the feathers of the little thunderbirds and killed the great fish. Because of all this a birch tree is never struck by lightning and people can safely stand under its branches during a storm. The bark is the last part of the tree to decay, keeping its form after the wood has disintegrated, as it did in the tree that sheltered Winabojo. The little short marks on birch bark were made by Winabojo but the “pictures” on the bark are pictures of little thunderbirds. It is said the bark in some localities contains more distinct pictures of the little thunderbirds than in others. Source: Forty-fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology To The Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1926-1927.	<urn:uuid:7ebb392f-b457-4438-b014-6c4de03d82ce>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pat-kruse.com/culture	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00065.warc.gz	en	0.991383	2,747	3.5625	4	[ -0.13756725192070007, 0.2950511872768402, -0.022867877036333084, 0.1924729347229004, -0.020593421533703804, -0.20357656478881836, 0.6732040643692017, -0.10072033852338791, 0.3825746178627014, 0.2472604513168335, -0.0032716169953346252, -0.6922543048858643, 0.21257680654525757, 0.1713083088...	10	WHY THE PORCUPINE HAS QUILLS Long, long ago, the Porcupines had no quills. One day, a Porcupine was out in the woods. A Bear came along and would have eaten Porcupine, but he managed to get up a tree where the Bear couldn't get him. The next day Porcupine was out again and he went underneath a hawthorn tree, and he noticed how the thorns pricked him. He broke some branches off and put them on his back, then he went into the woods. Along came Bear and he jumped on Porcupine, who just curled himself up. The Bear just left him alone because the thorns pricked him so much. Wenebojo was watching them. He called to Porcupine and asked "How did you think of that trick?" Porcupine told him that he was in danger when Bear was around. Then Wenebojo took some thorns and peeled the bark off of them until they were all white. Then he got some clay and put it all over Porcupine's back and stuck the thorns in it. Wenebojo used his magic to make it into a proper skin, and told Porcupine come with him into the woods. When they got there, Wenebojo hid behind a tree. Wolf came along and saw Porcupine and jumped on him, but the new quills pricked at him and Wolf ran away. Bear was also afraid of the quills and Porcupine was safe. That is why Porcupines have quills. Source: (Adapted from G.E. Laidlaw, 1922, "Ojibwe Myths and Tales," Wisconsin Archeologist 1:28-38.) Excerpt from the article titled: "PORCUPINE QUILLS, TAILS AND TALES" by Beth Gruber Ojibwa legend tells that long ago, when the world was young, porcupines had no quills. One day in the woods Bear came along and wanted to eat Porcupine but he escaped to safety by climbing a tree. The following day Porcupine was under a Hawthorne tree and noticed how the thorns pricked him. He broke off some of the branches and put them on his back. Then he went back into the woods and waited. Along came Bear, who jumped on top of Porcupine. But the little animal just curled up into a ball. Bear had to go away because the thorns pricked him so much. Nanabozho (an Ojibwa trickster figure and culture hero) saw what happened. After Porcupine explained, Nanabozho took some Hawthorne branches and peeled the bark off until they were white. Then he put some clay on the back of Porcupine and stuck the thorns in it. Nanabozho used his magic to make it part of Porcupine’s skin, then they went back to the forest and waited. Wolf came along and saw Porcupine and jumped on him, but the new quills pricked at him and Wolf ran away. Bear was also afraid of the quills and Porcupine was safe. This is why all porcupines have quills today. Another Ojibwa legend counsels what can happen when you don’t respect the porcupine. Two young girls went out to set traps one nice winter day. When they happened upon a porcupine, the older girl said, “Let’s take that porcupine and pull out all his quills so he freezes.” The younger girl said, “No, no! Don’t do such a thing.”But the first girl caught the porcupine and plucked out his quills and hair. Once she let him go, he climbed to safety in a tree. When he reached the top, he faced north and sang to Ka-bi-bo-na-kay (the north wind) asking him to send the greatest snow storm ever known. Soon it began to blow from the north, terribly cold, with driving snow. The girls became frightened and started for home, but in the blinding snow they lost their way and became separated. The younger girl at last stumbled into camp, exhausted and half frozen, but the girl who had tortured the porcupine was never seen again. LEGEND OF WINABOJO AND THE BIRCH TREE There was once an old woman living all alone on the shore of Lake Superior. She had a little girl living with her whom she called her daughter, though she did not know exactly where the child came from. They were very poor and the little girl went into the woods and dug wild potatoes or gathered rose betties for them to eat. The little girl grew up to be a woman, but she kept on doing the same work, getting potatoes and berries and picking up fish that were washed ashore. One day when doing this she had a strange feeling as though the wind were blowing underneath her clothing. She looked around her but saw no signs of anyone. After a while she went home. As soon as she entered the house her mother saw that she looked troubled and bewildered. Her mother asked, “Did you see anyone? Did anyone speak to you? The girl replied, “I saw no one and heard no one speak to me.” After a time the mother noticed that the girl was pregnant and questioned her again but the girl replied as before, that she had seen no one. The only thing strange to her was the sensation of the wind blowing about her which she had described to her mother. When the time came for her to be delivered there was a sound as of an explosion and the girl disappeared, leaving absolutely no trace. The old woman threw herself on the ground and wailed because her daughter had disappeared. She searched everywhere but could find no trace of her. Finally, in looking among the leaves, she saw a drop of blood on a leaf. She picked it up carefully and put it beside her pillow. After a while, as she lay there, she thought she heard some one shivering and breathing near her head. She lay still, not knowing what to do. She heard the breathing near her head constantly. As she lay there wondering what it could be she heard a sound like that of a human being. She said, “I guess I am going to be blessed.” As she lay there a voice spoke and said, “Grandmother, get up and build a fire. I am freezing.” The old woman arose and looked around, and there beside her lay a little boy. She took him up and caressed him. She got up and made a fire to warm him, and behold the child was Winabojo. All the spirits that roam the earth were frightened at the birth of Winabojo, for they knew his power. Throughout his human life he was a mysterious being with miraculous powers. He grew rapidly in strength and soon began to help his grandmother. He dug potatoes and brought fish and berries for her. One day, when he had grown to be almost a man, he asked his grandmother what was the largest fish in the lake. She replied, “Why do you ask? It is not good for you to know. There is a large fish that lives over by that ledge of rock, but it is very powerful and would do great harm to you.” Winabojo asked, “Could the great fish be killed?” His grandmother replied, “No, for he lives below the rocks and no one could get down there to kill him.” Winabojo began to think about this and he made up his mind that he would learn to fight so that he could kill the great fish. He got some wood and began to make bows and arrows. Then he asked his grandmother if she knew of any bird whose feathers he could put on the arrows to make them effective. The old woman replied “No. The only bird whose feathers would make the arrows effective is a bird that lives in the sky, at the opening of the clouds. One would have to go up there to get the feathers.” Winabojo began to think how he could go up there and get the feathers that he was determined to have. At last he said to himself, “There is a high cliff on the edge of the lake. I will go up there and stay a while.” When he reached the high cliff he wished that he might change into a little rabbit. So he became a little rabbit and lived there. One day he went on a very high part of the cliff and called to a big bird, saying, “Eagle, come here. I am a cunning little animal. I would be a nice plaything for your children.” The bird flew down and saw the little rabbit playing there. The rabbit was the cunningest thing he had ever seen. The big bird was the thunderbird and he alighted on the top of the high cliff, near the little rabbit. Finally he took the little rabbit and flew up, up toward the opening in the sky. When the thunderbird came to his nest he called to his children, “I have brought you something very cunning to play with.” His wife spoke to him very crossly and said, “Why did you bring that rabbit up here? Have you not heard that Winabojo is on the earth? There is no knowing what you have picked up.” But the little rabbit was very meek and quiet, letting the children play with him as they liked. The big birds were seldom at home as they went away to get food for their children. All at once one day, Winabojo began to talk to himself and he said, “There children throw me around as though I was nothing. Don’t they know I came here to get some of their feathers.” The next time the old birds went away he changed into his human form, took a club, killed the little thunderbirds and pulled off their feathers. He hurried around and tied the feathers up in bundles for he was sure the old birds would soon be home. When all was ready he jumped off. He was not killed because he was a manido (spirit) and nothing could hurt him. He was unconscious for a time after he fell on the earth but he was not hurt. Soon there was a great roaring in the sky with flashes of lightning. The thunderbirds were coming after him. Winabojo jumped up when he saw the flashes of lightning and heard the thunder. The lightning was the flash of the thunderbirds’ eyes and the roaring was their terrible voices. He snatched up the bundles of feathers and ran for his life. Wherever he went the flashes and the roaring followed him, but he held on to the feathers. He had gotten what he wanted and he did not intend to lose them. The thunderbirds kept after him and at last he felt that they were tiring him out. He began to fear that he would be killed after all. The thunderbirds came so close that they almost grasped him with their claws. He was getting bewildered. They were almost upon him when he saw an old, fallen birch tree that was hollow. He crept into the hollow just in time to save his life. As he got in the thunderbirds almost had their claws on him. The thunderbirds said, “Winabojo, you have chose the right protection. You have fled to a king-child.” There they stopped. They could not touch him for the birch tree was their own child and he had fled to it for protection. There he lay while the thunder rolled away and the flashes of the thunderbirds’ eyes grew less bright. He was safe. When the thunderbirds had gone away Winabojo came out of the hollow birch tree and said, “As long as the world stands this tree will be a protection and benefit to the human race. If they want to preserve anything they must wrap it in birch bark and it will not decay. The bark of this tree will be useful in many ways, and when people want to take the bark from the tree they must offer tobacco to express their gratitude.” So Winabojo blessed the birch tree to the good of the human race. Then he went home, fixed his arrows with the feathers of the little thunderbirds and killed the great fish. Because of all this a birch tree is never struck by lightning and people can safely stand under its branches during a storm. The bark is the last part of the tree to decay, keeping its form after the wood has disintegrated, as it did in the tree that sheltered Winabojo. The little short marks on birch bark were made by Winabojo but the “pictures” on the bark are pictures of little thunderbirds. It is said the bark in some localities contains more distinct pictures of the little thunderbirds than in others. Source: Forty-fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology To The Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1926-1927.	2,671	ENGLISH	1
People in America celebrate Thanksgiving Day on the fourth Thursday of November. This day is taken as a legal holiday. People spend wonderful time with their family and friends and have the holiday feast. But in Canada thanksgiving is celebrated because of harvest in October As harvest comes earlier in Canada. So this day is being celebrated from many years. In 1608 some people from England moved to Netherlands to search their own church. They were called as pilgrims because their journey was based on religious reasons. But after years they realized that their children are growing up with the other countryâ€™s way of living land they had started speaking their language. Moreover their purpose to come there was not fulfilled. Now they decided to move to another place where they can live as English and where they could make their own church. In September 1620 they started their voyage to new world in the â€œMayflowerâ€ where the London Company agreed to pay them for starting settlement and in return they have to provide food, furs and other things for seven years from the new land. But because of winds and storm their ship moved nearly 100 miles away from Virginia and landed on Cape Cod on November 9, 1620. Pilgrims settled on the west of Cape Cod, a place named Plymouth. This was hard time for them because winter has started and they were not able to plant food. Cold temperature had not allowed them to construct any settlement. Nearly half of the people from their group died. In 1621 Samoset, an Indian reached that place. They faced problem in communication. Next day he came with an English speaking Indian Squanto. He taught them how to hunt and grow corn. With the help of Squanto they were able to harvest in October. Pilgrims celebrated their success and invited Squanto with other Indians. This was thanksgiving feast for three days. This celebration after harvest was practiced every year and in 1863 president Abraham Lincoln declared the last Thursday of November as Thanksgiving Day and in November 1941 president Franklin made fourth Thursday as the Thanksgiving Day.	<urn:uuid:da286221-e775-4f5d-89d1-64ea716d0466>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.letusfindout.com/why-do-we-celebrate-thanksgiving/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00311.warc.gz	en	0.989927	416	3.734375	4	[ 0.028593093156814575, 0.4098961055278778, 0.2858794033527374, 0.10797452926635742, -0.08590690791606903, -0.35960665345191956, 0.025061437860131264, 0.254695862531662, -0.23244507610797882, 0.43896257877349854, 0.2219364196062088, 0.02811289392411709, -0.3760587275028229, 0.048956688493490...	3	People in America celebrate Thanksgiving Day on the fourth Thursday of November. This day is taken as a legal holiday. People spend wonderful time with their family and friends and have the holiday feast. But in Canada thanksgiving is celebrated because of harvest in October As harvest comes earlier in Canada. So this day is being celebrated from many years. In 1608 some people from England moved to Netherlands to search their own church. They were called as pilgrims because their journey was based on religious reasons. But after years they realized that their children are growing up with the other countryâ€™s way of living land they had started speaking their language. Moreover their purpose to come there was not fulfilled. Now they decided to move to another place where they can live as English and where they could make their own church. In September 1620 they started their voyage to new world in the â€œMayflowerâ€ where the London Company agreed to pay them for starting settlement and in return they have to provide food, furs and other things for seven years from the new land. But because of winds and storm their ship moved nearly 100 miles away from Virginia and landed on Cape Cod on November 9, 1620. Pilgrims settled on the west of Cape Cod, a place named Plymouth. This was hard time for them because winter has started and they were not able to plant food. Cold temperature had not allowed them to construct any settlement. Nearly half of the people from their group died. In 1621 Samoset, an Indian reached that place. They faced problem in communication. Next day he came with an English speaking Indian Squanto. He taught them how to hunt and grow corn. With the help of Squanto they were able to harvest in October. Pilgrims celebrated their success and invited Squanto with other Indians. This was thanksgiving feast for three days. This celebration after harvest was practiced every year and in 1863 president Abraham Lincoln declared the last Thursday of November as Thanksgiving Day and in November 1941 president Franklin made fourth Thursday as the Thanksgiving Day.	434	ENGLISH	1
In July 1649, he was born in Urb, where his family was located, John Francesco Albani, who in 1700 was celebred in the Vatican as Pope of Rome, named Clement Xl. He is the second pope of Albanian descent, who held this high office for 20 years. The first pope with Albanian blood was Pope Eleuter. At the age of 11, John Francis Albani went to study in Rome. He was marked as a man of bright will and mind. He became Cardinal in the ecclesiastical hierarchy of Pope Alexander VIII. After the death of the Inocent of XII, he ascended the papal throne. Known as a loving art and culture, as a human and a great heart, he provided and added the number of hospitals, enriched the Vatican library, paved the Pantheon, protected the art and culture facilities; Known as the restorer of the ancient mosaic artwork. Take care of the recovery of different factories and workshops. During his 20 years of administration, 81 high papal acts were produced, 1412 papers collected in two volumes, 28 lectures, and 130 conversations of historical importance.	<urn:uuid:df5a5ad0-c972-4b15-a1a1-13e15da798bf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.qmksh.al/en/22-korrik-1649-lindi-ne-urbin-gjon-francesk-albani-i-cili-ne-vitin-1700-u-celebrua-si-papa-i-romes-me-emrin-klementi-xl/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00502.warc.gz	en	0.984145	229	3.265625	3	[ -0.28591975569725037, 0.6212536096572876, -0.01105570886284113, 0.05082473158836365, -0.4112333357334137, 0.17305107414722443, 0.11139111965894699, 0.3238492012023926, 0.36333468556404114, 0.02251511625945568, -0.22432540357112885, -0.5594353675842285, 0.1678629070520401, 0.390523791313171...	1	In July 1649, he was born in Urb, where his family was located, John Francesco Albani, who in 1700 was celebred in the Vatican as Pope of Rome, named Clement Xl. He is the second pope of Albanian descent, who held this high office for 20 years. The first pope with Albanian blood was Pope Eleuter. At the age of 11, John Francis Albani went to study in Rome. He was marked as a man of bright will and mind. He became Cardinal in the ecclesiastical hierarchy of Pope Alexander VIII. After the death of the Inocent of XII, he ascended the papal throne. Known as a loving art and culture, as a human and a great heart, he provided and added the number of hospitals, enriched the Vatican library, paved the Pantheon, protected the art and culture facilities; Known as the restorer of the ancient mosaic artwork. Take care of the recovery of different factories and workshops. During his 20 years of administration, 81 high papal acts were produced, 1412 papers collected in two volumes, 28 lectures, and 130 conversations of historical importance.	254	ENGLISH	1
Ancient Egyptian Wine Wine making is something that was popular even in Ancient Egypt. This was a drink that the Egyptians would make so that they could give them to rulers and to the nobles that lived in Egypt. Some people think that the first vineyard was found in Egypt and some historians found that in the First Dynasty there is proof that there were vineyards. King Zoser is one of the first people of Ancient Egypt that is recorded to have a wine cellar. A wine cellar is a place where people would keep their wine so that it would not spoil. Some of the vineyards were made for different reasons, some were made to make the area look nice, while others were made where there was fruit trees and vegetables. The last type was a formal vineyard which was a place that was only made to grow grapes so that they could make wine. Historians believe that there were 513 vineyards that were around the temple of Amon-Ray. The grape vines were taken care by gardeners and it was considered to be a job that was very important to the Ancient Egyptians. There was even a hieroglyphic that was discovered that was the words “orchard” and “gardener” and there was writing found that talked about the Master of the vineyard. There were four different ways that the Ancient Egyptians could grow grapes, and this included using wood pillars and poles to lay the vines on. Another way was to use columns to grow the vines on. The third way to grow grapes was to use arches and attach the grape branches to the arches The fourth and final way to grow grapes was to grow them low to the ground and then prune them when they started to grow. When the grapes were grown and they were ripe, the Ancient Egyptian workers would put the grapes in large baskets and carry them on their shoulders. The grapes would then be put into baskets that were very large and the men would get in the basket and crush the grapes with their feet. The juice from the grapes would flow into a hole in the basket and then they would pour them into Ancient Egyptian pottery jars and would leave them until they turned into wine. Not only did the Ancient Egyptians use grapes to make wine, they would also use other fruits such as pomegranates, plumbs and other fruit. Another very popular drink, even more popular than wine was beer. Egyptians would use barley to make beer and this was one of their drinks of choice. The reason most Ancient Egyptians would choose to drink beer was because it was hard to find good water for them to drink and so they would drink beer instead when they were thirsty. More Facts About Ancient Egyptian Wine: - Historians discovered large containers that held wine in many of the Ancient Egyptian tombs. - The Ancient Egyptians believed that drinking wine made them like the gods. - Ancient Egyptians believe that the goddess Hathor drank wine because she became addicted to blood when she was sent by her father to destroy some of his enemies. Instead of drinking blood, she turned to wine since it was red just like blood. - In Ancient Egypt, wine is considered a drink of the gods. - When men would stomp on the grapes to make wine, this was called treading. - Fermentation is needed for fruit to turn into wine. Fermentation is when the sugar turns to alcohol. What Did You Learn? - What is interesting about wine making? It is interesting that wine making took place all the way back to Ancient Egypt. - Where is one of the first recordings of wine making located? The temple of Amon-Ra is one of the first places that wine making is recorded. - How many ways were the Egyptians able to grow grapes? There were four ways that grapes could be grown in Ancient Egypt. - How did the Ancient Egyptians turn the grapes into wine? They would stomp on the grapes that were found in big baskets. - What goddess is known for drinking wine instead of blood? The goddess Hathor is known to drink wine instead of blood.	<urn:uuid:8bda4841-5ec1-4eff-9016-a16d4353ce4f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyforkids.net/ancient-egyptian-wine.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00074.warc.gz	en	0.993782	838	3.421875	3	[ -0.002796200569719076, 0.9145593643188477, -0.03658609837293625, -0.40027984976768494, -0.3139837980270386, -0.44705599546432495, -0.004592077806591988, 0.14479567110538483, -0.20799006521701813, 0.27933230996131897, -0.18138624727725983, -0.5308045148849487, -0.5154212713241577, -0.137205...	13	Ancient Egyptian Wine Wine making is something that was popular even in Ancient Egypt. This was a drink that the Egyptians would make so that they could give them to rulers and to the nobles that lived in Egypt. Some people think that the first vineyard was found in Egypt and some historians found that in the First Dynasty there is proof that there were vineyards. King Zoser is one of the first people of Ancient Egypt that is recorded to have a wine cellar. A wine cellar is a place where people would keep their wine so that it would not spoil. Some of the vineyards were made for different reasons, some were made to make the area look nice, while others were made where there was fruit trees and vegetables. The last type was a formal vineyard which was a place that was only made to grow grapes so that they could make wine. Historians believe that there were 513 vineyards that were around the temple of Amon-Ray. The grape vines were taken care by gardeners and it was considered to be a job that was very important to the Ancient Egyptians. There was even a hieroglyphic that was discovered that was the words “orchard” and “gardener” and there was writing found that talked about the Master of the vineyard. There were four different ways that the Ancient Egyptians could grow grapes, and this included using wood pillars and poles to lay the vines on. Another way was to use columns to grow the vines on. The third way to grow grapes was to use arches and attach the grape branches to the arches The fourth and final way to grow grapes was to grow them low to the ground and then prune them when they started to grow. When the grapes were grown and they were ripe, the Ancient Egyptian workers would put the grapes in large baskets and carry them on their shoulders. The grapes would then be put into baskets that were very large and the men would get in the basket and crush the grapes with their feet. The juice from the grapes would flow into a hole in the basket and then they would pour them into Ancient Egyptian pottery jars and would leave them until they turned into wine. Not only did the Ancient Egyptians use grapes to make wine, they would also use other fruits such as pomegranates, plumbs and other fruit. Another very popular drink, even more popular than wine was beer. Egyptians would use barley to make beer and this was one of their drinks of choice. The reason most Ancient Egyptians would choose to drink beer was because it was hard to find good water for them to drink and so they would drink beer instead when they were thirsty. More Facts About Ancient Egyptian Wine: - Historians discovered large containers that held wine in many of the Ancient Egyptian tombs. - The Ancient Egyptians believed that drinking wine made them like the gods. - Ancient Egyptians believe that the goddess Hathor drank wine because she became addicted to blood when she was sent by her father to destroy some of his enemies. Instead of drinking blood, she turned to wine since it was red just like blood. - In Ancient Egypt, wine is considered a drink of the gods. - When men would stomp on the grapes to make wine, this was called treading. - Fermentation is needed for fruit to turn into wine. Fermentation is when the sugar turns to alcohol. What Did You Learn? - What is interesting about wine making? It is interesting that wine making took place all the way back to Ancient Egypt. - Where is one of the first recordings of wine making located? The temple of Amon-Ra is one of the first places that wine making is recorded. - How many ways were the Egyptians able to grow grapes? There were four ways that grapes could be grown in Ancient Egypt. - How did the Ancient Egyptians turn the grapes into wine? They would stomp on the grapes that were found in big baskets. - What goddess is known for drinking wine instead of blood? The goddess Hathor is known to drink wine instead of blood.	812	ENGLISH	1
Founding Father: John Adams John Adams was the first Second President and the first Vice President of the United States. His son, John Quincy Adams, was the sixth President of the United States. John Adam’s Early Life Adams was born in October 30, 1735 in Quincy, Massachusetts. He went to Harvard College and graduated in 1755. Afterwards, he studied law with Rufus Putnam, and also taught at Worcester. He became a lawyer in 1758. John Adams would often write about different events in his world. Some of his early writings talked about different arguments the court, while his later writings were his memoirs, thoughts, and arguments that were based on his early writings. John Adams’s Political Career John Adams’ personality was the opposite of the first President, George Washington. Washington was very outgoing and thought of his community. However, John Adams was very was known to be reckless, intense, and very passionate. John Adams’ career in political started when he became the leader of the Massachusetts Whigs. In 1765, John Adams wrote a series articles that were very controversial about the struggles between the colonists and authority. In 1768, John Adams moved to Boston and two years later, he helped defend many British soldiers that had been arrested after the Boston Massacre. John Adams helped set them free by defending them very well. Because of this, he was recognized and was elected into the House of Representatives of Massachusetts. Afterwards, John Adams became a member of the Continental Congress between 1774 and 1778. In June 1775, John Adams supported a nomination of George Washington as commander-in-chief because he wanted to support the union of the American colonies. He influenced Congress with his ideas to separate the American colonies from Great Britain’s rule. He also supported a resolution that said the colonies should be independent states, which resulted in him being a part of the committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence. John Adams as President In 1796, John Adams was elected President since George Washington did not want to run for a third term. During his four year term, he passed some acts that later made everyone look down on the Federalist Party. He became alienated by his own party and his staff would often look to Alexander Hamilton for advice instead. He ran for President again in 1800, but was defeated by Thomas Jefferson. After his lost, he retired from politics. John Adam’s Later Life John Adams retired and moved back to his farm in Quincy, Massachusetts. Here he would often write long letters to Thomas Jefferson. John Adams died on July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the signing and adoption of the Declaration of Independence. He died at home and his last words were “Thomas Jefferson survives.” The strange part about this was that Thomas Jefferson had also passed the same day, but only a few hours earlier. Fun Facts about John Adams • John Adams had a pet horse named Cleopatra. • John Adams’ wife, Abigail Smith, was actually his third cousin. • John Adams liked to farm and hunt.	<urn:uuid:ac792d89-d185-4a05-af94-6ef7b4291a40>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.laws.com/john-adams	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00060.warc.gz	en	0.994112	646	3.5625	4	[ -0.024364735931158066, 0.5903633832931519, 0.46769729256629944, -0.4331141710281372, -0.6719266772270203, 0.5816173553466797, 0.16219070553779602, 0.043806932866573334, 0.24723969399929047, -0.16067297756671906, -0.06433846056461334, 0.6476208567619324, 0.1273006796836853, 0.40806430578231...	4	Founding Father: John Adams John Adams was the first Second President and the first Vice President of the United States. His son, John Quincy Adams, was the sixth President of the United States. John Adam’s Early Life Adams was born in October 30, 1735 in Quincy, Massachusetts. He went to Harvard College and graduated in 1755. Afterwards, he studied law with Rufus Putnam, and also taught at Worcester. He became a lawyer in 1758. John Adams would often write about different events in his world. Some of his early writings talked about different arguments the court, while his later writings were his memoirs, thoughts, and arguments that were based on his early writings. John Adams’s Political Career John Adams’ personality was the opposite of the first President, George Washington. Washington was very outgoing and thought of his community. However, John Adams was very was known to be reckless, intense, and very passionate. John Adams’ career in political started when he became the leader of the Massachusetts Whigs. In 1765, John Adams wrote a series articles that were very controversial about the struggles between the colonists and authority. In 1768, John Adams moved to Boston and two years later, he helped defend many British soldiers that had been arrested after the Boston Massacre. John Adams helped set them free by defending them very well. Because of this, he was recognized and was elected into the House of Representatives of Massachusetts. Afterwards, John Adams became a member of the Continental Congress between 1774 and 1778. In June 1775, John Adams supported a nomination of George Washington as commander-in-chief because he wanted to support the union of the American colonies. He influenced Congress with his ideas to separate the American colonies from Great Britain’s rule. He also supported a resolution that said the colonies should be independent states, which resulted in him being a part of the committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence. John Adams as President In 1796, John Adams was elected President since George Washington did not want to run for a third term. During his four year term, he passed some acts that later made everyone look down on the Federalist Party. He became alienated by his own party and his staff would often look to Alexander Hamilton for advice instead. He ran for President again in 1800, but was defeated by Thomas Jefferson. After his lost, he retired from politics. John Adam’s Later Life John Adams retired and moved back to his farm in Quincy, Massachusetts. Here he would often write long letters to Thomas Jefferson. John Adams died on July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the signing and adoption of the Declaration of Independence. He died at home and his last words were “Thomas Jefferson survives.” The strange part about this was that Thomas Jefferson had also passed the same day, but only a few hours earlier. Fun Facts about John Adams • John Adams had a pet horse named Cleopatra. • John Adams’ wife, Abigail Smith, was actually his third cousin. • John Adams liked to farm and hunt.	660	ENGLISH	1
