text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
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Setting: tribal warfare, Northwest Coast late 18th-19thc
* Ostapkowicz 2010
* Paterek 1994 p319
"Chiefs wore armor of double layers of elk skin, occasionally strengthened by wooden rods sewn to the outside; these were often painted. Although elk hide seems to have been the most common form of armor, some examples of Nootka armor have been preserved that are of the 'slat-and-rod' type. Warriors painted their faces black. No helmets were used."
* Paterek 1994 p317
"Men usually went naked. In cooler weather they donned a tunic of woven cedar bark, worn under one arm and fastened on the opposite shoulder. Another type of garment was a rectangular mat or robe of cedar bark that was wrapped around the hips and held in place with a belt. Both items of dress were edged with white fur, or if the individual was wealthy, strips of sea-otter fur."
* Taylor 2001 p16-17
"[E]laborate wooden clubs were developed by the Northwest Coast tribes, such as the Nootka and Kwakiutl. Exhibiting carvings which not infrequently made reference to tribal mythology, such clubs were more used in the ceremonial context rather than on the battlefield and some were referred to as 'slave killers' (although there is little evidence to suggest that they actually performed that function).
"For everyday use -- in both hunting and warfare -- clubs were often spatula-shaped and made of either hard wood or carved whalebone, which was generally sharpened along the edge and sometimes embellished with carvings on the blade and handle. These clubs were similar in shape -- although smaller -- to the paddles used by the Northwest Coast tribes." | <urn:uuid:836bee93-3aea-496c-ab86-4ceafcc6238b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.forensicfashion.com/1778NootkaWarrior.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00017.warc.gz | en | 0.982514 | 369 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4054694771... | 2 | Setting: tribal warfare, Northwest Coast late 18th-19thc
* Ostapkowicz 2010
* Paterek 1994 p319
"Chiefs wore armor of double layers of elk skin, occasionally strengthened by wooden rods sewn to the outside; these were often painted. Although elk hide seems to have been the most common form of armor, some examples of Nootka armor have been preserved that are of the 'slat-and-rod' type. Warriors painted their faces black. No helmets were used."
* Paterek 1994 p317
"Men usually went naked. In cooler weather they donned a tunic of woven cedar bark, worn under one arm and fastened on the opposite shoulder. Another type of garment was a rectangular mat or robe of cedar bark that was wrapped around the hips and held in place with a belt. Both items of dress were edged with white fur, or if the individual was wealthy, strips of sea-otter fur."
* Taylor 2001 p16-17
"[E]laborate wooden clubs were developed by the Northwest Coast tribes, such as the Nootka and Kwakiutl. Exhibiting carvings which not infrequently made reference to tribal mythology, such clubs were more used in the ceremonial context rather than on the battlefield and some were referred to as 'slave killers' (although there is little evidence to suggest that they actually performed that function).
"For everyday use -- in both hunting and warfare -- clubs were often spatula-shaped and made of either hard wood or carved whalebone, which was generally sharpened along the edge and sometimes embellished with carvings on the blade and handle. These clubs were similar in shape -- although smaller -- to the paddles used by the Northwest Coast tribes." | 381 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nelson Mandela is widely regarded as one of history’s great leaders—enough that if the Nobel Committee hadn’t awarded him the Nobel Peace Prize, you would have said that they messed up, not him. Yet before winning the prize and becoming the father of a nation, he advocated violence. Many considered him a terrorist. What led to his development into a historic man of peace? What can we learn from that development?
Mandela was born in 1918 in a rural area of South Africa, where the white minority held political power. He was the first in his family to go to school. In 1941, he ran away to Johannesburg, where he became a lawyer and entered politics. He joined the African National Congress (ANC), a group promoting African unity ... | <urn:uuid:d9d36aa4-5c21-4f98-a172-6e88f54a4853> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/leadership-step-by/9780814437940/xhtml/chapter15.xhtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00195.warc.gz | en | 0.990424 | 157 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.37965583801269... | 1 | Nelson Mandela is widely regarded as one of history’s great leaders—enough that if the Nobel Committee hadn’t awarded him the Nobel Peace Prize, you would have said that they messed up, not him. Yet before winning the prize and becoming the father of a nation, he advocated violence. Many considered him a terrorist. What led to his development into a historic man of peace? What can we learn from that development?
Mandela was born in 1918 in a rural area of South Africa, where the white minority held political power. He was the first in his family to go to school. In 1941, he ran away to Johannesburg, where he became a lawyer and entered politics. He joined the African National Congress (ANC), a group promoting African unity ... | 161 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 2nd August 1858 the Parliament passed a bill to take over the administration of India from the East Indian Company by the British Crown. The title of Viceroy was introduced for the supreme representation of the British Government in India.
The provision of this bill called for the dissolution of the British East India Company that was ruling India under the patronage of the Parliament and transfer of that power to the British Crown. The then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Lord Palmerston, introduced this bill, which would transfer power from the East India Company to the Crown, citing shortcomings in their administration of India.
This bill was passed in 1858, the year following the first war of Independence in India (or what the British referred to as the Indian Rebellion) to calm down the after effects of the uprising.
Right till the nineteenth century nothing threatened the rule of the British in the Indian sub-continent, until the first Indian war of Independence in 1857. The British East India Company which was essentially a British Joint Stock Company established to engage in trade with the Indian sub-continent and the North-West Frontier Provinces and Balochistan, was completely unprepared for this sudden and violent uprising, which caused large scale devastation in India. The East India Company was condemned by the British Government for their lack of control and allowing this event to take place. To further avoid such a disaster, The East India Company had to surrender all their power to the British Crown. Eventually, the East India Company was nationalized and lost all its administrative powers to the Crown, which ushered in a new age of the British Raj.
The uprising of 1857 was absolutely unexpected and shook the foundation of British rule in India. British newspapers carried gruesome reports of the ghastly atrocities of the Indians upon the British, drastically changing the impression the British had of Indians. Native Indians, who were earlier thought of being simple minded people, now appeared as bloodthirsty and capable of killing the British who ruled them. This worried the British immensely, though they were still not willing to give up India that easily. Reason being that India was an important colony for the British Empire, being a source of notable wealth. Also, unlike other British dependents, India did not require any subsidies from London, because of the land taxes.
Following the uprising of 1857, the British Government realized that their rule in India wasn’t flawless, something which needed immediate rectification. Realising how vulnerable they were in India at that point, the British began working on some major reforms. This began with the reorganizing of the army. It was recommended that the number of European troops necessary for the security of the British Empire in India would be 80,000. It was also decided that the number of native troops would be reduced. Apart from this it was also decided that the sepoy troops would be recruited from different parts of the country, especially areas which were neutral to the British and spoke different languages, to prevent sepoy unity, leading to another uprising. The power of the commanding officer in the military to punish was also increased.
Apart from military reforms, the British took other steps for their security in India. This was seen in the passing of the Indian Police Act, which called for uniform police service across the Indian sub- continent. The act also required that each Indian district should have a British Superintendent, who would be assisted by a Deputy Superintendent and an inspector (who could be a native).
Another critical step taken by the British to ensure their safety in India was the passing of an Act in 1859 to disarm the local population. This act gave the local magistrate the power to enter homes and search for arms and if there was a suspicion that arms were hidden in a village, a person’s personal possessions were confiscated until the arms were handed over. Those found in the possession of arms without a license would be fined Rs. 500 and could additionally also be sentenced to seven years on prison or corporal punishment.
Since the uprising of 1857 came as a shock to the British, they took to maintaining a safe distance from Indians. The British began by moving out into new suburbs constructed on the outskirts of towns and cities which were all white neighbourhoods, with minimal contact with the natives, whom they had begun to view with suspicion.
Another target of British mistrust was the Muslim community, whom the British believed were the ones solely responsible for the 1857 uprising. The British had come to believe that the Muslim community was the only community which would have benefited from the 1857 uprising. Elsewhere in India political changes were occurring. The last of the Mughal Empire was wrapped up by the British who captured Delhi and arrested the last Mughal Bahadur Shah II and his two sons. The Emperor’s sons were found guilty of murder and were executed and the aged Bahadur Shah was sent to exile in Burma, where he later died in 1862.
A little after the British were declared victors, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act on 2nd August 1858 transferring power from the British East India Company to the British Crown. The image of the East India Company was so terribly blemished because of the events of 1857 that they lost the right to rule the Indian sub-continent forever.
It is interesting to note that the uprising of 1857 was not the only reason why the East India Company lost their power. Prior to 1857 there was simmering fury in Britain against the misrule of the Company which upset the British Government greatly. The British Government was looking for ways through which they could take away India from the hands of what they called a “trading company”. An opportunity presented itself in the form of the uprising of 1857 which allowed authorities in London to take appropriate action against the East India Company.
After the rule of the Company in India came to an end, the British Government set up a new system of rule in India. A position of “Secretary of State for India” was created which was responsible for managing Indian affairs from London. Also, the Governor-General of India in Kolkata (then Calcutta) was given the new title of Viceroy of India, who would be the personal representative of the Monarch. The position of the Viceroy was so critical that by the end of the 19th Century it was held by some of the most prominent leaders in Britain; a reflection of how important India was to London.
Also on This Day:
1763: After the capture of Murshidabad, the British troops fought with Mir Kasim at Giria. Mir Kasim was defeated again.
1970: India’s first woman career diplomat, Muthamma Chohivia Beliappa was appointed the Ambassador to Hungary.
1999: The Brahmaputra Mail collided head-on with Awadh-Assam Express at full speed at Ghaisal while running on the same line in the opposite direction. | <urn:uuid:9fb9dbb9-49a2-4797-9483-ba278742fce8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mapsofindia.com/on-this-day/2nd-august-1858-parliament-passes-a-bill-to-take-over-the-administration-of-india-from-the-east-india-company-by-the-british-crown | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.981708 | 1,417 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.10017643... | 2 | On 2nd August 1858 the Parliament passed a bill to take over the administration of India from the East Indian Company by the British Crown. The title of Viceroy was introduced for the supreme representation of the British Government in India.
The provision of this bill called for the dissolution of the British East India Company that was ruling India under the patronage of the Parliament and transfer of that power to the British Crown. The then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Lord Palmerston, introduced this bill, which would transfer power from the East India Company to the Crown, citing shortcomings in their administration of India.
This bill was passed in 1858, the year following the first war of Independence in India (or what the British referred to as the Indian Rebellion) to calm down the after effects of the uprising.
Right till the nineteenth century nothing threatened the rule of the British in the Indian sub-continent, until the first Indian war of Independence in 1857. The British East India Company which was essentially a British Joint Stock Company established to engage in trade with the Indian sub-continent and the North-West Frontier Provinces and Balochistan, was completely unprepared for this sudden and violent uprising, which caused large scale devastation in India. The East India Company was condemned by the British Government for their lack of control and allowing this event to take place. To further avoid such a disaster, The East India Company had to surrender all their power to the British Crown. Eventually, the East India Company was nationalized and lost all its administrative powers to the Crown, which ushered in a new age of the British Raj.
The uprising of 1857 was absolutely unexpected and shook the foundation of British rule in India. British newspapers carried gruesome reports of the ghastly atrocities of the Indians upon the British, drastically changing the impression the British had of Indians. Native Indians, who were earlier thought of being simple minded people, now appeared as bloodthirsty and capable of killing the British who ruled them. This worried the British immensely, though they were still not willing to give up India that easily. Reason being that India was an important colony for the British Empire, being a source of notable wealth. Also, unlike other British dependents, India did not require any subsidies from London, because of the land taxes.
Following the uprising of 1857, the British Government realized that their rule in India wasn’t flawless, something which needed immediate rectification. Realising how vulnerable they were in India at that point, the British began working on some major reforms. This began with the reorganizing of the army. It was recommended that the number of European troops necessary for the security of the British Empire in India would be 80,000. It was also decided that the number of native troops would be reduced. Apart from this it was also decided that the sepoy troops would be recruited from different parts of the country, especially areas which were neutral to the British and spoke different languages, to prevent sepoy unity, leading to another uprising. The power of the commanding officer in the military to punish was also increased.
Apart from military reforms, the British took other steps for their security in India. This was seen in the passing of the Indian Police Act, which called for uniform police service across the Indian sub- continent. The act also required that each Indian district should have a British Superintendent, who would be assisted by a Deputy Superintendent and an inspector (who could be a native).
Another critical step taken by the British to ensure their safety in India was the passing of an Act in 1859 to disarm the local population. This act gave the local magistrate the power to enter homes and search for arms and if there was a suspicion that arms were hidden in a village, a person’s personal possessions were confiscated until the arms were handed over. Those found in the possession of arms without a license would be fined Rs. 500 and could additionally also be sentenced to seven years on prison or corporal punishment.
Since the uprising of 1857 came as a shock to the British, they took to maintaining a safe distance from Indians. The British began by moving out into new suburbs constructed on the outskirts of towns and cities which were all white neighbourhoods, with minimal contact with the natives, whom they had begun to view with suspicion.
Another target of British mistrust was the Muslim community, whom the British believed were the ones solely responsible for the 1857 uprising. The British had come to believe that the Muslim community was the only community which would have benefited from the 1857 uprising. Elsewhere in India political changes were occurring. The last of the Mughal Empire was wrapped up by the British who captured Delhi and arrested the last Mughal Bahadur Shah II and his two sons. The Emperor’s sons were found guilty of murder and were executed and the aged Bahadur Shah was sent to exile in Burma, where he later died in 1862.
A little after the British were declared victors, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act on 2nd August 1858 transferring power from the British East India Company to the British Crown. The image of the East India Company was so terribly blemished because of the events of 1857 that they lost the right to rule the Indian sub-continent forever.
It is interesting to note that the uprising of 1857 was not the only reason why the East India Company lost their power. Prior to 1857 there was simmering fury in Britain against the misrule of the Company which upset the British Government greatly. The British Government was looking for ways through which they could take away India from the hands of what they called a “trading company”. An opportunity presented itself in the form of the uprising of 1857 which allowed authorities in London to take appropriate action against the East India Company.
After the rule of the Company in India came to an end, the British Government set up a new system of rule in India. A position of “Secretary of State for India” was created which was responsible for managing Indian affairs from London. Also, the Governor-General of India in Kolkata (then Calcutta) was given the new title of Viceroy of India, who would be the personal representative of the Monarch. The position of the Viceroy was so critical that by the end of the 19th Century it was held by some of the most prominent leaders in Britain; a reflection of how important India was to London.
Also on This Day:
1763: After the capture of Murshidabad, the British troops fought with Mir Kasim at Giria. Mir Kasim was defeated again.
1970: India’s first woman career diplomat, Muthamma Chohivia Beliappa was appointed the Ambassador to Hungary.
1999: The Brahmaputra Mail collided head-on with Awadh-Assam Express at full speed at Ghaisal while running on the same line in the opposite direction. | 1,449 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the body, potassium has many functions, the more important of which are operating nerve impulses and contracting muscles. Potassium is present as the positively charged ion K+ and it concentrates inside cells, which is where 95% of the body's potassium is located, unlike sodium and calcium, which are more abundant outside cells. A cell membrane has millions of tiny channels through which potassium ions flow and every one is capable of transferring hundreds of potassium ions per second in and out of the cell. This activity is responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses from the brain, because it moves like a wave along the nerve fibre just as if it were an electric current.
Some channels only permit potassium to pass through, and the toxin of the black mamba kills its victim by specifically blocking them. The same result can be achieved by injecting a concentrated solution of potassium chloride into the bloodstream which prevents the movement of potassium out of the cell because there is already too much potassium on the outside pushing to get in. All body functions are affected, but none more dramatically than the heart muscle which stops beating. Murders have been committed with potassium chloride, and doctors and nurses have been known to end the lives of terminally ill patients by giving them injections of potassium chloride solution. Such injections are used in the USA to execute criminals convicted of murder.
Deadly though it can be, potassium is still a major dietary requirement, lack of which causes muscle weakness. Indeed it is not generally appreciated that the need for potassium salts in the diet is much greater than for sodium salts. The recommended daily intake is 3.5 g, whereas for sodium it is 1.5 g. Vegetarians take in a lot more potassium than non-vegetarians because potassium is abundant in all plant foods. We must have a regular supply of dietary potassium because we have no mechanism for storing it in the body, yet few people are affected by a deficiency of this metal because almost all we eat contains potassium. Some foods are particularly rich in it, such as raisins, almonds, peanuts, and bananas; one banana will provide a quarter of our daily requirement. Other common foods with lots of potassium are potatoes, bacon, bran, mushrooms, chocolate, and fruit juices.
Salt substitutes are 60% potassium chloride, 40% sodium chloride, and using this in cooking and flavouring is not life-threatening but life-saving if it reduces the amount of salt in the diet of those suffering from heart disease. There are rare cases of excess ingestion by humans proving fatal, including one person who ate half an ounce of this salt (14 g), although the normal amount of potassium chloride needed to cause a serious toxic response is more like 20 g.
Potassium chloride was the chosen murder weapon of one notorious serial killer whose victims were babies and young children. She was Beverley Allitt who was employed as a children's nurse at the Grantham and Kesteven General Hospital in Lincolnshire, England, and over a period of ten weeks she injected ten children with potassium chloride. Thankfully she only succeeded in killing four of them.
Although Allitt trained to be a nurse, she had repeatedly failed her nursing exams, but in February 1991 she was taken on temporarily at the local hospital because they were short staffed. Her first victim was a seven-week-old baby, Liam Taylor, who was admitted to the children's ward on 21 February suffering from congestion of the lungs. His parents were reassured by Allitt that their baby was in good hands, but when they returned to visit him a few hours later they were informed that he had been rushed into emergency care, although he was now recovering. The parents asked if they could stay the night at the hospital and were shown to a bedroom specially assigned for this purpose, happy in the knowledge that Allitt had elected to work a night shift specially to be near Liam in case he needed help quickly, which around midnight he did. Allitt suddenly signalled for help because Liam's heart had stopped beating. Although doctors and nurses struggled to revive the baby, it was in vain.
On 5 March 1991, an 11-year-old boy, Timothy Hardwick, who suffered from cerebral palsy, was admitted to the hospital after a severe epileptic fit and was put under Allitt's care. She was particularly solicitous in attending to the boy, but soon after she was left alone with him his heart stopped beating. She summoned help immediately, but despite the efforts of a pae-diatric specialist who rushed to the boy's aid, he died. An autopsy was carried out, but found no obvious cause of death, and so his death was recorded as due to epilepsy.
On 10 March, a 1-year-old girl, Kayley Desmond, was admitted to the children's ward suffering from lung congestion. Allitt was assigned to her care and although the little girl appeared to be getting better she suddenly went into cardiac arrest. The crash team at the hospital managed to revive her and she was then rushed to the larger hospital at Nottingham where she recovered fully. Doctors there noticed that she had a puncture below her armpit, and this came to their attention because there was a bubble of air under the skin. We now know that Allitt had injected potassium chloride solution from a partly filled needle and before she had removed all the air in the syringe. (It was little wonder that she had failed her nursing examinations.)
Frustrated at her failure to kill Kayley, Allitt changed her modus operandi and decided to try insulin as her weapon of attack. On 20 March, 5-month-old Paul Crampton came to the hospital with severe bronchitis. He suddenly went into a coma but the doctors revived him and noted that his blood sugar level had fallen dangerously low, this being the effect that insulin can have. Despite the efforts of the medical staff, Paul had two further attacks and so he too was sent to Nottingham for more specialist care - and survived.
The next day Allitt returned to using potassium chloride and her victim was 5-year-old Bradley Gibson: he suddenly suffered a heart attack, but the doctors were able to save him. When he had another heart attack later that night he too was despatched to Nottingham and he too recovered. It was the same with her next victim, 2-year-old Yik Hung Cha, who had fallen from a window and fractured his skull. He suffered in exactly the same way as Bradley, and he too was saved by being rushed to Nottingham. Allitt's next victims were not so lucky.
Katie and Becky Phillips were twins who had been born prematurely and had been looked after at the hospital before being sent home in March 1991.
On i April Becky was readmitted to the children's ward suffering from gastroenteritis. Allitt was responsible for her care but the baby went into convulsions that evening, which a doctor diagnosed as being caused by her illness. Her parents stayed by her bedside watching over her but she died in the night. An autopsy revealed no obvious cause of death. Then her twin sister Katie was admitted to the hospital and in the course of the next two days she had two heart attacks, during which her parents were impressed with the strenuous efforts Allitt made to save their daughter's life. However, she was transferred to Nottingham where they discovered that five of her ribs were cracked (probably as attempts had been made to re-start her heart) and that her brain was damaged through lack of oxygen. However, Katie's parents were so grateful that her life had been saved, and thinking this was due to the prompt action of Allitt, they asked the nurse to be the baby's godmother, and this she did when the child was christened a few days later.
Meanwhile other children in Allitt's care continued to be struck down with unexpected complications, but were saved thanks to the efforts of other nurses and doctors. At first the hospital staff suspected that a virus was the cause and they had the children's ward decontaminated, but it was only when that had no effect that they began to suspect that human malevolence was behind these mysterious attacks and that pointed to the only person who was always around when they happened: Allitt. Their suspicions were soon to be confirmed.
Claire Peck was in hospital suffering from an asthmatic attack so severe that doctors had inserted a tube into her throat to help her breathe. The little girl suddenly had a heart attack and Allitt was the only nurse in the ward at the time. The emergency team rushed to help the young girl and revived her, but soon after they left the child, again under Allitt's sole care, she immediately had another attack. This time they could not revive her and Claire Peck died. An autopsy now included analysis of her blood and this showed an unnaturally high level of potassium. The hospital authorities called in the police, and they arrested Allitt.
Allitt came to court in March 1993 and after a trial lasting nearly two months she was found guilty and given i3 life sentences, the highest such penalty handed down to a woman. Why did she do it? The answer would appear to be that she was suffering from a disorder called Munchausen's syndrome by proxy, a rare mental state was first diagnosed in 1977. A person manifesting this condition will maliciously attack those who are in his or her care.
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:f6b3c12d-3e9a-4597-b35f-775ce135797c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.flandershealth.us/lead-poisoning/potassium-the-essential-deadly-poison.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00211.warc.gz | en | 0.990437 | 1,920 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.101677328348... | 1 | In the body, potassium has many functions, the more important of which are operating nerve impulses and contracting muscles. Potassium is present as the positively charged ion K+ and it concentrates inside cells, which is where 95% of the body's potassium is located, unlike sodium and calcium, which are more abundant outside cells. A cell membrane has millions of tiny channels through which potassium ions flow and every one is capable of transferring hundreds of potassium ions per second in and out of the cell. This activity is responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses from the brain, because it moves like a wave along the nerve fibre just as if it were an electric current.
Some channels only permit potassium to pass through, and the toxin of the black mamba kills its victim by specifically blocking them. The same result can be achieved by injecting a concentrated solution of potassium chloride into the bloodstream which prevents the movement of potassium out of the cell because there is already too much potassium on the outside pushing to get in. All body functions are affected, but none more dramatically than the heart muscle which stops beating. Murders have been committed with potassium chloride, and doctors and nurses have been known to end the lives of terminally ill patients by giving them injections of potassium chloride solution. Such injections are used in the USA to execute criminals convicted of murder.
Deadly though it can be, potassium is still a major dietary requirement, lack of which causes muscle weakness. Indeed it is not generally appreciated that the need for potassium salts in the diet is much greater than for sodium salts. The recommended daily intake is 3.5 g, whereas for sodium it is 1.5 g. Vegetarians take in a lot more potassium than non-vegetarians because potassium is abundant in all plant foods. We must have a regular supply of dietary potassium because we have no mechanism for storing it in the body, yet few people are affected by a deficiency of this metal because almost all we eat contains potassium. Some foods are particularly rich in it, such as raisins, almonds, peanuts, and bananas; one banana will provide a quarter of our daily requirement. Other common foods with lots of potassium are potatoes, bacon, bran, mushrooms, chocolate, and fruit juices.
Salt substitutes are 60% potassium chloride, 40% sodium chloride, and using this in cooking and flavouring is not life-threatening but life-saving if it reduces the amount of salt in the diet of those suffering from heart disease. There are rare cases of excess ingestion by humans proving fatal, including one person who ate half an ounce of this salt (14 g), although the normal amount of potassium chloride needed to cause a serious toxic response is more like 20 g.
Potassium chloride was the chosen murder weapon of one notorious serial killer whose victims were babies and young children. She was Beverley Allitt who was employed as a children's nurse at the Grantham and Kesteven General Hospital in Lincolnshire, England, and over a period of ten weeks she injected ten children with potassium chloride. Thankfully she only succeeded in killing four of them.
Although Allitt trained to be a nurse, she had repeatedly failed her nursing exams, but in February 1991 she was taken on temporarily at the local hospital because they were short staffed. Her first victim was a seven-week-old baby, Liam Taylor, who was admitted to the children's ward on 21 February suffering from congestion of the lungs. His parents were reassured by Allitt that their baby was in good hands, but when they returned to visit him a few hours later they were informed that he had been rushed into emergency care, although he was now recovering. The parents asked if they could stay the night at the hospital and were shown to a bedroom specially assigned for this purpose, happy in the knowledge that Allitt had elected to work a night shift specially to be near Liam in case he needed help quickly, which around midnight he did. Allitt suddenly signalled for help because Liam's heart had stopped beating. Although doctors and nurses struggled to revive the baby, it was in vain.
On 5 March 1991, an 11-year-old boy, Timothy Hardwick, who suffered from cerebral palsy, was admitted to the hospital after a severe epileptic fit and was put under Allitt's care. She was particularly solicitous in attending to the boy, but soon after she was left alone with him his heart stopped beating. She summoned help immediately, but despite the efforts of a pae-diatric specialist who rushed to the boy's aid, he died. An autopsy was carried out, but found no obvious cause of death, and so his death was recorded as due to epilepsy.
On 10 March, a 1-year-old girl, Kayley Desmond, was admitted to the children's ward suffering from lung congestion. Allitt was assigned to her care and although the little girl appeared to be getting better she suddenly went into cardiac arrest. The crash team at the hospital managed to revive her and she was then rushed to the larger hospital at Nottingham where she recovered fully. Doctors there noticed that she had a puncture below her armpit, and this came to their attention because there was a bubble of air under the skin. We now know that Allitt had injected potassium chloride solution from a partly filled needle and before she had removed all the air in the syringe. (It was little wonder that she had failed her nursing examinations.)
Frustrated at her failure to kill Kayley, Allitt changed her modus operandi and decided to try insulin as her weapon of attack. On 20 March, 5-month-old Paul Crampton came to the hospital with severe bronchitis. He suddenly went into a coma but the doctors revived him and noted that his blood sugar level had fallen dangerously low, this being the effect that insulin can have. Despite the efforts of the medical staff, Paul had two further attacks and so he too was sent to Nottingham for more specialist care - and survived.
The next day Allitt returned to using potassium chloride and her victim was 5-year-old Bradley Gibson: he suddenly suffered a heart attack, but the doctors were able to save him. When he had another heart attack later that night he too was despatched to Nottingham and he too recovered. It was the same with her next victim, 2-year-old Yik Hung Cha, who had fallen from a window and fractured his skull. He suffered in exactly the same way as Bradley, and he too was saved by being rushed to Nottingham. Allitt's next victims were not so lucky.
Katie and Becky Phillips were twins who had been born prematurely and had been looked after at the hospital before being sent home in March 1991.
On i April Becky was readmitted to the children's ward suffering from gastroenteritis. Allitt was responsible for her care but the baby went into convulsions that evening, which a doctor diagnosed as being caused by her illness. Her parents stayed by her bedside watching over her but she died in the night. An autopsy revealed no obvious cause of death. Then her twin sister Katie was admitted to the hospital and in the course of the next two days she had two heart attacks, during which her parents were impressed with the strenuous efforts Allitt made to save their daughter's life. However, she was transferred to Nottingham where they discovered that five of her ribs were cracked (probably as attempts had been made to re-start her heart) and that her brain was damaged through lack of oxygen. However, Katie's parents were so grateful that her life had been saved, and thinking this was due to the prompt action of Allitt, they asked the nurse to be the baby's godmother, and this she did when the child was christened a few days later.
Meanwhile other children in Allitt's care continued to be struck down with unexpected complications, but were saved thanks to the efforts of other nurses and doctors. At first the hospital staff suspected that a virus was the cause and they had the children's ward decontaminated, but it was only when that had no effect that they began to suspect that human malevolence was behind these mysterious attacks and that pointed to the only person who was always around when they happened: Allitt. Their suspicions were soon to be confirmed.
Claire Peck was in hospital suffering from an asthmatic attack so severe that doctors had inserted a tube into her throat to help her breathe. The little girl suddenly had a heart attack and Allitt was the only nurse in the ward at the time. The emergency team rushed to help the young girl and revived her, but soon after they left the child, again under Allitt's sole care, she immediately had another attack. This time they could not revive her and Claire Peck died. An autopsy now included analysis of her blood and this showed an unnaturally high level of potassium. The hospital authorities called in the police, and they arrested Allitt.
Allitt came to court in March 1993 and after a trial lasting nearly two months she was found guilty and given i3 life sentences, the highest such penalty handed down to a woman. Why did she do it? The answer would appear to be that she was suffering from a disorder called Munchausen's syndrome by proxy, a rare mental state was first diagnosed in 1977. A person manifesting this condition will maliciously attack those who are in his or her care.
Was this article helpful? | 1,933 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anglesey has an interesting and ancient history. We have tried to represent that history as extensively as possible, commenting not only on the major events but also on the more interesting and generally recognised events of the recent past. This section is new and will be completed as time permits.
◘ Ice Age
In the 1880s, the skull of a mammoth was found in Holyhead Bay, which was once the location of an ancient forest. Other such forests existed in other parts of Anglesey. These forests were probably destroyed as a result of the higher sea levels rising from the ice thawing out. The skull is now on show at the Maritime History Museum in Holyhead.
◘ 2000 BC
There is evidence of man’s presence in Britain before the end of glaciation, but none so far on Anglesey.
◘ 19000 – 13000 BC
Anglesey comes out of the ice. After thousands of years of being under a cap of ice almost a third of a mile high, Anglesey emerges from the latest glaciation.
◘ 7000 BC
The first evidence of man on Anglesey is confirmed from present-day finds at Aberffraw.
◘ 6000 BC
The Mesolithic period. The time of the hunter-gatherers. Anglesey man has to compete for his food with the likes of wolves, bears, and even lions. The hunter-gatherers would seldom stay in the same place for any length of time, moving between campsites as the season dictated. There are no permanent accommodations, and thus little evidence survives, and not too much is known of them. Their sources of food included elk, deer, bison, seafood, berries, and roots. Wildfowl and eggs provide another plentiful source of food. Their tools would be made of stone, bone, wood, and flint. Their weapons would be mainly bows and arrows, knives, and spears.
◘ 4000 – 3000 BC
Large parts of Anglesey man’s hunting grounds were disappearing as more and more land became submerged by still rising sea levels after the glaciations. Later, even more of their land would effectively disappear as the Neolithic farming communities brought land under the till.
◘ 3300 – 2000 BC
Neolithic Man. Colonists from Europe have brought farming to Anglesey. They are growing primitive crops and keeping domestic animals. For many years, Mesolithic and Neolithic man co-existed. The first evidence of what resemble villages and towns is apparent. It is from this period in time that most of Anglesey’s megalithic tombs originate.
◘ 3000 BC
Occupation at Holyhead. Modern-day finds from the excavations of Trefignath burial chambers at Holyhead dates occupation of the site to 3000 BC.
◘ 2000 – 1800 BC
Excavations of burial sites on Anglesey have included finds of cremation remains in pottery urns. These people became known as the Beaker People.
◘ 2000 – 500 BC
The Bronze Age. At some stage, Anglesey became a major market place for the gold & bronze ware of Ireland and the south of England. There is evidence suggesting that bronze was being smelted, and that weapons were actually being made on Anglesey.
◘ 300 BC
At approximately this time, Celts arrived on Anglesey. They were described as being fond of war, and barbarously savage. They were said to be intelligent and quick to learn, and yet high-spirited and quick to anger – but not evil of character. They were a vain people, brightly clothed and often adorned in gold or bronze neckwear and bracelets. Following a battle, it was customary to behead their dead enemies, later to be displayed on the front of the Celts’ houses when they returned home. Many of the craft objects that the Celts brought with them to Britain were copied by local craftsmen, who added their own local decoration styles. They brought with them the Druids – Celtic priests – powerful and important men, even politically. Some druids were seers or diviners, whilst others were bards. Celts worshipped – amongst many other things – rivers and streams, and many valuable and important objects and weapons have been recovered from these rivers, into which the Celts would throw them as offerings to the gods (after a victorious battle, for example).
◘ 150 BC – 60 AD
Llyn Cerrig Bach Hoard. In 1939, during the building of RAF Valley, the lake at Llyn Cerrig Bach was drained. A wealth of Celtic offerings to the River/Spring God was uncovered, dating back to this period. The hoard included a god carved from stone, a typical Celtic object. There were also gold and bronze ornaments and weapons, now on show in the National Museum of Wales. An iron slave gang chain designed to restrain 5 men was also discovered. This possibly implies that the Celts kept slaves, probably their defeated enemies.
◘ 60 AD
The Romans invade Anglesey. Two legions of the Roman army led by Suetonius Paulinus fought and defeated the Celts on the shores of Porthaethwy (now Menai Bridge). A Roman historian present before the Romans crossed the Menai straits to do battle tells of the blood-curdling screams from the Druids and Celts as they screamed curses at the Romans across the straits. Many of the Roman soldiers were frozen with fear. They obviously recovered, as the Celts were cut to ribbons. The Romans had arrived and would stay for the next 300-plus years. They probably controlled Anglesey from their stronghold in Segontium (Caernarfon).
◘ 280 – 300 AD
Roman Naval Base built at Holyhead. Probably because of the threat of Irish invasion, the Romans built a naval base at Holyhead. I have certainly read that part of St Cybi’s enclosure was at one time being used as a garrison. Remains from this same period of the local people’s accommodations can be clearly seen in the hut-circled village of Ty Mawr, so well-preserved on Holyhead mountain.
To be continued… | <urn:uuid:3cb4c81a-42c9-4ad8-a16f-2cd96e972c19> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.anglesey.info/time-line/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00313.warc.gz | en | 0.981116 | 1,296 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.02053333073... | 2 | Anglesey has an interesting and ancient history. We have tried to represent that history as extensively as possible, commenting not only on the major events but also on the more interesting and generally recognised events of the recent past. This section is new and will be completed as time permits.
◘ Ice Age
In the 1880s, the skull of a mammoth was found in Holyhead Bay, which was once the location of an ancient forest. Other such forests existed in other parts of Anglesey. These forests were probably destroyed as a result of the higher sea levels rising from the ice thawing out. The skull is now on show at the Maritime History Museum in Holyhead.
◘ 2000 BC
There is evidence of man’s presence in Britain before the end of glaciation, but none so far on Anglesey.
◘ 19000 – 13000 BC
Anglesey comes out of the ice. After thousands of years of being under a cap of ice almost a third of a mile high, Anglesey emerges from the latest glaciation.
◘ 7000 BC
The first evidence of man on Anglesey is confirmed from present-day finds at Aberffraw.
◘ 6000 BC
The Mesolithic period. The time of the hunter-gatherers. Anglesey man has to compete for his food with the likes of wolves, bears, and even lions. The hunter-gatherers would seldom stay in the same place for any length of time, moving between campsites as the season dictated. There are no permanent accommodations, and thus little evidence survives, and not too much is known of them. Their sources of food included elk, deer, bison, seafood, berries, and roots. Wildfowl and eggs provide another plentiful source of food. Their tools would be made of stone, bone, wood, and flint. Their weapons would be mainly bows and arrows, knives, and spears.
◘ 4000 – 3000 BC
Large parts of Anglesey man’s hunting grounds were disappearing as more and more land became submerged by still rising sea levels after the glaciations. Later, even more of their land would effectively disappear as the Neolithic farming communities brought land under the till.
◘ 3300 – 2000 BC
Neolithic Man. Colonists from Europe have brought farming to Anglesey. They are growing primitive crops and keeping domestic animals. For many years, Mesolithic and Neolithic man co-existed. The first evidence of what resemble villages and towns is apparent. It is from this period in time that most of Anglesey’s megalithic tombs originate.
◘ 3000 BC
Occupation at Holyhead. Modern-day finds from the excavations of Trefignath burial chambers at Holyhead dates occupation of the site to 3000 BC.
◘ 2000 – 1800 BC
Excavations of burial sites on Anglesey have included finds of cremation remains in pottery urns. These people became known as the Beaker People.
◘ 2000 – 500 BC
The Bronze Age. At some stage, Anglesey became a major market place for the gold & bronze ware of Ireland and the south of England. There is evidence suggesting that bronze was being smelted, and that weapons were actually being made on Anglesey.
◘ 300 BC
At approximately this time, Celts arrived on Anglesey. They were described as being fond of war, and barbarously savage. They were said to be intelligent and quick to learn, and yet high-spirited and quick to anger – but not evil of character. They were a vain people, brightly clothed and often adorned in gold or bronze neckwear and bracelets. Following a battle, it was customary to behead their dead enemies, later to be displayed on the front of the Celts’ houses when they returned home. Many of the craft objects that the Celts brought with them to Britain were copied by local craftsmen, who added their own local decoration styles. They brought with them the Druids – Celtic priests – powerful and important men, even politically. Some druids were seers or diviners, whilst others were bards. Celts worshipped – amongst many other things – rivers and streams, and many valuable and important objects and weapons have been recovered from these rivers, into which the Celts would throw them as offerings to the gods (after a victorious battle, for example).
◘ 150 BC – 60 AD
Llyn Cerrig Bach Hoard. In 1939, during the building of RAF Valley, the lake at Llyn Cerrig Bach was drained. A wealth of Celtic offerings to the River/Spring God was uncovered, dating back to this period. The hoard included a god carved from stone, a typical Celtic object. There were also gold and bronze ornaments and weapons, now on show in the National Museum of Wales. An iron slave gang chain designed to restrain 5 men was also discovered. This possibly implies that the Celts kept slaves, probably their defeated enemies.
◘ 60 AD
The Romans invade Anglesey. Two legions of the Roman army led by Suetonius Paulinus fought and defeated the Celts on the shores of Porthaethwy (now Menai Bridge). A Roman historian present before the Romans crossed the Menai straits to do battle tells of the blood-curdling screams from the Druids and Celts as they screamed curses at the Romans across the straits. Many of the Roman soldiers were frozen with fear. They obviously recovered, as the Celts were cut to ribbons. The Romans had arrived and would stay for the next 300-plus years. They probably controlled Anglesey from their stronghold in Segontium (Caernarfon).
◘ 280 – 300 AD
Roman Naval Base built at Holyhead. Probably because of the threat of Irish invasion, the Romans built a naval base at Holyhead. I have certainly read that part of St Cybi’s enclosure was at one time being used as a garrison. Remains from this same period of the local people’s accommodations can be clearly seen in the hut-circled village of Ty Mawr, so well-preserved on Holyhead mountain.
To be continued… | 1,321 | ENGLISH | 1 |
« ՆախորդըՇարունակել »
concords, or rules of government of prepositions, could not have been the work of any educated Italian. With the death of Rothari in 652, began a time of trouble and confusion for the Lombards, in which they ceased to win ground from the Romans, and fell into civil strife and anarchy." It commenced by the murder of Rothari's son, Rodoald, after he had reigned less than six months. He was a prince of licentious manners, and fell a victim to the dagger of an outraged husband (653). The eighty years of Italian history during which the Lombards were settling down in the valley of the Po, and along the Umbrian and Samnite slopes of the Apennines, have won their chief importance in the story of the world, not from the doings of Agilulf or Rothari, but from the events that were taking place in Rome. To these years we may ascribe the foundation of the temporal power of the Papacy, and the development of the cecumenical position of the bishop of Rome to an extent which had hitherto been uncontemplated. These movements owe most of their strength to a single man, Pope Gregory the Great. After the first shock of the Lombard invasion had rent Italy in twain, the Imperial governors resolved to take up their residence in Ravenna, not in Rome—in the capital of the Italy of Theodoric, not that of the Italy of Augustus. They chose the strong marsh-fortress close to the Lombard border, not the decayed city of the Tiber, still scarred by the traces of Rise of the Baduila's harrying. The exarch stationed himself Papacy. at Ravenna, and delegated his civil and military authority in the scattered portions of Imperial Italy to minor officials, of whom the duces of Rome and Naples were the chief. This removal of the seat of the viceroy from the ancient metropolis was destined to have the most far-reaching results. Its first was that the chief lay official in Rome was an individual of far less authority and prestige than the chief ecclesiastical personage there resident. The bishops of Rome had always been men of importance; their claim to a
patriarchal primacy over all the Western sees of Europe had already been formulated. In the ancient civil ‘diocese’ of Italy—that is, in the Italian peninsula, Africa, and Illyricum— it had much reality. The African and Dalmatian churches referred matters of difficulty to Rome for decision, no less than did the church of Italy. We find Gregory the Great exercising a real influence in places as distant as Salona, Larissa, and Carthage. During the existence of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, the Popes had obtained a kind of recognition from the Teutonic kings, as the accredited representatives of the Catholic and Roman population of Italy. They were certainly the most important subjects of the realm outside the ranks of the Gothic conquerors, and were allowed to petition or plead with the king in behalf of all the Catholic Italians. The reconquest of Italy by Justinian had threatened to lower the prestige and power of the Popes, by placing them once more under a master who was both the legitimate ruler of the whole empire and an orthodox Catholic. Justinian had dealt in a very autocratic manner with the Roman bishops, as the tales of the woes of Vigilius and Silverius show. He summoned them to Constantinople, bullied, imprisoned, or tried them at his good pleasure. The continued survival of the Imperial power in Italy would have checked the growth of Papal authority in a great measure. But the Lombard invasion changed the aspect of affairs. The Imperial governors and garrisons were swept into corners of the peninsula, and the Popes left without any master on the spot to curb them. The unfortunate Eastern wars of Maurice, Phocas, and Heraclius prevented them from turning any adequate attention to Italy. They sent the exarchs over to make what fight they could, without giving them adequate supplies, either of men or money. The exarchs, penned up in Ravenna, could only communicate with Rome with the greatest difficulty: the land-route of communication was almost cut by the Lombards of Spoleto; the sea-route was long and difficult. Hence Rome was left to itself, to fall or stand by its own
strength and its own counsel. The Pope and the “Duke' of
this mission, which was long enough to enable him to get a clear view of the weakness of the emperor Maurice, and of his impotence to interfere in Italian matters, Gregory was chosen bishop of Rome, when Pelagius died of the plague (590). Gregory was elected without the Imperial sanction. Rome was so closely beset by the Lombards that there was neither time nor means for asking Maurice's consent, but the emperor afterwards confirmed the elevation of the saintly abbot. All Italy—nay, even the whole of the Christian West—knew of him already as the most prominent of the Roman clergy, and he was able at once to assume a position of great independency and authority. Gregory's most striking feature was his extraordinary self-confidence and conviction in the absolute wisdom and righteousness of his own ideas. The legend, started by his admirers not long after his death, to the effect that he was actually inspired by the Holy Ghost, who visited him in the form of a dove, very adequately represents his own notion of his infallibility. It was this self-confidence which enabled him to take up the line of stern and unbending autocracy which he always adopted. Other men were mute and obedient before the imperious saint, in whom they recognised their moral superior. Few, save the emperor Maurice and the fanatical John the Faster, patriarch of Constantinople, ever ventured to confront or withstand him. Unquestionably he was the most able, and one of the best-intentioned, men of his age. He left his mark on all that he touched, from the conversion of the English and the Lombards down to the official music of the Western Church—the Gregorian chants that still preserve his name. Although posterity enshrined him as one of the four great doctors of the Latin Church, his theological work was the weakest part of his activity. His writings are full of tropes, far-fetched conceits, misinterpretation of Scripture (he was ignorant of Hebrew and even of Greek), and pedantic arguments from analogy. It was as statesman and administrator, and fosterer of missionary work that Gregory was truly great. In Rome he ruled as a temporal governor rather than a bishop. It was he who provided against the attacks of the Lombards, arrayed soldiers for the defence of the walls, fed the starving people from the funds of the church, and negotiated with the chiefs of the enemy in behalf of the people of the Ducatus Romanus. In 592 he concluded, on his own authority, a truce with the duke of Spoleto, while the exarch was set on continuing the war. Maurice stigmatised this conduct as ‘fatuous;’ but, as the emperor left Rome to provide for itself, he should hardly have complained. In another crisis, Gregory appointed, seeular as on his own authority, a tribune to command the tivity of garrison of Naples and a governor for the Tuscan ** town of Nepi. Finally, it was he who, in 599, negotiated the treaty of peace with king Agilulf, which ended the thirty years of continuous war which had followed the first coming of the Lombards to Italy. When rebuked by the exarch, he claimed to take precedence of him, not only in virtue of his priestly office, but also in place and dignity. In short, for all practical purposes, Gregory made himself the half-independent governor of Rome. But Gregory's progress in asserting his authority as Patriarch of the West was even more important than his advances toward temporal power. He it was who recovered Spain and Britain for the Catholic Church—the former by the conversion of Reccared from Arianism,” the latter by sending the mission of St. Augustine to Kent, and obtaining the baptism of king Ethelbert. Through the influence of queen Theodelinda, he obtained control over the Lombard king Agilulf, and induced him to bring up his son Adaloald as a Catholic.” He could claim, in short, that he had reunited Italy, Spain, and Britain to the body of the Church of Christ. He also exercised conInternational siderable influence in Gaul, mainly through the authority of influence of the great queen-mother Brunhildis, Gregory. a favourer of all things Roman, with whom he maintained a long and friendly correspondence. We have * See pp. 141, 142. * See p. 195. | <urn:uuid:f75cc719-0591-4579-b9d6-8400408f1cdf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.google.am/books?id=N6A-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA202&focus=viewport&vq=battle&dq=editions:HARVARD32044087964383&hl=hy&output=text | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00009.warc.gz | en | 0.982408 | 1,865 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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concords, or rules of government of prepositions, could not have been the work of any educated Italian. With the death of Rothari in 652, began a time of trouble and confusion for the Lombards, in which they ceased to win ground from the Romans, and fell into civil strife and anarchy." It commenced by the murder of Rothari's son, Rodoald, after he had reigned less than six months. He was a prince of licentious manners, and fell a victim to the dagger of an outraged husband (653). The eighty years of Italian history during which the Lombards were settling down in the valley of the Po, and along the Umbrian and Samnite slopes of the Apennines, have won their chief importance in the story of the world, not from the doings of Agilulf or Rothari, but from the events that were taking place in Rome. To these years we may ascribe the foundation of the temporal power of the Papacy, and the development of the cecumenical position of the bishop of Rome to an extent which had hitherto been uncontemplated. These movements owe most of their strength to a single man, Pope Gregory the Great. After the first shock of the Lombard invasion had rent Italy in twain, the Imperial governors resolved to take up their residence in Ravenna, not in Rome—in the capital of the Italy of Theodoric, not that of the Italy of Augustus. They chose the strong marsh-fortress close to the Lombard border, not the decayed city of the Tiber, still scarred by the traces of Rise of the Baduila's harrying. The exarch stationed himself Papacy. at Ravenna, and delegated his civil and military authority in the scattered portions of Imperial Italy to minor officials, of whom the duces of Rome and Naples were the chief. This removal of the seat of the viceroy from the ancient metropolis was destined to have the most far-reaching results. Its first was that the chief lay official in Rome was an individual of far less authority and prestige than the chief ecclesiastical personage there resident. The bishops of Rome had always been men of importance; their claim to a
patriarchal primacy over all the Western sees of Europe had already been formulated. In the ancient civil ‘diocese’ of Italy—that is, in the Italian peninsula, Africa, and Illyricum— it had much reality. The African and Dalmatian churches referred matters of difficulty to Rome for decision, no less than did the church of Italy. We find Gregory the Great exercising a real influence in places as distant as Salona, Larissa, and Carthage. During the existence of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, the Popes had obtained a kind of recognition from the Teutonic kings, as the accredited representatives of the Catholic and Roman population of Italy. They were certainly the most important subjects of the realm outside the ranks of the Gothic conquerors, and were allowed to petition or plead with the king in behalf of all the Catholic Italians. The reconquest of Italy by Justinian had threatened to lower the prestige and power of the Popes, by placing them once more under a master who was both the legitimate ruler of the whole empire and an orthodox Catholic. Justinian had dealt in a very autocratic manner with the Roman bishops, as the tales of the woes of Vigilius and Silverius show. He summoned them to Constantinople, bullied, imprisoned, or tried them at his good pleasure. The continued survival of the Imperial power in Italy would have checked the growth of Papal authority in a great measure. But the Lombard invasion changed the aspect of affairs. The Imperial governors and garrisons were swept into corners of the peninsula, and the Popes left without any master on the spot to curb them. The unfortunate Eastern wars of Maurice, Phocas, and Heraclius prevented them from turning any adequate attention to Italy. They sent the exarchs over to make what fight they could, without giving them adequate supplies, either of men or money. The exarchs, penned up in Ravenna, could only communicate with Rome with the greatest difficulty: the land-route of communication was almost cut by the Lombards of Spoleto; the sea-route was long and difficult. Hence Rome was left to itself, to fall or stand by its own
strength and its own counsel. The Pope and the “Duke' of
this mission, which was long enough to enable him to get a clear view of the weakness of the emperor Maurice, and of his impotence to interfere in Italian matters, Gregory was chosen bishop of Rome, when Pelagius died of the plague (590). Gregory was elected without the Imperial sanction. Rome was so closely beset by the Lombards that there was neither time nor means for asking Maurice's consent, but the emperor afterwards confirmed the elevation of the saintly abbot. All Italy—nay, even the whole of the Christian West—knew of him already as the most prominent of the Roman clergy, and he was able at once to assume a position of great independency and authority. Gregory's most striking feature was his extraordinary self-confidence and conviction in the absolute wisdom and righteousness of his own ideas. The legend, started by his admirers not long after his death, to the effect that he was actually inspired by the Holy Ghost, who visited him in the form of a dove, very adequately represents his own notion of his infallibility. It was this self-confidence which enabled him to take up the line of stern and unbending autocracy which he always adopted. Other men were mute and obedient before the imperious saint, in whom they recognised their moral superior. Few, save the emperor Maurice and the fanatical John the Faster, patriarch of Constantinople, ever ventured to confront or withstand him. Unquestionably he was the most able, and one of the best-intentioned, men of his age. He left his mark on all that he touched, from the conversion of the English and the Lombards down to the official music of the Western Church—the Gregorian chants that still preserve his name. Although posterity enshrined him as one of the four great doctors of the Latin Church, his theological work was the weakest part of his activity. His writings are full of tropes, far-fetched conceits, misinterpretation of Scripture (he was ignorant of Hebrew and even of Greek), and pedantic arguments from analogy. It was as statesman and administrator, and fosterer of missionary work that Gregory was truly great. In Rome he ruled as a temporal governor rather than a bishop. It was he who provided against the attacks of the Lombards, arrayed soldiers for the defence of the walls, fed the starving people from the funds of the church, and negotiated with the chiefs of the enemy in behalf of the people of the Ducatus Romanus. In 592 he concluded, on his own authority, a truce with the duke of Spoleto, while the exarch was set on continuing the war. Maurice stigmatised this conduct as ‘fatuous;’ but, as the emperor left Rome to provide for itself, he should hardly have complained. In another crisis, Gregory appointed, seeular as on his own authority, a tribune to command the tivity of garrison of Naples and a governor for the Tuscan ** town of Nepi. Finally, it was he who, in 599, negotiated the treaty of peace with king Agilulf, which ended the thirty years of continuous war which had followed the first coming of the Lombards to Italy. When rebuked by the exarch, he claimed to take precedence of him, not only in virtue of his priestly office, but also in place and dignity. In short, for all practical purposes, Gregory made himself the half-independent governor of Rome. But Gregory's progress in asserting his authority as Patriarch of the West was even more important than his advances toward temporal power. He it was who recovered Spain and Britain for the Catholic Church—the former by the conversion of Reccared from Arianism,” the latter by sending the mission of St. Augustine to Kent, and obtaining the baptism of king Ethelbert. Through the influence of queen Theodelinda, he obtained control over the Lombard king Agilulf, and induced him to bring up his son Adaloald as a Catholic.” He could claim, in short, that he had reunited Italy, Spain, and Britain to the body of the Church of Christ. He also exercised conInternational siderable influence in Gaul, mainly through the authority of influence of the great queen-mother Brunhildis, Gregory. a favourer of all things Roman, with whom he maintained a long and friendly correspondence. We have * See pp. 141, 142. * See p. 195. | 1,861 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paleoichnology involves the study of trace fossils that are preserved in ancient rocks. One of the key areas this discipline focuses on is the presence of fossil footprints, whether those left by ancient animals or early humans… although at times, it has proven difficult to distinguish between the two.
One of the most curious instances where seemingly anomalous fossil footprints were discovered in North America occurred in 1882. The discovery, made in the Nevada State Prison Quarry near Carson City, Nevada, appeared to represent a set of bipedal footprints, which naturally led some to believe they were made by some large variety of early human.
Large might be an understatement in this case, since the footprints measured roughly 18 to 20 inches in length, with a stride of close to a meter between each footfall. If this had been any kind of early human, it would have to have been a very large one.
Paleontologist Edward D. Cope, writing in American Naturalist, summarized the discovery as follows:
The discovery that the tracks of several species of Pliocene Mammalia in the argillaceous sandstones of the quarry of the Nevada State Prison at Carson, are accompanied by those of a biped resembling man, is a further confirmation of these views. The tracks are clearly those of a biped, and are not those of a member of the Simiidae, but must be referred to the Hominidae. Whether they belong to a species of the genus Homo or not, cannot be ascertained from the tracks alone, but can be determined on the discovery of the bones and teeth.
“In any case,” Cope concluded, “the animal was probably the ancestor of existing man, and was a contemporary of the Elephas primigenius and a species of Equs.”
Not all of Cope’s colleagues were as convinced as he had been that this monstrous biped had been some kind of very large archaic human. Othneil C. Marsh (who later would become a proponent of the ape-like appearance of sculptures found along the John Day River, one of which he recovered himself), was skeptical of the idea that the Carson footprints belonged to any human, let alone one so very large. Marsh proposed the idea that the prints had been made by another animal, the giant ground sloth or Mylodon.
While Marsh had been the first to propose this creature as a solution to the mystery, he had not been the last. The idea was supported by Joseph Le Conte who, writing in nature, nonetheless stated that “many who have seen the tracks and think them human” had a right to their own theories and ideas, leaving the subject somewhat open to debate.
The matter did finally end up being settled, however, once paleontologist Chester Stock became involved. Stock, who went on to join Caltech in 1926 as Professor of Paleontology and remaining there until 1950, was also Chairman of the Division of Geological Science and had conducted extensive studies of mammals represented in the fossil record of North America. In his early fieldwork, Stock had studied various ice age mammals at the famous La Brea Tar Pits. If anyone would be able to identify the odd prints at Carson, it would be Stock.
Supporting Marsh’s earlier contention that the prints had been made by a variety of giant ground sloth, Stock made a watertight case that the fossil prints at the Nevada quarry site most closely resembled the hindfoot of the Paramylodon harleni, or Harlan’s Ground Sloth, which existed in America between 4.9 million years ago and as recently as 11,000 years ago.
While Stock had already made a solid case that the fossil footprints belonged to this species, any further doubt was removed shortly thereafter when the remains of one of these creatures was found at nearby Carson City.
For those who had hoped that the footprints had been left by some “pre-Adamite Man” (or perhaps even a Pleistocene-era Sasquatch), it seemed that the culprit had instead been one of the far more animalistic lumbering giants of the ice age, which recent studies have shown were hunted by early North Americans.
Hence, the mysterious “giant human” footprints of Nevada had been made by no human at all, although they most certainly had belonged to one of the many giant creatures of ice age North America. | <urn:uuid:3e071112-822b-4864-9f7e-2e5fb9941f96> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mysteriousuniverse.org/2019/10/how-a-set-of-odd-humanlike-fossil-footprints-caused-a-19th-century-controversy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.986331 | 910 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.34126836061477... | 5 | Paleoichnology involves the study of trace fossils that are preserved in ancient rocks. One of the key areas this discipline focuses on is the presence of fossil footprints, whether those left by ancient animals or early humans… although at times, it has proven difficult to distinguish between the two.
One of the most curious instances where seemingly anomalous fossil footprints were discovered in North America occurred in 1882. The discovery, made in the Nevada State Prison Quarry near Carson City, Nevada, appeared to represent a set of bipedal footprints, which naturally led some to believe they were made by some large variety of early human.
Large might be an understatement in this case, since the footprints measured roughly 18 to 20 inches in length, with a stride of close to a meter between each footfall. If this had been any kind of early human, it would have to have been a very large one.
Paleontologist Edward D. Cope, writing in American Naturalist, summarized the discovery as follows:
The discovery that the tracks of several species of Pliocene Mammalia in the argillaceous sandstones of the quarry of the Nevada State Prison at Carson, are accompanied by those of a biped resembling man, is a further confirmation of these views. The tracks are clearly those of a biped, and are not those of a member of the Simiidae, but must be referred to the Hominidae. Whether they belong to a species of the genus Homo or not, cannot be ascertained from the tracks alone, but can be determined on the discovery of the bones and teeth.
“In any case,” Cope concluded, “the animal was probably the ancestor of existing man, and was a contemporary of the Elephas primigenius and a species of Equs.”
Not all of Cope’s colleagues were as convinced as he had been that this monstrous biped had been some kind of very large archaic human. Othneil C. Marsh (who later would become a proponent of the ape-like appearance of sculptures found along the John Day River, one of which he recovered himself), was skeptical of the idea that the Carson footprints belonged to any human, let alone one so very large. Marsh proposed the idea that the prints had been made by another animal, the giant ground sloth or Mylodon.
While Marsh had been the first to propose this creature as a solution to the mystery, he had not been the last. The idea was supported by Joseph Le Conte who, writing in nature, nonetheless stated that “many who have seen the tracks and think them human” had a right to their own theories and ideas, leaving the subject somewhat open to debate.
The matter did finally end up being settled, however, once paleontologist Chester Stock became involved. Stock, who went on to join Caltech in 1926 as Professor of Paleontology and remaining there until 1950, was also Chairman of the Division of Geological Science and had conducted extensive studies of mammals represented in the fossil record of North America. In his early fieldwork, Stock had studied various ice age mammals at the famous La Brea Tar Pits. If anyone would be able to identify the odd prints at Carson, it would be Stock.
Supporting Marsh’s earlier contention that the prints had been made by a variety of giant ground sloth, Stock made a watertight case that the fossil prints at the Nevada quarry site most closely resembled the hindfoot of the Paramylodon harleni, or Harlan’s Ground Sloth, which existed in America between 4.9 million years ago and as recently as 11,000 years ago.
While Stock had already made a solid case that the fossil footprints belonged to this species, any further doubt was removed shortly thereafter when the remains of one of these creatures was found at nearby Carson City.
For those who had hoped that the footprints had been left by some “pre-Adamite Man” (or perhaps even a Pleistocene-era Sasquatch), it seemed that the culprit had instead been one of the far more animalistic lumbering giants of the ice age, which recent studies have shown were hunted by early North Americans.
Hence, the mysterious “giant human” footprints of Nevada had been made by no human at all, although they most certainly had belonged to one of the many giant creatures of ice age North America. | 908 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Māori children traditionally played a wide range of games. Teka (darts), tī rākau (stick games), whai (string games), pouturu (stilt walking) and ruru (knucklebones) were played by both children and adults. Children made small kites called manu taratahi. Boys learned combat skills through mock fights using flax stalks. Pōtaka tā (whip tops), pōtaka tākiri (humming tops) and pīrori (hoops) were toys for all ages. Pīrori were made from aka (vines) and either thrown or propelled with a stick.
In 1847 artist G. F. Angus described Māori children at play:‘They pass their early years almost without restraint, amusing themselves with various games of the country such as flying kites, which are formed of leaves, the game of maui [a string game]; throwing mimic spears made of fern stalks and sailing their tiny flax canoes on the rivers’1
The moari, or giant stride swing, was a pole with flax ropes suspended from the top on which people swung. Vines suspended from tree branches made tarere (simple swings). Children played piu (skipping), usually in groups. Other games included wī (tag), tī ringaringa (hand games), word games and guessing games. Children learned kauhoe (swimming) and kōkiri (diving) from a very early age. They played by exploring the bush, rivers and coastline, running about, fishing, hunting and gathering.
After the arrival of Europeans many games and pastimes were either suppressed or abandoned. Those that survived were mostly hand games, string games, tops, stilts and knucklebones, all of which had equivalents among European games. Children still played stick games, but often these were staged performances rather than spontaneous play.
Most European children had few opportunities to play traditional games in the early years of settlement (from the late 1830s). In all but the richest families, once they were out of infancy children were regarded as extra working hands. Older children, especially girls, were expected to help look after younger siblings. Children had to fit their play times around their chores. Those living in rural areas or small towns played games of imagination and adventure, exploring nearby farmland, bush, rivers and coastlines. Inner-city children played in the streets or in any available open areas.
‘The fine white sandy beach from Pipitea to Oriental Bay was a precious possession … besides sea-fishing there were various streams, with Te Aro Swamp available where inungas and eels could with little skill and very homely fishing outfit, be easily captured … Boys could get conveniently lost for a day, be unseen and undiscoverable, amongst the flax bushes, and yet enjoy themselves to their heart’s content.’2
In the 19th century Pākehā girls came under social pressure to play quieter, more ‘ladylike’ games. Girls wore heavier clothing than boys and often had to look after younger siblings. Despite these limitations, many girls still took part in active outdoor play. They also often engaged in imaginative games, including playing with dolls and dressing up.
Before 1877 only about half of New Zealand’s school-age children went to school. The number increased considerably with the Education Act 1877, which made primary education free and compulsory from ages seven to 13.
In 19th-century school playgrounds children were generally left unsupervised. Most schools did not have organised sport before the 1880s. Children played make-believe and traditional singing games such as ‘Oranges and lemons’ and ‘Nuts in May’. Children of all ages played these games, although in later years they were seen as only for the very young. Boys indulged in a lot of fighting and bullying. Boys and girls were often segregated, sometimes with a fence dividing their sections of the playground.
Many children travelled long distances to school. These journeys were times when children were free from school discipline and home chores. Children played games of exploration, adventure and mischief, on the way to and from school.
In the late 19th century children were relied on less as workers. Many children had more time to play, but there was increased social concern over how they played. In particular there were fears of ‘larrikinism’ among boys, who might get up to mischief with time on their hands. Teachers who were sportsmen started coaching older boys in organised sports, especially cricket and rugby.
In the early 1900s girls were encouraged to be more physically active. By the 1920s schools had sports for older girls, such as women’s basketball (later called netball), tennis and hockey. Physical education was introduced to schools, along with military cadet training for older boys. The Scouts and Girl Peace Scouts (later Girl Guides) were both set up in New Zealand in 1908, providing organised recreation outside of school.
The channelling of time and energy into sport meant many of the rougher playground games disappeared from the schoolyard, although fighting was still a common boys’ recreational activity. Traditional games and make believe were now generally the preserve of the very young. Children of all ages still played games of exploration and adventure outside of school. For girls, outdoor play was made easier by the availability of less restrictive clothing and footwear.
Children’s games often reflect the times. In the 19th century children engaged in imaginary ploughing contests, pretended to be coaches and horses, and formed Ned Kelly-style bushranging gangs. With city living, games such as doctors and nurses became more common. Later, movies increased children’s interest in playing cowboys and Indians and cops and robbers.
Children’s play was increasingly influenced by commercialisation and technological change through the course of the 20th century. The advent of movies provided children with storylines for imaginative play, with depictions of cartoon characters, cowboys, pirates and glamorous heroines. Radio and comic books added to this repertoire from the 1920s. Even more sweeping change came with the arrival of television in the 1960s, particularly through children’s programmes. Television advertised toys and games, promoting everything from model cars and Barbie dolls in the 1960s through to computer games in the 21st century.
Playground rhymes of the 1990s and 2000s often included subversive parodies of traditional rhymes, giving children’s perspectives on the adult world. For example (to the tune of ‘Row, row, row your boat’: ‘Roll, roll, roll your dope/Scrunch it at the end/Spark it up,/And have a smoke,/Then pass it to a friend’. Another rhyme reflects New Zealand’s sporting rivalry with Australia (to the tune of ‘God defend New Zealand’: ‘God of nations/In the scrum/Kick the Aussies up the bum/If it hurts, serves them right/Blow them up with dynamite.’1
With higher average incomes, many 20th-century families could afford more children’s toys. Manufactured toys were widely available by the 1950s, although some toys were still homemade. Quieter pursuits such as scrapbooking, stamp and other collecting, and swapping activities really took off from the early 1900s. Manufactured board games such as snakes and ladders and Monopoly joined well-established card games and draughts.
Computer developments in the late 20th century brought a range of games. In the 2000s many children spent a lot of time watching television and computer screens, but still played games of exploration, adventure and imagination. Children’s viewing now influenced their play, and television references were introduced into rhymes for skipping and clapping games.
Bicycles and tricycles for children became more generally available in the early 20th century, increasing mobility. Skateboards were introduced in the 1960s and BMX bikes in the 1980s. Both gained great popularity among older children, especially boys. Ironically, as mobility increased some parents began restricting children’s movement due to concerns about traffic and ‘stranger danger’. Some people feared parents were being overprotective, arguing that risk-taking should be an essential part of playing and learning.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries children often travelled long distances to school, and many used that time to play. Boys hunted or shot at convenient targets with shanghais (catapults), bows and arrows, pea shooters and spring guns. Fights were a common pastime among boys, sometimes between ‘gangs’ from rival neighbourhoods or schools.
Travelling was ideal for games of movement, with hoops, tops, stilt walking, kite flying, and skipping. Children raced, and played tag, leap frog and follow the leader. Those children who rode horses to school raced each other and performed riding tricks. In the 20th century children carried out similar activities on bicycles and later with skateboards. In the 21st century many children no longer had this play opportunity, as they were driven to school by their parents.
The tip cat game involved a ‘cat’, a thin six-inch stick with pointed ends, placed on the ground. In the game’s simplest form, the cat was tapped on the end with a bat (or ‘dog’). As the cat flew into the air it was hit as far as possible. The winner was the player who hit the cat furthest. Tip cat resulted in much damage to school windows and bystanders.
In 19th-century school playgrounds boys played many rough games such as bar the door (later called bullrush), tag (or tig) and king of the castle. In a game sometimes called ‘cock fighting’ boys had piggy-back fights. Boys also played games with knives, sticks, balls, tops and hoops. In conkers, each tried to break the other’s conker (a horse chestnut suspended on a string) with their own. In the game of soldiers players competed to see who could knock the most flowerheads off grass stalks with a stick.
Before the introduction of rugby and cricket, older children commonly played games of rounders and shinty. They organised these games themselves, often making their own equipment and rules. Rounders was a summer game played by both girls and boys. It involved batting a ball and then running between bases. Shinty was a common winter game for boys. It resembled a violent form of hockey, whacking a ball around a field with improvised sticks.
In buck buck a group of boys formed a line bent over with horizontal backs. A player jumped on the back of the first boy and then made his way down the line. At the end of the line he asked the boy underneath, ‘Buck buck, how many fingers do I hold up?’ If the boy underneath answered correctly he was allowed to buck off the ‘rider’.
Since the 19th century girls have played games with singing and rhyming chants including hopscotch, skipping and clapping games. Cat’s cradle (a string game) was generally only played by girls. Both girls and boys played knucklebones and marbles. Versions of all these games continued in the 21st century. From the mid-20th century informal ball bouncing games such as handball and four square were widely played. A girls’ game from the 20th century that continued into the 21st century was elastics. This chanting game involved stretching long elastic bands between two players, while other players jumped in and out of the bands. The rhymes or chants used in all these games often contained a mixture of traditional elements and modern references.
There are many games that children mostly learn from each other and play without adult direction. Some are of ancient origin, while others are more recent. Māori children had a wide range of traditional games. In contrast, during the early years of settlement Pākehā children had few opportunities to play traditional games from their countries of origin.
In the 1850s, once settlements were more organised, large community picnics became regular events. Adults and children played traditional singing and tagging games. At home, children were taught games by their older siblings or sometimes their parents or grandparents. In the schoolyard children generally learned games from other children, rather than adults.
With the spread of organised sports in the early 20th century many traditional games became seen as primarily for younger children.
Playground rhymes were used in games and as entertainment in themselves. A rhyme recited as the holidays approached was: ‘Two more weeks and we shall be/Out of the gates of misery/No more writing, no more French/No more sitting on a hard board bench/No more walking two by two/Like the monkeys in the zoo,/No more spelling, no more sums,/No more teachers to whack our bums’.1
Singing games were most commonly played by girls. ‘Oranges and lemons’ was the most popular singing game. Two players held hands to form an arch, which the other players passed through as the arch-makers sang the song ‘Oranges and lemons’. At the end of the song a player was caught in the arch. Each caught player chose to be an orange or a lemon. When all players were caught the ‘orange’ and ‘lemon’ teams formed two human chains. A tug-of-war between the teams decided the winner of the game.
‘Nuts in May’ (or ‘nuts and May’) involved two facing chains of players dancing back and forward, each singing alternate verses. Other singing games included ‘Ring a ring o’ roses’ (also known as ‘Ring a rosy’), ‘Here we go round the mulberry bush’, ‘London Bridge is falling down’ and ‘The grand old duke of York’. The titles and the lyrics of the songs clearly indicated their British origins.
Tag or tig was the most common chasing game. The player who is ‘it’ chases the rest and whoever is caught then takes over as the pursuer. Hide and seek involves the ‘it’ player trying to find the others who have hidden. Children were always developing variations of tagging games, such as ‘What’s the time Mr Wolf?’, stuck in the mud, and stiff candles. Games might involve sneaking up on the ‘it’ player, tagged players having to freeze, or tagged players being freed by another player’s actions. A wide range of tagging games continued being played in 21st-century playgrounds.
At Ōhau, near Levin, in the 1910s, ‘[a]bout half the children came from two Maori pas in the district … I remember two essentially Maori games Cat’s Cradle and Homai, but the others were all traditional English games I think. These other included Fill the Gap, I Wrote a Letter, Twos and Threes, Green Gravels, Fox and Geese, Oranges and Lemons, Puss in the Corner.’2
The game known as bullrush has been called by many other names including bar the door, prisoner’s base, octopus and king o’ seenie.
The game requires a space on the playground defined by two lines. One player guards the space and calls on other players by name to run for the second line. If the ‘tagger’ catches the running player, they join in trying to catch the other players. If a runner gets through to the second line, all the remaining runners go for the line, creating general havoc. In later 20th century a number of schools banned bullrush, claiming it was dangerous. Despite the ban children have continued playing the game into the 21st century.
From the earliest days of Māori settlement children had the New Zealand environment as their playground. Both Māori and Pākehā children played in the forests, rivers, coastal waters and open spaces. Children hunted, gathered plants, explored, climbed trees, lit camp fires, built huts, forts, dams and swings, and swam in their favourite spots.
Not all activities were benign. Fighting, destroying plants, stealing birds’ eggs and tormenting animals were all part of play. In the 21st century there were fears that children were becoming cut off from nature due to increased urbanisation, more indoor entertainment and overprotective parents. Many children, nevertheless, continued to thrive on outdoor play.
In the 20th century New Zealand became increasingly urbanised. More traffic meant roads were no longer safe places for playing games such as hoop rolling and top spinning, while overhead wiring restricted kite flying. The development of sealed roads and footpaths was, however, ideal for homemade trolleys, roller skating and, later, skateboarding.
In the early 20th century many children still lived in relatively small towns. In the 1920s bicycles and tricycles became more widely available for children, expanding their range of travel. Even in larger cities, parks, areas of bush, rivers and the coast were often accessible. Both urban and rural children continued to explore and have adventures in natural settings.
At a school in Marton, in 1910, the ‘playground was bare earth with a morsel of gravel ‘round the “giant stride.” In winter it became a quagmire. Boys who fell over and muddied their clothes were allowed to stay out of school while a comrade scraped off mud with a pocketknife.’1
School playgrounds in the mid-19th century were often little more than muddy or scrubby paddocks. A few schools installed swings and play equipment, which became more widespread from the 1880s. In the 1890s a variety of citizens’ groups became concerned that many town children had to play on the streets. Following a US example, they campaigned for public playgrounds in New Zealand towns. Playgrounds tended to be aimed at younger children.
Playgrounds in the late 19th and early 20th century were equipped with swings, slides and sometimes a sandpit. Some had versions of the ‘giant stride’ roundabout. The jungle gym, introduced in the early 1930s, quickly became a favourite with children. There appears at first to have been little consideration for children’s safety. Climbing apparatus, roundabouts or swings were often placed directly over concrete, asphalt or gravel – all hard surfaces to fall on.
At the 1933 Christmas party for the children of the Onehunga Free Kindergarten, a novel piece of playground equipment was unveiled. The children were delighted as a local paper reported, ‘modern playground climbing apparatus, known as a “jungle Jim” created a vast amount of interest.’2
In the 1980s playground safety became a major issue among safety experts and concerned parents. Hard surfaces in playgrounds were replaced with bark chips or rubber matting. The heights of swings and jungle gyms were lowered, while some of the more dangerous equipment was removed. Playground equipment was designed to stricter safety standards, including kitsets built from solid plastic. Some parents were not so happy with the new ‘safer’ playgrounds. They feared that children were becoming too protected and would miss out on learning valuable skills if they were never exposed to risk. A further concern raised in the 1990s was the inaccessibility of playgrounds for disabled children.
Māori children had a range of toys, including teka (darts), pōtaka (tops), pīrori (hoops), manu taratahi (kites) and pouturu (stilts). Karetao were a type of carved wooden puppet or jumping jack with arms that could be moved by a string. Small flax canoes were floated down rivers. Children made small model pā for games of mock combat.
A suitable prong was cut from a tree and trimmed. A piece of bootlace 7–10 centimetres in length was tied to each side of the prong, then a 20–22-centimetre length of elastic was tied to the bootlace. A holder for missiles – a small oval piece of leather from an old boot – was attached to the elastic with short pieces of boot lace. With a collection of small stones as ammunition, the shanghai was ready to go.
In the early period of European settlement the majority of settler children largely relied on homemade toys. Kites, stilts, bows and arrows, model boats, wooden animals, rag dolls and wooden dolls were all produced from material at hand. An essential boys’ toy was the shanghai, a home-made catapult used for hunting and general mischief. One ‘toy’ that was purchased rather than made was the pocket knife – a vital piece of equipment for the colonial boy.
Hoops and tops were among the most common 19th-century toys. Iron hoops could be purchased cheaply from a local blacksmith and trundled about with a stick. Tops could be made at home from a convenient piece of wood. The whip that propelled the top was constructed from readily available flax.
The children of wealthier families had a much wider range of toys, including manufactured items. Specialist toy shops were found around the colony by the 1860s and department stores also had toy sections. Most toys were imported, including mechanical wind-up metal toys, lead or tin soldiers, miniature tea sets, dolls’ houses, and wax or porcelain dolls. Teddy bears and golliwogs made their appearance in the 1890s. Boys already played with improvised guns, but with mass production toy guns became widely available. In the 1960s some parents began to campaign against the sale of toy guns on the grounds that they encouraged violence.
In the 19th-century infants’ toys generally consisted of improvised items such as rattles made from household materials. Many dolls and soft toys were home-made. In the 20th century mass-produced teddy bears and other infants’ toys became widely available. The development of plastic greatly extended the range of infants’ toys. In the later 20th century the idea that toys should help child development meant many more toys were designed specifically for the very young.
In his poem ‘1950s’ Bill Manhire lists toys from the era: ‘My cricket bat. My football boots./My fishing rod. My hula hoop./My cowboy chaps. My scooter./Draughts. Happy families. Euchre./Ludo. Snap. My Davy Crockett hat./My bicycle. My bow and arrow./My puncture kit. My cat./The straight and narrow. Fancy that.’1
In the mid-20th century more toys became available at lower prices. In the 1930s and 1940s New Zealand toy manufacturers had an impact on the local market. Jack Underwood, who began manufacturing metal toys in his basement, went on to set up the Fun Ho! toy company. Hector and John Ramsey mass-produced the classic Buzzy Bee designed by Maurice Schlesinger and developed a range of other wooden toys from the 1940s. New Zealand toy companies were largely swamped by large overseas manufacturers in the later 20th century. Fashions for particular toys such as hula hoops, yo-yos, frisbees and diabolos (toys that are spun on a hand-held string track) were promoted through the mass media. Clockwork and then electric train sets were coveted by children of all ages.
In the 20th century toys were increasingly designed to be educational as well as entertaining. Meccano construction sets had been imported into New Zealand since the early 1900s. They consisted of metal pieces that were bolted together to make vehicles and buildings. In the later 20th-century Lego sets, with plastic push-together blocks, became the construction sets of choice. Changing attitudes are reflected in the fact that Meccano was largely seen as a toy for boys, whereas Lego was regarded as suitable for girls and boys. Lego retained its popularity into the 21st century.
The arrival of the Barbie doll in 1959 coincided with the introduction of television to New Zealand in the 1960s. Advertised on television, Barbie became the doll that young girls had to have. Barbie was soon challenged by the Sindy dolls. In the 1980s there were Jem dolls, originally from a television series, while in the 2000s the Bratz dolls spawned their own spinoff films, a television series and music albums. In contrast to the glamour of these doll ranges, the Cabbage Patch Kids of the 1980s had exaggerated chubby, baby-like features.
GI Joe and Action Man action figures produced for boys were extremely popular from the 1960s onwards. The term ‘action figure’ was used to avoid any idea that boys were in fact playing with dolls, an activity traditionally seen as strictly for girls.
The golliwog – a doll with dark skin, frizzy hair and outlandish clothing, which first appeared in the 1890s – fell out of favour in the 1960s, condemned as a racist caricature. The Barbie doll, representing a young, slim, blonde white female, came under fire from feminists in the 1970s, accused of presenting girls with an impossible body image and a poor role model. The multi-ethnic Bratz dolls of the 2000s were seen as sexualising children through their somewhat raunchy outfits.
In the late 19th century quieter indoor pursuits became more fashionable, including playing with painting sets, jigsaw puzzles, board games and card games, and collecting activities. Children cut out pictures from newspapers and magazines, then pasted them into newsprint scrapbooks. Building up stamp, cigarette card and postcard collections involved the joys of both collecting and swapping. The spread of indoor pursuits reflected an increase in prosperity and the wider availability of games and collectable materials.
Collectable items were often used to promote products. Cigarettes, tea, chewing gum and breakfast cereals are among the products that have used cards in this way. Some companies also produced albums for pasting in entire sets of cards. Small plastic animals in cornflakes packets were used as toys by young children and as collectors’ items by older children. Fast-food companies such as McDonalds gave away plastic toys with food purchases.
Toy soldiers were available in lead and tin forms in the 19th century, to be replaced by plastic soldiers in the 20th. In the 20th century building model aircraft and other vehicles from kits became a common hobby for boys. Models and collectables were both influenced by television and films, such as Thunderbirds, Star wars and the James Bond films.
Top sellers from the 2011 pre-Christmas survey by the retailer Toyworld included Cookie Pie Pup, a toy dog that responds to commands and barks; Elmo Rock singing toy; Lego building blocks; Transformers plastic toys; Sylvanian Families animal figures; and outdoor gym sets. The biggest seller was the Beyblade Battle Set, a spinning-top game.
Many children played Space Invaders and other games in the video arcades that were set up in the 1970s. By the end of the 1980s gaming consoles were widespread. The general availability of home computers in the 21st century meant that for many children computer games became a standard form of entertainment. This has led to public concerns over both the content of some games and whether children are now spending too much time in front of screens.
Best, Elsdon. Games and pastimes of the Māori: an account of various exercises, games and pastimes of the natives of New Zealand, as practised in former times. Wellington: Te Papa Press, 2005 (originally published 1925).
Sutton-Smith, Brian. The folkgames of children. Austin: American Folkore Society, 1972.
Sutton-Smith, Brian. A history of children’s play: New Zealand 1840–1950. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1982.
Trewby, Mary. The best years of your life: a history of New Zealand childhood. Auckland: Viking, 1995. | <urn:uuid:bc180f76-d6e4-4b15-a590-6cc1d31dada3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/mi/childrens-play/print | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.983771 | 5,930 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.69081103801... | 10 | Māori children traditionally played a wide range of games. Teka (darts), tī rākau (stick games), whai (string games), pouturu (stilt walking) and ruru (knucklebones) were played by both children and adults. Children made small kites called manu taratahi. Boys learned combat skills through mock fights using flax stalks. Pōtaka tā (whip tops), pōtaka tākiri (humming tops) and pīrori (hoops) were toys for all ages. Pīrori were made from aka (vines) and either thrown or propelled with a stick.
In 1847 artist G. F. Angus described Māori children at play:‘They pass their early years almost without restraint, amusing themselves with various games of the country such as flying kites, which are formed of leaves, the game of maui [a string game]; throwing mimic spears made of fern stalks and sailing their tiny flax canoes on the rivers’1
The moari, or giant stride swing, was a pole with flax ropes suspended from the top on which people swung. Vines suspended from tree branches made tarere (simple swings). Children played piu (skipping), usually in groups. Other games included wī (tag), tī ringaringa (hand games), word games and guessing games. Children learned kauhoe (swimming) and kōkiri (diving) from a very early age. They played by exploring the bush, rivers and coastline, running about, fishing, hunting and gathering.
After the arrival of Europeans many games and pastimes were either suppressed or abandoned. Those that survived were mostly hand games, string games, tops, stilts and knucklebones, all of which had equivalents among European games. Children still played stick games, but often these were staged performances rather than spontaneous play.
Most European children had few opportunities to play traditional games in the early years of settlement (from the late 1830s). In all but the richest families, once they were out of infancy children were regarded as extra working hands. Older children, especially girls, were expected to help look after younger siblings. Children had to fit their play times around their chores. Those living in rural areas or small towns played games of imagination and adventure, exploring nearby farmland, bush, rivers and coastlines. Inner-city children played in the streets or in any available open areas.
‘The fine white sandy beach from Pipitea to Oriental Bay was a precious possession … besides sea-fishing there were various streams, with Te Aro Swamp available where inungas and eels could with little skill and very homely fishing outfit, be easily captured … Boys could get conveniently lost for a day, be unseen and undiscoverable, amongst the flax bushes, and yet enjoy themselves to their heart’s content.’2
In the 19th century Pākehā girls came under social pressure to play quieter, more ‘ladylike’ games. Girls wore heavier clothing than boys and often had to look after younger siblings. Despite these limitations, many girls still took part in active outdoor play. They also often engaged in imaginative games, including playing with dolls and dressing up.
Before 1877 only about half of New Zealand’s school-age children went to school. The number increased considerably with the Education Act 1877, which made primary education free and compulsory from ages seven to 13.
In 19th-century school playgrounds children were generally left unsupervised. Most schools did not have organised sport before the 1880s. Children played make-believe and traditional singing games such as ‘Oranges and lemons’ and ‘Nuts in May’. Children of all ages played these games, although in later years they were seen as only for the very young. Boys indulged in a lot of fighting and bullying. Boys and girls were often segregated, sometimes with a fence dividing their sections of the playground.
Many children travelled long distances to school. These journeys were times when children were free from school discipline and home chores. Children played games of exploration, adventure and mischief, on the way to and from school.
In the late 19th century children were relied on less as workers. Many children had more time to play, but there was increased social concern over how they played. In particular there were fears of ‘larrikinism’ among boys, who might get up to mischief with time on their hands. Teachers who were sportsmen started coaching older boys in organised sports, especially cricket and rugby.
In the early 1900s girls were encouraged to be more physically active. By the 1920s schools had sports for older girls, such as women’s basketball (later called netball), tennis and hockey. Physical education was introduced to schools, along with military cadet training for older boys. The Scouts and Girl Peace Scouts (later Girl Guides) were both set up in New Zealand in 1908, providing organised recreation outside of school.
The channelling of time and energy into sport meant many of the rougher playground games disappeared from the schoolyard, although fighting was still a common boys’ recreational activity. Traditional games and make believe were now generally the preserve of the very young. Children of all ages still played games of exploration and adventure outside of school. For girls, outdoor play was made easier by the availability of less restrictive clothing and footwear.
Children’s games often reflect the times. In the 19th century children engaged in imaginary ploughing contests, pretended to be coaches and horses, and formed Ned Kelly-style bushranging gangs. With city living, games such as doctors and nurses became more common. Later, movies increased children’s interest in playing cowboys and Indians and cops and robbers.
Children’s play was increasingly influenced by commercialisation and technological change through the course of the 20th century. The advent of movies provided children with storylines for imaginative play, with depictions of cartoon characters, cowboys, pirates and glamorous heroines. Radio and comic books added to this repertoire from the 1920s. Even more sweeping change came with the arrival of television in the 1960s, particularly through children’s programmes. Television advertised toys and games, promoting everything from model cars and Barbie dolls in the 1960s through to computer games in the 21st century.
Playground rhymes of the 1990s and 2000s often included subversive parodies of traditional rhymes, giving children’s perspectives on the adult world. For example (to the tune of ‘Row, row, row your boat’: ‘Roll, roll, roll your dope/Scrunch it at the end/Spark it up,/And have a smoke,/Then pass it to a friend’. Another rhyme reflects New Zealand’s sporting rivalry with Australia (to the tune of ‘God defend New Zealand’: ‘God of nations/In the scrum/Kick the Aussies up the bum/If it hurts, serves them right/Blow them up with dynamite.’1
With higher average incomes, many 20th-century families could afford more children’s toys. Manufactured toys were widely available by the 1950s, although some toys were still homemade. Quieter pursuits such as scrapbooking, stamp and other collecting, and swapping activities really took off from the early 1900s. Manufactured board games such as snakes and ladders and Monopoly joined well-established card games and draughts.
Computer developments in the late 20th century brought a range of games. In the 2000s many children spent a lot of time watching television and computer screens, but still played games of exploration, adventure and imagination. Children’s viewing now influenced their play, and television references were introduced into rhymes for skipping and clapping games.
Bicycles and tricycles for children became more generally available in the early 20th century, increasing mobility. Skateboards were introduced in the 1960s and BMX bikes in the 1980s. Both gained great popularity among older children, especially boys. Ironically, as mobility increased some parents began restricting children’s movement due to concerns about traffic and ‘stranger danger’. Some people feared parents were being overprotective, arguing that risk-taking should be an essential part of playing and learning.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries children often travelled long distances to school, and many used that time to play. Boys hunted or shot at convenient targets with shanghais (catapults), bows and arrows, pea shooters and spring guns. Fights were a common pastime among boys, sometimes between ‘gangs’ from rival neighbourhoods or schools.
Travelling was ideal for games of movement, with hoops, tops, stilt walking, kite flying, and skipping. Children raced, and played tag, leap frog and follow the leader. Those children who rode horses to school raced each other and performed riding tricks. In the 20th century children carried out similar activities on bicycles and later with skateboards. In the 21st century many children no longer had this play opportunity, as they were driven to school by their parents.
The tip cat game involved a ‘cat’, a thin six-inch stick with pointed ends, placed on the ground. In the game’s simplest form, the cat was tapped on the end with a bat (or ‘dog’). As the cat flew into the air it was hit as far as possible. The winner was the player who hit the cat furthest. Tip cat resulted in much damage to school windows and bystanders.
In 19th-century school playgrounds boys played many rough games such as bar the door (later called bullrush), tag (or tig) and king of the castle. In a game sometimes called ‘cock fighting’ boys had piggy-back fights. Boys also played games with knives, sticks, balls, tops and hoops. In conkers, each tried to break the other’s conker (a horse chestnut suspended on a string) with their own. In the game of soldiers players competed to see who could knock the most flowerheads off grass stalks with a stick.
Before the introduction of rugby and cricket, older children commonly played games of rounders and shinty. They organised these games themselves, often making their own equipment and rules. Rounders was a summer game played by both girls and boys. It involved batting a ball and then running between bases. Shinty was a common winter game for boys. It resembled a violent form of hockey, whacking a ball around a field with improvised sticks.
In buck buck a group of boys formed a line bent over with horizontal backs. A player jumped on the back of the first boy and then made his way down the line. At the end of the line he asked the boy underneath, ‘Buck buck, how many fingers do I hold up?’ If the boy underneath answered correctly he was allowed to buck off the ‘rider’.
Since the 19th century girls have played games with singing and rhyming chants including hopscotch, skipping and clapping games. Cat’s cradle (a string game) was generally only played by girls. Both girls and boys played knucklebones and marbles. Versions of all these games continued in the 21st century. From the mid-20th century informal ball bouncing games such as handball and four square were widely played. A girls’ game from the 20th century that continued into the 21st century was elastics. This chanting game involved stretching long elastic bands between two players, while other players jumped in and out of the bands. The rhymes or chants used in all these games often contained a mixture of traditional elements and modern references.
There are many games that children mostly learn from each other and play without adult direction. Some are of ancient origin, while others are more recent. Māori children had a wide range of traditional games. In contrast, during the early years of settlement Pākehā children had few opportunities to play traditional games from their countries of origin.
In the 1850s, once settlements were more organised, large community picnics became regular events. Adults and children played traditional singing and tagging games. At home, children were taught games by their older siblings or sometimes their parents or grandparents. In the schoolyard children generally learned games from other children, rather than adults.
With the spread of organised sports in the early 20th century many traditional games became seen as primarily for younger children.
Playground rhymes were used in games and as entertainment in themselves. A rhyme recited as the holidays approached was: ‘Two more weeks and we shall be/Out of the gates of misery/No more writing, no more French/No more sitting on a hard board bench/No more walking two by two/Like the monkeys in the zoo,/No more spelling, no more sums,/No more teachers to whack our bums’.1
Singing games were most commonly played by girls. ‘Oranges and lemons’ was the most popular singing game. Two players held hands to form an arch, which the other players passed through as the arch-makers sang the song ‘Oranges and lemons’. At the end of the song a player was caught in the arch. Each caught player chose to be an orange or a lemon. When all players were caught the ‘orange’ and ‘lemon’ teams formed two human chains. A tug-of-war between the teams decided the winner of the game.
‘Nuts in May’ (or ‘nuts and May’) involved two facing chains of players dancing back and forward, each singing alternate verses. Other singing games included ‘Ring a ring o’ roses’ (also known as ‘Ring a rosy’), ‘Here we go round the mulberry bush’, ‘London Bridge is falling down’ and ‘The grand old duke of York’. The titles and the lyrics of the songs clearly indicated their British origins.
Tag or tig was the most common chasing game. The player who is ‘it’ chases the rest and whoever is caught then takes over as the pursuer. Hide and seek involves the ‘it’ player trying to find the others who have hidden. Children were always developing variations of tagging games, such as ‘What’s the time Mr Wolf?’, stuck in the mud, and stiff candles. Games might involve sneaking up on the ‘it’ player, tagged players having to freeze, or tagged players being freed by another player’s actions. A wide range of tagging games continued being played in 21st-century playgrounds.
At Ōhau, near Levin, in the 1910s, ‘[a]bout half the children came from two Maori pas in the district … I remember two essentially Maori games Cat’s Cradle and Homai, but the others were all traditional English games I think. These other included Fill the Gap, I Wrote a Letter, Twos and Threes, Green Gravels, Fox and Geese, Oranges and Lemons, Puss in the Corner.’2
The game known as bullrush has been called by many other names including bar the door, prisoner’s base, octopus and king o’ seenie.
The game requires a space on the playground defined by two lines. One player guards the space and calls on other players by name to run for the second line. If the ‘tagger’ catches the running player, they join in trying to catch the other players. If a runner gets through to the second line, all the remaining runners go for the line, creating general havoc. In later 20th century a number of schools banned bullrush, claiming it was dangerous. Despite the ban children have continued playing the game into the 21st century.
From the earliest days of Māori settlement children had the New Zealand environment as their playground. Both Māori and Pākehā children played in the forests, rivers, coastal waters and open spaces. Children hunted, gathered plants, explored, climbed trees, lit camp fires, built huts, forts, dams and swings, and swam in their favourite spots.
Not all activities were benign. Fighting, destroying plants, stealing birds’ eggs and tormenting animals were all part of play. In the 21st century there were fears that children were becoming cut off from nature due to increased urbanisation, more indoor entertainment and overprotective parents. Many children, nevertheless, continued to thrive on outdoor play.
In the 20th century New Zealand became increasingly urbanised. More traffic meant roads were no longer safe places for playing games such as hoop rolling and top spinning, while overhead wiring restricted kite flying. The development of sealed roads and footpaths was, however, ideal for homemade trolleys, roller skating and, later, skateboarding.
In the early 20th century many children still lived in relatively small towns. In the 1920s bicycles and tricycles became more widely available for children, expanding their range of travel. Even in larger cities, parks, areas of bush, rivers and the coast were often accessible. Both urban and rural children continued to explore and have adventures in natural settings.
At a school in Marton, in 1910, the ‘playground was bare earth with a morsel of gravel ‘round the “giant stride.” In winter it became a quagmire. Boys who fell over and muddied their clothes were allowed to stay out of school while a comrade scraped off mud with a pocketknife.’1
School playgrounds in the mid-19th century were often little more than muddy or scrubby paddocks. A few schools installed swings and play equipment, which became more widespread from the 1880s. In the 1890s a variety of citizens’ groups became concerned that many town children had to play on the streets. Following a US example, they campaigned for public playgrounds in New Zealand towns. Playgrounds tended to be aimed at younger children.
Playgrounds in the late 19th and early 20th century were equipped with swings, slides and sometimes a sandpit. Some had versions of the ‘giant stride’ roundabout. The jungle gym, introduced in the early 1930s, quickly became a favourite with children. There appears at first to have been little consideration for children’s safety. Climbing apparatus, roundabouts or swings were often placed directly over concrete, asphalt or gravel – all hard surfaces to fall on.
At the 1933 Christmas party for the children of the Onehunga Free Kindergarten, a novel piece of playground equipment was unveiled. The children were delighted as a local paper reported, ‘modern playground climbing apparatus, known as a “jungle Jim” created a vast amount of interest.’2
In the 1980s playground safety became a major issue among safety experts and concerned parents. Hard surfaces in playgrounds were replaced with bark chips or rubber matting. The heights of swings and jungle gyms were lowered, while some of the more dangerous equipment was removed. Playground equipment was designed to stricter safety standards, including kitsets built from solid plastic. Some parents were not so happy with the new ‘safer’ playgrounds. They feared that children were becoming too protected and would miss out on learning valuable skills if they were never exposed to risk. A further concern raised in the 1990s was the inaccessibility of playgrounds for disabled children.
Māori children had a range of toys, including teka (darts), pōtaka (tops), pīrori (hoops), manu taratahi (kites) and pouturu (stilts). Karetao were a type of carved wooden puppet or jumping jack with arms that could be moved by a string. Small flax canoes were floated down rivers. Children made small model pā for games of mock combat.
A suitable prong was cut from a tree and trimmed. A piece of bootlace 7–10 centimetres in length was tied to each side of the prong, then a 20–22-centimetre length of elastic was tied to the bootlace. A holder for missiles – a small oval piece of leather from an old boot – was attached to the elastic with short pieces of boot lace. With a collection of small stones as ammunition, the shanghai was ready to go.
In the early period of European settlement the majority of settler children largely relied on homemade toys. Kites, stilts, bows and arrows, model boats, wooden animals, rag dolls and wooden dolls were all produced from material at hand. An essential boys’ toy was the shanghai, a home-made catapult used for hunting and general mischief. One ‘toy’ that was purchased rather than made was the pocket knife – a vital piece of equipment for the colonial boy.
Hoops and tops were among the most common 19th-century toys. Iron hoops could be purchased cheaply from a local blacksmith and trundled about with a stick. Tops could be made at home from a convenient piece of wood. The whip that propelled the top was constructed from readily available flax.
The children of wealthier families had a much wider range of toys, including manufactured items. Specialist toy shops were found around the colony by the 1860s and department stores also had toy sections. Most toys were imported, including mechanical wind-up metal toys, lead or tin soldiers, miniature tea sets, dolls’ houses, and wax or porcelain dolls. Teddy bears and golliwogs made their appearance in the 1890s. Boys already played with improvised guns, but with mass production toy guns became widely available. In the 1960s some parents began to campaign against the sale of toy guns on the grounds that they encouraged violence.
In the 19th-century infants’ toys generally consisted of improvised items such as rattles made from household materials. Many dolls and soft toys were home-made. In the 20th century mass-produced teddy bears and other infants’ toys became widely available. The development of plastic greatly extended the range of infants’ toys. In the later 20th century the idea that toys should help child development meant many more toys were designed specifically for the very young.
In his poem ‘1950s’ Bill Manhire lists toys from the era: ‘My cricket bat. My football boots./My fishing rod. My hula hoop./My cowboy chaps. My scooter./Draughts. Happy families. Euchre./Ludo. Snap. My Davy Crockett hat./My bicycle. My bow and arrow./My puncture kit. My cat./The straight and narrow. Fancy that.’1
In the mid-20th century more toys became available at lower prices. In the 1930s and 1940s New Zealand toy manufacturers had an impact on the local market. Jack Underwood, who began manufacturing metal toys in his basement, went on to set up the Fun Ho! toy company. Hector and John Ramsey mass-produced the classic Buzzy Bee designed by Maurice Schlesinger and developed a range of other wooden toys from the 1940s. New Zealand toy companies were largely swamped by large overseas manufacturers in the later 20th century. Fashions for particular toys such as hula hoops, yo-yos, frisbees and diabolos (toys that are spun on a hand-held string track) were promoted through the mass media. Clockwork and then electric train sets were coveted by children of all ages.
In the 20th century toys were increasingly designed to be educational as well as entertaining. Meccano construction sets had been imported into New Zealand since the early 1900s. They consisted of metal pieces that were bolted together to make vehicles and buildings. In the later 20th-century Lego sets, with plastic push-together blocks, became the construction sets of choice. Changing attitudes are reflected in the fact that Meccano was largely seen as a toy for boys, whereas Lego was regarded as suitable for girls and boys. Lego retained its popularity into the 21st century.
The arrival of the Barbie doll in 1959 coincided with the introduction of television to New Zealand in the 1960s. Advertised on television, Barbie became the doll that young girls had to have. Barbie was soon challenged by the Sindy dolls. In the 1980s there were Jem dolls, originally from a television series, while in the 2000s the Bratz dolls spawned their own spinoff films, a television series and music albums. In contrast to the glamour of these doll ranges, the Cabbage Patch Kids of the 1980s had exaggerated chubby, baby-like features.
GI Joe and Action Man action figures produced for boys were extremely popular from the 1960s onwards. The term ‘action figure’ was used to avoid any idea that boys were in fact playing with dolls, an activity traditionally seen as strictly for girls.
The golliwog – a doll with dark skin, frizzy hair and outlandish clothing, which first appeared in the 1890s – fell out of favour in the 1960s, condemned as a racist caricature. The Barbie doll, representing a young, slim, blonde white female, came under fire from feminists in the 1970s, accused of presenting girls with an impossible body image and a poor role model. The multi-ethnic Bratz dolls of the 2000s were seen as sexualising children through their somewhat raunchy outfits.
In the late 19th century quieter indoor pursuits became more fashionable, including playing with painting sets, jigsaw puzzles, board games and card games, and collecting activities. Children cut out pictures from newspapers and magazines, then pasted them into newsprint scrapbooks. Building up stamp, cigarette card and postcard collections involved the joys of both collecting and swapping. The spread of indoor pursuits reflected an increase in prosperity and the wider availability of games and collectable materials.
Collectable items were often used to promote products. Cigarettes, tea, chewing gum and breakfast cereals are among the products that have used cards in this way. Some companies also produced albums for pasting in entire sets of cards. Small plastic animals in cornflakes packets were used as toys by young children and as collectors’ items by older children. Fast-food companies such as McDonalds gave away plastic toys with food purchases.
Toy soldiers were available in lead and tin forms in the 19th century, to be replaced by plastic soldiers in the 20th. In the 20th century building model aircraft and other vehicles from kits became a common hobby for boys. Models and collectables were both influenced by television and films, such as Thunderbirds, Star wars and the James Bond films.
Top sellers from the 2011 pre-Christmas survey by the retailer Toyworld included Cookie Pie Pup, a toy dog that responds to commands and barks; Elmo Rock singing toy; Lego building blocks; Transformers plastic toys; Sylvanian Families animal figures; and outdoor gym sets. The biggest seller was the Beyblade Battle Set, a spinning-top game.
Many children played Space Invaders and other games in the video arcades that were set up in the 1970s. By the end of the 1980s gaming consoles were widespread. The general availability of home computers in the 21st century meant that for many children computer games became a standard form of entertainment. This has led to public concerns over both the content of some games and whether children are now spending too much time in front of screens.
Best, Elsdon. Games and pastimes of the Māori: an account of various exercises, games and pastimes of the natives of New Zealand, as practised in former times. Wellington: Te Papa Press, 2005 (originally published 1925).
Sutton-Smith, Brian. The folkgames of children. Austin: American Folkore Society, 1972.
Sutton-Smith, Brian. A history of children’s play: New Zealand 1840–1950. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1982.
Trewby, Mary. The best years of your life: a history of New Zealand childhood. Auckland: Viking, 1995. | 5,969 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The list of Brazilian Emperors is a short one. The Brazilian monarchy lasted for 67 years, ruled first by a father and then by a son, both bearing the name of Pedro. Of the two, Pedro II ruled Brazil for a far longer period; in fact, he sat on the throne for 58 of those 67 years. During that time, he stabilized Brazil’s political system, represented the nation to the rest of the world as a sort of sophisticated “philosopher king,” and helped bring his homeland into the modern world.
But, in many ways, the fact that Pedro II was an emperor is one of the least interesting things about him. Of all the people ever to hold as much power as he did, few did more than Pedro to ensure that they lived a rich, full life apart from politics. Rarely was this done out of selfishness. Pedro II cared deeply for Brazil, as evidenced by his last words:
“May God grant me these last wishes – peace and prosperity for Brazil…”
Becoming an emperor at just five years old meant that Pedro II held the job for decades. Even the most dedicated public servant would be itching for a vacation after that long, and Pedro was no exception. In May of 1871, Pedro left Brazil for just over a year to tour Europe and North Africa. In March of 1876, he left again, this time for an even longer duration, visiting the United States, Canada, more of Europe, and the Middle East.
In Pedro II’s case, the disadvantage of being a constitutional monarch rather than an autocrat was that he could not push through all the reforms that he wanted. Pedro felt that Brazil would be better off without the inhumane practice of slavery. However, many of the elected officials in power disagreed with this stance and blocked abolition for decades. It was only at the tail end of Pedro’s reign in May 1888 that slavery in Brazil was finally abolished. In addition to the cause of abolition, Pedro II fought for education and economic reforms in Brazil, and his legislature did not see eye to eye with him on these matters either.
A wife was arranged for Pedro II from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (AKA Italy). Before her arrival, Pedro II had only ever seen Teresa Cristina’s official portrait. Upon her arrival, Pedro found that she looked nothing like the portrait, shocked that she was so "'short and dumpy'" and "walked with a pronounced limp." Though he was disappointed in his new wife’s physical appearance (and his new wife was stung by his obvious disappointment, so much so that she considered jumping off the ship she was on), the two became a strong couple over time. Among the things that contributed to the couple growing closer was a shared love of opera.
Most of Pedro II’s travels abroad saw him welcomed and feted in accordance with his stature as Emperor of Brazil. However, in between official duties, he traveled incognito, using the name “D. Pedro d’Alcantara.” He rode trains without his entourage and stayed in normal hotels under his assumed name. He also had a penchant for sightseeing, touring monuments and points of interest with zeal that was difficult for his entourage (and wife) to match. | <urn:uuid:41dbd093-0c3b-4720-a860-497187cf50cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ranker.com/list/facts-about-emperor-of-brazil-pedro-ii/michael-coast | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00109.warc.gz | en | 0.989181 | 684 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.5072044730186... | 1 | The list of Brazilian Emperors is a short one. The Brazilian monarchy lasted for 67 years, ruled first by a father and then by a son, both bearing the name of Pedro. Of the two, Pedro II ruled Brazil for a far longer period; in fact, he sat on the throne for 58 of those 67 years. During that time, he stabilized Brazil’s political system, represented the nation to the rest of the world as a sort of sophisticated “philosopher king,” and helped bring his homeland into the modern world.
But, in many ways, the fact that Pedro II was an emperor is one of the least interesting things about him. Of all the people ever to hold as much power as he did, few did more than Pedro to ensure that they lived a rich, full life apart from politics. Rarely was this done out of selfishness. Pedro II cared deeply for Brazil, as evidenced by his last words:
“May God grant me these last wishes – peace and prosperity for Brazil…”
Becoming an emperor at just five years old meant that Pedro II held the job for decades. Even the most dedicated public servant would be itching for a vacation after that long, and Pedro was no exception. In May of 1871, Pedro left Brazil for just over a year to tour Europe and North Africa. In March of 1876, he left again, this time for an even longer duration, visiting the United States, Canada, more of Europe, and the Middle East.
In Pedro II’s case, the disadvantage of being a constitutional monarch rather than an autocrat was that he could not push through all the reforms that he wanted. Pedro felt that Brazil would be better off without the inhumane practice of slavery. However, many of the elected officials in power disagreed with this stance and blocked abolition for decades. It was only at the tail end of Pedro’s reign in May 1888 that slavery in Brazil was finally abolished. In addition to the cause of abolition, Pedro II fought for education and economic reforms in Brazil, and his legislature did not see eye to eye with him on these matters either.
A wife was arranged for Pedro II from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (AKA Italy). Before her arrival, Pedro II had only ever seen Teresa Cristina’s official portrait. Upon her arrival, Pedro found that she looked nothing like the portrait, shocked that she was so "'short and dumpy'" and "walked with a pronounced limp." Though he was disappointed in his new wife’s physical appearance (and his new wife was stung by his obvious disappointment, so much so that she considered jumping off the ship she was on), the two became a strong couple over time. Among the things that contributed to the couple growing closer was a shared love of opera.
Most of Pedro II’s travels abroad saw him welcomed and feted in accordance with his stature as Emperor of Brazil. However, in between official duties, he traveled incognito, using the name “D. Pedro d’Alcantara.” He rode trains without his entourage and stayed in normal hotels under his assumed name. He also had a penchant for sightseeing, touring monuments and points of interest with zeal that was difficult for his entourage (and wife) to match. | 672 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the 1920s and 1930s Americans thought of Adolf Hitler as a joke. His shrill voice and jerky hand movements made it difficult to take him seriously. But some of the first people to meet him didn’t feel the same way.
Junior military attaché Truman Smith said, “This is a marvelous demagogue who can really inspire loyalty.”
Karl von Wiegand was the first American journalist to interview Hitler in 1922. He felt the same way as Smith. They were both struck by Hitler’s oratorical skills and his ability to drive people into a frenzy.
The Nazi Party finally emerged as a major contender for power after the great depression hit, but Americans still considered Hitler to be a clown.
Most people believed that if Hitler gained power, German politicians would take control of him. Reassessments unfortunately came soon thereafter.
Chicago Daily News correspondent Edgar Mowrer frantically tried to warn readers worldwide, saying, “What he’s saying about the Jews is serious. Don’t underestimate him.”
American correspondents in Berlin were living in relative luxury. The good correspondents and diplomats worked hard to gather information, although it was becoming progressively more difficult and dangerous to obtain.
Edgar Mowrer took huge risks to get information by meeting with a German-Jewish doctor. During regular doctor visits, the doctor would slip him notes when his assistant left the room.
The notes contained information about who had been arrested, presumably journalists. The meetings became too risky, and the two moved their meetings to a public restroom where the doctor would drop the note and Mowrer would retrieve it undetected.
Not all correspondents and diplomats were so brave as to obtain dangerous information. Most felt constrained and didn’t wish to put themselves in jeopardy.
The mainstream media was used against the people, and those brave enough to report the truth were subject to the ultimate consequence.
Reporters were slow to write about things they had witnessed firsthand. After Hitler took power, there were attacks on Americans who refused to give the Hitler salute.
Radio broadcaster Hans Kaltenborn believed that the reports were an exaggeration – until his teenage son was beaten up for the refusal to salute.
The Nazis apologized and told Kaltenborn: “I hope you won’t write about this.”
Kaltenborn was reluctant to do so, most likely because the apology was really a warning.
Charles Lindberg was among the Americans that believed Hitler was helping to get Germany back on its feet.
Amazed at how orderly Germany had become, Lindberg was also providing real-time intelligence for the U.S. He became part of the America First movement, and tried to keep America out of the war by giving information to American diplomats that he thought would urge Washington to stay away.
American journalists were often the first to warn German Jews what danger they were in. Mowrer was run out of Germany after he kept advising Jews to get out quickly.
But German-Jews were also urged by non-Jewish industrialists to give money to the Nazi Party. They were told that it would be a way for them to protect themselves.
Like most Americans, German-Jews didn’t believe what was happening. That’s the power of state-controlled media working hard against the people. | <urn:uuid:bfeff3f6-27bd-4ba0-beac-93a6e2109854> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://humansarefree.com/2017/02/adolf-hitler-arrested-and-executed-fake-news-journalists-who-rightfully-claimed-that-jews-were-being-exterminated.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00497.warc.gz | en | 0.987526 | 690 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.153241336345672... | 8 | In the 1920s and 1930s Americans thought of Adolf Hitler as a joke. His shrill voice and jerky hand movements made it difficult to take him seriously. But some of the first people to meet him didn’t feel the same way.
Junior military attaché Truman Smith said, “This is a marvelous demagogue who can really inspire loyalty.”
Karl von Wiegand was the first American journalist to interview Hitler in 1922. He felt the same way as Smith. They were both struck by Hitler’s oratorical skills and his ability to drive people into a frenzy.
The Nazi Party finally emerged as a major contender for power after the great depression hit, but Americans still considered Hitler to be a clown.
Most people believed that if Hitler gained power, German politicians would take control of him. Reassessments unfortunately came soon thereafter.
Chicago Daily News correspondent Edgar Mowrer frantically tried to warn readers worldwide, saying, “What he’s saying about the Jews is serious. Don’t underestimate him.”
American correspondents in Berlin were living in relative luxury. The good correspondents and diplomats worked hard to gather information, although it was becoming progressively more difficult and dangerous to obtain.
Edgar Mowrer took huge risks to get information by meeting with a German-Jewish doctor. During regular doctor visits, the doctor would slip him notes when his assistant left the room.
The notes contained information about who had been arrested, presumably journalists. The meetings became too risky, and the two moved their meetings to a public restroom where the doctor would drop the note and Mowrer would retrieve it undetected.
Not all correspondents and diplomats were so brave as to obtain dangerous information. Most felt constrained and didn’t wish to put themselves in jeopardy.
The mainstream media was used against the people, and those brave enough to report the truth were subject to the ultimate consequence.
Reporters were slow to write about things they had witnessed firsthand. After Hitler took power, there were attacks on Americans who refused to give the Hitler salute.
Radio broadcaster Hans Kaltenborn believed that the reports were an exaggeration – until his teenage son was beaten up for the refusal to salute.
The Nazis apologized and told Kaltenborn: “I hope you won’t write about this.”
Kaltenborn was reluctant to do so, most likely because the apology was really a warning.
Charles Lindberg was among the Americans that believed Hitler was helping to get Germany back on its feet.
Amazed at how orderly Germany had become, Lindberg was also providing real-time intelligence for the U.S. He became part of the America First movement, and tried to keep America out of the war by giving information to American diplomats that he thought would urge Washington to stay away.
American journalists were often the first to warn German Jews what danger they were in. Mowrer was run out of Germany after he kept advising Jews to get out quickly.
But German-Jews were also urged by non-Jewish industrialists to give money to the Nazi Party. They were told that it would be a way for them to protect themselves.
Like most Americans, German-Jews didn’t believe what was happening. That’s the power of state-controlled media working hard against the people. | 658 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An Analysis on Historical Accounts on Slavery in the United States Essay
An Analysis on Historical Accounts on Slavery
in the United States
Historical accounts have concurred and authenticated that slavery of Africans was widely practiced in the colonial United States. People bought from slave trades were brought to the Americas to work in sugar, rice and cotton plantations. Various anti-slavery movements and the civil war of the 1860s led to the abrogation of slavery. Despite the laws that protected “colored” people, racial discrimination continued to occur. “A separate but equal” doctrine was practiced where the colored people were segregated and given subordinate rights to those people of European descent.
Today, decades since Martin Luther King dreamed of a nation where people will not be judged by the color of their skin, the United States of America has completely abolished slavery. Americans, regardless of their color are entitled to the Bill of Rights provided in the U.S. Constitution. Months from now we might have the first African-American president in Barack Obama.
In this paper, I will examine four historical accounts on slavery in the colonial United States in the 18th and 19th centuries. To be able to have truthful account of slavery in the past, we have to examine the documents carefully. According to the Library of Congress, these questions will help me judge the quality of primary sources:
1. Who created the source and why? Was it created through
a spur-of-the-moment act, a routine transaction, or a thoughtful, deliberate process?
2.Did the recorder have firsthand knowledge of the event? Or, did the recorder report what others saw and heard?
3. Was the recorder a neutral party, or did the creator have opinions or interests that might have influenced what was recorded?
4. Did the recorder produce the source for personal use, for one or more individuals, or for a large audience?
5. Was the source meant to be public or private?
6. Did the recorder wish to inform or persuade others? (Check the words in the source. The words may tell you whether the recorder was trying to be objective or persuasive.) Did the recorder have reasons to be honest or dishonest?
7. Was the information recorded during the event, immediately after the event, or after some lapse of time? How large a lapse of time?
Critical Analysis of Historical Accounts
4.B Freedmen Report
Major General S. Hurlbut, submitted a report for the Bureau of Education for Freedman, Department of the Gulf, of the status of, or the absence of, education for African Americans in New Orleans. He reported that while formal education has been available, to white people, only informal education has been available to people of African-descent and other members of the “colored population.” He added that while taxes have been assessed in order to support a public school system for colored people, only little funding has been provided to support this cause.
He added that while many of the colored people were already well off (they were known as Creoles), they were still unable to access education as they were not admitted to white schools. His report also said that ban of education towards colored people was not disallowed by law, public opinion still discouraged giving education to blacks. Some of these people, he said, were able to learn to read and write by being home-schooled or by being able to join few private schools.
For poor colored people, he noted, most or all of them were not able to go to school. He cited a statute which said that teaching a slave to read and write was a heinous offense and that it would incite insubordination from the servile class. The offense was punishable by long years in prison or by death.
He shared, however, instances when colored people were able to obtain education through (i) masters teaching their slaves how to read and write, and (ii) good people who put up schools despite the public’s outcry against it.
Major General S. Hurlbut’s account was a report submitted to the the Bureau of Education for Freedman, Department of the Gulf. Congress created the Bureau of Education after African-American’s demanded for education. According to other historical accounts, the Bureau had already set up schools for hundreds of colored people in other states like Georgia. Hence, General Hurlbut’s through his personal experience, and experience by other members of his group, to come up with an assessment of the state of education of the African Americans.
His report has clearly been prepared using a deliberate process, inspection of the place and after discussion with other members of the Bureau.
As to the status of education in New Orleans, his account was completely believable because (i) the primary purpose of the report was to give an assessment of education in New Orleans, (ii) the plans of the Bureau in New Orleans depend on the merits of his report, and (iii) it was his job to give an honest assessment.
His accounts on one of the people who pushed for education of the blacks, namely Mrs. Mary D. Brice, of Ohio, also appears to be believable. His narrative on Ms. Brice was likely not a product of hearsay, as Ms. Brice was able to join the Bureau as principal in the area.
His other narratives on other issues, like the trouble of colored people in obtaining education also appears to be accurate since many primary sources tell us that blacks were discriminated by whites in the past because the former’s descendants came to the Americas as slaves. Prior laws had also banned education of blacks. These factors would not contradict Mr. Hurlbut’s accounts that there was outcry by white people towards entitling blacks to education, which only the whites were previously entitled to.
As to the issue of whether he was objective or persuasive, the a report or assessment to the Freedmen Bureau required Mr. Hurlbut to give an objective account of education in Louisiana.
Mr. Hurlbut’s decision to expose the discrimination in New Orleans was an unpopular act and would be subject to scrutiny by the whites if his account was false.
As to the timing, the report was submitted February 28, 1865, and provided details on the the operations of the Board from March 22, 1864 to December 31, 1865. Events that started in April 1862 were also discussed. The timing does not discredit the accuracy of the report since the contents of the report did not mention a single event, but an overall picture of what had happened to New Orleans in the past year.
The factors mentioned above point that Mr. Hurlbut’s report was completely accurate.
4.C. Price M. Butler’s Account.
Price M. Butler recounted a liquidation of the majority of slaves of the Butler estate. She gives a narrative on the people’s reaction to the mass auction of slaves from the Butler’s. The public’s reaction to the sale showed that the slaves were treated like commodities, like jewelries or other valuable items sold in auction houses or on eBay. People were interested on the prices the slaves would fetch, and the skills of these people put up for sale.
Ms. Butler, the author, however, delved deeper and gave an emotional discourse on the status of the blacks sold at the auction. She mentioned about how the slaves were separated from their friends and other slaves not included in the auction. She detailed on how husband and wife were packaged together but away from their children. She also said about how unmarried slaves were couples were made to be apart because they weren’t legally required to be together. She also implied about the fears of the slaves to have new masters, as they have been treated well by the Butler’s, and as some of them have spent their entire lives at the Butler’s.
It was not clearly stated how the author Price M. Butler was related to John Butler and other descendants to the Butler estate. The story was written as a “sequel to Mrs. Kembles Journal.”
If Price Butler was related to the people from the Butler estate, she must have had first hand knowledge about the
March 2, 1859 auction. With that assumption, she may also have firsthand knowledge about how the slaves were treated in the Butler estate, and the reaction of the slaves towards the auction, as she may likely have had interacted with some of them. The details of the auction may have also been her first-hand account.
As to neutrality, Ms. Butler may have not been a neutral party since she was a Butler, and that her account may have been selective. It was not clearly implied whether the account was meant for a large audience or a small audience. What Ms. Butler, however, did was to look at the slaves as people also and interpret what they feel.
With respect to the slaves’ departure from the Butler estate, Ms. Butler’s said “…here they left not only the well-known scenes dear to them from very baby-hood by a thousand fond memories, and homes as much loved by them, perhaps, as brighter homes by men of brighter faces; but all the clinging ties that bound them to living hearts were torn asunder, for but one-half of each of these two happy little communities was sent to the shambles, to be scattered to the four winds, and the other half was left behind…” Statements like this connote that the account was more persuasive than objective. Instead of giving evidence on whether the slaves disagree or agree with their sale, Ms. Butler opined, using poetic words, the feelings of the blacks towards their transfer.
The information was written three years after the sale was done. This lapse has been substantial.
Very few sources look at past records on slavery as beautifully as what Ms. Butler did. She delved into the lives, the emotions and the feelings of the slaves in respect to their exit from the Butler estate. She reminds us that blacks are people also. And like us, they will miss their love ones, and feel alone if they have to leave. However, the lapse of time the essay has been written, the unavailability of information to verify how the slaves have really felt would recommend that not everything in this essay may have been accurate or believable.
4.D Hawke’s Account
Ina b. Hawkes, a research field worker for the Georgia writers Project, wrote “My Ups and Downs”, a short memoir about his experience in a Negro settlement. He shares his experience talking to a black woman, who was living in a small shanty. Her account of slavery came from what the black woman had told her. The black woman’s parents were slaves. She recounted how her parents’ masters treated them well. They would give them milk and bread, and they would teach them how to reach ad write. Children, she said, were not required to join the fields.
Ms. Hawkes wrote her account on October 9, 1939, barely a month when she interviewed a black woman. Hence her record of her conversations with the black woman is still crisp and has high possibility of its accuracy.
Ms. Hawkes’ source of information may have been authentic also. She interviewed a black woman whose parents were previously slaves. Although a lot of account showed that people oppressed slaves, there were some masters who were also good to them. This does not clash with Mr. Hurlbut’s report that some slaves were able to know ABCs despite being unable to go to school because their masters were generous enough to teach them.
The only issue worth scrutinizing in the black woman’s account of her experience in slavery is that not everything she had said may entirely have been true. She said of the good things about their prior masters and mistresses (like teaching them, exempting slaves’ children from farm work), without saying something bad about their former employers. The black woman had mentioned that their mistress would slap them in order to push them in to learning the ABCs. This might connote that their mistress might have been violent in other aspects also.
Overall, this account appears to be entirely accurate since Ms. Hawkes’ source was a child of a slave.
4.E. Mrs. Lula Bowers II’s folklore’s collection
Ms. Bowers recounted a grandmother of New Morrison, whom she says was the first woman free dealer. She gave details on how the woman was able to successfully tend the farm, a job that only men were supposed to do. She also shared that his father oversaw the work of the slaves. She also discussed how the slaves were fed, their accommodations, and their arrangements with their masters.
Ms. Bowers appeared to have first hand information of slavery. Her father, aunt and her, had their own experiences and interaction with the slaves. While she mentions about the slaves given housing, and adequate food, she says they were still discriminated. Among other things, the slaves were not given education.
The source does not clearly show though when the account was written. However, it is shown that, based on the details of her account, including how the slaves made tea out of soot from the chimney, how the slaves were required to have tickets to join Sunday schools, appear to reflect that she was giving an objective view of her experiences.
4.F. E.W. Evans’ Account
E. W. Evans talked about her parents who were slaves in Atlanta before the war. He narrated that her parents’ master was a senator of the state. He wasn’t able to work as a slave because he was still young when slavery was still practiced.
E.W. Evans was a son of slaves and he likely gave an accurate account of his father’s experiences. However, note that he wrote, “I said I wuz born a slave but I wuz too young to know much about slavery. I wuz the property of the Hill family from 1855 to 1865, when freedom wuz declared and they said we wuz free. …” This shows that his own account may have not been entirely true because he was still not mature enough when slavery was practiced. Hence, his account on how his father’s masters have treated them may not be primary.
Primary sources on slavery would give us authentic knowledge on the practice of slavery 200 years ago. As we have observed in the five readings we have studied, different people have different position and views about slavery in the past. However, what would be authentic is the common situations presented by each of the readings. These include (i) black people were not entitled to education, (ii) black people acted as slaves to people, and (iii) slaves were not given the same rights as whites.
To gain more about slavery, it would be helpful if we continue reading sources posted in Slavery in the United States, 1790-1865 Web site at:
Cite this An Analysis on Historical Accounts on Slavery in the United States Essay
An Analysis on Historical Accounts on Slavery in the United States Essay. (2016, Jul 28). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/an-analysis-on-historical-accounts-on-slavery-in-the-united-states/ | <urn:uuid:3cc3385a-cb44-43fe-8c62-6dc14fd400b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/an-analysis-on-historical-accounts-on-slavery-in-the-united-states/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.987586 | 3,175 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.373467326... | 1 | An Analysis on Historical Accounts on Slavery in the United States Essay
An Analysis on Historical Accounts on Slavery
in the United States
Historical accounts have concurred and authenticated that slavery of Africans was widely practiced in the colonial United States. People bought from slave trades were brought to the Americas to work in sugar, rice and cotton plantations. Various anti-slavery movements and the civil war of the 1860s led to the abrogation of slavery. Despite the laws that protected “colored” people, racial discrimination continued to occur. “A separate but equal” doctrine was practiced where the colored people were segregated and given subordinate rights to those people of European descent.
Today, decades since Martin Luther King dreamed of a nation where people will not be judged by the color of their skin, the United States of America has completely abolished slavery. Americans, regardless of their color are entitled to the Bill of Rights provided in the U.S. Constitution. Months from now we might have the first African-American president in Barack Obama.
In this paper, I will examine four historical accounts on slavery in the colonial United States in the 18th and 19th centuries. To be able to have truthful account of slavery in the past, we have to examine the documents carefully. According to the Library of Congress, these questions will help me judge the quality of primary sources:
1. Who created the source and why? Was it created through
a spur-of-the-moment act, a routine transaction, or a thoughtful, deliberate process?
2.Did the recorder have firsthand knowledge of the event? Or, did the recorder report what others saw and heard?
3. Was the recorder a neutral party, or did the creator have opinions or interests that might have influenced what was recorded?
4. Did the recorder produce the source for personal use, for one or more individuals, or for a large audience?
5. Was the source meant to be public or private?
6. Did the recorder wish to inform or persuade others? (Check the words in the source. The words may tell you whether the recorder was trying to be objective or persuasive.) Did the recorder have reasons to be honest or dishonest?
7. Was the information recorded during the event, immediately after the event, or after some lapse of time? How large a lapse of time?
Critical Analysis of Historical Accounts
4.B Freedmen Report
Major General S. Hurlbut, submitted a report for the Bureau of Education for Freedman, Department of the Gulf, of the status of, or the absence of, education for African Americans in New Orleans. He reported that while formal education has been available, to white people, only informal education has been available to people of African-descent and other members of the “colored population.” He added that while taxes have been assessed in order to support a public school system for colored people, only little funding has been provided to support this cause.
He added that while many of the colored people were already well off (they were known as Creoles), they were still unable to access education as they were not admitted to white schools. His report also said that ban of education towards colored people was not disallowed by law, public opinion still discouraged giving education to blacks. Some of these people, he said, were able to learn to read and write by being home-schooled or by being able to join few private schools.
For poor colored people, he noted, most or all of them were not able to go to school. He cited a statute which said that teaching a slave to read and write was a heinous offense and that it would incite insubordination from the servile class. The offense was punishable by long years in prison or by death.
He shared, however, instances when colored people were able to obtain education through (i) masters teaching their slaves how to read and write, and (ii) good people who put up schools despite the public’s outcry against it.
Major General S. Hurlbut’s account was a report submitted to the the Bureau of Education for Freedman, Department of the Gulf. Congress created the Bureau of Education after African-American’s demanded for education. According to other historical accounts, the Bureau had already set up schools for hundreds of colored people in other states like Georgia. Hence, General Hurlbut’s through his personal experience, and experience by other members of his group, to come up with an assessment of the state of education of the African Americans.
His report has clearly been prepared using a deliberate process, inspection of the place and after discussion with other members of the Bureau.
As to the status of education in New Orleans, his account was completely believable because (i) the primary purpose of the report was to give an assessment of education in New Orleans, (ii) the plans of the Bureau in New Orleans depend on the merits of his report, and (iii) it was his job to give an honest assessment.
His accounts on one of the people who pushed for education of the blacks, namely Mrs. Mary D. Brice, of Ohio, also appears to be believable. His narrative on Ms. Brice was likely not a product of hearsay, as Ms. Brice was able to join the Bureau as principal in the area.
His other narratives on other issues, like the trouble of colored people in obtaining education also appears to be accurate since many primary sources tell us that blacks were discriminated by whites in the past because the former’s descendants came to the Americas as slaves. Prior laws had also banned education of blacks. These factors would not contradict Mr. Hurlbut’s accounts that there was outcry by white people towards entitling blacks to education, which only the whites were previously entitled to.
As to the issue of whether he was objective or persuasive, the a report or assessment to the Freedmen Bureau required Mr. Hurlbut to give an objective account of education in Louisiana.
Mr. Hurlbut’s decision to expose the discrimination in New Orleans was an unpopular act and would be subject to scrutiny by the whites if his account was false.
As to the timing, the report was submitted February 28, 1865, and provided details on the the operations of the Board from March 22, 1864 to December 31, 1865. Events that started in April 1862 were also discussed. The timing does not discredit the accuracy of the report since the contents of the report did not mention a single event, but an overall picture of what had happened to New Orleans in the past year.
The factors mentioned above point that Mr. Hurlbut’s report was completely accurate.
4.C. Price M. Butler’s Account.
Price M. Butler recounted a liquidation of the majority of slaves of the Butler estate. She gives a narrative on the people’s reaction to the mass auction of slaves from the Butler’s. The public’s reaction to the sale showed that the slaves were treated like commodities, like jewelries or other valuable items sold in auction houses or on eBay. People were interested on the prices the slaves would fetch, and the skills of these people put up for sale.
Ms. Butler, the author, however, delved deeper and gave an emotional discourse on the status of the blacks sold at the auction. She mentioned about how the slaves were separated from their friends and other slaves not included in the auction. She detailed on how husband and wife were packaged together but away from their children. She also said about how unmarried slaves were couples were made to be apart because they weren’t legally required to be together. She also implied about the fears of the slaves to have new masters, as they have been treated well by the Butler’s, and as some of them have spent their entire lives at the Butler’s.
It was not clearly stated how the author Price M. Butler was related to John Butler and other descendants to the Butler estate. The story was written as a “sequel to Mrs. Kembles Journal.”
If Price Butler was related to the people from the Butler estate, she must have had first hand knowledge about the
March 2, 1859 auction. With that assumption, she may also have firsthand knowledge about how the slaves were treated in the Butler estate, and the reaction of the slaves towards the auction, as she may likely have had interacted with some of them. The details of the auction may have also been her first-hand account.
As to neutrality, Ms. Butler may have not been a neutral party since she was a Butler, and that her account may have been selective. It was not clearly implied whether the account was meant for a large audience or a small audience. What Ms. Butler, however, did was to look at the slaves as people also and interpret what they feel.
With respect to the slaves’ departure from the Butler estate, Ms. Butler’s said “…here they left not only the well-known scenes dear to them from very baby-hood by a thousand fond memories, and homes as much loved by them, perhaps, as brighter homes by men of brighter faces; but all the clinging ties that bound them to living hearts were torn asunder, for but one-half of each of these two happy little communities was sent to the shambles, to be scattered to the four winds, and the other half was left behind…” Statements like this connote that the account was more persuasive than objective. Instead of giving evidence on whether the slaves disagree or agree with their sale, Ms. Butler opined, using poetic words, the feelings of the blacks towards their transfer.
The information was written three years after the sale was done. This lapse has been substantial.
Very few sources look at past records on slavery as beautifully as what Ms. Butler did. She delved into the lives, the emotions and the feelings of the slaves in respect to their exit from the Butler estate. She reminds us that blacks are people also. And like us, they will miss their love ones, and feel alone if they have to leave. However, the lapse of time the essay has been written, the unavailability of information to verify how the slaves have really felt would recommend that not everything in this essay may have been accurate or believable.
4.D Hawke’s Account
Ina b. Hawkes, a research field worker for the Georgia writers Project, wrote “My Ups and Downs”, a short memoir about his experience in a Negro settlement. He shares his experience talking to a black woman, who was living in a small shanty. Her account of slavery came from what the black woman had told her. The black woman’s parents were slaves. She recounted how her parents’ masters treated them well. They would give them milk and bread, and they would teach them how to reach ad write. Children, she said, were not required to join the fields.
Ms. Hawkes wrote her account on October 9, 1939, barely a month when she interviewed a black woman. Hence her record of her conversations with the black woman is still crisp and has high possibility of its accuracy.
Ms. Hawkes’ source of information may have been authentic also. She interviewed a black woman whose parents were previously slaves. Although a lot of account showed that people oppressed slaves, there were some masters who were also good to them. This does not clash with Mr. Hurlbut’s report that some slaves were able to know ABCs despite being unable to go to school because their masters were generous enough to teach them.
The only issue worth scrutinizing in the black woman’s account of her experience in slavery is that not everything she had said may entirely have been true. She said of the good things about their prior masters and mistresses (like teaching them, exempting slaves’ children from farm work), without saying something bad about their former employers. The black woman had mentioned that their mistress would slap them in order to push them in to learning the ABCs. This might connote that their mistress might have been violent in other aspects also.
Overall, this account appears to be entirely accurate since Ms. Hawkes’ source was a child of a slave.
4.E. Mrs. Lula Bowers II’s folklore’s collection
Ms. Bowers recounted a grandmother of New Morrison, whom she says was the first woman free dealer. She gave details on how the woman was able to successfully tend the farm, a job that only men were supposed to do. She also shared that his father oversaw the work of the slaves. She also discussed how the slaves were fed, their accommodations, and their arrangements with their masters.
Ms. Bowers appeared to have first hand information of slavery. Her father, aunt and her, had their own experiences and interaction with the slaves. While she mentions about the slaves given housing, and adequate food, she says they were still discriminated. Among other things, the slaves were not given education.
The source does not clearly show though when the account was written. However, it is shown that, based on the details of her account, including how the slaves made tea out of soot from the chimney, how the slaves were required to have tickets to join Sunday schools, appear to reflect that she was giving an objective view of her experiences.
4.F. E.W. Evans’ Account
E. W. Evans talked about her parents who were slaves in Atlanta before the war. He narrated that her parents’ master was a senator of the state. He wasn’t able to work as a slave because he was still young when slavery was still practiced.
E.W. Evans was a son of slaves and he likely gave an accurate account of his father’s experiences. However, note that he wrote, “I said I wuz born a slave but I wuz too young to know much about slavery. I wuz the property of the Hill family from 1855 to 1865, when freedom wuz declared and they said we wuz free. …” This shows that his own account may have not been entirely true because he was still not mature enough when slavery was practiced. Hence, his account on how his father’s masters have treated them may not be primary.
Primary sources on slavery would give us authentic knowledge on the practice of slavery 200 years ago. As we have observed in the five readings we have studied, different people have different position and views about slavery in the past. However, what would be authentic is the common situations presented by each of the readings. These include (i) black people were not entitled to education, (ii) black people acted as slaves to people, and (iii) slaves were not given the same rights as whites.