Lyda Newman Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Also Known For : Birth Place : Lyda Newman was an African American activist and hairdresser who invented the bristle hair combing brush. Lyda Newman was born in Ohio in 1885. She relocated to the Manhattan district of New York in her childhood. It is unclear if she ever went to school. Her historical information is missing from official records. Most African Americans then were slaves and even the freeborn were treated with disregard. Thus no clear records were preserved. Newman’s case was one of them. It is speculated that she was a slave who ran away from her owner and settled in New York. If that was so then her resolve to get her freedom was above anything else. She arrived in New York as a child with nothing to sustain herself with. She was hired as a hairdresser, the only thing she could do. Her ability to transform the hairstyles on women’s head sustained her on the job. Back then most of the hair brushes were made of boar hair. The bristles were soft and only applied well on Caucasian hair. The African hair needed something more robust. As a hairdresser, Newman made some adjustments on the brush in view of the African kinky hair. Her invention targeted durability, robustness, proper grooming and ease of the brush cleaning. The animal hair took considerable time took dry. The hairdressing environment needed a brush that could dry quickly when washed. She replaced the animal hair and fur bristles with synthetic plastic. The handle was detachable from the brush to ease the washing out of the dirt. The bristles were aligned in evenly spaced rows to allow the dirt from the hair to be picked by the spaces in between. It made the brush both easy to use and hygienically friendly. The improvements were embraced by both the African and Caucasian communities. Hairdressers were quick to embrace it. The ordinary home caregivers and the general populace valued it. In 1898 Newman sought legal protection for her new invention. She registered her new brush for patenting. On November 15, 1898, the state of New York approved her request and her invention was patented. Her hairbrush patent number was 614,273. Newman thus was one of the pioneer African Americans to patent an invention in the history of the USA. The others were Miriam Benjamin, Sarah Goode, and Judy Reed. Newman continued with her life as a private hairdresser in New York for the rest of her life. By the beginning of the 1900s, the eligible voting bloc in the US was the male white men population. White women and other communities were excluded from any type of electioneering balloting. Newman became a member of the women emancipation movement. She was a co-founder of the New York African American chapter of the Women Suffrage Party. This was an organization that advocated for the recognition of civic and political rights of the American women. The white women organizations in the Suffrage Party worked with her in sensitizing the New York residents on the need to emancipate the women. In 1920 and 1925, the US government conducted a population census. The findings showed that Newman was living on the western side of the Manhattan district of New York. Her job was documented as a professional hairdresser. Apart from the two censuses, nothing much is known about the later life of the inventor. Despite the lack of information, Newman is remembered in history as a futuristic innovator. She turned a gadget that was the preserve of the rich into a daily necessity to everyone. Since its creation by Newman, the human population has been using it for the convenience of their appearance regularly. Both the high end and less privileged have a carry on kit that includes a hairbrush. A simple modification to make her work duties easier transformed the entire society. A century after her invention, the world still uses her synthesis brush to keep itself trendy and stylish. Various variations have come out from the original patent, but the idea of durability, and convenience while using it remains the same. The hairbrush was first used in the ancient Egyptian and Phoenician civilizations. The form and materials used have been transformed to suit the users and their environment. Newman did the same in the chain of developments. She created a brush that took care of the African hair. Mega inventions are made to transform large societies, but the little things we do are the ones that matter the most. Newman did it to the combing brush. More People From Ohio P. J. O'Rourke William Monroe Trotter Thomas A. Hendricks Ambrose Gwinnett Bierce	<urn:uuid:88287d79-e9d9-4b6b-9c49-9e5206d2be02>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/lyda-newman/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00436.warc.gz	en	0.980685	960	3.3125	3	[ 0.008046163246035576, -0.17925933003425598, 0.25856053829193115, 0.3455544114112854, -0.256289541721344, -0.23231974244117737, 0.3271705210208893, 0.27891647815704346, -0.1683216094970703, 0.49653133749961853, 0.14831721782684326, -0.07273278385400772, -0.22391434013843536, 0.1781548708677...	1	Lyda Newman Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Also Known For : Birth Place : Lyda Newman was an African American activist and hairdresser who invented the bristle hair combing brush. Lyda Newman was born in Ohio in 1885. She relocated to the Manhattan district of New York in her childhood. It is unclear if she ever went to school. Her historical information is missing from official records. Most African Americans then were slaves and even the freeborn were treated with disregard. Thus no clear records were preserved. Newman’s case was one of them. It is speculated that she was a slave who ran away from her owner and settled in New York. If that was so then her resolve to get her freedom was above anything else. She arrived in New York as a child with nothing to sustain herself with. She was hired as a hairdresser, the only thing she could do. Her ability to transform the hairstyles on women’s head sustained her on the job. Back then most of the hair brushes were made of boar hair. The bristles were soft and only applied well on Caucasian hair. The African hair needed something more robust. As a hairdresser, Newman made some adjustments on the brush in view of the African kinky hair. Her invention targeted durability, robustness, proper grooming and ease of the brush cleaning. The animal hair took considerable time took dry. The hairdressing environment needed a brush that could dry quickly when washed. She replaced the animal hair and fur bristles with synthetic plastic. The handle was detachable from the brush to ease the washing out of the dirt. The bristles were aligned in evenly spaced rows to allow the dirt from the hair to be picked by the spaces in between. It made the brush both easy to use and hygienically friendly. The improvements were embraced by both the African and Caucasian communities. Hairdressers were quick to embrace it. The ordinary home caregivers and the general populace valued it. In 1898 Newman sought legal protection for her new invention. She registered her new brush for patenting. On November 15, 1898, the state of New York approved her request and her invention was patented. Her hairbrush patent number was 614,273. Newman thus was one of the pioneer African Americans to patent an invention in the history of the USA. The others were Miriam Benjamin, Sarah Goode, and Judy Reed. Newman continued with her life as a private hairdresser in New York for the rest of her life. By the beginning of the 1900s, the eligible voting bloc in the US was the male white men population. White women and other communities were excluded from any type of electioneering balloting. Newman became a member of the women emancipation movement. She was a co-founder of the New York African American chapter of the Women Suffrage Party. This was an organization that advocated for the recognition of civic and political rights of the American women. The white women organizations in the Suffrage Party worked with her in sensitizing the New York residents on the need to emancipate the women. In 1920 and 1925, the US government conducted a population census. The findings showed that Newman was living on the western side of the Manhattan district of New York. Her job was documented as a professional hairdresser. Apart from the two censuses, nothing much is known about the later life of the inventor. Despite the lack of information, Newman is remembered in history as a futuristic innovator. She turned a gadget that was the preserve of the rich into a daily necessity to everyone. Since its creation by Newman, the human population has been using it for the convenience of their appearance regularly. Both the high end and less privileged have a carry on kit that includes a hairbrush. A simple modification to make her work duties easier transformed the entire society. A century after her invention, the world still uses her synthesis brush to keep itself trendy and stylish. Various variations have come out from the original patent, but the idea of durability, and convenience while using it remains the same. The hairbrush was first used in the ancient Egyptian and Phoenician civilizations. The form and materials used have been transformed to suit the users and their environment. Newman did the same in the chain of developments. She created a brush that took care of the African hair. Mega inventions are made to transform large societies, but the little things we do are the ones that matter the most. Newman did it to the combing brush. More People From Ohio P. J. O'Rourke William Monroe Trotter Thomas A. Hendricks Ambrose Gwinnett Bierce	961	ENGLISH	1
The Haitian Revolution has often been described as the largest and most successful slave rebellion in the Western Hemisphere. Slaves initiated the rebellion in 1791 and by 1803 they had succeeded in ending not just slavery but French control over the colony. The Haitian Revolution, however, was much more complex, consisting of several revolutions going on simultaneously. These revolutions were influenced by the French Revolution of 1789, which would come to represent a new concept of human rights, universal citizenship, and participation in government. In the 18th century, Saint Dominigue, as Haiti was then known, became France’s wealthiest overseas colony, largely because of its production of sugar, coffee, indigo, and cotton generated by an enslaved labor force. When the French Revolution broke out in 1789 there were five distinct sets of interest groups in the colony. There were white planters—who owned the plantations and the slaves—and petit blancs, who were artisans, shop keepers and teachers. Some of them also owned a few slaves. Together they numbered 40,000 of the colony’s residents. Many of the whites on Saint Dominigue began to support an independence movement that began when France imposed steep tariffs on the items imported into the colony. The planters were extremely disenchanted with France because they were forbidden to trade with any other nation. Furthermore, the white population of Saint-Dominique did not have any representation in France. Despite their calls for independence, both the planters and petit blancs remained committed to the institution of slavery. The three remaining groups were of African descent: those who were free, those who were slaves, and those who had run away. There were about 30,000 free black people in 1789. Half of them were mulatto and often they were wealthier than the petit blancs. The slave population was close to 500,000. The runaway slaves were called maroons; they had retreated deep into the mountains of Saint Dominigue and lived off subsistence farming. Haiti had a history of slave rebellions; the slaves were never willing to submit to their status and with their strength in numbers (10 to 1) colonial officials and planters did all that was possible to control them. Despite the harshness and cruelty of Saint Dominigue slavery, there were slave rebellions before 1791. One plot involved the poisoning of masters. Inspired by events in France, a number of Haitian-born revolutionary movements emerged simultaneously. They used as their inspiration the French Revolution’s “Declaration of the Rights of Man.” The General Assembly in Paris responded by enacting legislation which gave the various colonies some autonomy at the local level. The legislation, which called for “all local proprietors…to be active citizens,” was both ambiguous and radical. It was interpreted in Saint Dominigue as applying only to the planter class and thus excluded petit blancs from government. Yet it allowed free citizens of color who were substantial property owners to participate. This legislation, promulgated in Paris to keep Saint Dominigue in the colonial empire, instead generated a three-sided civil war between the planters, free blacks and the petit blancs. However, all three groups would be challenged by the enslaved black majority which was also influenced and inspired by events in France. Led by former slave Toussaint l’Overture, the enslaved would act first, rebelling against the planters on August 21, 1791. By 1792 they controlled a third of the island. Despite reinforcements from France, the area of the colony held by the rebels grew as did the violence on both sides. Before the fighting ended 100,000 of the 500,000 blacks and 24,000 of the 40,000 whites were killed. Nonetheless the former slaves managed to stave off both the French forces and the British who arrived in 1793 to conquer the colony, and who withdrew in 1798 after a series of defeats by l’Overture’s forces. By 1801 l’Overture expanded the revolution beyond Haiti, conquering the neighboring Spanish colony of Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic). He abolished slavery in the Spanish-speaking colony and declared himself Governor-General for life over the entire island of Hispaniola. At that moment the Haitian Revolution had outlasted the French Revolution which had been its inspiration. Napoleon Bonaparte, now the ruler of France, dispatched General Charles Leclerc, his brother-in-law, and 43,000 French troops to capture L’Overture and restore both French rule and slavery. L’Overture was taken and sent to France where he died in prison in 1803. Jean-Jacques Dessalines, one of l’Overture’s generals and himself a former slave, led the revolutionaries at the Battle of Vertieres on November 18, 1803 where the French forces were defeated. On January 1, 1804, Dessalines declared the nation independent and renamed it Haiti. France became the first nation to recognize its independence. Haiti thus emerged as the first black republic in the world, and the second nation in the western hemisphere (after the United States) to win its independence from a European power. More about the Haitian Revolution via Wikipedia.	<urn:uuid:56e0d30e-2366-4b7e-a921-772df1fd0b93>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/haitian-revolution-1791-1804/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00479.warc.gz	en	0.982132	1,089	4.71875	5	[ 0.011873316951096058, 0.3635762631893158, 0.1848675161600113, -0.4874916076660156, 0.1093900203704834, 0.06571763753890991, -0.3848664164543152, 0.40124133229255676, 0.04085889831185341, 0.3842437267303467, 0.20035171508789062, 0.19344943761825562, -0.264180451631546, 0.2195434868335724, ...	6	The Haitian Revolution has often been described as the largest and most successful slave rebellion in the Western Hemisphere. Slaves initiated the rebellion in 1791 and by 1803 they had succeeded in ending not just slavery but French control over the colony. The Haitian Revolution, however, was much more complex, consisting of several revolutions going on simultaneously. These revolutions were influenced by the French Revolution of 1789, which would come to represent a new concept of human rights, universal citizenship, and participation in government. In the 18th century, Saint Dominigue, as Haiti was then known, became France’s wealthiest overseas colony, largely because of its production of sugar, coffee, indigo, and cotton generated by an enslaved labor force. When the French Revolution broke out in 1789 there were five distinct sets of interest groups in the colony. There were white planters—who owned the plantations and the slaves—and petit blancs, who were artisans, shop keepers and teachers. Some of them also owned a few slaves. Together they numbered 40,000 of the colony’s residents. Many of the whites on Saint Dominigue began to support an independence movement that began when France imposed steep tariffs on the items imported into the colony. The planters were extremely disenchanted with France because they were forbidden to trade with any other nation. Furthermore, the white population of Saint-Dominique did not have any representation in France. Despite their calls for independence, both the planters and petit blancs remained committed to the institution of slavery. The three remaining groups were of African descent: those who were free, those who were slaves, and those who had run away. There were about 30,000 free black people in 1789. Half of them were mulatto and often they were wealthier than the petit blancs. The slave population was close to 500,000. The runaway slaves were called maroons; they had retreated deep into the mountains of Saint Dominigue and lived off subsistence farming. Haiti had a history of slave rebellions; the slaves were never willing to submit to their status and with their strength in numbers (10 to 1) colonial officials and planters did all that was possible to control them. Despite the harshness and cruelty of Saint Dominigue slavery, there were slave rebellions before 1791. One plot involved the poisoning of masters. Inspired by events in France, a number of Haitian-born revolutionary movements emerged simultaneously. They used as their inspiration the French Revolution’s “Declaration of the Rights of Man.” The General Assembly in Paris responded by enacting legislation which gave the various colonies some autonomy at the local level. The legislation, which called for “all local proprietors…to be active citizens,” was both ambiguous and radical. It was interpreted in Saint Dominigue as applying only to the planter class and thus excluded petit blancs from government. Yet it allowed free citizens of color who were substantial property owners to participate. This legislation, promulgated in Paris to keep Saint Dominigue in the colonial empire, instead generated a three-sided civil war between the planters, free blacks and the petit blancs. However, all three groups would be challenged by the enslaved black majority which was also influenced and inspired by events in France. Led by former slave Toussaint l’Overture, the enslaved would act first, rebelling against the planters on August 21, 1791. By 1792 they controlled a third of the island. Despite reinforcements from France, the area of the colony held by the rebels grew as did the violence on both sides. Before the fighting ended 100,000 of the 500,000 blacks and 24,000 of the 40,000 whites were killed. Nonetheless the former slaves managed to stave off both the French forces and the British who arrived in 1793 to conquer the colony, and who withdrew in 1798 after a series of defeats by l’Overture’s forces. By 1801 l’Overture expanded the revolution beyond Haiti, conquering the neighboring Spanish colony of Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic). He abolished slavery in the Spanish-speaking colony and declared himself Governor-General for life over the entire island of Hispaniola. At that moment the Haitian Revolution had outlasted the French Revolution which had been its inspiration. Napoleon Bonaparte, now the ruler of France, dispatched General Charles Leclerc, his brother-in-law, and 43,000 French troops to capture L’Overture and restore both French rule and slavery. L’Overture was taken and sent to France where he died in prison in 1803. Jean-Jacques Dessalines, one of l’Overture’s generals and himself a former slave, led the revolutionaries at the Battle of Vertieres on November 18, 1803 where the French forces were defeated. On January 1, 1804, Dessalines declared the nation independent and renamed it Haiti. France became the first nation to recognize its independence. Haiti thus emerged as the first black republic in the world, and the second nation in the western hemisphere (after the United States) to win its independence from a European power. More about the Haitian Revolution via Wikipedia.	1,126	ENGLISH	1
The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 was accompanied by mass enthusiasm. This wave of enthusiasm (Kriegsbegeisterung) was particularly high in Austro-Hungary. In the regions where the German population was significantly large crowds thronged the streets singing patriotic songs such as "Wacht am Rhein", "Heil Dir im Siegeskranz", "The Radecky Marsch", "Prince Eugene Marsch". They also arranged tributes in front of monuments, state buildings and military headquarters. Despite the fact that the operation to mobilise the Czech military went smoothly the German public noticed the lack of enthusiasm amidst the Czech soldiers and consequently the Czechs were seen as indifferent and even hostile. There was an attempt to promote demonstrations in Prague as an expression of Czech-German reconciliation. However as these were organised by the German minority in Prague the Czechs continued in their lack of fervour and viewed the war as a German one rather than Czech.	<urn:uuid:a1ba3504-a267-4928-bf0a-17946216947a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pollux-fid.de/search?t=war	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00453.warc.gz	en	0.980726	199	3.6875	4	[ 0.040057383477687836, 0.8068070411682129, -0.14226339757442474, 0.09867329150438309, -0.07580610364675522, 0.36097022891044617, -0.19713100790977478, 0.6299818754196167, -0.27861830592155457, -0.4693930149078369, 0.27294114232063293, -0.5654273629188538, 0.19555459916591644, 0.265944242477...	1	The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 was accompanied by mass enthusiasm. This wave of enthusiasm (Kriegsbegeisterung) was particularly high in Austro-Hungary. In the regions where the German population was significantly large crowds thronged the streets singing patriotic songs such as "Wacht am Rhein", "Heil Dir im Siegeskranz", "The Radecky Marsch", "Prince Eugene Marsch". They also arranged tributes in front of monuments, state buildings and military headquarters. Despite the fact that the operation to mobilise the Czech military went smoothly the German public noticed the lack of enthusiasm amidst the Czech soldiers and consequently the Czechs were seen as indifferent and even hostile. There was an attempt to promote demonstrations in Prague as an expression of Czech-German reconciliation. However as these were organised by the German minority in Prague the Czechs continued in their lack of fervour and viewed the war as a German one rather than Czech.	202	ENGLISH	1
Recent years women in various parts of the world have claimed that they need equal rights and equal treatment with men. This has often elicited debates in all aspects of the society. Various governments even included articles in the constitution to protect the rights of women who have often been regarded the weaker gender. The issues of gender equality have however faced various challenges especially in patriarchal societies. The gender equality debate started in the 19th century when people began to claim that women also had rights. These demands were led mainly by feminist groups that were advocating women to be allowed to do all other things that their male counterparts were doing especially in public life. The gender movements came in three different waves that compelled bureaucrats, lawmakers and court administrators to start putting measures in order to consider the rights of women. After years of struggle for gender equality, women have finally made a huge progress on handling their issues in all sides of the society, whether it is political, social, cultural or economic aspect, as shown in this paper. Gender equality has been a raging discussion for several years. It is however important to note that women are more equal to men today than it was a few years back. Today, women are actively involved in plitical leadership of many countries. It is known fact that women become appointed as heads or states, heads of companies, legislators and judges. This gives the evidence that women have been allowed to exercise their political rights and also get into leadership positions. For the past few years several women have been largely supported for assignment to influential political offices. For instance, in 2008 Hillary Clinton effectively competed with Barack Obama in the Democrat Primaries for the position of the USA President. She was a very strong candidate, and that shows how strong women have become regarding gender equality. Other women have successfully led their nations and come out with impressive results, e.g. Angela Merkel has served as the German Chancellor for three terms; she has brought her country to greater achievements. In terms of education, women have worked very hard towards academic accomplishments, though when were never allowed even to attend school before. Today women are leading researchers and academicians worldwide. There are a number of women professors who teach in universities along with those who head various research institutions. Women also hold the posts of chairpersons in various businesses and undertakings. The level of education that women have received has enabled them to receive financiaal independence. It therefore means that many women today do not depend on men to provide for their needs. Some of the women earn even higher salaries than that of men. This has proven that women and men are equal. Culture has always been at the core of gender inequality for several decades. Women were viewed by society as expensive things that should be married off to earn wealth for their families. This school of thought has since changed. Today women are highly respected in civilized states; girls are given education and are allowed to work in areas that were previously the reserve of men. Today we have police women, women soldiers, women pilots, and women drivers. Women are doing well in their jobs and are no longer stereotyped as belonging to the weaker gender. Feminist groups are also out advocating women’s right. Any practices that demean women are today punishable in law courts. Custom Essay Writing Service The evidence above therefore, proves that in today’s realias gender equality is a very important factor that has been finally embraced by the human society. Women are no longer treated as the inferior gender but as equals with men. Gender equality has changed style of life of our world. Women have been empowered, and with the impressive work that women have done globally this has enabled various world economies to grow.	<urn:uuid:e4c1d444-e826-4cfe-aca0-4d27aebf3c7e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://grand-essays.com/free-essays/psychology/gender-equality	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00269.warc.gz	en	0.988182	743	3.890625	4	[ -0.17064079642295837, 0.17612987756729126, -0.1472279280424118, -0.19938205182552338, -0.1532691866159439, 0.7048938274383545, -0.16460487246513367, 0.218196839094162, 0.0012679953360930085, 0.083924800157547, -0.1255812644958496, -0.08623974025249481, 0.22903481125831604, 0.04678791016340...	6	Recent years women in various parts of the world have claimed that they need equal rights and equal treatment with men. This has often elicited debates in all aspects of the society. Various governments even included articles in the constitution to protect the rights of women who have often been regarded the weaker gender. The issues of gender equality have however faced various challenges especially in patriarchal societies. The gender equality debate started in the 19th century when people began to claim that women also had rights. These demands were led mainly by feminist groups that were advocating women to be allowed to do all other things that their male counterparts were doing especially in public life. The gender movements came in three different waves that compelled bureaucrats, lawmakers and court administrators to start putting measures in order to consider the rights of women. After years of struggle for gender equality, women have finally made a huge progress on handling their issues in all sides of the society, whether it is political, social, cultural or economic aspect, as shown in this paper. Gender equality has been a raging discussion for several years. It is however important to note that women are more equal to men today than it was a few years back. Today, women are actively involved in plitical leadership of many countries. It is known fact that women become appointed as heads or states, heads of companies, legislators and judges. This gives the evidence that women have been allowed to exercise their political rights and also get into leadership positions. For the past few years several women have been largely supported for assignment to influential political offices. For instance, in 2008 Hillary Clinton effectively competed with Barack Obama in the Democrat Primaries for the position of the USA President. She was a very strong candidate, and that shows how strong women have become regarding gender equality. Other women have successfully led their nations and come out with impressive results, e.g. Angela Merkel has served as the German Chancellor for three terms; she has brought her country to greater achievements. In terms of education, women have worked very hard towards academic accomplishments, though when were never allowed even to attend school before. Today women are leading researchers and academicians worldwide. There are a number of women professors who teach in universities along with those who head various research institutions. Women also hold the posts of chairpersons in various businesses and undertakings. The level of education that women have received has enabled them to receive financiaal independence. It therefore means that many women today do not depend on men to provide for their needs. Some of the women earn even higher salaries than that of men. This has proven that women and men are equal. Culture has always been at the core of gender inequality for several decades. Women were viewed by society as expensive things that should be married off to earn wealth for their families. This school of thought has since changed. Today women are highly respected in civilized states; girls are given education and are allowed to work in areas that were previously the reserve of men. Today we have police women, women soldiers, women pilots, and women drivers. Women are doing well in their jobs and are no longer stereotyped as belonging to the weaker gender. Feminist groups are also out advocating women’s right. Any practices that demean women are today punishable in law courts. Custom Essay Writing Service The evidence above therefore, proves that in today’s realias gender equality is a very important factor that has been finally embraced by the human society. Women are no longer treated as the inferior gender but as equals with men. Gender equality has changed style of life of our world. Women have been empowered, and with the impressive work that women have done globally this has enabled various world economies to grow.	739	ENGLISH	1
Scripture Reference: Luke 22:7-23 Suggested Emphasis: God has always taken care of his people (Old Testament, New Testament, and today). Just as Scripture commanded, Jesus ate the Passover meal. This meal was usually celebrated with family and Jesus ate it with those who were closest to him – his disciples. During this meal the Jews were to remember how God had saved them from Egypt. The Passover feast was an extremely important yearly event for the Jews. The Jews still celebrate it today. This last Passover meal that Jesus and his disciples celebrated together (the Last Supper) set off the chain of events leading to the crucifixion. Use this lesson to explain the Passover Meal and why they were celebrating it. Introduce the fact that Judas would betray Jesus. Next week continue talking about the meal but then spend time discussing how Jesus gave new meaning to the bread and wine. The new meaning involves remembering his body and blood and is the Lord’s Supper that we celebrate each week. (Leviticus 23:4-8) The Passover lamb was sacrificed at a specific time on the fourteenth day of the first month on the Jewish calendar. (This was the day of the first Passover). In this case it was on Thursday of Passion Week. The first Passover was celebrated hundreds and hundreds of years earlier on the last night that the Jews were captive in Egypt (Exodus 12) . They Jews that followed God’s instructions and placed lamb’s blood on their doorposts were able to celebrate the meal safely inside their homes while the Angel of Death passed over them. Jews continued to celebrate the Passover as a reminder of God’s salvation. They even celebrate it today. Usually families ate the meal together. In this case Jesus celebrated it with his disciples. It seems that Jesus made plans ahead of time for the place where the meal was to be eaten. He had not told them where that would be. Judas had already been plotting to betray Jesus (Luke 22:1-6) so perhaps this is why Jesus did not disclose the location. Judas could have reported the place if he had known where it was. Jesus sent Peter and John on ahead to prepare the meal. They were told to look for the man carrying a water jar (Luke 22:10). This would have been unusual because women usually carried the water. Peter and John would have had to gather the following items for the meal: Unleavened bread: Flat bread made without yeast. Originally this was eaten in the Passover because the Jews left Egypt so quickly that the bread did not have time to rise. The unleavened bread was to be eaten at specific times during the meal. Lamb: Killed at sundown and roasted. The blood of the lamb was to be given to the priest to pour on the altar. They were to eat the whole lamb during the meal. Bitter herbs: These were eaten to remind the Jews of the bitter times in Egypt. Wine: Again, this was to be drunk at four specific times in the meal. (Luke 22:14) Originally the Passover meal was eaten standing (Exodus 12:11) but in Jesus’ time it was customary to eat it while reclining. Although the famous De Vince painting depicts Jesus and the Apostles sitting at a table, they actually would have been on the floor at a low table. They would probably have reclined on a cushion elbow and put their feet behind the person beside them. Although the gospel accounts do not record the events in exactly the same order, it seems that they ate the Passover meal and then Jesus revealed to Judas that he knew he would betray him. Perhaps Judas left before Jesus began explaining the new meaning of the bread and wine. (Matthew 26:23-25) It was customary to take a piece of bread (or a piece of meat wrapped in bread) and dip it into bowl of sauce (made of stewed fruit) on the table. Perhaps Judas was in the process of dipping the bread when Jesus said that someone who was dipping bread with him would betray him. Eating with someone in this culture was reaffirming friendship. This made Judas’ betrayal even more awful. - What happened before this story? - What happens after this story? - List of all Bible stories and themes on this website. Way to Introduce the Story: Before class blue-tac a long strip of paper above the door. Have red tempera paint and a brush ready. “Children, I am going to test your bible knowledge. In the story today we are going to be reminded of something that happened in the Old Testament times. I am going to do something that will give you a hint of what Old Testament story it is. (Use the brush to paint the red paint on the paper above the door) Does anyone remember reading a story about painting the top of a door with something red?” Quickly relate the story of the Pharaoh of Egypt who kept the people of God as slaves. God wanted the Pharaoh to let the people go to their own land but he would not let them. God’s final warning was that all of the firstborn children and animals would die unless one special thing was done. They had to put lamb’s blood over the door and everyone would be safe. The people that believed God did this and their children and animals were safe. After this, the Pharaoh let the people of God go. “God wanted the people to always remember what he had done. Today we are going to learn about the special meal that the people of God ate to remember the time God saved them.” To begin our story we are going to learn about something that happened long long ago. It was long before Jesus was born as a baby. We can read about it in the Old Testament book of Exodus. At that time God’s people lived in the country of Egypt. God’s people (the Jews) did not like living in Egypt. They had to be slaves and work all day long. They never even got paid any money for all their work. God wanted His people to have their own country to live in. He told a man named Moses to help the people leave. When Moses tried to help the Jews leave, Pharaoh (the ruler of Egypt) would not let them go. God thought of a special way to make sure Pharaoh would let the people go. He told all of the Jews to put the