To gain more about slavery, it would be helpful if we continue reading sources posted in Slavery in the United States, 1790-1865 Web site at:
Cite this An Analysis on Historical Accounts on Slavery in the United States Essay
An Analysis on Historical Accounts on Slavery in the United States Essay. (2016, Jul 28). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/an-analysis-on-historical-accounts-on-slavery-in-the-united-states/ | 3,090 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Ziggurat of Jiroft, known also as the Konar Sandal Ziggurat, is an ancient monument located in Jiroft in the southern Iranian province of Kerman, a place that some say is Iran’s cradle of civilization. This ziggurat was discovered in 2002, and it has been reported that it is the second ziggurat to be found in Iran, the first being the Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat. According to some sources, the Ziggurat of Jiroft is the largest and oldest structure of its kind in the world.
The word ziggurat may be translated as ‘temple-tower’, and is a structure consisting of several levels, the topmost of which was probably a high temple. Ziggurats are most commonly associated with the Mesopotamian civilization, which today roughly corresponds to most of Iraq plus Kuwait, and the eastern parts of Syria. Nevertheless, some of these monumental structures have also been found in the western part of Iran. One of the ways of distinguishing between Mesopotamian and Iranian ziggurats is the way these buildings were accessed. It has been pointed out that in the former, the structures were accessed by an external flight of stairs. On the other hand, the ziggurats in Iran were accessed by ramps. In Iran, the best known ziggurat is Choga Zanbil, which is located along the River Dez in the southwestern Khuzestan province. This ziggurat was discovered in 1936, and was inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979. It has been dated to around 1250 B.C., and until 2002, it was the only ziggurat known to have survived in Iran.
Two mounds have been excavated in Jiroft, a town 230 km to the south of Kermna, the capital of the Kerman province. These two mounds are separated by a couple of kilometres from each other, and have been designated as sites ‘A’ and ‘B’. The excavation of site B revealed a two-storey citadel with a base covering an area of 13.5 hectares. Surrounding this structure were the remains of a wall 10.5 m in thickness. These findings suggest that the structure had once been a fortified building.
At site ‘A’, on the other hand, a ziggurat-like structure, which consists of two levels, was unearthed. This structure has been measured to be 17m in height, 300m in both length and width at the base, and 150m on each side of the second level. This huge structure covered almost the whole of the mound. As this monument structurally resembles the ziggurats of Mesopotamia, it has been suggested that buried beneath the sand may be the oldest and largest ziggurat in the world. It has been suggested that the ziggurat unearthed in Jiroft dates to around 2200 B.C. By comparison, the oldest ziggurat in Mesopotamia, the ziggurat of Ur, is regarded as having been built around 2100 B.C. by Ur-Nammu. Some have also hypothesised that the ziggurat of Jiroft was built by the Aratta, a legendary Bronze Age kingdom whose existence has been attested in Sumerian texts. The precise location of this civilization, however, is unclear. For instance, whilst some scholars believe that Aratta was situated in what is today Jiroft, others have suggested that this legendary kingdom was located in Azerbaijan, Baluchistan or on the Gulf.
Apart from the location of Aratta, the age of the ziggurat has also been questioned. So far, the dating of the monument has been based on two small fragments that may be written inscriptions. Undisturbed material for radiocarbon dating, however, has yet to be found. It appears that the great mound in Jiroft has many more secrets to reveal. | <urn:uuid:8f74f539-cd4c-4328-9c8c-6cdb0c4b0663> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.irantrawell.com/jiroft-kerman-has-the-largest-and-oldest-ziggurat-in-the-world/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00477.warc.gz | en | 0.983087 | 804 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.34510561823844... | 2 | The Ziggurat of Jiroft, known also as the Konar Sandal Ziggurat, is an ancient monument located in Jiroft in the southern Iranian province of Kerman, a place that some say is Iran’s cradle of civilization. This ziggurat was discovered in 2002, and it has been reported that it is the second ziggurat to be found in Iran, the first being the Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat. According to some sources, the Ziggurat of Jiroft is the largest and oldest structure of its kind in the world.
The word ziggurat may be translated as ‘temple-tower’, and is a structure consisting of several levels, the topmost of which was probably a high temple. Ziggurats are most commonly associated with the Mesopotamian civilization, which today roughly corresponds to most of Iraq plus Kuwait, and the eastern parts of Syria. Nevertheless, some of these monumental structures have also been found in the western part of Iran. One of the ways of distinguishing between Mesopotamian and Iranian ziggurats is the way these buildings were accessed. It has been pointed out that in the former, the structures were accessed by an external flight of stairs. On the other hand, the ziggurats in Iran were accessed by ramps. In Iran, the best known ziggurat is Choga Zanbil, which is located along the River Dez in the southwestern Khuzestan province. This ziggurat was discovered in 1936, and was inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979. It has been dated to around 1250 B.C., and until 2002, it was the only ziggurat known to have survived in Iran.
Two mounds have been excavated in Jiroft, a town 230 km to the south of Kermna, the capital of the Kerman province. These two mounds are separated by a couple of kilometres from each other, and have been designated as sites ‘A’ and ‘B’. The excavation of site B revealed a two-storey citadel with a base covering an area of 13.5 hectares. Surrounding this structure were the remains of a wall 10.5 m in thickness. These findings suggest that the structure had once been a fortified building.
At site ‘A’, on the other hand, a ziggurat-like structure, which consists of two levels, was unearthed. This structure has been measured to be 17m in height, 300m in both length and width at the base, and 150m on each side of the second level. This huge structure covered almost the whole of the mound. As this monument structurally resembles the ziggurats of Mesopotamia, it has been suggested that buried beneath the sand may be the oldest and largest ziggurat in the world. It has been suggested that the ziggurat unearthed in Jiroft dates to around 2200 B.C. By comparison, the oldest ziggurat in Mesopotamia, the ziggurat of Ur, is regarded as having been built around 2100 B.C. by Ur-Nammu. Some have also hypothesised that the ziggurat of Jiroft was built by the Aratta, a legendary Bronze Age kingdom whose existence has been attested in Sumerian texts. The precise location of this civilization, however, is unclear. For instance, whilst some scholars believe that Aratta was situated in what is today Jiroft, others have suggested that this legendary kingdom was located in Azerbaijan, Baluchistan or on the Gulf.
Apart from the location of Aratta, the age of the ziggurat has also been questioned. So far, the dating of the monument has been based on two small fragments that may be written inscriptions. Undisturbed material for radiocarbon dating, however, has yet to be found. It appears that the great mound in Jiroft has many more secrets to reveal. | 847 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- 2,99 €
Beschreibung des Verlags
William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, a small country town. Stratford was famous for its malting. The black plague killed in 1564 one out of seven of the town's 1,500 inhabitants. Shakespeare was the eldest son of Mary Arden, the daughter of a local landowner, and her husband, John Shakespeare (c. 1530-1601), a glover and wood dealer. John Aubrey (1626-1697) tells in Brief Lives that Shakespeare's father was a butcher and the young William exercised his father's trade, "but when he kill'd a Calfe he would do it in a high style, and make a speech." In 1568 John Shakespeare was made a mayor of Stratford and a justice of peace. His wool business failed in the 1570s, and in 1580 he was fined £40, with other 140 men, for failing to find surety to keep the peace. There is not record that his fine was paid. Later the church commissioners reported of him and eight other men that they had failed to attend church "for fear of process for debt". The family's position was restored in the 1590s by earnings of William Shakespeare, and in 1596 he was awarded a coat of arms. Very little is known about Shakespeare early life, and his later works have inspired a number of interpretations. T.S. Eliot wrote that "I would suggest that none of the plays of Shakespeare has a "meaning," although it would be equally false to say that a play of Shakespeare is meaningless." (in Selected Essays, new edition, 1960). Shakespeare is assumed to have been educated at Stratford Grammar School, and he may have spent the years 1580-82 as a teacher for the Roman Catholic Houghton family in Lancashire. When Shakespeare was 15, a woman from a nearby village drowned in the Avon. Her death was ruled accidental but it may have been a suicide. Later in Hamlet Shakespeare left open the question whether Ophelia died accidentally or by her own hand. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married a local girl, Anne Hathaway (died 1623), who was eight years older. Their first child, Susannah, was born within six months, and twins Hamnet and Judith were born in 1585. Hamnet, Shakespeare's only son, died in 1596, at the age of 11. It has often been suggested, that the lines in King John, beginning with "Grief fills the room of my absent child", reflects Shakespeare's own personal feelings. | <urn:uuid:25167ba9-a949-4c1b-8cc0-186bdd61cf70> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.apple.com/de/book/hamlet/id725467441 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00161.warc.gz | en | 0.988077 | 544 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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Beschreibung des Verlags
William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, a small country town. Stratford was famous for its malting. The black plague killed in 1564 one out of seven of the town's 1,500 inhabitants. Shakespeare was the eldest son of Mary Arden, the daughter of a local landowner, and her husband, John Shakespeare (c. 1530-1601), a glover and wood dealer. John Aubrey (1626-1697) tells in Brief Lives that Shakespeare's father was a butcher and the young William exercised his father's trade, "but when he kill'd a Calfe he would do it in a high style, and make a speech." In 1568 John Shakespeare was made a mayor of Stratford and a justice of peace. His wool business failed in the 1570s, and in 1580 he was fined £40, with other 140 men, for failing to find surety to keep the peace. There is not record that his fine was paid. Later the church commissioners reported of him and eight other men that they had failed to attend church "for fear of process for debt". The family's position was restored in the 1590s by earnings of William Shakespeare, and in 1596 he was awarded a coat of arms. Very little is known about Shakespeare early life, and his later works have inspired a number of interpretations. T.S. Eliot wrote that "I would suggest that none of the plays of Shakespeare has a "meaning," although it would be equally false to say that a play of Shakespeare is meaningless." (in Selected Essays, new edition, 1960). Shakespeare is assumed to have been educated at Stratford Grammar School, and he may have spent the years 1580-82 as a teacher for the Roman Catholic Houghton family in Lancashire. When Shakespeare was 15, a woman from a nearby village drowned in the Avon. Her death was ruled accidental but it may have been a suicide. Later in Hamlet Shakespeare left open the question whether Ophelia died accidentally or by her own hand. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married a local girl, Anne Hathaway (died 1623), who was eight years older. Their first child, Susannah, was born within six months, and twins Hamnet and Judith were born in 1585. Hamnet, Shakespeare's only son, died in 1596, at the age of 11. It has often been suggested, that the lines in King John, beginning with "Grief fills the room of my absent child", reflects Shakespeare's own personal feelings. | 594 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Mercer Langston, the youngest of four children, was born a free black in Louisa County, Virginia on December 14, 1829. Langston gained distinction as an abolitionist, politician, and attorney. Despite the prominence of his slaveowner father, Ralph Quarles, Langston took his surname from his mother, Lucy Langston, an emancipated slave of Indian and black ancestry. When both parents died of unrelated illnesses in 1834, five-year-old Langston and his older siblings were transported to Missouri where they were taken in by William Gooch, a friend of Ralph Quarles.
At fourteen Langston began his studies at the Preparatory Department at Oberlin College. Known for its radicalism and abolitionist politics, Oberlin was the first college in the United States to admit black and white students. Langston completed his studies in 1849, becoming the fifth African American male to graduate from Oberlin’s Collegiate Department.
In 1854, Langston married Caroline Matilda Wall, an emancipated slave from North Carolina. She and Langston had remarkably similar backgrounds. Both had been born into slavery and were freed by their slaveowning fathers who provided for them financially. Once freed and sent north, they were able to obtain an education. When Wall was a young girl, she and her sister, Sara, were sent to Ohio by their father, Colonel Stephen Wall. Under the guardianship of a wealthy family friend, the sisters were brought up in an affluent Quaker household. Like Langston, Caroline Wall also attended Oberlin, graduating in 1856.
In 1855 Langston was elected town clerk of Brownhelm Township in Ohio, becoming the first black elected official in the state. In addition to his law practice and activities as town clerk, Langston and his brothers, Gideon and Charles, participated in the Underground Railroad. John Mercer Langston caught the attention of Frederick Douglass, who encouraged him to deliver antislavery speeches. During the Civil War, Langston recruited black volunteers for the Massachusetts 54th Infantry Regiment, officially the country’s first African American military unit.
In 1868 Langston moved to Washington, D.C. to help establish the nation’s first black law school at Howard University. He became its first dean and served briefly as acting president of Howard in 1872. In 1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes appointed Langston U.S. minister to Haiti. He returned to the U.S. in 1885 and became president of Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute (now Virginia State University).
In 1888 John Mercer Langston ran for a seat in Congress as an Independent against a white Democratic opponent. The election results were contested for 18 months. Langston was finally declared the winner and served the six remaining months of his term. Langston lost his reelection bid in 1890. Partly because of his prominence, the Oklahoma Territory town of Langston, and the college created in the town, Langston University, were named after him. John Mercer Langston died in Washington, D.C. on November 15, 1897 at the age of 67. | <urn:uuid:4656d642-184f-4ff8-9f6a-21126318e9b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/langston-john-mercer-1829-1897/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.986446 | 640 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.18418541... | 10 | John Mercer Langston, the youngest of four children, was born a free black in Louisa County, Virginia on December 14, 1829. Langston gained distinction as an abolitionist, politician, and attorney. Despite the prominence of his slaveowner father, Ralph Quarles, Langston took his surname from his mother, Lucy Langston, an emancipated slave of Indian and black ancestry. When both parents died of unrelated illnesses in 1834, five-year-old Langston and his older siblings were transported to Missouri where they were taken in by William Gooch, a friend of Ralph Quarles.
At fourteen Langston began his studies at the Preparatory Department at Oberlin College. Known for its radicalism and abolitionist politics, Oberlin was the first college in the United States to admit black and white students. Langston completed his studies in 1849, becoming the fifth African American male to graduate from Oberlin’s Collegiate Department.
In 1854, Langston married Caroline Matilda Wall, an emancipated slave from North Carolina. She and Langston had remarkably similar backgrounds. Both had been born into slavery and were freed by their slaveowning fathers who provided for them financially. Once freed and sent north, they were able to obtain an education. When Wall was a young girl, she and her sister, Sara, were sent to Ohio by their father, Colonel Stephen Wall. Under the guardianship of a wealthy family friend, the sisters were brought up in an affluent Quaker household. Like Langston, Caroline Wall also attended Oberlin, graduating in 1856.
In 1855 Langston was elected town clerk of Brownhelm Township in Ohio, becoming the first black elected official in the state. In addition to his law practice and activities as town clerk, Langston and his brothers, Gideon and Charles, participated in the Underground Railroad. John Mercer Langston caught the attention of Frederick Douglass, who encouraged him to deliver antislavery speeches. During the Civil War, Langston recruited black volunteers for the Massachusetts 54th Infantry Regiment, officially the country’s first African American military unit.
In 1868 Langston moved to Washington, D.C. to help establish the nation’s first black law school at Howard University. He became its first dean and served briefly as acting president of Howard in 1872. In 1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes appointed Langston U.S. minister to Haiti. He returned to the U.S. in 1885 and became president of Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute (now Virginia State University).
In 1888 John Mercer Langston ran for a seat in Congress as an Independent against a white Democratic opponent. The election results were contested for 18 months. Langston was finally declared the winner and served the six remaining months of his term. Langston lost his reelection bid in 1890. Partly because of his prominence, the Oklahoma Territory town of Langston, and the college created in the town, Langston University, were named after him. John Mercer Langston died in Washington, D.C. on November 15, 1897 at the age of 67. | 675 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This video is a great resource that informs students of different types of dunes and understanding how plants help dunes become stable, which helps satisfy the last part of the standard. It also helps to transition them into understanding how specialized parts of plants help solve problems with erosion.
After we were all done with the movie, I asked them to list questions they have about sand dunes in their science notebooks under the heading " Questions to Research about Sand Dunes." I asked them to log onto a website using their iPads that has loads of information about Lake Michigan Dunes.
I wanted to have students connect the to a local area, Door County and our beautiful Lake Michigan. I asked them to scroll down the page until they found Whitefish Dunes State Park and asked them to click on the link to view the dunes that occur in our own state. I stopped them after about 7 minutes and I asked them if they could tell from the photos if the dunes were active dunes or scrub dunes?
Students shared that they thought there were both kinds there. I explained that the ridges near the area also were like rolling scrub dunes in different levels, just like it had been tilled in that shape. I explained that yes, there were both kinds of dunes there and that it is a great place to visit!
Students wanted to know if the dunes ever flatten completely out from big storms. I said that I doubted that any one dune would flatten completely. The beach was flat because of the waves pounding the sand down, but the dunes beyond that were able to rise up because the wind actually builds the sand up and then blows across the tops, changing them again.
I asked them if they would like to make some dunes right in the classroom? And so we moved on to our investigation...
Materials for Each Team: Interactive Notebook, 1/2 cup of dry play sand each, 1/2 cup of wet play sand, plastic cups for the sand, an oblong tray or paper plates, timer, a metric ruler, goggles and a wind source. Breath and blowing work just fine if cans of air are not in the budget! Fans tend to blow it all over the place.
I posed this question to my students: So what if we could create an active sand dune model in our classroom? What could we learn about sand dunes by creating this model? How would we go about creating a model sand dune?
I explained that I was going to give them a shallow tray and some sand. Their task was to create an active sand dune and show me how wind would affect the height and shape of the dune. They also need to demonstrate how moisture would affect the impact of wind erosion and prove their evidence using measurement in the best unit (either mm. or cm. )
I told them they needed to develop 3 questions that pertained to what they wanted to know about their sand dune.
They were instructed to draw, measure and create their own investigation that would be measured three times to demonstrate that change took place by wind. I told them that they must use a timer in their investigation and to create a chart that would show their data results. They were also instructed to show three sketches of each time the dune was exposed to wind. Goggles must be worn to prevent sand from entering the eyes.
I divided students into teams of 3 and gave them their materials. We discussed their predictions and coached them to develop their hypothesis by questioning their thinking. They began making and measuring the dunes.
I roved the classroom, questioning them about their thinking and asking them to make observations about the differences between wet and dry dunes. Students timed each other blowing the dry sand and measuring the data afterward. I engaged them in dialogue about their observations, as shown by this student talking about a change in width. They did the same thing for the wet sand dunes, noting the observation in their notebooks. We spent time discussing how moisture deters erosion in order that the concepts of plants and roots help keep the moisture in the soil as well as "hang on" to rocks and soils. I also talked about how plants like moss and lichen can help break apart a rock by drawing moisture out of it.
I was careful not to impose too much of my knowledge upon them as I let them observe, create and develop their understanding of an active dune all on their own. There was no wrong way to create the dunes because they would move and change regardless if they were flatter or more cone shaped. I think this is an essential strategy that represents the heart of NGSS and inquiry based science.
When students finished their data collection, I asked them to share what they had found. Each group presented their data and showed how they had measured their dune so they could show evidence of change due to the wind. I questioned them firstly by asking," What did you notice about the dry sand?" We continued with a whole class sharing of what we noticed about our measurements. Some students created a chart in their notebooks. Others simply wrote their observations in sentences.
We discussed how we would present our data to a group of people if we were to present our findings. I reflected back to the movie where the girls had noted their data on a graph. I asked, "Would a graph be appropriate to display our data today?" Most students said yes, but some were concerned about how to do that. One student reflected on her ability to figure out how to display data and how she shared that information with her team.
To wrap up our investigation, I wanted to get to the heart of the standard by asking," How do we know that the surface of the Earth can be altered by the wind?" Students responded well with accurate answers about the active dunes and their movement from the wind. They gave examples both from their observations and from the movie how the size and shape of the dune changed as it was exposed to wind.
I asked them if they could prove from their investigation that this is a model of what happens on the Earth's surface? This was a tough question for some and I could see that they were perplexed, so I rephrased it. "Do the sand dunes change from wind blowing across them? How can you connect your model to that?"
The answers started coming easily after I rephrased it. Sometimes rephrasing a question that seemed so direct, but still evokes a level of thinking they aren't used to yet, really makes a difference in their understanding and connection.
One girl raised her hand and said, " That's kinda how the snow moves around too! Wind carves it out and pushes it around making some snow drifts really big." I smiled and was happy to see her make such a great connection! | <urn:uuid:6ad2080d-0310-4a3f-88a9-a0a368da4c75> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://betterlesson.com/lesson/629396/dunes?from=breadcrumb_lesson | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00366.warc.gz | en | 0.986138 | 1,392 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.2239101976... | 6 | This video is a great resource that informs students of different types of dunes and understanding how plants help dunes become stable, which helps satisfy the last part of the standard. It also helps to transition them into understanding how specialized parts of plants help solve problems with erosion.
After we were all done with the movie, I asked them to list questions they have about sand dunes in their science notebooks under the heading " Questions to Research about Sand Dunes." I asked them to log onto a website using their iPads that has loads of information about Lake Michigan Dunes.
I wanted to have students connect the to a local area, Door County and our beautiful Lake Michigan. I asked them to scroll down the page until they found Whitefish Dunes State Park and asked them to click on the link to view the dunes that occur in our own state. I stopped them after about 7 minutes and I asked them if they could tell from the photos if the dunes were active dunes or scrub dunes?
Students shared that they thought there were both kinds there. I explained that the ridges near the area also were like rolling scrub dunes in different levels, just like it had been tilled in that shape. I explained that yes, there were both kinds of dunes there and that it is a great place to visit!
Students wanted to know if the dunes ever flatten completely out from big storms. I said that I doubted that any one dune would flatten completely. The beach was flat because of the waves pounding the sand down, but the dunes beyond that were able to rise up because the wind actually builds the sand up and then blows across the tops, changing them again.
I asked them if they would like to make some dunes right in the classroom? And so we moved on to our investigation...
Materials for Each Team: Interactive Notebook, 1/2 cup of dry play sand each, 1/2 cup of wet play sand, plastic cups for the sand, an oblong tray or paper plates, timer, a metric ruler, goggles and a wind source. Breath and blowing work just fine if cans of air are not in the budget! Fans tend to blow it all over the place.
I posed this question to my students: So what if we could create an active sand dune model in our classroom? What could we learn about sand dunes by creating this model? How would we go about creating a model sand dune?
I explained that I was going to give them a shallow tray and some sand. Their task was to create an active sand dune and show me how wind would affect the height and shape of the dune. They also need to demonstrate how moisture would affect the impact of wind erosion and prove their evidence using measurement in the best unit (either mm. or cm. )
I told them they needed to develop 3 questions that pertained to what they wanted to know about their sand dune.
They were instructed to draw, measure and create their own investigation that would be measured three times to demonstrate that change took place by wind. I told them that they must use a timer in their investigation and to create a chart that would show their data results. They were also instructed to show three sketches of each time the dune was exposed to wind. Goggles must be worn to prevent sand from entering the eyes.
I divided students into teams of 3 and gave them their materials. We discussed their predictions and coached them to develop their hypothesis by questioning their thinking. They began making and measuring the dunes.
I roved the classroom, questioning them about their thinking and asking them to make observations about the differences between wet and dry dunes. Students timed each other blowing the dry sand and measuring the data afterward. I engaged them in dialogue about their observations, as shown by this student talking about a change in width. They did the same thing for the wet sand dunes, noting the observation in their notebooks. We spent time discussing how moisture deters erosion in order that the concepts of plants and roots help keep the moisture in the soil as well as "hang on" to rocks and soils. I also talked about how plants like moss and lichen can help break apart a rock by drawing moisture out of it.
I was careful not to impose too much of my knowledge upon them as I let them observe, create and develop their understanding of an active dune all on their own. There was no wrong way to create the dunes because they would move and change regardless if they were flatter or more cone shaped. I think this is an essential strategy that represents the heart of NGSS and inquiry based science.
When students finished their data collection, I asked them to share what they had found. Each group presented their data and showed how they had measured their dune so they could show evidence of change due to the wind. I questioned them firstly by asking," What did you notice about the dry sand?" We continued with a whole class sharing of what we noticed about our measurements. Some students created a chart in their notebooks. Others simply wrote their observations in sentences.
We discussed how we would present our data to a group of people if we were to present our findings. I reflected back to the movie where the girls had noted their data on a graph. I asked, "Would a graph be appropriate to display our data today?" Most students said yes, but some were concerned about how to do that. One student reflected on her ability to figure out how to display data and how she shared that information with her team.
To wrap up our investigation, I wanted to get to the heart of the standard by asking," How do we know that the surface of the Earth can be altered by the wind?" Students responded well with accurate answers about the active dunes and their movement from the wind. They gave examples both from their observations and from the movie how the size and shape of the dune changed as it was exposed to wind.
I asked them if they could prove from their investigation that this is a model of what happens on the Earth's surface? This was a tough question for some and I could see that they were perplexed, so I rephrased it. "Do the sand dunes change from wind blowing across them? How can you connect your model to that?"
The answers started coming easily after I rephrased it. Sometimes rephrasing a question that seemed so direct, but still evokes a level of thinking they aren't used to yet, really makes a difference in their understanding and connection.
One girl raised her hand and said, " That's kinda how the snow moves around too! Wind carves it out and pushes it around making some snow drifts really big." I smiled and was happy to see her make such a great connection! | 1,374 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A new year seems like the perfect time to discuss what is phonics and what is its relevance today. Phonics is a method of teaching reading and writing of the English language. Learners are taught to distinguish between phonemes (that’s letter sounds to you and me) as well as manipulate them in order to read and spell.
When a child starts their literacy learning journey, they will be taught letter sounds rather than the name of letters (think the abc alphabet song). They are taught this by looking at a letter and saying the sound. Once they know a number of letter sounds they can use their knowledge to decode (read) and spell simple words. In order to decode or read words, they will be expected to learn to blend the sounds together first orally (without looking at letters) and then by looking at letters, saying each sound and blending them together to may a word. So, for cat they would say c-a-t and then put it together to say cat. Although this seems a laborious way of learning to read it offers children increased independence and develops a have a go attitude which prior methods – such as whole word – did not. When a child can say the first six letter sounds s,a,t,p,i ,n they can, as a result, read and spell a number of words whereas if they just learn six words by sight they would just be able to read six words.
When it comes to spelling children segment (or break up) words into single sounds so should they wish to spell fish they would break it up into sound talk f-i-sh and could then spell the word fish. When young children start to spell their spelling can often appear wrong such as cake could be spelt caik. This is what we would call phonetically plausible and a child would be praised for this. People find this strange because after all the child has spelt a word wrong, but the child has used their phonics to spell a word and made an accurate attempy. As a child learns more phonics, they will be taught that there are variations when it comes to spelling and different sounds can be created by different combinations of
Phonics is not a new phenomenon as it was a method of teaching reading and spelling up until 1960s when whole word - learning by rote irrespective of any knowledge of the alphabet or sound system - became fashionable. It was reintroduced in 1998 and in 2006, after a review of the way children were taught to read by Jim Rose (the Rose Report), it was announced that all primary school children would be taught to read using the systematic phonics method. Some years later in 2011, the Government introduced a new, statutory phonics screening test which would take place at the end of year one. The premise of this is to ensure that all children have learnt phonic decoding to an age-appropriate standard and the children who have not are given additional help.
Sounds Right Phonics Classes for Kids Classes support children with their early phonic awareness as our classes bombard them with sounds so that they quickly learn to discriminate between sounds as well as learn nursery rhymes, rhyming and alliteration as well as oral blending and segmenting. These early phonic skills will hold them in great stead as they enter school. | <urn:uuid:5375474a-0fb1-44fd-bba9-b1075d68f9c7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://soundsrightphonicsclasses.co.uk/blogs/news/what-is-phonics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00355.warc.gz | en | 0.980319 | 670 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.38210695981979... | 8 | A new year seems like the perfect time to discuss what is phonics and what is its relevance today. Phonics is a method of teaching reading and writing of the English language. Learners are taught to distinguish between phonemes (that’s letter sounds to you and me) as well as manipulate them in order to read and spell.
When a child starts their literacy learning journey, they will be taught letter sounds rather than the name of letters (think the abc alphabet song). They are taught this by looking at a letter and saying the sound. Once they know a number of letter sounds they can use their knowledge to decode (read) and spell simple words. In order to decode or read words, they will be expected to learn to blend the sounds together first orally (without looking at letters) and then by looking at letters, saying each sound and blending them together to may a word. So, for cat they would say c-a-t and then put it together to say cat. Although this seems a laborious way of learning to read it offers children increased independence and develops a have a go attitude which prior methods – such as whole word – did not. When a child can say the first six letter sounds s,a,t,p,i ,n they can, as a result, read and spell a number of words whereas if they just learn six words by sight they would just be able to read six words.
When it comes to spelling children segment (or break up) words into single sounds so should they wish to spell fish they would break it up into sound talk f-i-sh and could then spell the word fish. When young children start to spell their spelling can often appear wrong such as cake could be spelt caik. This is what we would call phonetically plausible and a child would be praised for this. People find this strange because after all the child has spelt a word wrong, but the child has used their phonics to spell a word and made an accurate attempy. As a child learns more phonics, they will be taught that there are variations when it comes to spelling and different sounds can be created by different combinations of
Phonics is not a new phenomenon as it was a method of teaching reading and spelling up until 1960s when whole word - learning by rote irrespective of any knowledge of the alphabet or sound system - became fashionable. It was reintroduced in 1998 and in 2006, after a review of the way children were taught to read by Jim Rose (the Rose Report), it was announced that all primary school children would be taught to read using the systematic phonics method. Some years later in 2011, the Government introduced a new, statutory phonics screening test which would take place at the end of year one. The premise of this is to ensure that all children have learnt phonic decoding to an age-appropriate standard and the children who have not are given additional help.
Sounds Right Phonics Classes for Kids Classes support children with their early phonic awareness as our classes bombard them with sounds so that they quickly learn to discriminate between sounds as well as learn nursery rhymes, rhyming and alliteration as well as oral blending and segmenting. These early phonic skills will hold them in great stead as they enter school. | 672 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shackleton Reaches New Farthest South Record
Nimrod Expedition 1907-1909
On January 9th 1909, Ernest Shackleton, Frank Wild, Jameson Adams and Eric Marshall reached a new Farthest South record of 88° 23′ S, far surpassing the previous record of 82° 17’S, achieved by Scott, in December 1902. Shackleton along with Edward Wilson had accompanied Scott on that occasion, and it was a laborious effort. After their support teams had turned back, on November 15th, the three men began the gruelling task of relaying their loads. They dragged half their provisions forward for a distance of one mile, and then walked back to their remaining supplies, and hauled them forward again. It equated to the rather sombre fact that for every geographical mile they had covered, they had walked a distance of three miles.
This was not a method of advancement that would acquire the South Pole, and one has to question whether it was ever really a serious attempt to do so. Probably not. Wilson had noted in his diary that their goal was “to get as far south in a straight line on the Barrier ice as we can, reach the Pole if possible, or find some new land”.
Shackleton had of course fully intended reaching the South Pole, on the Nimrod Expedition, and almost did, but after the difficult ascent of the Beardmore Glacier, which they had discovered, and named after their chief sponsor, they had laboured across the Polar Plateau, and slowly realised that reaching the Pole was beyond them.
Rations were fast running out, and there simply would not be enough food to sustain the men, over the distance required to reach the Pole, and the subsequent return march. On the 4th of January, Shackleton finally conceded defeat, and opted instead to target the consolation of getting to within 100 miles of the South Pole.
Continue Reading → | <urn:uuid:9508d485-8a03-438b-8910-3735db7a287c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tomcreandiscovery.com/?tag=polar-plateau | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00519.warc.gz | en | 0.985739 | 399 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.46230939030647... | 16 | Shackleton Reaches New Farthest South Record
Nimrod Expedition 1907-1909
On January 9th 1909, Ernest Shackleton, Frank Wild, Jameson Adams and Eric Marshall reached a new Farthest South record of 88° 23′ S, far surpassing the previous record of 82° 17’S, achieved by Scott, in December 1902. Shackleton along with Edward Wilson had accompanied Scott on that occasion, and it was a laborious effort. After their support teams had turned back, on November 15th, the three men began the gruelling task of relaying their loads. They dragged half their provisions forward for a distance of one mile, and then walked back to their remaining supplies, and hauled them forward again. It equated to the rather sombre fact that for every geographical mile they had covered, they had walked a distance of three miles.
This was not a method of advancement that would acquire the South Pole, and one has to question whether it was ever really a serious attempt to do so. Probably not. Wilson had noted in his diary that their goal was “to get as far south in a straight line on the Barrier ice as we can, reach the Pole if possible, or find some new land”.
Shackleton had of course fully intended reaching the South Pole, on the Nimrod Expedition, and almost did, but after the difficult ascent of the Beardmore Glacier, which they had discovered, and named after their chief sponsor, they had laboured across the Polar Plateau, and slowly realised that reaching the Pole was beyond them.
Rations were fast running out, and there simply would not be enough food to sustain the men, over the distance required to reach the Pole, and the subsequent return march. On the 4th of January, Shackleton finally conceded defeat, and opted instead to target the consolation of getting to within 100 miles of the South Pole.
Continue Reading → | 418 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Morgan Silver Dollar Prehistory
Silver dollars were struck as early as 1794 but the coinage was halted in 1804 because too many of the silver dollars were finding their way to the Orient for luxury goods and were not returning.
In the early 1830’s, Mint Director Robert M. Patterson felt the time was right for a resumption of silver dollar coinage. By 1840 full-scale striking had begun in earnest. The new coinage was primarily kept for bank reserves but also found their way into commerce.
The new silver dollar coinage came to a screeching halt in the late 1840s. This was due to new gold discoveries in California and Australia that pushed up the price of silver. Bullion dealers bought up dollars and other silver coins and shipped them to Europe for a tidy profit. By 1850 American silver dollars ceased to circulate and would not be in circulation until 1878.
A revision of the coinage laws in 1853, permitted silver dollars to be struck from private bullion brought to the mints, although some minor coins were struck on government accounts. Silver dollars continued to be struck through the 1850s and the 1860s. They were only used for two purposes. The first was for bank reserves and the second was for export to the West Indies and Europe.
In the 1850s, the status of silver dollars began to change. New discoveries of silver in Nevada made the U.S. a silver exporter for the first time rather than an importer. During the Civil War, silver mining escalated, but much of the silver was shipped to Europe to pay for war materials and bond obligations.
Eventually the Europeans indicated that they were being paid too much silver and expected to be paid in gold. As such silver began to accumulate back in the U.S. Around 1868, much of this overload of silver found its way to the Philadelphia Mint where it was coined into dollars.
To further complicate things, paper money was the prime legal tender of the day for most of the country. Except for small coins, such as the cent and the nickel, paper was used for virtually every transaction, as the government printed notes with denominations as low as three cents.
The increased quantities of silver being mined in the American Southwest meant that the value of silver slowly declined at first. This trend forced then President Ulysses S. Grant to order a through review of the situation by the Treasury Department in 1869. President Grant hoped that gold and silver coins would find their way into general circulation.
Bankers and mining men were interviewed. Those with vested interests in the mining industry searched for a new use for all of the excess silver that was available.
A plan was conceived to produce a disk of silver that became known as the “Trade Dollar” for export to China. Many experts of the day thought this would be a great way to compete with the Mexican dollars that were widely used in world commerce at the time.
Between 1870 and 1873, this whole matter of coinage and the Trade Dollar was hotly debated in Congress. February of 1873 brought a new coinage act that was signed into law by President Grant.
This new coinage act abolished the standard silver dollar as a denomination and established the Trade Dollar as the new denomination. This act bothered few people at the time, but was later named the “Crime Of 1873.”
As the Trade Dollar coinage began to be produced in July of 1873, the Treasury Department ordered the Mints to start producing large quantities of minor silver coins. These were put into circulation and by the summer of 1874 silver coins started to circulate across the U.S. Much silver was purchased for this coinage, helping to slow down the fall in value of silver. All of this set the stage for the introduction of what was to be called the Morgan Silver Dollar.
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Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Gary Eggleston. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Gary Eggleston for details. | <urn:uuid:f2d4d53c-2604-4fde-a3a6-55d395142d25> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bellaonline.com/article.asp?id=173415 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00386.warc.gz | en | 0.984081 | 842 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.174175381... | 3 | Morgan Silver Dollar Prehistory
Silver dollars were struck as early as 1794 but the coinage was halted in 1804 because too many of the silver dollars were finding their way to the Orient for luxury goods and were not returning.
In the early 1830’s, Mint Director Robert M. Patterson felt the time was right for a resumption of silver dollar coinage. By 1840 full-scale striking had begun in earnest. The new coinage was primarily kept for bank reserves but also found their way into commerce.
The new silver dollar coinage came to a screeching halt in the late 1840s. This was due to new gold discoveries in California and Australia that pushed up the price of silver. Bullion dealers bought up dollars and other silver coins and shipped them to Europe for a tidy profit. By 1850 American silver dollars ceased to circulate and would not be in circulation until 1878.
A revision of the coinage laws in 1853, permitted silver dollars to be struck from private bullion brought to the mints, although some minor coins were struck on government accounts. Silver dollars continued to be struck through the 1850s and the 1860s. They were only used for two purposes. The first was for bank reserves and the second was for export to the West Indies and Europe.
In the 1850s, the status of silver dollars began to change. New discoveries of silver in Nevada made the U.S. a silver exporter for the first time rather than an importer. During the Civil War, silver mining escalated, but much of the silver was shipped to Europe to pay for war materials and bond obligations.
Eventually the Europeans indicated that they were being paid too much silver and expected to be paid in gold. As such silver began to accumulate back in the U.S. Around 1868, much of this overload of silver found its way to the Philadelphia Mint where it was coined into dollars.
To further complicate things, paper money was the prime legal tender of the day for most of the country. Except for small coins, such as the cent and the nickel, paper was used for virtually every transaction, as the government printed notes with denominations as low as three cents.
The increased quantities of silver being mined in the American Southwest meant that the value of silver slowly declined at first. This trend forced then President Ulysses S. Grant to order a through review of the situation by the Treasury Department in 1869. President Grant hoped that gold and silver coins would find their way into general circulation.
Bankers and mining men were interviewed. Those with vested interests in the mining industry searched for a new use for all of the excess silver that was available.
A plan was conceived to produce a disk of silver that became known as the “Trade Dollar” for export to China. Many experts of the day thought this would be a great way to compete with the Mexican dollars that were widely used in world commerce at the time.
Between 1870 and 1873, this whole matter of coinage and the Trade Dollar was hotly debated in Congress. February of 1873 brought a new coinage act that was signed into law by President Grant.
This new coinage act abolished the standard silver dollar as a denomination and established the Trade Dollar as the new denomination. This act bothered few people at the time, but was later named the “Crime Of 1873.”
As the Trade Dollar coinage began to be produced in July of 1873, the Treasury Department ordered the Mints to start producing large quantities of minor silver coins. These were put into circulation and by the summer of 1874 silver coins started to circulate across the U.S. Much silver was purchased for this coinage, helping to slow down the fall in value of silver. All of this set the stage for the introduction of what was to be called the Morgan Silver Dollar.
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Gary Eggleston. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Gary Eggleston for details. | 892 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This blog is published as part of Disability History Month (22 November to 22 December 2019).
Contemporary definitions, diagnoses and cures for the neurological condition commonly known as falling sickness in the early modern period, and now known as epilepsy, were subject to development and change as the Renaissance was succeeded by the Enlightenment, reflecting broader changes in theological and scientific thinking.
The approach to the illness was complex as it manifested itself with what were perceived as both physical and psychic symptoms. Also, scepticism grew over the belief that epilepsy represented demoniacal possession, with the causes of the disease increasingly viewed as naturally derived and potentially capable of being cured with natural substances.
The term ‘epilepsy’ was in use, but the seizures known as ‘falling sickness’ were also described as the ‘falling evil’, ‘grand mal’ or – harking back to antiquity – ‘the sacred disease’. The conditions identified as such could often include other convulsive conditions or cases where the senses were distracted.
The natural causes of the disease were debated extensively. Various explanations were proposed including rising vapours within the body; black bile and other bad humours; elemental similarities to thunderstorms; and excessive pride (leading to a fall).
The possible cures for the falling sickness were also wide-ranging and varied in their availability. The hermetic physician, Paracelsus, recommended mistletoe, blood from a decapitated man, pieces of the human skull, preparations of gold and coral or spirit of vitriol (now known to contain ether). Another treatment, based on the doctrine of signatures (which used herbs which resembled particular body parts to heal those parts), was powdered soap-wort seed, offered for three months at the time of the new moon; this was a substance which frothed when rubbed in water.
The case of wandering quack, James Middleton, gives an example of the continued use of supernatural treatments in the 16th century. Middleton was interrogated in Lichfield in 1587 for declaring himself to be a Stuart, descended from Scottish kings, and endowed with the ability to cure the falling sickness. His interrogators heard ‘upon his owne bragge that he could cure those diseases without phisicke or Surgery, but yet by godly meanes’ but when putting this claim to the test he failed to cure the patient. Under questioning, Middleton described the detail of his approach which involved prayers, striking the patient with ‘a little wande’ and then writing upon the shoulder of the fallen patient with ink ‘Jesus help it’ and lying a penny on the writing.
A case heard in the Court of Star Chamber in 1622 hinged upon the effects of falling sickness and gives us another example of popular remedies. Alice Woodrowe sued Dorothy Crispe, alleging that her late son, a mercer of Cheapside, who had been staying at Crispe’s house in order to be cured of the falling sickness, had been married to Crispe’s daughter immediately after suffering a fit and while not in his right mind. Crispe denied the charge but explained that she had helped Thomas to reduce the number and duration of his fits, so they occurred no more frequently than five or six days apart and lasted no longer than an hour. After a fit had ended, she claimed that he was ‘sadder and not of so merry cheer’ for up to 12 hours, but was not ‘void of understanding’ once the fit was over. The plaintiff accused the defendant of carrying out incantations and of hanging spells around the neck of Thomas, but Crispe said she only administered remedies she had used with other patients, which included a bag of roots hung round his neck.
Public attitudes to the falling sickness could vary greatly. Although usually viewed as a negative affliction, there was also a thought that the condition was associated with genius or greatness. It was popularly understood that Julius Caesar was epileptic and Shakespeare drew attention to this in his eponymous play. Hercules and the Emperor Charles V were also understood to be epileptic.
The 16th-century Dutch physician Levinus Lemnius wrote that falling sickness was evidently caused by the motion of the humours and ‘that men may not fear so much, when they see their mouths draw awry, their cheeks swoln, and strutting forth with a frothy humour: and should not be dismaid to come near them, and lend them their help’. This was particularly important because he thought some sufferers were buried alive because people were scared to check for vital signs, but ‘…some have broken the Coffin, and lived again’.
The falling sickness also produced compassion in some observers and it was believed that some people took advantage of that by faking fits in order to beg for money. Known as ‘counterfeit cranks’ and dressed with padding to protect their limbs during fake seizures, these beggars were described by Thomas Harman in 1567 1. He wrote,’These that do counterfet the Cranke be yong knaues and yonge harlots, that depely dissemble the falling sicknes’, explaining that ‘crank’ was beggars’ cant for the disease.
Attitudes may have varied between countries. In this letter of 1733 from a British representative in Russia to the Secretary of State in London, the likelihood of a marriage between the Prince of Bevern and the Princess of Mecklenburg was said to be undermined by a number of factors, not least that the Princess did not like the Prince. One of the other drawbacks listed was that ‘it is whispered that he has the faling sicknes a distemper his mother is said to be subject to, and which the Russes [Russians] abominat[e]’.
The early history of the falling sickness is a fascinating one with a deep connection to the history of ideas. As a condition, it had a place within popular culture as well as within medical handbooks and it therefore features in many of The National Archives’ records, from petitions and court cases to diplomatic correspondence.
Owsei Temkin, ‘The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology’ (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971 (2nd ed, revised))
- Thomas Harman, ‘A Caueat or Warening for Commen Cursetors vulgarely called Vagabones’, ed. E Viles and F J Furnivall, Early English Text Society, 1869, p. 50 ↩ | <urn:uuid:eae4eefd-e8f0-4a30-9aa8-133a01e3bd28> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/falling-sickness-in-the-early-modern-period/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00438.warc.gz | en | 0.98066 | 1,386 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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-0.224886536598... | 6 | This blog is published as part of Disability History Month (22 November to 22 December 2019).
Contemporary definitions, diagnoses and cures for the neurological condition commonly known as falling sickness in the early modern period, and now known as epilepsy, were subject to development and change as the Renaissance was succeeded by the Enlightenment, reflecting broader changes in theological and scientific thinking.
The approach to the illness was complex as it manifested itself with what were perceived as both physical and psychic symptoms. Also, scepticism grew over the belief that epilepsy represented demoniacal possession, with the causes of the disease increasingly viewed as naturally derived and potentially capable of being cured with natural substances.
The term ‘epilepsy’ was in use, but the seizures known as ‘falling sickness’ were also described as the ‘falling evil’, ‘grand mal’ or – harking back to antiquity – ‘the sacred disease’. The conditions identified as such could often include other convulsive conditions or cases where the senses were distracted.
The natural causes of the disease were debated extensively. Various explanations were proposed including rising vapours within the body; black bile and other bad humours; elemental similarities to thunderstorms; and excessive pride (leading to a fall).
The possible cures for the falling sickness were also wide-ranging and varied in their availability. The hermetic physician, Paracelsus, recommended mistletoe, blood from a decapitated man, pieces of the human skull, preparations of gold and coral or spirit of vitriol (now known to contain ether). Another treatment, based on the doctrine of signatures (which used herbs which resembled particular body parts to heal those parts), was powdered soap-wort seed, offered for three months at the time of the new moon; this was a substance which frothed when rubbed in water.
The case of wandering quack, James Middleton, gives an example of the continued use of supernatural treatments in the 16th century. Middleton was interrogated in Lichfield in 1587 for declaring himself to be a Stuart, descended from Scottish kings, and endowed with the ability to cure the falling sickness. His interrogators heard ‘upon his owne bragge that he could cure those diseases without phisicke or Surgery, but yet by godly meanes’ but when putting this claim to the test he failed to cure the patient. Under questioning, Middleton described the detail of his approach which involved prayers, striking the patient with ‘a little wande’ and then writing upon the shoulder of the fallen patient with ink ‘Jesus help it’ and lying a penny on the writing.
A case heard in the Court of Star Chamber in 1622 hinged upon the effects of falling sickness and gives us another example of popular remedies. Alice Woodrowe sued Dorothy Crispe, alleging that her late son, a mercer of Cheapside, who had been staying at Crispe’s house in order to be cured of the falling sickness, had been married to Crispe’s daughter immediately after suffering a fit and while not in his right mind. Crispe denied the charge but explained that she had helped Thomas to reduce the number and duration of his fits, so they occurred no more frequently than five or six days apart and lasted no longer than an hour. After a fit had ended, she claimed that he was ‘sadder and not of so merry cheer’ for up to 12 hours, but was not ‘void of understanding’ once the fit was over. The plaintiff accused the defendant of carrying out incantations and of hanging spells around the neck of Thomas, but Crispe said she only administered remedies she had used with other patients, which included a bag of roots hung round his neck.
Public attitudes to the falling sickness could vary greatly. Although usually viewed as a negative affliction, there was also a thought that the condition was associated with genius or greatness. It was popularly understood that Julius Caesar was epileptic and Shakespeare drew attention to this in his eponymous play. Hercules and the Emperor Charles V were also understood to be epileptic.
The 16th-century Dutch physician Levinus Lemnius wrote that falling sickness was evidently caused by the motion of the humours and ‘that men may not fear so much, when they see their mouths draw awry, their cheeks swoln, and strutting forth with a frothy humour: and should not be dismaid to come near them, and lend them their help’. This was particularly important because he thought some sufferers were buried alive because people were scared to check for vital signs, but ‘…some have broken the Coffin, and lived again’.
The falling sickness also produced compassion in some observers and it was believed that some people took advantage of that by faking fits in order to beg for money. Known as ‘counterfeit cranks’ and dressed with padding to protect their limbs during fake seizures, these beggars were described by Thomas Harman in 1567 1. He wrote,’These that do counterfet the Cranke be yong knaues and yonge harlots, that depely dissemble the falling sicknes’, explaining that ‘crank’ was beggars’ cant for the disease.
Attitudes may have varied between countries. In this letter of 1733 from a British representative in Russia to the Secretary of State in London, the likelihood of a marriage between the Prince of Bevern and the Princess of Mecklenburg was said to be undermined by a number of factors, not least that the Princess did not like the Prince. One of the other drawbacks listed was that ‘it is whispered that he has the faling sicknes a distemper his mother is said to be subject to, and which the Russes [Russians] abominat[e]’.
The early history of the falling sickness is a fascinating one with a deep connection to the history of ideas. As a condition, it had a place within popular culture as well as within medical handbooks and it therefore features in many of The National Archives’ records, from petitions and court cases to diplomatic correspondence.
Owsei Temkin, ‘The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology’ (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971 (2nd ed, revised))
- Thomas Harman, ‘A Caueat or Warening for Commen Cursetors vulgarely called Vagabones’, ed. E Viles and F J Furnivall, Early English Text Society, 1869, p. 50 ↩ | 1,363 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Civil War in America took place amid 1861 and 1865. The war was declared by the seven states of the Deep South, joined by four of the upper South. These states formed the Confederate States of America and seceded from the Union. Similar to any other conflict, it had a number of effects both positive and negative. Both The Confederation and the Union were affected together with the country at large. The paper will focus on the Civil War to analyze and outline its effects.
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One of the effects of the Civil War is families rising against one another. During the Civil War members of the families took different sides. It resulted in a major social issue among the members of the general public. The taking of sides created enmity to an extent of family members killing one another. The Civil War affected the society since it brought about the utilization of boy soldiers in the war front. It occurred when the southern troops felt that they were weak, and their numbers were decreasing (Donald et al. 145). They started to recruit young boys to join the fighting troops to increase their numbers. It resulted in deaths of youth, lack of education and development of a non-disciplined force. When the young boys joined the army, they were exposed to many social challenge that changed their lives negatively. Among them was an introduction to drug abuse and immoral behaviors such as raping and sexual harassment. The southern troops also became poorly clothed and equipped. The factor exposed many people to death and suffering.
The burning of the Richmond and Atlanta is another effect of the Civil War. During the incident, many people lost their property. Moreover, many innocent citizens including women and children died. The established infrastructure such as roads was also destroyed. This fact pulled the economy of the US backward.
Furthermore, diseases became a major challenge to the lives of human beings. Both the southern and the northern states concentrated all the resources in the war. It created minimal purchase of medical facilities such as medicine. Therefore, many people suffered from illness while others even lost their lives. Although the combat was brutal, many people died from lack of food and medical assistance. Life became hard both at home and war fronts due to insecurity, stress and lack of basic amenities. In the northern states, women were given the responsibility of managing businesses (Fellman et al. 25). Many of them lacked the experience hence leading to collapsing of many companies. On the oother hand, women were left to man farm despite the fact that they lacked the know-how, exposure, and experience. These issues affected the whole country since they exposed all Americans to a shortage of food and a poor economy. Later, the South collapsed. It made the Confederate money worthless.
Although the Civil War has many adverse effects, it also has a number of positive ones. Among them, there is the founding of the Red Cross. Clara Barton was one of the active nurses during the Civil War. After the war, she created the Red Cross as a body to cater for the people who suffered during and after the war. The organization intended to offer a solution to both psychological and medical problems to the victims of the war. Another positive effect is that after the Civil War, racial discrimination came to an end, and Americans witnessed a black man taking a public office (Fuller 78).
We look at the problems in different ways depending on the area that one comes from. Many people take the problems as normal challenges that come during the war. They note no importance in the problems of the ones who suffered. On the other side, the communities that were experiencing discrimination before the Civil War, look at the issues as the price of freedom.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:8621b04c-2303-4805-ad38-ed17f7b3b657> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essay-experts.net/essays/history/effects-of-the-civil-war.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00517.warc.gz | en | 0.981316 | 794 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.34944772720336... | 1 | The Civil War in America took place amid 1861 and 1865. The war was declared by the seven states of the Deep South, joined by four of the upper South. These states formed the Confederate States of America and seceded from the Union. Similar to any other conflict, it had a number of effects both positive and negative. Both The Confederation and the Union were affected together with the country at large. The paper will focus on the Civil War to analyze and outline its effects.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
One of the effects of the Civil War is families rising against one another. During the Civil War members of the families took different sides. It resulted in a major social issue among the members of the general public. The taking of sides created enmity to an extent of family members killing one another. The Civil War affected the society since it brought about the utilization of boy soldiers in the war front. It occurred when the southern troops felt that they were weak, and their numbers were decreasing (Donald et al. 145). They started to recruit young boys to join the fighting troops to increase their numbers. It resulted in deaths of youth, lack of education and development of a non-disciplined force. When the young boys joined the army, they were exposed to many social challenge that changed their lives negatively. Among them was an introduction to drug abuse and immoral behaviors such as raping and sexual harassment. The southern troops also became poorly clothed and equipped. The factor exposed many people to death and suffering.
The burning of the Richmond and Atlanta is another effect of the Civil War. During the incident, many people lost their property. Moreover, many innocent citizens including women and children died. The established infrastructure such as roads was also destroyed. This fact pulled the economy of the US backward.
Furthermore, diseases became a major challenge to the lives of human beings. Both the southern and the northern states concentrated all the resources in the war. It created minimal purchase of medical facilities such as medicine. Therefore, many people suffered from illness while others even lost their lives. Although the combat was brutal, many people died from lack of food and medical assistance. Life became hard both at home and war fronts due to insecurity, stress and lack of basic amenities. In the northern states, women were given the responsibility of managing businesses (Fellman et al. 25). Many of them lacked the experience hence leading to collapsing of many companies. On the oother hand, women were left to man farm despite the fact that they lacked the know-how, exposure, and experience. These issues affected the whole country since they exposed all Americans to a shortage of food and a poor economy. Later, the South collapsed. It made the Confederate money worthless.
Although the Civil War has many adverse effects, it also has a number of positive ones. Among them, there is the founding of the Red Cross. Clara Barton was one of the active nurses during the Civil War. After the war, she created the Red Cross as a body to cater for the people who suffered during and after the war. The organization intended to offer a solution to both psychological and medical problems to the victims of the war. Another positive effect is that after the Civil War, racial discrimination came to an end, and Americans witnessed a black man taking a public office (Fuller 78).
We look at the problems in different ways depending on the area that one comes from. Many people take the problems as normal challenges that come during the war. They note no importance in the problems of the ones who suffered. On the other side, the communities that were experiencing discrimination before the Civil War, look at the issues as the price of freedom.
Most popular orders | 801 | ENGLISH | 1 |
More about Alfred the Great
S OON, Alfred was joined in his hiding-place in Somerset by his wife and children and a few of his nobles. They chose a hill which rose above the surrounding marshes for their camp, and there Alfred and his nobles worked like common men, building a strong fort. Because of this, the place was called Athelney, which means the Isle of Nobles.
While Alfred worked on the Isle of Nobles, he sent messengers secretly among his people, telling them where he was. Soon a small but faithful band gathered round him. Then, one day, some of Alfred's friends suddenly attacked the Danes, won a victory, and seized the great Danish banner called the Raven.
The Danes were very sad at the loss of this banner, for they believed it to be a magic one. They said that when they were going to win a battle the Raven would spread its wings as if to fly, but when they were going to lose, the Raven drooped its wings in sorrow. Now that their precious banner had been taken, they were always afraid of losing.
This victory cheered the English very much, and when the people heard of it, more and more of them gathered round their king.
Alfred now began to feel that the time for striking a blow had come. But first he wanted to find out exactly how many Danes there were and what plans they had. So he dressed himself like a minstrel or singer, and taking his harp, he went to the Danish camp. There he began to play upon his harp and to sing the songs he had learned when he was a boy.
The Danes were a fierce, wild people, yet they loved music and poetry. They were delighted with Alfred's songs, and he was allowed to wander through the camp wherever he liked.
Alfred stayed in the Danish camp for several days, singing his songs and playing sweet music, and all the time watching and listening. He found out how many Danes there were, and where the camp was strong and where it was weak. He listened to the king as he talked to his captains and, when he had found out everything he could, he slipped quietly away and went back to the Isle of Nobles.
The Danes were sorry when they found that the gentle minstrel had gone. And little did they think that it was the great and brave King Alfred who had been singing and playing to them.
Alfred now knew that his army was strong enough to fight the Danes. So he left his fort on the Isle of Nobles and boldly marched against them. A battle was fought in which the Danes were defeated, and from that time onwards Alfred was victorious. The dark days were over. The power of the Danes was crushed. Their king, Guthorm, submitted to Alfred, and even became a Christian. When he was baptized, Alfred stood as godfather to him, and changed his name from Guthorm to the English name of Æthelstan.
Then Alfred made a peace with the Danes, called the peace of Wedmore. And although the Danes did not leave England, they did not fight any more, and they left Wessex and kept within the land which was given to them in the north. Afterwards, this part was called the Danelagh or Daneland.
And now it was, in the time of peace, that Alfred began to do great things for his people, the things by which he earned his name of Alfred the Great. He collected the laws and wrote them out so that people could understand them. He did away with the laws which he thought were bad, and made others. One law he made was, that a man who had done wrong could not be punished unless twelve men agreed that he really had been wicked, and ought to be punished. This was called trial by jury, and means trial by those who have promised to do justly. Our word jury comes from a Latin word which means to promise or swear.
It was a very good law, for sometimes if a man hated another man he would say he had done something wicked in order to have him punished. But when twelve men had to agree about it, it was not easy to have an innocent person unjustly punished.
Alfred was much loved. He made good laws, and the people kept them. They kept them so well, that it is said that golden chains and bracelets might be hung upon the hedges and no one would touch them.
King Alfred was fond of reading and learning, and he tried to make his people fond of learning too. In those days the monasteries were the chief places to which people went to learn. But the Danes had destroyed nearly all the monasteries, so Alfred began to build them again, and he also founded schools. Then, as nearly all the books which were worth reading were written in Latin, he translated into English several of the best he had read. He did this because he saw how much more difficult it was for people to learn to read when they had to do so in a foreign language.
Alfred built more great ships, and sent people into far countries to bring back news of them to England. He encouraged the English to make all kinds of things, in order to trade with these far-off countries. In fact, during all his life Alfred was thinking only of his people and of what was best for them.
You will wonder how he found time to do all these things, and indeed it is wonderful, especially in those days when there were no clocks to strike the hours and remind people how time was flying.
Yet Alfred divided the day into three parts: eight hours for work, eight hours for study, and eight hours for rest. He invented a kind of clock for himself. He had great candles made which were marked off into parts, each part burning for an hour. A man watched the candle and, when the flame burned down to the mark, he went to the King, and said, "O king, another hour has fled."
Alfred was good, and wise and kind. There never was a better king in England. He had to fight many battles, and war is terrible and cruel, but he did not fight for love of conquering, as other kings did. He fought only to save his country and his people. We never hear of him doing one unjust or unkind act. He was truthful and fearless in everything. It is no wonder, then, that we call him Alfred the Great, Alfred the Truthteller, England's Darling. | <urn:uuid:caa4eee3-a819-4fa8-8584-a433dfa645af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=alfred | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00328.warc.gz | en | 0.995973 | 1,360 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.32545363903... | 1 | More about Alfred the Great
S OON, Alfred was joined in his hiding-place in Somerset by his wife and children and a few of his nobles. They chose a hill which rose above the surrounding marshes for their camp, and there Alfred and his nobles worked like common men, building a strong fort. Because of this, the place was called Athelney, which means the Isle of Nobles.
While Alfred worked on the Isle of Nobles, he sent messengers secretly among his people, telling them where he was. Soon a small but faithful band gathered round him. Then, one day, some of Alfred's friends suddenly attacked the Danes, won a victory, and seized the great Danish banner called the Raven.
The Danes were very sad at the loss of this banner, for they believed it to be a magic one. They said that when they were going to win a battle the Raven would spread its wings as if to fly, but when they were going to lose, the Raven drooped its wings in sorrow. Now that their precious banner had been taken, they were always afraid of losing.
This victory cheered the English very much, and when the people heard of it, more and more of them gathered round their king.
Alfred now began to feel that the time for striking a blow had come. But first he wanted to find out exactly how many Danes there were and what plans they had. So he dressed himself like a minstrel or singer, and taking his harp, he went to the Danish camp. There he began to play upon his harp and to sing the songs he had learned when he was a boy.
The Danes were a fierce, wild people, yet they loved music and poetry. They were delighted with Alfred's songs, and he was allowed to wander through the camp wherever he liked.
Alfred stayed in the Danish camp for several days, singing his songs and playing sweet music, and all the time watching and listening. He found out how many Danes there were, and where the camp was strong and where it was weak. He listened to the king as he talked to his captains and, when he had found out everything he could, he slipped quietly away and went back to the Isle of Nobles.
The Danes were sorry when they found that the gentle minstrel had gone. And little did they think that it was the great and brave King Alfred who had been singing and playing to them.
Alfred now knew that his army was strong enough to fight the Danes. So he left his fort on the Isle of Nobles and boldly marched against them. A battle was fought in which the Danes were defeated, and from that time onwards Alfred was victorious. The dark days were over. The power of the Danes was crushed. Their king, Guthorm, submitted to Alfred, and even became a Christian. When he was baptized, Alfred stood as godfather to him, and changed his name from Guthorm to the English name of Æthelstan.
Then Alfred made a peace with the Danes, called the peace of Wedmore. And although the Danes did not leave England, they did not fight any more, and they left Wessex and kept within the land which was given to them in the north. Afterwards, this part was called the Danelagh or Daneland.
And now it was, in the time of peace, that Alfred began to do great things for his people, the things by which he earned his name of Alfred the Great. He collected the laws and wrote them out so that people could understand them. He did away with the laws which he thought were bad, and made others. One law he made was, that a man who had done wrong could not be punished unless twelve men agreed that he really had been wicked, and ought to be punished. This was called trial by jury, and means trial by those who have promised to do justly. Our word jury comes from a Latin word which means to promise or swear.
It was a very good law, for sometimes if a man hated another man he would say he had done something wicked in order to have him punished. But when twelve men had to agree about it, it was not easy to have an innocent person unjustly punished.
Alfred was much loved. He made good laws, and the people kept them. They kept them so well, that it is said that golden chains and bracelets might be hung upon the hedges and no one would touch them.
King Alfred was fond of reading and learning, and he tried to make his people fond of learning too. In those days the monasteries were the chief places to which people went to learn. But the Danes had destroyed nearly all the monasteries, so Alfred began to build them again, and he also founded schools. Then, as nearly all the books which were worth reading were written in Latin, he translated into English several of the best he had read. He did this because he saw how much more difficult it was for people to learn to read when they had to do so in a foreign language.
Alfred built more great ships, and sent people into far countries to bring back news of them to England. He encouraged the English to make all kinds of things, in order to trade with these far-off countries. In fact, during all his life Alfred was thinking only of his people and of what was best for them.
You will wonder how he found time to do all these things, and indeed it is wonderful, especially in those days when there were no clocks to strike the hours and remind people how time was flying.
Yet Alfred divided the day into three parts: eight hours for work, eight hours for study, and eight hours for rest. He invented a kind of clock for himself. He had great candles made which were marked off into parts, each part burning for an hour. A man watched the candle and, when the flame burned down to the mark, he went to the King, and said, "O king, another hour has fled."
Alfred was good, and wise and kind. There never was a better king in England. He had to fight many battles, and war is terrible and cruel, but he did not fight for love of conquering, as other kings did. He fought only to save his country and his people. We never hear of him doing one unjust or unkind act. He was truthful and fearless in everything. It is no wonder, then, that we call him Alfred the Great, Alfred the Truthteller, England's Darling. | 1,340 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Culpeper's Rebellion was a popular uprising in 1677 provoked by the British Navigation Acts. It was led by John Culpeper against the ruling Lords Proprietor in Albemarle County, Province of Carolina, near what is now Elizabeth City, North Carolina. The uprising met with temporary success before being suppressed by English authorities.
The Lords Proprietor, despite their careful plans and long documents, did not do enough to put a functioning government into place in Carolina — especially in what is now North Carolina. In Albemarle, settlers were scattered. Swamps and rivers made travel by land difficult, and the inlets and sounds were too shallow to allow big ships. The people who already lived there in the 1660s had no desire to be governed by the Lords Proprietor. Partly as a result of these conditions and partly from a lack of interest, the lords appointed governors who were weak and ineffective. Some of them took advantage of the general chaos to make themselves wealthy. None of them ensured order or protected colonists from surviving Weapemeoc Indians (whose homeland they occupied) and European piracy.
In that environment, some kind of conflict between the colonists and their government was almost inevitable. The conflict that broke out would be known as Culpeper’s Rebellion, and like a lot of rebellions, it started with a dispute over taxes.
The British government wanted its American colonies to generate some income — that was, after all, the main point of establishing those colonies. The economic theory of the time, called mercantilism, was that a country should export as much as possible and import as little as possible, and therefore store up as much money (gold and silver) as possible. Under that principle, the colonies should export only raw materials to Britain, while Britain should turn those raw materials into more expensive finished goods which it, in turn, could export to other countries or back to its colonies. For example, the American colonies were expected to export wood but not furniture, naval stores but not ships, and crops such as tobacco and rice but not the tools needed to produce them. Producing the manufactured goods was Britain’s job. And at every step of this trade, taxes should be collected.
To put these ideas into practice, Parliament passed a series of laws called Navigation Acts that controlled trade within the British Empire. Under the acts, colonial goods could be carried only on English and colonial ships, and all European goods bound for British colonies had to go through England first. Of course, whenever colonial goods passed through English ports, they were taxed. In addition, certain colonial goods such as tobacco, rice, and sugar could be shipped only to England — not even to other British colonies unless they paid a tax first.
To encourage settlement, the Charter of Carolina had exempted Carolinians from paying export duties, or taxes, on goods such as tobacco — but only for seven years, and in 1670, that exemption expired, and the Navigation Acts went into full force. The residents of Albemarle were unhappy with the Navigation Acts. They relied on tobacco for their income, and since Albemarle did not have a good port, they sold much of their tobacco to traders from New England, whose small ships could get through narrow inlets. They considered the tax an unfair hardship. Worse, the taxes came on top of several years of bad harvests caused by major hurricanes, drought, and wild rains. Settlers also grumbled about the quitrents they had to pay on their land, which were higher than in neighboring colonies.
In 1672, the Assembly of Albemarle sent the governor, Peter Carteret, to England to ask the Lords Proprietor not to collect the taxes required by the Navigation Acts. But they refused — in part because they feared that if they did not enforce the laws, their charter might be revoked.
A new governor, John Jenkins, appointed Valentine Bird as the collector for the colony’s customs duties, or export taxes, but Jenkins never really intended to enforce the laws. Two men who supported the lords, Thomas Eastchurch and Thomas Miller, complained. Miller was thrown in jail for treason, but he escaped and went to England with Eastchurch to tell the lords what was happening in Albemarle. They then appointed Eastchurch as governor and Miller as customs collector.
Thomas Miller took the job of customs collector seriously. He not only collected the taxes, but also seized illegally imported goods and imposed fines. When Eastchurch was delayed in England, Miller also had himself appointed interim governor, and he used that power to interfere with elections and to imprison his opponents, including George Durant, a prominent settler who had lived in Albemarle since before 1663. For protection — or just to enhance his image — Miller traveled with a guard of armed men.
Development of the revolt
In 1677, a group of about 40 men opposed to the lords+ decided to force Miller out of office. They were led by Durant, Valentine Bird, and John Culpeper, who had been thrown out of Charles Town and who, according to one historian, “had the reputation of a troublemaker who enjoyed a good fight.”1 They armed themselves, arrested Miller and other officials, and took over the government.
The rebels then held new elections for an assembly that met at Durant’s house. Acting as the colony’s government, they tried Miller, convicted him, and imprisoned him, and they warned Thomas Eastchurch, who had recently arrived in Virginia, to stay away.
Miller again escaped from jail and went to England to report to the lords. Culpeper followed him to make his own case. The English government held an investigation, and Culpeper was tried for rebellion. The Lords Proprietor, though, wanted to keep the matter quiet. Lord Shaftesbury, one of the lords, defended him, arguing that the colony had no settled government and that the colonists had every right to “riot” against the abuses of Miller and Eastchurch. Culpeper was acquitted and returned home to Albemarle a hero.
After Culpeper’s Rebellion
After Culpeper’s Rebellion, the lords made a more serious effort to get control of the colony. They appointed a new governor, Seth Sothel, who was himself a lord — he had bought Edward Hyde’s share of the colony, but on his way to America, Sothel was captured by Turkish pirates. In his absence, George Durant governed the colony, even though he did not have the title of governor. Durant restored order, pardoned the rebels, and collected the customs duties.
When Sothel finally arrived in North Carolina in 1683, he turned out to be so corrupt that the assembly removed him from office and banished him from the colony. After further chaos and rebellion, Philip Ludwell became governor of all of Carolina in 1691. The lords ordered him to simplify the government, ignoring the Fundamental Constitutions in favor of the original charter. Ludwell appointed long-time residents of the Albemarle to govern that region as his deputies. Finally, with peace and stability, the colony of North Carolina could begin to grow. A larger uprising would soon take place known as Cary's Rebellion.
- Rankin, Hugh F., Upheaval In Albemarle: The Story Of Culpeper's Rebellion, 1675-1689
- McIlvenna, Noeleen, "A Very Mutinous People: The Struggle for North Carolina, 1660-1713" | <urn:uuid:ebe33e80-339e-4202-9daf-f0a2113c8e0d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culpeper%27s_Rebellion | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00514.warc.gz | en | 0.98002 | 1,593 | 4.46875 | 4 | [
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Culpeper's Rebellion was a popular uprising in 1677 provoked by the British Navigation Acts. It was led by John Culpeper against the ruling Lords Proprietor in Albemarle County, Province of Carolina, near what is now Elizabeth City, North Carolina. The uprising met with temporary success before being suppressed by English authorities.
The Lords Proprietor, despite their careful plans and long documents, did not do enough to put a functioning government into place in Carolina — especially in what is now North Carolina. In Albemarle, settlers were scattered. Swamps and rivers made travel by land difficult, and the inlets and sounds were too shallow to allow big ships. The people who already lived there in the 1660s had no desire to be governed by the Lords Proprietor. Partly as a result of these conditions and partly from a lack of interest, the lords appointed governors who were weak and ineffective. Some of them took advantage of the general chaos to make themselves wealthy. None of them ensured order or protected colonists from surviving Weapemeoc Indians (whose homeland they occupied) and European piracy.
In that environment, some kind of conflict between the colonists and their government was almost inevitable. The conflict that broke out would be known as Culpeper’s Rebellion, and like a lot of rebellions, it started with a dispute over taxes.
The British government wanted its American colonies to generate some income — that was, after all, the main point of establishing those colonies. The economic theory of the time, called mercantilism, was that a country should export as much as possible and import as little as possible, and therefore store up as much money (gold and silver) as possible. Under that principle, the colonies should export only raw materials to Britain, while Britain should turn those raw materials into more expensive finished goods which it, in turn, could export to other countries or back to its colonies. For example, the American colonies were expected to export wood but not furniture, naval stores but not ships, and crops such as tobacco and rice but not the tools needed to produce them. Producing the manufactured goods was Britain’s job. And at every step of this trade, taxes should be collected.
To put these ideas into practice, Parliament passed a series of laws called Navigation Acts that controlled trade within the British Empire. Under the acts, colonial goods could be carried only on English and colonial ships, and all European goods bound for British colonies had to go through England first. Of course, whenever colonial goods passed through English ports, they were taxed. In addition, certain colonial goods such as tobacco, rice, and sugar could be shipped only to England — not even to other British colonies unless they paid a tax first.
To encourage settlement, the Charter of Carolina had exempted Carolinians from paying export duties, or taxes, on goods such as tobacco — but only for seven years, and in 1670, that exemption expired, and the Navigation Acts went into full force. The residents of Albemarle were unhappy with the Navigation Acts. They relied on tobacco for their income, and since Albemarle did not have a good port, they sold much of their tobacco to traders from New England, whose small ships could get through narrow inlets. They considered the tax an unfair hardship. Worse, the taxes came on top of several years of bad harvests caused by major hurricanes, drought, and wild rains. Settlers also grumbled about the quitrents they had to pay on their land, which were higher than in neighboring colonies.
In 1672, the Assembly of Albemarle sent the governor, Peter Carteret, to England to ask the Lords Proprietor not to collect the taxes required by the Navigation Acts. But they refused — in part because they feared that if they did not enforce the laws, their charter might be revoked.
A new governor, John Jenkins, appointed Valentine Bird as the collector for the colony’s customs duties, or export taxes, but Jenkins never really intended to enforce the laws. Two men who supported the lords, Thomas Eastchurch and Thomas Miller, complained. Miller was thrown in jail for treason, but he escaped and went to England with Eastchurch to tell the lords what was happening in Albemarle. They then appointed Eastchurch as governor and Miller as customs collector.
Thomas Miller took the job of customs collector seriously. He not only collected the taxes, but also seized illegally imported goods and imposed fines. When Eastchurch was delayed in England, Miller also had himself appointed interim governor, and he used that power to interfere with elections and to imprison his opponents, including George Durant, a prominent settler who had lived in Albemarle since before 1663. For protection — or just to enhance his image — Miller traveled with a guard of armed men.
Development of the revolt
In 1677, a group of about 40 men opposed to the lords+ decided to force Miller out of office. They were led by Durant, Valentine Bird, and John Culpeper, who had been thrown out of Charles Town and who, according to one historian, “had the reputation of a troublemaker who enjoyed a good fight.”1 They armed themselves, arrested Miller and other officials, and took over the government.
The rebels then held new elections for an assembly that met at Durant’s house. Acting as the colony’s government, they tried Miller, convicted him, and imprisoned him, and they warned Thomas Eastchurch, who had recently arrived in Virginia, to stay away.
Miller again escaped from jail and went to England to report to the lords. Culpeper followed him to make his own case. The English government held an investigation, and Culpeper was tried for rebellion. The Lords Proprietor, though, wanted to keep the matter quiet. Lord Shaftesbury, one of the lords, defended him, arguing that the colony had no settled government and that the colonists had every right to “riot” against the abuses of Miller and Eastchurch. Culpeper was acquitted and returned home to Albemarle a hero.
After Culpeper’s Rebellion
After Culpeper’s Rebellion, the lords made a more serious effort to get control of the colony. They appointed a new governor, Seth Sothel, who was himself a lord — he had bought Edward Hyde’s share of the colony, but on his way to America, Sothel was captured by Turkish pirates. In his absence, George Durant governed the colony, even though he did not have the title of governor. Durant restored order, pardoned the rebels, and collected the customs duties.
When Sothel finally arrived in North Carolina in 1683, he turned out to be so corrupt that the assembly removed him from office and banished him from the colony. After further chaos and rebellion, Philip Ludwell became governor of all of Carolina in 1691. The lords ordered him to simplify the government, ignoring the Fundamental Constitutions in favor of the original charter. Ludwell appointed long-time residents of the Albemarle to govern that region as his deputies. Finally, with peace and stability, the colony of North Carolina could begin to grow. A larger uprising would soon take place known as Cary's Rebellion.
- Rankin, Hugh F., Upheaval In Albemarle: The Story Of Culpeper's Rebellion, 1675-1689
- McIlvenna, Noeleen, "A Very Mutinous People: The Struggle for North Carolina, 1660-1713" | 1,595 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the Middle East, Egyptian activist Huda Shaarawi (1879–1947) has become a legendary figure. In the early 1920s she was a leader in Egypt's fight for political independence. Turning her attention toward feminism, Shaarawi led the struggle for women's rights in the Middle East, focusing on education, voting rights, and marriage laws. Her act of defiance in removing her veil at the Cairo train station in 1923 marked the first time an Egyptian woman shunned tradition so visibly. From this moment on, increasing numbers of Egyptian women refused the role of silent wife behind the seclusion of the veil.
Shaarawi was born Nur al-Huda Sultan in 1879 on her wealthy family's expansive estate in Minya, Egypt. Her father, Sultan Pasha, was a prosperous landowner and government official who served as inspector-general of Upper Egypt. During this period in history, it was common for upper-class Egyptian men to have both a wife and concubines, or "second" wives, and Shaarawi was born into such an arrangement. She was raised in Cairo in a household that included her unmarried mother, Iqbal Hanim, her father's wife, Hasiba, and her father's other children. Shaarawi lived in an elegant, three-story house, with high ceilings and a sizeable garden filled with fruits and flowering trees. When she was five years old, her father died of kidney disease. Her mother, not yet 25, fell into a state of despair, as did her father's widow, Hasiba.
Educated in Traditional Gender Roles
Shaarawi had a younger brother, Umar Sultan, who was born in 1881, shortly before their father's death. Early on, Shaarawi realized that her status of being the elder child meant nothing in the face of her younger brother's gender. Umar received more attention than she did, and when she asked for a pony like his, she was told that riding was not suitable for girls. Shaarawi often felt jealous, being female in a male-oriented world. However, she was able to voice these frustrations to Hasiba, her father's widow, whom Shaarawi called "Umm Kabira," meaning "Big Mother." Hasiba seems to have understood Shaarawi's discontent.
Writing in her memoirs, published in translation as Harem Years: The Memoirs of an Egyptian Feminist (1879–1924) in 1987, Shaarawi described the relationship this way: "I loved Umm Kabira immensely, and she returned that love and showed compassion toward me. She, alone, talked frankly with me on a number of matters.… She knew how I felt when people favoured my brother over me because he was a boy. She, too, occasionally fanned the flames of jealousy in me, but without diminishing my love for my brother."
Coming from a wealthy family, Shaarawi received a private education from tutors and took daily lessons with her brother. She studied Turkish poetry, calligraphy, French, and piano. Before she was ten years old Shaarawi had memorized parts of the Koran, the sacred book of Islam. She was frustrated, however, because she could not understand what she had memorized; no one had taught her Arabic. When Shaarawi requested Arabic grammar lessons, she was refused because girls did not need to know such things. In her memoirs, Shaarawi expressed her aggravation: "I became depressed and began to neglect my studies, hating being a girl because it kept me from the education I sought. Later, being a female became a barrier between me and the freedom for which I yearned."
Shaarawi did not neglect her studies for long, however. Soon, she found inspiration in the form of an female itinerant poet named Sayyida Khadija al-Maghribiyya, who often visited her family's house. Sayyida Khadija impressed Shaarawi because the poetess could confidently discuss literary and cultural matters with the men of the household and seemed comfortable in their company, almost like a peer. This surprised Shaarawi because most women she knew were uneducated and were intimidated from speaking directly to men. "Observing Sayyida Khadija convinced me that, with learning, women could be the equals of men if not surpass them," Shaarawi wrote in her memoirs. Inspired by the poetess, Shaarawi bought books from peddlers who came to the door and snuck into her late father's study to gather even more books. She also pilfered her brother's texts.
Betrothed to Older Cousin
As she entered adolescence Shaarawi became increasingly aware of her culture's gender inequalities. She had spent her early years in the close company of boys: her brother, the neighbors, and the sons of family friends. However, when she reached puberty, around age 11, she was forced into the secluded harem life and restricted to the company of girls and women, a common practice in Egypt among the upper and middle classes. Women and men stayed apart, with the females confined to a separate portion of the household called the harem. Even inside the house, if Shaarawi wanted to talk to a man, she was required by tradition to do so from behind a screen. This seclusion followed Shaarawi everywhere; when she went outside, she had to wear a veil that covered her hair and most of her face.
At the time, veiling and seclusion were status symbols. Women in seclusion were guarded by eunuchs, castrated men who were usually slaves from Sudan and who served as intermediaries between the women and the outside world. The transition to harem life was hard for Shaarawi. Separated from the male companions she had known all her life, she was once again frustrated by gender.
Shaarawi's biggest letdown came in 1891 when, at age 13, she was betrothed to an older cousin, Ali Shaarawi, already in his late forties. Shaarawi had always thought of Ali as a father or older brother and did not want to marry him. He already had a wife and three daughters, all of whom were older than Shaarawi. To make things easier for her daughter, in the marriage contract Shaarawi's mother stipulated that Ali Shaarawi had to release his slave-concubine wife and live in monogamy with her daughter. About 15 months into their marriage, Ali Shaarawi's first wife became pregnant with his child. Shaarawi rejoiced that he had broken the marriage contract, and she returned home.
Influenced by Foreign Women
Shaarawi spent seven years separated from her husband, enjoying a life filled with tutors and concerts in a private box at the Khedival Opera House. She also took vacations to the Mediterranean seaport of Alexandria. During these outings Shaarawi came into contact with a number of well-educated foreign women who inspired her to seek change, but whose presence and obvious freedoms also amplified her discontent.
One of the biggest influences in Shaarawi's life was Eugénie le Brun, a Frenchwoman who had married an Egyptian man. Le Brun wrote several books on Egyptian social customs, and in the 1890s she hosted a weekly salon for women at her home. Shaarawi attended, and often the discussions turned to social practices, including veiling. It was Le Brun who suggested to Shaarawi that the veil stood in the way of Egyptian women's advancement. This revelation would later play a role in her public unveiling.
In 1900, facing increasing family pressure, Shaarawi reconciled with her husband. Two children followed, a daughter, Bathna, born in 1903, and a son, Muhammad, born in 1905. Bathna was a sickly child during her first several years of life, often hanging on the cusp of death. Shaarawi lost touch with her female friends while she devoted herself to the care of her children.
Finally, when Bathna had strengthened to the point where she no longer needed her mother's care, Shaarawi began socializing again. She met another Frenchwoman, Marguerite Clement, who was touring the Middle East on a Carnegie endowment. A lecturer, Clement described her travels and public-speaking engagements to Shaarawi, and the two decided Clement should offer a lecture to Egyptian women. With the help of her husband, Shaarawi reserved a university lecture hall for the occasion. The lecture drew a fair crowd and soon became a regular Friday-evening event. The lectures marked a significant turning point in social norms, for it was uncommon for women to leave the seclusion of their homes to gather in a public place. Inspired by this success, Shaarawi formed the Intellectual Association of Egyptian Women in 1914, which worked to improve women's intellectual and social lives.
Involved in Nationalist Movement
At the end of World War I, Shaarawi turned her attention toward nationalism as the Egyptian people demanded independence from Great Britain. In 1919 the Egyptians formed the Wafd party, a political organization aimed at gaining independence. Shaarawi's husband became a leader of the movement and she followed suit. On March 16, 1919, she organized one of the largest protests of the revolution. Calling on the women of Cairo to break social norms, she urged them to leave behind the seclusion of their harems and take to the streets. The crowd faced an army of armed British soldiers, who blocked the path of the march. Shaarawi was ready to step through and defy them, even if it meant giving her life; however, she realized others would probably die, too, and she did not want that. At this point Shaarawi stopped the marchers and instructed them to stand in silent protest for several hours. Over the next several months, such confrontations turned ugly; demonstrations continued, although Eyptians—including women—were sometimes shot or deported.
The nationalist movement forced Egyptian men and women to work together for the first time. In her memoirs, Shaarawi called this period the greatest time of collaboration between herself and her husband. By 1920 the women had formed their own political body, called the Wafdist Women's Central Committee, of which Shaarawi was made president. It was the first political organization for Egyptian women.
In January 1922, Shaarawi held a mass meeting of women at her house. They decided to launch an economic boycott against the British, whereby they would refuse to buy British goods and withdraw their money from British banks. Despite their lack of many rights, women held considerable economic clout because they disposed of the household monies through daily shopping. Also, women inherited money and property in their own name, in accordance with Islamic law. Using their vast network of friends and acquaintances, the women spread the word. The Wafd later credited the women's boycott as one of "the most powerful weapons" in the fight for their nation's independence.
Formed Egyptian Feminist Union
In 1923 Egypt won its independence, although Great Britain retained some rights. Under the new constitution, women found they were not granted suffrage and felt betrayed by the Wafd, which had agreed to grant women the vote. In response, Shaarawi formed the Egyptian Feminist Union (EFU) in early 1923. The main purpose of the group was to attain political, social, and legal equality for women.
In May of 1923 Shaarawi traveled to Rome to attend a conference of the International Alliance of Women. Upon her arrival home, she was greeted at the train station by a group of supporters. Shaarawi now did the unthinkable: she removed her veil in a symbolic act of liberation. For the rest of her life, through this act alone, she became the figurehead of the Egyptian feminist movement.
Shaarawi campaigned to get the minimum marriage age raised so girls were no longer married off at age thirteen. The EFU also worked for other changes, including women's suffrage, the restriction of polygamy, and stricter divorce laws for men. Because she realized that knowledge meant power, Shaarawi also worked to expand the access of girls and women to education. By 1930 Egyptian universities had admitted their first female student. The EFU also ran a dispensary for women and children.
Shaarawi's work brought her international fame, particularly among the world's suffragists and early feminists. In the late 1930s, when Palestinian women faced a political crisis, they contacted Shaarawi for help. She offered advice on political action, raised funds for them, and helped in the formation of the Arab Feminist Union in 1944. For her service to her own country in its quest for independence, Shaarawi was awarded the Nishan al-Karmal award in 1945. Ironically, even after receiving the highest decoration awarded for service to her country, Shaarawi remained unable to vote in an Egyptian election.
After Shaarawi's death on August 12, 1947, in Cairo, Egypt, the EFU's name was changed to the Shaarawi Society for the Feminist Renaissance, in tribute to the woman who did so much for so many.
Ahmed, Leila, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate, Yale University Press, 1992.
Opening the Gates: A Century of Arab Feminist Writing, edited by Margot Badran and Miriam Cooke, Indiana University Press, 1990.
Rappaport, Helen, Encyclopedia of Women Social Reformers, American Bibliographic Center-Clio, 2001.
Shaarawi, Huda, Harem Years: The Memoirs of an Egyptian Feminist (1879–1924), translated by Margot Badran, The Feminist Press, 1987.
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0.19884531199932098,... | 4 | In the Middle East, Egyptian activist Huda Shaarawi (1879–1947) has become a legendary figure. In the early 1920s she was a leader in Egypt's fight for political independence. Turning her attention toward feminism, Shaarawi led the struggle for women's rights in the Middle East, focusing on education, voting rights, and marriage laws. Her act of defiance in removing her veil at the Cairo train station in 1923 marked the first time an Egyptian woman shunned tradition so visibly. From this moment on, increasing numbers of Egyptian women refused the role of silent wife behind the seclusion of the veil.
Shaarawi was born Nur al-Huda Sultan in 1879 on her wealthy family's expansive estate in Minya, Egypt. Her father, Sultan Pasha, was a prosperous landowner and government official who served as inspector-general of Upper Egypt. During this period in history, it was common for upper-class Egyptian men to have both a wife and concubines, or "second" wives, and Shaarawi was born into such an arrangement. She was raised in Cairo in a household that included her unmarried mother, Iqbal Hanim, her father's wife, Hasiba, and her father's other children. Shaarawi lived in an elegant, three-story house, with high ceilings and a sizeable garden filled with fruits and flowering trees. When she was five years old, her father died of kidney disease. Her mother, not yet 25, fell into a state of despair, as did her father's widow, Hasiba.
Educated in Traditional Gender Roles
Shaarawi had a younger brother, Umar Sultan, who was born in 1881, shortly before their father's death. Early on, Shaarawi realized that her status of being the elder child meant nothing in the face of her younger brother's gender. Umar received more attention than she did, and when she asked for a pony like his, she was told that riding was not suitable for girls. Shaarawi often felt jealous, being female in a male-oriented world. However, she was able to voice these frustrations to Hasiba, her father's widow, whom Shaarawi called "Umm Kabira," meaning "Big Mother." Hasiba seems to have understood Shaarawi's discontent.
Writing in her memoirs, published in translation as Harem Years: The Memoirs of an Egyptian Feminist (1879–1924) in 1987, Shaarawi described the relationship this way: "I loved Umm Kabira immensely, and she returned that love and showed compassion toward me. She, alone, talked frankly with me on a number of matters.… She knew how I felt when people favoured my brother over me because he was a boy. She, too, occasionally fanned the flames of jealousy in me, but without diminishing my love for my brother."
Coming from a wealthy family, Shaarawi received a private education from tutors and took daily lessons with her brother. She studied Turkish poetry, calligraphy, French, and piano. Before she was ten years old Shaarawi had memorized parts of the Koran, the sacred book of Islam. She was frustrated, however, because she could not understand what she had memorized; no one had taught her Arabic. When Shaarawi requested Arabic grammar lessons, she was refused because girls did not need to know such things. In her memoirs, Shaarawi expressed her aggravation: "I became depressed and began to neglect my studies, hating being a girl because it kept me from the education I sought. Later, being a female became a barrier between me and the freedom for which I yearned."
Shaarawi did not neglect her studies for long, however. Soon, she found inspiration in the form of an female itinerant poet named Sayyida Khadija al-Maghribiyya, who often visited her family's house. Sayyida Khadija impressed Shaarawi because the poetess could confidently discuss literary and cultural matters with the men of the household and seemed comfortable in their company, almost like a peer. This surprised Shaarawi because most women she knew were uneducated and were intimidated from speaking directly to men. "Observing Sayyida Khadija convinced me that, with learning, women could be the equals of men if not surpass them," Shaarawi wrote in her memoirs. Inspired by the poetess, Shaarawi bought books from peddlers who came to the door and snuck into her late father's study to gather even more books. She also pilfered her brother's texts.
Betrothed to Older Cousin
As she entered adolescence Shaarawi became increasingly aware of her culture's gender inequalities. She had spent her early years in the close company of boys: her brother, the neighbors, and the sons of family friends. However, when she reached puberty, around age 11, she was forced into the secluded harem life and restricted to the company of girls and women, a common practice in Egypt among the upper and middle classes. Women and men stayed apart, with the females confined to a separate portion of the household called the harem. Even inside the house, if Shaarawi wanted to talk to a man, she was required by tradition to do so from behind a screen. This seclusion followed Shaarawi everywhere; when she went outside, she had to wear a veil that covered her hair and most of her face.
At the time, veiling and seclusion were status symbols. Women in seclusion were guarded by eunuchs, castrated men who were usually slaves from Sudan and who served as intermediaries between the women and the outside world. The transition to harem life was hard for Shaarawi. Separated from the male companions she had known all her life, she was once again frustrated by gender.
Shaarawi's biggest letdown came in 1891 when, at age 13, she was betrothed to an older cousin, Ali Shaarawi, already in his late forties. Shaarawi had always thought of Ali as a father or older brother and did not want to marry him. He already had a wife and three daughters, all of whom were older than Shaarawi. To make things easier for her daughter, in the marriage contract Shaarawi's mother stipulated that Ali Shaarawi had to release his slave-concubine wife and live in monogamy with her daughter. About 15 months into their marriage, Ali Shaarawi's first wife became pregnant with his child. Shaarawi rejoiced that he had broken the marriage contract, and she returned home.
Influenced by Foreign Women
Shaarawi spent seven years separated from her husband, enjoying a life filled with tutors and concerts in a private box at the Khedival Opera House. She also took vacations to the Mediterranean seaport of Alexandria. During these outings Shaarawi came into contact with a number of well-educated foreign women who inspired her to seek change, but whose presence and obvious freedoms also amplified her discontent.
One of the biggest influences in Shaarawi's life was Eugénie le Brun, a Frenchwoman who had married an Egyptian man. Le Brun wrote several books on Egyptian social customs, and in the 1890s she hosted a weekly salon for women at her home. Shaarawi attended, and often the discussions turned to social practices, including veiling. It was Le Brun who suggested to Shaarawi that the veil stood in the way of Egyptian women's advancement. This revelation would later play a role in her public unveiling.
In 1900, facing increasing family pressure, Shaarawi reconciled with her husband. Two children followed, a daughter, Bathna, born in 1903, and a son, Muhammad, born in 1905. Bathna was a sickly child during her first several years of life, often hanging on the cusp of death. Shaarawi lost touch with her female friends while she devoted herself to the care of her children.
Finally, when Bathna had strengthened to the point where she no longer needed her mother's care, Shaarawi began socializing again. She met another Frenchwoman, Marguerite Clement, who was touring the Middle East on a Carnegie endowment. A lecturer, Clement described her travels and public-speaking engagements to Shaarawi, and the two decided Clement should offer a lecture to Egyptian women. With the help of her husband, Shaarawi reserved a university lecture hall for the occasion. The lecture drew a fair crowd and soon became a regular Friday-evening event. The lectures marked a significant turning point in social norms, for it was uncommon for women to leave the seclusion of their homes to gather in a public place. Inspired by this success, Shaarawi formed the Intellectual Association of Egyptian Women in 1914, which worked to improve women's intellectual and social lives.
Involved in Nationalist Movement
At the end of World War I, Shaarawi turned her attention toward nationalism as the Egyptian people demanded independence from Great Britain. In 1919 the Egyptians formed the Wafd party, a political organization aimed at gaining independence. Shaarawi's husband became a leader of the movement and she followed suit. On March 16, 1919, she organized one of the largest protests of the revolution. Calling on the women of Cairo to break social norms, she urged them to leave behind the seclusion of their harems and take to the streets. The crowd faced an army of armed British soldiers, who blocked the path of the march. Shaarawi was ready to step through and defy them, even if it meant giving her life; however, she realized others would probably die, too, and she did not want that. At this point Shaarawi stopped the marchers and instructed them to stand in silent protest for several hours. Over the next several months, such confrontations turned ugly; demonstrations continued, although Eyptians—including women—were sometimes shot or deported.
The nationalist movement forced Egyptian men and women to work together for the first time. In her memoirs, Shaarawi called this period the greatest time of collaboration between herself and her husband. By 1920 the women had formed their own political body, called the Wafdist Women's Central Committee, of which Shaarawi was made president. It was the first political organization for Egyptian women.
In January 1922, Shaarawi held a mass meeting of women at her house. They decided to launch an economic boycott against the British, whereby they would refuse to buy British goods and withdraw their money from British banks. Despite their lack of many rights, women held considerable economic clout because they disposed of the household monies through daily shopping. Also, women inherited money and property in their own name, in accordance with Islamic law. Using their vast network of friends and acquaintances, the women spread the word. The Wafd later credited the women's boycott as one of "the most powerful weapons" in the fight for their nation's independence.
Formed Egyptian Feminist Union
In 1923 Egypt won its independence, although Great Britain retained some rights. Under the new constitution, women found they were not granted suffrage and felt betrayed by the Wafd, which had agreed to grant women the vote. In response, Shaarawi formed the Egyptian Feminist Union (EFU) in early 1923. The main purpose of the group was to attain political, social, and legal equality for women.
In May of 1923 Shaarawi traveled to Rome to attend a conference of the International Alliance of Women. Upon her arrival home, she was greeted at the train station by a group of supporters. Shaarawi now did the unthinkable: she removed her veil in a symbolic act of liberation. For the rest of her life, through this act alone, she became the figurehead of the Egyptian feminist movement.
Shaarawi campaigned to get the minimum marriage age raised so girls were no longer married off at age thirteen. The EFU also worked for other changes, including women's suffrage, the restriction of polygamy, and stricter divorce laws for men. Because she realized that knowledge meant power, Shaarawi also worked to expand the access of girls and women to education. By 1930 Egyptian universities had admitted their first female student. The EFU also ran a dispensary for women and children.
Shaarawi's work brought her international fame, particularly among the world's suffragists and early feminists. In the late 1930s, when Palestinian women faced a political crisis, they contacted Shaarawi for help. She offered advice on political action, raised funds for them, and helped in the formation of the Arab Feminist Union in 1944. For her service to her own country in its quest for independence, Shaarawi was awarded the Nishan al-Karmal award in 1945. Ironically, even after receiving the highest decoration awarded for service to her country, Shaarawi remained unable to vote in an Egyptian election.
After Shaarawi's death on August 12, 1947, in Cairo, Egypt, the EFU's name was changed to the Shaarawi Society for the Feminist Renaissance, in tribute to the woman who did so much for so many.
Ahmed, Leila, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate, Yale University Press, 1992.
Opening the Gates: A Century of Arab Feminist Writing, edited by Margot Badran and Miriam Cooke, Indiana University Press, 1990.
Rappaport, Helen, Encyclopedia of Women Social Reformers, American Bibliographic Center-Clio, 2001.
Shaarawi, Huda, Harem Years: The Memoirs of an Egyptian Feminist (1879–1924), translated by Margot Badran, The Feminist Press, 1987.
Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, July 2001. | 2,948 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The United States is one land that was discovered by explorers and settled on by almost every people of every color. The US’s population is largely composed of white people of Anglo Saxon origin, Black Americans and people of Hispanic origin.
People of African origin popularly referred to as African Americans have the most painful history about their arrival and eventual settlement in the US. Brought in as slaves from Africa, they faced many hurdles in their fight for survival and recognition as normal human beings in the face of brutal slavery, poverty and segregation (Savage, 1977, p. 2).
Slave labor was in demand and was widely utilized in the US. Large scale agricultural plantations like the corn, cotton and wheat belts required intensive human labor which was cheaply supplied by black people. Besides the agricultural southern states, labor was also requited in the industrial northern states which slaves supplied. There were also other household jobs and jobs in the military that African Americans did with little or no pay.
African Americans have been the subject of stereotypes that seek to explain their lives, activities and way of thinking. They range from the colonial and slave mentalities to media bias. However, some of them are due to the conduct of black people themselves in their personal and public lives (Savage, 1977, p. 7). In the west of the US, the situation is not very different. Black people carry the same negative stereotypes and positive accolades that characterize African Americans.
After the antislavery activism increased, black people migrated with ease and settled in all places in the US. However some areas like Washington D.C, New York and California recorded big migrant populations of black people. The west of US where California largely dominates has been the subject of many books detailing the history and development of the area.
However, most of the literature existing on the American West overlooks the contribution of the black community to the development of these areas. Their history, as well as their migration and their leadership are overlooked too (Savage, 1977, p. 1). The current study of the west by most scholars has largely excluded slave states. In the slave states, black contribution was more felt than the non slave states hence any analysis of the African Americans in the west must include them.
African Americans and their migration to the West make up an important part of history of the making of the Old West. Most of the documented history is now resurfacing indicating the role African Americans played in the making of the West as it is known today (Savage, 1977, p. 5). Their participation in the Westward movement shows a determined people who wanted to move away form the hostile conditions that they were experiencing and also, a people seeking peaceful existence for their families.
Though African Americans migrated to the larger western US area, their numbers were not as many as they were on eastern side. Absence of staple crops and great distance from the center of black populations in the US discouraged a good number of Americans from making the journey westward.
States that lie to the West in the US include Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas and Missouri where black labor had contributed to considerable development and progress. These states make up part of the cotton kingdom where black presence was prominent.
They are part of the seventeen states that formed the Old West which was as a result of the Manifest Destiny (Savage, 1977, p. 2). The US government at the time was urging people to take up land and own homes in the new western states and African Americans saw it as a perfect chance to escape the harsh racist conditions they were subjected to in the South.
Black historians have therefore explored it intensively to shed light how it happened and the aftermath. According to Savage, any analysis of the west must include Texas whose black population contributed immensely to the cattle industry. It also includes Wisconsin and Minnesota who reported black populations from as early as 1840.
Migration to the west started after the year 1830 and the earliest census reports indicating black population in the West date from 1840. According to Savage many blacks moved to the West because of the Solace it accorded them. This is because some states had laws barring the introduction of slaves and the growing anti-slavery movements.
After the civil war, reconstruction began and during the time the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments took place which guaranteed African Americans freedom from slavery, right to citizenship and the right to vote. Southern states could not do without slave labor which led to bad treatment of freed black people (Savage, 1977, p. 2). The harsh conditions in the south greatly contributed to the westward migration of African Americans.
Researchers however are quick to point that the movement of black people to the West was by and large influenced by the westward movement in America. States with large populations happened to have big black populations indicating common factors in attracting migrant populations. Blacks also moved to the west looking for political, social and economic emancipation. Acquisition of land and starting businesses was easy for blacks in the period succeeding 1900 hence the surge in their population in the west the 20th century.
Many people in America including blacks moved to the west excited by its newness and eager to acquire land and improve their economic conditions. African Americans moved too both as slaves and freed slave laborers. The blacks proved their worth as cattlemen and protectors of their masters from hostile native tribes.
They farmed the land and produced enough food for themselves and their masters. Blacks could easily keep at bay hostile native Indians as they moved westward earning many of them freedom from their masters. Because owning property was a little easier, many black people acquired large land properties in the West especially in the city of Oklahoma (Sylvester, 2001).
In the West many of the now emancipated blacks would work as cattle drivers, miners, cooks, soldiers and fur traders. They would also work as unskilled laborers and service workers. Black women too worked as domestic servants, farm workers, seamstress school teachers, operators and nurses.
Creativity ensured black people survived in the West. They had to use their skills to make furniture and feed their families. They also had to make their own houses.
Close-knit black communities developed through sizable numbers of black people gathering to form their own general store, church, a mill factory a bank and a hotel. By 1920 the small communities had settled in over 50 towns where more political organization was born. One such town is Langston Oklahoma. In such towns blacks could easily vote, develop business and easily live in peace.
The old west brought out all kinds of people who inspired and represented the black agenda in their territories (Sylvester, 2001). Many black people did daring acts that endeared them to their masters and the general population which somehow helped in fostering the belief that all people are equal.
Among the many prominent people was Bass Reeves. He was a US marshal assigned to the expansive Old West where he was to maintain law and order in an area infested by all kinds of outlaws. Though he was born a slave, he learnt to use arms in an early age and that came in handy when executing his duties as a US marshal.
Reeves, was apparently so good at his job that he was never wounded in his thirty year career. The position required tenacity and good skills all of which he demonstrated and in some instances did better than his masters. Though he wasn’t much of a leader, his exploits inspired and encouraged many blacks to hang on to their course in striving for better treatment. There were also women in the old West whose contribution to the wellbeing of the black community stands out.
She was a free woman of color whose work in championing freedom of slaves is still revered. She presented numerous cases in Californian courts which she won and managed to gain compensation for numerous black people. She was also instrumental in helping many runaways escape from bondage (Sylvester, 2001). Her work to rescue slaves was widely acknowledged and often received unwavering support from both white and black populations.
He is one of the most celebrated blacks in the US military. Ossian Flipper was the first black commissioned officer in the regular US army and was the first black man to graduate from WestPoint College (Lutz & Tong, 2002, p. 83).
His immigration to the West and the connections that he had through his father, a successful businessman in the post war era helped him make history as the first black man from the west to achieve the above in the military. After he was dismissed from the military in the 1880’s, he pursued engineering and later became an editor for one of the leading white owned newspaper in the US.
Black people in the west went through a lot in the course of the westward migration that changed their view of the world and also changed them forever. The characters that they exhibit today are as a result of the adaptations they had to make to survive in the then harsh environment.
The artistic nature that they exhibit was born out of the creativity that they needed when they were deprived of any means of survival. Similarly, the lowly education status does not necessarily mean black people of the West or the entire US for that matter are generally lowly uneducated. Some of the injustices they had to go through included denial by authorities of the same level of education that white people had.
However, the segregation and discrimination that existed at the time is not entirely to blame for the current condition of blacks in the west and US as a whole (Junne, 2000, p. 478). Many of them did carry for a long time (others still do) the mentality that the discrimination they underwent is to blame for their problems. To a considerable level however, black people squandered the chance to progress in the same speed as other minority groups in the US after the constitutional amendments.
The west by and large represent the situation of black people in the United States. While there may be a misrepresentation of facts about their situation, the old west can be summed as a crucially unjust environment with limited positives but a place where sheer determination and survival spirit thrived.
Junne, H.G. (2000). Blacks in the American West and beyond–America, Canada, and Mexico: A selectively Annotated Bibliography. New York: Greenwood Publishing.
Lutz, A.R. & Tong, B. (2002).The human tradition in the American West. NJ: Rowman & Littlefield
Sylvester, M. (2001). African Americans and the Old West. Retrieved 9 November 2010 from: http://www2.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/african/west/west.htm
Savage, S.W. (1977). Blacks in the West. Westport: Greenwood Publishing. | <urn:uuid:4d1a8e42-15fb-4a44-9dbe-a0e0425eafb2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graceplaceofwillmar.org/blacks-in-the-american-west/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00209.warc.gz | en | 0.980911 | 2,202 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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-0.028854481875... | 1 | The United States is one land that was discovered by explorers and settled on by almost every people of every color. The US’s population is largely composed of white people of Anglo Saxon origin, Black Americans and people of Hispanic origin.
People of African origin popularly referred to as African Americans have the most painful history about their arrival and eventual settlement in the US. Brought in as slaves from Africa, they faced many hurdles in their fight for survival and recognition as normal human beings in the face of brutal slavery, poverty and segregation (Savage, 1977, p. 2).
Slave labor was in demand and was widely utilized in the US. Large scale agricultural plantations like the corn, cotton and wheat belts required intensive human labor which was cheaply supplied by black people. Besides the agricultural southern states, labor was also requited in the industrial northern states which slaves supplied. There were also other household jobs and jobs in the military that African Americans did with little or no pay.
African Americans have been the subject of stereotypes that seek to explain their lives, activities and way of thinking. They range from the colonial and slave mentalities to media bias. However, some of them are due to the conduct of black people themselves in their personal and public lives (Savage, 1977, p. 7). In the west of the US, the situation is not very different. Black people carry the same negative stereotypes and positive accolades that characterize African Americans.
After the antislavery activism increased, black people migrated with ease and settled in all places in the US. However some areas like Washington D.C, New York and California recorded big migrant populations of black people. The west of US where California largely dominates has been the subject of many books detailing the history and development of the area.
However, most of the literature existing on the American West overlooks the contribution of the black community to the development of these areas. Their history, as well as their migration and their leadership are overlooked too (Savage, 1977, p. 1). The current study of the west by most scholars has largely excluded slave states. In the slave states, black contribution was more felt than the non slave states hence any analysis of the African Americans in the west must include them.
African Americans and their migration to the West make up an important part of history of the making of the Old West. Most of the documented history is now resurfacing indicating the role African Americans played in the making of the West as it is known today (Savage, 1977, p. 5). Their participation in the Westward movement shows a determined people who wanted to move away form the hostile conditions that they were experiencing and also, a people seeking peaceful existence for their families.
Though African Americans migrated to the larger western US area, their numbers were not as many as they were on eastern side. Absence of staple crops and great distance from the center of black populations in the US discouraged a good number of Americans from making the journey westward.
States that lie to the West in the US include Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas and Missouri where black labor had contributed to considerable development and progress. These states make up part of the cotton kingdom where black presence was prominent.
They are part of the seventeen states that formed the Old West which was as a result of the Manifest Destiny (Savage, 1977, p. 2). The US government at the time was urging people to take up land and own homes in the new western states and African Americans saw it as a perfect chance to escape the harsh racist conditions they were subjected to in the South.
Black historians have therefore explored it intensively to shed light how it happened and the aftermath. According to Savage, any analysis of the west must include Texas whose black population contributed immensely to the cattle industry. It also includes Wisconsin and Minnesota who reported black populations from as early as 1840.
Migration to the west started after the year 1830 and the earliest census reports indicating black population in the West date from 1840. According to Savage many blacks moved to the West because of the Solace it accorded them. This is because some states had laws barring the introduction of slaves and the growing anti-slavery movements.
After the civil war, reconstruction began and during the time the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments took place which guaranteed African Americans freedom from slavery, right to citizenship and the right to vote. Southern states could not do without slave labor which led to bad treatment of freed black people (Savage, 1977, p. 2). The harsh conditions in the south greatly contributed to the westward migration of African Americans.
Researchers however are quick to point that the movement of black people to the West was by and large influenced by the westward movement in America. States with large populations happened to have big black populations indicating common factors in attracting migrant populations. Blacks also moved to the west looking for political, social and economic emancipation. Acquisition of land and starting businesses was easy for blacks in the period succeeding 1900 hence the surge in their population in the west the 20th century.
Many people in America including blacks moved to the west excited by its newness and eager to acquire land and improve their economic conditions. African Americans moved too both as slaves and freed slave laborers. The blacks proved their worth as cattlemen and protectors of their masters from hostile native tribes.
They farmed the land and produced enough food for themselves and their masters. Blacks could easily keep at bay hostile native Indians as they moved westward earning many of them freedom from their masters. Because owning property was a little easier, many black people acquired large land properties in the West especially in the city of Oklahoma (Sylvester, 2001).
In the West many of the now emancipated blacks would work as cattle drivers, miners, cooks, soldiers and fur traders. They would also work as unskilled laborers and service workers. Black women too worked as domestic servants, farm workers, seamstress school teachers, operators and nurses.
Creativity ensured black people survived in the West. They had to use their skills to make furniture and feed their families. They also had to make their own houses.
Close-knit black communities developed through sizable numbers of black people gathering to form their own general store, church, a mill factory a bank and a hotel. By 1920 the small communities had settled in over 50 towns where more political organization was born. One such town is Langston Oklahoma. In such towns blacks could easily vote, develop business and easily live in peace.
The old west brought out all kinds of people who inspired and represented the black agenda in their territories (Sylvester, 2001). Many black people did daring acts that endeared them to their masters and the general population which somehow helped in fostering the belief that all people are equal.
Among the many prominent people was Bass Reeves. He was a US marshal assigned to the expansive Old West where he was to maintain law and order in an area infested by all kinds of outlaws. Though he was born a slave, he learnt to use arms in an early age and that came in handy when executing his duties as a US marshal.
Reeves, was apparently so good at his job that he was never wounded in his thirty year career. The position required tenacity and good skills all of which he demonstrated and in some instances did better than his masters. Though he wasn’t much of a leader, his exploits inspired and encouraged many blacks to hang on to their course in striving for better treatment. There were also women in the old West whose contribution to the wellbeing of the black community stands out.
She was a free woman of color whose work in championing freedom of slaves is still revered. She presented numerous cases in Californian courts which she won and managed to gain compensation for numerous black people. She was also instrumental in helping many runaways escape from bondage (Sylvester, 2001). Her work to rescue slaves was widely acknowledged and often received unwavering support from both white and black populations.
He is one of the most celebrated blacks in the US military. Ossian Flipper was the first black commissioned officer in the regular US army and was the first black man to graduate from WestPoint College (Lutz & Tong, 2002, p. 83).
His immigration to the West and the connections that he had through his father, a successful businessman in the post war era helped him make history as the first black man from the west to achieve the above in the military. After he was dismissed from the military in the 1880’s, he pursued engineering and later became an editor for one of the leading white owned newspaper in the US.
Black people in the west went through a lot in the course of the westward migration that changed their view of the world and also changed them forever. The characters that they exhibit today are as a result of the adaptations they had to make to survive in the then harsh environment.
The artistic nature that they exhibit was born out of the creativity that they needed when they were deprived of any means of survival. Similarly, the lowly education status does not necessarily mean black people of the West or the entire US for that matter are generally lowly uneducated. Some of the injustices they had to go through included denial by authorities of the same level of education that white people had.
However, the segregation and discrimination that existed at the time is not entirely to blame for the current condition of blacks in the west and US as a whole (Junne, 2000, p. 478). Many of them did carry for a long time (others still do) the mentality that the discrimination they underwent is to blame for their problems. To a considerable level however, black people squandered the chance to progress in the same speed as other minority groups in the US after the constitutional amendments.
The west by and large represent the situation of black people in the United States. While there may be a misrepresentation of facts about their situation, the old west can be summed as a crucially unjust environment with limited positives but a place where sheer determination and survival spirit thrived.
Junne, H.G. (2000). Blacks in the American West and beyond–America, Canada, and Mexico: A selectively Annotated Bibliography. New York: Greenwood Publishing.
Lutz, A.R. & Tong, B. (2002).The human tradition in the American West. NJ: Rowman & Littlefield
Sylvester, M. (2001). African Americans and the Old West. Retrieved 9 November 2010 from: http://www2.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/african/west/west.htm
Savage, S.W. (1977). Blacks in the West. Westport: Greenwood Publishing. | 2,261 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A team of scientists from the University of Vermont working with researchers from other institutions, has been able to repurpose living cells. The cells used were scraped from Frog embryos and assembled into new lifeforms. The new lifeforms are millimeter-wide “xenobots” that can move towards a target. They may also be able to pick up a payload, such as a medication, that needs to be delivered to a specific place inside the person. The xenobots can also heal themselves after being cut.
Researchers say that they are novel living machines that are neither a traditional robot or a known species of animal. They are described as a new class of artifact that is a living, programmable organism. The creatures were designed on a supercomputer at UVM and assembled and tested by biologists at Tufts University.
The robots have multiple uses, including finding radioactive contamination and gathering microplastic in the ocean. They might also travel in arteries to scrape out plaque. This research marks the first time that biological machines were designed completely from the ground up. The team used an evolutionary algorithm to create thousands of candidate designs.
The computer would try and achieve a task assigned by scientists, such as locomotion in one direction, and the computer would assemble cells over and over to perform the job. The computer was driven by basic rules about the biophysics of what a single frog skin or cardiac cells can do.
The most promising designs churned out by the computer were selected for testing. The cells were harvested from embryos of an African frog species called Xenopus laevis, which is where the xenobots name comes from. The cells were joined under a microscope into an approximation of the designs specified by the computer. The resulting organisms could move in a coherent fashion and explore their environment for days or weeks using embryonic energy stores. The bots are also biodegradable; when their job is done, they are just skin cells. | <urn:uuid:3d7c0adc-b7be-4671-89d2-4cc83b9bf50d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.slashgear.com/scientists-create-xenobots-using-living-cells-15606861/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00330.warc.gz | en | 0.98026 | 395 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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0.1146416515111... | 3 | A team of scientists from the University of Vermont working with researchers from other institutions, has been able to repurpose living cells. The cells used were scraped from Frog embryos and assembled into new lifeforms. The new lifeforms are millimeter-wide “xenobots” that can move towards a target. They may also be able to pick up a payload, such as a medication, that needs to be delivered to a specific place inside the person. The xenobots can also heal themselves after being cut.
Researchers say that they are novel living machines that are neither a traditional robot or a known species of animal. They are described as a new class of artifact that is a living, programmable organism. The creatures were designed on a supercomputer at UVM and assembled and tested by biologists at Tufts University.
The robots have multiple uses, including finding radioactive contamination and gathering microplastic in the ocean. They might also travel in arteries to scrape out plaque. This research marks the first time that biological machines were designed completely from the ground up. The team used an evolutionary algorithm to create thousands of candidate designs.
The computer would try and achieve a task assigned by scientists, such as locomotion in one direction, and the computer would assemble cells over and over to perform the job. The computer was driven by basic rules about the biophysics of what a single frog skin or cardiac cells can do.
The most promising designs churned out by the computer were selected for testing. The cells were harvested from embryos of an African frog species called Xenopus laevis, which is where the xenobots name comes from. The cells were joined under a microscope into an approximation of the designs specified by the computer. The resulting organisms could move in a coherent fashion and explore their environment for days or weeks using embryonic energy stores. The bots are also biodegradable; when their job is done, they are just skin cells. | 387 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Raised as a plantation slave, Frederick Douglass went on to become a writer, orator, and major participant in the struggle for African-American freedom and equality. In this engrossing narrative he recounts early years of abuse; his dramatic escape to the North and eventual freedom, abolitionist campaigns, and his crusade for full civil rights for former slaves. "The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass" was Douglass' third autobiography. In it he was able to go into greater detail about his life as a slave and his escape from slavery, as he and his family were no longer in any danger from the reception of his work. It is also the only of Douglass' autobiographies to discuss his life during and after the Civil War, including his encounters with American Presidents such as Lincoln, Grant, and Garfield. | <urn:uuid:c7f3f735-f4d0-430e-b5d3-0bb71fddbf29> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://prerelease.barnesandnoble.com/w/life-and-times-of-frederick-douglass-frederick-douglass/1100401155?ean=9780806508658 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00446.warc.gz | en | 0.993643 | 166 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.0972892940044... | 1 | Raised as a plantation slave, Frederick Douglass went on to become a writer, orator, and major participant in the struggle for African-American freedom and equality. In this engrossing narrative he recounts early years of abuse; his dramatic escape to the North and eventual freedom, abolitionist campaigns, and his crusade for full civil rights for former slaves. "The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass" was Douglass' third autobiography. In it he was able to go into greater detail about his life as a slave and his escape from slavery, as he and his family were no longer in any danger from the reception of his work. It is also the only of Douglass' autobiographies to discuss his life during and after the Civil War, including his encounters with American Presidents such as Lincoln, Grant, and Garfield. | 166 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow was written by Washington Irving and published in 1820. The story takes place in the late 1700s in the countryside setting of the Dutch settlement of Tarry Town and a secluded glen known as Sleepy Hollow. The Legend of Sleepy Hollow involves a Hessian Trooper who lost his head to a stray canonball in the Revolutionary War. According to legend the ghost of the Headless Horseman rode forth to the scene of battle in a nightly search for his missing head.
The story has roots in actual historical events that probably contributed to the Legend of the Headless Horseman that Irving wrote about. Hessian soldiers were German mercenaries who were contracted by the British to serve during the Revolutionary War. The Dutch settlers did not like these soldiers because their reputation for being ruthless and told tales of a German horseman who killed without discretion. At one point during the war, a headless corpse of a Hessian soldier was found and buried in an unmarked grave in the Old Dutch Burial Ground. | <urn:uuid:662bbda8-191d-4955-8021-89a300b60d00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://gilavalleycentral.net/podcast-the-legend-of-sleepy-hollow/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00466.warc.gz | en | 0.981877 | 206 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.4408541917800903... | 5 | The Legend of Sleepy Hollow was written by Washington Irving and published in 1820. The story takes place in the late 1700s in the countryside setting of the Dutch settlement of Tarry Town and a secluded glen known as Sleepy Hollow. The Legend of Sleepy Hollow involves a Hessian Trooper who lost his head to a stray canonball in the Revolutionary War. According to legend the ghost of the Headless Horseman rode forth to the scene of battle in a nightly search for his missing head.
The story has roots in actual historical events that probably contributed to the Legend of the Headless Horseman that Irving wrote about. Hessian soldiers were German mercenaries who were contracted by the British to serve during the Revolutionary War. The Dutch settlers did not like these soldiers because their reputation for being ruthless and told tales of a German horseman who killed without discretion. At one point during the war, a headless corpse of a Hessian soldier was found and buried in an unmarked grave in the Old Dutch Burial Ground. | 213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout history, perspectives on marriage have shifted extensively. At present, modern views on marriage have broken the pattern of a more traditional dynamic in which the man was portrayed as superior head of the household and the women was meant for cooking, bearing children, and submission to her husband. Married men and women are now treated as equal partners and loving companions. In Comedy of Errors, Shakespeare reveals his ideas regarding marriage through the play’s setting, the relational dynamic between Antipholus and Adriana, and the use of verse.
The first indication of Shakespeare’s marital ideals is the very location in which his play occurs: the city of Ephesus. Ephesus is the setting of The Book of Ephesians from the New Testament. In this part of the Bible, the Apostle Paul wrote his beliefs; he urges readers to treat each other as they would treat God. Paul clearly states that a man must respect and love his wife as Christ loves the church, by treating her as his own flesh (Smith). Shakespeare’s use of this Biblical setting suggests that he holds a more modern view on marriage than was typical at the time he was writing.
Shakespeare’s description of the relationship between Adriana and Antipholus of Ephesus also gives insight to his views on marriage. In the beginning of the play, the audience learns that Antipholus hasn’t been coming home on time or even at all. As a result, Adriana is upset and believes her husband is being unfaithful. She does not believe it is fair for her husband to act this way and asks, “Why should their liberty than ours be more?” (2.1.10). Throughout the play Adriana makes remarks like these which suggest that she is a progressive thinker and Shakespeare leads the audience to sympathize with her struggles. In doing so, he points to the fact that he too believes that women should be treated with a greater fairness in their relationships.
Additional hints of Shakespeare’s marital perspectives can be found in the stylistic elements of his writing. From beginning to end, Shakespeare writes in verse whenever Adriana, Lucina, or some other women are speaking in Comedy of Errors, such as the conversation between Adriana and Luciana in Act 2. Luciana says, “Why, headstrong liberty is lashed with woe.”(2.1.15) which is an example of verse. Historically, lines in verse were given to more respected characters which means for most authors during this time period, verse was reserved for men. But, for Shakespeare, females of significance were given this honor as well. This suggests that he viewed women as valuable partners, worthy of their husband’s respect.
While some 16th century plays match the marital tone of the time period in which they were written, others seem to reach ahead into the future. Overall, this play’s setting, the relationship between Antipholus and Adriana, and the use of verse demonstrate that Shakespeare was well beyond his time when it came to his beliefs about marriage. More often than not, his writing proposed that wives should be thought of as peers rather than property and challenged audience members to question traditional marital norms. There is no doubt that Shakespeare valued men and women as equal partners and believed in a modern view of marriage.
...(download the rest of the essay above) | <urn:uuid:274a359b-a1d6-4aad-819e-3bfac4498cb2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.essaysauce.com/english-literature-essays/the-city-of-ephesus-shakespeare/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00100.warc.gz | en | 0.982351 | 704 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.0073847705... | 4 | Throughout history, perspectives on marriage have shifted extensively. At present, modern views on marriage have broken the pattern of a more traditional dynamic in which the man was portrayed as superior head of the household and the women was meant for cooking, bearing children, and submission to her husband. Married men and women are now treated as equal partners and loving companions. In Comedy of Errors, Shakespeare reveals his ideas regarding marriage through the play’s setting, the relational dynamic between Antipholus and Adriana, and the use of verse.
The first indication of Shakespeare’s marital ideals is the very location in which his play occurs: the city of Ephesus. Ephesus is the setting of The Book of Ephesians from the New Testament. In this part of the Bible, the Apostle Paul wrote his beliefs; he urges readers to treat each other as they would treat God. Paul clearly states that a man must respect and love his wife as Christ loves the church, by treating her as his own flesh (Smith). Shakespeare’s use of this Biblical setting suggests that he holds a more modern view on marriage than was typical at the time he was writing.
Shakespeare’s description of the relationship between Adriana and Antipholus of Ephesus also gives insight to his views on marriage. In the beginning of the play, the audience learns that Antipholus hasn’t been coming home on time or even at all. As a result, Adriana is upset and believes her husband is being unfaithful. She does not believe it is fair for her husband to act this way and asks, “Why should their liberty than ours be more?” (2.1.10). Throughout the play Adriana makes remarks like these which suggest that she is a progressive thinker and Shakespeare leads the audience to sympathize with her struggles. In doing so, he points to the fact that he too believes that women should be treated with a greater fairness in their relationships.
Additional hints of Shakespeare’s marital perspectives can be found in the stylistic elements of his writing. From beginning to end, Shakespeare writes in verse whenever Adriana, Lucina, or some other women are speaking in Comedy of Errors, such as the conversation between Adriana and Luciana in Act 2. Luciana says, “Why, headstrong liberty is lashed with woe.”(2.1.15) which is an example of verse. Historically, lines in verse were given to more respected characters which means for most authors during this time period, verse was reserved for men. But, for Shakespeare, females of significance were given this honor as well. This suggests that he viewed women as valuable partners, worthy of their husband’s respect.
While some 16th century plays match the marital tone of the time period in which they were written, others seem to reach ahead into the future. Overall, this play’s setting, the relationship between Antipholus and Adriana, and the use of verse demonstrate that Shakespeare was well beyond his time when it came to his beliefs about marriage. More often than not, his writing proposed that wives should be thought of as peers rather than property and challenged audience members to question traditional marital norms. There is no doubt that Shakespeare valued men and women as equal partners and believed in a modern view of marriage.
...(download the rest of the essay above) | 673 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today's vinyl records aren't that much different from those that were introduced in the 1940s. The styles of music and the artists have changed, and a few refinements have improved their sound quality, most notably the introduction of stereo sound in the late 1950s, but the basic record has not.
Before Vinyl, There Was Shellac: 78s
When Thomas Edison invented the phonograph in 1877, the playback medium was cylindrical in shape. Emile Berliner changed that in 1888 by creating a flat disc to be played on what he called a gramophone. Over a period of several decades, these records became standardized at a speed of approximately 78 rpm and in sizes of 10 and 12 inches in diameter, the larger ones usually for classical music. They were made of a shellac-based compound that proved both noisy and brittle. Also, because of their short length, several changes of side were necessary to listen to, for example, a movement of a symphony.
Long-Playing Records Came Next
In 1931, the RCA Victor Company introduced an early version of a long-playing record, but it failed to catch on and was all but dead by 1933. The Depression and World War II inhibited further attempts to create a more modern record.
After several years of research, Columbia introduced a microgroove 33 1/3 rpm long-playing record in 1948. Unlike the standard 10-inch 78 rpm record, which could play about 3 1/2 minutes on one side, the new “LP” could hold 15-plus minutes on one side of a 10-inch record and up to 25 minutes on one side of a 12-inch disc. Also, these new records were made of a vinyl compound rather than the easily breakable shellac of 78s. The larger discs were originally meant for classical music and the smaller for non-classical, but by 1955, the 10-inch LP had been superseded by the 12-inch version.
The 45 RPM Single Followed
Less than a year after Columbia's LP, in March 1949, RCA Victor introduced its own microgroove vinyl system — a 7-inch disc that played at 45 rpm. (It's been said that the speed came from subtracting 33 from 78, but there may be [more to it than that] (https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1O1oKDSwQF-9BLRseArSbj5YQ-z7BAPBpB-08kdCK2l0/pub?start=false&loop=false&delayms=3000&slide=id.g78e9a7dc4_02).) These were closer in concept to the 78s they ended up replacing, as they became the preferred method for singles. RCA also invented a special record changer to go along with the discs, which is why they have the large hole in the middle rather than the small hole of 33s and 78s.
For a few years, record labels issued albums in sets of 45s as well as on long-playing LPs. In 1952, the extended-play 45, which became known as the “EP,” was introduced to replace those boxes of 45s, but once again these EPs rarely served more than a niche market, though some Elvis Presley EPs were huge sellers in 1956. Most labels phased out EP releases by the early 1960s, though Capitol released a Beatles EP in 1965, and RCA issued one last Elvis Presley EP in 1967.
Two Ears, Two Sounds: Stereo Records
The next innovation in records was the stereo disc, which was introduced in 1957.
Stereo recording began on some films as early as 1939, and by 1954, several labels were recording in stereo. Reel-to-reel stereo tapes were sold before stereo records were because there were several competing ideas on how to make stereo records, and no one could agree which was best. Finally, an independent label, Audio Fidelity, chose one of the methods and started to release stereo records in 1957. The major labels followed, and by 1959, many new LPs were being issued in mono and stereo at the same time. Stereo 45s followed but didn't catch on at first; they began to reappear in 1968, and almost all labels were releasing stereo singles by 1973.
Monaural LPs began to be discontinued in 1967, and by the end of 1968, virtually all new albums were in stereo only. Some older releases were converted using various methods into fake stereo; these albums are generally avoided except to complete a collection.
Vinyl Records Today
Most of the refinements in records since then have been to improve what is already there. In the 1970s, quadraphonic (four-channel) sound failed to catch on because of incompatible competing formats. Other techniques, including half-speed mastering and metal mastering, are attempts to improve the stereo sound.
Because vinyl records can become scratched, warped and dirty, other formats slowly took over. Eight-track and cassette tapes were introduced in the 1960s; by the mid-1980s, more cassettes than vinyl records were sold. In 1982, the digital compact disc came to market and superseded both cassettes and LPs by 1991. Though the pops, ticks and warping of vinyl were not an issue with CDs, the shiny metal discs have their own problems, which led audiophiles, disc jockeys and collectors back to the old-fashioned vinyl record.
- Chad Baker/Jason Reed/Ryan McVay/Photodisc/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:24180191-486d-4267-bd8f-59715e64510f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ourpastimes.com/history-vinyl-records-5373550.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00018.warc.gz | en | 0.981022 | 1,160 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.02889093011617660... | 5 | Today's vinyl records aren't that much different from those that were introduced in the 1940s. The styles of music and the artists have changed, and a few refinements have improved their sound quality, most notably the introduction of stereo sound in the late 1950s, but the basic record has not.
Before Vinyl, There Was Shellac: 78s
When Thomas Edison invented the phonograph in 1877, the playback medium was cylindrical in shape. Emile Berliner changed that in 1888 by creating a flat disc to be played on what he called a gramophone. Over a period of several decades, these records became standardized at a speed of approximately 78 rpm and in sizes of 10 and 12 inches in diameter, the larger ones usually for classical music. They were made of a shellac-based compound that proved both noisy and brittle. Also, because of their short length, several changes of side were necessary to listen to, for example, a movement of a symphony.
Long-Playing Records Came Next
In 1931, the RCA Victor Company introduced an early version of a long-playing record, but it failed to catch on and was all but dead by 1933. The Depression and World War II inhibited further attempts to create a more modern record.
After several years of research, Columbia introduced a microgroove 33 1/3 rpm long-playing record in 1948. Unlike the standard 10-inch 78 rpm record, which could play about 3 1/2 minutes on one side, the new “LP” could hold 15-plus minutes on one side of a 10-inch record and up to 25 minutes on one side of a 12-inch disc. Also, these new records were made of a vinyl compound rather than the easily breakable shellac of 78s. The larger discs were originally meant for classical music and the smaller for non-classical, but by 1955, the 10-inch LP had been superseded by the 12-inch version.
The 45 RPM Single Followed
Less than a year after Columbia's LP, in March 1949, RCA Victor introduced its own microgroove vinyl system — a 7-inch disc that played at 45 rpm. (It's been said that the speed came from subtracting 33 from 78, but there may be [more to it than that] (https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1O1oKDSwQF-9BLRseArSbj5YQ-z7BAPBpB-08kdCK2l0/pub?start=false&loop=false&delayms=3000&slide=id.g78e9a7dc4_02).) These were closer in concept to the 78s they ended up replacing, as they became the preferred method for singles. RCA also invented a special record changer to go along with the discs, which is why they have the large hole in the middle rather than the small hole of 33s and 78s.
For a few years, record labels issued albums in sets of 45s as well as on long-playing LPs. In 1952, the extended-play 45, which became known as the “EP,” was introduced to replace those boxes of 45s, but once again these EPs rarely served more than a niche market, though some Elvis Presley EPs were huge sellers in 1956. Most labels phased out EP releases by the early 1960s, though Capitol released a Beatles EP in 1965, and RCA issued one last Elvis Presley EP in 1967.
Two Ears, Two Sounds: Stereo Records
The next innovation in records was the stereo disc, which was introduced in 1957.
Stereo recording began on some films as early as 1939, and by 1954, several labels were recording in stereo. Reel-to-reel stereo tapes were sold before stereo records were because there were several competing ideas on how to make stereo records, and no one could agree which was best. Finally, an independent label, Audio Fidelity, chose one of the methods and started to release stereo records in 1957. The major labels followed, and by 1959, many new LPs were being issued in mono and stereo at the same time. Stereo 45s followed but didn't catch on at first; they began to reappear in 1968, and almost all labels were releasing stereo singles by 1973.
Monaural LPs began to be discontinued in 1967, and by the end of 1968, virtually all new albums were in stereo only. Some older releases were converted using various methods into fake stereo; these albums are generally avoided except to complete a collection.
Vinyl Records Today
Most of the refinements in records since then have been to improve what is already there. In the 1970s, quadraphonic (four-channel) sound failed to catch on because of incompatible competing formats. Other techniques, including half-speed mastering and metal mastering, are attempts to improve the stereo sound.
Because vinyl records can become scratched, warped and dirty, other formats slowly took over. Eight-track and cassette tapes were introduced in the 1960s; by the mid-1980s, more cassettes than vinyl records were sold. In 1982, the digital compact disc came to market and superseded both cassettes and LPs by 1991. Though the pops, ticks and warping of vinyl were not an issue with CDs, the shiny metal discs have their own problems, which led audiophiles, disc jockeys and collectors back to the old-fashioned vinyl record.
- Chad Baker/Jason Reed/Ryan McVay/Photodisc/Getty Images | 1,275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The inspiration for this piece was our biology professor, Dr. Cooke, who loves lobsters and worked with them for years. At the beginning of every class, she shares a lobster fact with us. The project was to make a prop for a teacher, and with her love for lobsters, 3 classmates and I decided to attempt to make an anatomically correct lobster.
Making the claws and having them be anatomically correct posed some serious challenges. Originally, I sketched a jagged shape of what resembled a claw. Then, I extruded it, and began to make little smaller sketches for the teeth of the claw. The way I did it presented some problems, because when I went to fillet it I was getting errors due to the teeth. So, I had to put ellipses and split the body in order to get the roundness of the real claw that I wanted.
After putting the ellipses around both directions to make it rounded, I used a spline to give the appearance of a functioning claw, the claw as a whole came out well.
With the second claw, I had the same approach of drawing a sketch, but this time I made sure the teeth were included in the original.
Yet again, ellipses were added in order to get the rounding. With the teeth included in the original sketch, filleting wasn’t enough for the desired roundness, so splitting the body with the ellipse was a better way to go.
This is the final product of claw 2, which didn’t come out as great as claw 1, but also has some different anatomy due to it being a different type of claw, the crusher claw, as opposed to the pincer claw.
Lastly, these had to be sent to the main project with the rest of the body in order to be fit and attached for printing. The arms attaching the claws to the body had to be made. They were made by using the sweep tool, and then being rotated to give the arm-like shape. Then it was mirrored so both arms would be identical.
- Printer used: Ultimaker 3
- Layer height – 0.2mm
- Support – off
- Percent infill – 20%
- Time to print – 25 hours
- Filament brand: eSun PLA | <urn:uuid:324004e1-5798-4f07-bd12-244a7884348d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://3dprinting.illustratingmath.com/2019/12/13/lobster-claws/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00432.warc.gz | en | 0.980326 | 480 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.2472745478153... | 2 | The inspiration for this piece was our biology professor, Dr. Cooke, who loves lobsters and worked with them for years. At the beginning of every class, she shares a lobster fact with us. The project was to make a prop for a teacher, and with her love for lobsters, 3 classmates and I decided to attempt to make an anatomically correct lobster.
Making the claws and having them be anatomically correct posed some serious challenges. Originally, I sketched a jagged shape of what resembled a claw. Then, I extruded it, and began to make little smaller sketches for the teeth of the claw. The way I did it presented some problems, because when I went to fillet it I was getting errors due to the teeth. So, I had to put ellipses and split the body in order to get the roundness of the real claw that I wanted.
After putting the ellipses around both directions to make it rounded, I used a spline to give the appearance of a functioning claw, the claw as a whole came out well.