blood of a lamb on their doorframes. If they obeyed God in this special way then they would be safe and danger would “pass over” them. If anyone did not obey God then the oldest child in his or her family would die. Moses and the other Jews obeyed God. They put the blood on the doorframes and then stayed in their houses and ate a special Passover Meal. Pharaoh and the Egyptians did not obey but Moses. They were very sad because all of their firstborn children died. The Pharaoh finally decided to let the Jews leave Egypt and go to their new country. God saved His people. Has anyone ever saved your life? If they did, do you think you would remember it or do you think you would forget? God saved the Jews and he wanted them to always remember about it. He decided that a good way to remember would be to tell the Jews to eat a special Passover Meal every year. Then they would remember how he made the danger pass over them. Hundreds and hundreds of years later the Jews still wanted to remember what God had done. Every year they ate the special meal to remember the Passover. Jesus and his friends wanted to eat the special Passover Meal. Jesus told Peter and John to go into Jerusalem and get things ready for the meal. He did not tell them the place to go. He just told them to follow a man carrying a water jar. That man would take them to the house where they would have a special meal in an upstairs room. Peter and John did exactly as Jesus said. They followed the man carrying the water jug and he led them to the house where they would have the Passover Meal. When Jesus and his disciples arrived they ate the Passover Meal together. This was the way that they remembered what had happened long ago in Egypt. When they ate the meal they also remembered how God took care of his people. Jesus and the apostles followed all of the special instructions that God had given for the celebration. They ate bitter herbs to help them remember the bad times that the Jews had had when they were slaves in Egypt. They ate roasted lamb and they remembered the lamb’s blood that was put on the doorposts in the Old Testament. They drank grape wine and ate unleavened bread. Jesus and his friends liked the unleavened bread. They liked to dip it into a tasty sauce and eat it. During the Passover meal Jesus and his disciples were dipping the bread into the bowl of sauce. Jesus told them something while he was eating. He told them something very sad. He said, “Someone here is not really my friend. He will do bad things that will make me get into trouble. One of the ones who is dipping the bread in the bowl with me will betray me.” Judas knew that he was the one. Judas did not remember the good things that God had done. Some bad Jews had already given him money to make sure Jesus got in trouble and got arrested. Judas knew that Jesus had never done anything wrong but he said yes to the Jews because they offered to give him money. Ways to Tell the Story: This story can be told using a variety of methods. Always remain true to the facts found in the Bible but help children connect to its meaning by using drama, visual aids, voice inflection, student interaction and/or emotion. Click here for visual aids and story-telling methods. Click here to download these illustrations and slideshow. Be selective. Each teacher is unique so only use the illustrations that best relate to the way YOU are telling the story in THIS lesson. Too many illustrations can be confusing so eliminate any that cover other stories or details you do not wish to emphasise in this lesson. - What was the first Passover Meal to celebrate? The fact that God saved his people from slavery in Egypt. - Why are Old Testament stories important to us today? They teach important lessons. - Where did Jesus and his disciples eat the Last Supper? An upper room of a house. Learning Activities and Crafts: - Gather the ingredients and let the children taste foods from the Passover meal. You can use horseradish for bitter herbs, grape juice for the wine, and pita bread for the unleavened bread. You can purchase very thinly sliced lamb at a butcher or grocery deli. Recline and eat your meal at a low table. - Have one of the children look up and read Romans 15:4 and then let the class think of lessons they have learned from the Old Testament. “For everything that was written in the past was written to teach us, so that through the endurance taught in the Scriptures and the encouragement they provide we might have hope”. - List special foods that help us remember special occasions: birthday cake, chocolate eggs, Christmas pudding, hot cross buns, etc. Compare this to the Passover Meal. - This story is part of a bigger story about the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus. A simple way to tell the story is to open plastic Easter Eggs one at a time. Each egg reveals something about the story. If you are telling the stories about the death, burial and resurrection over a few weeks why not try repeating this method every week. The children will really know the story after this! Click here to learn how to do it. - Stories about the Death, Burial and Resurection of Jesus: - Triumphal Entry - The Last Supper - A Night of Betrayal and Prayer - The Trial of Jesus - Jesus is Crucified - Burial and the Resurrection Check the Teaching Ideas page on this website for ideas that are adaptable to any lesson. Other Online Resources: - Colouring page and worksheets about the last supper (Calvary Curriculum) - Colouring page and worksheets about Jesus washing the Apostles’ feet (Curriculum Curriculum) - Colouring page and worksheets about Jesus’ betrayal and denial foretold at the last supper (Calvary Curriculum) - Colouring page by Standard Publishing (Sermons4Kids) - Teacher’s guide (dltk-bible.com) - Writing response page (churchhousecollection.com) - A good selection of both online and printable puzzles, activities and story words covering the Last Supper through to the crucifixion (gardenofpraise.com)	<urn:uuid:499ef478-c784-4b92-886f-208445a14ad4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://missionbibleclass.org/new-testament/part1/life-of-christ-late/the-last-supper/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00124.warc.gz	en	0.980992	2,698	3.671875	4	[ -0.14655527472496033, 0.5416017770767212, -0.051244281232357025, -0.07626688480377197, -0.21555180847644806, -0.08958710730075836, 0.26559752225875854, 0.11612896621227264, 0.13332787156105042, -0.076917365193367, 0.12946775555610657, -0.20256131887435913, 0.04677422717213631, 0.0312002822...	6	Scripture Reference: Luke 22:7-23 Suggested Emphasis: God has always taken care of his people (Old Testament, New Testament, and today). Just as Scripture commanded, Jesus ate the Passover meal. This meal was usually celebrated with family and Jesus ate it with those who were closest to him – his disciples. During this meal the Jews were to remember how God had saved them from Egypt. The Passover feast was an extremely important yearly event for the Jews. The Jews still celebrate it today. This last Passover meal that Jesus and his disciples celebrated together (the Last Supper) set off the chain of events leading to the crucifixion. Use this lesson to explain the Passover Meal and why they were celebrating it. Introduce the fact that Judas would betray Jesus. Next week continue talking about the meal but then spend time discussing how Jesus gave new meaning to the bread and wine. The new meaning involves remembering his body and blood and is the Lord’s Supper that we celebrate each week. (Leviticus 23:4-8) The Passover lamb was sacrificed at a specific time on the fourteenth day of the first month on the Jewish calendar. (This was the day of the first Passover). In this case it was on Thursday of Passion Week. The first Passover was celebrated hundreds and hundreds of years earlier on the last night that the Jews were captive in Egypt (Exodus 12) . They Jews that followed God’s instructions and placed lamb’s blood on their doorposts were able to celebrate the meal safely inside their homes while the Angel of Death passed over them. Jews continued to celebrate the Passover as a reminder of God’s salvation. They even celebrate it today. Usually families ate the meal together. In this case Jesus celebrated it with his disciples. It seems that Jesus made plans ahead of time for the place where the meal was to be eaten. He had not told them where that would be. Judas had already been plotting to betray Jesus (Luke 22:1-6) so perhaps this is why Jesus did not disclose the location. Judas could have reported the place if he had known where it was. Jesus sent Peter and John on ahead to prepare the meal. They were told to look for the man carrying a water jar (Luke 22:10). This would have been unusual because women usually carried the water. Peter and John would have had to gather the following items for the meal: Unleavened bread: Flat bread made without yeast. Originally this was eaten in the Passover because the Jews left Egypt so quickly that the bread did not have time to rise. The unleavened bread was to be eaten at specific times during the meal. Lamb: Killed at sundown and roasted. The blood of the lamb was to be given to the priest to pour on the altar. They were to eat the whole lamb during the meal. Bitter herbs: These were eaten to remind the Jews of the bitter times in Egypt. Wine: Again, this was to be drunk at four specific times in the meal. (Luke 22:14) Originally the Passover meal was eaten standing (Exodus 12:11) but in Jesus’ time it was customary to eat it while reclining. Although the famous De Vince painting depicts Jesus and the Apostles sitting at a table, they actually would have been on the floor at a low table. They would probably have reclined on a cushion elbow and put their feet behind the person beside them. Although the gospel accounts do not record the events in exactly the same order, it seems that they ate the Passover meal and then Jesus revealed to Judas that he knew he would betray him. Perhaps Judas left before Jesus began explaining the new meaning of the bread and wine. (Matthew 26:23-25) It was customary to take a piece of bread (or a piece of meat wrapped in bread) and dip it into bowl of sauce (made of stewed fruit) on the table. Perhaps Judas was in the process of dipping the bread when Jesus said that someone who was dipping bread with him would betray him. Eating with someone in this culture was reaffirming friendship. This made Judas’ betrayal even more awful. - What happened before this story? - What happens after this story? - List of all Bible stories and themes on this website. Way to Introduce the Story: Before class blue-tac a long strip of paper above the door. Have red tempera paint and a brush ready. “Children, I am going to test your bible knowledge. In the story today we are going to be reminded of something that happened in the Old Testament times. I am going to do something that will give you a hint of what Old Testament story it is. (Use the brush to paint the red paint on the paper above the door) Does anyone remember reading a story about painting the top of a door with something red?” Quickly relate the story of the Pharaoh of Egypt who kept the people of God as slaves. God wanted the Pharaoh to let the people go to their own land but he would not let them. God’s final warning was that all of the firstborn children and animals would die unless one special thing was done. They had to put lamb’s blood over the door and everyone would be safe. The people that believed God did this and their children and animals were safe. After this, the Pharaoh let the people of God go. “God wanted the people to always remember what he had done. Today we are going to learn about the special meal that the people of God ate to remember the time God saved them.” To begin our story we are going to learn about something that happened long long ago. It was long before Jesus was born as a baby. We can read about it in the Old Testament book of Exodus. At that time God’s people lived in the country of Egypt. God’s people (the Jews) did not like living in Egypt. They had to be slaves and work all day long. They never even got paid any money for all their work. God wanted His people to have their own country to live in. He told a man named Moses to help the people leave. When Moses tried to help the Jews leave, Pharaoh (the ruler of Egypt) would not let them go. God thought of a special way to make sure Pharaoh would let the people go. He told all of the Jews to put the blood of a lamb on their doorframes. If they obeyed God in this special way then they would be safe and danger would “pass over” them. If anyone did not obey God then the oldest child in his or her family would die. Moses and the other Jews obeyed God. They put the blood on the doorframes and then stayed in their houses and ate a special Passover Meal. Pharaoh and the Egyptians did not obey but Moses. They were very sad because all of their firstborn children died. The Pharaoh finally decided to let the Jews leave Egypt and go to their new country. God saved His people. Has anyone ever saved your life? If they did, do you think you would remember it or do you think you would forget? God saved the Jews and he wanted them to always remember about it. He decided that a good way to remember would be to tell the Jews to eat a special Passover Meal every year. Then they would remember how he made the danger pass over them. Hundreds and hundreds of years later the Jews still wanted to remember what God had done. Every year they ate the special meal to remember the Passover. Jesus and his friends wanted to eat the special Passover Meal. Jesus told Peter and John to go into Jerusalem and get things ready for the meal. He did not tell them the place to go. He just told them to follow a man carrying a water jar. That man would take them to the house where they would have a special meal in an upstairs room. Peter and John did exactly as Jesus said. They followed the man carrying the water jug and he led them to the house where they would have the Passover Meal. When Jesus and his disciples arrived they ate the Passover Meal together. This was the way that they remembered what had happened long ago in Egypt. When they ate the meal they also remembered how God took care of his people. Jesus and the apostles followed all of the special instructions that God had given for the celebration. They ate bitter herbs to help them remember the bad times that the Jews had had when they were slaves in Egypt. They ate roasted lamb and they remembered the lamb’s blood that was put on the doorposts in the Old Testament. They drank grape wine and ate unleavened bread. Jesus and his friends liked the unleavened bread. They liked to dip it into a tasty sauce and eat it. During the Passover meal Jesus and his disciples were dipping the bread into the bowl of sauce. Jesus told them something while he was eating. He told them something very sad. He said, “Someone here is not really my friend. He will do bad things that will make me get into trouble. One of the ones who is dipping the bread in the bowl with me will betray me.” Judas knew that he was the one. Judas did not remember the good things that God had done. Some bad Jews had already given him money to make sure Jesus got in trouble and got arrested. Judas knew that Jesus had never done anything wrong but he said yes to the Jews because they offered to give him money. Ways to Tell the Story: This story can be told using a variety of methods. Always remain true to the facts found in the Bible but help children connect to its meaning by using drama, visual aids, voice inflection, student interaction and/or emotion. Click here for visual aids and story-telling methods. Click here to download these illustrations and slideshow. Be selective. Each teacher is unique so only use the illustrations that best relate to the way YOU are telling the story in THIS lesson. Too many illustrations can be confusing so eliminate any that cover other stories or details you do not wish to emphasise in this lesson. - What was the first Passover Meal to celebrate? The fact that God saved his people from slavery in Egypt. - Why are Old Testament stories important to us today? They teach important lessons. - Where did Jesus and his disciples eat the Last Supper? An upper room of a house. Learning Activities and Crafts: - Gather the ingredients and let the children taste foods from the Passover meal. You can use horseradish for bitter herbs, grape juice for the wine, and pita bread for the unleavened bread. You can purchase very thinly sliced lamb at a butcher or grocery deli. Recline and eat your meal at a low table. - Have one of the children look up and read Romans 15:4 and then let the class think of lessons they have learned from the Old Testament. “For everything that was written in the past was written to teach us, so that through the endurance taught in the Scriptures and the encouragement they provide we might have hope”. - List special foods that help us remember special occasions: birthday cake, chocolate eggs, Christmas pudding, hot cross buns, etc. Compare this to the Passover Meal. - This story is part of a bigger story about the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus. A simple way to tell the story is to open plastic Easter Eggs one at a time. Each egg reveals something about the story. If you are telling the stories about the death, burial and resurrection over a few weeks why not try repeating this method every week. The children will really know the story after this! Click here to learn how to do it. - Stories about the Death, Burial and Resurection of Jesus: - Triumphal Entry - The Last Supper - A Night of Betrayal and Prayer - The Trial of Jesus - Jesus is Crucified - Burial and the Resurrection Check the Teaching Ideas page on this website for ideas that are adaptable to any lesson. Other Online Resources: - Colouring page and worksheets about the last supper (Calvary Curriculum) - Colouring page and worksheets about Jesus washing the Apostles’ feet (Curriculum Curriculum) - Colouring page and worksheets about Jesus’ betrayal and denial foretold at the last supper (Calvary Curriculum) - Colouring page by Standard Publishing (Sermons4Kids) - Teacher’s guide (dltk-bible.com) - Writing response page (churchhousecollection.com) - A good selection of both online and printable puzzles, activities and story words covering the Last Supper through to the crucifixion (gardenofpraise.com)	2,617	ENGLISH	1
There is an island off the coast of Greece that appears to be nothing more than a massive rock but it was once an important port and center of trade. The rocky island was once part of the mainland until its connection was severed by an earthquake in 375 AD. People nonetheless settled there and built a town called Monemvasia. The inhabitants built on the highest points of the island first and gradually worked their way downward. They constructed a fortress on top of a cliff in 583 AD. During its centuries of existence, Monemvasia changed hands several times. It was part of the Byzantine Empire for two centuries until the empire fell in the mid-15th century. Monemvasia then shuttled back forth between the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. It remained a possession of the Ottoman Empire for about a hundred years until the Greek War of Independence in the 1820s. Monemvasia was an important center of trade during the Middle Ages; at its peak, it was home to 40,000 people. During the 15th century, it was also a popular hideout for pirates. Monemvasia began to decline in the 1770s, and large parts of it were abandoned. Today, Monemvasia is a popular destination. Many of the medieval buildings have been restored and, some have also been converted to hotels. While many of the churches are still ruins, the Agia Sofia, which was built in the 12th century, was restored by Eustathios Stikas roughly 800 years later.	<urn:uuid:320bde42-c9c7-49e7-8714-0adfeeb68e91>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://sharesplosion.com/looks-like-giant-rock-sea-boats-travel-side-huge-surprise/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00427.warc.gz	en	0.986902	321	3.609375	4	[ 0.023091396316885948, 0.026423849165439606, 0.16873738169670105, -0.25604093074798584, -0.21029752492904663, -0.4373258352279663, -0.17436452209949493, 0.2754644751548767, -0.21103419363498688, 0.18859432637691498, -0.3904136121273041, -0.40401238203048706, -0.16883032023906708, 0.68488788...	1	There is an island off the coast of Greece that appears to be nothing more than a massive rock but it was once an important port and center of trade. The rocky island was once part of the mainland until its connection was severed by an earthquake in 375 AD. People nonetheless settled there and built a town called Monemvasia. The inhabitants built on the highest points of the island first and gradually worked their way downward. They constructed a fortress on top of a cliff in 583 AD. During its centuries of existence, Monemvasia changed hands several times. It was part of the Byzantine Empire for two centuries until the empire fell in the mid-15th century. Monemvasia then shuttled back forth between the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. It remained a possession of the Ottoman Empire for about a hundred years until the Greek War of Independence in the 1820s. Monemvasia was an important center of trade during the Middle Ages; at its peak, it was home to 40,000 people. During the 15th century, it was also a popular hideout for pirates. Monemvasia began to decline in the 1770s, and large parts of it were abandoned. Today, Monemvasia is a popular destination. Many of the medieval buildings have been restored and, some have also been converted to hotels. While many of the churches are still ruins, the Agia Sofia, which was built in the 12th century, was restored by Eustathios Stikas roughly 800 years later.	336	ENGLISH	1
When George Washington assumed command of the Continental Army in 1775, he was stunned to learn there was less than one tenth of the gunpowder his army needed in stock. There were other shortages equally severe. Cannon balls, mortar shells, and the cannon and mortars to fire them were scarce. So were serviceable muskets, lead to make bullets, bayonets, clothing, shoes and boots, tents and blankets. All had to be obtained, which led to yet another pressing shortage – money. Congress didn’t have any, nor did it have the power to levy taxes to raise some. The only good thing Washington found in the situation was the British didn’t know how weak the colonists were. Clearly help was needed from somewhere. Unknown to Washington and Congress at the time was the machinery to provide aid was already being developed in Europe. It was created by a French courtier, writer, and spy for King Louis XVI of France. Before Benjamin Franklin and his delegation arrived in France to solicit aid for the Americans, French operations to provide it were underway. It had the tacit approval of the King and his court, so long as it remained secret. London and Paris were awash with spies. Keeping a secret of such magnitude was difficult, but a capable and largely forgotten hero of the American Revolution rose to the task. 1. Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais was a French version of Benjamin Franklin Beaumarchais is best remembered today through a character he created for three of the plays he wrote. The character was Figaro, later immortalized in the Mozart opera The Marriage of Figaro. But it would be wrong to identify Beaumarchais as merely a playwright. He was a skilled watchmaker, a publisher, and a musician of considerable talent. An inventor, he created a movement for pocket watches that made them more accurate. He was a patron of King Louis XVI. He was also a diplomat for the French court, and used his position at Louis’ request to serve as a spy in Great Britain. By 1775 Beaumarchais had extensive contacts in the Spanish, French, Dutch, and British governments. Beaumarchais was a man not above bribing judges in civil suits to obtain favorable verdicts. He also knew what the inside of a jail cell looked like, having been incarcerated in Spain in a dispute over a mistress shared with the Duke of Chaulnes. As a servant of Louis XV, he conducted covert missions in London, Vienna, and Amsterdam, serving his French monarch as a spy. He was in London to extract or silence another French spy, the Chevalier D’Eon, when he learned of the nature of the dispute between Britain and its colonies in North America. Beaumarchais became a conduit of information to the French court. His reports to Paris were always approving of the Americans, and often exaggerated the size of the rebellion.	<urn:uuid:4c89af86-747e-4431-b7bd-48901789e248>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historycollection.co/few-people-know-this-european-company-saved-the-american-revolution/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00010.warc.gz	en	0.987478	600	3.625	4	[ -0.476590633392334, 0.11308872699737549, 0.2865949273109436, -0.2642640173435211, -0.12893836200237274, -0.12271389365196228, 0.11822640895843506, 0.12918443977832794, -0.34229451417922974, -0.1385042667388916, 0.33343207836151123, 0.13674885034561157, 0.0630333423614502, 0.340590894222259...	4	When George Washington assumed command of the Continental Army in 1775, he was stunned to learn there was less than one tenth of the gunpowder his army needed in stock. There were other shortages equally severe. Cannon balls, mortar shells, and the cannon and mortars to fire them were scarce. So were serviceable muskets, lead to make bullets, bayonets, clothing, shoes and boots, tents and blankets. All had to be obtained, which led to yet another pressing shortage – money. Congress didn’t have any, nor did it have the power to levy taxes to raise some. The only good thing Washington found in the situation was the British didn’t know how weak the colonists were. Clearly help was needed from somewhere. Unknown to Washington and Congress at the time was the machinery to provide aid was already being developed in Europe. It was created by a French courtier, writer, and spy for King Louis XVI of France. Before Benjamin Franklin and his delegation arrived in France to solicit aid for the Americans, French operations to provide it were underway. It had the tacit approval of the King and his court, so long as it remained secret. London and Paris were awash with spies. Keeping a secret of such magnitude was difficult, but a capable and largely forgotten hero of the American Revolution rose to the task. 1. Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais was a French version of Benjamin Franklin Beaumarchais is best remembered today through a character he created for three of the plays he wrote. The character was Figaro, later immortalized in the Mozart opera The Marriage of Figaro. But it would be wrong to identify Beaumarchais as merely a playwright. He was a skilled watchmaker, a publisher, and a musician of considerable talent. An inventor, he created a movement for pocket watches that made them more accurate. He was a patron of King Louis XVI. He was also a diplomat for the French court, and used his position at Louis’ request to serve as a spy in Great Britain. By 1775 Beaumarchais had extensive contacts in the Spanish, French, Dutch, and British governments. Beaumarchais was a man not above bribing judges in civil suits to obtain favorable verdicts. He also knew what the inside of a jail cell looked like, having been incarcerated in Spain in a dispute over a mistress shared with the Duke of Chaulnes. As a servant of Louis XV, he conducted covert missions in London, Vienna, and Amsterdam, serving his French monarch as a spy. He was in London to extract or silence another French spy, the Chevalier D’Eon, when he learned of the nature of the dispute between Britain and its colonies in North America. Beaumarchais became a conduit of information to the French court. His reports to Paris were always approving of the Americans, and often exaggerated the size of the rebellion.	599	ENGLISH	1
Kerala coast is under severe threat and the coat line is the most vulnerable among all the coasts in India that faces the most threat op erosion. When the waves and ocean currents take away 41 percent of the sand from the shores, only 21 per cent of sand is dumped back on the shore, a recent study that was carried by the Union Ministry for Environment, Forest and Climate Change. It has been said that Thiruvananthapuram has the worst erosion followed by Kollam and Ernakulam. However, the erosion was said to be lower in Alappuzha and Thrissur districts. It has also been said that large hectares of forest land was also lost because of erosion. This has been figured by the Indian Institute of Science through remote sensing. Natural causes such as cyclones, high waves and human activities have led to major destruction in the coastal regions. In the last 25 years, it has been reported that one third of the coast line in the country has been eroded. However, new areas have been developed because of sand deposits. Though many of the state governments have been engaged in many ways to tackle coastal erosion, it has always been a cause every year with natural calamities on an increase.	<urn:uuid:bac5f3d7-16fb-4bb8-a815-5dc8668b2a0c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kadapuram.com/2019/12/15/kerala-coast-the-most-threatened-coastline/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00424.warc.gz	en	0.98518	251	3.59375	4	[ 0.26453083753585815, -0.014159063808619976, -0.20599664747714996, -0.14387157559394836, 0.10873935371637344, 0.18664488196372986, 0.1510523408651352, 0.2423934042453766, -0.29676005244255066, 0.10302229225635529, -0.14036394655704498, -0.8773092031478882, 0.3327849805355072, 0.581434011459...	6	Kerala coast is under severe threat and the coat line is the most vulnerable among all the coasts in India that faces the most threat op erosion. When the waves and ocean currents take away 41 percent of the sand from the shores, only 21 per cent of sand is dumped back on the shore, a recent study that was carried by the Union Ministry for Environment, Forest and Climate Change. It has been said that Thiruvananthapuram has the worst erosion followed by Kollam and Ernakulam. However, the erosion was said to be lower in Alappuzha and Thrissur districts. It has also been said that large hectares of forest land was also lost because of erosion. This has been figured by the Indian Institute of Science through remote sensing. Natural causes such as cyclones, high waves and human activities have led to major destruction in the coastal regions. In the last 25 years, it has been reported that one third of the coast line in the country has been eroded. However, new areas have been developed because of sand deposits. Though many of the state governments have been engaged in many ways to tackle coastal erosion, it has always been a cause every year with natural calamities on an increase.	255	ENGLISH	1