With the second claw, I had the same approach of drawing a sketch, but this time I made sure the teeth were included in the original.
Yet again, ellipses were added in order to get the rounding. With the teeth included in the original sketch, filleting wasn’t enough for the desired roundness, so splitting the body with the ellipse was a better way to go.
This is the final product of claw 2, which didn’t come out as great as claw 1, but also has some different anatomy due to it being a different type of claw, the crusher claw, as opposed to the pincer claw.
Lastly, these had to be sent to the main project with the rest of the body in order to be fit and attached for printing. The arms attaching the claws to the body had to be made. They were made by using the sweep tool, and then being rotated to give the arm-like shape. Then it was mirrored so both arms would be identical.
- Printer used: Ultimaker 3
- Layer height – 0.2mm
- Support – off
- Percent infill – 20%
- Time to print – 25 hours
- Filament brand: eSun PLA | 467 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Holocaust was the systematic and bureaucratic annihilation of six million Jews as well as other "undesirables" by the Nazi regime and their collaborators as a central act of state during World War II. The Holocaust took place in Europe from January 30, 1933, when Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, to May 8, 1945 when the war ended in Europe.
The European Jews were the primary victims of the Holocaust—up to two out of every three Jews in Europe were killed. Jews, however, were certainly not the only group singled out for persecution by Hitler’s regime. As many as one-half million Gypsies, at least 250,000 mentally or physically disabled persons, and more than three million Soviet prisoners-of-war also fell victim to Nazi genocide. Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals, Social Democrats, Communists, partisans, Polish intelligentsia and other "undesirables" were also victims of the hate and aggression carried out by the Nazis.
While it is impossible to ascertain the exact number of victims, statistics indicate that the total number of Jews murdered was over 5,830,000. Six million Jewish victims is the round figure accepted by most authorities. There were many millions of additional victims, including Communists, trade unionists, Socialists, Roma and Sinti (Gypsies), Jehova's Witnesses, Soviet citizens, Soviet prisoners of war, and homosexuals.
“Nazi" is a term used for members of the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP). This right-wing political party was formed primarily by unemployed German veterans of World War I in 1919, just after the end of the war and Germany’s defeat. In 1921 Adolph Hitler became the head of the party, and the Nazis slowly became a powerful political force under his leadership. The Nazi Party ideology was largely based on nationalism and racism. They promoted Germany as superior to all other nations and promised to restore it to greatness, while championing a scientific "theory" of racism, in which the "Aryan" (German) people were racially superior to all others, especially the "mongrel" race of the Jews.
In 1933 the Nazi Party descended upon the German government. Hitler quickly squelched democracy and severely restricted basic civil rights, such as freedom of speech, the press, and assembly. In a series of both quasi-legal and illegal measures, the Nazi party became the German government. The SS took over the police force and began to rule in a militaristic police state, dealing with all opposition by either taking them away to concentration camps or killing them. The Gestapo, or Secret Police, spied on those citizens thought to be suspicious and reported them to the government. Often citizens were persecuted simply because they were Communists, Socialists, or Jews. In addition, many laws established that all sport, recreation, and social clubs must be "Nazified." Within a short time the Nazis invaded all aspects of German life and created an atmosphere of terror, suspicion, and distrust.
The Jews are a diverse religious and cultural group whose origins are described in the Bible. The term Jewish is not a race in any sense of the word, since there are no physical characteristics that can be defined as "Jewish." Anyone may become a Jew through study and steps leading to religious conversion.
Immediately following the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, the Nazis issued the official definition of a Jew. According to German law, anyone with three Jewish grandparents was a Jew. In addition, anyone married to a Jewish person or who had one Jewish parent was also considered a Jew in the eyes of the law.
Those not classified as Jews under German law, but had some "Jewish blood," were categorized as Mischlinge, or hybrids. Those with two Jewish grandparents were to be known as Mischlinge of the first degree, while those with one Jewish grandparent were of the second degree. In short, Judaism for the Nazis was something racial, something someone was born into and about which they could do nothing.
A death camp, or extermination camp, was a concentration camp with special apparatus especially designed for mass murder, like gas chambers. Six such camps existed: Auschwitz-Birkenau, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek, Sobibor, and Treblinka. All were located in Poland.
The term Final Solution (Endlosung) refers to the Germans’ plan to physically liquidate all Jews in Europe. The term was used at the Wannsee Conference (held in Berlin suburb on January 20, 1942) where German officials discussed its implementation.
The first concentration camp established was Dachau, which was opened on March 20, 1933. The camp’s first inmates were primarily political prisoners (most of whom were either Communists or Social Democrats), habitual criminals, homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and anti-socials (beggars and vagrants). The camp also housed those considered problematic by the Nazis such as Jewish writers and journalists, lawyers, unpopular industrialists and officials.
The following were considered enemies of the Third Reich, and, therefore, were persecuted by Nazi authorities: Jews, Communists, Social Democrats, other opposing politicians, opponents of Nazism, Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals, habitual criminals, anti-socials, the mentally ill, and anyone considered a threat to the Nazis.
The explanation of the Nazis’ implacable hatred for the Jews rests in their distorted world view that saw history as a racial struggle. They considered the Jews a race whose goal was world domination and, therefore, was an obstruction to Aryan dominance. They believed this struggle would resolve itself with the Aryans in control. Moreover, in their eyes, the Jews’ racial origin made them habitual criminals who could never be rehabilitated and were hopelessly corrupt and inferior. There is no doubt that other factors contributed to the Nazis’ hatred of the Jews and their distorted image of Jewish people. Among them were the centuries-old tradition of Christian anti-Semitism, which propagated a negative stereotype of the Jew as a Christ-killer, agent of the devil, and practitioner of witchcraft. Anti-Semitism was still accepted in the latter half of the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century. This attitude singled out the Jew as a threat to the "master" race. These factors combined to point to the Jew as a target for persecution by the Nazis.
Source: Simon Wiesenthal Center | <urn:uuid:86e8ebad-b48c-4fab-9403-9efa0fa4e476> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hmh.org/education/resources/frequently-asked-questions/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.980225 | 1,318 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.23840400576591... | 5 | The Holocaust was the systematic and bureaucratic annihilation of six million Jews as well as other "undesirables" by the Nazi regime and their collaborators as a central act of state during World War II. The Holocaust took place in Europe from January 30, 1933, when Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, to May 8, 1945 when the war ended in Europe.
The European Jews were the primary victims of the Holocaust—up to two out of every three Jews in Europe were killed. Jews, however, were certainly not the only group singled out for persecution by Hitler’s regime. As many as one-half million Gypsies, at least 250,000 mentally or physically disabled persons, and more than three million Soviet prisoners-of-war also fell victim to Nazi genocide. Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals, Social Democrats, Communists, partisans, Polish intelligentsia and other "undesirables" were also victims of the hate and aggression carried out by the Nazis.
While it is impossible to ascertain the exact number of victims, statistics indicate that the total number of Jews murdered was over 5,830,000. Six million Jewish victims is the round figure accepted by most authorities. There were many millions of additional victims, including Communists, trade unionists, Socialists, Roma and Sinti (Gypsies), Jehova's Witnesses, Soviet citizens, Soviet prisoners of war, and homosexuals.
“Nazi" is a term used for members of the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP). This right-wing political party was formed primarily by unemployed German veterans of World War I in 1919, just after the end of the war and Germany’s defeat. In 1921 Adolph Hitler became the head of the party, and the Nazis slowly became a powerful political force under his leadership. The Nazi Party ideology was largely based on nationalism and racism. They promoted Germany as superior to all other nations and promised to restore it to greatness, while championing a scientific "theory" of racism, in which the "Aryan" (German) people were racially superior to all others, especially the "mongrel" race of the Jews.
In 1933 the Nazi Party descended upon the German government. Hitler quickly squelched democracy and severely restricted basic civil rights, such as freedom of speech, the press, and assembly. In a series of both quasi-legal and illegal measures, the Nazi party became the German government. The SS took over the police force and began to rule in a militaristic police state, dealing with all opposition by either taking them away to concentration camps or killing them. The Gestapo, or Secret Police, spied on those citizens thought to be suspicious and reported them to the government. Often citizens were persecuted simply because they were Communists, Socialists, or Jews. In addition, many laws established that all sport, recreation, and social clubs must be "Nazified." Within a short time the Nazis invaded all aspects of German life and created an atmosphere of terror, suspicion, and distrust.
The Jews are a diverse religious and cultural group whose origins are described in the Bible. The term Jewish is not a race in any sense of the word, since there are no physical characteristics that can be defined as "Jewish." Anyone may become a Jew through study and steps leading to religious conversion.
Immediately following the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, the Nazis issued the official definition of a Jew. According to German law, anyone with three Jewish grandparents was a Jew. In addition, anyone married to a Jewish person or who had one Jewish parent was also considered a Jew in the eyes of the law.
Those not classified as Jews under German law, but had some "Jewish blood," were categorized as Mischlinge, or hybrids. Those with two Jewish grandparents were to be known as Mischlinge of the first degree, while those with one Jewish grandparent were of the second degree. In short, Judaism for the Nazis was something racial, something someone was born into and about which they could do nothing.
A death camp, or extermination camp, was a concentration camp with special apparatus especially designed for mass murder, like gas chambers. Six such camps existed: Auschwitz-Birkenau, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek, Sobibor, and Treblinka. All were located in Poland.
The term Final Solution (Endlosung) refers to the Germans’ plan to physically liquidate all Jews in Europe. The term was used at the Wannsee Conference (held in Berlin suburb on January 20, 1942) where German officials discussed its implementation.
The first concentration camp established was Dachau, which was opened on March 20, 1933. The camp’s first inmates were primarily political prisoners (most of whom were either Communists or Social Democrats), habitual criminals, homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and anti-socials (beggars and vagrants). The camp also housed those considered problematic by the Nazis such as Jewish writers and journalists, lawyers, unpopular industrialists and officials.
The following were considered enemies of the Third Reich, and, therefore, were persecuted by Nazi authorities: Jews, Communists, Social Democrats, other opposing politicians, opponents of Nazism, Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals, habitual criminals, anti-socials, the mentally ill, and anyone considered a threat to the Nazis.
The explanation of the Nazis’ implacable hatred for the Jews rests in their distorted world view that saw history as a racial struggle. They considered the Jews a race whose goal was world domination and, therefore, was an obstruction to Aryan dominance. They believed this struggle would resolve itself with the Aryans in control. Moreover, in their eyes, the Jews’ racial origin made them habitual criminals who could never be rehabilitated and were hopelessly corrupt and inferior. There is no doubt that other factors contributed to the Nazis’ hatred of the Jews and their distorted image of Jewish people. Among them were the centuries-old tradition of Christian anti-Semitism, which propagated a negative stereotype of the Jew as a Christ-killer, agent of the devil, and practitioner of witchcraft. Anti-Semitism was still accepted in the latter half of the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century. This attitude singled out the Jew as a threat to the "master" race. These factors combined to point to the Jew as a target for persecution by the Nazis.
Source: Simon Wiesenthal Center | 1,338 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to some researchers, musical instruments came about randomly, depending on the available materials, and, in some cases, by the stimulus of the clamor of battle. The definition of a musical instrument is quite simple: it is an instrument that was created or adapted to make musical sounds.
It is important to remember that the history of musical instruments dates back to the beginning of human culture. This tells us that man has always been drawn to music. The earliest musical instruments were used for rituals. For example, the trumpet-like ones were used to signal success in a hunt, or drum-like instruments were used in religious ceremonies.
Over time, cultures have developed the composition and performance of musical pieces for entertainment. Musical instruments have also evolved with the ever-changing applications.
The birth of music
It appears that no one knows exactly where music came from. We are not talking here about who Elvis’ singing predecessors were, not even about when the first musical instrument was invented.
Researchers who have been interested in the physics of instruments believe that musical devices have always depended pretty much on the materials that were available to each civilization. In other words, people worked with what they had. In time, traditional poetry was recited alongside human noise-makers and got rhythms to them.
Again, there is no exact data to back this up, so no one knows exactly when the first song was born. However, adding stories to melodies became a tradition that was carried on to our days and it does not seem like it will ever go out of fashion. Even now, archeologists debate over when the first instruments were created.
The issue is that most instruments from the very early times were made of perishable materials like animal skins, which would have disintegrated ages ago. Basically, it is impossible to determine exactly when and how the first instruments of this kind were created.
We do know, however, that flute-like instruments were found and date back to approximately 67,000 years ago. Harps and lyres that were made in the 2,600 – 2,500 B.C. have been found in the Sumerian city of Ur. Some researchers believe that Australian aborigines developed an instrument called a didgeridoo, 10,000 years ago.
When termites emptied the centers of small eucalyptus plants, someone noticed that it made a sound if they blew into the tube, possibly due to the wind blowing through them. Just like that, other cultures realized that sounds could be made by hitting hollow logs with heavy sticks.
People soon realized that they could produce different sounds by modifying the target object’s length and this eventually lead to the creation of instruments like the xylophone. Even though nobody knows exactly how and when the first musical instruments were made, music seems to be as old as civilization.
Later on, as civilization advanced to the Bronze Age, metals appeared. The available alloy was used in the war business for shields and weapons. However, it soon became obvious that different sounds could be made from hitting a bronze helmet with a sword. Also, there were distinct pitches when the helmet was empty, or when it was covering somebody’s head.
Church bells may have very well been created based on this idea. Other percussion instruments, such as cymbals and gongs required unique bronze alloys because normal bronze can break when hit too hard and brass can bend.
When it comes to stringed instruments like violins, cellos, guitars, and pianos, wood is the secret, and it is possible that they have derived from arrows and bows. It is very clear that the twang of the string has a specific pitch when plucked by a finger. Once, the strings were made of animal gut but, in time, they were replaced by metal and polymers.
Simply bowing the strings of a violin creates very little sound. The sound we can hear from instruments like violins and pianos is actually sustained and amplified by the wood and the design.
Wood is a great material because it is anisotropic. This means that the vibrations are more powerful in one direction, along the grain, while the sound is directed through the structure.
There are instruments for which the material used is irrelevant to the sound and it is only the shape that counts. Conical instruments like horns or brass trumpets have a richer sound not because of the material used but because of their shape.
As electricity appeared, a new kind of musical instrument has been created. These are the electronic instruments or electrophones. These have mechanical parts that generate sound vibrations. Those vibrations are picked up as well as amplified by electrical components.
One thing is for sure. In the past, each musical instrument was a journey, it took a lot of time to create and to adjust to generate the right sounds.
Nowadays, musical instruments are made in rows, in factories, and the magic was somehow lost along the way. | <urn:uuid:0e9492f2-3563-4d2f-91e0-46351335f736> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.urdesignmag.com/technology/2019/11/06/the-evolution-of-musical-instruments/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.981868 | 1,010 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.152767255902... | 6 | According to some researchers, musical instruments came about randomly, depending on the available materials, and, in some cases, by the stimulus of the clamor of battle. The definition of a musical instrument is quite simple: it is an instrument that was created or adapted to make musical sounds.
It is important to remember that the history of musical instruments dates back to the beginning of human culture. This tells us that man has always been drawn to music. The earliest musical instruments were used for rituals. For example, the trumpet-like ones were used to signal success in a hunt, or drum-like instruments were used in religious ceremonies.
Over time, cultures have developed the composition and performance of musical pieces for entertainment. Musical instruments have also evolved with the ever-changing applications.
The birth of music
It appears that no one knows exactly where music came from. We are not talking here about who Elvis’ singing predecessors were, not even about when the first musical instrument was invented.
Researchers who have been interested in the physics of instruments believe that musical devices have always depended pretty much on the materials that were available to each civilization. In other words, people worked with what they had. In time, traditional poetry was recited alongside human noise-makers and got rhythms to them.
Again, there is no exact data to back this up, so no one knows exactly when the first song was born. However, adding stories to melodies became a tradition that was carried on to our days and it does not seem like it will ever go out of fashion. Even now, archeologists debate over when the first instruments were created.
The issue is that most instruments from the very early times were made of perishable materials like animal skins, which would have disintegrated ages ago. Basically, it is impossible to determine exactly when and how the first instruments of this kind were created.
We do know, however, that flute-like instruments were found and date back to approximately 67,000 years ago. Harps and lyres that were made in the 2,600 – 2,500 B.C. have been found in the Sumerian city of Ur. Some researchers believe that Australian aborigines developed an instrument called a didgeridoo, 10,000 years ago.
When termites emptied the centers of small eucalyptus plants, someone noticed that it made a sound if they blew into the tube, possibly due to the wind blowing through them. Just like that, other cultures realized that sounds could be made by hitting hollow logs with heavy sticks.
People soon realized that they could produce different sounds by modifying the target object’s length and this eventually lead to the creation of instruments like the xylophone. Even though nobody knows exactly how and when the first musical instruments were made, music seems to be as old as civilization.
Later on, as civilization advanced to the Bronze Age, metals appeared. The available alloy was used in the war business for shields and weapons. However, it soon became obvious that different sounds could be made from hitting a bronze helmet with a sword. Also, there were distinct pitches when the helmet was empty, or when it was covering somebody’s head.
Church bells may have very well been created based on this idea. Other percussion instruments, such as cymbals and gongs required unique bronze alloys because normal bronze can break when hit too hard and brass can bend.
When it comes to stringed instruments like violins, cellos, guitars, and pianos, wood is the secret, and it is possible that they have derived from arrows and bows. It is very clear that the twang of the string has a specific pitch when plucked by a finger. Once, the strings were made of animal gut but, in time, they were replaced by metal and polymers.
Simply bowing the strings of a violin creates very little sound. The sound we can hear from instruments like violins and pianos is actually sustained and amplified by the wood and the design.
Wood is a great material because it is anisotropic. This means that the vibrations are more powerful in one direction, along the grain, while the sound is directed through the structure.
There are instruments for which the material used is irrelevant to the sound and it is only the shape that counts. Conical instruments like horns or brass trumpets have a richer sound not because of the material used but because of their shape.
As electricity appeared, a new kind of musical instrument has been created. These are the electronic instruments or electrophones. These have mechanical parts that generate sound vibrations. Those vibrations are picked up as well as amplified by electrical components.
One thing is for sure. In the past, each musical instrument was a journey, it took a lot of time to create and to adjust to generate the right sounds.
Nowadays, musical instruments are made in rows, in factories, and the magic was somehow lost along the way. | 995 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 29 October 1929 the US stock market crashed. The effect could be felt worldwide and started the Great Depression. In the previous years Germany had loaned money from the US as aid to pay its reparations. Therefore it had large debts with the US and was hit the hardest by the Depression. US banks demanded their money back which resulted in many German factories to be closed down and unemployment rates increased rapidly. In 1932 some 5.5 millions Germans were unemployed.
As Dr. Schacht said in his speech on 29 November 1938:
“The collapse of German economy after Versailles had its climax in the credit crisis of 1931 (Note 13 July 1931). It was unleashed by the "run" of our creditors abroad who would have liked to collect the entire debt of no less than 25 billion Reichsmark on three months notice. The fraction which was actually transferred was still large enough to destroy our economy. All credit transactions ceased, payments had to be considerably restricted, all large banks showed themselves to be in need of restoration and one, the Danat Bank, was even beyond restoration.
Rates of interest reached insane heights, the number of bankruptcies mounted by leap and bounds. Each individual collapse of necessity released a new chain of suspensions of payment and thus entire branches of economy, among them primarily agriculture, were soon facing ruin. The state of public finances became hopeless. Each increase in the tax rate only brought a decrease in receipts. All of these manifestations of economic decay had unequaled social misery as their inevitable result.
The most staggering proof of this is found in the number of unemployed, which passed the 6-million mark in the winter of 1932/33, the peak was reached 16 February 1933 with 6047289 unemployed by actual count, and which. including invisible unemployment, amounted to almost 7 million. If in addition to this one considers that since 1926 the number of unemployed had never averaged less than 1.3 million per year, and that by 1930 the number already amounted to more than three million, then no further proof is needed that such constant mass unemployment constituted a political danger of the most serious order.”
As Germany's economic situation got worse, with nearly six million unemployed, the Chancellor at that time, Heinrich Brüning, was labeled "The Hunger Chancellor". Brüning had also continued the dangerous precedent of ruling by decree. He invoked Article 48 of the German constitution several times to break the political stalemate in Berlin. On May 29, 1932, Von Hindenburg called in Brüning and told him to resign. Von Hindenburg had received complaints about Brüning’s plans to divide up estates from bankrupt rich aristocrats. The next day, Heinrich Brüning handed in his resignation.
Franz von Papen was appointed the new Chancellor on 1 June 1932 by Von Hindenburg.
The Nazi party meanwhile made good use of the political unrest and unstable economical situation and gained strength. For the Reichstag elections in July 1932 the NSDAP gained 37.27% of all votes, which was 15% more than the second party SDP. To compare, in September 1930 the NSDAP had only 18.25% of the votes, and in May 1928 thus only a mere 2.6%.
We can see the results of the Reichstag elections for the NSDAP between both world wars. It shows clearly that they made perfect use of the Wallstreet Crash to manipulate the voters. They were a marginal party before the Crash and the major party after it.
Hitler wanted to become the Chancellor as his party now was the greatest in Germany. However Von Schleicher and Von Papen and declined his wishes. The best they could offer was a vice Chancellorship. Hitler was furious and clashed with both men. Later he was called to Von Hindenburg and got a tongue lashing. Hitler backed down for a short while.
On 12 September 1932 the Reichstag gave a vote of no confidence to the current cabinet. But just before that vote was taken, Von Papen dissolved the Reichstag and calling yet again for new elections. In November 1932 this election took place and the NSDAP was still the largest party, although it did lose some 4% of the votes. And even though the NSDAP was the largest party, they failed to form a government coalition. As a result Von Papen resigned as Chancellor. Hitler saw an opportunity and asked Von Hindenburg to appoint him as Chancellor. Von Hindenburg refused twice to do so. Instead after much debate, bickering and shouting, Kurt von Schleicher was appointed Chancellor on 2 December 1932.
As nobody trusted nobody, Von Schleicher couldn’t get the cabinet moving. On 28 January 1933 he resigned.
And so, on 30 January 1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor by President Von Hindenburg. Hitler immediately called for new elections. These last free elections before WWII were held on 5 March 1933. This time the NSDAP gained 43.91% of all votes. Together with the DNVP they formed a coalition to get the majority of votes. Although in letter these elections were free, the Nazi party unleashed a storm of violence towards other parties by banning newspapers, physical attacks or breaking up their meetings.
About two weeks later, on 24 March 1933, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act (Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich (Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich)). This would give the cabinet legislative power for four years. Basically giving Hitler dictatorial powers.
One year later German President Paul von Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, aged 86 years old. On 19 August 90% of the German public voted in favor of Chancellor Adolf Hitler becoming Führer und Reichskanzler, a new title created earlier in the month. Although Hitler already had all necessary powers, now he could say that the German people had chosen him and him alone to guide them into a new era.
The German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact was signed on 26 January 1934. Both countries would engage in talks to resolve their problems and also declared peace for a period of ten years.
Next Story: Regaining Territory
Read Again: The Road to World War 2
Read Again: The Treaty of Versailles
Read Again: The Early 20s in Germany
Read Again: Beer Hall Putsch
Read Again: Roaring Twenties | <urn:uuid:c16efde3-a76e-405e-bb60-0aff3a0e11aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://vanhout.name/greatdepression.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00180.warc.gz | en | 0.980036 | 1,320 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.2497005611658096... | 1 | On 29 October 1929 the US stock market crashed. The effect could be felt worldwide and started the Great Depression. In the previous years Germany had loaned money from the US as aid to pay its reparations. Therefore it had large debts with the US and was hit the hardest by the Depression. US banks demanded their money back which resulted in many German factories to be closed down and unemployment rates increased rapidly. In 1932 some 5.5 millions Germans were unemployed.
As Dr. Schacht said in his speech on 29 November 1938:
“The collapse of German economy after Versailles had its climax in the credit crisis of 1931 (Note 13 July 1931). It was unleashed by the "run" of our creditors abroad who would have liked to collect the entire debt of no less than 25 billion Reichsmark on three months notice. The fraction which was actually transferred was still large enough to destroy our economy. All credit transactions ceased, payments had to be considerably restricted, all large banks showed themselves to be in need of restoration and one, the Danat Bank, was even beyond restoration.
Rates of interest reached insane heights, the number of bankruptcies mounted by leap and bounds. Each individual collapse of necessity released a new chain of suspensions of payment and thus entire branches of economy, among them primarily agriculture, were soon facing ruin. The state of public finances became hopeless. Each increase in the tax rate only brought a decrease in receipts. All of these manifestations of economic decay had unequaled social misery as their inevitable result.
The most staggering proof of this is found in the number of unemployed, which passed the 6-million mark in the winter of 1932/33, the peak was reached 16 February 1933 with 6047289 unemployed by actual count, and which. including invisible unemployment, amounted to almost 7 million. If in addition to this one considers that since 1926 the number of unemployed had never averaged less than 1.3 million per year, and that by 1930 the number already amounted to more than three million, then no further proof is needed that such constant mass unemployment constituted a political danger of the most serious order.”
As Germany's economic situation got worse, with nearly six million unemployed, the Chancellor at that time, Heinrich Brüning, was labeled "The Hunger Chancellor". Brüning had also continued the dangerous precedent of ruling by decree. He invoked Article 48 of the German constitution several times to break the political stalemate in Berlin. On May 29, 1932, Von Hindenburg called in Brüning and told him to resign. Von Hindenburg had received complaints about Brüning’s plans to divide up estates from bankrupt rich aristocrats. The next day, Heinrich Brüning handed in his resignation.
Franz von Papen was appointed the new Chancellor on 1 June 1932 by Von Hindenburg.
The Nazi party meanwhile made good use of the political unrest and unstable economical situation and gained strength. For the Reichstag elections in July 1932 the NSDAP gained 37.27% of all votes, which was 15% more than the second party SDP. To compare, in September 1930 the NSDAP had only 18.25% of the votes, and in May 1928 thus only a mere 2.6%.
We can see the results of the Reichstag elections for the NSDAP between both world wars. It shows clearly that they made perfect use of the Wallstreet Crash to manipulate the voters. They were a marginal party before the Crash and the major party after it.
Hitler wanted to become the Chancellor as his party now was the greatest in Germany. However Von Schleicher and Von Papen and declined his wishes. The best they could offer was a vice Chancellorship. Hitler was furious and clashed with both men. Later he was called to Von Hindenburg and got a tongue lashing. Hitler backed down for a short while.
On 12 September 1932 the Reichstag gave a vote of no confidence to the current cabinet. But just before that vote was taken, Von Papen dissolved the Reichstag and calling yet again for new elections. In November 1932 this election took place and the NSDAP was still the largest party, although it did lose some 4% of the votes. And even though the NSDAP was the largest party, they failed to form a government coalition. As a result Von Papen resigned as Chancellor. Hitler saw an opportunity and asked Von Hindenburg to appoint him as Chancellor. Von Hindenburg refused twice to do so. Instead after much debate, bickering and shouting, Kurt von Schleicher was appointed Chancellor on 2 December 1932.
As nobody trusted nobody, Von Schleicher couldn’t get the cabinet moving. On 28 January 1933 he resigned.
And so, on 30 January 1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor by President Von Hindenburg. Hitler immediately called for new elections. These last free elections before WWII were held on 5 March 1933. This time the NSDAP gained 43.91% of all votes. Together with the DNVP they formed a coalition to get the majority of votes. Although in letter these elections were free, the Nazi party unleashed a storm of violence towards other parties by banning newspapers, physical attacks or breaking up their meetings.
About two weeks later, on 24 March 1933, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act (Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich (Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich)). This would give the cabinet legislative power for four years. Basically giving Hitler dictatorial powers.
One year later German President Paul von Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, aged 86 years old. On 19 August 90% of the German public voted in favor of Chancellor Adolf Hitler becoming Führer und Reichskanzler, a new title created earlier in the month. Although Hitler already had all necessary powers, now he could say that the German people had chosen him and him alone to guide them into a new era.
The German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact was signed on 26 January 1934. Both countries would engage in talks to resolve their problems and also declared peace for a period of ten years.
Next Story: Regaining Territory
Read Again: The Road to World War 2
Read Again: The Treaty of Versailles
Read Again: The Early 20s in Germany
Read Again: Beer Hall Putsch
Read Again: Roaring Twenties | 1,433 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ask anyone who the world’s all-time richest person is and you’ll probably hear Bezos, Mark Zuckerberg, Gates or Warren Buffett - but that is of course, wrong.
His name was Mansa Musa and he was an African Muslim king, whose 4,000-mile trip to Mecca accompanied by a caravan of 60,000 people and thousands of servants, went down in history.
Musa was born in 1280, and Mansa means ‘Sultan’ in the native language of Mandinka spoken in the region. He came to the throne in 1312 and in his 25-year reign, the Kingdom of Mali expanded massively to include the current day nations of Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Guinea and the Ivory Coast.
Some historians believe that with an inflation-adjusted fortune, his wealth amounts to around $400 billion today. But, he was not just a rich man and sultan.
Several famous historians, such as Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Fazlullah al Omari, Abdullah es Sa’di, have documented Musa. Ibn Battuta also wrote about him when he visited Mali in 1352. All these historians give prominence to Mansa Musa and his famous Hajj pilgrimage.
The pilgrimage to Mecca (also known as Hajj) is one of the five main pillars of Islam, and Musa decided to embark on Hajj in 1324-1325. But, It was not like any other journey ever witnessed. Musa quite literally paved his path to Mecca with gold and put his kingdom on the map.
Musa deputised his son Mohammad in his capital, Niani, which was located on the upper Niger River to Walata (Mauritania), and started his journey to Mecca accompanied by 60,000 people and thousands of his and his wife’s (Inari Kunti) personal servants. His luggage included thousands of kilogrammes of gold (some sources claim two tonnes, while other sources say 20 tonnes) carried by camels, mules and elephants. His caravan stretched as far as the eye could see and it was claimed that it took a whole day for the caravan to pass.
Musa was famous for his generosity and piety. He built a mosque every Friday during his journed and gave away so much gold that it destabilised the economy in parts of the region for twelve years - as well as deflating the value of gold.
During his travels, Musa met with Al Malik al Nasir in Cairo, one of the most famous Mamluk sultans. When he came into the presence of Al Malik, he was asked to bend his knee as a part of the protocol but he refused, saying that he would only grovel and bend the knee for Allah (God).
Musa added that he was there just for Hajj and he didn’t want to talk about politics. Then, he donated a large amount of gold to the Mamluk treasury. The Sultan of Mamluk replied in kind by giving him a palace to stay.
During Musa’s stay, the members of his caravan boosted the local market by shopping in huge amounts, paying at least five dinar for something worth one dinar. In fact, Musa and his caravan’s spending caused such a decline in the currency’s value, that the market had still not fully recovered 12 years later.
Historian al Umari who visited Cairo 12 years after Musa’s visit, found the inhabitants of this city, with a population estimated at one million, still chanting the praises of the Malian leader. The historian said Musa “flooded Cairo with his kindness”.
Venetian traders who were in Cairo at the time reported that the Malian Kingdom had become one of the most important places in terms of trade.
Musa made his pilgrimage to Mecca, and donated huge amounts of gold in Mecca and Madinah. He encountered descendants of the Prophet Muhammad and gave them lands and houses and even persuaded a few of them to return to Mali with him.
Some say he brought back artists and scholars, to help develop the Mali Empire.
He stayed in the Hejaz, in present-day Saudi Arabia, for three months, and during his return, his caravan was raided by bedouins. When he arrived in Cairo, he met with Mamluk’s sultan again and asked to borrow money from Egyptian traders.
Returning to Timbuktu, he built the Djinguereber Mosque and established a university attracting students and scholars from across the Muslim world, making Mali a centre of knowledge in Africa.
Musa tried to revive scientific movements in his country and sent scholars to Morocco.
He wanted to return to Mecca after abdicating the throne to his son Mega, but he passed away without returning. After his death, the Kingdom of Mali started to decline.
His portrait, drawn by Angeline Dulcert in 1339, two years after his death, could be seen on a map which also showed Mali. European cartographers increasingly started putting Mali on maps because of the fame Musa brought to the kingdom.
He took a place in Abraham Cresques’ Catalan Atlas, standing in the centre of the Sahara with his crown, sceptre in one hand and gold in the other, a symbol of his country’s wealth.
In the Atlas, he was mentioned as the richest black man and Sultan of the Mali who owned the wealthiest gold sources in the Sudan region. The Catalan Atlas also marks the region'strade routes pointing out Tagaza, Timbuktu, Mali and Gaor, which attracted all of Europe’s attention and consolidated their desire to explore the region and colonise the continent.
His pilgrimage, generosity and reputation awakened the world to the immense wealth of Africa, and in particular, Mali. | <urn:uuid:dc0e43fa-4209-44cb-a56b-1fa7b9c3147f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.trtworld.com/africa/not-jeff-bezos-or-bill-gates-mali-s-mansa-musa-was-the-richest-man-ever-31658 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00109.warc.gz | en | 0.982042 | 1,221 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.052760459482669... | 7 | Ask anyone who the world’s all-time richest person is and you’ll probably hear Bezos, Mark Zuckerberg, Gates or Warren Buffett - but that is of course, wrong.
His name was Mansa Musa and he was an African Muslim king, whose 4,000-mile trip to Mecca accompanied by a caravan of 60,000 people and thousands of servants, went down in history.
Musa was born in 1280, and Mansa means ‘Sultan’ in the native language of Mandinka spoken in the region. He came to the throne in 1312 and in his 25-year reign, the Kingdom of Mali expanded massively to include the current day nations of Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Guinea and the Ivory Coast.
Some historians believe that with an inflation-adjusted fortune, his wealth amounts to around $400 billion today. But, he was not just a rich man and sultan.
Several famous historians, such as Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Fazlullah al Omari, Abdullah es Sa’di, have documented Musa. Ibn Battuta also wrote about him when he visited Mali in 1352. All these historians give prominence to Mansa Musa and his famous Hajj pilgrimage.
The pilgrimage to Mecca (also known as Hajj) is one of the five main pillars of Islam, and Musa decided to embark on Hajj in 1324-1325. But, It was not like any other journey ever witnessed. Musa quite literally paved his path to Mecca with gold and put his kingdom on the map.
Musa deputised his son Mohammad in his capital, Niani, which was located on the upper Niger River to Walata (Mauritania), and started his journey to Mecca accompanied by 60,000 people and thousands of his and his wife’s (Inari Kunti) personal servants. His luggage included thousands of kilogrammes of gold (some sources claim two tonnes, while other sources say 20 tonnes) carried by camels, mules and elephants. His caravan stretched as far as the eye could see and it was claimed that it took a whole day for the caravan to pass.
Musa was famous for his generosity and piety. He built a mosque every Friday during his journed and gave away so much gold that it destabilised the economy in parts of the region for twelve years - as well as deflating the value of gold.
During his travels, Musa met with Al Malik al Nasir in Cairo, one of the most famous Mamluk sultans. When he came into the presence of Al Malik, he was asked to bend his knee as a part of the protocol but he refused, saying that he would only grovel and bend the knee for Allah (God).
Musa added that he was there just for Hajj and he didn’t want to talk about politics. Then, he donated a large amount of gold to the Mamluk treasury. The Sultan of Mamluk replied in kind by giving him a palace to stay.
During Musa’s stay, the members of his caravan boosted the local market by shopping in huge amounts, paying at least five dinar for something worth one dinar. In fact, Musa and his caravan’s spending caused such a decline in the currency’s value, that the market had still not fully recovered 12 years later.
Historian al Umari who visited Cairo 12 years after Musa’s visit, found the inhabitants of this city, with a population estimated at one million, still chanting the praises of the Malian leader. The historian said Musa “flooded Cairo with his kindness”.
Venetian traders who were in Cairo at the time reported that the Malian Kingdom had become one of the most important places in terms of trade.
Musa made his pilgrimage to Mecca, and donated huge amounts of gold in Mecca and Madinah. He encountered descendants of the Prophet Muhammad and gave them lands and houses and even persuaded a few of them to return to Mali with him.
Some say he brought back artists and scholars, to help develop the Mali Empire.
He stayed in the Hejaz, in present-day Saudi Arabia, for three months, and during his return, his caravan was raided by bedouins. When he arrived in Cairo, he met with Mamluk’s sultan again and asked to borrow money from Egyptian traders.
Returning to Timbuktu, he built the Djinguereber Mosque and established a university attracting students and scholars from across the Muslim world, making Mali a centre of knowledge in Africa.
Musa tried to revive scientific movements in his country and sent scholars to Morocco.
He wanted to return to Mecca after abdicating the throne to his son Mega, but he passed away without returning. After his death, the Kingdom of Mali started to decline.
His portrait, drawn by Angeline Dulcert in 1339, two years after his death, could be seen on a map which also showed Mali. European cartographers increasingly started putting Mali on maps because of the fame Musa brought to the kingdom.
He took a place in Abraham Cresques’ Catalan Atlas, standing in the centre of the Sahara with his crown, sceptre in one hand and gold in the other, a symbol of his country’s wealth.
In the Atlas, he was mentioned as the richest black man and Sultan of the Mali who owned the wealthiest gold sources in the Sudan region. The Catalan Atlas also marks the region'strade routes pointing out Tagaza, Timbuktu, Mali and Gaor, which attracted all of Europe’s attention and consolidated their desire to explore the region and colonise the continent.
His pilgrimage, generosity and reputation awakened the world to the immense wealth of Africa, and in particular, Mali. | 1,213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Cold War started after the second World War when the alliance of the Soviet Union and the United States broke apart. It’s purpose was to stop communism from spreading so, the United States lead the Democratic Nations and the Soviet Union the Communist Nations. The cold war began because the United States and West Europe feared the spread of communism so the United states fought the Soviet Union, which were against them, using economic wars, promoting information, and numerous military clashes. A year after the Cold War started, the “Iron Curtain” descended dividing Eastern Europe from Western Europe and the Soviet Union played a big role in making that happen, as Winston Churchill said in his speech, March 5 1946. Secondly, the Soviet Union made East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and the soviet union into a “Soviet satellite”. These satellites provided a buffer for the Soviet Union because the satellite nations would help them track invaders. On March 12, 1947 when President Truman was giving speech he said he believed that it is the United States obligation to support the people resisting attempted domination by outside pressure. He also said that if communism was focused more Turkey and Greece it will have a bigger impact to the West. He suggested this policy which was called the Truman Doctrine, which was a policy in which the United States was obligated to support Turkey and Greece economically and military. Then, secretary of State Marshall’s was giving a speech in which he explained his plan for the recovery of Europe. This plan was called the Marshall Plan. The Secretary of State Marshall suggested this because if Europe has economic, social and political damages it will make a big impact in the world so they are trying to avoid that. The purpose of NATO, North Atlantic Treaty, is to protect North American countries and ten more Western Europe countries that were under attack by the Soviet Union. It was like an alliance with against the Soviet Union to protect each other. All that signed the policy agree that any armed attack against one of them in Europe or in North America will be considered as an attack against all of them. Nikita Khrushchev said that the United States only wanted World Power. In his speech he also said that they were trying to cover it up by using an “anti-communism” slogan. Even Though they didn’t use weapons both superpowers were producing them in other to give them a message that they can actually fight them. That was called the “Arms Race” which led to a “balance of terror” that some saw it could cause a war. In conclusion, the cold war started because of the fear that communism will spread. Another reason because it started was because of the alliances made against each other such as NATO and the Warsaw pact. Lastly, the gathering and acomululating of atomic weapons or picking sides lead to a conflict called the Cold War.
- Celebrity Privacy Public figures have been harassed by the media for an exceedingly large amount of time
- Introduction Head and neck cancers | <urn:uuid:8e449068-ec77-43af-9bdf-08ee249c9619> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freedomrunners.org/the-cold-war-started-after-the-second-world-war-when-the-alliance-of-the-soviet-union-and-the-united-states-broke-apart/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00174.warc.gz | en | 0.98165 | 614 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.3940348029136... | 1 | The Cold War started after the second World War when the alliance of the Soviet Union and the United States broke apart. It’s purpose was to stop communism from spreading so, the United States lead the Democratic Nations and the Soviet Union the Communist Nations. The cold war began because the United States and West Europe feared the spread of communism so the United states fought the Soviet Union, which were against them, using economic wars, promoting information, and numerous military clashes. A year after the Cold War started, the “Iron Curtain” descended dividing Eastern Europe from Western Europe and the Soviet Union played a big role in making that happen, as Winston Churchill said in his speech, March 5 1946. Secondly, the Soviet Union made East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and the soviet union into a “Soviet satellite”. These satellites provided a buffer for the Soviet Union because the satellite nations would help them track invaders. On March 12, 1947 when President Truman was giving speech he said he believed that it is the United States obligation to support the people resisting attempted domination by outside pressure. He also said that if communism was focused more Turkey and Greece it will have a bigger impact to the West. He suggested this policy which was called the Truman Doctrine, which was a policy in which the United States was obligated to support Turkey and Greece economically and military. Then, secretary of State Marshall’s was giving a speech in which he explained his plan for the recovery of Europe. This plan was called the Marshall Plan. The Secretary of State Marshall suggested this because if Europe has economic, social and political damages it will make a big impact in the world so they are trying to avoid that. The purpose of NATO, North Atlantic Treaty, is to protect North American countries and ten more Western Europe countries that were under attack by the Soviet Union. It was like an alliance with against the Soviet Union to protect each other. All that signed the policy agree that any armed attack against one of them in Europe or in North America will be considered as an attack against all of them. Nikita Khrushchev said that the United States only wanted World Power. In his speech he also said that they were trying to cover it up by using an “anti-communism” slogan. Even Though they didn’t use weapons both superpowers were producing them in other to give them a message that they can actually fight them. That was called the “Arms Race” which led to a “balance of terror” that some saw it could cause a war. In conclusion, the cold war started because of the fear that communism will spread. Another reason because it started was because of the alliances made against each other such as NATO and the Warsaw pact. Lastly, the gathering and acomululating of atomic weapons or picking sides lead to a conflict called the Cold War.
- Celebrity Privacy Public figures have been harassed by the media for an exceedingly large amount of time
- Introduction Head and neck cancers | 611 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ernest Rutherford is called the Newton of atomic physics. He was recognized by his fellow scientists as a man of colossal energy and tireless enthusiasm. As he himself remarked he lived in the “heroic age of physics”. Ernest Rutherford was born in New Zealand. He graduated from New Zealand University and entered Trinity College, Cambridge.
In 1919 he was appointed a Professor of experimental physics in the University of Cambridge. E. Rutherford’s early researches concerned electromagnetic waves. His experiments led him to develop a magnetic detector, which at that time was the best detector of electromagnetic waves.
His detector was later used by Marconi, one of the inventors of the radio, in his well-known investigations. Rutherford’s big triumph began when he turned his attention to radioactivity. His brilliant researches established the existence and nature of radioactive transformations. He also investigated the electrical structure of matter and the nuclear nature of atom. He was one of the founders of the atomic theory of physics and creators of the first atomic model.
He stated that the atom consisted of a nucleus around which electrons revolved in orbits. Even today his works did not lose their importance. | <urn:uuid:98198f40-1c47-4f43-a872-7f2f9d73d754> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://englishtopik.ru/ernest-rutherford-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.980431 | 239 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.3678901791572571,... | 1 | Ernest Rutherford is called the Newton of atomic physics. He was recognized by his fellow scientists as a man of colossal energy and tireless enthusiasm. As he himself remarked he lived in the “heroic age of physics”. Ernest Rutherford was born in New Zealand. He graduated from New Zealand University and entered Trinity College, Cambridge.
In 1919 he was appointed a Professor of experimental physics in the University of Cambridge. E. Rutherford’s early researches concerned electromagnetic waves. His experiments led him to develop a magnetic detector, which at that time was the best detector of electromagnetic waves.
His detector was later used by Marconi, one of the inventors of the radio, in his well-known investigations. Rutherford’s big triumph began when he turned his attention to radioactivity. His brilliant researches established the existence and nature of radioactive transformations. He also investigated the electrical structure of matter and the nuclear nature of atom. He was one of the founders of the atomic theory of physics and creators of the first atomic model.
He stated that the atom consisted of a nucleus around which electrons revolved in orbits. Even today his works did not lose their importance. | 235 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Its most broadly formulated program was prepared by N. Main article: Yugoslavism Pan-Slavism in the south would often turn to Russia for support.
Pan-Slavism was formulated as a theory in the early 19th century, the term itself being established by the Slovak J. At the end of the 18th century, the latter had already formulated in his famous "Slavic chapter" an ideal picture of the Slavs as peaceful ambassadors of humanity, who would establish a new world culture in the future.
In the later part of the century, following a political reconciliation between Austria and Hungary at the expense of most of the Slavic peoples in the empire, the Ukrainian intelligentsia increasingly consisted of Russophileswho were supported morally and financially by Pan-Slavist circles in Russia.
At different points in history, Poland often saw itself in partnership with non-Slavic nations, such as HungarySaxonySweden and Lithuania under the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth. Although Herder saw the Slavs as a nation, it is an irony of history that many intellectuals in East Central Europe and the Balkanswho concluded that the Pan-Slavic idea was a harbinger of an "awakening of the peoples", actually only promoted their own national movement s.
Proposals that Russian be used as the common Slav language also gained support. The first was the Habsburg Empire, under whose rule the region stood; the second was the South Slavic population, which had inhabited the area for centuries and given birth to independent national movements since the late s.
This laid the ideal groundwork for Pan-Slav agitation and put the Russian government under pressure to act. | <urn:uuid:8af34cbb-9824-43d1-8569-3e691c52abd7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jiqewytudosabonev.dellrichards.com/a-history-of-the-pan-slavism-in-the-europe422749622hs.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.982931 | 347 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.11439... | 2 | Its most broadly formulated program was prepared by N. Main article: Yugoslavism Pan-Slavism in the south would often turn to Russia for support.
Pan-Slavism was formulated as a theory in the early 19th century, the term itself being established by the Slovak J. At the end of the 18th century, the latter had already formulated in his famous "Slavic chapter" an ideal picture of the Slavs as peaceful ambassadors of humanity, who would establish a new world culture in the future.
In the later part of the century, following a political reconciliation between Austria and Hungary at the expense of most of the Slavic peoples in the empire, the Ukrainian intelligentsia increasingly consisted of Russophileswho were supported morally and financially by Pan-Slavist circles in Russia.
At different points in history, Poland often saw itself in partnership with non-Slavic nations, such as HungarySaxonySweden and Lithuania under the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth. Although Herder saw the Slavs as a nation, it is an irony of history that many intellectuals in East Central Europe and the Balkanswho concluded that the Pan-Slavic idea was a harbinger of an "awakening of the peoples", actually only promoted their own national movement s.
Proposals that Russian be used as the common Slav language also gained support. The first was the Habsburg Empire, under whose rule the region stood; the second was the South Slavic population, which had inhabited the area for centuries and given birth to independent national movements since the late s.
This laid the ideal groundwork for Pan-Slav agitation and put the Russian government under pressure to act. | 340 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The formation of the caliphate occurred after deathMuhammad. Initially, the community chose by election the military leaders who were in the immediate circle of the prophet. From that moment the state began to expand its territory. Let us further consider what is the caliphate.
As was said above, the governmenttook over the military leaders. They were called caliphs. Hence the name of the state. The most successful is Omar. During his years in power, Islam and the Arab Caliphate were widely developed in the surrounding territories. The influence of religion under him spread to almost the entire Middle East. Almost all of the neighbors soon after Omar's acceptance of power learned what the caliphate was. The definition directly indicates the nature of government leadership. Since military leaders came to power, accordingly, their main goal was the seizure of territories. So, with Omar, Egypt, Syria, Palestine were conquered. These lands used to belong to the Christian world. The closest enemy of the state was Byzantium. However, despite her former power, she also had to find out what the caliphate was. The definition of strategy in the conquests for Omar did not seem to be anything complicated. This was especially true of Byzantium. A long war with the Persians, numerous internal contradictions seriously undermined its power. This allowed Omar to select several territories and defeat the Byzantine army in a number of battles.
Military achievements of the caliphate
In a sense, the warriors were doomed totheir campaigns. First of all, we should note the mobility of the army. It was provided at the expense of light cavalry, which had a considerable advantage over the heavy cavalry and infantry of the enemies. In addition, after the seizure of territories, the Arabs strictly observed the commandments of their religion. They took the property only from the rich, and the poor conquerors did not touch. This, of course, evoked sympathy for them among the local population. The Arabs allowed freedom of religion among the conquered peoples. As for their own religion, the treatment in it was more economic in nature. After the conquest, the Arabs imposed tax on the population. Those who accepted their faith were freed from a large part of it.
First internal contradictions
Most of the population perceived the invadersas liberators. The entrenched people as a whole had a positive idea of what a caliphate is. The definition of the invaders as liberators was also conditioned by the fact that the conquerors retained political independence for the people in a number of issues. On the conquered territories, they created semi-military settlements. The Arabs led a closed way of life, being in their patriarchal-patrimonial world. However, this state of affairs did not last long. Notable Arabs who lived in the rich cities of Syria, Egypt gradually adopted the habits of the local nobility. This caused the first split in their society. Adherents of traditions, patriarchal foundations could not reconcile with the behavior of those who decided to abandon the customs of the fathers.
Split in the nobility
The first disintegration of the Arab caliphate occurred in 661year. The conflict between supporters of the new way and traditionalists tried to weaken Muhammad's son-in-law, - Ali. But all his attempts were fruitless. As a result, the conspirators of the traditionalist group killed Ali. In his place came the emir of Mu'awiyah. At that time in Syria, he was the head of the Arab community. Muawiya immediately broke off relations with supporters of traditionalism. The palace of the Caliph was transferred to Damascus. Over the subsequent time, the state significantly expanded its limits.
Activities of Mu'awiyah
By the 8th century, the state had subordinated the NorthernAfrica. In 771, the offensive began on European territory. The fact that in three years managed to capture the entire Iberian Peninsula, speaks of the power that the Arab caliphate possessed. The empire at Mu'awiyah reached such power that history did not yet know. The possessions of Macedon, Rome did not extend as widely as the state of the Umayyads. Since the Arab caliphate was governed by adherents of the new system, he finally lost his previous patriarchal-tribal features. For example, earlier the religious head was selected by a common vote. Muavia established the hereditary transfer of the title. The palace of the Caliph acquired secular features.
Three main collections were introduced.Previously, the tithe went to the income of the community. Now this tax went to the treasury of the Caliph. Also, all residents had to pay land tax. The third gathering was Jizia. Previously, this tax was levied only on non-Muslims who lived on the territory. Numerous officials followed the collection. The state itself became more and more like the despotism of an ancient era.
During the Umayyad years, special attention was paid toformation of a single state. For this, Arabic was introduced as the main language. A key role in this period was assigned to the Koran. He imagined a collection of sayings from the Prophet, which were written down by his first disciples. After Mohammed died, several additions were made, with the help of which the Sunnah book was created. On the basis of these two Talmuds, officials ruled the court. The Qur'an identified the most important issues relating to the life of the population. The people recognized this book unconditionally. As for the Sunnah, the attitude of the religious communities to it was different. This line was followed by another split in the society.
The Umayyads lasted 90 years.In 750 Abul Abbas, considered a distant relative of Muhammad, destroyed the last caliph and all heirs, declaring himself the head of state. The Abbasids proved to be a stronger dynasty than the Umayyads. It lasted until 1055. Abbas was from Mesopotamia. He did not want to remain in touch with the Syrian rulers and transferred the caliph's palace to Baghdad.
The New Order
Структура государства при Аббасидах была во much like the Persian despotism. When the caliph was the vizier - the first minister. The whole state was divided into provinces, led by emirs. For each official, a specific sphere of activity was fixed. Under the Abbasids, the number of departments has sharply increased. At first it contributed to the management of a large country. Mesopotamian influence affected one of the key economic sectors - agriculture. Irrigation was widespread everywhere. Officials from the special department had to control the construction of dams and canals, monitor the state of the entire system.
What are the achievements of the Arab caliphate?
First of all, it should be said about the increasedmilitary power of the state. The regular army consisted of 150 thousand people. Among them were mercenaries from barbarian tribes. The caliph had his own guard. Warriors for her were trained from an early age. By the end of his tenure in power, Abbas received the title of "Bloody" for his tough measures, used to restore order to the conquered territories. However, largely thanks to them, the Arab caliphate flourished. First of all, it should be noted the active development of agriculture. This was facilitated by a consistent and thoughtful policy of power. The territory of the country was in different climatic conditions. This allowed us to fully provide the country with the necessary products. At the same time, much attention was paid to floriculture and gardening.
Speaking of what achievements are knownthe Arab caliphate, one can not fail to note the competent leadership of the Abbasid dynasty. They managed not to allow excessive empire independence and other high-ranking officials. In Europe, the land that was given to the local nobility for service, almost always remained in hereditary ownership. The Arabs adhered to the ancient Egyptian order in this matter. All lands belonged to the head of state by law. He had the right to allocate to his subjects allotments for their service. However, after their death, the land again returned to the Caliph. Only he could decide whether to leave the heirs or not. In the era of the early Middle Ages, most conflicts arose because of the power that the earls and barons took to themselves on the lands handed to them by the king. The ruler could only dispose of his own territories. Some of the subjects of the king possessed more extensive lands than he himself.
Under the Abbasids, the Arab world became one of the keyindustrial centers. Conquering a lot of peoples who had ancient craft traditions, the conquerors enriched and developed them. In the era of the Abbasids, high-quality steel began to trade. Damascus blades were very valued in the West. The Arabs not only fought, but also traded with the Christian world. Brave merchants or small caravans went far to the west and north from the borders of the state. Items that were manufactured in the 9th-10th centuries. under the Abbasids, were found even on the lands of the Slavic and Germanic tribes, near the Baltic Sea. The Muslim rulers have long been fighting against Byzantium. It was caused not only by the desire to seize new territories. Byzantium had long-established trade connections around the world. Because of this, it was the main competitor of the merchants.
Despite the well-being, full of tranquility inthe state has never been. The peoples of the conquered countries always tried to regain their independence. They constantly raised riots against the invaders. In addition, the emirs in the provinces were also dissatisfied. They did not want to be dependent on the head of the country in all administrative matters. The collapse of the Arab caliphate began almost immediately after its formation. The Moors separated first. These North African Arabs conquered the Pyrenees. In the middle of the 10th century the Cordoba Emirate separated. He officially consolidated his sovereignty. Moor managed to maintain his independence for quite some time. Despite the wars with the Europeans, as well as the powerful attacks of the Reconquista, when virtually all of Spain returned to the Christian world, until the middle of the 15th century the Pyrenees had a Moorish state. As a result, it declined to the Granada Caliphate. This small area around the eponymous Spanish city is considered the pearl of the Arab world. She shakes her magnificence with her neighbors-Europeans.
Uprising in the eastern territories
They occurred from the second half of the 8th to the end of the 9thcentury. The uprisings were predominantly national in character and were directed against the rule of the Arabs. As an ideological shell, the teaching of the Khurramites was advocated. They were also called Mazdakites, after the Zoroastrian priest Mazdak. The largest uprising occurred in the second half of the 8th century under al-Mahdi. After the execution of Abu Muslim in 754, many preachers sought to become his heirs. Among them, in particular, was Hashim ibn Hakim. In the past, he was an associate of Abu Muslim. Hashima was also called al-Mukanna. He covered his face to, as the followers said, to protect the Companions from their radiance. Opponents of Hashim said that he used a veil to hide his ugly appearance. Al-Mukanna was the old enemy of the Abbasid dynasty. At one time he was captured and imprisoned in a Baghdad prison, from where he fled.
The new struggle for the throne
After the death of al-Mahdi, in 785, in his placeclaimed two sons. One was Musa al-Hadi, he was the head of Jurjan, the second was Harun al-Rashid, he ruled Azerbaijan and Armenia. Each of the successors had its own administration and advisers. Al-Mahdi, realizing that after his death an internecine war could begin, went to al-Hadi to persuade him to abandon the throne in favor of Harun. However, on the way, he suddenly died. As a result, Musa took his place.
Change of power
Despite the fact that Harun voluntarily recognizedthe rule of al-Hadi, there were rumors that he wants to kill the Caliph. Then their mother, Hajuran, intervened in the situation. She considered that the Arab caliphate under Harun would be more developed. As a result, she poisoned al-Hadi. During his years of power, he managed to become famous as the perpetrator of the massacre of the Alid leaders in the Mecca region in 786. Probably, this was one of the main reasons why Hajuran decided that the country should not be in the same state as it was governed. The Arab Caliphate under Harun experienced a consolidation of the former and the formation of new ethnic communities. With the advent of the second heir, Hajuran gained a huge influence on the political life of the state. She used it until the very last days.
Strengthening the monarchy
Policy aimed at strengthening the centralpower and the formation of statehood according to the Sassanid example was started even under the Umayyads. It was successfully continued by the Abbasids. In fact, the country developed as it was managed. The Arab Caliphate under Harun successfully implemented this policy. In connection with the fact that the Abbasids gained power with the support of the Iranian military, the role of their ideology in the army and the state became dominant. The main nucleus was formed by persian-khorasantsami. They were accepted into the Abbasid family as "sons." They succeeded in eliminating the constant pressure of the Arab-Bedouin formations on the Caliph power.
Reducing the impact
Since the middle of the 9th century the disintegration of the monarchy of the Abbasidshas become irreversible. The North African provinces began to separate, followed by Central Asia. Inside the Arab world, the confrontation between Shiites and Sunnis has intensified. By the middle of the 10th century Baghdad was the first to capture. After this invasion, they for a long time became rulers of the remnants of the mighty Caliphate of Arabia. Under their authority there were also small territories in Mesopotamia. Since that moment, the Islamic world has lost its unity. In 1055 the state was conquered by the Seljuk Turks. Saracens became established in the Middle East. In the 11th century, Sicily was conquered by them, but subsequently they were ousted from there by the Normans. Turks from their territories in Asia Minor went to Byzantine lands. For several hundred years they were able to conquer the entire Balkan Peninsula. At the same time they brutally oppressed the Slavic peoples who inhabited these territories. In 1453 the Ottoman Empire completely captured Byzantium. As a result, the city received a new name - Istanbul - and became the capital of the state. | <urn:uuid:5ba728b5-cc25-4596-8752-321d7a354875> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://davidgarlandjones.com/obrazovanie/90982-chto-takoe-halifat-opredelenie-feodalnoe-arabo-musulmanskoe-gosudarstvo-s-drevnosti-do-nashih-vremen.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00135.warc.gz | en | 0.982537 | 3,101 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.0455908551812171... | 2 | The formation of the caliphate occurred after deathMuhammad. Initially, the community chose by election the military leaders who were in the immediate circle of the prophet. From that moment the state began to expand its territory. Let us further consider what is the caliphate.
As was said above, the governmenttook over the military leaders. They were called caliphs. Hence the name of the state. The most successful is Omar. During his years in power, Islam and the Arab Caliphate were widely developed in the surrounding territories. The influence of religion under him spread to almost the entire Middle East. Almost all of the neighbors soon after Omar's acceptance of power learned what the caliphate was. The definition directly indicates the nature of government leadership. Since military leaders came to power, accordingly, their main goal was the seizure of territories. So, with Omar, Egypt, Syria, Palestine were conquered. These lands used to belong to the Christian world. The closest enemy of the state was Byzantium. However, despite her former power, she also had to find out what the caliphate was. The definition of strategy in the conquests for Omar did not seem to be anything complicated. This was especially true of Byzantium. A long war with the Persians, numerous internal contradictions seriously undermined its power. This allowed Omar to select several territories and defeat the Byzantine army in a number of battles.
Military achievements of the caliphate
In a sense, the warriors were doomed totheir campaigns. First of all, we should note the mobility of the army. It was provided at the expense of light cavalry, which had a considerable advantage over the heavy cavalry and infantry of the enemies. In addition, after the seizure of territories, the Arabs strictly observed the commandments of their religion. They took the property only from the rich, and the poor conquerors did not touch. This, of course, evoked sympathy for them among the local population. The Arabs allowed freedom of religion among the conquered peoples. As for their own religion, the treatment in it was more economic in nature. After the conquest, the Arabs imposed tax on the population. Those who accepted their faith were freed from a large part of it.
First internal contradictions
Most of the population perceived the invadersas liberators. The entrenched people as a whole had a positive idea of what a caliphate is. The definition of the invaders as liberators was also conditioned by the fact that the conquerors retained political independence for the people in a number of issues. On the conquered territories, they created semi-military settlements. The Arabs led a closed way of life, being in their patriarchal-patrimonial world. However, this state of affairs did not last long. Notable Arabs who lived in the rich cities of Syria, Egypt gradually adopted the habits of the local nobility. This caused the first split in their society. Adherents of traditions, patriarchal foundations could not reconcile with the behavior of those who decided to abandon the customs of the fathers.
Split in the nobility
The first disintegration of the Arab caliphate occurred in 661year. The conflict between supporters of the new way and traditionalists tried to weaken Muhammad's son-in-law, - Ali. But all his attempts were fruitless. As a result, the conspirators of the traditionalist group killed Ali. In his place came the emir of Mu'awiyah. At that time in Syria, he was the head of the Arab community. Muawiya immediately broke off relations with supporters of traditionalism. The palace of the Caliph was transferred to Damascus. Over the subsequent time, the state significantly expanded its limits.
Activities of Mu'awiyah
By the 8th century, the state had subordinated the NorthernAfrica. In 771, the offensive began on European territory. The fact that in three years managed to capture the entire Iberian Peninsula, speaks of the power that the Arab caliphate possessed. The empire at Mu'awiyah reached such power that history did not yet know. The possessions of Macedon, Rome did not extend as widely as the state of the Umayyads. Since the Arab caliphate was governed by adherents of the new system, he finally lost his previous patriarchal-tribal features. For example, earlier the religious head was selected by a common vote. Muavia established the hereditary transfer of the title. The palace of the Caliph acquired secular features.
Three main collections were introduced.Previously, the tithe went to the income of the community. Now this tax went to the treasury of the Caliph. Also, all residents had to pay land tax. The third gathering was Jizia. Previously, this tax was levied only on non-Muslims who lived on the territory. Numerous officials followed the collection. The state itself became more and more like the despotism of an ancient era.
During the Umayyad years, special attention was paid toformation of a single state. For this, Arabic was introduced as the main language. A key role in this period was assigned to the Koran. He imagined a collection of sayings from the Prophet, which were written down by his first disciples. After Mohammed died, several additions were made, with the help of which the Sunnah book was created. On the basis of these two Talmuds, officials ruled the court. The Qur'an identified the most important issues relating to the life of the population. The people recognized this book unconditionally. As for the Sunnah, the attitude of the religious communities to it was different. This line was followed by another split in the society.
The Umayyads lasted 90 years.In 750 Abul Abbas, considered a distant relative of Muhammad, destroyed the last caliph and all heirs, declaring himself the head of state. The Abbasids proved to be a stronger dynasty than the Umayyads. It lasted until 1055. Abbas was from Mesopotamia. He did not want to remain in touch with the Syrian rulers and transferred the caliph's palace to Baghdad.
The New Order
Структура государства при Аббасидах была во much like the Persian despotism. When the caliph was the vizier - the first minister. The whole state was divided into provinces, led by emirs. For each official, a specific sphere of activity was fixed. Under the Abbasids, the number of departments has sharply increased. At first it contributed to the management of a large country. Mesopotamian influence affected one of the key economic sectors - agriculture. Irrigation was widespread everywhere. Officials from the special department had to control the construction of dams and canals, monitor the state of the entire system.
What are the achievements of the Arab caliphate?
First of all, it should be said about the increasedmilitary power of the state. The regular army consisted of 150 thousand people. Among them were mercenaries from barbarian tribes. The caliph had his own guard. Warriors for her were trained from an early age. By the end of his tenure in power, Abbas received the title of "Bloody" for his tough measures, used to restore order to the conquered territories. However, largely thanks to them, the Arab caliphate flourished. First of all, it should be noted the active development of agriculture. This was facilitated by a consistent and thoughtful policy of power. The territory of the country was in different climatic conditions. This allowed us to fully provide the country with the necessary products. At the same time, much attention was paid to floriculture and gardening.
Speaking of what achievements are knownthe Arab caliphate, one can not fail to note the competent leadership of the Abbasid dynasty. They managed not to allow excessive empire independence and other high-ranking officials. In Europe, the land that was given to the local nobility for service, almost always remained in hereditary ownership. The Arabs adhered to the ancient Egyptian order in this matter. All lands belonged to the head of state by law. He had the right to allocate to his subjects allotments for their service. However, after their death, the land again returned to the Caliph. Only he could decide whether to leave the heirs or not. In the era of the early Middle Ages, most conflicts arose because of the power that the earls and barons took to themselves on the lands handed to them by the king. The ruler could only dispose of his own territories. Some of the subjects of the king possessed more extensive lands than he himself.
Under the Abbasids, the Arab world became one of the keyindustrial centers. Conquering a lot of peoples who had ancient craft traditions, the conquerors enriched and developed them. In the era of the Abbasids, high-quality steel began to trade. Damascus blades were very valued in the West. The Arabs not only fought, but also traded with the Christian world. Brave merchants or small caravans went far to the west and north from the borders of the state. Items that were manufactured in the 9th-10th centuries. under the Abbasids, were found even on the lands of the Slavic and Germanic tribes, near the Baltic Sea. The Muslim rulers have long been fighting against Byzantium. It was caused not only by the desire to seize new territories. Byzantium had long-established trade connections around the world. Because of this, it was the main competitor of the merchants.
Despite the well-being, full of tranquility inthe state has never been. The peoples of the conquered countries always tried to regain their independence. They constantly raised riots against the invaders. In addition, the emirs in the provinces were also dissatisfied. They did not want to be dependent on the head of the country in all administrative matters. The collapse of the Arab caliphate began almost immediately after its formation. The Moors separated first. These North African Arabs conquered the Pyrenees. In the middle of the 10th century the Cordoba Emirate separated. He officially consolidated his sovereignty. Moor managed to maintain his independence for quite some time. Despite the wars with the Europeans, as well as the powerful attacks of the Reconquista, when virtually all of Spain returned to the Christian world, until the middle of the 15th century the Pyrenees had a Moorish state. As a result, it declined to the Granada Caliphate. This small area around the eponymous Spanish city is considered the pearl of the Arab world. She shakes her magnificence with her neighbors-Europeans.
Uprising in the eastern territories
They occurred from the second half of the 8th to the end of the 9thcentury. The uprisings were predominantly national in character and were directed against the rule of the Arabs. As an ideological shell, the teaching of the Khurramites was advocated. They were also called Mazdakites, after the Zoroastrian priest Mazdak. The largest uprising occurred in the second half of the 8th century under al-Mahdi. After the execution of Abu Muslim in 754, many preachers sought to become his heirs. Among them, in particular, was Hashim ibn Hakim. In the past, he was an associate of Abu Muslim. Hashima was also called al-Mukanna. He covered his face to, as the followers said, to protect the Companions from their radiance. Opponents of Hashim said that he used a veil to hide his ugly appearance. Al-Mukanna was the old enemy of the Abbasid dynasty. At one time he was captured and imprisoned in a Baghdad prison, from where he fled.