At the turn of the 20th century, Johannesburg had an unusual group of self-employed businessmen carving a place for themselves in the mad scramble for gold. The AmaWasha, or Zulu washermen, formed a guild, which gave them privileges that blacks at the time could only dream of as they were systematically deprived of their rights to earn a living as they chose. These entrepreneurs had an impressive presence - they wore turbans and marched into town in regimental style once a month, keeping perfect time and singing their old regiment songs. At the market square they would get down to a sociable imbizo after they'd renewed their monthly licence. By 1896, a decade after Joburg was established, there were more than 1 200 AmaWasha cleaning the town's laundry. But by 1914 the authorities had successfully marginalised them and the industry was largely dead. The guild exempted the AwaWasha from carrying passes and got around a local by-law that prevented blacks from carrying weapons. It also allowed them to brew as much beer as they wanted for their own needs, according to Charles van Onselen in Studies in the Social and Economic history of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, New Nineveh (1982). The guild allowed them to restrict entry into the AmaWasha and to determine the price they levied for washing the town's laundry. Van Onselen says that despite the fact that these men managed to save fair sums of money, it was spent on land and cattle in the countryside and not used to buy laundry equipment. They did not keep up with the next phase of industrialisation when, for instance, the Randlords were on hand to supply the capital needed to take mining below ground. "In a period otherwise characterised by growing African proletarianisation, however, even this form of re-investment was enough to ensure the washermen a significant measure of economic protection and in parts of rural Natal the AmaWasha came to constitute a conspicuously successful stratum in black society," Van Onselen says. By this means the AmaWasha and their children avoided the movement from the land into the fast-growing black working classes that characterised the country at the beginning of the 20th century. The AmaWasha had observed the turbaned Dhobis, India's washermen caste, doing Durban's washing in the Umgeni River in the 1870s. They soon adopted the same form of earning a livelihood, after noticing that the Dhobis could not meet the town's laundry demands. When gold was discovered in Joburg in 1886 the AmaWasha, in particular the Mchunus and Buthelezis, moved up to the reef, along with a number of Hindu Dhobis, Van Onselen explains. Circumstances in the gold-rush town were unique in two ways. Firstly, there was no large river residents could easily empty their waste into, which meant they could not do their washing at home. So washing was allowed in streams on the outskirts of town. Secondly, there were very few women in the town for the first 15 years or so, and gold prospectors, single or married without their families, were "without recourse to that female labour which normally undertook the washing and ironing of their clothes". The AmaWasha took up the challenge and set up shop at Braamfontein Spruit to the north of the town; by 1895 their operations had extended to three other sites - Elandsfontein in the east, and Booysens and Concordia in the south. A year later, in 1896, there were more than 1 200 washermen at about 10 sites - Sans Souci, Vrededorp, City and Suburban, Rietvlei, Elandsfontein, George Goch, Booysens, Concordia, Klipspruit, Nancefield Station - washing the town's laundry over boulders and in specially constructed concrete troughs. At the Sans Souci site a group of about 80 men established themselves more permanently. They planted crops along the banks of the spruit, kept pigs and cattle, had 14 horses and four carts. By 1896 a census showed that the group had grown to 546 Zulu washermen, 14 Dhobis, four Indian women and 64 black women. Although the community was very much an urban set-up, it retained social structures belonging to a traditional rural setting. An induna was in charge of the settlement, recruiting new men, organising a watch to guard the drying washing and, most importantly, he was the go-between for the men and the land owner, the Braamfontein Company, and the municipality, both of which were paid fees. Van Onselen says that "vestiges of the Zulu regimental system were woven into the fabric of the washermen's guild". And between 1890 and 1895, the leader of the guild, "the formidable Kwaaiman", would meet with the other indunas in the market square once a month for a chinwag. The washermen's week took on a predictable routine. Mondays were usually collection and delivery days, by horse and cart, or more usually by slinging large bundles over sticks and walking to their customers. Laundry fees were also collected on Mondays. Tuesdays to Saturdays were devoted to the serious business of cleaning the town's dirty laundry, with a possible break for a mid-week afternoon delivery. Sundays were days of rest. The average washerman washed three bundles of washing a day, or about 18 bundles a week, for which he earned a monthly wage of £14. Over his four-month spell in the town, he would earn £48. But he had to balance this against his costs, which totalled £7 over the four-month period, Van Onselen says. He had to pay a Sanitary Board registration fee, a monthly licence fee, rent on a hut, site hire and a pass exemption fee. Additional under-the-counter income came in the form of the "less scrupulous washermen who stole or sold their customer's clothing", and the illegal sale of home-brewed beer. Most washermen spent two sessions working in the town, going home to KwaZulu-Natal to their families in between and taking home up to £100 every year. "Incomes of this order placed the AmaWasha in a rather exceptional socio-economic category and, not surprisingly, their children, when subsequently questioned about their father's position in rural society, deemed the washermen to be wealthy.'" From 1894, however, the authorities had to deal with a constant stream of complaints about the loss of their laundry. A raid in that year on a washing site produced 10 "missing" bundles of laundry. At one time the selling of clothing became an organised mafia operation, explains Van Onselen. In 1895 gang called the Peruvians - Russian or Polish Jews - ran a well-organised operation that sold second-hand clothing in the town. It could conceivably happen, says Van Onselen, that "a white miner who had sent his laundry for washing with the guild would end up having to repurchase his own garments from a second-hand clothing dealer in the city centre". Changes in 1895 But things changed from 1895 when a drought set in. The pits that the washermen dug into the banks of the Braamfontein Spruit were not washed out by the constant stream of water. The usually dirty and discoloured water, mixed with decomposing soap and mud, became disgusting and posed a health risk. Health inspectors ordered a temporary closure of the site and a thorough clean-out of the pits. Other moves were afoot that were to signal the beginning of the end of the AmaWasha. In October 1895 the Crystal Steam Laundry Company was established in Richmond with the newest plant and equipment imported from the United States. Shortly after this, in June 1896, the Auckland Park Steam Laundry Company was formed. And the authorities began looking for a single, consolidated site for the washermen. A site to accommodate 1 500 of them, on the Klip River on the farm Witbank - a two-and-a-half hour train ride south - was proposed. Kwaaiman expressed his unhappiness to the Sanitary Board but was ignored. The board started to pressure the AmaWasha to move, and a month later the screws were turned - the board refused to renew their licences to operate in the town. A mass meeting was held on market square, led by Kwaaiman, who then approached the board again, only to be told that once all the current licences expired, washing could be done at Klip River, or not at all. This led to divisions within the ranks of the AmaWasha. Three days after the meeting, some AmaWasha moved down south. A few days later, several hundred men left the town and went back to their rural homes in KwaZulu-Natal. Some men got jobs as domestic servants. But households soon discovered that up to 40 percent of the AmaWasha were no longer available to do their washing. Two things then happened: the remaining men went on strike for a week, and the men down south took advantage of the strike and doubled their fees. "By the end of the week Europeans were either starting to wash their own clothing at home illegally, or reluctantly paying the 100 percent increase to meet the weekly laundry bill," Van Onselen says. But then, just when their actions seemed to be a serious inconvenience to the white townsfolk, their resistance started to crumble. From December 1896 more washermen moved down south. "Lack of leadership, the need for cash, the presence of the new steam laundries, and scabs' at Witbank all combined to undermine the morale of the AmaWasha, and by the last week of 1896 most of the washermen's guild was at work in the Klip River." Life at Klip River The move down south necessitated a huge change in the lifestyle of the AmaWasha. They now had to rely on the Netherlands South Africa Railway Company (NZASM) to transport bundles of washing to and from their customers, at exorbitant prices. Eventually the Sanitary Board managed to get the NZASM to reduce its prices but another railway problem reduced their output, and therefore their income. The quality and frequency of the service was a headache for the washermen. They were forced to transport their bundles in empty coal trucks hardly suitable for clean washing. And the NZASM's timetable meant that the washermen could not make their deliveries and collections in town in one day. Their troubles went further. They could not grow crops at Klip River and had to buy provisions from the local store at uncompetitive prices. Since they were further from town and potential customers, they could not sell beer to bolster their income. Four black policemen and a feared Constable Botha kept a close eye on operations, thus eliminating any chance of illegal second-hand clothes selling. Squeezed in this manner, says Van Onselen, they did what most businessmen would do: they increased their prices from "four shillings to eight shillings for a bundle of washing in an attempt to cope with the new cost structure that had been imposed upon them a 100 percent increase". At the same time mechanised laundry washing was fast gaining ground in the town. By April 1898 there were some six laundries operating, having taken advantage of the changes happening to the AmaWasha. The Melrose Steam Laundry was opened on the banks of the Jukskei River in April 1897 and recruited Dhobis. In 1899 these Hindus asked the owners of the land for a piece on which to build a temple. The Siva Subramanian Temple, a wood and iron structure, was largely demolished in 1996 to make way for a new temple, now an incongruous structure in the plush suburb of Melrose. The laundry operated until the depression of the 1920s. Back to Richmond While most of the AmaWasha had moved to Witbank, 60 men were persuaded by Lady Drummond Dunbar to remain at Richmond. Of course, they soon ran into trouble with the Sanitary Board over the issuing of licences, but this time they had an ally. Dunbar promised to protect them if they applied for passes, the legal requirement at the time for all blacks. They then became her "servants", giving up their pass exemption status, but continuing as washermen. The Sanitary Board immediately prosecuted them for trading without a licence. Dunbar and the land owners sprung into action - they challenged the Sanitary Board and "organised a public petition for the return of the AmaWasha and the cheaper laundry service which they provided". The battle that lasted six months and in July 1897 Dunbar eventually won; the AmaWasha were invited back to their old sites and by September there were no washermen in Witbank. Even better conditions awaited them - they found they had warm soapy water on tap, discharged from the Crystal and Palace Steam laundries. However, things would never be the same again. The guild was not as cohesive and missed the strong leadership of Kwaaiman, without whom their disciplined marches and meetings in town were not the same. "This loss of internal control manifested itself in the growing number of reports of theft, gambling, drinking and violence that came from the washing sites between 1897 and the outbreak of war [in 1899]." The council felt the need to intervene, using the only means left to it: to formulate new by-laws. But before the laws could be implemented, the South African War broke out and the majority of the AmaWasha left for their rural homes in KwaZulu-Natal. Others were employed by the British army, which took occupation of Johannesburg in May 1900. The British authorities set out to "enhance control and segregation by attempting to get all urban Africans to live in a single consolidated location". Down south again A new British pass law disallowed the pass-exemption provision - a big blow that sought to reduce the AmaWasha's central competitive site at Richmond and reduce them to the status of servants. In April 1902 this site was cleared of all washermen and they were moved to Concordia, again down south. What they didn't know, though, was that this was only halfway to their final destination, assisted by the outbreak of plague in 1904, when the council cleared the "Coolie Location", just west of Museum Africa, for fear of the disease spreading. The council acquired the farm Klipspruit, 21 kilometres south of the town, and by May 1904 all the AmaWasha were moved there, to join the new residents who had been resettled in the area. This move was not without protest. In March 1904 a mass meeting was held in market square, attended by the Brickfields residents. The Amawasha led the crowd in the singing and chanting, in a déjà vu experience - they'd been expelled from the town in 1896. Of course these developments played into the hands of the laundry capitalists, who experienced a rise in business as people streamed back into the town after the war. Laundries expanded and Rand Steam Laundries in Richmond was formed at the site of the biggest from 1890. It operated on the site until 1962. Today that site is an untidy mix of light industries, and is threatened with demolition by its new owner. The AmaWasha, emasculated in their new location, did what they had done in 1897 - undertook a mass re-entry into the town. This time, however, new segregatory legislation denied them access to their old centralised sites and instead they set up shop in peripheral sites at Claremont, Craighall, Concordia and Langlaagte. But the authorities had long-term plans. By early 1906 an ironing room, a fenced-in drying site and 100 concrete wash basins had been erected at Klipspruit. "With blind ruthlessness and staggering cynicism the council prepared to move the washermen for the last time - this time to an uneconomic washing site that shared its setting with the municipal sewerage works," Van Onselen says. Today remains of the sewerage works are still visible but the basins have disappeared. Under pressure from the council, some washermen packed up and left for KwaZulu-Natal. In early 1907 about 75 washermen moved out east and rented sites on the farm Elandsfontein, but the back of the manual washing industry had been broken. By that year 300 wash basins in Klipspruit had been built. Yet combined with expensive licence fees, the industry slowly started to die. And there was another factor, a repeat of an earlier problem. "As had been the case at Witbank 10 years earlier, it was the absence of cheap and efficient rail transport that did most to ruin the small businessmen who had been relegated to a segregated site miles out of town." Of course, this eroded their customer base. And worse was to come - a depression hit the Witwatersrand between 1906 and 1908, with working-class whites joining the ranks of the unemployed. The small group of washermen at Elandsfontein resisted pressure to move south. Instead they first moved further east to Rietvlei, but by December 1907 they had all moved to Klipspruit. Another nail in the coffin Another nail in the coffin of the AmaWasha was a new contingent of washer people - Chinese and Indians. By 1914 there were 46 Chinese laundries in Johannesburg, located in Fordsburg and Jeppe, where some of the AmaWasha were employed. They serviced the surrounding white working classes, which meant they didn't need horses and carts. Indian laundrymen established themselves in the outlying areas. Economic conditions started to improve by 1909 - and that's when the steam laundries started to reap the benefits. Rand Steam Laundries had 13 branches along the reef by 1910, with 33 delivery vans and 200 white women and 100 black men at its headquarters at Richmond, Van Onselen says. Between 1910 and 1911 three new laundries - the International, the Model and the New York Steam Laundry - were formed and by 1912 the steam laundries had control of the town's dirty washing. And the dirty war of price fixing and cartels made its presence felt. But a broader international movement played a role too. Advertisements for washing machines began to appear in 1903, promising, "No more wash boys needed!" More and more working class white households were undertaking their domestic chores within the home. The AmaWasha made a last stand by meeting with municipal officials, who only responded by raising rail rates. So the AmaWasha bypassed them and went to the government. Another meeting was held in the presence of the secretary for native affairs, W Windham, who assured the washermen that the council would "listen most carefully to their grievances". But nothing came of it. "If the council did listen it certainly did not act, and shortly thereafter the Transvaal government officials concerned were absorbed into the Union's new civil service. "The noose of segregation around the black laundrymen's necks was never loosened, and the 1910 meeting concluded with the remnants of the Zulu washermen's guild singing their way into economic oblivion to the strains of the national anthem." By 1934, only 14 men still worked at the Klipspruit site and in 1953 the site was closed. Van Onselen concludes that, "Zulu speakers were at least as quick as any other immigrant group on the early Witwatersrand to spot a new economic opportunity and exploit it". But as the town grew they became vulnerable when exposed to "capitalist competition" which invested in steam laundries. Their decline was "greatly hastened by the advent of urban segregation".	<urn:uuid:20513127-39f5-4c7c-a513-7169f36a48d4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lucilledavie.co.za/single-post/2006/04/03/AmaWasha---Jozis-first-black-businessmen	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00305.warc.gz	en	0.980416	4,197	3.296875	3	[ -0.4148672819137573, 0.6406353712081909, -0.09977372735738754, 0.1502770483493805, 0.22587426006793976, -0.05634240061044693, 0.09226075559854507, -0.0841088742017746, -0.5198020935058594, -0.2817453145980835, 0.2578417658805847, -0.31984829902648926, -0.1176648661494255, 0.201871544122695...	2	At the turn of the 20th century, Johannesburg had an unusual group of self-employed businessmen carving a place for themselves in the mad scramble for gold. The AmaWasha, or Zulu washermen, formed a guild, which gave them privileges that blacks at the time could only dream of as they were systematically deprived of their rights to earn a living as they chose. These entrepreneurs had an impressive presence - they wore turbans and marched into town in regimental style once a month, keeping perfect time and singing their old regiment songs. At the market square they would get down to a sociable imbizo after they'd renewed their monthly licence. By 1896, a decade after Joburg was established, there were more than 1 200 AmaWasha cleaning the town's laundry. But by 1914 the authorities had successfully marginalised them and the industry was largely dead. The guild exempted the AwaWasha from carrying passes and got around a local by-law that prevented blacks from carrying weapons. It also allowed them to brew as much beer as they wanted for their own needs, according to Charles van Onselen in Studies in the Social and Economic history of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, New Nineveh (1982). The guild allowed them to restrict entry into the AmaWasha and to determine the price they levied for washing the town's laundry. Van Onselen says that despite the fact that these men managed to save fair sums of money, it was spent on land and cattle in the countryside and not used to buy laundry equipment. They did not keep up with the next phase of industrialisation when, for instance, the Randlords were on hand to supply the capital needed to take mining below ground. "In a period otherwise characterised by growing African proletarianisation, however, even this form of re-investment was enough to ensure the washermen a significant measure of economic protection and in parts of rural Natal the AmaWasha came to constitute a conspicuously successful stratum in black society," Van Onselen says. By this means the AmaWasha and their children avoided the movement from the land into the fast-growing black working classes that characterised the country at the beginning of the 20th century. The AmaWasha had observed the turbaned Dhobis, India's washermen caste, doing Durban's washing in the Umgeni River in the 1870s. They soon adopted the same form of earning a livelihood, after noticing that the Dhobis could not meet the town's laundry demands. When gold was discovered in Joburg in 1886 the AmaWasha, in particular the Mchunus and Buthelezis, moved up to the reef, along with a number of Hindu Dhobis, Van Onselen explains. Circumstances in the gold-rush town were unique in two ways. Firstly, there was no large river residents could easily empty their waste into, which meant they could not do their washing at home. So washing was allowed in streams on the outskirts of town. Secondly, there were very few women in the town for the first 15 years or so, and gold prospectors, single or married without their families, were "without recourse to that female labour which normally undertook the washing and ironing of their clothes". The AmaWasha took up the challenge and set up shop at Braamfontein Spruit to the north of the town; by 1895 their operations had extended to three other sites - Elandsfontein in the east, and Booysens and Concordia in the south. A year later, in 1896, there were more than 1 200 washermen at about 10 sites - Sans Souci, Vrededorp, City and Suburban, Rietvlei, Elandsfontein, George Goch, Booysens, Concordia, Klipspruit, Nancefield Station - washing the town's laundry over boulders and in specially constructed concrete troughs. At the Sans Souci site a group of about 80 men established themselves more permanently. They planted crops along the banks of the spruit, kept pigs and cattle, had 14 horses and four carts. By 1896 a census showed that the group had grown to 546 Zulu washermen, 14 Dhobis, four Indian women and 64 black women. Although the community was very much an urban set-up, it retained social structures belonging to a traditional rural setting. An induna was in charge of the settlement, recruiting new men, organising a watch to guard the drying washing and, most importantly, he was the go-between for the men and the land owner, the Braamfontein Company, and the municipality, both of which were paid fees. Van Onselen says that "vestiges of the Zulu regimental system were woven into the fabric of the washermen's guild". And between 1890 and 1895, the leader of the guild, "the formidable Kwaaiman", would meet with the other indunas in the market square once a month for a chinwag. The washermen's week took on a predictable routine. Mondays were usually collection and delivery days, by horse and cart, or more usually by slinging large bundles over sticks and walking to their customers. Laundry fees were also collected on Mondays. Tuesdays to Saturdays were devoted to the serious business of cleaning the town's dirty laundry, with a possible break for a mid-week afternoon delivery. Sundays were days of rest. The average washerman washed three bundles of washing a day, or about 18 bundles a week, for which he earned a monthly wage of £14. Over his four-month spell in the town, he would earn £48. But he had to balance this against his costs, which totalled £7 over the four-month period, Van Onselen says. He had to pay a Sanitary Board registration fee, a monthly licence fee, rent on a hut, site hire and a pass exemption fee. Additional under-the-counter income came in the form of the "less scrupulous washermen who stole or sold their customer's clothing", and the illegal sale of home-brewed beer. Most washermen spent two sessions working in the town, going home to KwaZulu-Natal to their families in between and taking home up to £100 every year. "Incomes of this order placed the AmaWasha in a rather exceptional socio-economic category and, not surprisingly, their children, when subsequently questioned about their father's position in rural society, deemed the washermen to be wealthy.'" From 1894, however, the authorities had to deal with a constant stream of complaints about the loss of their laundry. A raid in that year on a washing site produced 10 "missing" bundles of laundry. At one time the selling of clothing became an organised mafia operation, explains Van Onselen. In 1895 gang called the Peruvians - Russian or Polish Jews - ran a well-organised operation that sold second-hand clothing in the town. It could conceivably happen, says Van Onselen, that "a white miner who had sent his laundry for washing with the guild would end up having to repurchase his own garments from a second-hand clothing dealer in the city centre". Changes in 1895 But things changed from 1895 when a drought set in. The pits that the washermen dug into the banks of the Braamfontein Spruit were not washed out by the constant stream of water. The usually dirty and discoloured water, mixed with decomposing soap and mud, became disgusting and posed a health risk. Health inspectors ordered a temporary closure of the site and a thorough clean-out of the pits. Other moves were afoot that were to signal the beginning of the end of the AmaWasha. In October 1895 the Crystal Steam Laundry Company was established in Richmond with the newest plant and equipment imported from the United States. Shortly after this, in June 1896, the Auckland Park Steam Laundry Company was formed. And the authorities began looking for a single, consolidated site for the washermen. A site to accommodate 1 500 of them, on the Klip River on the farm Witbank - a two-and-a-half hour train ride south - was proposed. Kwaaiman expressed his unhappiness to the Sanitary Board but was ignored. The board started to pressure the AmaWasha to move, and a month later the screws were turned - the board refused to renew their licences to operate in the town. A mass meeting was held on market square, led by Kwaaiman, who then approached the board again, only to be told that once all the current licences expired, washing could be done at Klip River, or not at all. This led to divisions within the ranks of the AmaWasha. Three days after the meeting, some AmaWasha moved down south. A few days later, several hundred men left the town and went back to their rural homes in KwaZulu-Natal. Some men got jobs as domestic servants. But households soon discovered that up to 40 percent of the AmaWasha were no longer available to do their washing. Two things then happened: the remaining men went on strike for a week, and the men down south took advantage of the strike and doubled their fees. "By the end of the week Europeans were either starting to wash their own clothing at home illegally, or reluctantly paying the 100 percent increase to meet the weekly laundry bill," Van Onselen says. But then, just when their actions seemed to be a serious inconvenience to the white townsfolk, their resistance started to crumble. From December 1896 more washermen moved down south. "Lack of leadership, the need for cash, the presence of the new steam laundries, and scabs' at Witbank all combined to undermine the morale of the AmaWasha, and by the last week of 1896 most of the washermen's guild was at work in the Klip River." Life at Klip River The move down south necessitated a huge change in the lifestyle of the AmaWasha. They now had to rely on the Netherlands South Africa Railway Company (NZASM) to transport bundles of washing to and from their customers, at exorbitant prices. Eventually the Sanitary Board managed to get the NZASM to reduce its prices but another railway problem reduced their output, and therefore their income. The quality and frequency of the service was a headache for the washermen. They were forced to transport their bundles in empty coal trucks hardly suitable for clean washing. And the NZASM's timetable meant that the washermen could not make their deliveries and collections in town in one day. Their troubles went further. They could not grow crops at Klip River and had to buy provisions from the local store at uncompetitive prices. Since they were further from town and potential customers, they could not sell beer to bolster their income. Four black policemen and a feared Constable Botha kept a close eye on operations, thus eliminating any chance of illegal second-hand clothes selling. Squeezed in this manner, says Van Onselen, they did what most businessmen would do: they increased their prices from "four shillings to eight shillings for a bundle of washing in an attempt to cope with the new cost structure that had been imposed upon them a 100 percent increase". At the same time mechanised laundry washing was fast gaining ground in the town. By April 1898 there were some six laundries operating, having taken advantage of the changes happening to the AmaWasha. The Melrose Steam Laundry was opened on the banks of the Jukskei River in April 1897 and recruited Dhobis. In 1899 these Hindus asked the owners of the land for a piece on which to build a temple. The Siva Subramanian Temple, a wood and iron structure, was largely demolished in 1996 to make way for a new temple, now an incongruous structure in the plush suburb of Melrose. The laundry operated until the depression of the 1920s. Back to Richmond While most of the AmaWasha had moved to Witbank, 60 men were persuaded by Lady Drummond Dunbar to remain at Richmond. Of course, they soon ran into trouble with the Sanitary Board over the issuing of licences, but this time they had an ally. Dunbar promised to protect them if they applied for passes, the legal requirement at the time for all blacks. They then became her "servants", giving up their pass exemption status, but continuing as washermen. The Sanitary Board immediately prosecuted them for trading without a licence. Dunbar and the land owners sprung into action - they challenged the Sanitary Board and "organised a public petition for the return of the AmaWasha and the cheaper laundry service which they provided". The battle that lasted six months and in July 1897 Dunbar eventually won; the AmaWasha were invited back to their old sites and by September there were no washermen in Witbank. Even better conditions awaited them - they found they had warm soapy water on tap, discharged from the Crystal and Palace Steam laundries. However, things would never be the same again. The guild was not as cohesive and missed the strong leadership of Kwaaiman, without whom their disciplined marches and meetings in town were not the same. "This loss of internal control manifested itself in the growing number of reports of theft, gambling, drinking and violence that came from the washing sites between 1897 and the outbreak of war [in 1899]." The council felt the need to intervene, using the only means left to it: to formulate new by-laws. But before the laws could be implemented, the South African War broke out and the majority of the AmaWasha left for their rural homes in KwaZulu-Natal. Others were employed by the British army, which took occupation of Johannesburg in May 1900. The British authorities set out to "enhance control and segregation by attempting to get all urban Africans to live in a single consolidated location". Down south again A new British pass law disallowed the pass-exemption provision - a big blow that sought to reduce the AmaWasha's central competitive site at Richmond and reduce them to the status of servants. In April 1902 this site was cleared of all washermen and they were moved to Concordia, again down south. What they didn't know, though, was that this was only halfway to their final destination, assisted by the outbreak of plague in 1904, when the council cleared the "Coolie Location", just west of Museum Africa, for fear of the disease spreading. The council acquired the farm Klipspruit, 21 kilometres south of the town, and by May 1904 all the AmaWasha were moved there, to join the new residents who had been resettled in the area. This move was not without protest. In March 1904 a mass meeting was held in market square, attended by the Brickfields residents. The Amawasha led the crowd in the singing and chanting, in a déjà vu experience - they'd been expelled from the town in 1896. Of course these developments played into the hands of the laundry capitalists, who experienced a rise in business as people streamed back into the town after the war. Laundries expanded and Rand Steam Laundries in Richmond was formed at the site of the biggest from 1890. It operated on the site until 1962. Today that site is an untidy mix of light industries, and is threatened with demolition by its new owner. The AmaWasha, emasculated in their new location, did what they had done in 1897 - undertook a mass re-entry into the town. This time, however, new segregatory legislation denied them access to their old centralised sites and instead they set up shop in peripheral sites at Claremont, Craighall, Concordia and Langlaagte. But the authorities had long-term plans. By early 1906 an ironing room, a fenced-in drying site and 100 concrete wash basins had been erected at Klipspruit. "With blind ruthlessness and staggering cynicism the council prepared to move the washermen for the last time - this time to an uneconomic washing site that shared its setting with the municipal sewerage works," Van Onselen says. Today remains of the sewerage works are still visible but the basins have disappeared. Under pressure from the council, some washermen packed up and left for KwaZulu-Natal. In early 1907 about 75 washermen moved out east and rented sites on the farm Elandsfontein, but the back of the manual washing industry had been broken. By that year 300 wash basins in Klipspruit had been built. Yet combined with expensive licence fees, the industry slowly started to die. And there was another factor, a repeat of an earlier problem. "As had been the case at Witbank 10 years earlier, it was the absence of cheap and efficient rail transport that did most to ruin the small businessmen who had been relegated to a segregated site miles out of town." Of course, this eroded their customer base. And worse was to come - a depression hit the Witwatersrand between 1906 and 1908, with working-class whites joining the ranks of the unemployed. The small group of washermen at Elandsfontein resisted pressure to move south. Instead they first moved further east to Rietvlei, but by December 1907 they had all moved to Klipspruit. Another nail in the coffin Another nail in the coffin of the AmaWasha was a new contingent of washer people - Chinese and Indians. By 1914 there were 46 Chinese laundries in Johannesburg, located in Fordsburg and Jeppe, where some of the AmaWasha were employed. They serviced the surrounding white working classes, which meant they didn't need horses and carts. Indian laundrymen established themselves in the outlying areas. Economic conditions started to improve by 1909 - and that's when the steam laundries started to reap the benefits. Rand Steam Laundries had 13 branches along the reef by 1910, with 33 delivery vans and 200 white women and 100 black men at its headquarters at Richmond, Van Onselen says. Between 1910 and 1911 three new laundries - the International, the Model and the New York Steam Laundry - were formed and by 1912 the steam laundries had control of the town's dirty washing. And the dirty war of price fixing and cartels made its presence felt. But a broader international movement played a role too. Advertisements for washing machines began to appear in 1903, promising, "No more wash boys needed!" More and more working class white households were undertaking their domestic chores within the home. The AmaWasha made a last stand by meeting with municipal officials, who only responded by raising rail rates. So the AmaWasha bypassed them and went to the government. Another meeting was held in the presence of the secretary for native affairs, W Windham, who assured the washermen that the council would "listen most carefully to their grievances". But nothing came of it. "If the council did listen it certainly did not act, and shortly thereafter the Transvaal government officials concerned were absorbed into the Union's new civil service. "The noose of segregation around the black laundrymen's necks was never loosened, and the 1910 meeting concluded with the remnants of the Zulu washermen's guild singing their way into economic oblivion to the strains of the national anthem." By 1934, only 14 men still worked at the Klipspruit site and in 1953 the site was closed. Van Onselen concludes that, "Zulu speakers were at least as quick as any other immigrant group on the early Witwatersrand to spot a new economic opportunity and exploit it". But as the town grew they became vulnerable when exposed to "capitalist competition" which invested in steam laundries. Their decline was "greatly hastened by the advent of urban segregation".	4,350	ENGLISH	1
Sethe, a Slave to Her PastNumerous authors in American literature produce characters whose origins are unusual, unfamiliar, and often mysterious in the work. Toni Morrison’s novel Beloved successfully introduced a character that resembles the features mentioned above. Sethe, a young black woman born into slavery escapes from extreme bondage in the Nineteenth Century in the United States with memories bounded with torture. The novel contains many scenes that are immensely striking, which the majority has to deal with the treatment of the African-Americans. Slavery has always been one of the appalling phenomena in our world. Though, some individuals simply tend to ignore and hide the reality and the intensity of slavery. Not only Sethe but anyone who has once experienced slavery has to confront the horrors and the memories left behind to move on with their lives. Sethe’s strange origins under these circumstances reflect her psychological and emotional impact and undistinguished relationship with her mother and children by recalling her vile memories. Sethe grows up and experiences childhood on a plantation and gets sold to the Garners at the age of thirteen. She moves to Sweet Home as a former slave and was made to suffer more than any human being should have to, particularly during the last few days. Before she ran from Sweet Home to meet Baby Suggs and Halle, School Teacher comes to Sweet Home after Mr.Garner dies. Sethe was whipped and raped as soon as School Teacher realizes she tried to escape. A white girl, Amy, saw the horrible, bleeding scars on Sethe’s back while helping her take Denver, and said that the wounds looked as if it were a “chokecherry tree with blossoms” (Morrison 153). Furthermore, Paul D describes it as a “decorated work of an ironsmith too passionate to display” (Morrison 21). Not only, but before she could find Halle and escape, School Teacher allowed his two sons take Sethe into the barn, hold her down, and suck the milk from her breasts. Thinking that Beloved, her daughter would have to experience this barbarity, Sethe decides to kill her. Sethe does not wish Beloved to be “dirtied” by the “whites” (Morrison 251). Inclusive, she killed Beloved because she wanted both her and her daughter to have freedom, though she will never free her feelings of guilt. Sethe is repeatedly brought back to Sweet Home through recalling her memories, against her desire to forget it. Yet, Sethe was free, she was never going back to Sweet Home, or to School Teacher. In preparation for her escape, Sethe “collected every bit of life she had made, all the parts of her that were precious and fine and beautiful, and carried, pushed, dragged them through the veil, out away, over there where no one could hurt them” (Morrison 192). Sethe had to protect her children from the austerity of slavery because her mother failed to protect her, and she knew it was the right decision to make. Sethe not ever bonded or associated with her mother. Sethe was raised by another lady because her mother was constantly busy working in the fields. Sethe’s mother “went back to rice and Sethe sucked from another woman whose job it was” (Morrison 51). Sethe had never felt what love was like until she had her own babies and love filled within her. As a result, Sethe devoted her life merely to her children and pledged to keep them safe. Her love for her children is distinctly shown when she chooses to kill them rather than make them suffer from the terror she had already known and experienced.Unlike Sethe’s relationship with her mother, Sethe and Denver have a very unique connection. During a conversation with Paul D and Sethe, Sethe recalls the memory of her stolen milk. That dreadful incident refers to Sethe’s lack of ability to raise Denver. Not only her milk was stolen, but the nourishment Denver needed was also taken from her. The fact that Sethe had never once received love in her life makes it hard for her to give love as well, regardless how much she loves Denver. Sethe’s lack of connection with Denver, later on, puts a strain on their relationship since Sethe loves Denver in more of a protective way than a motherly way. Denver on the other hand, seeing Beloved as being partly evil, taking the life out of Sethe, is directly affected to become independent. The memory of Sethe’s stolen milk constantly emerges in her daily life, still fresh and alive. Though, she “rememories the stories that have been disremembered so that she may truly let them go and look towards the future” (Rhodes 82). Sethe’s past was never truly dead until she finally accepted and confronted her past. To sum up, Toni Morrison skillfully depicts Sethe’s rather unfortunate origin toshape her character as an African-American and her ambiguous relationship with her children. This novel highlights a real picture of slavery during the Nineteenth Century and these origins moreover shaped the deep meaning of the work as a whole. Despite Sethe being successful in escaping Sweet Home, she is haunted so much by Beloved’s apparition and her memories, resulting to lose a sense of who she really is. Morrison emphasized the idea that Sethe’s repressed past was still present, not only in Sethe’s life but in the lives of countless Black Americans today and anyone who has experienced slavery in any part of this world.	<urn:uuid:84e291f3-1719-4bca-9e81-58f03d8a6b30>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://heliosenlighten.org/sethe-unusual-unfamiliar-and-often-mysterious-in-the/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00160.warc.gz	en	0.9812	1,162	3.328125	3	[ -0.09330830723047256, 0.5249700546264648, 0.2248132973909378, 0.29097577929496765, -0.3662540316581726, -0.14221562445163727, 0.006096677388995886, -0.17901208996772766, 0.25992512702941895, -0.17803366482257843, 0.23689228296279907, -0.11794830858707428, -0.2627103626728058, 0.29480814933...	1	Sethe, a Slave to Her PastNumerous authors in American literature produce characters whose origins are unusual, unfamiliar, and often mysterious in the work. Toni Morrison’s novel Beloved successfully introduced a character that resembles the features mentioned above. Sethe, a young black woman born into slavery escapes from extreme bondage in the Nineteenth Century in the United States with memories bounded with torture. The novel contains many scenes that are immensely striking, which the majority has to deal with the treatment of the African-Americans. Slavery has always been one of the appalling phenomena in our world. Though, some individuals simply tend to ignore and hide the reality and the intensity of slavery. Not only Sethe but anyone who has once experienced slavery has to confront the horrors and the memories left behind to move on with their lives. Sethe’s strange origins under these circumstances reflect her psychological and emotional impact and undistinguished relationship with her mother and children by recalling her vile memories. Sethe grows up and experiences childhood on a plantation and gets sold to the Garners at the age of thirteen. She moves to Sweet Home as a former slave and was made to suffer more than any human being should have to, particularly during the last few days. Before she ran from Sweet Home to meet Baby Suggs and Halle, School Teacher comes to Sweet Home after Mr.Garner dies. Sethe was whipped and raped as soon as School Teacher realizes she tried to escape. A white girl, Amy, saw the horrible, bleeding scars on Sethe’s back while helping her take Denver, and said that the wounds looked as if it were a “chokecherry tree with blossoms” (Morrison 153). Furthermore, Paul D describes it as a “decorated work of an ironsmith too passionate to display” (Morrison 21). Not only, but before she could find Halle and escape, School Teacher allowed his two sons take Sethe into the barn, hold her down, and suck the milk from her breasts. Thinking that Beloved, her daughter would have to experience this barbarity, Sethe decides to kill her. Sethe does not wish Beloved to be “dirtied” by the “whites” (Morrison 251). Inclusive, she killed Beloved because she wanted both her and her daughter to have freedom, though she will never free her feelings of guilt. Sethe is repeatedly brought back to Sweet Home through recalling her memories, against her desire to forget it. Yet, Sethe was free, she was never going back to Sweet Home, or to School Teacher. In preparation for her escape, Sethe “collected every bit of life she had made, all the parts of her that were precious and fine and beautiful, and carried, pushed, dragged them through the veil, out away, over there where no one could hurt them” (Morrison 192). Sethe had to protect her children from the austerity of slavery because her mother failed to protect her, and she knew it was the right decision to make. Sethe not ever bonded or associated with her mother. Sethe was raised by another lady because her mother was constantly busy working in the fields. Sethe’s mother “went back to rice and Sethe sucked from another woman whose job it was” (Morrison 51). Sethe had never felt what love was like until she had her own babies and love filled within her. As a result, Sethe devoted her life merely to her children and pledged to keep them safe. Her love for her children is distinctly shown when she chooses to kill them rather than make them suffer from the terror she had already known and experienced.Unlike Sethe’s relationship with her mother, Sethe and Denver have a very unique connection. During a conversation with Paul D and Sethe, Sethe recalls the memory of her stolen milk. That dreadful incident refers to Sethe’s lack of ability to raise Denver. Not only her milk was stolen, but the nourishment Denver needed was also taken from her. The fact that Sethe had never once received love in her life makes it hard for her to give love as well, regardless how much she loves Denver. Sethe’s lack of connection with Denver, later on, puts a strain on their relationship since Sethe loves Denver in more of a protective way than a motherly way. Denver on the other hand, seeing Beloved as being partly evil, taking the life out of Sethe, is directly affected to become independent. The memory of Sethe’s stolen milk constantly emerges in her daily life, still fresh and alive. Though, she “rememories the stories that have been disremembered so that she may truly let them go and look towards the future” (Rhodes 82). Sethe’s past was never truly dead until she finally accepted and confronted her past. To sum up, Toni Morrison skillfully depicts Sethe’s rather unfortunate origin toshape her character as an African-American and her ambiguous relationship with her children. This novel highlights a real picture of slavery during the Nineteenth Century and these origins moreover shaped the deep meaning of the work as a whole. Despite Sethe being successful in escaping Sweet Home, she is haunted so much by Beloved’s apparition and her memories, resulting to lose a sense of who she really is. Morrison emphasized the idea that Sethe’s repressed past was still present, not only in Sethe’s life but in the lives of countless Black Americans today and anyone who has experienced slavery in any part of this world.	1,136	ENGLISH	1
Chapter One: The Rappahannock River Day after day the slaves came into camps and everywhere the "Stars and Stripes" waved they seemed to know freedom had dawned to the slave. -- John Washington, 1873, remembering August 1862 John M. Washington was born a slave on May 20, 1838, in Fredericksburg, Virginia. Washington begins his narrative with the wry comment that he "never had the pleasure of knowing" his mother's owner, Thomas R. Ware, Sr., who died before John was born. And he supposes "It might have been a doubtful pleasure." So far as can be determined, Washington also never knew his father, though we can assume he was white. As an autobiographer reconstructing his own youthful identity, Washington says revealingly: "I see myself a small light haired boy (very often passing easily for a white boy)." With these words Washington recollects the complicated story of so many American slaves—mixed racial heritage. The offspring of sexual unions between black women and their white male owners or pursuers suffered a legacy of confusion, shame, and abuse, but they also occasionally benefited from economic and social advantages, especially in towns and cities. Washington was one of more than 400,000 out of four million American slaves by 1860 who were officially categorized as "mulatto" or other terminology to distinguish a person of some white parentage. From 1830 to the Civil War, the state of Virginia especially had gone to great effort, although unsuccessfully in practical terms, to legally establish a color line marking who was white and who was not. White friends, and perhaps relatives, aided John's education and opportunities early in his life. But in Fredericksburg and elsewhere, due to his mother's status and color, he was considered a chattel slave until the war came. Exactly who Washington's father was, and how John got his middle initial and last name, have been impossible to trace. A John M. Washington, a distant cousin of President George Washington, lived in Fredericksburg, went to West Point in the 1810s, became an artillery officer, and died in a shipwreck in 1853. But no evidence exists for his patrimony of John. Ware had four sons by 1838, ages twenty-six, twenty-four, twenty, and eighteen. Any of them could have been Washington's father, although only the two younger ones, John and William, seem to have been residents of Fredericksburg at the time. Washington's story is much clearer on his mother's side. Women determined, protected, and supported John's life chances. His maternal grandmother was a slave named Molly who was born in the late 1790s and owned by Thomas Ware. Molly, called "my Negro woman," is acknowledged for her "faithful service" in Ware's 1820 will, in which he bequeathed her and her children (valued at $600) to his wife, Catherine (who would eventually be John's owner). By 1825 Ware's estate inventory lists Molly and four children; John's mother, Sarah, was the oldest at age eight. Molly would have another four children by the 1830s. In June of 1829 this strong-willed mother misbehaved (perhaps running away) in such a manner that Catherine Ware arranged with a punishment house to execute a "warrant against Molly and for whipping her by contract $1.34." Perhaps Molly's defiance was sparked because her sister, Alice, had just been sold away for $350. We can only imagine the sorrow and scars in Molly's psyche, a woman whose life was spent nursing white children as well as her own and serving the extended Ware family. But she would live to join her grandson on their flight to freedom in 1862. She died a free woman near her daughter, grandson, and great grandchildren. Whether she departed as a sad or a joyful matriarch, John Washington does not tell us. His silence about Molly may reflect that he was telling only his own heroic story, which did not allow for his grandmother's saga, but it could also represent a part of his family history he was not prepared to expose. Sarah Tucker, John's mother, was likely born in January 1817. Who the men fathering all these children were remains a researcher's mystery. Sarah probably also had a white father; she is described in various documents as being "bright mulatto" and short in height. Ware did not own any men who could have been either Sarah's or John's father. When Sarah gave birth to John in 1838, she was a twenty-one-year-old who had somehow learned to read and write, a less unusual accomplishment for urban slaves in small households than for plantation slaves. In 1832, when Sarah was a teenager, Catherine Ware married Francis Whitaker Taliaferro, a plantation and slave owner with four grown children. The Taliaferros had their own slaves and hired others when they needed extra hands, as was the common practice; in 1836 Mr. Taliaferro advertised for "ten able-bodied men for the remainder of the year," offering twelve dollars per month to their owners. The Taliaferros also hired out their own slaves on occasion, including Sarah. With John in tow, Sarah was hired out in 1840 to a farm thirty-seven miles west of Fredericksburg, owned by Richard L. Brown of Orange County. Washington yearningly describes his eight years in the countryside in the idyllic opening section of his narrative. His mother must have worked as a house slave because he played "mostly with white children." He spent summers "wading the brooks" and climbing ridges from which he could see the "Blue Ridge Mountains" and a "moss covered wheel . . . throwing the water off in beautiful showers" at a mill on the Rapidan River. Among these pleasant memories is his going to a circus at Orange Court House, where he got lost from his family, and his attending services with his mother at the "Mount Pisgah" Baptist church, a large structure "with gallerys around for colored people to sit in." John loved the "tall pines" that surrounded the church and remembers the "cakes, candy and fruits" sold under the great trees on Sundays. He relished his recollections of "corn shuckings," a "hog killing," and a joyous Christmas celebration. He also remembered his mother teaching him the child's bedtime prayer, "Now I lay me down to sleep, I pray the Lord my soul to keep," and the "Lord's Prayer." And perhaps most important, by the time he was eight, Sarah had taught him the alphabet. Equipped with literacy, if not with good spelling or grammar, Washington brilliantly uses all of these images of nature as backdrop for his descent into the hell of slavery. He employs natural beauty as a metaphor for freedom and a reminder of the terror of bondage, knowing that the glories of nature can both inspire the soul and mock human sadness. He worries at one point that his "minute events" would not "interest" his reader, and then he quickly moves his story forward. These early years were both easy and painful for Washington to remember. He likely had no memory, though, of his mother's attempt to run away when he was only three. On February 19, 1841, Thomas R. Ware, Jr., advertised in a Fredericksburg newspaper for a "negro woman sarah." She is described as "about 20 years of age, a bright Mulatto, and rather under the common size." Clearly she had fled some distance and for some length of time, because the notice offered a twenty-dollar reward if Sarah was captured "more than 20 miles from this place." No evidence survives to indicate how and when Sarah was captured or why she fled. Perhaps she simply took flight from the pressures of daily life for a while. Perhaps she was a young, disgruntled woman "lying out," as the saying went, absconding to the woods or another farm to be with her lover. But she was surely a woman of unusual intelligence and resourcefulness if she managed to escape and remain on her own for a period of time. A recent study of runaway slaves in the antebellum South found that slaveholders' advertisements often described a slave as "proud, artful, cunning . . . shrewd" or "very smart." Historians Loren Schweninger and John Hope Franklin conclude that the typical runaway exhibited "self-confidence, self-assurance, self-possession . . . self-reliance." It was rare for women to run away, especially those with small children. In the database produced by Schweninger and Franklin, based on extant runaway advertisements in five Southern states, 81 percent of all runaways were male. Of the 195 Virginia runaways from 1838 to 1860, of which Sarah would be one, only seventeen (9 percent) were female. Sarah likely never told her son the story of her flight, although he eventually might have learned of it from others. That Washington had a mother who herself had been a runaway provided a deep layer of silent inheritance, embedded in his spirit if not in his memory. No doubt, both John's mother and grandmother kept parts of their own physical, emotional, and sexual stories to themselves. Perhaps their experience with white men and with rearing children in the desperately insecure world of slavery left them much like Harriet Jacobs, the author of one of the most important slave narratives. "The secrets of slavery are concealed," wrote Jacobs, "like those of the Inquisition. My master was, to my knowledge, the father of eleven slaves. But did the mothers dare tell who was the father of their children? Did other slaves dare to allude to it, except in whispers among themselves? No indeed!" Excerpt from A SLAVE NO MORE, copyright © 2007 by David W. Blight, reprinted by permission of Harcourt, Inc.	<urn:uuid:8993f5a2-1c32-4e4d-a6a7-b46672f843a6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=16874985?storyId=16874985	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00271.warc.gz	en	0.987977	2,052	3.703125	4	[ -0.1270175725221634, 0.6564852595329285, 0.43284276127815247, 0.1523524820804596, -0.724333643913269, 0.25376570224761963, 0.11928065121173859, -0.227579265832901, -0.1459624320268631, -0.09252914041280746, 0.059898436069488525, 0.10417504608631134, -0.2458641529083252, 0.19139277935028076...	3	Chapter One: The Rappahannock River Day after day the slaves came into camps and everywhere the "Stars and Stripes" waved they seemed to know freedom had dawned to the slave. -- John Washington, 1873, remembering August 1862 John M. Washington was born a slave on May 20, 1838, in Fredericksburg, Virginia. Washington begins his narrative with the wry comment that he "never had the pleasure of knowing" his mother's owner, Thomas R. Ware, Sr., who died before John was born. And he supposes "It might have been a doubtful pleasure." So far as can be determined, Washington also never knew his father, though we can assume he was white. As an autobiographer reconstructing his own youthful identity, Washington says revealingly: "I see myself a small light haired boy (very often passing easily for a white boy)." With these words Washington recollects the complicated story of so many American slaves—mixed racial heritage. The offspring of sexual unions between black women and their white male owners or pursuers suffered a legacy of confusion, shame, and abuse, but they also occasionally benefited from economic and social advantages, especially in towns and cities. Washington was one of more than 400,000 out of four million American slaves by 1860 who were officially categorized as "mulatto" or other terminology to distinguish a person of some white parentage. From 1830 to the Civil War, the state of Virginia especially had gone to great effort, although unsuccessfully in practical terms, to legally establish a color line marking who was white and who was not. White friends, and perhaps relatives, aided John's education and opportunities early in his life. But in Fredericksburg and elsewhere, due to his mother's status and color, he was considered a chattel slave until the war came. Exactly who Washington's father was, and how John got his middle initial and last name, have been impossible to trace. A John M. Washington, a distant cousin of President George Washington, lived in Fredericksburg, went to West Point in the 1810s, became an artillery officer, and died in a shipwreck in 1853. But no evidence exists for his patrimony of John. Ware had four sons by 1838, ages twenty-six, twenty-four, twenty, and eighteen. Any of them could have been Washington's father, although only the two younger ones, John and William, seem to have been residents of Fredericksburg at the time. Washington's story is much clearer on his mother's side. Women determined, protected, and supported John's life chances. His maternal grandmother was a slave named Molly who was born in the late 1790s and owned by Thomas Ware. Molly, called "my Negro woman," is acknowledged for her "faithful service" in Ware's 1820 will, in which he bequeathed her and her children (valued at $600) to his wife, Catherine (who would eventually be John's owner). By 1825 Ware's estate inventory lists Molly and four children; John's mother, Sarah, was the oldest at age eight. Molly would have another four children by the 1830s. In June of 1829 this strong-willed mother misbehaved (perhaps running away) in such a manner that Catherine Ware arranged with a punishment house to execute a "warrant against Molly and for whipping her by contract $1.34." Perhaps Molly's defiance was sparked because her sister, Alice, had just been sold away for $350. We can only imagine the sorrow and scars in Molly's psyche, a woman whose life was spent nursing white children as well as her own and serving the extended Ware family. But she would live to join her grandson on their flight to freedom in 1862. She died a free woman near her daughter, grandson, and great grandchildren. Whether she departed as a sad or a joyful matriarch, John Washington does not tell us. His silence about Molly may reflect that he was telling only his own heroic story, which did not allow for his grandmother's saga, but it could also represent a part of his family history he was not prepared to expose. Sarah Tucker, John's mother, was likely born in January 1817. Who the men fathering all these children were remains a researcher's mystery. Sarah probably also had a white father; she is described in various documents as being "bright mulatto" and short in height. Ware did not own any men who could have been either Sarah's or John's father. When Sarah gave birth to John in 1838, she was a twenty-one-year-old who had somehow learned to read and write, a less unusual accomplishment for urban slaves in small households than for plantation slaves. In 1832, when Sarah was a teenager, Catherine Ware married Francis Whitaker Taliaferro, a plantation and slave owner with four grown children. The Taliaferros had their own slaves and hired others when they needed extra hands, as was the common practice; in 1836 Mr. Taliaferro advertised for "ten able-bodied men for the remainder of the year," offering twelve dollars per month to their owners. The Taliaferros also hired out their own slaves on occasion, including Sarah. With John in tow, Sarah was hired out in 1840 to a farm thirty-seven miles west of Fredericksburg, owned by Richard L. Brown of Orange County. Washington yearningly describes his eight years in the countryside in the idyllic opening section of his narrative. His mother must have worked as a house slave because he played "mostly with white children." He spent summers "wading the brooks" and climbing ridges from which he could see the "Blue Ridge Mountains" and a "moss covered wheel . . . throwing the water off in beautiful showers" at a mill on the Rapidan River. Among these pleasant memories is his going to a circus at Orange Court House, where he got lost from his family, and his attending services with his mother at the "Mount Pisgah" Baptist church, a large structure "with gallerys around for colored people to sit in." John loved the "tall pines" that surrounded the church and remembers the "cakes, candy and fruits" sold under the great trees on Sundays. He relished his recollections of "corn shuckings," a "hog killing," and a joyous Christmas celebration. He also remembered his mother teaching him the child's bedtime prayer, "Now I lay me down to sleep, I pray the Lord my soul to keep," and the "Lord's Prayer." And perhaps most important, by the time he was eight, Sarah had taught him the alphabet. Equipped with literacy, if not with good spelling or grammar, Washington brilliantly uses all of these images of nature as backdrop for his descent into the hell of slavery. He employs natural beauty as a metaphor for freedom and a reminder of the terror of bondage, knowing that the glories of nature can both inspire the soul and mock human sadness. He worries at one point that his "minute events" would not "interest" his reader, and then he quickly moves his story forward. These early years were both easy and painful for Washington to remember. He likely had no memory, though, of his mother's attempt to run away when he was only three. On February 19, 1841, Thomas R. Ware, Jr., advertised in a Fredericksburg newspaper for a "negro woman sarah." She is described as "about 20 years of age, a bright Mulatto, and rather under the common size." Clearly she had fled some distance and for some length of time, because the notice offered a twenty-dollar reward if Sarah was captured "more than 20 miles from this place." No evidence survives to indicate how and when Sarah was captured or why she fled. Perhaps she simply took flight from the pressures of daily life for a while. Perhaps she was a young, disgruntled woman "lying out," as the saying went, absconding to the woods or another farm to be with her lover. But she was surely a woman of unusual intelligence and resourcefulness if she managed to escape and remain on her own for a period of time. A recent study of runaway slaves in the antebellum South found that slaveholders' advertisements often described a slave as "proud, artful, cunning . . . shrewd" or "very smart." Historians Loren Schweninger and John Hope Franklin conclude that the typical runaway exhibited "self-confidence, self-assurance, self-possession . . . self-reliance." It was rare for women to run away, especially those with small children. In the database produced by Schweninger and Franklin, based on extant runaway advertisements in five Southern states, 81 percent of all runaways were male. Of the 195 Virginia runaways from 1838 to 1860, of which Sarah would be one, only seventeen (9 percent) were female. Sarah likely never told her son the story of her flight, although he eventually might have learned of it from others. That Washington had a mother who herself had been a runaway provided a deep layer of silent inheritance, embedded in his spirit if not in his memory. No doubt, both John's mother and grandmother kept parts of their own physical, emotional, and sexual stories to themselves. Perhaps their experience with white men and with rearing children in the desperately insecure world of slavery left them much like Harriet Jacobs, the author of one of the most important slave narratives. "The secrets of slavery are concealed," wrote Jacobs, "like those of the Inquisition. My master was, to my knowledge, the father of eleven slaves. But did the mothers dare tell who was the father of their children? Did other slaves dare to allude to it, except in whispers among themselves? No indeed!" Excerpt from A SLAVE NO MORE, copyright © 2007 by David W. Blight, reprinted by permission of Harcourt, Inc.	2,131	ENGLISH	1
On June 22nd 1555, Emperor Humayun declared his son Akbar as his heir apparent. The Mughals remain India’s most famous ruling dynasty and ruled India from 1526 to 1857 AD. The first Mughal was Babur, a conqueror from Central Asia who founded the Mughal Empire in India and made a way for future Mughal emperors in the country. Babur’s son was Humayun who first ruled from 1530 AD to 1540 AD and then from 1555 AD to 1556 AD. Humayun’s rule was disturbed by the Suri dynasty. Humayun was young when he inherited his father’s throne and his brother, who was his sworn enemy, had doubled up against him along with the Suri Dynasty. The Suris ruled India for fifteen years after which with Persian help Humayun regained the control of Hindustan (as India was known then). Both the Suri rulers and their sons, along with Humayun’s traitor brother had perished in this war and Humayun took over the throne of Hindustan and began to reunite the country through his military campaigns. But unfortunately, this was not to last for long. On March 4th 1556, Humayun fell down the stairs of his library to his premature death. The Emperor was climbing down the stairs, his arms full of books when he heard the call for prayer. As was his habit upon hearing the call for prayer, he bowed his knee in reverence and his robes got entangled in his foot and he came tumbling down the stairs and his head on the edge of a stone. Humayun died three days later and his son Akbar, only thirteen at that time inherited his throne and became Emperor of India. Abu'l-Fath Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar, also known as Akbar the Great, remains one of the most famous Mughals till today. Only thirteen when he ascended his father’s throne, Akbar displayed exceptional understanding and skill. Akbar’s greatest enemies at the time he came to power were his Suri rivals and Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya (also known as Hemu), who was the then Prime Minister of Muhammad Ali Shah and was resolute on expelling the Mughals from India. Akbar’s army of 20,000 led by his regent Bairam Khan defeated Hemu’s army of 100,000 and went on to expand the Mughal rule from Malwa to Gujarat, Bengal to Kabul and Kashmir to Kandesh. Akbar tripled his grandfather Babur’s empire and doubled his father’s empire, which was an extraordinary achievement for a ruler so young. Akbar is best remembered for his reforms in matters related to tax and human freedom. He abolished the sectarian tax imposed on non-Muslims and was tolerant of all religions, he married Hindu Rajput princesses, who were allowed complete religious freedom. Akbar also displayed interest in educating himself about other religions and invited Jain and Hindu scholars, Zoroastrian priests and Portuguese missionaries to his court for discussions. The reason behind this was that Akbar was born to a Sunni Muslim father and a Shia Muslim from Persia and was raised in a very liberal environment. Two of Akbar’s most famous courtiers, with whom he was very close, namely Birbal and Tansen were also Hindu. Akbar died on October 3rd 1605, following an attack of dysentery and was buried at Sikandra, near Agra. Akbar will always be remembered for his liberal nature and allowing reforms related to widow remarriage, sati and the legal age of marriage. Also On This Day: 1555: Humayun crosses the Indus and captures Lahore to oust Sikandar Suri of Delhi. 1897: The Chafekar brothers, Damodar and Balkrishna, shoot a British officer in Pune. 1940: Netaji Subhashchandra Bose establishes the 'Forward Block' after differences with Congress leaders. 1948: The title of Emperor of India is deleted from His Majesty, the King of United Kingdom's titles.	<urn:uuid:a53ced37-d8da-4cc8-a207-6513f65800c5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mapsofindia.com/on-this-day/june-22-1555-humanyun-declares-akbar-as-his-heir-apparent	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00147.warc.gz	en	0.988633	882	3.5625	4	[ -0.35265204310417175, 0.41302168369293213, 0.24891838431358337, -0.32771527767181396, -0.5443935990333557, -0.3602055013179779, 0.5502516031265259, -0.1461828649044037, 0.12445860356092453, -0.2871050238609314, 0.004334716126322746, -0.32636862993240356, 0.6657100915908813, 0.3039254546165...	2	On June 22nd 1555, Emperor Humayun declared his son Akbar as his heir apparent. The Mughals remain India’s most famous ruling dynasty and ruled India from 1526 to 1857 AD. The first Mughal was Babur, a conqueror from Central Asia who founded the Mughal Empire in India and made a way for future Mughal emperors in the country. Babur’s son was Humayun who first ruled from 1530 AD to 1540 AD and then from 1555 AD to 1556 AD. Humayun’s rule was disturbed by the Suri dynasty. Humayun was young when he inherited his father’s throne and his brother, who was his sworn enemy, had doubled up against him along with the Suri Dynasty. The Suris ruled India for fifteen years after which with Persian help Humayun regained the control of Hindustan (as India was known then). Both the Suri rulers and their sons, along with Humayun’s traitor brother had perished in this war and Humayun took over the throne of Hindustan and began to reunite the country through his military campaigns. But unfortunately, this was not to last for long. On March 4th 1556, Humayun fell down the stairs of his library to his premature death. The Emperor was climbing down the stairs, his arms full of books when he heard the call for prayer. As was his habit upon hearing the call for prayer, he bowed his knee in reverence and his robes got entangled in his foot and he came tumbling down the stairs and his head on the edge of a stone. Humayun died three days later and his son Akbar, only thirteen at that time inherited his throne and became Emperor of India. Abu'l-Fath Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar, also known as Akbar the Great, remains one of the most famous Mughals till today. Only thirteen when he ascended his father’s throne, Akbar displayed exceptional understanding and skill. Akbar’s greatest enemies at the time he came to power were his Suri rivals and Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya (also known as Hemu), who was the then Prime Minister of Muhammad Ali Shah and was resolute on expelling the Mughals from India. Akbar’s army of 20,000 led by his regent Bairam Khan defeated Hemu’s army of 100,000 and went on to expand the Mughal rule from Malwa to Gujarat, Bengal to Kabul and Kashmir to Kandesh. Akbar tripled his grandfather Babur’s empire and doubled his father’s empire, which was an extraordinary achievement for a ruler so young. Akbar is best remembered for his reforms in matters related to tax and human freedom. He abolished the sectarian tax imposed on non-Muslims and was tolerant of all religions, he married Hindu Rajput princesses, who were allowed complete religious freedom. Akbar also displayed interest in educating himself about other religions and invited Jain and Hindu scholars, Zoroastrian priests and Portuguese missionaries to his court for discussions. The reason behind this was that Akbar was born to a Sunni Muslim father and a Shia Muslim from Persia and was raised in a very liberal environment. Two of Akbar’s most famous courtiers, with whom he was very close, namely Birbal and Tansen were also Hindu. Akbar died on October 3rd 1605, following an attack of dysentery and was buried at Sikandra, near Agra. Akbar will always be remembered for his liberal nature and allowing reforms related to widow remarriage, sati and the legal age of marriage. Also On This Day: 1555: Humayun crosses the Indus and captures Lahore to oust Sikandar Suri of Delhi. 1897: The Chafekar brothers, Damodar and Balkrishna, shoot a British officer in Pune. 1940: Netaji Subhashchandra Bose establishes the 'Forward Block' after differences with Congress leaders. 1948: The title of Emperor of India is deleted from His Majesty, the King of United Kingdom's titles.	897	ENGLISH	1