The new struggle for the throne
After the death of al-Mahdi, in 785, in his placeclaimed two sons. One was Musa al-Hadi, he was the head of Jurjan, the second was Harun al-Rashid, he ruled Azerbaijan and Armenia. Each of the successors had its own administration and advisers. Al-Mahdi, realizing that after his death an internecine war could begin, went to al-Hadi to persuade him to abandon the throne in favor of Harun. However, on the way, he suddenly died. As a result, Musa took his place.
Change of power
Despite the fact that Harun voluntarily recognizedthe rule of al-Hadi, there were rumors that he wants to kill the Caliph. Then their mother, Hajuran, intervened in the situation. She considered that the Arab caliphate under Harun would be more developed. As a result, she poisoned al-Hadi. During his years of power, he managed to become famous as the perpetrator of the massacre of the Alid leaders in the Mecca region in 786. Probably, this was one of the main reasons why Hajuran decided that the country should not be in the same state as it was governed. The Arab Caliphate under Harun experienced a consolidation of the former and the formation of new ethnic communities. With the advent of the second heir, Hajuran gained a huge influence on the political life of the state. She used it until the very last days.
Strengthening the monarchy
Policy aimed at strengthening the centralpower and the formation of statehood according to the Sassanid example was started even under the Umayyads. It was successfully continued by the Abbasids. In fact, the country developed as it was managed. The Arab Caliphate under Harun successfully implemented this policy. In connection with the fact that the Abbasids gained power with the support of the Iranian military, the role of their ideology in the army and the state became dominant. The main nucleus was formed by persian-khorasantsami. They were accepted into the Abbasid family as "sons." They succeeded in eliminating the constant pressure of the Arab-Bedouin formations on the Caliph power.
Reducing the impact
Since the middle of the 9th century the disintegration of the monarchy of the Abbasidshas become irreversible. The North African provinces began to separate, followed by Central Asia. Inside the Arab world, the confrontation between Shiites and Sunnis has intensified. By the middle of the 10th century Baghdad was the first to capture. After this invasion, they for a long time became rulers of the remnants of the mighty Caliphate of Arabia. Under their authority there were also small territories in Mesopotamia. Since that moment, the Islamic world has lost its unity. In 1055 the state was conquered by the Seljuk Turks. Saracens became established in the Middle East. In the 11th century, Sicily was conquered by them, but subsequently they were ousted from there by the Normans. Turks from their territories in Asia Minor went to Byzantine lands. For several hundred years they were able to conquer the entire Balkan Peninsula. At the same time they brutally oppressed the Slavic peoples who inhabited these territories. In 1453 the Ottoman Empire completely captured Byzantium. As a result, the city received a new name - Istanbul - and became the capital of the state. | 3,128 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 1917 Canadian federal election (sometimes referred to as the khaki election) was held on December 17, 1917, to elect members of the Canadian House of Commons of the 13th Parliament of Canada. Described by historian Michael Bliss as the "most bitter election in Canadian history", it was fought mainly over the issue of conscription (see Conscription Crisis of 1917). The election resulted in Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden's Unionist government elected with a strong majority and the largest percentage of the popular vote for any party in Canadian history.
The previous election had been held in 1911 and was won by Borden's Conservatives. Under the law, Canada should have had an election in 1916. However, citing the emergency of the First World War, the government postponed the election largely in hope that a coalition government could be formed, as existed in Britain.
Sir Wilfrid Laurier, head of the Liberal Party of Canada, refused to join the coalition over the issue of conscription, which was strongly opposed in the Liberal heartland of Quebec. Laurier worried that agreeing to Borden's coalition offer would cause that province to abandon the Liberals and perhaps even Canada. Borden proceeded to form a "Unionist" government, and the Liberal Party split over the issue. Many English Canadian Liberal MPs and provincial Liberal parties in English Canada supported the new Unionist government.
To ensure victory for conscription, Borden introduced two laws to skew the voting towards the government. The first, the Wartime Elections Act, disenfranchised conscientious objectors and Canadian citizens if they were born in enemy countries and had arrived after 1902. The law also gave female relatives of servicemen the vote. Thus, the 1917 election was the first federal election in which some women were allowed to vote. The other new law was the Military Voters Act, which allowed soldiers serving abroad to choose which riding their vote would be counted in or to allow the party for which they voted to select the riding in which the vote would be counted. That allowed government officials to guide the strongly pro-conscription soldiers into voting in those ridings where they would be more useful. Servicemen were given a ballot with the simple choice of "Government" or "Opposition".
Soon after these measures were passed, Borden convinced a faction of Liberals (using the name Liberal-Unionists) along with Gideon Decker Robertson, who was described as a "Labour" Senator (but was unaffiliated with any Labour Party) to join with them, forming the Unionist government in October 1917. He then dissolved parliament to seek a mandate in the election, which pitted "Government" candidates, running as the Unionist Party, against the anti-conscription faction of the Liberal Party, which ran under the name Laurier Liberals.
The divisive debate ended with the country divided on linguistic lines. The Liberals won 82 seats, 62 in Quebec, with many other seats won in provinces such as Manitoba, New Brunswick, and Ontario in ridings with significant French Canadian populations. The Unionists won 153 seats. The three Unionist won seats in Quebec were all in mainly English-speaking ridings. That led to the Francœur Motion in January 1918. | <urn:uuid:858ad779-a852-407b-9846-e31296b46d84> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Canadian-federal-election%2C-1917 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00254.warc.gz | en | 0.983975 | 646 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.078646108508110... | 1 | The 1917 Canadian federal election (sometimes referred to as the khaki election) was held on December 17, 1917, to elect members of the Canadian House of Commons of the 13th Parliament of Canada. Described by historian Michael Bliss as the "most bitter election in Canadian history", it was fought mainly over the issue of conscription (see Conscription Crisis of 1917). The election resulted in Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden's Unionist government elected with a strong majority and the largest percentage of the popular vote for any party in Canadian history.
The previous election had been held in 1911 and was won by Borden's Conservatives. Under the law, Canada should have had an election in 1916. However, citing the emergency of the First World War, the government postponed the election largely in hope that a coalition government could be formed, as existed in Britain.
Sir Wilfrid Laurier, head of the Liberal Party of Canada, refused to join the coalition over the issue of conscription, which was strongly opposed in the Liberal heartland of Quebec. Laurier worried that agreeing to Borden's coalition offer would cause that province to abandon the Liberals and perhaps even Canada. Borden proceeded to form a "Unionist" government, and the Liberal Party split over the issue. Many English Canadian Liberal MPs and provincial Liberal parties in English Canada supported the new Unionist government.
To ensure victory for conscription, Borden introduced two laws to skew the voting towards the government. The first, the Wartime Elections Act, disenfranchised conscientious objectors and Canadian citizens if they were born in enemy countries and had arrived after 1902. The law also gave female relatives of servicemen the vote. Thus, the 1917 election was the first federal election in which some women were allowed to vote. The other new law was the Military Voters Act, which allowed soldiers serving abroad to choose which riding their vote would be counted in or to allow the party for which they voted to select the riding in which the vote would be counted. That allowed government officials to guide the strongly pro-conscription soldiers into voting in those ridings where they would be more useful. Servicemen were given a ballot with the simple choice of "Government" or "Opposition".
Soon after these measures were passed, Borden convinced a faction of Liberals (using the name Liberal-Unionists) along with Gideon Decker Robertson, who was described as a "Labour" Senator (but was unaffiliated with any Labour Party) to join with them, forming the Unionist government in October 1917. He then dissolved parliament to seek a mandate in the election, which pitted "Government" candidates, running as the Unionist Party, against the anti-conscription faction of the Liberal Party, which ran under the name Laurier Liberals.
The divisive debate ended with the country divided on linguistic lines. The Liberals won 82 seats, 62 in Quebec, with many other seats won in provinces such as Manitoba, New Brunswick, and Ontario in ridings with significant French Canadian populations. The Unionists won 153 seats. The three Unionist won seats in Quebec were all in mainly English-speaking ridings. That led to the Francœur Motion in January 1918. | 690 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Fifth Crusade started in 1217 and lasted until 1221.
The same Pope Innocent lll who had ordered the fourth Crusade started the fifth Crusade as well, however he was well aware of the mistakes made during the fourth Crusade and was determined that this would not happen again.
To achieve his aim Pope Innocent lll was insistent that the fifth Crusade would be controlled by the church and not by kings, so that the church would have full control over the fifth Crusade.
As in previous Crusades the goal of the fifth Crusade was to return the Holy lands and the city of Jerusalem to Christian rule.
However there was little enthusiasm for the fifth Crusade because of the disastrous 2nd, 3rd and 4th Crusades, Christian people had enough of crusades and did not want to take part in any future Crusades.
The Pope decided to offer rewards to Christian people who would take part in the fifth Crusade.
The Pope also asked people who are unable to make the journey to fast and pray for a positive outcome for the fifth Crusade.
The Fourth Crusade had been a disaster and due to a severe breakdown in discipline in which the European crusaders attacked their fellow Byzantine Christians, this served to divide the Christians and strengthen the ties between the Egyptian people that had been previously fragmented, now Egypt was as united as ever.
The Egyptians now controlled Jerusalem and had captured much of the land that Christians in previous crusades had fought for and won.
The armies of the fifth Crusade set of for Acre in 1217, at this time John of Brienne was the ruler of Jerusalem Kingdom and Prince Bohemund IV ruled the kingdom of Antioch.
The crusaders would join forces with their armies in the fight against the Ayyubids state of Egypt.
The Crusaders were making good progress when they were joined by the armies from Germany and Holland, this strengthened their resolve to conquer the Holy Lands and retake Jerusalem.
Oliver of Cologne, the count of Holland and William I were united in their attempt to conquer Egypt.
They also had another ace up their sleeve when the persuaded allied Seljuk Sultan of Rum to join them, he would be give them more attacking options and would work his way from the North to fight the Egyptians.
In the summer of 1218, during The Fifth Crusades, the crusaders launched their assault on Damietta, which was a strategically important Egyptian settlement.
The crusaders caught the Sultan Al-Adil by surprise, however the city survived and the invading crusaders were repelled.
The crusaders of the The Fifth Crusade were determined and resolute and continued to attack for several months and there were thousands of lives lost before the battle for Damietta was finally to come to it’s conclusion.
The Crusaders found a wealth of treasure, gold, silver, jewels etc. and this inspired them to continue their march towards Cairo, this would be the last thing in their way and they could then march onto Cairo, then nothing would stand between them and Jerusalem.
Al-Adil planned to resist the crusaders of The Fifth Crusade a few miles outside of Damietta
The crusaders had received word of the Sultans location, However there was to be no resistance from the Egyptians who were shocked by the size of the Christian army as it marched towards them, many fled in fear for their lives towards Cairo and the famous Nile river.
The crusaders of the Fifth Crusade quickly followed the Egyptian forces but did not anticipate that the Nile which had become flooded would halt their progress and trap them.
The Christian armies of The Fifth Crusade with little back up provisions including food became demoralized and started to retreat as they had nowhere to go.
As the Christian armies retreated they were attacked and they lost a lot of men, however they caused the Egyptian soldiers many problems even though they were on the run.
The Crusaders would eventually agree to return Damietta to the Sultan after they were finally captured, and this brought an end to the fifth Crusade. | <urn:uuid:6c02b7b8-fdcc-4018-b208-a2b4a923928e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.medievalchronicles.com/the-crusades/fifth-crusade/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00462.warc.gz | en | 0.989037 | 820 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.0090743638575... | 1 | The Fifth Crusade started in 1217 and lasted until 1221.
The same Pope Innocent lll who had ordered the fourth Crusade started the fifth Crusade as well, however he was well aware of the mistakes made during the fourth Crusade and was determined that this would not happen again.
To achieve his aim Pope Innocent lll was insistent that the fifth Crusade would be controlled by the church and not by kings, so that the church would have full control over the fifth Crusade.
As in previous Crusades the goal of the fifth Crusade was to return the Holy lands and the city of Jerusalem to Christian rule.
However there was little enthusiasm for the fifth Crusade because of the disastrous 2nd, 3rd and 4th Crusades, Christian people had enough of crusades and did not want to take part in any future Crusades.
The Pope decided to offer rewards to Christian people who would take part in the fifth Crusade.
The Pope also asked people who are unable to make the journey to fast and pray for a positive outcome for the fifth Crusade.
The Fourth Crusade had been a disaster and due to a severe breakdown in discipline in which the European crusaders attacked their fellow Byzantine Christians, this served to divide the Christians and strengthen the ties between the Egyptian people that had been previously fragmented, now Egypt was as united as ever.
The Egyptians now controlled Jerusalem and had captured much of the land that Christians in previous crusades had fought for and won.
The armies of the fifth Crusade set of for Acre in 1217, at this time John of Brienne was the ruler of Jerusalem Kingdom and Prince Bohemund IV ruled the kingdom of Antioch.
The crusaders would join forces with their armies in the fight against the Ayyubids state of Egypt.
The Crusaders were making good progress when they were joined by the armies from Germany and Holland, this strengthened their resolve to conquer the Holy Lands and retake Jerusalem.
Oliver of Cologne, the count of Holland and William I were united in their attempt to conquer Egypt.
They also had another ace up their sleeve when the persuaded allied Seljuk Sultan of Rum to join them, he would be give them more attacking options and would work his way from the North to fight the Egyptians.
In the summer of 1218, during The Fifth Crusades, the crusaders launched their assault on Damietta, which was a strategically important Egyptian settlement.
The crusaders caught the Sultan Al-Adil by surprise, however the city survived and the invading crusaders were repelled.
The crusaders of the The Fifth Crusade were determined and resolute and continued to attack for several months and there were thousands of lives lost before the battle for Damietta was finally to come to it’s conclusion.
The Crusaders found a wealth of treasure, gold, silver, jewels etc. and this inspired them to continue their march towards Cairo, this would be the last thing in their way and they could then march onto Cairo, then nothing would stand between them and Jerusalem.
Al-Adil planned to resist the crusaders of The Fifth Crusade a few miles outside of Damietta
The crusaders had received word of the Sultans location, However there was to be no resistance from the Egyptians who were shocked by the size of the Christian army as it marched towards them, many fled in fear for their lives towards Cairo and the famous Nile river.
The crusaders of the Fifth Crusade quickly followed the Egyptian forces but did not anticipate that the Nile which had become flooded would halt their progress and trap them.
The Christian armies of The Fifth Crusade with little back up provisions including food became demoralized and started to retreat as they had nowhere to go.
As the Christian armies retreated they were attacked and they lost a lot of men, however they caused the Egyptian soldiers many problems even though they were on the run.
The Crusaders would eventually agree to return Damietta to the Sultan after they were finally captured, and this brought an end to the fifth Crusade. | 835 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He Was the First, or Happy Birthday, Computer!
Konrad Zuse is considered to be the inventor of the first computer
in the world.
Z3 — the first fully functional program-controlled electromechanical digital computer in the world — was completed by Konrad Zuse in 1941.
Konrad Zuse was born on June 22, 1910, in Berlin. He went to the high school in Braunsberg and later studied at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin-Charlottenburg. Konrad Zuse was a very creative student, and his favorite occupations were painting and building cranes. He never thought about computers till 1934. As his son, Horst Zuse, states, “This [thinking of computers] was prompted by the many calculations he had to perform as a civil engineer, Today it is clear to me that he really hated performing these calculations and he wanted to make things easier for engineers and scientists.” In 1935, he got his civil engineering degree. At the age of 35, Konrad Zuse got married and later became the father of five children. From 1959 onwards, he received many honors and prizes from international associations and universities, as well as from the German government. His computer company, “Zuse KG”, founded in 1940 as “Zuse Ingenieurbüro und Apparatebau, Berlin”, prospered after the war and many machines following Z1, Z2, Z3 were built. By 1962, the company started experiencing financial difficulties and was sold first to “Brown Boveri and Co.”, and later to “Siemens”. Production of the Zuse series of computers was eventually stopped. He died in Hühnfeld, Germany, in 1995.
So, what were the first computers like? Z1 was a large and complex-looking machine weighing about 500 kg and consisting completely of thin metal sheets, which Zuse and his friends produced using a jig-saw. The only electrical unit was the engine, which was used to provide a clock frequency of one Hertz. Z1 was built in 1936, but, like Z2 and Z3, built within 1938-1941, it was destroyed during wartime bombing. Z3 is undoubtedly considered to be “the first reliable, freely programmable, working computer in the world based on a binary floating-point number and switching system.” Unlike Z1 and Z2, it was constructed from relays.
Because of their historic value, Z1 and Z3 were rebuilt by Konrad Zuse after the war. Z3 was reconstructed in 1961 and is now in Deutsches Museum in Munich, and Z1 – in 1986, and can be found in Museum für Verkehr und Technik in Berlin. Just a fact: the cost of rebuilding the Z1 was around 800 000 DM.
Z4 was supposed to be a prototype of the computer for engineering bureaus and technical institutes. This computer had to solve the stupid task of calculations done manually by engineers. Again, due to the daily bombings and terrible life conditions in Berlin in 1945, when Z4 was about to be completed, Zuse didn’t finish his work, and fled with the remains of Z4 to South Germany. Later, in 1950, Z4 was installed in Zurich and worked there till 1955.
At the same time as he was building Z4, Konrad Zuse started developing and formulated the remarkably sophisticated programming language Plankalkül. This language was to be used for programming his machines in a powerful – more than only arithmetic calculations – way. Plankalkül was finished in 1946, but published in 1972 only, due to the efforts that Zuse had to take to maintain his own computer-building company “Zuse KG.”
Konrad Zuse’s dream was to create a small computer for business and scientific applications. He worked single-mindedly during many years to achieve this objective. Moreover, he had to finance his work himself, as the Nazi government didn’t support his ideas. | <urn:uuid:e6b2319d-9d82-48e2-9e89-661878580e96> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://germanculture.com.ua/famous-germans/konrad-zuse/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00324.warc.gz | en | 0.986744 | 856 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.02031790092... | 7 | He Was the First, or Happy Birthday, Computer!
Konrad Zuse is considered to be the inventor of the first computer
in the world.
Z3 — the first fully functional program-controlled electromechanical digital computer in the world — was completed by Konrad Zuse in 1941.
Konrad Zuse was born on June 22, 1910, in Berlin. He went to the high school in Braunsberg and later studied at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin-Charlottenburg. Konrad Zuse was a very creative student, and his favorite occupations were painting and building cranes. He never thought about computers till 1934. As his son, Horst Zuse, states, “This [thinking of computers] was prompted by the many calculations he had to perform as a civil engineer, Today it is clear to me that he really hated performing these calculations and he wanted to make things easier for engineers and scientists.” In 1935, he got his civil engineering degree. At the age of 35, Konrad Zuse got married and later became the father of five children. From 1959 onwards, he received many honors and prizes from international associations and universities, as well as from the German government. His computer company, “Zuse KG”, founded in 1940 as “Zuse Ingenieurbüro und Apparatebau, Berlin”, prospered after the war and many machines following Z1, Z2, Z3 were built. By 1962, the company started experiencing financial difficulties and was sold first to “Brown Boveri and Co.”, and later to “Siemens”. Production of the Zuse series of computers was eventually stopped. He died in Hühnfeld, Germany, in 1995.
So, what were the first computers like? Z1 was a large and complex-looking machine weighing about 500 kg and consisting completely of thin metal sheets, which Zuse and his friends produced using a jig-saw. The only electrical unit was the engine, which was used to provide a clock frequency of one Hertz. Z1 was built in 1936, but, like Z2 and Z3, built within 1938-1941, it was destroyed during wartime bombing. Z3 is undoubtedly considered to be “the first reliable, freely programmable, working computer in the world based on a binary floating-point number and switching system.” Unlike Z1 and Z2, it was constructed from relays.
Because of their historic value, Z1 and Z3 were rebuilt by Konrad Zuse after the war. Z3 was reconstructed in 1961 and is now in Deutsches Museum in Munich, and Z1 – in 1986, and can be found in Museum für Verkehr und Technik in Berlin. Just a fact: the cost of rebuilding the Z1 was around 800 000 DM.
Z4 was supposed to be a prototype of the computer for engineering bureaus and technical institutes. This computer had to solve the stupid task of calculations done manually by engineers. Again, due to the daily bombings and terrible life conditions in Berlin in 1945, when Z4 was about to be completed, Zuse didn’t finish his work, and fled with the remains of Z4 to South Germany. Later, in 1950, Z4 was installed in Zurich and worked there till 1955.
At the same time as he was building Z4, Konrad Zuse started developing and formulated the remarkably sophisticated programming language Plankalkül. This language was to be used for programming his machines in a powerful – more than only arithmetic calculations – way. Plankalkül was finished in 1946, but published in 1972 only, due to the efforts that Zuse had to take to maintain his own computer-building company “Zuse KG.”
Konrad Zuse’s dream was to create a small computer for business and scientific applications. He worked single-mindedly during many years to achieve this objective. Moreover, he had to finance his work himself, as the Nazi government didn’t support his ideas. | 883 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Goucher and Walton (2007) introduce the chapter by indicating that Agrarian economies were centered on farming. As a matter of fact, it was during the colonial period that the agrarian economies existed. Countries were economically known by the type of crop that they produced. It is due to this that America was well renowned for being an agrarian economy centered on tobacco and cotton (Goucher and Walton, 2007). The word, agrarian, which was retrieved from Latin word basically means field. Main activities for the world economies during this time were concentrated in the fields where the people farmed the land for arable crops. The colonial America was known as the dominant agrarian economy during this period that was pre industrial. The extent of farming was to a large extent that the crop produce was not only used by the locals for food purposes but they also used the crops as an exchange commodity. The colonial America became a common supplier of maize, tobacco and cotton to the European market. It is also right to recognize that during this period of time, the agrarian economies had the citizens mainly concentrating on farming as the primary activity (Goucher and Walton, 2007). The economy was therefore driven explicitly by agriculture.
Buy World Economies essay paper online
During the period between the late 1700 and early in the 1800 years, the globe had a transition that was to change the whole global economy for a better course. The industrial revolution was experienced during these periods in time and the whole globe was transiting from the agricultural economy to the industrial economy. Railways, machines powered by steam and the electrical power that generated later were used to actively propel the progress in technology and the economy in general (Goucher and Walton, 2007). It is during this exact period in time that the world economy was also being introduced to the modern capitalist economy. It is actually due to this new dimension in the economy that the new economy introduced an era of economic growth that was being measured in terms of the per capita contributions. It is actually recorded that it was courtesy of this fact that the capitalist were rising so fast during this period of economic development. It is also during this period that the United States of America's economy began growing at a very rapid rate simply because it had heavily invested in the manufacturing industry. During this time, agriculture was hurriedly loosing ground as an economic activity especially in America where it had been clarified that agriculture was now accounting for a 1 per cent age of the economy (Goucher and Walton, 2007). In general, the rise of industries and the development of machines was the main brain behind the emergence of the industrial revolution.
The world economy then transformed slowly to the current information technology. As a matter of fact, a keen observation in the historical development f the leading economies like the United States of America today clearly reveals how much it quickly dropped off the manufacturing economy to the likes of Japan and China. Information economy is the most refined type of economy that is present today. It simply implies to an economic state that is currently ranking countries and states in terms of the information industry and the informational activities that it is responsible for. Information economy has also been successfully referred to as the knowledge economy or the post industrial economy (Goucher and Walton, 2007). The main reason as to why it is referred to in terms of the terms that have been indicated above is because the industrial economy was getting over and its exist had therefore to be recognized in naming the next economy. On the other hand, the work force in the information economy is mainly recognized or grouped in terms of the knowledge possessed.
Related Free Economics Essays
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:649f82e9-24a9-4e72-afd9-bcdfc40b0b3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/economics/world-economies.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00024.warc.gz | en | 0.981757 | 737 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.2486778199672699... | 3 | Goucher and Walton (2007) introduce the chapter by indicating that Agrarian economies were centered on farming. As a matter of fact, it was during the colonial period that the agrarian economies existed. Countries were economically known by the type of crop that they produced. It is due to this that America was well renowned for being an agrarian economy centered on tobacco and cotton (Goucher and Walton, 2007). The word, agrarian, which was retrieved from Latin word basically means field. Main activities for the world economies during this time were concentrated in the fields where the people farmed the land for arable crops. The colonial America was known as the dominant agrarian economy during this period that was pre industrial. The extent of farming was to a large extent that the crop produce was not only used by the locals for food purposes but they also used the crops as an exchange commodity. The colonial America became a common supplier of maize, tobacco and cotton to the European market. It is also right to recognize that during this period of time, the agrarian economies had the citizens mainly concentrating on farming as the primary activity (Goucher and Walton, 2007). The economy was therefore driven explicitly by agriculture.
Buy World Economies essay paper online
During the period between the late 1700 and early in the 1800 years, the globe had a transition that was to change the whole global economy for a better course. The industrial revolution was experienced during these periods in time and the whole globe was transiting from the agricultural economy to the industrial economy. Railways, machines powered by steam and the electrical power that generated later were used to actively propel the progress in technology and the economy in general (Goucher and Walton, 2007). It is during this exact period in time that the world economy was also being introduced to the modern capitalist economy. It is actually due to this new dimension in the economy that the new economy introduced an era of economic growth that was being measured in terms of the per capita contributions. It is actually recorded that it was courtesy of this fact that the capitalist were rising so fast during this period of economic development. It is also during this period that the United States of America's economy began growing at a very rapid rate simply because it had heavily invested in the manufacturing industry. During this time, agriculture was hurriedly loosing ground as an economic activity especially in America where it had been clarified that agriculture was now accounting for a 1 per cent age of the economy (Goucher and Walton, 2007). In general, the rise of industries and the development of machines was the main brain behind the emergence of the industrial revolution.
The world economy then transformed slowly to the current information technology. As a matter of fact, a keen observation in the historical development f the leading economies like the United States of America today clearly reveals how much it quickly dropped off the manufacturing economy to the likes of Japan and China. Information economy is the most refined type of economy that is present today. It simply implies to an economic state that is currently ranking countries and states in terms of the information industry and the informational activities that it is responsible for. Information economy has also been successfully referred to as the knowledge economy or the post industrial economy (Goucher and Walton, 2007). The main reason as to why it is referred to in terms of the terms that have been indicated above is because the industrial economy was getting over and its exist had therefore to be recognized in naming the next economy. On the other hand, the work force in the information economy is mainly recognized or grouped in terms of the knowledge possessed.
Related Free Economics Essays
Most popular orders | 753 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The healing of a leper, which is our text for today, is also found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, but both Matthew and Luke omit the emotional reactions of Jesus found in Mark. The term leprosy was used for any kind of skin disease, and those with such kind of diseases were considered as unclean and not allowed to be part of society. They had to live on the outskirts of the city, and had to make their presence known whenever they entered the city, so that others could avoid any kind of contact with them and so not get contaminated.
In this miracle, Jesus not only heals the leper, but also reaches out and touches him. This probably means that Jesus cannot be contaminated or made unclean by anything from outside. It could also indicate Jesus’ wanting to reach out to the leper in a personal manner and treat him as a full human being.
The prayer of the leper is a lesson for each one of us on the meaning of prayer. In his prayer the leper both acknowledges his dependence on Jesus through the words, “If you will” and also has faith in the ability of Jesus to heal through the words, “you can make me clean”. Prayer means to acknowledge our dependence on God and also to have faith that God can do what to us may seem impossible. | <urn:uuid:f419a53f-aade-4972-9439-022c7d9dcb5d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://errolsj.blogspot.com/2011/01/who-are-those-whom-you-treat-as-lepers.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00151.warc.gz | en | 0.9888 | 276 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.44280797243118286,
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-0.027939109... | 5 | The healing of a leper, which is our text for today, is also found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, but both Matthew and Luke omit the emotional reactions of Jesus found in Mark. The term leprosy was used for any kind of skin disease, and those with such kind of diseases were considered as unclean and not allowed to be part of society. They had to live on the outskirts of the city, and had to make their presence known whenever they entered the city, so that others could avoid any kind of contact with them and so not get contaminated.
In this miracle, Jesus not only heals the leper, but also reaches out and touches him. This probably means that Jesus cannot be contaminated or made unclean by anything from outside. It could also indicate Jesus’ wanting to reach out to the leper in a personal manner and treat him as a full human being.
The prayer of the leper is a lesson for each one of us on the meaning of prayer. In his prayer the leper both acknowledges his dependence on Jesus through the words, “If you will” and also has faith in the ability of Jesus to heal through the words, “you can make me clean”. Prayer means to acknowledge our dependence on God and also to have faith that God can do what to us may seem impossible. | 268 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1623 Clermond-Ferrand - 1662, Paris
At the age of 14 Blaise Pascal started to accompany his father to Mersenne's meetings. Mersenne belonged to the religious order of the Minims, and his cell in Paris was a frequent meeting place for Gassendi, Roberval, Carcavi, Auzout, Mydorge, Mylon, Desargues and others. Soon, certainly by the time he was 15, Blaise came to admire the work of Desargues. At the age of sixteen, Pascal presented a single piece of paper to one of Mersenne's meetings in June 1639. It contained a number of projective geometry theorems, including Pascal's mystic hexagon.
In December 1639 the Pascal family left Paris to live in Rouen where Etienne had been appointed as a tax collector for Upper Normandy. Shortly after settling in Rouen, Blaise had his first work, Essay on Conic Sections published in February 1640.
Pascal invented the first digital calculator to help his father with his work collecting taxes. He worked on it for three years between 1642 and 1645. The device, called the Pascaline, resembled a mechanical calculator of the 1940's. This, almost certainly, makes Pascal the second person to invent a mechanical calculator for Schickard had manufactured one in 1624.
There were problems faced by Pascal in the design of the calculator which were due to the design of the French
currency at that time. There were 20 sols in a livre and 12 deniers in a sol. The system remained in France until 1799
but in Britain a system with similar multiples lasted until 1971. Pascal had to solve much harder technical problems
to work with this division of the livre into 240 than he would have had if the division had been 100. However production
of the machines started in 1642 but, as Adamson writes,
By 1652 fifty prototypes had been produced, but few machines were sold, and manufacture of Pascal's arithmetical calculator ceased in that year.
Events of 1646 were very significant for the young Pascal. In that year his father injured his leg and had to recuperate in his house. He was looked after by two young brothers from a religious movement just outside Rouen. They had a profound effect on the young Pascal and he became deeply religious.
From about this time Pascal began a series of experiments on atmospheric pressure. By 1647 he had proved to his
satisfaction that a vacuum existed. Descartes visited Pascal on 23 September. His visit
only lasted two days and the two argued about the vacuum which Descartes did not believe
in. Descartes wrote, rather cruelly, in a letter to Huygens after this visit that Pascal
...has too much vacuum in his head.
In August of 1648 Pascal observed that the pressure of the atmosphere decreases with height and deduced that a vacuum
existed above the atmosphere. Descartes wrote to Carcavi in June 1647 about Pascal's
It was I who two years ago advised him to do it, for although I have not performed it myself, I did not doubt of its success ...
In October 1647 Pascal wrote New Experiments Concerning Vacuums which led to disputes with a number of scientists who, like Descartes, did not believe in a vacuum.
Etienne Pascal died in September 1651 and following this Blaise wrote to one of his sisters giving a deeply Christian meaning to death in general and his father's death in particular. His ideas here were to form the basis for his later philosophical work Pensées.
From May 1653 Pascal worked on mathematics and physics writing Treatise on the Equilibrium of Liquids (1653)
in which he explains Pascal's law of pressure. Adamson writes:
This treatise is a complete outline of a system of hydrostatics, the first in the history of science, it embodies his most distinctive and important contribution to physical theory.
He worked on conic sections and produced important theorems in projective geometry. In The Generation of Conic Sections (mostly completed by March 1648 but worked on again in 1653 and 1654) Pascal considered conics generated by central projection of a circle. This was meant to be the first part of a treatise on conics which Pascal never completed. The work is now lost but Leibniz and Tschirnhaus made notes from it and it is through these notes that a fairly complete picture of the work is now possible.
Although Pascal was not the first to study Pascal's triangle, his work on the topic in Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle was the most important on this topic and, through the work of Wallis, Pascal's work on the binomial coefficients was to lead Newton to his discovery of the general binomial theorem for fractional and negative powers.
In correspondence with Fermat he laid the foundation for the theory of probability. This correspondence consisted of five letters and occurred in the summer of 1654. They considered the dice problem, already studied by Cardan, and the problem of points also considered by Cardan and, around the same time, Pacioli and Tartaglia. The dice problem asks how many times one must throw a pair of dice before one expects a double six while the problem of points asks how to divide the stakes if a game of dice is incomplete. They solved the problem of points for a two player game but did not develop powerful enough mathematical methods to solve it for three or more players.
Through the period of this correspondence Pascal was unwell. In one
of the letters to Fermat written in July 1654 he writes
... though I am still bedridden, I must tell you that yesterday evening I was given your letter.
However, despite his health problems, he worked intensely on scientific and mathematical questions until October 1654. Sometime around then he nearly lost his life in an accident. The horses pulling his carriage bolted and the carriage was left hanging over a bridge above the river Seine. Although he was rescued without any physical injury, it does appear that he was much affected psychologically. Not long after he underwent another religious experience, on 23 November 1654, and he pledged his life to Christianity.
After this time Pascal made visits to the Jansenist monastery
Port-Royal des Champs about 30 km south west of Paris. He began to publish anonymous works
on religious topics, eighteen Provincial Letters being published during 1656 and
early 1657. These were written in defence of his friend Antoine Arnauld, an opponent of
the Jesuits and a defender of Jansenism, who was on trial before the faculty of theology
in Paris for his controversial religious works. Pascal's most famous work in philosophy is
Pensées, a collection of personal thoughts on human suffering and faith in God
which he began in late 1656 and continued to work on during 1657 and 1658. This work
contains 'Pascal's wager' which claims to prove that belief in God is rational with the following argument.
If God does not exist, one will lose nothing by believing in him, while if he does exist, one will lose everything by not believing.
With 'Pascal's wager' he uses probabilistic and mathematical arguments but his main conclusion is that
...we are compelled to gamble...
His last work was on the cycloid, the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a rolling circle. In 1658 Pascal started to think about mathematical problems again as he lay awake at night unable to sleep for pain. He applied Cavalieri's calculus of indivisibles to the problem of the area of any segment of the cycloid and the centre of gravity of any segment. He also solved the problems of the volume and surface area of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the cycloid about the x-axis.
Pascal published a challenge offering two prizes for solutions to these problems to Wren, Laloubère, Leibniz, Huygens, Wallis, Fermat and several other mathematicians. Wallis and Laloubère entered the competition but Laloubère's solution was wrong and Wallis was also not successful. Sluze, Ricci, Huygens, Wren and Fermat all communicated their discoveries to Pascal without entering the competition. Wren had been working on Pascal's challenge and he in turn challenged Pascal, Fermat and Roberval to find the arc length, the length of the arch, of the cycloid.
Pascal published his own solutions to his challenge problems in the Letters to Carcavi. After that time on he took little interest in science and spent his last years giving to the poor and going from church to church in Paris attending one religious service after another.Pascal died at the age of 39 in intense pain after a malignant growth in his stomach spread to the brain.
He is described as:
... a man of slight build with a loud voice and somewhat overbearing manner. ... he lived most of his adult life in great pain. He had always been in delicate health, suffering even in his youth from migraine ...
His character is described as:
... precocious, stubbornly persevering, a perfectionist, pugnacious to the point of bullying ruthlessness yet seeking to be meek and humble ...
Article by: J J O'Connor and E F Robertson | <urn:uuid:45ba8ec1-bbb5-48f5-bf9d-e5fd72006491> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mathematik.ch/mathematiker/pascal.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.980367 | 1,966 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.402378797531... | 2 | 1623 Clermond-Ferrand - 1662, Paris
At the age of 14 Blaise Pascal started to accompany his father to Mersenne's meetings. Mersenne belonged to the religious order of the Minims, and his cell in Paris was a frequent meeting place for Gassendi, Roberval, Carcavi, Auzout, Mydorge, Mylon, Desargues and others. Soon, certainly by the time he was 15, Blaise came to admire the work of Desargues. At the age of sixteen, Pascal presented a single piece of paper to one of Mersenne's meetings in June 1639. It contained a number of projective geometry theorems, including Pascal's mystic hexagon.
In December 1639 the Pascal family left Paris to live in Rouen where Etienne had been appointed as a tax collector for Upper Normandy. Shortly after settling in Rouen, Blaise had his first work, Essay on Conic Sections published in February 1640.
Pascal invented the first digital calculator to help his father with his work collecting taxes. He worked on it for three years between 1642 and 1645. The device, called the Pascaline, resembled a mechanical calculator of the 1940's. This, almost certainly, makes Pascal the second person to invent a mechanical calculator for Schickard had manufactured one in 1624.
There were problems faced by Pascal in the design of the calculator which were due to the design of the French
currency at that time. There were 20 sols in a livre and 12 deniers in a sol. The system remained in France until 1799
but in Britain a system with similar multiples lasted until 1971. Pascal had to solve much harder technical problems
to work with this division of the livre into 240 than he would have had if the division had been 100. However production
of the machines started in 1642 but, as Adamson writes,
By 1652 fifty prototypes had been produced, but few machines were sold, and manufacture of Pascal's arithmetical calculator ceased in that year.
Events of 1646 were very significant for the young Pascal. In that year his father injured his leg and had to recuperate in his house. He was looked after by two young brothers from a religious movement just outside Rouen. They had a profound effect on the young Pascal and he became deeply religious.
From about this time Pascal began a series of experiments on atmospheric pressure. By 1647 he had proved to his
satisfaction that a vacuum existed. Descartes visited Pascal on 23 September. His visit
only lasted two days and the two argued about the vacuum which Descartes did not believe
in. Descartes wrote, rather cruelly, in a letter to Huygens after this visit that Pascal
...has too much vacuum in his head.
In August of 1648 Pascal observed that the pressure of the atmosphere decreases with height and deduced that a vacuum
existed above the atmosphere. Descartes wrote to Carcavi in June 1647 about Pascal's
It was I who two years ago advised him to do it, for although I have not performed it myself, I did not doubt of its success ...
In October 1647 Pascal wrote New Experiments Concerning Vacuums which led to disputes with a number of scientists who, like Descartes, did not believe in a vacuum.
Etienne Pascal died in September 1651 and following this Blaise wrote to one of his sisters giving a deeply Christian meaning to death in general and his father's death in particular. His ideas here were to form the basis for his later philosophical work Pensées.
From May 1653 Pascal worked on mathematics and physics writing Treatise on the Equilibrium of Liquids (1653)
in which he explains Pascal's law of pressure. Adamson writes:
This treatise is a complete outline of a system of hydrostatics, the first in the history of science, it embodies his most distinctive and important contribution to physical theory.
He worked on conic sections and produced important theorems in projective geometry. In The Generation of Conic Sections (mostly completed by March 1648 but worked on again in 1653 and 1654) Pascal considered conics generated by central projection of a circle. This was meant to be the first part of a treatise on conics which Pascal never completed. The work is now lost but Leibniz and Tschirnhaus made notes from it and it is through these notes that a fairly complete picture of the work is now possible.
Although Pascal was not the first to study Pascal's triangle, his work on the topic in Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle was the most important on this topic and, through the work of Wallis, Pascal's work on the binomial coefficients was to lead Newton to his discovery of the general binomial theorem for fractional and negative powers.
In correspondence with Fermat he laid the foundation for the theory of probability. This correspondence consisted of five letters and occurred in the summer of 1654. They considered the dice problem, already studied by Cardan, and the problem of points also considered by Cardan and, around the same time, Pacioli and Tartaglia. The dice problem asks how many times one must throw a pair of dice before one expects a double six while the problem of points asks how to divide the stakes if a game of dice is incomplete. They solved the problem of points for a two player game but did not develop powerful enough mathematical methods to solve it for three or more players.
Through the period of this correspondence Pascal was unwell. In one
of the letters to Fermat written in July 1654 he writes
... though I am still bedridden, I must tell you that yesterday evening I was given your letter.
However, despite his health problems, he worked intensely on scientific and mathematical questions until October 1654. Sometime around then he nearly lost his life in an accident. The horses pulling his carriage bolted and the carriage was left hanging over a bridge above the river Seine. Although he was rescued without any physical injury, it does appear that he was much affected psychologically. Not long after he underwent another religious experience, on 23 November 1654, and he pledged his life to Christianity.
After this time Pascal made visits to the Jansenist monastery
Port-Royal des Champs about 30 km south west of Paris. He began to publish anonymous works
on religious topics, eighteen Provincial Letters being published during 1656 and
early 1657. These were written in defence of his friend Antoine Arnauld, an opponent of
the Jesuits and a defender of Jansenism, who was on trial before the faculty of theology
in Paris for his controversial religious works. Pascal's most famous work in philosophy is
Pensées, a collection of personal thoughts on human suffering and faith in God
which he began in late 1656 and continued to work on during 1657 and 1658. This work
contains 'Pascal's wager' which claims to prove that belief in God is rational with the following argument.
If God does not exist, one will lose nothing by believing in him, while if he does exist, one will lose everything by not believing.
With 'Pascal's wager' he uses probabilistic and mathematical arguments but his main conclusion is that
...we are compelled to gamble...
His last work was on the cycloid, the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a rolling circle. In 1658 Pascal started to think about mathematical problems again as he lay awake at night unable to sleep for pain. He applied Cavalieri's calculus of indivisibles to the problem of the area of any segment of the cycloid and the centre of gravity of any segment. He also solved the problems of the volume and surface area of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the cycloid about the x-axis.
Pascal published a challenge offering two prizes for solutions to these problems to Wren, Laloubère, Leibniz, Huygens, Wallis, Fermat and several other mathematicians. Wallis and Laloubère entered the competition but Laloubère's solution was wrong and Wallis was also not successful. Sluze, Ricci, Huygens, Wren and Fermat all communicated their discoveries to Pascal without entering the competition. Wren had been working on Pascal's challenge and he in turn challenged Pascal, Fermat and Roberval to find the arc length, the length of the arch, of the cycloid.
Pascal published his own solutions to his challenge problems in the Letters to Carcavi. After that time on he took little interest in science and spent his last years giving to the poor and going from church to church in Paris attending one religious service after another.Pascal died at the age of 39 in intense pain after a malignant growth in his stomach spread to the brain.
He is described as:
... a man of slight build with a loud voice and somewhat overbearing manner. ... he lived most of his adult life in great pain. He had always been in delicate health, suffering even in his youth from migraine ...
His character is described as:
... precocious, stubbornly persevering, a perfectionist, pugnacious to the point of bullying ruthlessness yet seeking to be meek and humble ...
Article by: J J O'Connor and E F Robertson | 2,034 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This has been a week for celebrating science. We shared our science projects, and I loved watching our children answer questions about their work. But I've also been watching the children during recess time working out all sorts of scientific questions. The children have loaded up our turtle sandbox with water, snow, and ice. They argue about how much snow they can add and still have it be a liquid. They notice how fast the ice melts (or doesn't). They use every available bucket, pan, and pot to move the water, pour the water, and mix the water. They use pipes and noodles to bring the water from one part of the playground to another. They play with the angle of these pipes to see how fast they can make the water gush out or if they can hold water in the pipe. They build trenches, dams, and holding ponds to collect the water and notice what materials block the water best. Should they put a brick here or use stones or pile up the mud? I love watching their industriousness as they purse all these questions, solve problems, and ask new questions.
Theme: Science Projects
My gripes with many traditional science fair projects are numerous. One of my biggest misgivings is that there often isn't very much experimentation. Children make a baking soda and vinegar volcano. They know what is going to happen, and then they do it. I like a good science demonstration, and I love playing with the volcanoes, but I want children to be asking questions. What happens when I use different types of vinegar? What happens when I use different amounts of baking soda? What makes the most amount of bubbles? How can I tweak this?
Our science projects were around topics that the children picked. Their questions were ones they made, and their procedures were developed by them. This whole process took a long time, and I admit that I really wanted to just tell them what to do a few times, but I aspired to my better teacher self. We all got to be part of most of these experiments and learn with our classmates. As a class, we helped each other to figure out what happens when you mix different drops of food coloring and observed Oliver the dog to see what he would eat first given 4 yummy choices.
I enjoyed the chance on Wednesday to wander around and listen as children shared their process and their results. I was glad when they mentioned new questions they had and their plans to keep experimenting. This is what scientists do and how they think.
More Science: Chicks!
Our class is in love with baby chicks. We are working on a new song to play on the recorder and sing that celebrates our chicks. The children keep a close eye on them and always notice when they have filled up their water with woodchips or pooped in their food. The children are so very careful as they cuddle their little charges. It is amazing how you can almost see these tiny birds grow each day. They are replacing fluff with feathers and experimenting to see if their new feathers can help them fly. They can do a jump and flap combination that launches them up to the edge of their enclosure, but once they hang out in this new location for a few minutes, they jump back down. All of this is noted, honored, and extoled.
Industry in Choice
I love looking around during free choice time to see all of the children meaningfully engaged. On Friday we celebrated Theresa's birthday, and many of the children worked hard during their free time as they made her elaborate cards and wrote notes of love. A few children were carefully constructing some very tall towers. Others were making a series of ramps for their cars. One child read aloud to a small group. All sorts of learning was evident, and if you asked them what they did, each child would say, "I played." | <urn:uuid:f8e64c50-c77f-4e07-8ccf-beb0549f894e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.countryclassroom.org/single-post/2017/04/02/Celebrating-Science | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.984454 | 783 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.244047969579696... | 10 | This has been a week for celebrating science. We shared our science projects, and I loved watching our children answer questions about their work. But I've also been watching the children during recess time working out all sorts of scientific questions. The children have loaded up our turtle sandbox with water, snow, and ice. They argue about how much snow they can add and still have it be a liquid. They notice how fast the ice melts (or doesn't). They use every available bucket, pan, and pot to move the water, pour the water, and mix the water. They use pipes and noodles to bring the water from one part of the playground to another. They play with the angle of these pipes to see how fast they can make the water gush out or if they can hold water in the pipe. They build trenches, dams, and holding ponds to collect the water and notice what materials block the water best. Should they put a brick here or use stones or pile up the mud? I love watching their industriousness as they purse all these questions, solve problems, and ask new questions.
Theme: Science Projects
My gripes with many traditional science fair projects are numerous. One of my biggest misgivings is that there often isn't very much experimentation. Children make a baking soda and vinegar volcano. They know what is going to happen, and then they do it. I like a good science demonstration, and I love playing with the volcanoes, but I want children to be asking questions. What happens when I use different types of vinegar? What happens when I use different amounts of baking soda? What makes the most amount of bubbles? How can I tweak this?
Our science projects were around topics that the children picked. Their questions were ones they made, and their procedures were developed by them. This whole process took a long time, and I admit that I really wanted to just tell them what to do a few times, but I aspired to my better teacher self. We all got to be part of most of these experiments and learn with our classmates. As a class, we helped each other to figure out what happens when you mix different drops of food coloring and observed Oliver the dog to see what he would eat first given 4 yummy choices.
I enjoyed the chance on Wednesday to wander around and listen as children shared their process and their results. I was glad when they mentioned new questions they had and their plans to keep experimenting. This is what scientists do and how they think.
More Science: Chicks!
Our class is in love with baby chicks. We are working on a new song to play on the recorder and sing that celebrates our chicks. The children keep a close eye on them and always notice when they have filled up their water with woodchips or pooped in their food. The children are so very careful as they cuddle their little charges. It is amazing how you can almost see these tiny birds grow each day. They are replacing fluff with feathers and experimenting to see if their new feathers can help them fly. They can do a jump and flap combination that launches them up to the edge of their enclosure, but once they hang out in this new location for a few minutes, they jump back down. All of this is noted, honored, and extoled.
Industry in Choice
I love looking around during free choice time to see all of the children meaningfully engaged. On Friday we celebrated Theresa's birthday, and many of the children worked hard during their free time as they made her elaborate cards and wrote notes of love. A few children were carefully constructing some very tall towers. Others were making a series of ramps for their cars. One child read aloud to a small group. All sorts of learning was evident, and if you asked them what they did, each child would say, "I played." | 776 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Is Ruby Bridges?
Ruby Bridges was six when she became the first African American child to integrate a white Southern elementary school. On November 14, 1960, she was escorted to class by her mother and U.S. marshals due to violent mobs. Bridges' brave act was a milestone in the civil rights movement, and she's shared her story with future generations in educational forums.
Ruby Nell Bridges was born on September 8, 1954, in Tylertown, Mississippi. She grew up on the farm her parents and grandparents sharecropped in Mississippi.
When she was four years old, her parents, Abon and Lucille Bridges, moved to New Orleans, hoping for a better life in a bigger city.
Her father got a job as a gas station attendant and her mother took night jobs to help support their growing family. Soon, young Bridges had two younger brothers and a younger sister.
The fact that Bridges was born the same year that the Supreme Court handed down its Brown v. Board of Education decision desegregating schools is a notable coincidence in her early journey into civil rights activism.
When Bridges was in kindergarten, she was one of many African American students in New Orleans who were chosen to take a test determining whether or not she could attend a white school.
It is said the test was written to be especially difficult so that students would have a hard time passing. The idea was that if all the African American children failed the test, New Orleans schools might be able to stay segregated for a while longer.
Bridges lived a mere five blocks from an all-white school, but she attended kindergarten several miles away, at an all-black segregated school.
Bridges’ father was averse to his daughter taking the test, believing that if she passed and was allowed to go to the white school, there would be trouble. However, her mother, Lucille, pressed the issue, believing that Bridges would get a better education at a white school. She was eventually able to convince Bridges' father to let her take the test
In 1960, Bridges' parents were informed by officials from the NAACP that she was one of only six African American students to pass the test. Bridges would be the only African American student to attend the William Frantz School, near her home, and the first black child to attend an all-white elementary school in the South.
When the first day of school rolled around in September, Bridges was still at her old school.
All through the summer and early fall, the Louisiana State Legislature had found ways to fight the federal court order and slow the integration process. After exhausting all stalling tactics, the Legislature had to relent, and the designated schools were to be integrated that November.
Fearing there might be some civil disturbances, the federal district court judge requested the U.S. government send federal marshals to New Orleans to protect the children.
On the morning of November 14, 1960, federal marshals drove Bridges and her mother five blocks to her new school. While in the car, one of the men explained that when they arrived at the school, two marshals would walk in front of Bridges and two would be behind her.
When Bridges and the federal marshals arrived at the school, large crowds of people were gathered in front yelling and throwing objects. There were barricades set up, and policemen were everywhere.
Bridges, in her innocence, first believed it was like a Mardi Gras celebration. When she entered the school under the protection of the federal marshals, she was immediately escorted to the principal's office and spent the entire day there.
The chaos outside, and the fact that nearly all the white parents at the school had kept their children home, meant classes weren't going to be held at all that day.
Ostracized at Elementary School
On her second day, the circumstances were much the same as the first, and for a while, it looked like Bridges wouldn't be able to attend class.
Only one teacher, Barbara Henry, agreed to teach Bridges. She was from Boston and a new teacher to the school. "Mrs. Henry," as Bridges would call her even as an adult, greeted her with open arms.
Bridges was the only student in Henry's class because parents pulled or threatened to pull their children from Bridges' class and send them to other schools. For a full year, Henry and Bridges sat side by side at two desks, working on Bridges' lessons.
Henry was loving and supportive of Bridges, helping her not only with her studies but also with the difficult experience of being ostracized.
Bridges' first few weeks at Frantz School were not easy ones. Several times she was confronted with blatant racism in full view of her federal escorts.
On her second day of school, a woman threatened to poison her. After this, the federal marshals allowed her to only eat food from home. On another day, she was "greeted" by a woman displaying a black doll in a wooden coffin.
Bridges' mother kept encouraging her to be strong and pray while entering the school, which Bridges discovered reduced the vehemence of the insults yelled at her and gave her courage.
She spent her entire day, every day, in Mrs. Henry's classroom, not allowed to go to the cafeteria or out to recess to be with other students in the school. When she had to go to the restroom, the federal marshals walked her down the hall.
Several years later, federal marshal Charles Burks, one of her escorts, commented with some pride that Bridges showed a lot of courage. She never cried or whimpered, Burks said, "She just marched along like a little soldier."
Effect on the Bridges Family
The abuse wasn't limited to only Bridges; her family suffered as well. Her father lost his job at the filling station, and her grandparents were sent off the land they had sharecropped for over 25 years. The grocery store where the family shopped banned them from entering.
However many others in the community, both black and white, began to show support in a variety of ways. Gradually, many families began to send their children back to the school and the protests and civil disturbances seemed to subside as the year went on.
A neighbor provided Bridges' father with a job, while others volunteered to babysit the four children, watch the house as protectors, and walk behind the federal marshals on the trips to school.
Signs of Stress
After winter break, Bridges began to show signs of stress. She experienced nightmares and would wake her mother in the middle of the night seeking comfort.
For a time, she stopped eating lunch in her classroom, which she usually ate alone. Wanting to be with the other students, she would not eat the sandwiches her mother packed for her, but instead hid them in a storage cabinet in the classroom.
Soon, a janitor discovered the mice and cockroaches who had found the sandwiches. The incident led Mrs. Henry to lunch with Bridges in the classroom.
Bridges started seeing child psychologist Dr. Robert Coles, who volunteered to provide counseling during her first year at Frantz School. He was very concerned about how such a young girl would handle the pressure. He saw Bridges once a week either at school or at her home.
During these sessions, he would just let her talk about what she was experiencing. Sometimes his wife came too and, like Dr. Coles, she was very caring toward Bridges. Coles later wrote a series of articles for Atlantic Monthly and eventually a series of books on how children handle change, including a children's book on Bridges' experience.
Near the end of the first year, things began to settle down. A few white children in Bridges' grade returned to the school. Occasionally, Bridges got a chance to visit with them.
By her own recollection many years later, Bridges was not that aware of the extent of the racism that erupted over her attending the school. But when another child rejected Bridges' friendship because of her race, she began to slowly understand.
By Bridges' second year at Frantz School, it seemed everything had changed. Mrs. Henry's contract wasn't renewed, and so she and her husband returned to Boston. There were also no more federal marshals; Bridges walked to school every day by herself.
There were other students in her second-grade class, and the school began to see full enrollment again. No one talked about the past year. It seemed everyone wanted to put the experience behind them.
Bridges finished grade school and graduated from the integrated Francis T. Nicholls High School in New Orleans. She then studied travel and tourism at the Kansas City business school and worked for American Express as a world travel agent.
Husband and Children
In 1984, Bridges married Malcolm Hall in New Orleans. She later became a full-time parent to their four sons.
Norman Rockwell Painting
In 1963, painter Norman Rockwell recreated Bridges' monumental first day at school in the painting, “The Problem We All Live With.” The image of this small black girl being escorted to school by four large white men graced the cover of Look magazine on January 14, 1964.
The Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, now owns the painting as part of its permanent collection. In 2011, the museum loaned the work to be displayed in the West Wing of the White House for four months upon the request of President Barack Obama.
Book and Movie
'The Story of Ruby Bridges'
In 1995, Robert Coles, Bridges' child psychologist and a Pulitzer-Prize winning author, published The Story of Ruby Bridges, a children's picture book depicting her courageous story.
Soon after, Barbara Henry, her teacher that first year at Frantz School, contacted Bridges and they were reunited on The Oprah Winfrey Show.
“Ruby Bridges” is a Disney TV movie, written by Toni Ann Johnson, about Bridges' experience as the first black child to integrate an all-white Southern elementary school.
The two-hour film, shot entirely in Wilmington, North Carolina, first aired on January 18, 1998, and was introduced by President Bill Clinton and Disney CEO Michael Eisner in the Cabinet Room of the White House.
Ruby Bridges Foundation
In 1999, Bridges formed the Ruby Bridges Foundation, headquartered in New Orleans. Bridges was inspired following the murder of her youngest brother, Malcolm Bridges, in a drug-related killing in 1993 — which brought her back to her former elementary school.
For a time, Bridges looked after Malcolm's four children, who attended William Frantz School. She soon began to volunteer there three days a week and soon became a parent-community liaison.
With Bridges' experience as a liaison at the school and her reconnection with influential people in her past, she began to see a need for bringing parents back into the schools to take a more active role in their children's education.
Bridges launched her foundation to promote the values of tolerance, respect and appreciation of differences. Through education and inspiration, the foundation seeks to end racism and prejudice. As its motto goes, "Racism is a grown-up disease, and we must stop using our children to spread it."
In 2007, the Children's Museum of Indianapolis unveiled a new exhibition documenting Bridges' life, along with the lives of Anne Frank and Ryan White.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | <urn:uuid:bfd615cd-23d0-4279-a617-62a27ca543c6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biography.com/activist/ruby-bridges | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.985262 | 2,369 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.17505085468... | 2 | Who Is Ruby Bridges?
Ruby Bridges was six when she became the first African American child to integrate a white Southern elementary school. On November 14, 1960, she was escorted to class by her mother and U.S. marshals due to violent mobs. Bridges' brave act was a milestone in the civil rights movement, and she's shared her story with future generations in educational forums.
Ruby Nell Bridges was born on September 8, 1954, in Tylertown, Mississippi. She grew up on the farm her parents and grandparents sharecropped in Mississippi.
When she was four years old, her parents, Abon and Lucille Bridges, moved to New Orleans, hoping for a better life in a bigger city.
Her father got a job as a gas station attendant and her mother took night jobs to help support their growing family. Soon, young Bridges had two younger brothers and a younger sister.
The fact that Bridges was born the same year that the Supreme Court handed down its Brown v. Board of Education decision desegregating schools is a notable coincidence in her early journey into civil rights activism.
When Bridges was in kindergarten, she was one of many African American students in New Orleans who were chosen to take a test determining whether or not she could attend a white school.
It is said the test was written to be especially difficult so that students would have a hard time passing. The idea was that if all the African American children failed the test, New Orleans schools might be able to stay segregated for a while longer.
Bridges lived a mere five blocks from an all-white school, but she attended kindergarten several miles away, at an all-black segregated school.
Bridges’ father was averse to his daughter taking the test, believing that if she passed and was allowed to go to the white school, there would be trouble. However, her mother, Lucille, pressed the issue, believing that Bridges would get a better education at a white school. She was eventually able to convince Bridges' father to let her take the test
In 1960, Bridges' parents were informed by officials from the NAACP that she was one of only six African American students to pass the test. Bridges would be the only African American student to attend the William Frantz School, near her home, and the first black child to attend an all-white elementary school in the South.
When the first day of school rolled around in September, Bridges was still at her old school.
All through the summer and early fall, the Louisiana State Legislature had found ways to fight the federal court order and slow the integration process. After exhausting all stalling tactics, the Legislature had to relent, and the designated schools were to be integrated that November.
Fearing there might be some civil disturbances, the federal district court judge requested the U.S. government send federal marshals to New Orleans to protect the children.
On the morning of November 14, 1960, federal marshals drove Bridges and her mother five blocks to her new school. While in the car, one of the men explained that when they arrived at the school, two marshals would walk in front of Bridges and two would be behind her.
When Bridges and the federal marshals arrived at the school, large crowds of people were gathered in front yelling and throwing objects. There were barricades set up, and policemen were everywhere.
Bridges, in her innocence, first believed it was like a Mardi Gras celebration. When she entered the school under the protection of the federal marshals, she was immediately escorted to the principal's office and spent the entire day there.
The chaos outside, and the fact that nearly all the white parents at the school had kept their children home, meant classes weren't going to be held at all that day.
Ostracized at Elementary School
On her second day, the circumstances were much the same as the first, and for a while, it looked like Bridges wouldn't be able to attend class.
Only one teacher, Barbara Henry, agreed to teach Bridges. She was from Boston and a new teacher to the school. "Mrs. Henry," as Bridges would call her even as an adult, greeted her with open arms.
Bridges was the only student in Henry's class because parents pulled or threatened to pull their children from Bridges' class and send them to other schools. For a full year, Henry and Bridges sat side by side at two desks, working on Bridges' lessons.
Henry was loving and supportive of Bridges, helping her not only with her studies but also with the difficult experience of being ostracized.
Bridges' first few weeks at Frantz School were not easy ones. Several times she was confronted with blatant racism in full view of her federal escorts.
On her second day of school, a woman threatened to poison her. After this, the federal marshals allowed her to only eat food from home. On another day, she was "greeted" by a woman displaying a black doll in a wooden coffin.
Bridges' mother kept encouraging her to be strong and pray while entering the school, which Bridges discovered reduced the vehemence of the insults yelled at her and gave her courage.
She spent her entire day, every day, in Mrs. Henry's classroom, not allowed to go to the cafeteria or out to recess to be with other students in the school. When she had to go to the restroom, the federal marshals walked her down the hall.
Several years later, federal marshal Charles Burks, one of her escorts, commented with some pride that Bridges showed a lot of courage. She never cried or whimpered, Burks said, "She just marched along like a little soldier."
Effect on the Bridges Family
The abuse wasn't limited to only Bridges; her family suffered as well. Her father lost his job at the filling station, and her grandparents were sent off the land they had sharecropped for over 25 years. The grocery store where the family shopped banned them from entering.
However many others in the community, both black and white, began to show support in a variety of ways. Gradually, many families began to send their children back to the school and the protests and civil disturbances seemed to subside as the year went on.
A neighbor provided Bridges' father with a job, while others volunteered to babysit the four children, watch the house as protectors, and walk behind the federal marshals on the trips to school.
Signs of Stress
After winter break, Bridges began to show signs of stress. She experienced nightmares and would wake her mother in the middle of the night seeking comfort.
For a time, she stopped eating lunch in her classroom, which she usually ate alone. Wanting to be with the other students, she would not eat the sandwiches her mother packed for her, but instead hid them in a storage cabinet in the classroom.
Soon, a janitor discovered the mice and cockroaches who had found the sandwiches. The incident led Mrs. Henry to lunch with Bridges in the classroom.
Bridges started seeing child psychologist Dr. Robert Coles, who volunteered to provide counseling during her first year at Frantz School. He was very concerned about how such a young girl would handle the pressure. He saw Bridges once a week either at school or at her home.
During these sessions, he would just let her talk about what she was experiencing. Sometimes his wife came too and, like Dr. Coles, she was very caring toward Bridges. Coles later wrote a series of articles for Atlantic Monthly and eventually a series of books on how children handle change, including a children's book on Bridges' experience.
Near the end of the first year, things began to settle down. A few white children in Bridges' grade returned to the school. Occasionally, Bridges got a chance to visit with them.
By her own recollection many years later, Bridges was not that aware of the extent of the racism that erupted over her attending the school. But when another child rejected Bridges' friendship because of her race, she began to slowly understand.
By Bridges' second year at Frantz School, it seemed everything had changed. Mrs. Henry's contract wasn't renewed, and so she and her husband returned to Boston. There were also no more federal marshals; Bridges walked to school every day by herself.
There were other students in her second-grade class, and the school began to see full enrollment again. No one talked about the past year. It seemed everyone wanted to put the experience behind them.
Bridges finished grade school and graduated from the integrated Francis T. Nicholls High School in New Orleans. She then studied travel and tourism at the Kansas City business school and worked for American Express as a world travel agent.
Husband and Children
In 1984, Bridges married Malcolm Hall in New Orleans. She later became a full-time parent to their four sons.
Norman Rockwell Painting
In 1963, painter Norman Rockwell recreated Bridges' monumental first day at school in the painting, “The Problem We All Live With.” The image of this small black girl being escorted to school by four large white men graced the cover of Look magazine on January 14, 1964.
The Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, now owns the painting as part of its permanent collection. In 2011, the museum loaned the work to be displayed in the West Wing of the White House for four months upon the request of President Barack Obama.
Book and Movie
'The Story of Ruby Bridges'
In 1995, Robert Coles, Bridges' child psychologist and a Pulitzer-Prize winning author, published The Story of Ruby Bridges, a children's picture book depicting her courageous story.
Soon after, Barbara Henry, her teacher that first year at Frantz School, contacted Bridges and they were reunited on The Oprah Winfrey Show.
“Ruby Bridges” is a Disney TV movie, written by Toni Ann Johnson, about Bridges' experience as the first black child to integrate an all-white Southern elementary school.
The two-hour film, shot entirely in Wilmington, North Carolina, first aired on January 18, 1998, and was introduced by President Bill Clinton and Disney CEO Michael Eisner in the Cabinet Room of the White House.
Ruby Bridges Foundation
In 1999, Bridges formed the Ruby Bridges Foundation, headquartered in New Orleans. Bridges was inspired following the murder of her youngest brother, Malcolm Bridges, in a drug-related killing in 1993 — which brought her back to her former elementary school.
For a time, Bridges looked after Malcolm's four children, who attended William Frantz School. She soon began to volunteer there three days a week and soon became a parent-community liaison.
With Bridges' experience as a liaison at the school and her reconnection with influential people in her past, she began to see a need for bringing parents back into the schools to take a more active role in their children's education.
Bridges launched her foundation to promote the values of tolerance, respect and appreciation of differences. Through education and inspiration, the foundation seeks to end racism and prejudice. As its motto goes, "Racism is a grown-up disease, and we must stop using our children to spread it."
In 2007, the Children's Museum of Indianapolis unveiled a new exhibition documenting Bridges' life, along with the lives of Anne Frank and Ryan White.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 2,367 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Since Neolithic man had the bow, he probably also had stringed instruments, for the rhythmic twanging of a bow-string seems almost inevitably to lead to that. He also had earthenware drums across which skins were stretched; perhaps also he made drums by stretching skins over hollow tree stems. We do not know when man began to sing, but evidently he was making music, and since he had words, songs were no doubt being made. To begin with, perhaps, he just let his voice loose as one may hear Italian peasants now behind their ploughs singing songs without words. After dark in the winter he sat in his house and talked and sang and made implements by touch rather than sight. His lighting must have been poor, and chiefly firelight, but there was probably always some fire in the village, summer or winter. Fire was too troublesome to make for men to be willing to let it out readily. Sometimes a great disaster happened to those pile villages, the fire got free, and they were burnt out. The Swiss deposits contain clear evidence of such catastrophes.
All this we gather from the remains of the Swiss pile dwellings, and such was the character of the human life that spread over Europe, coming from the south and from the east with the forests as, 10,000 or 12,000 years ago, the reindeer and the Reindeer Men passed away. It is evident that we have here a way
- Later Palæolithic bone whistles are known. One may guess that reed pipes were an early invention. | <urn:uuid:eb59c9aa-7fbf-42f3-a9de-0afae7c371b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/139 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.99375 | 318 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.41872885823249... | 1 | Since Neolithic man had the bow, he probably also had stringed instruments, for the rhythmic twanging of a bow-string seems almost inevitably to lead to that. He also had earthenware drums across which skins were stretched; perhaps also he made drums by stretching skins over hollow tree stems. We do not know when man began to sing, but evidently he was making music, and since he had words, songs were no doubt being made. To begin with, perhaps, he just let his voice loose as one may hear Italian peasants now behind their ploughs singing songs without words. After dark in the winter he sat in his house and talked and sang and made implements by touch rather than sight. His lighting must have been poor, and chiefly firelight, but there was probably always some fire in the village, summer or winter. Fire was too troublesome to make for men to be willing to let it out readily. Sometimes a great disaster happened to those pile villages, the fire got free, and they were burnt out. The Swiss deposits contain clear evidence of such catastrophes.
All this we gather from the remains of the Swiss pile dwellings, and such was the character of the human life that spread over Europe, coming from the south and from the east with the forests as, 10,000 or 12,000 years ago, the reindeer and the Reindeer Men passed away. It is evident that we have here a way
- Later Palæolithic bone whistles are known. One may guess that reed pipes were an early invention. | 323 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Image: © 2002 Aeragon; all rights reserved.
Hollow cast iron balls were developed by about the 15th century; naturally, they were called shells. A slow-burning fuze could explode a shell filled with black powder. Such devices were sometimes called bombs or torpedoes. The word torpedo referred to nearly any type of explosive device before about 1900. With early models of spherical shells, the shell’s fuze was lit by hand before the shell was placed into the gun. Early fuzes were extremely unreliable. It was not unusual for a shell to explode while it was being loaded into the gun and they were extremely dangerous for gun crews to handle. Sometimes, early shells exploded while still in the gun’s barrel, thus destroying the gun and frequently injuring personnel. Because of these problems, shells were normally used only with short-barreled guns. Eventually, they were placed into the bore for firing before the fuze on the shell was ignited and then the fuze for the gun would be ignited immediately after the fuze on the shell. In later versions, the propellant charge of the gun could ignite the shell’s fuze. | <urn:uuid:d2ec6a5d-a30a-4c66-978f-f3095245aabe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://aeragon.com/pre-modern/early-ammunition-black-powder-artillery-shells.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.98749 | 238 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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Hollow cast iron balls were developed by about the 15th century; naturally, they were called shells. A slow-burning fuze could explode a shell filled with black powder. Such devices were sometimes called bombs or torpedoes. The word torpedo referred to nearly any type of explosive device before about 1900. With early models of spherical shells, the shell’s fuze was lit by hand before the shell was placed into the gun. Early fuzes were extremely unreliable. It was not unusual for a shell to explode while it was being loaded into the gun and they were extremely dangerous for gun crews to handle. Sometimes, early shells exploded while still in the gun’s barrel, thus destroying the gun and frequently injuring personnel. Because of these problems, shells were normally used only with short-barreled guns. Eventually, they were placed into the bore for firing before the fuze on the shell was ignited and then the fuze for the gun would be ignited immediately after the fuze on the shell. In later versions, the propellant charge of the gun could ignite the shell’s fuze. | 241 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the early morning of December 7, 1941, a group of planes made an ominous procession towards Oahu, Hawaii. Despite their Japanese colors, it seemed unlikely that the island—home to Pearl Harbor—would be the initial site of Japan's war against the U.S. Surely its location, thousands of miles away from the enemy, guaranteed its safety?
But with tensions between the two countries at an all-time high—and with the harbor lacking proper defenses—no such guarantee could be made. At 8:00 am, Japanese planes rained fire down on Battleship Row, where major U.S. naval vessels lay largely unguarded. Destroying them would be essential for a Japanese victory, as the Pacific Fleet impeded Japan's access to the rest of the South Pacific.
The USS Arizona was among the first to be hit. A nearly 2,000 pound bomb crashed clear through to the forward ammunition magazine, and the ship erupted in an explosion with over 1,000 of her crew members perishing in the bomb blast. The remaining seven battleships, including the USS California and USS West Virginia, followed soon thereafter. Within 30 minutes, most of the damage was done—but the assault wasn’t over yet.
A second wave began, and while it was nowhere near as destructive as the initial attack, it hit American forces hard. Bombs, bullets, and torpedoes tore through the base, which had been scarcely manned due to Sunday schedules. After only an hour, the Japanese threat had withdrawn. Left in its wake were 20 destroyed naval vessels, over 300 damaged airplanes, and at the end of it all, the death toll including civilians was more than 2,400, with another 1,000 Americans suffering from injury.
However, despite such grand scale devastation, there were many who survived—and most of the battleships damaged that day eventually returned to service. Japan’s hopes for crippling American forces were in vain, regardless, as they failed to consider that battleships were no longer the primary vessel within the navy. Americans had embraced aircraft carriers as their central warships, and on the terrible tragedy of December 7, all of the carriers of the Pacific Fleet were either at the mainland or delivering planes.
The Japanese attack was further minimized by the fact that the essential resources at the Pearl Harbor base were left in tact. Vital assets such as oil storage, repair shops, and submarine docks were still standing onshore. Because of this, it wasn’t long before the United States Navy has recovered from the loss and destruction of the barrage.
Renowned historian author Walter Lord, who is known for The Miracle of Dunkirk and A Night to Remember, recounts the destruction of the Pacific Fleet in his bestseller Day of Infamy. At once a detailed account of the attack, it's also a testament to the heroism of those onboard the ships.
Read on for an excerpt from Day of Infamy, and then download the book.
Over 1000 men were gone.
Incredibly, some still lived. Major Allen Shapley of the Marine detachment was blown out of the foremast and well clear of the ship. Though partly paralyzed, he swam to Ford Island, detouring to help two shipmates along the way. Radioman Glenn Lane was blown off the quarterdeck and found himself swimming in water thick with oil. He looked back at the Arizona and couldn’t see a sign of life.
But men were there. On the third deck aft Coxswain James Forbis felt skinned alive, and the No. 4 turret handling room was filling with thick smoke. He and his mates finally moved over to No. 3 turret, where conditions were a little better, but soon smoke began coming in around the guns there too. The men stripped to their skivvie drawers and crammed their clothes around the guns to keep the to keep the smoke out. When somebody finally ordered them out, Forbis took off his newly shined shoes and carefully carried them in his hands as he left the turret. The deck was blazing hot and covered with oil. But there was a dry spot farther aft near No. 4 turret, and before rejoining the fight, Forbis carefully placed his shoes there. He lined them neatly with the heels against the turret — just as though he planned to wear them up Hotel Street again that night.
In the portside antiaircraft director, Russell Lott wrapped himself in a blanket and stumbled out the twisted door. The blanket kept him from getting scorched, but the deck was so hot he had to keep hopping from one foot to the other. Five shipmates staggered up through the smoke, so he stretched the blanket as a sort of shield for them all. Then he saw the Vestal still alongside. The explosion had left her decks a shambles, but he found someone who tossed over a line, and, one by one, all six men inched over to the little repair ship.
At that particular moment they were lucky to find anyone on the Vestal. The blast had blown some of the crew overboard, including skipper Cassin Young, and the executive officer told the rest to abandon ship. Seaman Thomas Garzione climbed down a line over the forecastle, came to the end of it, and found himself standing on the anchor. He just froze there — he was a nonswimmer and too scared to jump the rest of the way. Finally he worked up enough nerve, made the sign of the cross, and plunged down holding his nose. For a nonswimmer, he made remarkable time to a whale boat drifting in the debris.
Signalman Adolph Zlabis dived off the bridge and reached a launch hovering nearby. He and a few others yelled encouragement to a young sailor who had climbed out on the Vestal’s boat boom and now dangled from a rope ladder five feet above the water. Finally the man let go, landed flat in the water with a resounding whack. The men in the launch couldn’t help laughing.
Still on board the Vestal, Radioman John Murphy watched a long line of men pass his radio room, on their way to abandon ship. One of the other radiomen saw his brother go by. He cried, “I’m going with him,” and ran out the door. For no particular reason Murphy decided to stay, but he began feeling that he would like to get back home just once more before he passed on.
At this point Commander Young climbed back on the Vestal from his swim in the harbor. He was by no means ready to call it a day. He stood sopping wet at the top of the gangway, shouting down to the swimmers and the men in the boats, “Come back! We’re not giving up this ship yet!”
Most of the crew returned and Young gave orders to cast off. Men hacked at the hawsers tying the Vestal to the blazing Arizona. Inevitably, there was confusion. One officer on the Arizona’s quarterdeck yelled, “Don’t cut those lines.” Others on the battleship pitched in and helped. Aviation Mechanic “Turkey” Graham slashed the last line with an ax, shouting, “Get away from here while you can!”
"Come back! We're not giving up this ship yet!"
Other help came from an unexpected source. A Navy tug happened by, whose skipper and chief engineer had both put in many years on the Vestal. They loyally eased alongside, took a line from the bow, and towed their old ship off toward Aiea landing, where she could safely sit out the rest of the attack.
When the Arizona blew up, Chief Electrician’s Mate Harold North on the Maryland thought the end of the world had come. Actually he was lucky. Moored inboard of the Oklahoma, the Maryland was safe from torpedoes and caught only two bombs. One was a 15-inch armor-piercing shell fitted with fins — it slanted down just off the port bow, smashing into her hull 17 feet below the water-line. The other hit the forecastle, setting the awnings on fire. When a strafer swept by, Chief George Haitle watched the firefighters scoot for shelter. One man threw his extinguisher down a hatch, where it exploded at the feet of an old petty officer, who grabbed for a mask, shouting, “Gas!”
The Tennessee, the other inboard battleship, had more trouble. Seaman J. P. Burkholder looked out a porthole on the bridge just as one of the converted 16-inch shells crashed down on No. 2 turret a few feet forward. The porthole cover tore loose, clobbered him on the head, and sent him scurrying through the door. Outside he helped a wounded ensign, but couldn’t help one of his closest friends, who was so far gone he only wanted Burkholder to shoot him.
Another armor-piercing bomb burst through No. 3 turret farther aft. Seaman S. F. Bowen, stationed there as a powder carman, was just dogging the hatch when the bomb hit. It wasn’t a shattering crash at all. Just a ball of fire, about the size of a basketball, appeared overhead and seemed to melt down on everyone. It seemed to run down on his skin and there was no way to stop it. As he crawled down to the deck below, he noticed that his shoestrings were still on fire.
Splinters flew in all directions from the bombs that hit the Tennessee. One hunk ripped the bridge of the West Virginia alongside, cut down Captain Mervyn Bennion as he tried to direct his ship’s defense. He slumped across the sill of the signal bridge door on the starboard side of the machine-gun platform. Soon after he fell, Ensign Delano arrived on the bridge, having finally been sent up from central station. As Delano stepped out onto the platform, Lieutenant (j.g.) F. H. White rushed by, told him about the captain, and asked him to do what he could.
Delano saw right away it was hopeless. Captain Bennion had been hit in the stomach, and it took no medical training to know the wound was fatal. Yet he was perfectly conscious, and at least he might be made more comfortable. Delano opened a first-aid kit and looked for some morphine. No luck. Then he found a can of ether and tried to make the captain pass out. He sat down beside the dying man, holding his head in one hand and the ether in the other. It made the captain drowsy but never unconscious. Occasionally Delano moved the captain’s legs to more comfortable positions, but there was so little he could do.
As they sat there together, Captain Bennion prodded him with questions. He asked how the battle was going, what the West Virginia was doing, whether the ship and men were badly hit. Delano did his best to answer, resorting every now and then to a gentle white lie. Yes, he assured the captain, the ship’s guns were still firing.
Lieutenant Ricketts now turned up and proved a pillar of strength. Other men arrived too — Chief Pharmacist’s Mate Leak … Ensign Jacoby from the flag radio room … Lieutenant Commander Doir Johnson from the forecastle. On his way up, Johnson ran across big Doris Miller, thought the powerful mess steward might come in handy, brought him along to the bridge. Together they tenderly lifted Captain Bennion and carried him to a sheltered spot behind the conning tower. He was still quite conscious and well aware of the flames creeping closer. He kept telling the men to leave him and save themselves.
In her house at Makalapa, Mrs. Mayfield still couldn’t grasp what had happened. She walked numbly to a window and looked at Admiral Kimmel’s house across the street. The Venetian blinds were closed and there was no sign of activity. Somehow this was reassuring … surely there would be some sign of life if it was really true. It didn’t occur to her that this might be one morning when the admiral had no time for Venetian blinds.
By now Captain Mayfield was in his uniform. He took a few swallows of coffee, slopping most of it in the saucer, and dashed for the carport. He roared off as the CINCPAC official car screeched up to the admiral’s house across the street. Admiral Kimmel ran down the steps and jumped in, knotting his tie on the way. Captain Freeland Daubin, commanding a squadron of submarines, leaped on the running board as the car moved off, and Captain Earle’s station wagon shot down the hill after them.
In five minutes Admiral Kimmel was at CINCPAC Headquarters in the sub base. The admiral thought he was there by 8:05; Commander Murphy thought it was more like 8:10. In either case, within a very few minutes of his arrival, the backbone of his fleet was gone or immobile — Arizona, Oklahoma, and West Virginia sunk … California sinking … Maryland and Tennessee bottled up by the wrecked battleships alongside … Pennsylvania squatting in drydock. Only the Nevada was left, and she seemed a forlorn hope with one torpedo and two bombs already in her.
Nor was the picture much brighter elsewhere. On the other side of Ford Island the target ship Utah took a heavy list to port as her engineering officer, Lieutenant Commander S. S. Isquith, pulled his khakis over his pajamas. The alarm bell clanged a few strokes and stopped; the men trooped below to take shelter from bombing. Isquith sensed the ship couldn’t last, and he had the officer of the deck order all hands topside instead.
Arizona, Oklahoma, and West Virginia sunk … California sinking … Maryland and Tennessee bottled up by the wrecked battleships alongside …
The men were amazingly cool —perhaps because they were used to being “bombed” by the Army and Navy everyday. When Machinist’s Mate David Gilmartin reached the main deck, he found the port rail already under water. Twice he crawled up toward the starboard side and slid back. As he did it a third time, he slid by another seaman who suggested he throw away the cigarettes. To Gilmartin’s amazement he had been trying to climb up the slanting deck while holding a carton of cigarettes in one hand. Relieved of his handicap, he made the starboard rail easily.
As the list increased, the big six-by-twelve-inch timbers that covered the Utah’s decks began breaking loose. These timbers were used to cushion the decks against practice bombing and undoubtedly helped fool the Japanese into thinking the ship was a carrier unexpectedly in port. Now they played another lethal role, sliding down on the men trying to climb up.
As she rolled still farther, Commander Isquith made a last check below to find anyone who might still be trapped — and almost got trapped himself. He managed to reach the captain’s cabin where a door led to the forecastle deck. The timbers had jammed the door; so he stumbled into the captain’s bedroom where he knew there was a porthole. It was now almost directly overhead, but he managed to reach it by climbing on the captain’s bed. As he popped his head through the porthole, the bed broke loose and slid out from under him. He fell back, but the radio officer, Lieutenant Commander L. Winser, grabbed his hand just in time and pulled him through. As Isquith got to his feet, he slipped and bumped down the side of the ship into the water. Half dead with exhaustion, harassed by strafers, he was helped by his crew to Ford Island.
Others never left the ship — Fireman John Vaessen in the dynamo room, who kept the power up to the end; Chief Watertender Peter Tomich in the boiler room, who stayed behind to make sure his men got out; Lieutenant (j.g) John Black, the assistant engineer, who jammed his foot in his cabin door; Mess Attendant Smith, who was always so afraid of the water.
Of the other ships on this side of Ford Island, the Tangier and Detroit were still untouched, but the Raleigh sagged heavily to port. Water swirled into No. 1 and 2 firerooms, flooded the forward engine room, contaminated the fuel oil, knocked out her power. In the struggle to keep her afloat, no one even had time to dress. As though they went around that way every day, Captain Simons sported his blue pajamas … Ensign John Beardall worked the port antiaircraft guns in red pajamas… others toiled in a weird assortment of skivvies, aloha shirts, and bathing trunks. Somehow they didn’t seem even odd: as Signalman Jack Foeppel watched Captain Simons in the admiral’s wing on the bridge, he only marveled that any man could be so calm.
Want to keep reading? Download Walter Lord's A Day of Infamy now.
On December 8th, the day after the disorienting assault, President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed Congress with a vow to defend American soil from further deliberate violence from the Japanese forces. Congress was quick to approve Roosevelt’s declaration of war, with only one dissenting voice from pacifist Jeannette Rankin, the Representative of Montana. Three days later on December 11, the other Axis powers of Germany and Italy declared war against the United States. Once again, Congress was not afraid to reciprocate—America had finally entered the conflict of World War II.
What followed was a chain reaction that would frame no one as a hero within the Japanese-American conflict. For about six months, the Japanese had many military successes through the South Pacific. However, tides turned with an American naval victory in the Battle of Midway in June of 1942. Unfortunately, on American soil, Roosevelt had also authorized Executive Order 9066, which led to the implementation of Japanese internment camps.
Three years later in 1945, the fallout of Pearl Harbor came to a head. The United States Army Air Force dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. After another three days, a second atomic bomb touched down on Nagasaki. An estimated 120,000 Japanese civilian lives were lost as a result of this retaliatory devastation. And upon surrendering to American forces, the Japanese government got the exact opposite of what they had hoped for with the attack upon Pearl Harbor—foreign occupation, rather than lessened economic sanctions.
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0.768246889114379... | 6 | In the early morning of December 7, 1941, a group of planes made an ominous procession towards Oahu, Hawaii. Despite their Japanese colors, it seemed unlikely that the island—home to Pearl Harbor—would be the initial site of Japan's war against the U.S. Surely its location, thousands of miles away from the enemy, guaranteed its safety?
But with tensions between the two countries at an all-time high—and with the harbor lacking proper defenses—no such guarantee could be made. At 8:00 am, Japanese planes rained fire down on Battleship Row, where major U.S. naval vessels lay largely unguarded. Destroying them would be essential for a Japanese victory, as the Pacific Fleet impeded Japan's access to the rest of the South Pacific.
The USS Arizona was among the first to be hit. A nearly 2,000 pound bomb crashed clear through to the forward ammunition magazine, and the ship erupted in an explosion with over 1,000 of her crew members perishing in the bomb blast. The remaining seven battleships, including the USS California and USS West Virginia, followed soon thereafter. Within 30 minutes, most of the damage was done—but the assault wasn’t over yet.
A second wave began, and while it was nowhere near as destructive as the initial attack, it hit American forces hard. Bombs, bullets, and torpedoes tore through the base, which had been scarcely manned due to Sunday schedules. After only an hour, the Japanese threat had withdrawn. Left in its wake were 20 destroyed naval vessels, over 300 damaged airplanes, and at the end of it all, the death toll including civilians was more than 2,400, with another 1,000 Americans suffering from injury.
However, despite such grand scale devastation, there were many who survived—and most of the battleships damaged that day eventually returned to service. Japan’s hopes for crippling American forces were in vain, regardless, as they failed to consider that battleships were no longer the primary vessel within the navy. Americans had embraced aircraft carriers as their central warships, and on the terrible tragedy of December 7, all of the carriers of the Pacific Fleet were either at the mainland or delivering planes.
The Japanese attack was further minimized by the fact that the essential resources at the Pearl Harbor base were left in tact. Vital assets such as oil storage, repair shops, and submarine docks were still standing onshore. Because of this, it wasn’t long before the United States Navy has recovered from the loss and destruction of the barrage.
Renowned historian author Walter Lord, who is known for The Miracle of Dunkirk and A Night to Remember, recounts the destruction of the Pacific Fleet in his bestseller Day of Infamy. At once a detailed account of the attack, it's also a testament to the heroism of those onboard the ships.
Read on for an excerpt from Day of Infamy, and then download the book.
Over 1000 men were gone.
Incredibly, some still lived. Major Allen Shapley of the Marine detachment was blown out of the foremast and well clear of the ship. Though partly paralyzed, he swam to Ford Island, detouring to help two shipmates along the way. Radioman Glenn Lane was blown off the quarterdeck and found himself swimming in water thick with oil. He looked back at the Arizona and couldn’t see a sign of life.
But men were there. On the third deck aft Coxswain James Forbis felt skinned alive, and the No. 4 turret handling room was filling with thick smoke. He and his mates finally moved over to No. 3 turret, where conditions were a little better, but soon smoke began coming in around the guns there too. The men stripped to their skivvie drawers and crammed their clothes around the guns to keep the to keep the smoke out. When somebody finally ordered them out, Forbis took off his newly shined shoes and carefully carried them in his hands as he left the turret. The deck was blazing hot and covered with oil. But there was a dry spot farther aft near No. 4 turret, and before rejoining the fight, Forbis carefully placed his shoes there. He lined them neatly with the heels against the turret — just as though he planned to wear them up Hotel Street again that night.
In the portside antiaircraft director, Russell Lott wrapped himself in a blanket and stumbled out the twisted door. The blanket kept him from getting scorched, but the deck was so hot he had to keep hopping from one foot to the other. Five shipmates staggered up through the smoke, so he stretched the blanket as a sort of shield for them all. Then he saw the Vestal still alongside. The explosion had left her decks a shambles, but he found someone who tossed over a line, and, one by one, all six men inched over to the little repair ship.
At that particular moment they were lucky to find anyone on the Vestal. The blast had blown some of the crew overboard, including skipper Cassin Young, and the executive officer told the rest to abandon ship. Seaman Thomas Garzione climbed down a line over the forecastle, came to the end of it, and found himself standing on the anchor. He just froze there — he was a nonswimmer and too scared to jump the rest of the way. Finally he worked up enough nerve, made the sign of the cross, and plunged down holding his nose. For a nonswimmer, he made remarkable time to a whale boat drifting in the debris.
Signalman Adolph Zlabis dived off the bridge and reached a launch hovering nearby. He and a few others yelled encouragement to a young sailor who had climbed out on the Vestal’s boat boom and now dangled from a rope ladder five feet above the water. Finally the man let go, landed flat in the water with a resounding whack. The men in the launch couldn’t help laughing.
Still on board the Vestal, Radioman John Murphy watched a long line of men pass his radio room, on their way to abandon ship. One of the other radiomen saw his brother go by. He cried, “I’m going with him,” and ran out the door. For no particular reason Murphy decided to stay, but he began feeling that he would like to get back home just once more before he passed on.
At this point Commander Young climbed back on the Vestal from his swim in the harbor. He was by no means ready to call it a day. He stood sopping wet at the top of the gangway, shouting down to the swimmers and the men in the boats, “Come back! We’re not giving up this ship yet!”
Most of the crew returned and Young gave orders to cast off. Men hacked at the hawsers tying the Vestal to the blazing Arizona. Inevitably, there was confusion. One officer on the Arizona’s quarterdeck yelled, “Don’t cut those lines.” Others on the battleship pitched in and helped. Aviation Mechanic “Turkey” Graham slashed the last line with an ax, shouting, “Get away from here while you can!”
"Come back! We're not giving up this ship yet!"
Other help came from an unexpected source. A Navy tug happened by, whose skipper and chief engineer had both put in many years on the Vestal. They loyally eased alongside, took a line from the bow, and towed their old ship off toward Aiea landing, where she could safely sit out the rest of the attack.
When the Arizona blew up, Chief Electrician’s Mate Harold North on the Maryland thought the end of the world had come. Actually he was lucky. Moored inboard of the Oklahoma, the Maryland was safe from torpedoes and caught only two bombs. One was a 15-inch armor-piercing shell fitted with fins — it slanted down just off the port bow, smashing into her hull 17 feet below the water-line. The other hit the forecastle, setting the awnings on fire. When a strafer swept by, Chief George Haitle watched the firefighters scoot for shelter. One man threw his extinguisher down a hatch, where it exploded at the feet of an old petty officer, who grabbed for a mask, shouting, “Gas!”
The Tennessee, the other inboard battleship, had more trouble. Seaman J. P. Burkholder looked out a porthole on the bridge just as one of the converted 16-inch shells crashed down on No. 2 turret a few feet forward. The porthole cover tore loose, clobbered him on the head, and sent him scurrying through the door. Outside he helped a wounded ensign, but couldn’t help one of his closest friends, who was so far gone he only wanted Burkholder to shoot him.
Another armor-piercing bomb burst through No. 3 turret farther aft. Seaman S. F. Bowen, stationed there as a powder carman, was just dogging the hatch when the bomb hit. It wasn’t a shattering crash at all. Just a ball of fire, about the size of a basketball, appeared overhead and seemed to melt down on everyone. It seemed to run down on his skin and there was no way to stop it. As he crawled down to the deck below, he noticed that his shoestrings were still on fire.
Splinters flew in all directions from the bombs that hit the Tennessee. One hunk ripped the bridge of the West Virginia alongside, cut down Captain Mervyn Bennion as he tried to direct his ship’s defense. He slumped across the sill of the signal bridge door on the starboard side of the machine-gun platform. Soon after he fell, Ensign Delano arrived on the bridge, having finally been sent up from central station. As Delano stepped out onto the platform, Lieutenant (j.g.) F. H. White rushed by, told him about the captain, and asked him to do what he could.
Delano saw right away it was hopeless. Captain Bennion had been hit in the stomach, and it took no medical training to know the wound was fatal. Yet he was perfectly conscious, and at least he might be made more comfortable. Delano opened a first-aid kit and looked for some morphine. No luck. Then he found a can of ether and tried to make the captain pass out. He sat down beside the dying man, holding his head in one hand and the ether in the other. It made the captain drowsy but never unconscious. Occasionally Delano moved the captain’s legs to more comfortable positions, but there was so little he could do.
As they sat there together, Captain Bennion prodded him with questions. He asked how the battle was going, what the West Virginia was doing, whether the ship and men were badly hit. Delano did his best to answer, resorting every now and then to a gentle white lie. Yes, he assured the captain, the ship’s guns were still firing.
Lieutenant Ricketts now turned up and proved a pillar of strength. Other men arrived too — Chief Pharmacist’s Mate Leak … Ensign Jacoby from the flag radio room … Lieutenant Commander Doir Johnson from the forecastle. On his way up, Johnson ran across big Doris Miller, thought the powerful mess steward might come in handy, brought him along to the bridge. Together they tenderly lifted Captain Bennion and carried him to a sheltered spot behind the conning tower. He was still quite conscious and well aware of the flames creeping closer. He kept telling the men to leave him and save themselves.
In her house at Makalapa, Mrs. Mayfield still couldn’t grasp what had happened. She walked numbly to a window and looked at Admiral Kimmel’s house across the street. The Venetian blinds were closed and there was no sign of activity. Somehow this was reassuring … surely there would be some sign of life if it was really true. It didn’t occur to her that this might be one morning when the admiral had no time for Venetian blinds.
By now Captain Mayfield was in his uniform. He took a few swallows of coffee, slopping most of it in the saucer, and dashed for the carport. He roared off as the CINCPAC official car screeched up to the admiral’s house across the street. Admiral Kimmel ran down the steps and jumped in, knotting his tie on the way. Captain Freeland Daubin, commanding a squadron of submarines, leaped on the running board as the car moved off, and Captain Earle’s station wagon shot down the hill after them.
In five minutes Admiral Kimmel was at CINCPAC Headquarters in the sub base. The admiral thought he was there by 8:05; Commander Murphy thought it was more like 8:10. In either case, within a very few minutes of his arrival, the backbone of his fleet was gone or immobile — Arizona, Oklahoma, and West Virginia sunk … California sinking … Maryland and Tennessee bottled up by the wrecked battleships alongside … Pennsylvania squatting in drydock. Only the Nevada was left, and she seemed a forlorn hope with one torpedo and two bombs already in her.
Nor was the picture much brighter elsewhere. On the other side of Ford Island the target ship Utah took a heavy list to port as her engineering officer, Lieutenant Commander S. S. Isquith, pulled his khakis over his pajamas. The alarm bell clanged a few strokes and stopped; the men trooped below to take shelter from bombing. Isquith sensed the ship couldn’t last, and he had the officer of the deck order all hands topside instead.
Arizona, Oklahoma, and West Virginia sunk … California sinking … Maryland and Tennessee bottled up by the wrecked battleships alongside …
The men were amazingly cool —perhaps because they were used to being “bombed” by the Army and Navy everyday. When Machinist’s Mate David Gilmartin reached the main deck, he found the port rail already under water. Twice he crawled up toward the starboard side and slid back. As he did it a third time, he slid by another seaman who suggested he throw away the cigarettes. To Gilmartin’s amazement he had been trying to climb up the slanting deck while holding a carton of cigarettes in one hand. Relieved of his handicap, he made the starboard rail easily.
As the list increased, the big six-by-twelve-inch timbers that covered the Utah’s decks began breaking loose. These timbers were used to cushion the decks against practice bombing and undoubtedly helped fool the Japanese into thinking the ship was a carrier unexpectedly in port. Now they played another lethal role, sliding down on the men trying to climb up.
As she rolled still farther, Commander Isquith made a last check below to find anyone who might still be trapped — and almost got trapped himself. He managed to reach the captain’s cabin where a door led to the forecastle deck. The timbers had jammed the door; so he stumbled into the captain’s bedroom where he knew there was a porthole. It was now almost directly overhead, but he managed to reach it by climbing on the captain’s bed. As he popped his head through the porthole, the bed broke loose and slid out from under him. He fell back, but the radio officer, Lieutenant Commander L. Winser, grabbed his hand just in time and pulled him through. As Isquith got to his feet, he slipped and bumped down the side of the ship into the water. Half dead with exhaustion, harassed by strafers, he was helped by his crew to Ford Island.
Others never left the ship — Fireman John Vaessen in the dynamo room, who kept the power up to the end; Chief Watertender Peter Tomich in the boiler room, who stayed behind to make sure his men got out; Lieutenant (j.g) John Black, the assistant engineer, who jammed his foot in his cabin door; Mess Attendant Smith, who was always so afraid of the water.
Of the other ships on this side of Ford Island, the Tangier and Detroit were still untouched, but the Raleigh sagged heavily to port. Water swirled into No. 1 and 2 firerooms, flooded the forward engine room, contaminated the fuel oil, knocked out her power. In the struggle to keep her afloat, no one even had time to dress. As though they went around that way every day, Captain Simons sported his blue pajamas … Ensign John Beardall worked the port antiaircraft guns in red pajamas… others toiled in a weird assortment of skivvies, aloha shirts, and bathing trunks. Somehow they didn’t seem even odd: as Signalman Jack Foeppel watched Captain Simons in the admiral’s wing on the bridge, he only marveled that any man could be so calm.
Want to keep reading? Download Walter Lord's A Day of Infamy now.
On December 8th, the day after the disorienting assault, President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed Congress with a vow to defend American soil from further deliberate violence from the Japanese forces. Congress was quick to approve Roosevelt’s declaration of war, with only one dissenting voice from pacifist Jeannette Rankin, the Representative of Montana. Three days later on December 11, the other Axis powers of Germany and Italy declared war against the United States. Once again, Congress was not afraid to reciprocate—America had finally entered the conflict of World War II.
What followed was a chain reaction that would frame no one as a hero within the Japanese-American conflict. For about six months, the Japanese had many military successes through the South Pacific. However, tides turned with an American naval victory in the Battle of Midway in June of 1942. Unfortunately, on American soil, Roosevelt had also authorized Executive Order 9066, which led to the implementation of Japanese internment camps.
Three years later in 1945, the fallout of Pearl Harbor came to a head. The United States Army Air Force dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. After another three days, a second atomic bomb touched down on Nagasaki. An estimated 120,000 Japanese civilian lives were lost as a result of this retaliatory devastation. And upon surrendering to American forces, the Japanese government got the exact opposite of what they had hoped for with the attack upon Pearl Harbor—foreign occupation, rather than lessened economic sanctions.
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How 10,000 Lakes Were Made Story
Many, many years ago when the world was new, the Mississippi river was much longer than it is now. It meandered back and forth across the area that is now Minnesota. Fish in great numbers lived in this river, and its water was so pure and sweet that all the animals came there to drink.
A giant moose that lived way up north heard about the river and he too came there to drink. But he was so big, and he drank so much, that soon the water began to sink lower and lower. The beavers were worried. The water around their lodges was disappearing. Soon their homes would be destroyed. The muskrats were worried, too. What would they do if the water vanished? How could they live? The fish were very worried. The other animals could live on land if the water dried up, but they couldn't. All the animals tried to think of a way to drive the moose from the river, but he was so big that they were too afraid to try. Even the bear was afraid of him.
At last the Fly said he would try to drive the moose away. All the animals laughed and jeered. How could a tiny fly frighten a giant moose? The fly said nothing, but that day, as soon as the moose appeared, he went into action. He landed on the moose's foreleg and bit sharply. The moose stamped his foot to shake off the fly. But, the fly landed again and bit again and the moose stomped harder, and each time he stamped, the ground sank and the water rushed in to fill it up.
Then the fly jumped about all over the moose, biting and biting and biting until the moose was in a frenzy. He dashed madly about the banks of the river, shaking his head, stamping his feet, snorting and blowing, but he couldn't get rid of that pesky fly. Finally, the moose could take it no longer and ran far away back up to the far north country where he had come from.
All the thrashing and stomping that the giant moose did across the country created large and small holes. As these filled with water, they became the 10,000 lakes of Minnesota. And, the giant moose told all the other moose to never go south because of the terrible biting flies there. That is why there are no longer moose in Minnesota except way up north by Canada.
The fly was very proud of his achievement, and the other animals were very thankful. They made a promise to Fly that whenever any animal dies of old age or disease, the fly can have the entire body to feed on and lay eggs. That is how it is done to this day.
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KIM on Webelos UniformMore Comments... | <urn:uuid:279e099b-f7e0-4d30-bfd2-e12e7842583e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://boyscouttrail.com/content/story/how_10000_lakes_were_made-872.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00025.warc.gz | en | 0.983776 | 719 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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Many, many years ago when the world was new, the Mississippi river was much longer than it is now. It meandered back and forth across the area that is now Minnesota. Fish in great numbers lived in this river, and its water was so pure and sweet that all the animals came there to drink.
A giant moose that lived way up north heard about the river and he too came there to drink. But he was so big, and he drank so much, that soon the water began to sink lower and lower. The beavers were worried. The water around their lodges was disappearing. Soon their homes would be destroyed. The muskrats were worried, too. What would they do if the water vanished? How could they live? The fish were very worried. The other animals could live on land if the water dried up, but they couldn't. All the animals tried to think of a way to drive the moose from the river, but he was so big that they were too afraid to try. Even the bear was afraid of him.
At last the Fly said he would try to drive the moose away. All the animals laughed and jeered. How could a tiny fly frighten a giant moose? The fly said nothing, but that day, as soon as the moose appeared, he went into action. He landed on the moose's foreleg and bit sharply. The moose stamped his foot to shake off the fly. But, the fly landed again and bit again and the moose stomped harder, and each time he stamped, the ground sank and the water rushed in to fill it up.
Then the fly jumped about all over the moose, biting and biting and biting until the moose was in a frenzy. He dashed madly about the banks of the river, shaking his head, stamping his feet, snorting and blowing, but he couldn't get rid of that pesky fly. Finally, the moose could take it no longer and ran far away back up to the far north country where he had come from.
All the thrashing and stomping that the giant moose did across the country created large and small holes. As these filled with water, they became the 10,000 lakes of Minnesota. And, the giant moose told all the other moose to never go south because of the terrible biting flies there. That is why there are no longer moose in Minnesota except way up north by Canada.
The fly was very proud of his achievement, and the other animals were very thankful. They made a promise to Fly that whenever any animal dies of old age or disease, the fly can have the entire body to feed on and lay eggs. That is how it is done to this day.
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KIM on Webelos UniformMore Comments... | 719 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Stamp Act of was passed by Parliament to raise money to pay for His first action was the introduction of the Sugar Act in April The Stamp Act was passed by the British Parliament on March 22, The new tax was imposed on all American colonists and required them to pay a tax on.
The Townshend Acts were a series of measures, passed by the British Parliament in , that taxed goods imported to the American colonies. The British Parliament enacted a series of taxes on the colonies for the purpose of raising revenue. The Townshend Acts, named after Charles. The Townshend Acts were a series of British acts of Parliament passed during and relating to the British colonies in America. They are named after.
The Stamp Act of was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain which imposed a direct tax on the British colonies in America and required that many printed. Description: In , the British Parliament passed An Act for Granting and Applying Certain Stamp Duties in the British Colonies and Plantations in America .
The British Parliament made a decision to install the Stamp Act on March 22, but it was not scheduled to take effect until November 1st of the same year. The Stamp Act was passed by the British Parliament on March 22, The new tax was imposed on all American colonists and required them to pay a tax on.
A Spotlight on a Primary Source by George III . March 22, British Parliament passes the "Stamp Act." October Delegates from nine colonies meet in. A report on the reaction to the Stamp Act, A Spotlight on a Primary Source by Archibald Hinshelwood. ✓. Thanks for sharing! Facebook Twitter Pinterest.
The Stamp Act Congress (October 7 – 25, ), also known as the Continental Congress of , was a meeting held in New York, New York, consisting of. This became the spirit of the Stamp Act Resolves. The Congress humbly acknowledged Parliament's right to make laws in the colonies. Only the issue of taxation. | <urn:uuid:f0e5aae1-a77a-43d8-957d-3f327c0ea3ac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://calgarydanceteacherexpo.com/how-can-you-write-a-book-report/an-introduction-to-the-revolutionary-war-the-stamp-act-of-1765-1015xt.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00053.warc.gz | en | 0.983951 | 401 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.27251073718... | 2 | The Stamp Act of was passed by Parliament to raise money to pay for His first action was the introduction of the Sugar Act in April The Stamp Act was passed by the British Parliament on March 22, The new tax was imposed on all American colonists and required them to pay a tax on.
The Townshend Acts were a series of measures, passed by the British Parliament in , that taxed goods imported to the American colonies. The British Parliament enacted a series of taxes on the colonies for the purpose of raising revenue. The Townshend Acts, named after Charles. The Townshend Acts were a series of British acts of Parliament passed during and relating to the British colonies in America. They are named after.
The Stamp Act of was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain which imposed a direct tax on the British colonies in America and required that many printed. Description: In , the British Parliament passed An Act for Granting and Applying Certain Stamp Duties in the British Colonies and Plantations in America .
The British Parliament made a decision to install the Stamp Act on March 22, but it was not scheduled to take effect until November 1st of the same year. The Stamp Act was passed by the British Parliament on March 22, The new tax was imposed on all American colonists and required them to pay a tax on.
A Spotlight on a Primary Source by George III . March 22, British Parliament passes the "Stamp Act." October Delegates from nine colonies meet in. A report on the reaction to the Stamp Act, A Spotlight on a Primary Source by Archibald Hinshelwood. ✓. Thanks for sharing! Facebook Twitter Pinterest.
The Stamp Act Congress (October 7 – 25, ), also known as the Continental Congress of , was a meeting held in New York, New York, consisting of. This became the spirit of the Stamp Act Resolves. The Congress humbly acknowledged Parliament's right to make laws in the colonies. Only the issue of taxation. | 409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Insolvency means that a person or organisation does not have enough money to pay all of the people who they owe money. Different countries have different definitions of exactly what insolvency means, but usually it means either that:
- a person cannot pay their debts as they fall due (which is sometimes called cash flow insolvency); or
- the total amount of a person's liabilities is larger than the total amount of their assets (which is called balance sheet insolvency).
Insolvency and bankruptcyEdit
People often confuse the terms bankruptcy and insolvency, and sometimes they use one word when they really mean the other. Insolvency usually just means that a someone does not have enough money to pay their debts or (sometimes) that the total amount of their debts is worth more than the total amount of their assets. Bankruptcy is a formal legal process in front of the courts. Although the two terms are connected, just because a person is insolvent does not necessarily mean that they will go into bankruptcy.
Consequences of insolvencyEdit
Apart from being put into bankruptcy there are other risks to being insolvent. Many countries have laws to protect the public which means that the directors of a company who continue to trade whilst the company is insolvent may have to pay compensation to creditors, and in some cases may even be convicted of a crime. | <urn:uuid:0d57175a-2c8c-4172-95e9-1807fd255df8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolvency | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00506.warc.gz | en | 0.980161 | 283 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.0282128155231... | 6 | Insolvency means that a person or organisation does not have enough money to pay all of the people who they owe money. Different countries have different definitions of exactly what insolvency means, but usually it means either that:
- a person cannot pay their debts as they fall due (which is sometimes called cash flow insolvency); or
- the total amount of a person's liabilities is larger than the total amount of their assets (which is called balance sheet insolvency).
Insolvency and bankruptcyEdit
People often confuse the terms bankruptcy and insolvency, and sometimes they use one word when they really mean the other. Insolvency usually just means that a someone does not have enough money to pay their debts or (sometimes) that the total amount of their debts is worth more than the total amount of their assets. Bankruptcy is a formal legal process in front of the courts. Although the two terms are connected, just because a person is insolvent does not necessarily mean that they will go into bankruptcy.
Consequences of insolvencyEdit
Apart from being put into bankruptcy there are other risks to being insolvent. Many countries have laws to protect the public which means that the directors of a company who continue to trade whilst the company is insolvent may have to pay compensation to creditors, and in some cases may even be convicted of a crime. | 267 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Freedom Riders- 1961
Freedom riders were civil rights lobbyists in who were residing in the southern United States and rode in interstate buses to test the decision of the United States Supreme Court on the Boynton v. Virginia case. The Boynton ruling had outlawed racial segregation in public rest rooms and restaurants found at the termini of buses that crossed state lines in the United States. Interstate buses were fully segregated along racial lines such that the whites and African-American could not commute in the same bus. The Freedom Riders had set up their activities to challenge this status quo such that they traveled to the south via different buses including those specifically set aside for the whites. This was meant to provoke the local authorities who had enforced the segregation in public transport vehicles.
These rides were later on branded “freedom rides” and they provoked violent reactions as well leading to the arrest of most riders who were caught trespassing and violating the laws of the state. The activism of the Freedom Riders was considered as criminal especially after the establishment of violent activities. Later on in the rides they realized that the subsequent arrests were thwarting their goals hence they committed themselves to non-violent resistance; a strategy which was borrowed from Martin Luther King Jr. this strategy was equally successful because after a long struggle, the “white” and “colored” signs were pulled down from the interstate bus terminals such that people from all races were able to share the same rest rooms among other public facilities.
Who were the Freedom Riders?
The Freedom Riders were a civil rights group which was organized in 1961 by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) leader James Farmer in the UnitedState of America. They were inspired by the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation which had taken place in 1947 under the stewardship of Bayard Rustin in conjunction with George Houser. The first freedom ride was composed of thirteen black and white volunteers who were involved in the interstate traveling between Washington and New Orleans. These volunteers usually underwent three-day training on non-violent ways of stopping racial segregation. The ride from Washington to New Orleans was a move towards establishing equal traveling rights among the whites and minority blacks. The segregation of blacks sitting at the back and whites in front of public vehicles generated the first spark towards the establishment of Freedom Riders (CORE, 2010).
The strategy used to challenge the local authority laws was to include an interracial pair in adjoining seats while a black rider sat in the font seats usually reserved for whites. The other members of the crew sat all over the bus regardless of their race. Only one rider followed the segregation ideals to avoid arrest so that incase of the others being arrested, this rider would inform the relevant authorities and arrange for bailing of the rest. In the first few days of the ride, minimal hostility was directed towards the riders but as the journey continued, they were severely beaten and one of the buses burnt. The arrests were occasionally triggered by involvement of the riders in violent protests and as the ride continued, their leaders sought for non-violent as a new strategy to reduce arrests. Consequently, after adoption of non-violence in addition to the resolute willingness of the Americans to achieve justice, the power of the strategy was exemplified in successful accomplishment of the rides (Bausum, 2006).
Purpose of the Freedom Riders
One of the main reasons why the Freedom Riders were formed was to ensure that all human beings were treated equally regardless of their racial background. Discrimination against racial lines especially in the public buses such that those who sat at the wrong places were arrested was one of the items that led to the Freedom Rides. The Congress of Racial Equality was aiming at establishing harmonious utilization of buses such that the designations of whites only at the front and blacks would be eliminated (CORE, 2010).The authorities were quite aggressive in instilling these policies such that individuals who violated them were severely fined. This was seen as being liberal as there was no known disparity between the minority groups and the whites. The Freedom Riders wanted to ensure that everyone would be given equal chances be it in the rest rooms or buses without being branded as black or white.
This was exhibited in the first ride when whites and blacks sat on any section of the bus regardless of their racial ethnicity. They also intermingled during the ride as well as freely moving in the bus other than being restricted to only one area of the bus (Arsenault, 2007).Other than the need to eliminate racial discrimination, the freedom rides were led by the urge to reduce hatred between the white Americans and their minority counterparts. This hatred was intense such that the whites considered the position of blacks as being inferior and they would never share the same facilities nor would they interact. As a way of minimizing this hatred the interactions in the freedom buses were intensified to show the entire world that all human beings were equal (Curthoys, 2002).
The outcome of Freedom Rides
In the summer of 1961, the US president J.F. Kennedy condemned the Riders for their activities branding it as an embarrassment to the nation. He called for a “cooling off period” such that the riders would take a brake from their activism but the Riders organized intense campaigns against other forms of discrimination which were present in major sectors of the industry. This resulted into greater changes in large companies which had previously segregated their businesses as they feared a breakdown of business operations due to violence initiated by the Riders. At some point during the rides they entered a hotel which was designated for whites only and the owner opted to close down the place rather than serve them (Arsenault, 2007).
A major breakthrough in the struggle occurred in September 1961 when the interstate attorney general bowed to the pressure and passengers were allowed to sit anywhere they deemed favorable for their convenience in the interstate buses and trains. This led to the removal of signs which were previously used to designate various sections of public facilities. Rest rooms were consolidated and restaurants could serve people without having to enquire about their racial background (Arsenault, 2007).Consequently, the Freedom Rides increased the participation of whites and blacks in engaging in civil rights campaigns. Previously most of the people were afraid and they would not protest against any law which oppressed them but after the Freedom Rides they were given a stepping stone (CORE, 2010).
Arsenault, R. (2007), Freedom Riders: 1961 and the struggles for racial justice (Pivotal moments in American history). OxfordUniversity Press
Bausum, A. (2006), Freedom Riders Lewis J. and Zwerg J. on the frontlines of the civil rights movement; National Geographic Society
CORE, (2010), the Freedom Rides. Retrieved from; http://www.core- online.org/history/freedom%20rides.htm
Couthoys, A. (2002), Freedom Ride: A Freedom Rider remembers. Allen and Unwin Publishers.
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0.074482381343841... | 1 | Freedom Riders- 1961
Freedom riders were civil rights lobbyists in who were residing in the southern United States and rode in interstate buses to test the decision of the United States Supreme Court on the Boynton v. Virginia case. The Boynton ruling had outlawed racial segregation in public rest rooms and restaurants found at the termini of buses that crossed state lines in the United States. Interstate buses were fully segregated along racial lines such that the whites and African-American could not commute in the same bus. The Freedom Riders had set up their activities to challenge this status quo such that they traveled to the south via different buses including those specifically set aside for the whites. This was meant to provoke the local authorities who had enforced the segregation in public transport vehicles.
These rides were later on branded “freedom rides” and they provoked violent reactions as well leading to the arrest of most riders who were caught trespassing and violating the laws of the state. The activism of the Freedom Riders was considered as criminal especially after the establishment of violent activities. Later on in the rides they realized that the subsequent arrests were thwarting their goals hence they committed themselves to non-violent resistance; a strategy which was borrowed from Martin Luther King Jr. this strategy was equally successful because after a long struggle, the “white” and “colored” signs were pulled down from the interstate bus terminals such that people from all races were able to share the same rest rooms among other public facilities.
Who were the Freedom Riders?
The Freedom Riders were a civil rights group which was organized in 1961 by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) leader James Farmer in the UnitedState of America. They were inspired by the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation which had taken place in 1947 under the stewardship of Bayard Rustin in conjunction with George Houser. The first freedom ride was composed of thirteen black and white volunteers who were involved in the interstate traveling between Washington and New Orleans. These volunteers usually underwent three-day training on non-violent ways of stopping racial segregation. The ride from Washington to New Orleans was a move towards establishing equal traveling rights among the whites and minority blacks. The segregation of blacks sitting at the back and whites in front of public vehicles generated the first spark towards the establishment of Freedom Riders (CORE, 2010).
The strategy used to challenge the local authority laws was to include an interracial pair in adjoining seats while a black rider sat in the font seats usually reserved for whites. The other members of the crew sat all over the bus regardless of their race. Only one rider followed the segregation ideals to avoid arrest so that incase of the others being arrested, this rider would inform the relevant authorities and arrange for bailing of the rest. In the first few days of the ride, minimal hostility was directed towards the riders but as the journey continued, they were severely beaten and one of the buses burnt. The arrests were occasionally triggered by involvement of the riders in violent protests and as the ride continued, their leaders sought for non-violent as a new strategy to reduce arrests. Consequently, after adoption of non-violence in addition to the resolute willingness of the Americans to achieve justice, the power of the strategy was exemplified in successful accomplishment of the rides (Bausum, 2006).
Purpose of the Freedom Riders
One of the main reasons why the Freedom Riders were formed was to ensure that all human beings were treated equally regardless of their racial background. Discrimination against racial lines especially in the public buses such that those who sat at the wrong places were arrested was one of the items that led to the Freedom Rides. The Congress of Racial Equality was aiming at establishing harmonious utilization of buses such that the designations of whites only at the front and blacks would be eliminated (CORE, 2010).The authorities were quite aggressive in instilling these policies such that individuals who violated them were severely fined. This was seen as being liberal as there was no known disparity between the minority groups and the whites. The Freedom Riders wanted to ensure that everyone would be given equal chances be it in the rest rooms or buses without being branded as black or white.
This was exhibited in the first ride when whites and blacks sat on any section of the bus regardless of their racial ethnicity. They also intermingled during the ride as well as freely moving in the bus other than being restricted to only one area of the bus (Arsenault, 2007).Other than the need to eliminate racial discrimination, the freedom rides were led by the urge to reduce hatred between the white Americans and their minority counterparts. This hatred was intense such that the whites considered the position of blacks as being inferior and they would never share the same facilities nor would they interact. As a way of minimizing this hatred the interactions in the freedom buses were intensified to show the entire world that all human beings were equal (Curthoys, 2002).
The outcome of Freedom Rides
In the summer of 1961, the US president J.F. Kennedy condemned the Riders for their activities branding it as an embarrassment to the nation. He called for a “cooling off period” such that the riders would take a brake from their activism but the Riders organized intense campaigns against other forms of discrimination which were present in major sectors of the industry. This resulted into greater changes in large companies which had previously segregated their businesses as they feared a breakdown of business operations due to violence initiated by the Riders. At some point during the rides they entered a hotel which was designated for whites only and the owner opted to close down the place rather than serve them (Arsenault, 2007).
A major breakthrough in the struggle occurred in September 1961 when the interstate attorney general bowed to the pressure and passengers were allowed to sit anywhere they deemed favorable for their convenience in the interstate buses and trains. This led to the removal of signs which were previously used to designate various sections of public facilities. Rest rooms were consolidated and restaurants could serve people without having to enquire about their racial background (Arsenault, 2007).Consequently, the Freedom Rides increased the participation of whites and blacks in engaging in civil rights campaigns. Previously most of the people were afraid and they would not protest against any law which oppressed them but after the Freedom Rides they were given a stepping stone (CORE, 2010).
Arsenault, R. (2007), Freedom Riders: 1961 and the struggles for racial justice (Pivotal moments in American history). OxfordUniversity Press
Bausum, A. (2006), Freedom Riders Lewis J. and Zwerg J. on the frontlines of the civil rights movement; National Geographic Society
CORE, (2010), the Freedom Rides. Retrieved from; http://www.core- online.org/history/freedom%20rides.htm
Couthoys, A. (2002), Freedom Ride: A Freedom Rider remembers. Allen and Unwin Publishers.
Josphine Morgan is the Author of this paper. She is a senior academic writer and an editor and she offers buy custom thesis online. Thus, people that doubt their own writing abilities can use the best custom paper writing service and forget about their fears and lack of confidence by visiting ModernGator.Com | 1,503 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Barrack Hebrew Academy students in Bryn Mawr heard a first-hand account of what it was like to be Jewish in Nazi Germany, writes Linda Stein for mainlinemedianews.com.
Renate “Ronnie” Breslow told the students it was important for their generation to know what happened.
“Sadly, most of my family were never able to get out of Germany in time,” said Breslow. “And they were murdered by the German government.”
The Nuremburg laws separated the Jews from other Germans. Her father lost his business because non-Jews could not shop there. Breslow was kicked out of public school.
Then came Kristallnacht when 400 synagogues were burned, stores broken into, old men dragged to concentration camps.
They tried to leave. The British government turned them away from Palestine, where her father had property.
A cousin in Philadelphia offered them help but the journey to America was perilous. Their ship was turned away from American waters.
The captain refused to sail his passengers back to Germany. Instead, Breslow and her mother ended up at a Netherlands internment camp, eventually able to book passage on a ship to New York, joining their father already in America.
Read more about Renate “Ronnie” Breslow’s childhood escape from the Nazis here. | <urn:uuid:f823d70b-49f1-4bf1-8e87-b09cf46d5aa2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://delco.today/2020/01/woman-tells-students-in-bryn-mawr-about-her-childhood-escape-from-nazi-germany/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00132.warc.gz | en | 0.981329 | 290 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.10434163361... | 2 | Barrack Hebrew Academy students in Bryn Mawr heard a first-hand account of what it was like to be Jewish in Nazi Germany, writes Linda Stein for mainlinemedianews.com.
Renate “Ronnie” Breslow told the students it was important for their generation to know what happened.
“Sadly, most of my family were never able to get out of Germany in time,” said Breslow. “And they were murdered by the German government.”
The Nuremburg laws separated the Jews from other Germans. Her father lost his business because non-Jews could not shop there. Breslow was kicked out of public school.
Then came Kristallnacht when 400 synagogues were burned, stores broken into, old men dragged to concentration camps.
They tried to leave. The British government turned them away from Palestine, where her father had property.
A cousin in Philadelphia offered them help but the journey to America was perilous. Their ship was turned away from American waters.
The captain refused to sail his passengers back to Germany. Instead, Breslow and her mother ended up at a Netherlands internment camp, eventually able to book passage on a ship to New York, joining their father already in America.
Read more about Renate “Ronnie” Breslow’s childhood escape from the Nazis here. | 273 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Boxing matches were very popular in England two hundred years ago. In those days, boxers fought with bare fists for Prize
money. Because of this, they were known as 'prizefighters'. However, boxing was very crude, for there were no rules and a
prizefighter could be seriously injured or even killed during a match.
One of the most colourful figures in boxing history was Daniel Mendoza who was born in 1764. The use of gloves was not
introduced until 1860 when the Marquis of Queensberry drew up the first set of rules. Though he was technically a prizefighter,
Mendoza did much to change crude prizefighting into a sport, for he brought science to the game. In his day, Mendoza enjoyed
tremendous popularity. He was adored by rich and poor alike.
Mendoza rose to fame swiftly after a boxing match when he was only fourteen years old. This attracted the attention of Richard
Humphries who was then the most eminent boxer in England. He offered to train Mendoza and his young pupil was quick to
learn. In fact, Mendoza soon became so successful that Humphries turned against him. The two men quarrelled bitterly and it
was clear that the argument could only be settled by a fight. A match was held at Stilton where both men fought for an hour. The
public bet a great deal of money on Mendoza, but he was defeated. Mendoza met Humphries in the ring on a later occasion and
he lost for a second time. It was not until his third match in 1790 that he finally beat Humphries and became Champion of
England. Meanwhile, he founded a highly successful Academy and even Lord Byron became one of his pupils. He earned
enormous sums of money and was paid as much as &100 for a single appearance. Despite this, he was so extravagant that he
was always in debt. After he was defeated by a boxer called Gentleman Jackson, he was quickly forgotten. He was sent to prison
for failing to pay his debts and died in poverty in 1836. | <urn:uuid:63ce97a8-78a1-40ed-a336-006663cd4369> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://zhongxue.hujiang.com/yuedu/cy/p333478/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.995248 | 447 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.2365517020225525,
0.5208764672279... | 3 | Boxing matches were very popular in England two hundred years ago. In those days, boxers fought with bare fists for Prize
money. Because of this, they were known as 'prizefighters'. However, boxing was very crude, for there were no rules and a
prizefighter could be seriously injured or even killed during a match.
One of the most colourful figures in boxing history was Daniel Mendoza who was born in 1764. The use of gloves was not
introduced until 1860 when the Marquis of Queensberry drew up the first set of rules. Though he was technically a prizefighter,
Mendoza did much to change crude prizefighting into a sport, for he brought science to the game. In his day, Mendoza enjoyed
tremendous popularity. He was adored by rich and poor alike.
Mendoza rose to fame swiftly after a boxing match when he was only fourteen years old. This attracted the attention of Richard
Humphries who was then the most eminent boxer in England. He offered to train Mendoza and his young pupil was quick to
learn. In fact, Mendoza soon became so successful that Humphries turned against him. The two men quarrelled bitterly and it
was clear that the argument could only be settled by a fight. A match was held at Stilton where both men fought for an hour. The
public bet a great deal of money on Mendoza, but he was defeated. Mendoza met Humphries in the ring on a later occasion and
he lost for a second time. It was not until his third match in 1790 that he finally beat Humphries and became Champion of
England. Meanwhile, he founded a highly successful Academy and even Lord Byron became one of his pupils. He earned
enormous sums of money and was paid as much as &100 for a single appearance. Despite this, he was so extravagant that he
was always in debt. After he was defeated by a boxer called Gentleman Jackson, he was quickly forgotten. He was sent to prison
for failing to pay his debts and died in poverty in 1836. | 447 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is seen that over the years there have been a lot of natural disasters occurring in the world that has stolen many lives and has lead destructions and upheaval for the people.
There are many criteria which prove that the natural disasters have a horrifying sight and has increased death toll rates as well as resulted in millions of destruction of both life and property on the Earth. These devastating panic-stricken natural disasters are recorded in the history of the world.
Some of these natural disasters include volcanic eruptions, floods, earthquakes, Heat waves, drought, cyclone, tsunami, typhoon and many others. The impact of these disaster’s impacts depends on the size and the location where it occurred. If the prone area has a large amount of population than the destruction to the life and property increases.
There have been several such kinds of disasters which proved to be devastating for the country and has done a lot of damage to the economic conditions of the country. Technology has been upgraded to predict the occurrences of these events beforehand. With the help of which people can be evacuated from the region and we can minimize the damage it can create in the area and the surroundings.
Let’s take a look at the most panic-stricken disasters occurred in the history:
The China flood also is known as the yellow river flood occurred in the year 1931. This flood is considered to be one of the worst disasters in the world. The flood is considered among the first among the deadliest disasters.
Approximately the death toll rate of the Republic China. Estimates of China stated that it near about 1,4,500 thousands of people were killed and about damaged about 28.5 million worth of money.
The Yangtze and Huai river floods reached the capital of China. The city located on the island suffered a huge catastrophic damage. Millions of people died because of drowning in the flow whereas some died of the starvation and water-borne diseases.
The Tsunami had hit several countries of South and South Asia in 2004. The Tsunami and its after effects were responsible for the destruction and loss on the Indian Ocean. This disaster occurred due to the disturbance in the tectonic plates which resulted in the Earthquake in the Indian Ocean due to which large waves swept away the southern states of India.
It was the third largest Earthquake recorded in the history on 26th November 2004 with a magnitude of 9.1 on the Richter Scale and struck the coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It killed 2,20000 people of the various countries which include Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Maldives. Thus the resulted tsunami is known as Indonesian Tsunami, Indian Ocean tsunami and much more.
It was one of the most devastating tropical cyclones in the world that struck East Pakistan and the India’s West Bengal. About 5,00,000 people lost their home in the storm. Statistics show that it was the sixth largest storm recorded in the Ocean and was the strongest amongst them. Thus it is considered under the deadliest cyclone disaster. The cyclone was originated in the Bay of Bengal and it moved forward with intense speed towards the North.
It killed around 3,00,000 people in the East Pakistan known as Bangladesh. It devastated offshore islands, destroyed crops wiped out villages in the most throughout the region. The most adverse effect was seen in the Upazila and Tazumuddin in which about 45% of the population were killed.
The drought-affected the East Africa in between 2011 and mid of 2012. According to the experts, it was one of the most destructive in the past 60 years. The drought threatened the life of 9.5 million people of Ethiopia, Kenya, Djibouti threatening the people of Africa. This drought-affected the children making them malnutrition which led the life of the people. The food crises in the Somalia affected the farmers.
This drought resulted in the death of people as well as it also created the deadly famine in the country. This natural disaster is one of the catastrophic in the history.
Typhoon Tip also knew as Typhoon Warling was one of the greatest and was one of the most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded in the history. Pacific cyclones are the most powerful one in comparison with the Atlantic hurricane in terms of the strength. The tip was developed as a result of the disturbance in the monsoon.
It was recorded on the 12th October 1979 in the history when the tip was originated in the ocean with lowest air pressure. It killed around 99 people which are a less amount than some of the disasters we have included in the list but denying the fact that this must be taken as the warning that more intensified Typhoon can strike.
This disaster occurred on the 16th December 1920 in Ningxia in the Republic of the China. It was reported to have 7.7 magnitude earthquake on the Richter scale. Over around 73,000 people were killed in the Haiyuan County. According to the United State Geological Survey, this disaster took away the life of about 2,00,000 casualties in Haiyuan.
Destruction was stretched to the seven provinces of the china which includes Taiyuan, Xiang, Xining, and Yinchuan. Nearly all the houses were found collapsed in the two cities of Longde and hunting and more than 30,000 people were will be killed in Guazan county.
This disaster is also known as the La Mesa de Herveo, it is a volcano which is present at the Caldas and Tolima in Columbia. This stratovolcano is responsible for creating the world’s second largest volcano.
This volcano erupts Plinian soft currents of gases and the molten lava which is known as Pyroclastic flows. Buried and destroyed the whole town of Tolima on 13th November 1985. It killed around 25,000 people in the disaster which are popularly known as Armero Tragedy.
It is the greatest Chilean Earthquake in the history. It was recorded that the earthquake was intense and it had a magnitude of 9.2 to 9.4 on the Richter scale and is thus one of the worst disasters in the history of Chile and in the world.
It occurred in the afternoon and lasted for approximately 10 minutes. The tsunami caused due to this earthquake affected Philippians, new Zealand, Japan, Hawaii, and Australia. To tell about the number of deaths and the monetary loss is not possible as it was uncertain. According to some publishers, 1,000 to 6,000 people were killed but the exact death rate is not mentioned anywhere.
When torrential rains hit southern China in 1931.This caused the river to flood. As a result of this is 3.7 million people dead. It is thus considered to be one of the worst disasters of the 20th century.
Yangtze river is one of the largest river of Asia and thus any disturbances in the river can affect a large group of the people.The consequences of the river were terrible due to heavy rains and this resulted in the death of a lot of people of China.
Europe has never seen scorching hot summers. In spite, it is a place which remains cold throughout the year. But in 2003 they were hit by the heat waves which made the United States and Australia sit back it resulted in the health crises in the several countries. The effect of the disaster was severe in the Ukraine, as it suffered from the crop loss about 75% field was affected.
The extreme temperature caused the whole country to be dried up most of the Europe. This caused the forest fires and even flooding. There were 14,802 people were killed in France
Disneyland is a synonym for fun but have you ever seen the dark side of this fun moon. The rides that provide us endless fun and...
Enuma Elish is the Babylonian creation myth, which is known to be the oldest among all existing theories about the creation of ... | <urn:uuid:ee2785e3-a249-44ce-8187-9236e2e152a8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://stillunfold.com/history/10-most-natural-disasters-in-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.981616 | 1,620 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.3059004545... | 1 | It is seen that over the years there have been a lot of natural disasters occurring in the world that has stolen many lives and has lead destructions and upheaval for the people.
There are many criteria which prove that the natural disasters have a horrifying sight and has increased death toll rates as well as resulted in millions of destruction of both life and property on the Earth. These devastating panic-stricken natural disasters are recorded in the history of the world.
Some of these natural disasters include volcanic eruptions, floods, earthquakes, Heat waves, drought, cyclone, tsunami, typhoon and many others. The impact of these disaster’s impacts depends on the size and the location where it occurred. If the prone area has a large amount of population than the destruction to the life and property increases.
There have been several such kinds of disasters which proved to be devastating for the country and has done a lot of damage to the economic conditions of the country. Technology has been upgraded to predict the occurrences of these events beforehand. With the help of which people can be evacuated from the region and we can minimize the damage it can create in the area and the surroundings.
Let’s take a look at the most panic-stricken disasters occurred in the history:
The China flood also is known as the yellow river flood occurred in the year 1931. This flood is considered to be one of the worst disasters in the world. The flood is considered among the first among the deadliest disasters.
Approximately the death toll rate of the Republic China. Estimates of China stated that it near about 1,4,500 thousands of people were killed and about damaged about 28.5 million worth of money.
The Yangtze and Huai river floods reached the capital of China. The city located on the island suffered a huge catastrophic damage. Millions of people died because of drowning in the flow whereas some died of the starvation and water-borne diseases.
The Tsunami had hit several countries of South and South Asia in 2004. The Tsunami and its after effects were responsible for the destruction and loss on the Indian Ocean. This disaster occurred due to the disturbance in the tectonic plates which resulted in the Earthquake in the Indian Ocean due to which large waves swept away the southern states of India.
It was the third largest Earthquake recorded in the history on 26th November 2004 with a magnitude of 9.1 on the Richter Scale and struck the coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It killed 2,20000 people of the various countries which include Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Maldives. Thus the resulted tsunami is known as Indonesian Tsunami, Indian Ocean tsunami and much more.
It was one of the most devastating tropical cyclones in the world that struck East Pakistan and the India’s West Bengal. About 5,00,000 people lost their home in the storm. Statistics show that it was the sixth largest storm recorded in the Ocean and was the strongest amongst them. Thus it is considered under the deadliest cyclone disaster. The cyclone was originated in the Bay of Bengal and it moved forward with intense speed towards the North.
It killed around 3,00,000 people in the East Pakistan known as Bangladesh. It devastated offshore islands, destroyed crops wiped out villages in the most throughout the region. The most adverse effect was seen in the Upazila and Tazumuddin in which about 45% of the population were killed.
The drought-affected the East Africa in between 2011 and mid of 2012. According to the experts, it was one of the most destructive in the past 60 years. The drought threatened the life of 9.5 million people of Ethiopia, Kenya, Djibouti threatening the people of Africa. This drought-affected the children making them malnutrition which led the life of the people. The food crises in the Somalia affected the farmers.
This drought resulted in the death of people as well as it also created the deadly famine in the country. This natural disaster is one of the catastrophic in the history.
Typhoon Tip also knew as Typhoon Warling was one of the greatest and was one of the most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded in the history. Pacific cyclones are the most powerful one in comparison with the Atlantic hurricane in terms of the strength. The tip was developed as a result of the disturbance in the monsoon.
It was recorded on the 12th October 1979 in the history when the tip was originated in the ocean with lowest air pressure. It killed around 99 people which are a less amount than some of the disasters we have included in the list but denying the fact that this must be taken as the warning that more intensified Typhoon can strike.
This disaster occurred on the 16th December 1920 in Ningxia in the Republic of the China. It was reported to have 7.7 magnitude earthquake on the Richter scale. Over around 73,000 people were killed in the Haiyuan County. According to the United State Geological Survey, this disaster took away the life of about 2,00,000 casualties in Haiyuan.