Yesterday morning, Primary 1n made ice cubes for an experiment that afternoon. In the afternoon, we spoke about the frosty weather we have had this past week. We discussed how we stay safe outside in icy conditions and the purpose of “grit”. We made predictions on what would happen if we put grit on an ice cube, and what would happen to an ice cube left alone in the classroom. We went out for a walk near to the school and spotted some grit salt boxes. We gathered some grit for our experiment. We saw the gritter out, gritting the roads ahead of another cold night. Back in school we carried out our experiment. The ice cubes covered in grit did in fact melt much quicker than the ice cubes left alone! Primary 5 have been learning all about Space this term. As part of this, we looked at the Moon Landing by Apollo 11. They were set the challenge to work in pairs in order to create their own lunar landing module using only the materials provided. They had to think carefully about their design to make sure their astronauts (big marshmallows!) didn’t fall out of the module when dropped from a height of 30cm. Some managed to drop their module successfully from a height of 2m!! It was excellent to see such brilliant problem solving and a range of other maths skills from all of the pupils. P7 have been lucky enough to have Emma Chittick in for three sessions delivering STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) activities. During her visits the pupils had the opportunity to program Lego robots and create wind turbines and solar cells. This related very well with our Climate Change topic and they all became very competitive to see who could get the biggest output from their design! We have been learning all about water. Today we were scientists, investigating ‘floating’ and ‘sinking’ through different experiments. We made predictions on whether or not everyday classroom items would float or sink and tested them in water to see if we were right. In pairs, we constructed our own tinfoil boats and watched to see if they would float. We even added weight on to the boats to see if they could stand up to the test! We loved being scientists for the morning. 🙂 Today in P7S we took part in a STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering & Maths) challenge relating to our class novel ‘Holes’ by Louis Sachar. In groups, we had to design and create a free standing hammock out of junk and craft materials which would hold a duplo character. We also tested them to failure to see how much weight they would hold – the winner could hold a staggering 750kg! This term pupils in P4n and P4s have been learning all about Fishing. They have been lucky enough to tour a pelagic fishing boat the ‘Antarctic ll’ and had a visit from Frankie’s Fish and Chip shop to help them understand the journey of fish from the sea to their plate and making them aware of the richness around our island. With excellent support from Izzy Swanson the pupils brought their topic to life with a special play, which they performed to their parents/carers last week. ‘One from the Sea, Three from the Land’ was written especially for the class by Izzy Swanson and brings together stories of old folklore and dialect singing. P6 have been delighted to welcome Field Studies Advisor Mr Rose to Bell’s Brae this term as part of our “Light & Sound” science topic. He has shown P6s several experiments and we have learned lots of interesting facts. Thank you, Mr Rose! Pupils in P2 entertained parents/carers and family members this afternoon with their performance of ‘There’s a sunflower in my supper’. Their colourful, well rehearsed, fun and engaging performance was enjoyed by all. Through it they evidenced how hard they had worked, the knowledge they had gained and their many skills and abilities. They were certainly successful learners, confident individuals and responsible citizens. They should all be really proud of themselves. This term P2n have been learning all about growing things. Today they shared their learning with P1-4 at assembly. They were certainly confident individuals as they all spoke clearly to their peers. We were all able to see and hear how much they have enjoyed their learning this term. We saw their skills in listening and talking, reading, writing, singing, drawing, creating, singing and presenting. They have carried out experiments and enjoyed being scientists. On Friday at Assembly the pupils from Primary 4s shared their learning with the pupils from Primary 4-7. They did an excellent presentation about Living Things sharing all the facts they had learned. They involved the audience too! They finished the Assembly with a wonderful song sung entirely in French! It was lovely to see them all enjoying their learning and having the confidence to share it with their peers!	<urn:uuid:af9714a1-635a-40be-8f60-3c72565326b8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/sh/bellsbraeprimary/tag/science/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00194.warc.gz	en	0.982963	1,031	3.84375	4	[ -0.22675764560699463, -0.0199892558157444, 0.18018010258674622, -0.08039534091949463, 0.23322194814682007, 0.4513821005821228, 0.1025344729423523, 0.14319637417793274, -0.27946972846984863, -0.28491705656051636, 0.08907242864370346, -0.5736098885536194, 0.42397165298461914, 0.1991330534219...	6	Yesterday morning, Primary 1n made ice cubes for an experiment that afternoon. In the afternoon, we spoke about the frosty weather we have had this past week. We discussed how we stay safe outside in icy conditions and the purpose of “grit”. We made predictions on what would happen if we put grit on an ice cube, and what would happen to an ice cube left alone in the classroom. We went out for a walk near to the school and spotted some grit salt boxes. We gathered some grit for our experiment. We saw the gritter out, gritting the roads ahead of another cold night. Back in school we carried out our experiment. The ice cubes covered in grit did in fact melt much quicker than the ice cubes left alone! Primary 5 have been learning all about Space this term. As part of this, we looked at the Moon Landing by Apollo 11. They were set the challenge to work in pairs in order to create their own lunar landing module using only the materials provided. They had to think carefully about their design to make sure their astronauts (big marshmallows!) didn’t fall out of the module when dropped from a height of 30cm. Some managed to drop their module successfully from a height of 2m!! It was excellent to see such brilliant problem solving and a range of other maths skills from all of the pupils. P7 have been lucky enough to have Emma Chittick in for three sessions delivering STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) activities. During her visits the pupils had the opportunity to program Lego robots and create wind turbines and solar cells. This related very well with our Climate Change topic and they all became very competitive to see who could get the biggest output from their design! We have been learning all about water. Today we were scientists, investigating ‘floating’ and ‘sinking’ through different experiments. We made predictions on whether or not everyday classroom items would float or sink and tested them in water to see if we were right. In pairs, we constructed our own tinfoil boats and watched to see if they would float. We even added weight on to the boats to see if they could stand up to the test! We loved being scientists for the morning. 🙂 Today in P7S we took part in a STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering & Maths) challenge relating to our class novel ‘Holes’ by Louis Sachar. In groups, we had to design and create a free standing hammock out of junk and craft materials which would hold a duplo character. We also tested them to failure to see how much weight they would hold – the winner could hold a staggering 750kg! This term pupils in P4n and P4s have been learning all about Fishing. They have been lucky enough to tour a pelagic fishing boat the ‘Antarctic ll’ and had a visit from Frankie’s Fish and Chip shop to help them understand the journey of fish from the sea to their plate and making them aware of the richness around our island. With excellent support from Izzy Swanson the pupils brought their topic to life with a special play, which they performed to their parents/carers last week. ‘One from the Sea, Three from the Land’ was written especially for the class by Izzy Swanson and brings together stories of old folklore and dialect singing. P6 have been delighted to welcome Field Studies Advisor Mr Rose to Bell’s Brae this term as part of our “Light & Sound” science topic. He has shown P6s several experiments and we have learned lots of interesting facts. Thank you, Mr Rose! Pupils in P2 entertained parents/carers and family members this afternoon with their performance of ‘There’s a sunflower in my supper’. Their colourful, well rehearsed, fun and engaging performance was enjoyed by all. Through it they evidenced how hard they had worked, the knowledge they had gained and their many skills and abilities. They were certainly successful learners, confident individuals and responsible citizens. They should all be really proud of themselves. This term P2n have been learning all about growing things. Today they shared their learning with P1-4 at assembly. They were certainly confident individuals as they all spoke clearly to their peers. We were all able to see and hear how much they have enjoyed their learning this term. We saw their skills in listening and talking, reading, writing, singing, drawing, creating, singing and presenting. They have carried out experiments and enjoyed being scientists. On Friday at Assembly the pupils from Primary 4s shared their learning with the pupils from Primary 4-7. They did an excellent presentation about Living Things sharing all the facts they had learned. They involved the audience too! They finished the Assembly with a wonderful song sung entirely in French! It was lovely to see them all enjoying their learning and having the confidence to share it with their peers!	997	ENGLISH	1
15. Christmas Feasting and overindulgence was a Hangover from Pagan Midwinter Celebrations. During Advent and up until Christmas Eve, Christians would fast as they prepared for the nativity. However, once Christmas day arrived, they made up for frugality with indulgence and excess. By the Middle Ages, it was customary to down tools for the Christmas period and enjoy a surplus of food and drink and riotous entertainment. Mummers and dancing were favorite pastimes as well as all-round rowdy behavior. Many justified this excess by claiming they were celebrating Christ’s birthday in high style. However, this behavior was no medieval degeneration, for it is clear that that partying and pleasure were a part of even the earliest Christmas. Early Christian leaders were warning against too much pleasure as Christmas as early as the fourth century AD. In 389AD, St Gregory Nazianzen, one of the four fathers of the Greek Church criticized customs of ‘feasting in excess” and “dancing” at Christmas. This criticism arose because these festive excesses were hangovers from the pagan midwinter festivals like Saturnalia when celebrants suspended normal life and pleasure ruled. Saturnalia, in particular, was a time when men remembered a golden age where work was unnecessary by stopping work and making “merry noise on every side,” with “the song and the games. “The Church fathers feared that such pagan relics detracted from the religiosity of Christmas. They were probably right.	<urn:uuid:4a97d961-7a59-4ce6-a641-0d6aff2aa515>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historycollection.co/16-pagan-christmas-traditions-that-people-mistakenly-credit-to-christianity/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00129.warc.gz	en	0.98097	311	3.609375	4	[ 0.07568351179361343, 0.4836021959781647, 0.35812169313430786, -0.392855703830719, -0.14790381491184235, -0.31852468848228455, -0.04837387055158615, 0.02814813144505024, 0.32656434178352356, 0.04437435418367386, -0.07574086636304855, 0.4142577350139618, -0.010078728199005127, 0.154870614409...	3	15. Christmas Feasting and overindulgence was a Hangover from Pagan Midwinter Celebrations. During Advent and up until Christmas Eve, Christians would fast as they prepared for the nativity. However, once Christmas day arrived, they made up for frugality with indulgence and excess. By the Middle Ages, it was customary to down tools for the Christmas period and enjoy a surplus of food and drink and riotous entertainment. Mummers and dancing were favorite pastimes as well as all-round rowdy behavior. Many justified this excess by claiming they were celebrating Christ’s birthday in high style. However, this behavior was no medieval degeneration, for it is clear that that partying and pleasure were a part of even the earliest Christmas. Early Christian leaders were warning against too much pleasure as Christmas as early as the fourth century AD. In 389AD, St Gregory Nazianzen, one of the four fathers of the Greek Church criticized customs of ‘feasting in excess” and “dancing” at Christmas. This criticism arose because these festive excesses were hangovers from the pagan midwinter festivals like Saturnalia when celebrants suspended normal life and pleasure ruled. Saturnalia, in particular, was a time when men remembered a golden age where work was unnecessary by stopping work and making “merry noise on every side,” with “the song and the games. “The Church fathers feared that such pagan relics detracted from the religiosity of Christmas. They were probably right.	303	ENGLISH	1
Troops and tanks from the Soviet Union and their main Warsaw Pact allies rolled into Czechoslovakia on August 21, 1968, to bring a crushing end to the country’s programme of liberal reform that had become known as the ‘Prague Spring’. In a terrifying display of force shown in the video above, 20,000 soldiers and more than 2,000 armoured vehicles entered the country overnight after Prague’s main airport had been taken by a Soviet airborne division, and more would follow. The invasion stemmed from anxiety in Moscow over policies introduced by the government of Prime Minister Alexander Dubcek, who had taken office as leader of the ruling Communist Party in January. Dubcek, while a committed Communist, was determined to eliminate the most repressive elements of the one-party regime, and had relaxed censorship of the media, restrictions on travel, and surveillance of those deemed to be politically dangerous by the secret police. Leonid Brezhnev and leaders of other Warsaw Pact countries were concerned that if the policies were seen to be successful, reformist unrest could occur in neighbouring countries, and that Czechoslovakia could even leave the Pact, destabilising the Soviet bloc. Although the Czechoslovak army were ordered not to resist the invasion, over 100 civilians would be killed as a result of it, and many more wounded after huge crowds gathered in the streets, chanting slogans in support of their leaders and against the foreign troops. Their opposition was of little use. With Mr Dubcek arrested and all rail, road and airline routes out of Czechoslovakia closed, any resistance was quickly overcome as more and more troops from the Soviet Union, Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria poured into the country. Reformist members of the government were flown to Moscow and interrogated for days; Dubcek would remain nominally in power until April 1969 but his reforms were rolled back as a repressive regime was once more enforced which would remain in place for more than 20 years.	<urn:uuid:11411500-8a0e-439e-9a61-92e3b4ad31c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://home.bt.com/news/on-this-day/august-21-1968-tanks-roll-into-czechoslovakia-as-dubceks-prague-spring-comes-to-a-bloody-end-11363999087449	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00279.warc.gz	en	0.987057	403	3.65625	4	[ -0.19278909265995026, 0.03835194557905197, 0.14727911353111267, 0.06295821070671082, 0.03393404558300972, 0.4481559991836548, -0.04609568044543266, 0.12727853655815125, -0.12824328243732452, -0.07750562578439713, 0.512520432472229, 0.103068046271801, 0.4885377585887909, 0.1600753515958786,...	2	Troops and tanks from the Soviet Union and their main Warsaw Pact allies rolled into Czechoslovakia on August 21, 1968, to bring a crushing end to the country’s programme of liberal reform that had become known as the ‘Prague Spring’. In a terrifying display of force shown in the video above, 20,000 soldiers and more than 2,000 armoured vehicles entered the country overnight after Prague’s main airport had been taken by a Soviet airborne division, and more would follow. The invasion stemmed from anxiety in Moscow over policies introduced by the government of Prime Minister Alexander Dubcek, who had taken office as leader of the ruling Communist Party in January. Dubcek, while a committed Communist, was determined to eliminate the most repressive elements of the one-party regime, and had relaxed censorship of the media, restrictions on travel, and surveillance of those deemed to be politically dangerous by the secret police. Leonid Brezhnev and leaders of other Warsaw Pact countries were concerned that if the policies were seen to be successful, reformist unrest could occur in neighbouring countries, and that Czechoslovakia could even leave the Pact, destabilising the Soviet bloc. Although the Czechoslovak army were ordered not to resist the invasion, over 100 civilians would be killed as a result of it, and many more wounded after huge crowds gathered in the streets, chanting slogans in support of their leaders and against the foreign troops. Their opposition was of little use. With Mr Dubcek arrested and all rail, road and airline routes out of Czechoslovakia closed, any resistance was quickly overcome as more and more troops from the Soviet Union, Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria poured into the country. Reformist members of the government were flown to Moscow and interrogated for days; Dubcek would remain nominally in power until April 1969 but his reforms were rolled back as a repressive regime was once more enforced which would remain in place for more than 20 years.	413	ENGLISH	1
Known also as " Grand Encampment", this town along the Colorado-Wyoming border was, at the turn of the twentieth century, a booming center of copper mining and smelting. At one point a sixteen-mile tramway was built to carry copper ore from the mountains into the town for smelting. This steam powered tramway was, at the time, the longest in the world. A sharp drop in copper prices and disastrous fires drove the mining company into bankruptcy. Mining operations ceased in the early twentieth century. A large sawmill operated in the town between 1950 and 1998. The Grand Encampment Museum is located in Encampment. It highlights the copper mining, ranching, logging history in the area. It includes over 15 historic buildings and thousands of interesting objects. A research library is located in the main gallery, the Doc Culleton Interpretive Center. This museum may be located in a small community, but it is well known in Wyoming as one of the best history museums. Encampment is located at 41°12′30″N 106°47′28″W (41.208216, -106.791215). According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.60 square miles (4.14 km2), all of it land. As of the census of 2010, there were 450 people, 227 households, and 128 families residing in the town. The population density was 281.3 inhabitants per square mile (108.6/km2). There were 371 housing units at an average density of 231.9 per square mile (89.5/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.1% White, 0.7% Native American, 0.7% from other races, and 1.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.6% of the population. There were 227 households of which 18.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.0% were married couples living together, 4.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.6% were non-families. 39.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.98 and the average family size was 2.63. The median age in the town was 51.6 years. 17.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 3.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 17.1% were from 25 to 44; 38.1% were from 45 to 64; and 23.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 53.1% male and 46.9% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 443 people, 209 households, and 137 families residing in the town. The population density was 277.1 people per square mile (106.9/km²). There were 336 housing units at an average density of 210.2 per square mile (81.1/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 97.52% White, 0.45% Native American, 0.68% Asian, and 1.35% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.68% of the population. There were 209 households out of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.9% were married couples living together, 2.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.4% were non-families. 32.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.64. In the town, the population was spread out with 19.0% under the age of 18, 5.2% from 18 to 24, 23.5% from 25 to 44, 36.3% from 45 to 64, and 16.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47 years. For every 100 females there were 115.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 116.3 males. The median income for a household in the town was $29,444, and the median income for a family was $37,083. Males had a median income of $36,786 versus $19,375 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,632. About 9.1% of families and 12.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.6% of those under age 18 and 12.0% of those age 65 or over. Public education in the town of Encampment is provided by Carbon County School District #2. Encampment School , a K-12 campus, serves the town.	<urn:uuid:d7dfece1-1d9e-4201-a859-c64110a3f201>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Encampment%2C-Wyoming	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00313.warc.gz	en	0.991722	1,064	3.40625	3	[ 0.33905720710754395, 0.025834161788225174, 0.29304295778274536, 0.5116914510726929, 0.33634260296821594, -0.019319336861371994, -0.2187776267528534, -0.04343914985656738, -0.2673954367637634, -0.29108402132987976, -0.029903901740908623, -0.008676479570567608, 0.18769288063049316, 0.4896110...	1	Known also as " Grand Encampment", this town along the Colorado-Wyoming border was, at the turn of the twentieth century, a booming center of copper mining and smelting. At one point a sixteen-mile tramway was built to carry copper ore from the mountains into the town for smelting. This steam powered tramway was, at the time, the longest in the world. A sharp drop in copper prices and disastrous fires drove the mining company into bankruptcy. Mining operations ceased in the early twentieth century. A large sawmill operated in the town between 1950 and 1998. The Grand Encampment Museum is located in Encampment. It highlights the copper mining, ranching, logging history in the area. It includes over 15 historic buildings and thousands of interesting objects. A research library is located in the main gallery, the Doc Culleton Interpretive Center. This museum may be located in a small community, but it is well known in Wyoming as one of the best history museums. Encampment is located at 41°12′30″N 106°47′28″W (41.208216, -106.791215). According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.60 square miles (4.14 km2), all of it land. As of the census of 2010, there were 450 people, 227 households, and 128 families residing in the town. The population density was 281.3 inhabitants per square mile (108.6/km2). There were 371 housing units at an average density of 231.9 per square mile (89.5/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.1% White, 0.7% Native American, 0.7% from other races, and 1.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.6% of the population. There were 227 households of which 18.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.0% were married couples living together, 4.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.6% were non-families. 39.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.98 and the average family size was 2.63. The median age in the town was 51.6 years. 17.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 3.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 17.1% were from 25 to 44; 38.1% were from 45 to 64; and 23.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 53.1% male and 46.9% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 443 people, 209 households, and 137 families residing in the town. The population density was 277.1 people per square mile (106.9/km²). There were 336 housing units at an average density of 210.2 per square mile (81.1/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 97.52% White, 0.45% Native American, 0.68% Asian, and 1.35% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.68% of the population. There were 209 households out of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.9% were married couples living together, 2.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.4% were non-families. 32.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.64. In the town, the population was spread out with 19.0% under the age of 18, 5.2% from 18 to 24, 23.5% from 25 to 44, 36.3% from 45 to 64, and 16.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47 years. For every 100 females there were 115.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 116.3 males. The median income for a household in the town was $29,444, and the median income for a family was $37,083. Males had a median income of $36,786 versus $19,375 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,632. About 9.1% of families and 12.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.6% of those under age 18 and 12.0% of those age 65 or over. Public education in the town of Encampment is provided by Carbon County School District #2. Encampment School , a K-12 campus, serves the town.	1,291	ENGLISH	1
The dual quest for wealth and power was the driving force in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Wealth in this case meant long-term forms of income for the conquering government, like crops of sugar cane and tobacco, as well as taxes on subjects. The conquistadors also took large amounts of gold and silver, which later led to the legends of vast wealth such as Montezuma’s treasure. While a huge secret stash of gold has yet to be found, the Aztec, Mayan, and Incan cultures did mine and smith gold, leading to only more speculation on the treasures of gold that awaited those savvy enough to find the hiding spot. Now, a huge chunk of gold found under the streets of Mexico City has been found to actually be part of that legendary stash. The Spaniards who first came to the Americas were notoriously single-minded in their quest to conquer. The use of guns to defeat huge armies (in combination with some anti-Aztec alliances with other native populations) made for quick takeovers of large tracts of land. Once the Spanish had felled various rulers, they took with them the gold that was found there. In fact, so much gold was plundered that competing nations attempted to unload Spanish ships of their precious metals en route to Spain. This precipitated the policy that Spanish treasure was to be carried in fleets that could defend against aggressive English or French ships. The gold bar in question was found under the busy streets of Mexico City in 1981 during a construction project. The bar was found 16 feet down, as the capital of Mexico was built on top of Tenochtitlán, the ancient city which was ruled by the Aztecs. The city at that time was built on a island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, however once the Spanish took control of the area they drained the shallow lake to avoid flooding. The ingot is suspected to have been left behind by fleeing conquistadors who sought to escape the upheaval following the assassination of the Aztec emperor, Montezuma II (sometimes spelled Moctezuma), in 1520. Only a year later disease brought by the Spanish, combined with supply lines to the city having been strangled by the conquistadors, drove the final conquest of the biggest city in pre-Columbian Mexico. Weighing in at 4.4 pounds, this large piece of gold was recently examined using fluorescent X-ray chemical analysis at the Institute of Physics at the National Museum of Anthropology of Mexico to examine the way it was made. During analysis, it was found that the bar was likely made between 1519 and 1520, during the time that Hernán Cortés ordered looted gold from the Aztec treasuries to be melted down for shipping to Spain. This explains why the bar is a bit rough looking, nothing like the sleek, gold ingots we think of as lining the vaults and safes of the wealthiest countries of the world. It is likely that gold was forfeited by accident during the Triste Noche (or Sad Night), an event which forced Cortés and his men from the city. The location where the gold bar was found corresponds to the escape route taken by the Spanish via the Toltecaacaloco Canal on Triste Noche. Not many physical objects from the night Cortes fled on June 30th, 1520, remain today- making this ingot a rare remnant of an important historical event from the era. According to the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), the gold bar is a “key piece in the puzzle of this historical event”. There may never come a day when a huge hoard of pre-Columbian gold is found hidden away, but finds like this gold bar are the closest thing to that kind of discovery we are likely to see. And, it was almost certainly gold from Montezuma’s vaults that was used to make the crude bar.	<urn:uuid:25d6c3bb-a1a4-4d75-b459-dc5756c41f5c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thegoodolddays.club/gold-bar-mexico-city-montezumas-treasure/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00288.warc.gz	en	0.981678	815	3.5	4	[ -0.0769212394952774, 0.2924083173274994, 0.4145791530609131, 0.25972414016723633, 0.030055442824959755, -0.11401737481355667, -0.00666698208078742, 0.06918810307979584, -0.03692658618092537, -0.4437216520309448, 0.3270123600959778, -0.020850440487265587, -0.03581484779715538, 0.20780822634...	12	The dual quest for wealth and power was the driving force in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Wealth in this case meant long-term forms of income for the conquering government, like crops of sugar cane and tobacco, as well as taxes on subjects. The conquistadors also took large amounts of gold and silver, which later led to the legends of vast wealth such as Montezuma’s treasure. While a huge secret stash of gold has yet to be found, the Aztec, Mayan, and Incan cultures did mine and smith gold, leading to only more speculation on the treasures of gold that awaited those savvy enough to find the hiding spot. Now, a huge chunk of gold found under the streets of Mexico City has been found to actually be part of that legendary stash. The Spaniards who first came to the Americas were notoriously single-minded in their quest to conquer. The use of guns to defeat huge armies (in combination with some anti-Aztec alliances with other native populations) made for quick takeovers of large tracts of land. Once the Spanish had felled various rulers, they took with them the gold that was found there. In fact, so much gold was plundered that competing nations attempted to unload Spanish ships of their precious metals en route to Spain. This precipitated the policy that Spanish treasure was to be carried in fleets that could defend against aggressive English or French ships. The gold bar in question was found under the busy streets of Mexico City in 1981 during a construction project. The bar was found 16 feet down, as the capital of Mexico was built on top of Tenochtitlán, the ancient city which was ruled by the Aztecs. The city at that time was built on a island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, however once the Spanish took control of the area they drained the shallow lake to avoid flooding. The ingot is suspected to have been left behind by fleeing conquistadors who sought to escape the upheaval following the assassination of the Aztec emperor, Montezuma II (sometimes spelled Moctezuma), in 1520. Only a year later disease brought by the Spanish, combined with supply lines to the city having been strangled by the conquistadors, drove the final conquest of the biggest city in pre-Columbian Mexico. Weighing in at 4.4 pounds, this large piece of gold was recently examined using fluorescent X-ray chemical analysis at the Institute of Physics at the National Museum of Anthropology of Mexico to examine the way it was made. During analysis, it was found that the bar was likely made between 1519 and 1520, during the time that Hernán Cortés ordered looted gold from the Aztec treasuries to be melted down for shipping to Spain. This explains why the bar is a bit rough looking, nothing like the sleek, gold ingots we think of as lining the vaults and safes of the wealthiest countries of the world. It is likely that gold was forfeited by accident during the Triste Noche (or Sad Night), an event which forced Cortés and his men from the city. The location where the gold bar was found corresponds to the escape route taken by the Spanish via the Toltecaacaloco Canal on Triste Noche. Not many physical objects from the night Cortes fled on June 30th, 1520, remain today- making this ingot a rare remnant of an important historical event from the era. According to the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), the gold bar is a “key piece in the puzzle of this historical event”. There may never come a day when a huge hoard of pre-Columbian gold is found hidden away, but finds like this gold bar are the closest thing to that kind of discovery we are likely to see. And, it was almost certainly gold from Montezuma’s vaults that was used to make the crude bar.	817	ENGLISH	1
The V Bomber Force was the nickname given to Britain’s three bombers during the Cold War that were capable of delivering nuclear bombs and formed part of Britain’s nuclear deterrent. The V Bomber Force was made up of the Vickers Valiant, the Avro Vulcan and the Handley Page Victor. The development of three bombers during the Cold War by the British was done to give the government increased freedom from US foreign policy. While the British government supported America during the Cold War, the V Bomber force gave it independence from the country that dominated NATO. As an example, the Valiant was used in the Suez Crisis of 1956 when America would not give any support to Anthony Eden’s government. If the British governments of the time had fully relied on America to provide bomber support, this would not have occurred. The same can be said for the use of the Vulcan during the Falklands War. The Valiant was classed as a strategic bomber and it was designed to the same specifications (B35/46) as the Vulcan and Victor. However, the planned prototype Valiant did not come up to these specifications, which caused the government of the day a dilemma. The great advantage that the Valiant had was that it could be quickly built and put into the air with due speed. To get round the specifications issue, the government changed its requirements and the prototype Valiant first flew in May 1951. Deliveries to the Royal Air Force started in August 1954. The Valiant was powered by four Rolls-Royce Avon 204 turbojet engines that gave it a maximum speed of 567 mph at high altitude. It had a maximum range of 4,500 miles and a maximum flying ceiling of 54,000 feet. The Valiant could carry up to 21,000 lbs of conventional or nuclear bombs. The Valiant was active during the Suez Crisis and played its part during the British airdropped nuclear weapons trials held in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s. In 1963, the Valiant was given a specific role – low mission flying. In 1964, the Valiant fleet was scrapped. However, lessons learned during its use in the RAF paved the way for flying techniques that both the Vulcan and the Victor were to use. Probably the most famous V Bomber was the Vulcan. The Vulcan was the first bomber to use a delta-wing platform and the prototype first flew on August 30th 1952. The first Vulcan bombers to be delivered to the RAF took place in July 1956. The Avro Vulcan was the result of Specification B.14/46 – a requirement for a bomber that could deliver its payload from any of its bases in the world. The Vulcan was designed as a long-range strategic nuclear bomber. It was powered by four Rolls-Royce Olympus 201 turbojet engines that gave the aeroplane a top speed of 645 mph and a maximum ceiling of 65,000 feet. A Vulcan had a maximum range of 4,600 miles. Each bomber had the ability to carry 21,000 lbs of bombs. The Mark II version, which first flew in 1960, was designed to carry the Blue Steel or American Skybolt standoff nuclear weapons but this development did not materialise as a result of the introduction of the Polaris submarine. In 1969, the RAF’s Vulcan bombers were assigned to NATO and one last flew in anger in May 1982 when a Vulcan bomber attacked the runway at Port Stanley during the Falklands War – the airport was being used by the Argentinean military who had occupied the islands. The end of the Cold War and the use of smaller, faster bombers such as the Jaguar and the Phantom ended the days of the large bomber that had been used by the RAF. In total, the RAF had 136 Vulcan bombers and its final role for the RAF before being totally withdrawn from service was as a flight-refuelling aeroplane. The Handley Page Victor was the last of the V Bombers to go into service. The aircraft had crescent-shaped wings that owed much to the research carried out into wing shape by the German Arado and Blohm and Voss companies. Such shaped wings were meant to maximise cruising speed and add to the aeroplane’s effectiveness. However, development costs were high and by the time the Victor came into service, new missile weaponry made it vulnerable to attack. As a result, the RAF ordered only a small number of these bombers and the Mark I variants were converted to flight refuelling roles between 1964 and 1965. The Mark II version, of which the RAF ordered 34, was designed to carry the American Skybolt IRBM or the Blue Steel standoff missile. However, as with the Vulcan, developments in weapons systems elsewhere made the Victor effectively obsolete as a bomber and the Mark II versions became used for photo-reconnaissance and then, like the Mark I version, to airborne fuel tankers. The Victor was powered by four Rolls-Royce Conway Mk 201 turbofan engines that gave it a top speed of 640 mph and a maximum ceiling of 60,000 feet. Its maximum range was 4,600 miles. The cost of maintaining the V Bomber force was huge and with fluctuating spending budgets and changing requirements, the RAF invested its money into fighter-bombers such as the Jaguar and Buccaneer and into developing the vertical take-off Harrier jump jet. The changing nature of the Cold War also meant that such giant bombers were more a relic of the past by the 1970’s, even if the Americans continued to fly the B52’s and developed the Rockwell B1-B and Northrop Grumman B-2	<urn:uuid:a7acb921-290c-4194-81d0-a096cb45919d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/the-cold-war/the-v-bomber-force/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00039.warc.gz	en	0.980893	1,146	3.390625	3	[ -0.5090622901916504, 0.3501569330692291, -0.02308104932308197, -0.6135090589523315, -0.12360458821058273, 0.05431182682514191, 0.15294262766838074, 0.3872533440589905, -0.17438408732414246, 0.3384559154510498, -0.012192711234092712, -0.5843161940574646, 0.3106696903705597, 0.02564869076013...	3	The V Bomber Force was the nickname given to Britain’s three bombers during the Cold War that were capable of delivering nuclear bombs and formed part of Britain’s nuclear deterrent. The V Bomber Force was made up of the Vickers Valiant, the Avro Vulcan and the Handley Page Victor. The development of three bombers during the Cold War by the British was done to give the government increased freedom from US foreign policy. While the British government supported America during the Cold War, the V Bomber force gave it independence from the country that dominated NATO. As an example, the Valiant was used in the Suez Crisis of 1956 when America would not give any support to Anthony Eden’s government. If the British governments of the time had fully relied on America to provide bomber support, this would not have occurred. The same can be said for the use of the Vulcan during the Falklands War. The Valiant was classed as a strategic bomber and it was designed to the same specifications (B35/46) as the Vulcan and Victor. However, the planned prototype Valiant did not come up to these specifications, which caused the government of the day a dilemma. The great advantage that the Valiant had was that it could be quickly built and put into the air with due speed. To get round the specifications issue, the government changed its requirements and the prototype Valiant first flew in May 1951. Deliveries to the Royal Air Force started in August 1954. The Valiant was powered by four Rolls-Royce Avon 204 turbojet engines that gave it a maximum speed of 567 mph at high altitude. It had a maximum range of 4,500 miles and a maximum flying ceiling of 54,000 feet. The Valiant could carry up to 21,000 lbs of conventional or nuclear bombs. The Valiant was active during the Suez Crisis and played its part during the British airdropped nuclear weapons trials held in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s. In 1963, the Valiant was given a specific role – low mission flying. In 1964, the Valiant fleet was scrapped. However, lessons learned during its use in the RAF paved the way for flying techniques that both the Vulcan and the Victor were to use. Probably the most famous V Bomber was the Vulcan. The Vulcan was the first bomber to use a delta-wing platform and the prototype first flew on August 30th 1952. The first Vulcan bombers to be delivered to the RAF took place in July 1956. The Avro Vulcan was the result of Specification B.14/46 – a requirement for a bomber that could deliver its payload from any of its bases in the world. The Vulcan was designed as a long-range strategic nuclear bomber. It was powered by four Rolls-Royce Olympus 201 turbojet engines that gave the aeroplane a top speed of 645 mph and a maximum ceiling of 65,000 feet. A Vulcan had a maximum range of 4,600 miles. Each bomber had the ability to carry 21,000 lbs of bombs. The Mark II version, which first flew in 1960, was designed to carry the Blue Steel or American Skybolt standoff nuclear weapons but this development did not materialise as a result of the introduction of the Polaris submarine. In 1969, the RAF’s Vulcan bombers were assigned to NATO and one last flew in anger in May 1982 when a Vulcan bomber attacked the runway at Port Stanley during the Falklands War – the airport was being used by the Argentinean military who had occupied the islands. The end of the Cold War and the use of smaller, faster bombers such as the Jaguar and the Phantom ended the days of the large bomber that had been used by the RAF. In total, the RAF had 136 Vulcan bombers and its final role for the RAF before being totally withdrawn from service was as a flight-refuelling aeroplane. The Handley Page Victor was the last of the V Bombers to go into service. The aircraft had crescent-shaped wings that owed much to the research carried out into wing shape by the German Arado and Blohm and Voss companies. Such shaped wings were meant to maximise cruising speed and add to the aeroplane’s effectiveness. However, development costs were high and by the time the Victor came into service, new missile weaponry made it vulnerable to attack. As a result, the RAF ordered only a small number of these bombers and the Mark I variants were converted to flight refuelling roles between 1964 and 1965. The Mark II version, of which the RAF ordered 34, was designed to carry the American Skybolt IRBM or the Blue Steel standoff missile. However, as with the Vulcan, developments in weapons systems elsewhere made the Victor effectively obsolete as a bomber and the Mark II versions became used for photo-reconnaissance and then, like the Mark I version, to airborne fuel tankers. The Victor was powered by four Rolls-Royce Conway Mk 201 turbofan engines that gave it a top speed of 640 mph and a maximum ceiling of 60,000 feet. Its maximum range was 4,600 miles. The cost of maintaining the V Bomber force was huge and with fluctuating spending budgets and changing requirements, the RAF invested its money into fighter-bombers such as the Jaguar and Buccaneer and into developing the vertical take-off Harrier jump jet. The changing nature of the Cold War also meant that such giant bombers were more a relic of the past by the 1970’s, even if the Americans continued to fly the B52’s and developed the Rockwell B1-B and Northrop Grumman B-2	1,241	ENGLISH	1
It was on April 15, 1452, that Leonardo was born in the town of Vinci, Republic of Florence, in what is now in Italy, the illegitimate son of a notary and a barmaid. It is from his birthplace that he is known as Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo seemed to master every subject to which he turned his attention: he was a painter, draftsman, sculptor, architect, and engineer, wrote poetry and stories: the prototype Renaissance man!His Last Supper (1495-97) and Mona Lisa (La Gioconda, 1503-06) are among the most popular paintings from the Renaissance. He and his rival Michelangelo did great service to the medical arts by accurate paintings of dissections, which were only occasionally allowed by the Church. Yet, his artistry appeared to be an afterthought, as he frequently left his works unfinished, and only about fifteen of his paintings survive. His notebooks reveal that he was centuries ahead of his time in mechanics and physic, fortifications, bridges, weapons, and river diversions to flood the enemy, which aided Italian city-states in their many wars.Leonardo was an early evolutionist regarding fossils. Through his careful observations he noted that “if the shells had been carried by the muddy deluge they would have been mixed up, and separated from each other amidst the mud, and not in regular steps and layers — as we see them now in our time.” Leonardo reasoned that what is now dry land, where these aquatic fossils were found, must once have been covered by seawater.He was for a short time accused of homosexuality: there is no evidence Leonardo had any sexual interest in women. As he wrote in his notebooks, “The act of procreation and anything that has any relation to it is so disgusting that human beings would soon die out if there were no pretty faces and sensuous dispositions.”And what of his religion? It is significant that at the end of his life he felt he had much spiritual negligence to atone for. His first biographer, Giorgio Vasari, wrote in 1550:”Finally, …feeling himself near to death, [he] asked to have himself diligently informed of the teaching of the Catholic faith, and of the good way and holy Christian religion; and then, with many moans, he confessed and was penitent; and … was pleased to take devoutly the most holy Sacrament, out of his bed. The King, who was wont often and lovingly to visit him, then came into the room; wherefore he, out of reverence … showed withal how much he had offended God and mankind in not having worked at his art as he should have done.”There was much skepticism in Renaissance Italy at the time, and Leonardo was an intellectual genius, not just an artistic genius. While there was great intellectual freedom during the Italian Renaissance, there were limits as long as the Dominicans, the “Hounds of the Lord,” were active. This semblance of a deathbed conversion, by so critical a thinker and so great a genius as Leonardo, who would have nothing to lose by professing piety all his life, can only mean that during his prime years he was a secret freethinker.Leonardo died quietly on the 2 of May, 1519, a few weeks following his 67th birthday.	<urn:uuid:06bedabb-65c6-4a94-a038-fd5927334567>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bookziz.com/a/leonardo-da-vinci/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00397.warc.gz	en	0.994603	695	3.53125	4	[ -0.024596670642495155, 0.574802041053772, 0.054338566958904266, -0.17597925662994385, -0.6200577020645142, -0.08283483982086182, 0.24032634496688843, 0.31809714436531067, 0.2724711000919342, -0.0017499062232673168, 0.07138141989707947, -0.5713505744934082, 0.24562054872512817, 0.3979343771...	1	It was on April 15, 1452, that Leonardo was born in the town of Vinci, Republic of Florence, in what is now in Italy, the illegitimate son of a notary and a barmaid. It is from his birthplace that he is known as Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo seemed to master every subject to which he turned his attention: he was a painter, draftsman, sculptor, architect, and engineer, wrote poetry and stories: the prototype Renaissance man!His Last Supper (1495-97) and Mona Lisa (La Gioconda, 1503-06) are among the most popular paintings from the Renaissance. He and his rival Michelangelo did great service to the medical arts by accurate paintings of dissections, which were only occasionally allowed by the Church. Yet, his artistry appeared to be an afterthought, as he frequently left his works unfinished, and only about fifteen of his paintings survive. His notebooks reveal that he was centuries ahead of his time in mechanics and physic, fortifications, bridges, weapons, and river diversions to flood the enemy, which aided Italian city-states in their many wars.Leonardo was an early evolutionist regarding fossils. Through his careful observations he noted that “if the shells had been carried by the muddy deluge they would have been mixed up, and separated from each other amidst the mud, and not in regular steps and layers — as we see them now in our time.” Leonardo reasoned that what is now dry land, where these aquatic fossils were found, must once have been covered by seawater.He was for a short time accused of homosexuality: there is no evidence Leonardo had any sexual interest in women. As he wrote in his notebooks, “The act of procreation and anything that has any relation to it is so disgusting that human beings would soon die out if there were no pretty faces and sensuous dispositions.”And what of his religion? It is significant that at the end of his life he felt he had much spiritual negligence to atone for. His first biographer, Giorgio Vasari, wrote in 1550:”Finally, …feeling himself near to death, [he] asked to have himself diligently informed of the teaching of the Catholic faith, and of the good way and holy Christian religion; and then, with many moans, he confessed and was penitent; and … was pleased to take devoutly the most holy Sacrament, out of his bed. The King, who was wont often and lovingly to visit him, then came into the room; wherefore he, out of reverence … showed withal how much he had offended God and mankind in not having worked at his art as he should have done.”There was much skepticism in Renaissance Italy at the time, and Leonardo was an intellectual genius, not just an artistic genius. While there was great intellectual freedom during the Italian Renaissance, there were limits as long as the Dominicans, the “Hounds of the Lord,” were active. This semblance of a deathbed conversion, by so critical a thinker and so great a genius as Leonardo, who would have nothing to lose by professing piety all his life, can only mean that during his prime years he was a secret freethinker.Leonardo died quietly on the 2 of May, 1519, a few weeks following his 67th birthday.	703	ENGLISH	1
Analyzing Inquisition Documents The modules in Methods present case studies that demonstrate how scholars interpret different kinds of historical evidence in world history.. In the video, historian Joan Bristol analyzes records from the Mexican Inquisition, a tribunal created in Spain in the late 15th century to prosecute people who committed crimes against Christianity. These records is a summary of a case in which a nun, Juana de la Cruz, accused her 14-year-old servant, Gertrudis de Escobar, of renouncing God three times. Gertrudis de Escobar was a mulata—the child of a white person and a black person. You will be able to view primary sources related to these in the menu below including a painting of a mulata woman selling fruit in New Spain (Mexico). Though there were large numbers of Africans and then Creole blacks and mulattoes in New Spain at this time, little information about them exists. As you examine these sources, think about how they were produced and whom they were produced for. What can they say about New Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries? What can we learn from these documents about people whose stories do not usually appear in the historical record? How might this story have been told in other contexts—outside of an official Inquisition case? The primary sources referenced in this module can be viewed in the Primary Sources folder below. Click on the images or text for more information about the source. 1. What is this document? This document is the proceedings of an Inquisition case brought against a woman, or a girl, who was 14 years old in 1659. And the blasphemy she was accused of committing was the crime of renouncing God. This was a fairly common crime that blacks and mulattoes were accused of. This woman was a mulata, the child of a white and a black. In these cases blacks and mulattoes who were slaves or servants were being beaten. And they knew that if they renounced God, which was a crime, the beating would theoretically have to stop and they would be brought to the Inquisition thereby giving them some respite from the beating. So what often happened is an owner or a master would come in and say “my slave did this horrible thing—he or she renounced God.”. Scholars have argued that this was a strategy to get the beating to stop and to get a hearing at the Inquisition. This 14 year old girl was named Gertrudis de Escobar. She was actually a free mulata servant in a convent. She was brought to the Inquisition by her mistress, Juana de la Cruz, who was a nun. She had heard that there was a possibility that Gertrudis was thinking of running away, so her mistress was punishing her. One of the reasons that it is possible for people to kind of get their stories out at the Inquisition is because they ask these open-ended questions. You have to respond to each of the accusations in detail. What’s interesting about this case is that she doesn’t get browbeaten into rolling over and saying “I’m guilty”. The proceedings were secret, and so she was asked if she knew why she was brought to the Inquisition. She didn’t know, so the charges were read to her. She had claimed that many of the charges were false. She agreed that she had renounced God, but claimed that she had been forced. She was convicted and sentenced to an auto de fe, which is a public reading of her crime. She was paraded through the streets in public humiliation, and this is a fairly common punishment. Often cases end here. This case is interesting because then there’s this other letter from a cleric written in 1662, two years after the initial case. He tells the story of what happened to Gertrudis after the case was over. Generally, you don’t know what happens. But what happened to Gertrudis was, she was sold by her aunt and her cousins to an ingenio, a sugar mill, even though she was free, to pay off the money that she owed the Inquisition. People had to stay in the secret jail of the Inquisition during the time of their trial, and they ate and sometimes they had medicine. She owed 19 pesos by the time the case was over. She was put to work in the sugar fields, which was difficult work. She was beaten a number of times; she tried to run away. She suffered all these indignities and kept trying to prove over and over again that really she was free. That it was illegal, really, to sell her into the sugar mill. Finally, in 1662, she went to this cleric and appealed to him and said please bring my case to the Inquisition, explain to them what happened, explain to them that I was sold illegally, really, that I shouldn’t have been sold. And so what happened to her after the case was over comes from this letter written by this priest that ends up in the Inquisition. Gertrudis was eventually freed. She had to go back to an ingenio and continue to work for awhile and then the inquisitors decided that she was to be freed. She was not a slave so she couldn’t be owned by anybody. Sometimes owners or masters bring their slaves to the Inquisition for renouncing because somebody else heard them, to save face. But maybe if it happened in private, you wouldn’t bring your slave to the Inquisition because people spent a long time in the jails of the Inquistion. Juana de la Cruz did not have access to her servant Gertrudis for over two months. So there’s not necessarily a big payoff for bringing your slave to the Inquisition. 2. What was the Inquisition? The Inquisition was a tribunal that was created to maintain the purity of the Christian faith. People who committed crimes against Christianity were brought to the Inquisition. In the late 15th century, the Pope gave Ferdinand and Isabel, the Catholic monarchs of Spain, the right to have an Inquisition. They were concerned about the heresies of Judaism, Protestantism, and Islam. They were also concerned with blasphemies, lesser crimes like bigamy, taking God’s name in vain, witchcraft. By the time the Inquisition got to Mexico in the early 16th century, shortly after the Conquest, really it wasn’t as concerned with these heresies but more concerned with these lesser blasphemies. And the Inquisition in its final form in Mexico was established in 1571. Before 1571, the Inquisition was run by clerics and Indians were under the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. It was decided that the punishments being meted out to Indians were way too harsh. A separate tribunal was established for Indians, and so this new Inquisition was established to deal with Spaniards, blacks, mulattoes. You can only be brought to the Inquisition if you’re a Christian—so [it’s] Jews and Muslims who converted to Christianity. But there were doubts about whether they had really converted. They took blasphemy seriously. Sometimes the Inquisition is much more energetic about prosecuting people than at other times. When somebody is brought to the Inquisition, money and property was confiscated to pay for the time spent, and the food, and the medicine when the person was in jail. Some people have argued that inquisitors considered this a money-making venture and that this is why cases against slaves and servants often didn’t go to a full trial. Inquisitors were less interested in those people because they could get less stuff from them. A slave would stay a slave, so that status wouldn’t change. There are a few cases in which slaves were sent to other masters, or where the Inquisition mandated that a slave be sold because they decided that the punishment was unnecessarily harsh. There’s a case where the Inquisition mandated that the treatment be better, sent the slave home, and the slave ended up being beaten to death. The way that many people frame these cases is that it’s resistance. Slaves and servants were using the Inquisition as a forum where they could complain about this terrible treatment. But ultimately, they really didn’t have very much power. In Gertrudis’s case, her family sells her to an ingenio, so it’s not like their lives were markedly improved by this visit to the Inquisition. In the second part of this case, Gertrudis goes to this cleric who tells her story. She knows that this is a body that’s not necessarily on her side, but this is a body that she can appeal to. Men and women do not seem to be treated differently by the Inquisition. For non-Spaniards, race was more of a determining factor in looking at people’s position within the social hierarchy than gender. Gender’s clearly important in terms of their interactions with each other, but in terms of the Inquisition it ends up being your racial situation that is more important. 3. How did you become interested in Inquisition cases? I was interested in the religious practices of Africans and their descendants, including Christianity. So one place to look for that is the Inquisition because the Inquisition is a body that is designed by the state to regulate Christian practice. Particularly in witchcraft cases, where people are doing something that’s not conforming to Christian practice, you learn something about their ritual practices. The Inquisition documents are a great set of sources. There’s a lot of information about people’s everyday lives. And then there are just scads of these renunciation cases. This is a crime that is closely associated with people identified as blacks and mulattoes. This case interested me because it was the case of a woman whose boss was also a woman, this nun Juana de la Cruz. The action takes place in a convent, so you can find out a lot about women’s lives. As a historian, I am always concerned with issues of production and also issues of audience. The records of Inquisition cases were generally created for other officials, so they weren’t published. Everything happened in private. The cases were often sent to the court in Madrid, so that some cases end up in Spain. I’m interested in knowing who was involved, who the accused person was, what was the relationship between the accused person and the person that was accusing him or her, when the events happened. These Inquisition cases are very popular for historians of colonial Latin America because they give so much information about people who are not going to show up in a lot of other records. I also have used records from religious organizations called confraternities to find out more about the religious lives of Africans and their descendants. There were huge numbers of Africans and then Creole blacks and mulattoes in New Spain, and yet it’s very difficult to find information about them. Inquisition cases include genealogies. Another good source for the lives of Africans and their descendants are wills. In wills, there are inventories. You can find out about people’s family lives because of who they left money to. You can find out about their membership in religious associations because people will mention the confraternities that they belong to in their wills. You can find out about their financial lives by looking at what they left. One will I read that was written by a freed slave, one of the things he listed in his inventory was a piece of old cheese. 4. How do you use Inquisition cases as historical sources? There are some problems with using Inquisition documents. One of the things that’s really great is that you seem to get first person accounts. Gertrudis is asked about her background and she says, “These were my parents, this was my life before I was in the convent, these are the people that I lived with. I worked in other places for a period of time.” She talks about how much she was paid when she worked in certain places. It seems to be a first person account, but in fact it’s not a first person account. I mean you always have to keep in mind that it’s an Inquisition case; that people aren’t just writing this down in the privacy of their own home. A notary is taking down the testimony. And then also of course you have to think about the context. This is a scary situation, especially if you’re a mulata woman who has very few rights and privileges in this colonial society. So you have to look at what she said, the framework, and understand that she must have been intimidated. They’re saying things to achieve a certain effect. Juana de la Cruz said that Gertrudis renounced God three times. Juana may have been exaggerating the number of times to make her case for beating Gertrudis look better. Gertrudis may have been underestimating it to make herself look like a better Christian, or to make it look more involuntary. This is not so much about how to deal with the Inquisition, but it is about strategy. In this case, the nun says that Gertrudis had learned to renounce from this other mulatto who’s named Alacrán or “Scorpion.” Gertrudis denies this. There are also some cases in which an owner of a slave told another slave or servant to whip the person who was being punished. Sometimes there was a lot of disagreement among the slaves about whether this person had renounced. You get the impression that maybe they were trying to help protect their fellow slave or servant. Looking at these cases in the aggregate does lead us to suspect that this is a strategy that people knew about. Inquisition cases follow a certain prescribed pattern. As an example of formulaic language, the accused were asked if they know, suspect, or presume, the reason why they had been called to this commission. This is a way to get them to either say no, they have absolutely no idea, or a way to get them to spill their story. This is a question that is asked of everybody who comes in to the Inquisition. In some ways, you could argue that the renunciation itself is an example of this formulaic language. Gertrudis said that she renounced God and his saints. Juana de la Cruz said, “she said that she renounced God and his saints”. And then other people say, “she said that she renounced God and his saints”. You have to think, especially if it’s in this situation where somebody’s being beaten, would it really have come out like this? Would everybody have heard it exactly in that way? There’s a strong possibility that something else was said and yet this is the formula in which it comes out. This provides us with another way of thinking about how much to believe that these are accurate accounts of what happened because everybody resorts to this formula. 5. How do students understand Inquisition documents? Because these cases are in Spanish, I generally describe them in my teaching more than presenting them with the transcription. The transcriptions are long, and so it would be difficult to get through it especially in an in-class exercise. I often assign them an article about an Inquisition case, or I might present them with the bare facts of the case. They can also bring their knowledge of slavery and servitude, of social hierarchy to bear on their reading of my description of the case. The way that I get students to break free of preconceived notions about the way a courtroom might work by giving them a lot of background on the Inquisition. The Inquisition, while it seems like a court that might be familiar from watching TV, is a court in which people are examined about their practice of Christianity. You don’t want students to come to conclusions based on 20th-century ideas about psychology or human nature. It is important to get students to talk a lot about the context. So this is something that’s really removed from students’ experience. The cases themselves furnish students with a very good way of getting into the 17th-century mindset. Students pretty readily get the idea that the person may have renounced deliberately in order to get to the Inquisition. One of the things that they notice is that the whole case is framed in this formulaic language. There are certain questions that inquisitors ask accusers and also people who are accused. Gertrudis, because she was a minor, was assigned a lawyer, so there’s certain language that a lawyer says in response to certain questions. And they sort of quizzed her to be able to see if she could say certain prayers. It’s important to look at these cases in the aggregate. If you look at one Inquisition case, you wouldn’t notice these universal aspects that occur. Students get to think about how transparent information is, how to weigh these issues of production and reception, and how they have to interpret statements based on the larger context. Another way to get them to think about how different this situation is from the 21st century is by having them think about the punishments. People were punished publicly. Gertrudis was paraded through the streets as a way to publicly humiliate her. People who were convicted by the Inquisition had to wear certain clothes that indicated that they were being punished. Gertrudis’s cousins say to her, “We’re sending you to this sugar mill that’s way out in the country so that you don’t have to suffer the humiliation of having people see you on their way to mass.” One thing that’s useful for students is to compare two different testimonies. So if you give them Juana de la Cruz’s testimony and if you give them Gertrudis’s testimony, you can look at different details. In Juana’s testimony, she talks about how Gertrudis had committed an infraction. Juana punished her by using a scourge which nuns in the convent used for their own penitences. She says she used this to whip Gertrudis with her very little strength, con su poca fuerza. Juana goes on to say that as the punishment began, Gertrudis showed herself to be rebellious and that she renounced God and His saints. Juana goes on to say that she and the other nuns were very frightened by this terrible outburst of Gertrudis, but she hadn’t realized that Gertrudis had said this, so she continued the beating. After Gertrudis renounced several more times, Juana finally stopped the beatings. It’s significant actually that Juana says, “Well with my little strength.” It’s a way for her to say, “I’m a good woman. I’m occupying the gender roles that I’m supposed to occupy, and Gertrudis, she’s terribly rebellious, and she’s not occupying the social position that she’s supposed to occupy.” Then if you show them Gertrudis’s testimony, Gertrudis again emphasizes the severity of the beating and how harsh it was. She said twice that she would have to renounce even though she was a very good Christian. They’re telling the same story in some ways but they’re inflecting it differently. You can ask students why might they be telling the story different, just in this very specific context. Think about the larger social structure of New Spain. Well, what is it like to be a white woman in New Spain? What is it like to be a mulatto woman in New Spain? From this story, you can tell something about life inside the convent—that nuns have servants and that nuns might be beating these servants. When I first saw this kind of renunciation case, I found it surprising that the Inquisition would be taking the reports and also the actions of slaves and servants so seriously. The Inquisition in some ways functions as a forum in which people can indirectly complain about their masters. That the inquisitors took it seriously enough to mount a case, to call witnesses, to assign Gertrudis a lawyer. This is a good thing for students to think about—why is the Inquisition so interested in this kind of case? It helps dispel the idea, first of all, that slaves and servants had absolutely no advocates, and that also they were living in some kind of world that was totally separate from the world of their masters or owners. Joan Bristol is Associate Professor of History at George Mason University. Her dissertation is entitled “Negotiating Authority in New Spain: Blacks, Mulattos, and Religious Practice in the Seventeenth Century.”	<urn:uuid:319f8d3a-093a-4278-86f6-dd8c49bf5897>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://worldhistorycommons.org/analyzing-inquisition-documents	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00542.warc.gz	en	0.984113	4,361	3.6875	4	[ 0.17377407848834991, 0.42886123061180115, 0.23023605346679688, -0.11363755166530609, 0.3618083894252777, -0.4147297739982605, -0.18145115673542023, -0.09448542445898056, 0.09321299195289612, 0.14740319550037384, -0.04053135961294174, -0.03957236185669899, -0.5206375122070312, 0.23701840639...	5	Analyzing Inquisition Documents The modules in Methods present case studies that demonstrate how scholars interpret different kinds of historical evidence in world history.. In the video, historian Joan Bristol analyzes records from the Mexican Inquisition, a tribunal created in Spain in the late 15th century to prosecute people who committed crimes against Christianity. These records is a summary of a case in which a nun, Juana de la Cruz, accused her 14-year-old servant, Gertrudis de Escobar, of renouncing God three times. Gertrudis de Escobar was a mulata—the child of a white person and a black person. You will be able to view primary sources related to these in the menu below including a painting of a mulata woman selling fruit in New Spain (Mexico). Though there were large numbers of Africans and then Creole blacks and mulattoes in New Spain at this time, little information about them exists. As you examine these sources, think about how they were produced and whom they were produced for. What can they say about New Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries? What can we learn from these documents about people whose stories do not usually appear in the historical record? How might this story have been told in other contexts—outside of an official Inquisition case? The primary sources referenced in this module can be viewed in the Primary Sources folder below. Click on the images or text for more information about the source. 1. What is this document? This document is the proceedings of an Inquisition case brought against a woman, or a girl, who was 14 years old in 1659. And the blasphemy she was accused of committing was the crime of renouncing God. This was a fairly common crime that blacks and mulattoes were accused of. This woman was a mulata, the child of a white and a black. In these cases blacks and mulattoes who were slaves or servants were being beaten. And they knew that if they renounced God, which was a crime, the beating would theoretically have to stop and they would be brought to the Inquisition thereby giving them some respite from the beating. So what often happened is an owner or a master would come in and say “my slave did this horrible thing—he or she renounced God.”. Scholars have argued that this was a strategy to get the beating to stop and to get a hearing at the Inquisition. This 14 year old girl was named Gertrudis de Escobar. She was actually a free mulata servant in a convent. She was brought to the Inquisition by her mistress, Juana de la Cruz, who was a nun. She had heard that there was a possibility that Gertrudis was thinking of running away, so her mistress was punishing her. One of the reasons that it is possible for people to kind of get their stories out at the Inquisition is because they ask these open-ended questions. You have to respond to each of the accusations in detail. What’s interesting about this case is that she doesn’t get browbeaten into rolling over and saying “I’m guilty”. The proceedings were secret, and so she was asked if she knew why she was brought to the Inquisition. She didn’t know, so the charges were read to her. She had claimed that many of the charges were false. She agreed that she had renounced God, but claimed that she had been forced. She was convicted and sentenced to an auto de fe, which is a public reading of her crime. She was paraded through the streets in public humiliation, and this is a fairly common punishment. Often cases end here. This case is interesting because then there’s this other letter from a cleric written in 1662, two years after the initial case. He tells the story of what happened to Gertrudis after the case was over. Generally, you don’t know what happens. But what happened to Gertrudis was, she was sold by her aunt and her cousins to an ingenio, a sugar mill, even though she was free, to pay off the money that she owed the Inquisition. People had to stay in the secret jail of the Inquisition during the time of their trial, and they ate and sometimes they had medicine. She owed 19 pesos by the time the case was over. She was put to work in the sugar fields, which was difficult work. She was beaten a number of times; she tried to run away. She suffered all these indignities and kept trying to prove over and over again that really she was free. That it was illegal, really, to sell her into the sugar mill. Finally, in 1662, she went to this cleric and appealed to him and said please bring my case to the Inquisition, explain to them what happened, explain to them that I was sold illegally, really, that I shouldn’t have been sold. And so what happened to her after the case was over comes from this letter written by this priest that ends up in the Inquisition. Gertrudis was eventually freed. She had to go back to an ingenio and continue to work for awhile and then the inquisitors decided that she was to be freed. She was not a slave so she couldn’t be owned by anybody. Sometimes owners or masters bring their slaves to the Inquisition for renouncing because somebody else heard them, to save face. But maybe if it happened in private, you wouldn’t bring your slave to the Inquisition because people spent a long time in the jails of the Inquistion. Juana de la Cruz did not have access to her servant Gertrudis for over two months. So there’s not necessarily a big payoff for bringing your slave to the Inquisition. 2. What was the Inquisition? The Inquisition was a tribunal that was created to maintain the purity of the Christian faith. People who committed crimes against Christianity were brought to the Inquisition. In the late 15th century, the Pope gave Ferdinand and Isabel, the Catholic monarchs of Spain, the right to have an Inquisition. They were concerned about the heresies of Judaism, Protestantism, and Islam. They were also concerned with blasphemies, lesser crimes like bigamy, taking God’s name in vain, witchcraft. By the time the Inquisition got to Mexico in the early 16th century, shortly after the Conquest, really it wasn’t as concerned with these heresies but more concerned with these lesser blasphemies. And the Inquisition in its final form in Mexico was established in 1571. Before 1571, the Inquisition was run by clerics and Indians were under the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. It was decided that the punishments being meted out to Indians were way too harsh. A separate tribunal was established for Indians, and so this new Inquisition was established to deal with Spaniards, blacks, mulattoes. You can only be brought to the Inquisition if you’re a Christian—so [it’s] Jews and Muslims who converted to Christianity. But there were doubts about whether they had really converted. They took blasphemy seriously. Sometimes the Inquisition is much more energetic about prosecuting people than at other times. When somebody is brought to the Inquisition, money and property was confiscated to pay for the time spent, and the food, and the medicine when the person was in jail. Some people have argued that inquisitors considered this a money-making venture and that this is why cases against slaves and servants often didn’t go to a full trial. Inquisitors were less interested in those people because they could get less stuff from them. A slave would stay a slave, so that status wouldn’t change. There are a few cases in which slaves were sent to other masters, or where the Inquisition mandated that a slave be sold because they decided that the punishment was unnecessarily harsh. There’s a case where the Inquisition mandated that the treatment be better, sent the slave home, and the slave ended up being beaten to death. The way that many people frame these cases is that it’s resistance. Slaves and servants were using the Inquisition as a forum where they could complain about this terrible treatment. But ultimately, they really didn’t have very much power. In Gertrudis’s case, her family sells her to an ingenio, so it’s not like their lives were markedly improved by this visit to the Inquisition. In the second part of this case, Gertrudis goes to this cleric who tells her story. She knows that this is a body that’s not necessarily on her side, but this is a body that she can appeal to. Men and women do not seem to be treated differently by the Inquisition. For non-Spaniards, race was more of a determining factor in looking at people’s position within the social hierarchy than gender. Gender’s clearly important in terms of their interactions with each other, but in terms of the Inquisition it ends up being your racial situation that is more important. 3. How did you become interested in Inquisition cases? I was interested in the religious practices of Africans and their descendants, including Christianity. So one place to look for that is the Inquisition because the Inquisition is a body that is designed by the state to regulate Christian practice. Particularly in witchcraft cases, where people are doing something that’s not conforming to Christian practice, you learn something about their ritual practices. The Inquisition documents are a great set of sources. There’s a lot of information about people’s everyday lives. And then there are just scads of these renunciation cases. This is a crime that is closely associated with people identified as blacks and mulattoes. This case interested me because it was the case of a woman whose boss was also a woman, this nun Juana de la Cruz. The action takes place in a convent, so you can find out a lot about women’s lives. As a historian, I am always concerned with issues of production and also issues of audience. The records of Inquisition cases were generally created for other officials, so they weren’t published. Everything happened in private. The cases were often sent to the court in Madrid, so that some cases end up in Spain. I’m interested in knowing who was involved, who the accused person was, what was the relationship between the accused person and the person that was accusing him or her, when the events happened. These Inquisition cases are very popular for historians of colonial Latin America because they give so much information about people who are not going to show up in a lot of other records. I also have used records from religious organizations called confraternities to find out more about the religious lives of Africans and their descendants. There were huge numbers of Africans and then Creole blacks and mulattoes in New Spain, and yet it’s very difficult to find information about them. Inquisition cases include genealogies. Another good source for the lives of Africans and their descendants are wills. In wills, there are inventories. You can find out about people’s family lives because of who they left money to. You can find out about their membership in religious associations because people will mention the confraternities that they belong to in their wills. You can find out about their financial lives by looking at what they left. One will I read that was written by a freed slave, one of the things he listed in his inventory was a piece of old cheese. 4. How do you use Inquisition cases as historical sources? There are some problems with using Inquisition documents. One of the things that’s really great is that you seem to get first person accounts. Gertrudis is asked about her background and she says, “These were my parents, this was my life before I was in the convent, these are the people that I lived with. I worked in other places for a period of time.” She talks about how much she was paid when she worked in certain places. It seems to be a first person account, but in fact it’s not a first person account. I mean you always have to keep in mind that it’s an Inquisition case; that people aren’t just writing this down in the privacy of their own home. A notary is taking down the testimony. And then also of course you have to think about the context. This is a scary situation, especially if you’re a mulata woman who has very few rights and privileges in this colonial society. So you have to look at what she said, the framework, and understand that she must have been intimidated. They’re saying things to achieve a certain effect. Juana de la Cruz said that Gertrudis renounced God three times. Juana may have been exaggerating the number of times to make her case for beating Gertrudis look better. Gertrudis may have been underestimating it to make herself look like a better Christian, or to make it look more involuntary. This is not so much about how to deal with the Inquisition, but it is about strategy. In this case, the nun says that Gertrudis had learned to renounce from this other mulatto who’s named Alacrán or “Scorpion.” Gertrudis denies this. There are also some cases in which an owner of a slave told another slave or servant to whip the person who was being punished. Sometimes there was a lot of disagreement among the slaves about whether this person had renounced. You get the impression that maybe they were trying to help protect their fellow slave or servant. Looking at these cases in the aggregate does lead us to suspect that this is a strategy that people knew about. Inquisition cases follow a certain prescribed pattern. As an example of formulaic language, the accused were asked if they know, suspect, or presume, the reason why they had been called to this commission. This is a way to get them to either say no, they have absolutely no idea, or a way to get them to spill their story. This is a question that is asked of everybody who comes in to the Inquisition. In some ways, you could argue that the renunciation itself is an example of this formulaic language. Gertrudis said that she renounced God and his saints. Juana de la Cruz said, “she said that she renounced God and his saints”. And then other people say, “she said that she renounced God and his saints”. You have to think, especially if it’s in this situation where somebody’s being beaten, would it really have come out like this? Would everybody have heard it exactly in that way? There’s a strong possibility that something else was said and yet this is the formula in which it comes out. This provides us with another way of thinking about how much to believe that these are accurate accounts of what happened because everybody resorts to this formula. 5. How do students understand Inquisition documents? Because these cases are in Spanish, I generally describe them in my teaching more than presenting them with the transcription. The transcriptions are long, and so it would be difficult to get through it especially in an in-class exercise. I often assign them an article about an Inquisition case, or I might present them with the bare facts of the case. They can also bring their knowledge of slavery and servitude, of social hierarchy to bear on their reading of my description of the case. The way that I get students to break free of preconceived notions about the way a courtroom might work by giving them a lot of background on the Inquisition. The Inquisition, while it seems like a court that might be familiar from watching TV, is a court in which people are examined about their practice of Christianity. You don’t want students to come to conclusions based on 20th-century ideas about psychology or human nature. It is important to get students to talk a lot about the context. So this is something that’s really removed from students’ experience. The cases themselves furnish students with a very good way of getting into the 17th-century mindset. Students pretty readily get the idea that the person may have renounced deliberately in order to get to the Inquisition. One of the things that they notice is that the whole case is framed in this formulaic language. There are certain questions that inquisitors ask accusers and also people who are accused. Gertrudis, because she was a minor, was assigned a lawyer, so there’s certain language that a lawyer says in response to certain questions. And they sort of quizzed her to be able to see if she could say certain prayers. It’s important to look at these cases in the aggregate. If you look at one Inquisition case, you wouldn’t notice these universal aspects that occur. Students get to think about how transparent information is, how to weigh these issues of production and reception, and how they have to interpret statements based on the larger context. Another way to get them to think about how different this situation is from the 21st century is by having them think about the punishments. People were punished publicly. Gertrudis was paraded through the streets as a way to publicly humiliate her. People who were convicted by the Inquisition had to wear certain clothes that indicated that they were being punished. Gertrudis’s cousins say to her, “We’re sending you to this sugar mill that’s way out in the country so that you don’t have to suffer the humiliation of having people see you on their way to mass.” One thing that’s useful for students is to compare two different testimonies. So if you give them Juana de la Cruz’s testimony and if you give them Gertrudis’s testimony, you can look at different details. In Juana’s testimony, she talks about how Gertrudis had committed an infraction. Juana punished her by using a scourge which nuns in the convent used for their own penitences. She says she used this to whip Gertrudis with her very little strength, con su poca fuerza. Juana goes on to say that as the punishment began, Gertrudis showed herself to be rebellious and that she renounced God and His saints. Juana goes on to say that she and the other nuns were very frightened by this terrible outburst of Gertrudis, but she hadn’t realized that Gertrudis had said this, so she continued the beating. After Gertrudis renounced several more times, Juana finally stopped the beatings. It’s significant actually that Juana says, “Well with my little strength.” It’s a way for her to say, “I’m a good woman. I’m occupying the gender roles that I’m supposed to occupy, and Gertrudis, she’s terribly rebellious, and she’s not occupying the social position that she’s supposed to occupy.” Then if you show them Gertrudis’s testimony, Gertrudis again emphasizes the severity of the beating and how harsh it was. She said twice that she would have to renounce even though she was a very good Christian. They’re telling the same story in some ways but they’re inflecting it differently. You can ask students why might they be telling the story different, just in this very specific context. Think about the larger social structure of New Spain. Well, what is it like to be a white woman in New Spain? What is it like to be a mulatto woman in New Spain? From this story, you can tell something about life inside the convent—that nuns have servants and that nuns might be beating these servants. When I first saw this kind of renunciation case, I found it surprising that the Inquisition would be taking the reports and also the actions of slaves and servants so seriously. The Inquisition in some ways functions as a forum in which people can indirectly complain about their masters. That the inquisitors took it seriously enough to mount a case, to call witnesses, to assign Gertrudis a lawyer. This is a good thing for students to think about—why is the Inquisition so interested in this kind of case? It helps dispel the idea, first of all, that slaves and servants had absolutely no advocates, and that also they were living in some kind of world that was totally separate from the world of their masters or owners. Joan Bristol is Associate Professor of History at George Mason University. Her dissertation is entitled “Negotiating Authority in New Spain: Blacks, Mulattos, and Religious Practice in the Seventeenth Century.”	4,223	ENGLISH	1
Due to this, the stories were affordable, accessible to anyone in that era. See Article History Alternative Title: Dickens enjoyed a wider popularity during his lifetime than had any previous author. Much in his work could appeal to the simple and the sophisticated, to the poor and to the queen, and technological developments as well as the qualities of his work enabled his fame to spread worldwide very quickly. His long career saw fluctuations in the reception and sales of individual novels, but none of them was negligible or uncharacteristic or disregarded, and, though he is now admired for aspects and phases of his work that were given less weight by his contemporaries, his popularity has never ceased. The most abundantly comic of English authors, he was much more than a great entertainer. The range, compassion, and intelligence of his apprehension of his society and its shortcomings enriched his novels and made him both one of the great forces in 19th-century literature and an influential spokesman of the conscience of his age. Early Victorian England and Charles DickensClifton Fadiman examining the inspiration Charles Dickens's work took from the milieu of Victorian England, with its startling contrasts of morality and hypocrisy, splendour and squalor, prosperity and poverty. Early years Dickens left Portsmouth in infancy. His happiest childhood years were spent in Chatham —22an area to which he often reverted in his fiction. His origins were middle class, if of a newfound and precarious respectability; one grandfather had been a domestic servant, and the other an embezzler. His father, a clerk in the navy pay office, was well paid, but his extravagance and ineptitude often brought the family to financial embarrassment or disaster. Some of his failings and his ebullience are dramatized in Mr. Micawber in the partly autobiographical David Copperfield. In the family reached bottom. Charles, the eldest son, had been withdrawn from school and was now set to manual work in a factory, and his father went to prison for debt. These shocks deeply affected Charles. Though abhorring this brief descent into the working class, he began to gain that sympathetic knowledge of its life and privations that informed his writings. Also, the images of the prison and of the lost, oppressed, or bewildered child recur in many novels. Much else in his character and art stemmed from this period, including, as the 20th-century novelist Angus Wilson has argued, his later difficulty, as man and author, in understanding women: His schooling, interrupted and unimpressive, ended at These years left him with a lasting affection for journalism and contempt both for the law and for Parliament. His coming to manhood in the reformist s, and particularly his working on the Liberal Benthamite Morning Chronicle —36greatly affected his political outlook. Another influential event now was his rejection as suitor to Maria Beadnell because his family and prospects were unsatisfactory; his hopes of gaining and chagrin at losing her sharpened his determination to succeed. The same month, he was invited to provide a comic serial narrative to accompany engravings by a well-known artist; seven weeks later the first installment of The Pickwick Papers appeared.Sketches by Boz - Charles Dickens. Sketches by Boz “The Streets - Morning” The Victorian London streets is a familiar setting of Dicken's works with “Oliver Twist” and “A Christmas Carol” being some his most memorable works. Charles Dickens: Charles Dickens was the greatest novelist of the Victorian era, Charles Dickens, in full Charles John Huffam Dickens, (born February 7, and selected and amended contributions accordingly; thus, comments on topical events and so on may generally be taken as representing his opinions, whether or not he wrote them. No. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on February 7, , at Portsea (later part of Portsmouth) on the southern coast of England, to John and Elizabeth Dickens. Charles was the second born of eight children. His father was a pay clerk in the navy office. Because of financial difficulties, the family Died: Jun 09, Britannica Classics: Early Victorian England and Charles DickensClifton Fadiman examining the inspiration Charles Dickens's work took from the milieu of Victorian England, with its startling contrasts of morality and hypocrisy, splendour and squalor, prosperity and poverty. This video is a Charles Culliford Boz Dickens (6 January – 20 July ) was the first child of the English novelist Charles Dickens and his wife Catherine. A failed businessman, he became the editor of his father's magazine All the Year Round, and a successful writer of metin2sell.com is now most remembered for his two books Dickens's Dictionary of London and Dickens. Charles Dickens is celebrated for his verbose prose and memorable opening lines, but lesser known are his contributions to science—particularly the field of medicine. A new exhibition at London.	<urn:uuid:d0b4fc1c-6687-446e-aeaa-a9b783f2c40d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kywidit.metin2sell.com/charles-dickens-and-his-contributions-to-49564vh.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00509.warc.gz	en	0.986826	1,017	3.59375	4	[ 0.10647928714752197, 0.04397571086883545, 0.341297447681427, 0.18236517906188965, 0.2167188823223114, -0.20545290410518646, -0.16756215691566467, 0.053378477692604065, -0.13472101092338562, 0.02756277658045292, 0.040516458451747894, 0.26054802536964417, 0.24421630799770355, 0.2557078599929...	1	Due to this, the stories were affordable, accessible to anyone in that era. See Article History Alternative Title: Dickens enjoyed a wider popularity during his lifetime than had any previous author. Much in his work could appeal to the simple and the sophisticated, to the poor and to the queen, and technological developments as well as the qualities of his work enabled his fame to spread worldwide very quickly. His long career saw fluctuations in the reception and sales of individual novels, but none of them was negligible or uncharacteristic or disregarded, and, though he is now admired for aspects and phases of his work that were given less weight by his contemporaries, his popularity has never ceased. The most abundantly comic of English authors, he was much more than a great entertainer. The range, compassion, and intelligence of his apprehension of his society and its shortcomings enriched his novels and made him both one of the great forces in 19th-century literature and an influential spokesman of the conscience of his age. Early Victorian England and Charles DickensClifton Fadiman examining the inspiration Charles Dickens's work took from the milieu of Victorian England, with its startling contrasts of morality and hypocrisy, splendour and squalor, prosperity and poverty. Early years Dickens left Portsmouth in infancy. His happiest childhood years were spent in Chatham —22an area to which he often reverted in his fiction. His origins were middle class, if of a newfound and precarious respectability; one grandfather had been a domestic servant, and the other an embezzler. His father, a clerk in the navy pay office, was well paid, but his extravagance and ineptitude often brought the family to financial embarrassment or disaster. Some of his failings and his ebullience are dramatized in Mr. Micawber in the partly autobiographical David Copperfield. In the family reached bottom. Charles, the eldest son, had been withdrawn from school and was now set to manual work in a factory, and his father went to prison for debt. These shocks deeply affected Charles. Though abhorring this brief descent into the working class, he began to gain that sympathetic knowledge of its life and privations that informed his writings. Also, the images of the prison and of the lost, oppressed, or bewildered child recur in many novels. Much else in his character and art stemmed from this period, including, as the 20th-century novelist Angus Wilson has argued, his later difficulty, as man and author, in understanding women: His schooling, interrupted and unimpressive, ended at These years left him with a lasting affection for journalism and contempt both for the law and for Parliament. His coming to manhood in the reformist s, and particularly his working on the Liberal Benthamite Morning Chronicle —36greatly affected his political outlook. Another influential event now was his rejection as suitor to Maria Beadnell because his family and prospects were unsatisfactory; his hopes of gaining and chagrin at losing her sharpened his determination to succeed. The same month, he was invited to provide a comic serial narrative to accompany engravings by a well-known artist; seven weeks later the first installment of The Pickwick Papers appeared.Sketches by Boz - Charles Dickens. Sketches by Boz “The Streets - Morning” The Victorian London streets is a familiar setting of Dicken's works with “Oliver Twist” and “A Christmas Carol” being some his most memorable works. Charles Dickens: Charles Dickens was the greatest novelist of the Victorian era, Charles Dickens, in full Charles John Huffam Dickens, (born February 7, and selected and amended contributions accordingly; thus, comments on topical events and so on may generally be taken as representing his opinions, whether or not he wrote them. No. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on February 7, , at Portsea (later part of Portsmouth) on the southern coast of England, to John and Elizabeth Dickens. Charles was the second born of eight children. His father was a pay clerk in the navy office. Because of financial difficulties, the family Died: Jun 09, Britannica Classics: Early Victorian England and Charles DickensClifton Fadiman examining the inspiration Charles Dickens's work took from the milieu of Victorian England, with its startling contrasts of morality and hypocrisy, splendour and squalor, prosperity and poverty. This video is a Charles Culliford Boz Dickens (6 January – 20 July ) was the first child of the English novelist Charles Dickens and his wife Catherine. A failed businessman, he became the editor of his father's magazine All the Year Round, and a successful writer of metin2sell.com is now most remembered for his two books Dickens's Dictionary of London and Dickens. Charles Dickens is celebrated for his verbose prose and memorable opening lines, but lesser known are his contributions to science—particularly the field of medicine. A new exhibition at London.	1,005	ENGLISH	1
- Date:Jun 30, 2019 The epic story’s main character Beowulf is a warrior. Beowulf is a young warrior among his people the Geats. He fights with some fictitious character such as Grendel and the dragon. Throughout the epic poem, Beowulf is displayed as possessing battle-hardened personality as an epic conqueror. The story, therefore, gives the character of Beowulf in various ways and using a variety of descriptions. The first characteristic of Beowulf as indicated from the epic story is the courage. Beowulf is a young man who is destined for fame. He becomes famous among his community for his courage. He is clashed in many fights and displays this quality for everyone. The community recognizes him as the toughest and the strongest person alive. His courage is seen when he gets into a fight with Grendel a fictitious fighter who attacks his people. He fights with Grendel, a descendant of Cain, who is depicted as an especially threatening image of real Evil. Living “in a hell not hell but earth” (103), without using any weapon, since no weapon could defeat him. Grendel was a fighter that none of the other fighters was successful in handling. His courage permitted him to prevail in fights and control the battles that he was involved in. Although this courage also made him become the overconfidence with himself attracting criticism from his peers, “Are you the Beowulf, who competed with Breca wollen…… with vanity…” (242). The second character of Beowulf is loyalty. Loyalty is depicted as a strong guiding virtue in Beowulf’s life. First, the character comes to the rescue of the Danes, initially for the sake of enhancing his reputation he also performs as a sign to of loyalty to his king in Geatland. It is however evident later that his loyalty is not exactly based on a feeling of responsibility towards his people but as a debt he has to pay to Hrothgar, the old king who once rescued his father, in what he calls “fine old treasures” (472). Whichever the case, Beowulf displays a level of loyalty that gives him a place in the hearts of many. Beowulf also displays a character of honor. The hero in the epic literature is keen to ensure that he acquires honorable reputation. He fights battles with the intention that his triumph will give him honor and increase his reputation among his people. He honors friendship and even if he is “most eager for fame (3182), and he does not harm others or use his power wrongly, “no savage mind” (2180). He honors the old king due to his wisdom, when the old king dies, and he refuses to take the throne as offered by the queen and instead honors and serve the king’s son who takes over. It is this honor that make him a king later in life, and he continues ruling with honor and fidelity for half a century. Beowulf is a character who is very eager to obtain a good reputation. He makes a good use of his courage to acquire and secure his reputation as a brave person who is ready to serve and protect his people with loyalty. He is also a good friend and despite the initial criticism of overconfidence, at last we see an honorable character in Beowulf. He is ruled by two kings who he serves with loyalty and at last he also has a chance to rule. However, even as the king, he rules with honor and courage. Liuzza, R M. Beowulf. Peterborough, Ont: Broadview, 1999. Print.	<urn:uuid:0e4e9ece-f1b7-4834-aae5-190d25c8d334>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://summarystory.com/beowulf/beowulf-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00131.warc.gz	en	0.985987	755	3.703125	4	[ -0.5060556530952454, 0.676375150680542, 0.18767572939395905, 0.12997151911258698, -0.991808295249939, -0.09141603857278824, 0.6361461877822876, 0.195916086435318, -0.2446991205215454, -0.18297462165355682, -0.3869103789329529, -0.4108586311340332, 0.3172542154788971, 0.269437313079834, 0...	12	- Date:Jun 30, 2019 The epic story’s main character Beowulf is a warrior. Beowulf is a young warrior among his people the Geats. He fights with some fictitious character such as Grendel and the dragon. Throughout the epic poem, Beowulf is displayed as possessing battle-hardened personality as an epic conqueror. The story, therefore, gives the character of Beowulf in various ways and using a variety of descriptions. The first characteristic of Beowulf as indicated from the epic story is the courage. Beowulf is a young man who is destined for fame. He becomes famous among his community for his courage. He is clashed in many fights and displays this quality for everyone. The community recognizes him as the toughest and the strongest person alive. His courage is seen when he gets into a fight with Grendel a fictitious fighter who attacks his people. He fights with Grendel, a descendant of Cain, who is depicted as an especially threatening image of real Evil. Living “in a hell not hell but earth” (103), without using any weapon, since no weapon could defeat him. Grendel was a fighter that none of the other fighters was successful in handling. His courage permitted him to prevail in fights and control the battles that he was involved in. Although this courage also made him become the overconfidence with himself attracting criticism from his peers, “Are you the Beowulf, who competed with Breca wollen…… with vanity…” (242). The second character of Beowulf is loyalty. Loyalty is depicted as a strong guiding virtue in Beowulf’s life. First, the character comes to the rescue of the Danes, initially for the sake of enhancing his reputation he also performs as a sign to of loyalty to his king in Geatland. It is however evident later that his loyalty is not exactly based on a feeling of responsibility towards his people but as a debt he has to pay to Hrothgar, the old king who once rescued his father, in what he calls “fine old treasures” (472). Whichever the case, Beowulf displays a level of loyalty that gives him a place in the hearts of many. Beowulf also displays a character of honor. The hero in the epic literature is keen to ensure that he acquires honorable reputation. He fights battles with the intention that his triumph will give him honor and increase his reputation among his people. He honors friendship and even if he is “most eager for fame (3182), and he does not harm others or use his power wrongly, “no savage mind” (2180). He honors the old king due to his wisdom, when the old king dies, and he refuses to take the throne as offered by the queen and instead honors and serve the king’s son who takes over. It is this honor that make him a king later in life, and he continues ruling with honor and fidelity for half a century. Beowulf is a character who is very eager to obtain a good reputation. He makes a good use of his courage to acquire and secure his reputation as a brave person who is ready to serve and protect his people with loyalty. He is also a good friend and despite the initial criticism of overconfidence, at last we see an honorable character in Beowulf. He is ruled by two kings who he serves with loyalty and at last he also has a chance to rule. However, even as the king, he rules with honor and courage. Liuzza, R M. Beowulf. Peterborough, Ont: Broadview, 1999. Print.	755	ENGLISH	1

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