Destruction was stretched to the seven provinces of the china which includes Taiyuan, Xiang, Xining, and Yinchuan. Nearly all the houses were found collapsed in the two cities of Longde and hunting and more than 30,000 people were will be killed in Guazan county.
This disaster is also known as the La Mesa de Herveo, it is a volcano which is present at the Caldas and Tolima in Columbia. This stratovolcano is responsible for creating the world’s second largest volcano.
This volcano erupts Plinian soft currents of gases and the molten lava which is known as Pyroclastic flows. Buried and destroyed the whole town of Tolima on 13th November 1985. It killed around 25,000 people in the disaster which are popularly known as Armero Tragedy.
It is the greatest Chilean Earthquake in the history. It was recorded that the earthquake was intense and it had a magnitude of 9.2 to 9.4 on the Richter scale and is thus one of the worst disasters in the history of Chile and in the world.
It occurred in the afternoon and lasted for approximately 10 minutes. The tsunami caused due to this earthquake affected Philippians, new Zealand, Japan, Hawaii, and Australia. To tell about the number of deaths and the monetary loss is not possible as it was uncertain. According to some publishers, 1,000 to 6,000 people were killed but the exact death rate is not mentioned anywhere.
When torrential rains hit southern China in 1931.This caused the river to flood. As a result of this is 3.7 million people dead. It is thus considered to be one of the worst disasters of the 20th century.
Yangtze river is one of the largest river of Asia and thus any disturbances in the river can affect a large group of the people.The consequences of the river were terrible due to heavy rains and this resulted in the death of a lot of people of China.
Europe has never seen scorching hot summers. In spite, it is a place which remains cold throughout the year. But in 2003 they were hit by the heat waves which made the United States and Australia sit back it resulted in the health crises in the several countries. The effect of the disaster was severe in the Ukraine, as it suffered from the crop loss about 75% field was affected.
The extreme temperature caused the whole country to be dried up most of the Europe. This caused the forest fires and even flooding. There were 14,802 people were killed in France
Disneyland is a synonym for fun but have you ever seen the dark side of this fun moon. The rides that provide us endless fun and...
Enuma Elish is the Babylonian creation myth, which is known to be the oldest among all existing theories about the creation of ... | 1,700 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henry Plantagenet—The Story of the Conquest of Ireland
W HEN Henry heard of what had happened to Thomas à Becket, he was very sorry; but strangely enough he had no power to punish the four knights; their sin was a sin against the Church, and they could only be tried by a bishop's court. The bishop's court punished them by sending them on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. So Thomas à Becket, in quarrelling with the King, had protected his own murderers. But perhaps their punishment was very real, for they were forsaken and shunned by all their friends. No one would speak to them, nor eat with them, and at last they died in misery and loneliness.
All England was filled with horror at the dreadful deed. The people had loved Thomas when he was alive, now that he was dead they called him a saint. From far and near they came as pilgrims to his grave, over which a splendid shrine, glittering with gold and gems, was placed.
Nearly four years later the King himself came as a pilgrim to show his sorrow and repentance. He rode on horseback to Canterbury but, as soon as he came within sight of the cathedral, he got off his horse and walked barefoot, wearing only a shirt, and carrying a lighted candle in his hand, until he reached the shrine.
For a whole day and night, having nothing to eat or drink, he knelt in prayer before the grave. For a still greater punishment, he made the monks beat his bare back with knotted cords.
All this show of sorrow could not bring back the great archbishop, who had been murdered in consequence of a few words spoken in anger. But it pleased the Pope, who was very angry because Thomas à Becket had been killed. He blamed Henry, and would scarcely believe that he had not told the four knights to do the wicked deed. In those days the Pope was very powerful indeed. Even kings stood in awe of him, and Henry was glad to make peace with him by any means in his power.
Until now, in this book, we have spoken only of England, although England is but one of the countries which form the United Kingdom. Each of these countries has a history of its own, but it would be too difficult to tell all the stories in one book, so I shall tell only the story of each country after it has been joined to England.
There are four countries in the United Kingdom,—England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. Of these, England and Ireland were the first to be joined together. This happened in the reign of Henry II., in 1172 A.D.
England, you remember, had at one time been divided into seven kingdoms, and in the same way Ireland was still divided into four, and the kings of these four divisions were always fighting with each other.
Now, one of these kings, who was called Dermot, came to Henry and asked for help against another of the Irish kings. Henry promised help if King Dermot would acknowledge him as "over-lord." This, King Dermot said he would do. Henry was very glad to fight with the Irish, because he knew it would please the Pope, and perhaps make him forget about the death of Thomas à Becket. The Pope was angry with the Irish, because they would not pay him some money to which he thought he had a right.
Henry first sent some Norman knights over to Ireland, and then went himself. There was a good deal of fighting, but in the end Ireland was added to England, and ever since, the kings of England have been lords of Ireland too, although many years passed before they could be said really to rule there.
Henry's great reign closed in sorrow. His sons did not love him, and they rebelled and fought against him. They were encouraged in this by their mother, who was not a good woman.
Two of Henry's sons died before him, both of them while fighting with their father. Two others called Richard and John were kings of England after him.
John was Henry's favourite son. He was the only one who had not rebelled against him. But when the King lay very ill the nobles came to tell him that John, too, had rebelled. This last sorrow broke Henry's heart. Crying out, "Ah, John, John, now I care no more for myself, nor for the world," he turned his face to the wall, and died.
Henry was a very rich king, for, besides being King of England and lord of Ireland, he was ruler over more than half of France. Later you will hear how one of his sons lost all these French possessions. | <urn:uuid:616c46f6-b28a-4d0d-8df1-1adce4cdae6f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=ireland | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.995504 | 971 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4800844... | 1 | Henry Plantagenet—The Story of the Conquest of Ireland
W HEN Henry heard of what had happened to Thomas à Becket, he was very sorry; but strangely enough he had no power to punish the four knights; their sin was a sin against the Church, and they could only be tried by a bishop's court. The bishop's court punished them by sending them on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. So Thomas à Becket, in quarrelling with the King, had protected his own murderers. But perhaps their punishment was very real, for they were forsaken and shunned by all their friends. No one would speak to them, nor eat with them, and at last they died in misery and loneliness.
All England was filled with horror at the dreadful deed. The people had loved Thomas when he was alive, now that he was dead they called him a saint. From far and near they came as pilgrims to his grave, over which a splendid shrine, glittering with gold and gems, was placed.
Nearly four years later the King himself came as a pilgrim to show his sorrow and repentance. He rode on horseback to Canterbury but, as soon as he came within sight of the cathedral, he got off his horse and walked barefoot, wearing only a shirt, and carrying a lighted candle in his hand, until he reached the shrine.
For a whole day and night, having nothing to eat or drink, he knelt in prayer before the grave. For a still greater punishment, he made the monks beat his bare back with knotted cords.
All this show of sorrow could not bring back the great archbishop, who had been murdered in consequence of a few words spoken in anger. But it pleased the Pope, who was very angry because Thomas à Becket had been killed. He blamed Henry, and would scarcely believe that he had not told the four knights to do the wicked deed. In those days the Pope was very powerful indeed. Even kings stood in awe of him, and Henry was glad to make peace with him by any means in his power.
Until now, in this book, we have spoken only of England, although England is but one of the countries which form the United Kingdom. Each of these countries has a history of its own, but it would be too difficult to tell all the stories in one book, so I shall tell only the story of each country after it has been joined to England.
There are four countries in the United Kingdom,—England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. Of these, England and Ireland were the first to be joined together. This happened in the reign of Henry II., in 1172 A.D.
England, you remember, had at one time been divided into seven kingdoms, and in the same way Ireland was still divided into four, and the kings of these four divisions were always fighting with each other.
Now, one of these kings, who was called Dermot, came to Henry and asked for help against another of the Irish kings. Henry promised help if King Dermot would acknowledge him as "over-lord." This, King Dermot said he would do. Henry was very glad to fight with the Irish, because he knew it would please the Pope, and perhaps make him forget about the death of Thomas à Becket. The Pope was angry with the Irish, because they would not pay him some money to which he thought he had a right.
Henry first sent some Norman knights over to Ireland, and then went himself. There was a good deal of fighting, but in the end Ireland was added to England, and ever since, the kings of England have been lords of Ireland too, although many years passed before they could be said really to rule there.
Henry's great reign closed in sorrow. His sons did not love him, and they rebelled and fought against him. They were encouraged in this by their mother, who was not a good woman.
Two of Henry's sons died before him, both of them while fighting with their father. Two others called Richard and John were kings of England after him.
John was Henry's favourite son. He was the only one who had not rebelled against him. But when the King lay very ill the nobles came to tell him that John, too, had rebelled. This last sorrow broke Henry's heart. Crying out, "Ah, John, John, now I care no more for myself, nor for the world," he turned his face to the wall, and died.
Henry was a very rich king, for, besides being King of England and lord of Ireland, he was ruler over more than half of France. Later you will hear how one of his sons lost all these French possessions. | 961 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery in America has its developmental story from 1619 to 1895. Slavery can be defined as a social an economic organization where people specifically saves are disadvantaged of their freedom and are forced to work as laborers not putting in consideration their will to work or not. They provide their services to their masters who take them as their property. Slaves are not allowed to have any form of personal liberty but to entirely to work under the order of their masters. This paper explores the development of slavery in America from 1619 to 1895.
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African slavery in America started in 1619 some few years following the foundation of the first English colony. The colony was in Virginia (Russell, 2009). Slave trade began with Africans being brought to America in 1619. Through the 1680s the few Africans who were in America were used as indentured servants. From 1650 to 1750, the population that formed slaves in America changed gradually from American Indians to almost all African Americans. In the early 1660s, the legal status of African Americans began to be discussed. Slave codes were ratified in many states resulting to the making of non white population in America be branded as slaves for the rest of their lives in America. Towards 180, slaes were looked at as chattels with little legal rights.
African slaves were taken to America through ships. African slavery started in America when war prisoners were sold from war or through capture. Kings also sold those subjects that had committed wrong. This was particularly in West Africa. The business was handled y kings and rich merchants. Some slaves were stolen when they were young by their neighbors. This happened when parents had sent them in farming fields or to fetch firewood (Barbot, 1732).
In times of disaster and calamities for example famine, Africans sold themselves to avoid starving and death. They were brutally beaten and harassed during transportation (Barbot, 1732).
Tobacco business is what encouraged slave trade majorly. It was unknown that the tobacco plantations needed lots of labor. Thus slave trade had to begin to make the tobacco business a success. Slave trade was started in a large scale in the tobacco fields in South America. These resulted to slave trade across the Atlantic Ocean which was famously known as middle passage. Approximately 12 million Africans were traded to what is now referred to as the United States. About 7 million others were transported in the eighteenth centtury.
In the early seventeenth century, revolts that involved slaves became out of control. African slavery in America was still developing and oppressive and inhumane treatment were the theme of the day. The first antislavery campaigns were first displayed in 1761. This was intensified by the Quaker leaders’ sentiments that no man was allowed to own and mistreat another person. These protests went on for a hundred more years. In 1777, slavery was abolished in the first United States territory being Vermont. In 1780, Pennsylvania followed suit being the first United States state to abolish slave trade.
The slave trade was a traumatizing experience to many children who witnessed the ordeal. At first children were wondering about the fair skinned beings who were very harsh to them and their physique. The proponents of the slave trade were not scared of anything so long as the mission had to be completed. In 1808 slave importation was outlawed. This only hanged how slave trade worked (Equiano, 1789).
Slave trade in between 1619 to 1865 marked the years in America which African Americans suffered a lot. Inhumane beatins lack of freedom and other basic rights was the theme of the period. This came to an end in 1865.
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0.06133998185... | 1 | Slavery in America has its developmental story from 1619 to 1895. Slavery can be defined as a social an economic organization where people specifically saves are disadvantaged of their freedom and are forced to work as laborers not putting in consideration their will to work or not. They provide their services to their masters who take them as their property. Slaves are not allowed to have any form of personal liberty but to entirely to work under the order of their masters. This paper explores the development of slavery in America from 1619 to 1895.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
African slavery in America started in 1619 some few years following the foundation of the first English colony. The colony was in Virginia (Russell, 2009). Slave trade began with Africans being brought to America in 1619. Through the 1680s the few Africans who were in America were used as indentured servants. From 1650 to 1750, the population that formed slaves in America changed gradually from American Indians to almost all African Americans. In the early 1660s, the legal status of African Americans began to be discussed. Slave codes were ratified in many states resulting to the making of non white population in America be branded as slaves for the rest of their lives in America. Towards 180, slaes were looked at as chattels with little legal rights.
African slaves were taken to America through ships. African slavery started in America when war prisoners were sold from war or through capture. Kings also sold those subjects that had committed wrong. This was particularly in West Africa. The business was handled y kings and rich merchants. Some slaves were stolen when they were young by their neighbors. This happened when parents had sent them in farming fields or to fetch firewood (Barbot, 1732).
In times of disaster and calamities for example famine, Africans sold themselves to avoid starving and death. They were brutally beaten and harassed during transportation (Barbot, 1732).
Tobacco business is what encouraged slave trade majorly. It was unknown that the tobacco plantations needed lots of labor. Thus slave trade had to begin to make the tobacco business a success. Slave trade was started in a large scale in the tobacco fields in South America. These resulted to slave trade across the Atlantic Ocean which was famously known as middle passage. Approximately 12 million Africans were traded to what is now referred to as the United States. About 7 million others were transported in the eighteenth centtury.
In the early seventeenth century, revolts that involved slaves became out of control. African slavery in America was still developing and oppressive and inhumane treatment were the theme of the day. The first antislavery campaigns were first displayed in 1761. This was intensified by the Quaker leaders’ sentiments that no man was allowed to own and mistreat another person. These protests went on for a hundred more years. In 1777, slavery was abolished in the first United States territory being Vermont. In 1780, Pennsylvania followed suit being the first United States state to abolish slave trade.
The slave trade was a traumatizing experience to many children who witnessed the ordeal. At first children were wondering about the fair skinned beings who were very harsh to them and their physique. The proponents of the slave trade were not scared of anything so long as the mission had to be completed. In 1808 slave importation was outlawed. This only hanged how slave trade worked (Equiano, 1789).
Slave trade in between 1619 to 1865 marked the years in America which African Americans suffered a lot. Inhumane beatins lack of freedom and other basic rights was the theme of the period. This came to an end in 1865.
Most popular orders | 862 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A wild whirlwind of a mess, without any coherence, without even a guiding principle.
Fifty years ago this week, on May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that "separate but equal" could no longer be the rule of the land. Its decision in the case of Brown vs. the Board of Education ended segregated schools and opened the door for a wide range of reforms guaranteeing equal rights not only to African-Americans but also, in the years to come, to women, the handicapped, and (more slowly) homosexuals.
The decision was a heroic milestone in American history, but it was marred, this new documentary says, by four fateful words: "With all deliberate speed."
Those words were a loophole which allowed some Southern communities to delay equal rights for years and even decades; the last county to integrate finally did so only in 1970. And there was the notorious case of Prince Edward County, Va., which closed its schools for five years rather than integrate them. Most people alive today were born after Brown and take its reforms for granted. But "With All Deliberate Speed," the documentary by "Hoop Dreams" producer Peter Gilbert, doesn't end on May 17, 1954. It continues on to the present day, noting that many of America's grade and secondary schools are as segregated now as they were 50 years ago.
The most valuable task of the film is to re-create the historic legal struggles that led to Brown, and to remember heroes who have been almost forgotten by history. Chief among them is Charles Houston, who was the first African-American on the editorial board of the Harvard Law Review. As dean of the Howard University law school, he was the mentor for a generation of black legal scholars and activists who would transform their society. Although he died in 1950, before Brown became law, it was his protege Thurgood Marshall who argued the case before the Supreme Court, and later became the first African-American on the court.
It was Houston, the film says, who shaped the legal groundwork for Brown, arguing in the 1930s and 1940s that "separate but equal" could not, by its very nature, be equal. He helped persuade the NAACP to mount legal challenges against segregation, and Marshall led the organization's legal efforts from 1940 onward. The film talks with the descendants of Houston and Marshall, and with many of the law clerks, now elderly, who as young men, served the justices who brought down the landmark decision.
It also recalls the crucial role of Chief Justice Earl Warren in guiding his fellow justices toward what he felt had to be a unanimous decision. The previous chief justice, Fred Vincent, had little enthusiasm for such a controversial ruling. When he died, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed the former California governor Warren as chief justice; justice Felix Frankfurter famously told his clerk that the death of Vincent "showed there is a God." So hated was Brown in some right-wing circles that an "Impeach Earl Warren" campaign continued throughout his term.
The film also tracks down some of the children involved in the first crucial cases, such as Barbara Johns of Prince Edward County. And it brings belated recognition to another hero of the time, the Rev. Joe DeLaine of Summerton County, S.C., who led the legal struggle against a system that required many black students to walk seven miles each way to school. His church was burned, his home was fired on, he was forced to flee the South, and only in October 2000, 26 years after his death, were charges against him cleared by the state.
Gilbert of course has no audio or video footage of the arguments before the Supreme Court, but he uses an interesting technique: He employs actors to read from the words of Thurgood Marshall and his chief opponent, the patrician John W. Davis. And he does a good job of recapturing the 1954 impact of the decision -- with which, he notes, Eisenhower at first privately disagreed, although Ike later came around, and sent federal troops to enforce integration in the late 1950s.
What is the legacy of Brown? It's here that Gilbert's film is most challenging. It observes that while many communities have truly integrated schools, patterns of residential segregation in many areas have resulted in schools where the students are almost entirely of one race. He talks with blacks and whites who are in a tiny minority in their schools and listens to discussions of race by today's high school students.
And in reunions held today, he gathers students, now grown, who were at the center of the original case, and hears their memories of what it was like then and what it is like now. America moves imperfectly toward the goal of equality, but because of Brown vs. Board of Education, it moves.
The 2020 Oscar nominations.
A review of the new Netflix crime docuseries about former New England Patriot Aaron Hernandez.
A collection of the reviews given our highest possible grade in 2019.
A review of Netflix's Dracula, from the creators of Sherlock. | <urn:uuid:22a58867-d465-4cd5-9108-a4d1f70f1d4c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/with-all-deliberate-speed-2004 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00055.warc.gz | en | 0.984473 | 1,032 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.0271838977... | 1 | A wild whirlwind of a mess, without any coherence, without even a guiding principle.
Fifty years ago this week, on May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that "separate but equal" could no longer be the rule of the land. Its decision in the case of Brown vs. the Board of Education ended segregated schools and opened the door for a wide range of reforms guaranteeing equal rights not only to African-Americans but also, in the years to come, to women, the handicapped, and (more slowly) homosexuals.
The decision was a heroic milestone in American history, but it was marred, this new documentary says, by four fateful words: "With all deliberate speed."
Those words were a loophole which allowed some Southern communities to delay equal rights for years and even decades; the last county to integrate finally did so only in 1970. And there was the notorious case of Prince Edward County, Va., which closed its schools for five years rather than integrate them. Most people alive today were born after Brown and take its reforms for granted. But "With All Deliberate Speed," the documentary by "Hoop Dreams" producer Peter Gilbert, doesn't end on May 17, 1954. It continues on to the present day, noting that many of America's grade and secondary schools are as segregated now as they were 50 years ago.
The most valuable task of the film is to re-create the historic legal struggles that led to Brown, and to remember heroes who have been almost forgotten by history. Chief among them is Charles Houston, who was the first African-American on the editorial board of the Harvard Law Review. As dean of the Howard University law school, he was the mentor for a generation of black legal scholars and activists who would transform their society. Although he died in 1950, before Brown became law, it was his protege Thurgood Marshall who argued the case before the Supreme Court, and later became the first African-American on the court.
It was Houston, the film says, who shaped the legal groundwork for Brown, arguing in the 1930s and 1940s that "separate but equal" could not, by its very nature, be equal. He helped persuade the NAACP to mount legal challenges against segregation, and Marshall led the organization's legal efforts from 1940 onward. The film talks with the descendants of Houston and Marshall, and with many of the law clerks, now elderly, who as young men, served the justices who brought down the landmark decision.
It also recalls the crucial role of Chief Justice Earl Warren in guiding his fellow justices toward what he felt had to be a unanimous decision. The previous chief justice, Fred Vincent, had little enthusiasm for such a controversial ruling. When he died, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed the former California governor Warren as chief justice; justice Felix Frankfurter famously told his clerk that the death of Vincent "showed there is a God." So hated was Brown in some right-wing circles that an "Impeach Earl Warren" campaign continued throughout his term.
The film also tracks down some of the children involved in the first crucial cases, such as Barbara Johns of Prince Edward County. And it brings belated recognition to another hero of the time, the Rev. Joe DeLaine of Summerton County, S.C., who led the legal struggle against a system that required many black students to walk seven miles each way to school. His church was burned, his home was fired on, he was forced to flee the South, and only in October 2000, 26 years after his death, were charges against him cleared by the state.
Gilbert of course has no audio or video footage of the arguments before the Supreme Court, but he uses an interesting technique: He employs actors to read from the words of Thurgood Marshall and his chief opponent, the patrician John W. Davis. And he does a good job of recapturing the 1954 impact of the decision -- with which, he notes, Eisenhower at first privately disagreed, although Ike later came around, and sent federal troops to enforce integration in the late 1950s.
What is the legacy of Brown? It's here that Gilbert's film is most challenging. It observes that while many communities have truly integrated schools, patterns of residential segregation in many areas have resulted in schools where the students are almost entirely of one race. He talks with blacks and whites who are in a tiny minority in their schools and listens to discussions of race by today's high school students.
And in reunions held today, he gathers students, now grown, who were at the center of the original case, and hears their memories of what it was like then and what it is like now. America moves imperfectly toward the goal of equality, but because of Brown vs. Board of Education, it moves.
The 2020 Oscar nominations.
A review of the new Netflix crime docuseries about former New England Patriot Aaron Hernandez.
A collection of the reviews given our highest possible grade in 2019.
A review of Netflix's Dracula, from the creators of Sherlock. | 1,076 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St. John of the Cross was born John de Yepes, in 1542, near the Spanish city of Avila. His father, a silk weaver, died when John was young, and his mother Catalina struggled to provide for her children. John was very good at school, but was unable to successfully learn a trade as an apprentice. Instead, he worked in a hospital for the poor, and studied at a Jesuit college in Medina del Campo.
John entered the Carmelite order in 1563. He had already been living a severely ascetic life, so he received permission to live according to the original rule of the Carmelites, which focused on solitude, silence, poverty, work, and contemplative prayer.
In 1567, John was ordained as a priest, and was considering taking vows as a Carthusian, when he met St. Teresa of Avila. During the 1560s, St. Teresa, who was a Carmelite nun, began a movement to return the Carmelites to the strict observance they had originally followed. She asked John to help her lead the reform.
John changed his name from John of St. Matthias to John of the Cross, and, accompanied by two other men, he began reform work in 1568. He was in charge of a group of recruits to the “Discalced Carmelites,” so called because they wore sandals instead of regular shoes as a sign of their poverty. He spent five years as the confessor at a monastery in Avila that St. Teresa led.
In December of 1577, John was imprisoned in a tiny cell for nine months, during a dispute over his assignment in the order. He was regularly flogged publicly and subject to harsh punishments, but during this time, he wrote the poetry that would become his spiritual writings.
John escaped in August 1578, and resumed his work. Over the next 10 years, he wrote spiritual teachings, including “The Ascent of Mount Carmel” and “The Dark Night of the Soul.” But he lost his leadership within the order due to conflicts, and spent the last years of his life in ill health and mistreated.
St. John died on Dec. 14, 1591, 9 years after St. Teresa of Avila. He was brought closer to God throughout his life by his trials and sufferings, and his writings echo this, teaching us to love God above all things.
Soon after St. John’s death, he was recognized for his spirituality and wisdom. He was beatified in 1675, canonized in 1726, and named a Doctor of the Church by Pope Pius XI.
Start your day with Always Forward, our award-winning e-newsletter. Get this smart, handpicked selection of the day’s top news, analysis, and opinion, delivered to your inbox. Sign up absolutely free today! | <urn:uuid:fe3fb14c-7104-43fd-9899-545321bfb253> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://angelusnews.com/faith/saint-of-the-day-john-of-the-cross/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00191.warc.gz | en | 0.991213 | 608 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.00896... | 5 | St. John of the Cross was born John de Yepes, in 1542, near the Spanish city of Avila. His father, a silk weaver, died when John was young, and his mother Catalina struggled to provide for her children. John was very good at school, but was unable to successfully learn a trade as an apprentice. Instead, he worked in a hospital for the poor, and studied at a Jesuit college in Medina del Campo.
John entered the Carmelite order in 1563. He had already been living a severely ascetic life, so he received permission to live according to the original rule of the Carmelites, which focused on solitude, silence, poverty, work, and contemplative prayer.
In 1567, John was ordained as a priest, and was considering taking vows as a Carthusian, when he met St. Teresa of Avila. During the 1560s, St. Teresa, who was a Carmelite nun, began a movement to return the Carmelites to the strict observance they had originally followed. She asked John to help her lead the reform.
John changed his name from John of St. Matthias to John of the Cross, and, accompanied by two other men, he began reform work in 1568. He was in charge of a group of recruits to the “Discalced Carmelites,” so called because they wore sandals instead of regular shoes as a sign of their poverty. He spent five years as the confessor at a monastery in Avila that St. Teresa led.
In December of 1577, John was imprisoned in a tiny cell for nine months, during a dispute over his assignment in the order. He was regularly flogged publicly and subject to harsh punishments, but during this time, he wrote the poetry that would become his spiritual writings.
John escaped in August 1578, and resumed his work. Over the next 10 years, he wrote spiritual teachings, including “The Ascent of Mount Carmel” and “The Dark Night of the Soul.” But he lost his leadership within the order due to conflicts, and spent the last years of his life in ill health and mistreated.
St. John died on Dec. 14, 1591, 9 years after St. Teresa of Avila. He was brought closer to God throughout his life by his trials and sufferings, and his writings echo this, teaching us to love God above all things.
Soon after St. John’s death, he was recognized for his spirituality and wisdom. He was beatified in 1675, canonized in 1726, and named a Doctor of the Church by Pope Pius XI.
Start your day with Always Forward, our award-winning e-newsletter. Get this smart, handpicked selection of the day’s top news, analysis, and opinion, delivered to your inbox. Sign up absolutely free today! | 613 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thanks to technology, our smartphones have come a very long way from being just a device that can make phone calls, send emails, play music, and surf the web. These days our smartphones are becoming increasingly competent where they are being used in the medical field as ultrasound scanners and also as tools to help detect Alzheimer’s.
This is why it doesn’t really come as a surprise to learn that researchers have recently developed an app that can use our smartphones together with a paper cone to help diagnose ear infections. This will come in handy for parents with young children who might have a hard time trying to let their parents know that they have an ear infection.
Through the use of the app and the cone, it will be able to diagnose it in which parents can then take their kids to see a doctor to sort it out. How does it work? By using our smartphone’s speakers, it funnels a sound through the cone and based on the echo of the sound picked up by the app, it will be able to tell if there might be fluid behind the eardrum.
So far based on their tests which involved about 50 children, it was found that the app was right 85% of the time. Some have pointed out that fluid behind the eardrum might not necessarily be an indication of an infection, and have suggested that the app’s creators include additional information to parents on how to interpret the results before going to the doctor. | <urn:uuid:37384777-7b29-488a-a0bc-7fac784f232f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ubergizmo.com/2019/05/smartphone-app-diagnose-ear-infection-paper-cone/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00395.warc.gz | en | 0.981025 | 297 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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-0.0403328016... | 2 | Thanks to technology, our smartphones have come a very long way from being just a device that can make phone calls, send emails, play music, and surf the web. These days our smartphones are becoming increasingly competent where they are being used in the medical field as ultrasound scanners and also as tools to help detect Alzheimer’s.
This is why it doesn’t really come as a surprise to learn that researchers have recently developed an app that can use our smartphones together with a paper cone to help diagnose ear infections. This will come in handy for parents with young children who might have a hard time trying to let their parents know that they have an ear infection.
Through the use of the app and the cone, it will be able to diagnose it in which parents can then take their kids to see a doctor to sort it out. How does it work? By using our smartphone’s speakers, it funnels a sound through the cone and based on the echo of the sound picked up by the app, it will be able to tell if there might be fluid behind the eardrum.
So far based on their tests which involved about 50 children, it was found that the app was right 85% of the time. Some have pointed out that fluid behind the eardrum might not necessarily be an indication of an infection, and have suggested that the app’s creators include additional information to parents on how to interpret the results before going to the doctor. | 290 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Delaware Indians are often called the Lenni-Lenape Indians. "Lenni-Lenape" means "real people".The Lenni Lenape inhabited southeastern New York state, eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and northern Maryland. Most of their villages were located near the Delaware or Susquehanna Rivers.
Lenape Indians were divided into clans (family groups). Clan membership was matrilineal (children inherited clan membership from their mother). Clans lived in stationary villages and used the surrounding land until the resources were exhausted.
Lenape men were typically in charge of hunting and protecting their families. Women were in charge of farming, cooking, and taking care of the children. Lenape mothers often carried their babies in cradleboards - boards in which the baby was strapped to and positioned on the mother's back. Children often accompanied their fathers on hunting trips and had their own toys such as miniature dolls and bows and arrows. Older children participated in games similar to modern-day lacrosse and kickball.
Lenape men typically wore a breechcloth, a long rectangular piece of cloth tucked between the leg and tucked over the belt, forming flaps in front and in back. Women wore knee-length skirts. Men and women wore earrings and deerskin moccasins. They also painted their faces for different celebrations, and men often had tattoos honoring different animals. Males sometimes had a mohawk hairstyle, or, completely shaved their heads.
The Lenni Lenape Indians held many ceremonies. The most important ceremony was known as The Big House. The Big House lasted 12 days and involved a log structure representing the universe, the lighting of a sacred fire, and offerings to a God known as the Guardian of the Game. The purpose of the ceremony was to promote tribal unity, hope for good fortune, and for personal renewal.
The modern history of the Lenni Lenape people is closely connected with the history and development of the United States. In 1626, members of the Lenni Lenape tribe sold Manhattan Island to Peter Minuet and Dutch settlers for various trinkets, tools, and beads. Manhattan Island would later become the center of America's largest city - New York City. The Lenni Lenape, however, did not believe they were selling the land forever and believed that no one person could "own" land. They thought they were simply selling the rights to use the land.
In 1682, the Lenni Lenape signed a treaty of friendship with William Penn and the Quakers in Pennsylvania. The treaty became the first of its kind signed between Europeans and Indians. Negotiation of the treaty is historically credited to Tamanend, a legendary Lenni-Lenape chief known for his peaceful ways. Today, several societies and festivals in Philadelphia and elsewhere are named in his honor. Tammany Hall, a famous political organization in New York City in the 1800's and 1900's, was named for him. In 1778, the Lenni Lenape became the first group of native peoples to sign a treaty with the U.S. government pledging their support in the American Revolution.
Penn's Treaty with the Lenni Lenape - by Benjamin West (1771)
Eventually, however, the rapid rate of colonization forced the Lenni Lenape from their lands. Furthermore, the Lenni Lenapes gradually became dependent on European goods. When local resources such as beaver pelts became exhausted, the Lenni Lenape were left with little to offer in trade and quickly declined in population because of disease and alcoholism. In 1766, they were forced to sign the Treaty of Easton, which forced them to move from their ancestral lands to western Pennsylvania and Ohio.
Today, some Lenni Lenape descendents live on reservations in Oklahoma, Wisconsin, and Ontario, Canada. | <urn:uuid:2aa9fea1-3d6f-4083-8bfe-d3b8c6f40dc7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/lenni-lenape-nation-profile | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00521.warc.gz | en | 0.983756 | 778 | 4.3125 | 4 | [
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0.42441964149... | 2 | The Delaware Indians are often called the Lenni-Lenape Indians. "Lenni-Lenape" means "real people".The Lenni Lenape inhabited southeastern New York state, eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and northern Maryland. Most of their villages were located near the Delaware or Susquehanna Rivers.
Lenape Indians were divided into clans (family groups). Clan membership was matrilineal (children inherited clan membership from their mother). Clans lived in stationary villages and used the surrounding land until the resources were exhausted.
Lenape men were typically in charge of hunting and protecting their families. Women were in charge of farming, cooking, and taking care of the children. Lenape mothers often carried their babies in cradleboards - boards in which the baby was strapped to and positioned on the mother's back. Children often accompanied their fathers on hunting trips and had their own toys such as miniature dolls and bows and arrows. Older children participated in games similar to modern-day lacrosse and kickball.
Lenape men typically wore a breechcloth, a long rectangular piece of cloth tucked between the leg and tucked over the belt, forming flaps in front and in back. Women wore knee-length skirts. Men and women wore earrings and deerskin moccasins. They also painted their faces for different celebrations, and men often had tattoos honoring different animals. Males sometimes had a mohawk hairstyle, or, completely shaved their heads.
The Lenni Lenape Indians held many ceremonies. The most important ceremony was known as The Big House. The Big House lasted 12 days and involved a log structure representing the universe, the lighting of a sacred fire, and offerings to a God known as the Guardian of the Game. The purpose of the ceremony was to promote tribal unity, hope for good fortune, and for personal renewal.
The modern history of the Lenni Lenape people is closely connected with the history and development of the United States. In 1626, members of the Lenni Lenape tribe sold Manhattan Island to Peter Minuet and Dutch settlers for various trinkets, tools, and beads. Manhattan Island would later become the center of America's largest city - New York City. The Lenni Lenape, however, did not believe they were selling the land forever and believed that no one person could "own" land. They thought they were simply selling the rights to use the land.
In 1682, the Lenni Lenape signed a treaty of friendship with William Penn and the Quakers in Pennsylvania. The treaty became the first of its kind signed between Europeans and Indians. Negotiation of the treaty is historically credited to Tamanend, a legendary Lenni-Lenape chief known for his peaceful ways. Today, several societies and festivals in Philadelphia and elsewhere are named in his honor. Tammany Hall, a famous political organization in New York City in the 1800's and 1900's, was named for him. In 1778, the Lenni Lenape became the first group of native peoples to sign a treaty with the U.S. government pledging their support in the American Revolution.
Penn's Treaty with the Lenni Lenape - by Benjamin West (1771)
Eventually, however, the rapid rate of colonization forced the Lenni Lenape from their lands. Furthermore, the Lenni Lenapes gradually became dependent on European goods. When local resources such as beaver pelts became exhausted, the Lenni Lenape were left with little to offer in trade and quickly declined in population because of disease and alcoholism. In 1766, they were forced to sign the Treaty of Easton, which forced them to move from their ancestral lands to western Pennsylvania and Ohio.
Today, some Lenni Lenape descendents live on reservations in Oklahoma, Wisconsin, and Ontario, Canada. | 805 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Did you know that St. Patrick’s Day was the ONLY day that General George Washington gave his soldiers as a day off during the 1779-1780 winter encampment? Not Christmas. Not New Years. No other day.. Why was that?
Revolutionary War Encampment
It was the winter of 1779-1780 and the Continental Army had its winter encampment at Jockey Hollow, near Morristown New Jersey. The location was chosen because of its close proximity to British-occupied New York City, only 30 miles away but behind a mountainous range. They found farms in the area and occupied them, cutting down the forrest to build shelters for the upcoming winter.
In Jockey Hollow alone, there were 10,000+ men, most living in 12×14 sized log huts, with as many as 12 men per hut. (Officers got a bit more space – only 6 to a hut, but still incredibly tight quarters.) After the debacle during the first winter encampment at Valley Forge, where hundreds died of the cold and diseases such as influenza, dysentery and typhoid because of poor planning, inadequate sanitation and terrible living conditions, Washington learned his lesson. His men had such stringent building requirements that if a wall was crooked, they had to tear down their hut and do it again!
The men built 1,200 huts at Jockey Hollow, with earthen floors and hand built bunks and furniture. Well prepared for the winter and in a good strategic location; but unfortunately, it was to be one of the coldest winters on record.
“The weather was cold enough to cut a man in two” said Private Joseph Plumb Martin, 8th Connecticut Regiment.
Snowstorms cut supply lines. Mid-winter – provisions were low; it was freezing cold; the Colonial economy was in ruins; and soldiers were hungry, cold and discouraged. They badly needed a morale boost, so General George Washington enlisted a popular holiday to the American cause.
A large proportion of Washington’s army were of Irish descent, so this was a natural fit. In addition, Ireland was in an uprising against Britain, hopefully providing a distraction for the colonies as they too were fighting against British rule.
St. Patrick’s Day Proclamation
In his St. Patrick’s Day proclamation on March 16, 1780, General George Washington gave his troops the following day off. Every one of them were to have a day of rest. Interestingly enough, there was no reported ruckus – he required that everyone stay in their quarters – but they were probably just happy to not have to go out in the cold. Most days they would have to be out cutting wood, digging latrines, cooking, pulling sentry duty, troop inspections, training …
It wasn’t the first time that March 17th had been celebrated in the Americas. Indeed, it was already a special day, but known as Evacuation Day. That was the day, when on March 17, 1776, the British troops and loyalists had withdrawn from the city of Boston.
We can’t be sure what place this St. Patrick’s Day off had in the eventual victory, but we can be sure that it was as well-appreciated as any act of kindness during the long drawn out Revolutionary War.
Morristown National Historical Park
Today Morristown National Historical Park commemorates the sites of General Washington and the Continental army’s winter encampment. It includes a visitor center at Jockey Hollow with replicas of the log cabins.
Walking through these cabins, you can really envision how these solders had to live; you can see how cold and drafty those huts must have been.
The Visitor Center is located next to the Wick House. During the Revolutionary War, Henry Wick owned Jockey Hollow. As a member of the military, he opened his home and offered his land to the soldiers at no charge. In fact, during the winter of 1779-1780, many of the officers shared his home.
This was not the first time the Wicks had shared their living quarters with the army; Alexander Hamilton stayed with them at least once before then. They would use one side of the house; the officers would use the other side; and they would share the kitchen and dining area. Today you can tour the house and envision just what close quarters these were!
While you are at Jockey Hollow be sure to get out and take a walk, at least up to the encampment site. There are over 27 miles of hiking, biking and horseback riding trails through this beautiful countryside. Take time to enjoy it!
Be sure to go into the town of Morristown. It has a cute downtown area – lots of little shops and restaurants, plus street fairs and fun activities in the park. When we were there, kids from the local “School of Rock” were performing and families were out in the park with lawn chairs enjoying the evening.
In the winter of 1779-1780, a local family opened their home (pictured above) to General Washington. Today know as “Fort Mansion“, it was built by Jacob Ford. His widow allowed the general to use her home as his headquarters. She and her four children moved into 2 rooms. General Washington and his wife Martha, plus 5 aides-de-camp, 18 servants plus visiting dignitaries and guards took up the rest. Good thing the Ford Mansion was big!!!
It is a pretty interesting place to visit. Bought and preserved by four local businessmen, the Washington Association donated the house to the National Park Service in 1933. Today it is furnished as it may have appeared during Washington’s stay. It is a great example of the wealth and architecture of the day.
Morristown National Historical Park also encompasses Fort Nonsense, another really cool place to visit. Rumors say that it was called Fort Nonsense because Washington had it built just as a way to keep his soldiers busy.
You will find that there are lots of National Park Units relating to the Revolutionary War; all rich in history and interesting in their own way! Morristown National Historical Park is just one… | <urn:uuid:bc29b2d7-7e16-4906-ad29-c576a49f2ddb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.nationalparkunits.com/morristown-national-historical-park/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.98326 | 1,285 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.775589585304260... | 4 | Did you know that St. Patrick’s Day was the ONLY day that General George Washington gave his soldiers as a day off during the 1779-1780 winter encampment? Not Christmas. Not New Years. No other day.. Why was that?
Revolutionary War Encampment
It was the winter of 1779-1780 and the Continental Army had its winter encampment at Jockey Hollow, near Morristown New Jersey. The location was chosen because of its close proximity to British-occupied New York City, only 30 miles away but behind a mountainous range. They found farms in the area and occupied them, cutting down the forrest to build shelters for the upcoming winter.
In Jockey Hollow alone, there were 10,000+ men, most living in 12×14 sized log huts, with as many as 12 men per hut. (Officers got a bit more space – only 6 to a hut, but still incredibly tight quarters.) After the debacle during the first winter encampment at Valley Forge, where hundreds died of the cold and diseases such as influenza, dysentery and typhoid because of poor planning, inadequate sanitation and terrible living conditions, Washington learned his lesson. His men had such stringent building requirements that if a wall was crooked, they had to tear down their hut and do it again!
The men built 1,200 huts at Jockey Hollow, with earthen floors and hand built bunks and furniture. Well prepared for the winter and in a good strategic location; but unfortunately, it was to be one of the coldest winters on record.
“The weather was cold enough to cut a man in two” said Private Joseph Plumb Martin, 8th Connecticut Regiment.
Snowstorms cut supply lines. Mid-winter – provisions were low; it was freezing cold; the Colonial economy was in ruins; and soldiers were hungry, cold and discouraged. They badly needed a morale boost, so General George Washington enlisted a popular holiday to the American cause.
A large proportion of Washington’s army were of Irish descent, so this was a natural fit. In addition, Ireland was in an uprising against Britain, hopefully providing a distraction for the colonies as they too were fighting against British rule.
St. Patrick’s Day Proclamation
In his St. Patrick’s Day proclamation on March 16, 1780, General George Washington gave his troops the following day off. Every one of them were to have a day of rest. Interestingly enough, there was no reported ruckus – he required that everyone stay in their quarters – but they were probably just happy to not have to go out in the cold. Most days they would have to be out cutting wood, digging latrines, cooking, pulling sentry duty, troop inspections, training …
It wasn’t the first time that March 17th had been celebrated in the Americas. Indeed, it was already a special day, but known as Evacuation Day. That was the day, when on March 17, 1776, the British troops and loyalists had withdrawn from the city of Boston.
We can’t be sure what place this St. Patrick’s Day off had in the eventual victory, but we can be sure that it was as well-appreciated as any act of kindness during the long drawn out Revolutionary War.
Morristown National Historical Park
Today Morristown National Historical Park commemorates the sites of General Washington and the Continental army’s winter encampment. It includes a visitor center at Jockey Hollow with replicas of the log cabins.
Walking through these cabins, you can really envision how these solders had to live; you can see how cold and drafty those huts must have been.
The Visitor Center is located next to the Wick House. During the Revolutionary War, Henry Wick owned Jockey Hollow. As a member of the military, he opened his home and offered his land to the soldiers at no charge. In fact, during the winter of 1779-1780, many of the officers shared his home.
This was not the first time the Wicks had shared their living quarters with the army; Alexander Hamilton stayed with them at least once before then. They would use one side of the house; the officers would use the other side; and they would share the kitchen and dining area. Today you can tour the house and envision just what close quarters these were!
While you are at Jockey Hollow be sure to get out and take a walk, at least up to the encampment site. There are over 27 miles of hiking, biking and horseback riding trails through this beautiful countryside. Take time to enjoy it!
Be sure to go into the town of Morristown. It has a cute downtown area – lots of little shops and restaurants, plus street fairs and fun activities in the park. When we were there, kids from the local “School of Rock” were performing and families were out in the park with lawn chairs enjoying the evening.
In the winter of 1779-1780, a local family opened their home (pictured above) to General Washington. Today know as “Fort Mansion“, it was built by Jacob Ford. His widow allowed the general to use her home as his headquarters. She and her four children moved into 2 rooms. General Washington and his wife Martha, plus 5 aides-de-camp, 18 servants plus visiting dignitaries and guards took up the rest. Good thing the Ford Mansion was big!!!
It is a pretty interesting place to visit. Bought and preserved by four local businessmen, the Washington Association donated the house to the National Park Service in 1933. Today it is furnished as it may have appeared during Washington’s stay. It is a great example of the wealth and architecture of the day.
Morristown National Historical Park also encompasses Fort Nonsense, another really cool place to visit. Rumors say that it was called Fort Nonsense because Washington had it built just as a way to keep his soldiers busy.
You will find that there are lots of National Park Units relating to the Revolutionary War; all rich in history and interesting in their own way! Morristown National Historical Park is just one… | 1,300 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Baptist beliefs on interracial dating
As the organized church gradually adopted new practices and doctrines, the dissenting churches maintained their historical positions. 401, with the fifth Council of Carthage, the churches under the rule of Rome began teaching and practicing infant baptism.
The consistent testimony of the church for its first 400 years was to administer baptism to only those who first made a profession of faith in Christ. As a result, the separatist churches began re-baptizing those who made professions of faith after having been baptized in the official church.
These Anabaptist congregations grew and prospered throughout the Holy Roman Empire, even though they were almost universally persecuted by the Catholic Church.
By the Reformation, Martin Luther's assistants complained that the Baptists in Bohemia and Moravia were so prevalent, they were like weeds.
This group became known as General Baptists, for their Arminian belief in general atonement.
Another English Baptist church was formed after a schism from Henry Jacob's congregation in London in 1633.
In fact, Paul soundly rebuked the Corinthians for such divisions (1 Corinthians 3:1-9).
Thus, the characteristics that defined the earliest churches are the same that most Baptist churches identify with today. While many churches surrendered themselves to this new structure, there was a substantial number of dissenting churches who refused to come under the growing authority of the bishops.
These dissenting churches were first called “Puritans” and are known to have had an influence as far as France in the 3rd century.
From this point on, the various Anabaptist churches gradually lost their ancient names and assumed the name “Baptist,” though they retained their historic independence and self-rule.
The first English Baptist church was founded in 1612 by Thomas Helwys and John Murton, who had come under the influence of the Dutch Puritans in Amsterdam. | <urn:uuid:298edcac-bcb5-478c-af44-7fd6fd769d50> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://golubayadal.ru/baptist-beliefs-on-interracial-dating-6046.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.981464 | 394 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.033522345... | 1 | Baptist beliefs on interracial dating
As the organized church gradually adopted new practices and doctrines, the dissenting churches maintained their historical positions. 401, with the fifth Council of Carthage, the churches under the rule of Rome began teaching and practicing infant baptism.
The consistent testimony of the church for its first 400 years was to administer baptism to only those who first made a profession of faith in Christ. As a result, the separatist churches began re-baptizing those who made professions of faith after having been baptized in the official church.
These Anabaptist congregations grew and prospered throughout the Holy Roman Empire, even though they were almost universally persecuted by the Catholic Church.
By the Reformation, Martin Luther's assistants complained that the Baptists in Bohemia and Moravia were so prevalent, they were like weeds.
This group became known as General Baptists, for their Arminian belief in general atonement.
Another English Baptist church was formed after a schism from Henry Jacob's congregation in London in 1633.
In fact, Paul soundly rebuked the Corinthians for such divisions (1 Corinthians 3:1-9).
Thus, the characteristics that defined the earliest churches are the same that most Baptist churches identify with today. While many churches surrendered themselves to this new structure, there was a substantial number of dissenting churches who refused to come under the growing authority of the bishops.
These dissenting churches were first called “Puritans” and are known to have had an influence as far as France in the 3rd century.
From this point on, the various Anabaptist churches gradually lost their ancient names and assumed the name “Baptist,” though they retained their historic independence and self-rule.
The first English Baptist church was founded in 1612 by Thomas Helwys and John Murton, who had come under the influence of the Dutch Puritans in Amsterdam. | 399 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It appears Christmas time is not lucky for Savannah, Georgia in war time. On this date in 1778 British forces over powered the Colonials and took the city; they would hold the city, despite a seige by American and French forces, until the end of the Revolutionary War.
86 years later on Dec. 22, 1864, Union forces under William T. Sherman would take Savannah again, presenting it as a “Christmas gift” to President Lincloln during the American Civil War.
Today in History, January 18: 1778 – As the American Revolutionary War waged, English Captain James Cook discovers what he called the Sandwich Islands during an exploring expedition to the Pacific; it was not his first. The Hawaiians thought the Europeans were Gods, and the sailors were only too happy to encourage the misconception. The islanders were fascinated with the iron metal used on the ships; the sailors used it to barter for goods and “comfort” from the Polynesian women. Cook continued his voyage, looking for the Northwest Passage. After returning to the Islands a year later, Cook and his sailors continued the ruse. When one of his crew died, they were discovered to be mere mortals. The natives took one of the ship’s cutters. When Cook and crew attempted to retrieve it, killing some of the residents in the process, they were attacked, and Cook was killed. | <urn:uuid:ddeed851-df06-4439-9b83-573660f2eebb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://markloveshistory.com/tag/1778/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00295.warc.gz | en | 0.985043 | 286 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.6709891557693... | 3 | It appears Christmas time is not lucky for Savannah, Georgia in war time. On this date in 1778 British forces over powered the Colonials and took the city; they would hold the city, despite a seige by American and French forces, until the end of the Revolutionary War.
86 years later on Dec. 22, 1864, Union forces under William T. Sherman would take Savannah again, presenting it as a “Christmas gift” to President Lincloln during the American Civil War.
Today in History, January 18: 1778 – As the American Revolutionary War waged, English Captain James Cook discovers what he called the Sandwich Islands during an exploring expedition to the Pacific; it was not his first. The Hawaiians thought the Europeans were Gods, and the sailors were only too happy to encourage the misconception. The islanders were fascinated with the iron metal used on the ships; the sailors used it to barter for goods and “comfort” from the Polynesian women. Cook continued his voyage, looking for the Northwest Passage. After returning to the Islands a year later, Cook and his sailors continued the ruse. When one of his crew died, they were discovered to be mere mortals. The natives took one of the ship’s cutters. When Cook and crew attempted to retrieve it, killing some of the residents in the process, they were attacked, and Cook was killed. | 294 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Year 2 had great fun on Friday when a visiting scientist came into school to explore balloons with the children. The children took part in many activities throughout the morning and had lots of fun.
They began by thinking about toys that are operated by balloons. Findlay told us all about his toy car which is pushed forwards when the air comes out of the balloon. David (the scientist) then showed us a helicopter and explained that the air leaving the balloon pushes the helicopter up into the air. The children could hear a squeaking sound as the air left the balloon, they noticed this was a higher pitch towards the end.
The children loved making a rocket using the balloon. The air forced the balloon along the string at a very fast speed. They also loved using the wind bags to make very large balloons. The children were very impressed at how quickly these became inflated.
Finally the children explored static electricity created by balloons. The children were able to attach the balloon to a wall, make their hair stick up, pick up paper and also separate salt and pepper.
Everyone had a really fun science lesson, and learnt lots. Thank you David!
Today we had a special visitor in school. David is a physics teacher and came to work with the children using balloons.
Through this lesson, the children were able to interact with the balloons and discovered a variety of new, fun things which can be done using them. They used Japanese paper balloons, these inflated through being hit, instead of blowing air into them. The pupils investigated static charge and saw the effect this had on their hair, small pieces of paper and on salt and pepper! They also raced balloon rockets across some string! | <urn:uuid:235e8db6-a3e9-4568-b2e0-d2f807b99d92> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.flyhighineurope.co.uk/category/england+balloons/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00281.warc.gz | en | 0.988509 | 338 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.356980562210... | 10 | Year 2 had great fun on Friday when a visiting scientist came into school to explore balloons with the children. The children took part in many activities throughout the morning and had lots of fun.
They began by thinking about toys that are operated by balloons. Findlay told us all about his toy car which is pushed forwards when the air comes out of the balloon. David (the scientist) then showed us a helicopter and explained that the air leaving the balloon pushes the helicopter up into the air. The children could hear a squeaking sound as the air left the balloon, they noticed this was a higher pitch towards the end.
The children loved making a rocket using the balloon. The air forced the balloon along the string at a very fast speed. They also loved using the wind bags to make very large balloons. The children were very impressed at how quickly these became inflated.
Finally the children explored static electricity created by balloons. The children were able to attach the balloon to a wall, make their hair stick up, pick up paper and also separate salt and pepper.
Everyone had a really fun science lesson, and learnt lots. Thank you David!
Today we had a special visitor in school. David is a physics teacher and came to work with the children using balloons.
Through this lesson, the children were able to interact with the balloons and discovered a variety of new, fun things which can be done using them. They used Japanese paper balloons, these inflated through being hit, instead of blowing air into them. The pupils investigated static charge and saw the effect this had on their hair, small pieces of paper and on salt and pepper! They also raced balloon rockets across some string! | 333 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There was once a city called Miletus, which flourished in the sixth century BC. One of its citizens was a man called Thales, a businessman with a head for philosophy. Thales could be called one of the first true Greek scientists because he made a very simple claim, and one which would be proved correct two thousand five hundred years later, in our present time – well, almost.
Thales’ claim was simple, but groundbreaking. He decided that everything was made of water. The claim did not advance Thales much during his lifetime, but the fact is that three quarters of the mass of the universe is in fact made of hydrogen, which is two-thirds water.
So effectively Thales came very close to a major scientific breakthrough. The idea certainly got him noticed, and it also paved the way for other scientific thinking, which would place the four elements: water, air, earth and fire, firmly at the heart of Greek philosophy forever more.
Enter a man called Anaximander, another citizen of Miletus. Anaximander took the idea of water and extended it to the rest of the natural elements. This was the start of a theory of Natural Law. Remember that science grew out of philosophy, and great scientists such as Newton and Einstein were the heirs of these early philosophical ideas some two thousand years after they had been cogitated by the Ancient Greeks — particularly when it came to Anaximander’s theories, because they brought up the idea of the existence of a form of Natural Law, and Natural Law would one day provide the framework for many of Newton’s discoveries, including his treatise on gravity. So what was Anaximander actually saying?
What Anaximander put forward was tied in with the Greek idea of justice, but the Greek idea of justice was very different from the Christian one of “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth”, which would eventually assert itself some five hundred years later in the teachings of the Sermon on the Mount and in the Gospel of Matthew. By contrast, Anaximander’s idea of justice was a sort of natural justice, which was based on the four elements: water, fire, earth and air. He said that these elements fought amongst themselves, each seeking ascendancy over the other, and that ‘natural justice’ corrected this imbalance. Fire became ashes and earth. Water turned to air and air back to water. This process, Anaximander said, was controlled by natural justice, and even the gods could not alter it. What he was referring to was really Natural Law, the foundation of modern science.
Interestingly, during the European Renaissance, another great man took this very same idea, which Anaximander had exposed, to new heights. His name was Leonardo da Vinci, and the natural law of the four elements was the foundation to much of his work, including his medical discoveries. Greek medicine had evolved on the basis of the four humours of the body, which fell out of balance the same way as the four elements were disrupted, causing sickness. Natural Justice was not just happening in the outer world, said Da Vinci, but also in the inner one. Leonardo made this connection between the four humours and the four elements, and called it the microcosm/macrocosm effect. It marked the start of a whole new way of thinking, inherited from the Greeks. It mean that humankind had moved to the centre of the universe, out of the palm of God’s hand. And that was a real revolution.
But that did not mean that those who followed Anaximander had forgotten about the gods in general, not at all. The scientific thinking that had caught the imagination of the city of Miletus was only one strain of Greek thought. By far the most influential of them all was still Pythagoras the Mystic, who lived around the same time on an island not very far away, called Samos. Students of mathematics still use his theories today, but Pythagoras did more than square the triangle. You could say he invented the idea of eternity, which as far as concepts go, must be the most enduring one of all.
Read Part III next week… | <urn:uuid:d63f7369-5a56-4b8e-9f9f-f0d98a3a059f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lucilleturner.com/single-post/2017/07/05/greek-philosophy-boiled-down-part-ii/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.98507 | 873 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.0155999679... | 11 | There was once a city called Miletus, which flourished in the sixth century BC. One of its citizens was a man called Thales, a businessman with a head for philosophy. Thales could be called one of the first true Greek scientists because he made a very simple claim, and one which would be proved correct two thousand five hundred years later, in our present time – well, almost.
Thales’ claim was simple, but groundbreaking. He decided that everything was made of water. The claim did not advance Thales much during his lifetime, but the fact is that three quarters of the mass of the universe is in fact made of hydrogen, which is two-thirds water.
So effectively Thales came very close to a major scientific breakthrough. The idea certainly got him noticed, and it also paved the way for other scientific thinking, which would place the four elements: water, air, earth and fire, firmly at the heart of Greek philosophy forever more.
Enter a man called Anaximander, another citizen of Miletus. Anaximander took the idea of water and extended it to the rest of the natural elements. This was the start of a theory of Natural Law. Remember that science grew out of philosophy, and great scientists such as Newton and Einstein were the heirs of these early philosophical ideas some two thousand years after they had been cogitated by the Ancient Greeks — particularly when it came to Anaximander’s theories, because they brought up the idea of the existence of a form of Natural Law, and Natural Law would one day provide the framework for many of Newton’s discoveries, including his treatise on gravity. So what was Anaximander actually saying?
What Anaximander put forward was tied in with the Greek idea of justice, but the Greek idea of justice was very different from the Christian one of “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth”, which would eventually assert itself some five hundred years later in the teachings of the Sermon on the Mount and in the Gospel of Matthew. By contrast, Anaximander’s idea of justice was a sort of natural justice, which was based on the four elements: water, fire, earth and air. He said that these elements fought amongst themselves, each seeking ascendancy over the other, and that ‘natural justice’ corrected this imbalance. Fire became ashes and earth. Water turned to air and air back to water. This process, Anaximander said, was controlled by natural justice, and even the gods could not alter it. What he was referring to was really Natural Law, the foundation of modern science.
Interestingly, during the European Renaissance, another great man took this very same idea, which Anaximander had exposed, to new heights. His name was Leonardo da Vinci, and the natural law of the four elements was the foundation to much of his work, including his medical discoveries. Greek medicine had evolved on the basis of the four humours of the body, which fell out of balance the same way as the four elements were disrupted, causing sickness. Natural Justice was not just happening in the outer world, said Da Vinci, but also in the inner one. Leonardo made this connection between the four humours and the four elements, and called it the microcosm/macrocosm effect. It marked the start of a whole new way of thinking, inherited from the Greeks. It mean that humankind had moved to the centre of the universe, out of the palm of God’s hand. And that was a real revolution.
But that did not mean that those who followed Anaximander had forgotten about the gods in general, not at all. The scientific thinking that had caught the imagination of the city of Miletus was only one strain of Greek thought. By far the most influential of them all was still Pythagoras the Mystic, who lived around the same time on an island not very far away, called Samos. Students of mathematics still use his theories today, but Pythagoras did more than square the triangle. You could say he invented the idea of eternity, which as far as concepts go, must be the most enduring one of all.
Read Part III next week… | 850 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An 'Eleventh hour' myth
Today is Remembrance Day, the 93rd anniversary of the end of World War I.
What was so hopefully called “the war to end all wars” officially ended at 11am on November 11, the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month.
In just four years, more than 15 million people had died and around 20 million had been wounded.
That savage conflict came to an end in a railway carriage in the peaceful surrounds of Compiègne Forest, about 60km north of Paris.
The document that was signed there marked victory for the Allies and a total defeat for Germany, while not technically a surrender.
It was an armistice, which is actually just an agreement to cease fighting while a more durable peace is negotiated.
Although ‘the eleventh hour’ is often thought to be the time the armistice was signed, that actually occurred several hours earlier.
Days of negotiations between the Allies and Germany, a hurried and increasingly desperate process, ended when the terms of the armistice were agreed at 5am.
Official signatures were made between 5.12am. and 5.20am, with all agreed that the armistice would take effect at 11am.
The good news was passed as quickly as possible to the armies on the front line during that morning of November 11.
However, intense fighting continued right until the last minute, with some artillery units said to have been trying to avoid having to haul away their spare ammunition.
Sadly, there were 10,944 casualties and 2738 men died in those last few hours on the last day of the war.
American soldier Henry Gunther had the unenviable honour of being the last soldier killed in action in World War I, dying in a final charge on German lines just 60 seconds before the armistice came into force.
November 11 was specifically dedicated by King George V on November 7, 1919, as a day of remembrance of members of the armed forces who were killed during World War I.
Remembrance Day has remained as a memorial occasion in Commonwealth nations, as well as many others, to remember those who died while serving their empire.
Here in Australia, Remembrance Day is always observed on November 11 regardless of the day of the week on which it falls.
Get the latest news from thewest.com.au in your inbox.
Sign up for our emails | <urn:uuid:8bdd581f-0e7b-464d-b78b-5e3fdf711681> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thewest.com.au/news/an-eleventh-hour-myth-ng-ya-141121 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00539.warc.gz | en | 0.986891 | 505 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.6613593697547913,... | 2 | An 'Eleventh hour' myth
Today is Remembrance Day, the 93rd anniversary of the end of World War I.
What was so hopefully called “the war to end all wars” officially ended at 11am on November 11, the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month.
In just four years, more than 15 million people had died and around 20 million had been wounded.
That savage conflict came to an end in a railway carriage in the peaceful surrounds of Compiègne Forest, about 60km north of Paris.
The document that was signed there marked victory for the Allies and a total defeat for Germany, while not technically a surrender.
It was an armistice, which is actually just an agreement to cease fighting while a more durable peace is negotiated.
Although ‘the eleventh hour’ is often thought to be the time the armistice was signed, that actually occurred several hours earlier.
Days of negotiations between the Allies and Germany, a hurried and increasingly desperate process, ended when the terms of the armistice were agreed at 5am.
Official signatures were made between 5.12am. and 5.20am, with all agreed that the armistice would take effect at 11am.
The good news was passed as quickly as possible to the armies on the front line during that morning of November 11.
However, intense fighting continued right until the last minute, with some artillery units said to have been trying to avoid having to haul away their spare ammunition.
Sadly, there were 10,944 casualties and 2738 men died in those last few hours on the last day of the war.
American soldier Henry Gunther had the unenviable honour of being the last soldier killed in action in World War I, dying in a final charge on German lines just 60 seconds before the armistice came into force.
November 11 was specifically dedicated by King George V on November 7, 1919, as a day of remembrance of members of the armed forces who were killed during World War I.
Remembrance Day has remained as a memorial occasion in Commonwealth nations, as well as many others, to remember those who died while serving their empire.
Here in Australia, Remembrance Day is always observed on November 11 regardless of the day of the week on which it falls.
Get the latest news from thewest.com.au in your inbox.
Sign up for our emails | 525 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"Meeting of Colored Citizens"
At least 2,000 African Americans participated in the California Gold Rush. Though some were brought as slaves by southern masters, many were free northern blacks who migrated west with other Americans. African Americans, even free citizens, however, did not enjoy the same rights as whites. In 1858, when word reached California of a new gold discovery near Vancouver, Canada, many considered migrating out of the country to where their rights would be more secure. A group of black leaders went to Canada on a scouting mission and returned with the information shared in this Sacramento newspaper notice. Many black Californians soon left for Canada.
A meeting was held at Zion Church last evening, by the colored people, which was attended by some three hundred persons. The object was to hear the report of their committee at Victoria, Vancouver Island, which was considered very favorable. It is the following: That their interview with the Governor was pleasant, and that he kindly welcomed them to the island; that public lands can be obtained at twenty shillings per acre, one-fourth to be paid down and the balance on installments in four years with interest at five per cent per annum, without taxes, and with the privilege of the elective franchise, sitting as jurors, and all the rights of citizens—after a residence of nine months.
Creator | Unknown
Item Type | Newspaper/Magazine
Cite This document | Unknown, “"Meeting of Colored Citizens",” HERB: Resources for Teachers, accessed January 21, 2020, https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/1725. | <urn:uuid:aeab0050-38e9-417f-8d02-3afc9719d5b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/1725 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.98047 | 337 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.22246102988... | 1 | "Meeting of Colored Citizens"
At least 2,000 African Americans participated in the California Gold Rush. Though some were brought as slaves by southern masters, many were free northern blacks who migrated west with other Americans. African Americans, even free citizens, however, did not enjoy the same rights as whites. In 1858, when word reached California of a new gold discovery near Vancouver, Canada, many considered migrating out of the country to where their rights would be more secure. A group of black leaders went to Canada on a scouting mission and returned with the information shared in this Sacramento newspaper notice. Many black Californians soon left for Canada.
A meeting was held at Zion Church last evening, by the colored people, which was attended by some three hundred persons. The object was to hear the report of their committee at Victoria, Vancouver Island, which was considered very favorable. It is the following: That their interview with the Governor was pleasant, and that he kindly welcomed them to the island; that public lands can be obtained at twenty shillings per acre, one-fourth to be paid down and the balance on installments in four years with interest at five per cent per annum, without taxes, and with the privilege of the elective franchise, sitting as jurors, and all the rights of citizens—after a residence of nine months.
Creator | Unknown
Item Type | Newspaper/Magazine
Cite This document | Unknown, “"Meeting of Colored Citizens",” HERB: Resources for Teachers, accessed January 21, 2020, https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/1725. | 339 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pinhook, Missouri facts for kids
Location of Pinhook, Missouri
|• Total||0.14 sq mi (0.36 km2)|
|• Land||0.14 sq mi (0.36 km2)|
|• Water||0 sq mi (0 km2)|
|Elevation||302 ft (92 m)|
|• Estimate (2012)||30|
|• Density||214.3/sq mi (82.7/km2)|
|Time zone||Central (CST) (UTC-6)|
|• Summer (DST)||CDT (UTC-5)|
|GNIS feature ID||0741154|
It was settled in the 1920s by sharecroppers. The community takes its name from a nearby ridge of the same name which in turn was so named on account it having the form of a pinhook. The community was hit by water after the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers caused a breach in the Bird’s Point Levee to save the town of Cairo, Illinois. Because of that, the former residents resettled in East Prairie and Sikeston.
Pinhook is located at(36.739225, -89.267693).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0.14 square miles (0.36 km2), all of it land.
As of the census of 2010, there were 30 people, 17 households, and 8 families residing in the village. The population density was 214.3 inhabitants per square mile (82.7/km2). There were 19 housing units at an average density of 135.7 per square mile (52.4/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 3.33% White and 96.67% Black or African American.
There were 17 households of which 11.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.4% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 52.9% were non-families. 52.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.76 and the average family size was 2.63.
The median age in the village was 54 years. 10% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 10% were from 25 to 44; 39.9% were from 45 to 64; and 33.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 50.0% male and 50.0% female.
As of the census of 2000, there were 48 people, 20 households, and 15 families residing in the village. The population density was 336.1 people per square mile (132.4/km²). There were 21 housing units at an average density of 147.0 per square mile (57.9/km²). The racial makeup of the village was 10.42% White, 87.50% African American, and 2.08% from two or more races.
There were 20 households out of which 35.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.0% were married couples living together, 35.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.0% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 2.87.
In the village, the population was spread out with 29.2% under the age of 18, 6.3% from 18 to 24, 29.2% from 25 to 44, 18.8% from 45 to 64, and 16.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 71.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 70.0 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $15,417, and the median income for a family was $16,250. Males had a median income of $23,750 versus $16,250 for females. The per capita income for the village was $10,114. There were 47.1% of families and 55.4% of the population living below the poverty line, including 50.0% of under eighteens and 83.3% of those over 64.
There has been a lot of mystery about the founding of Pinhook. Many people believe that it was founded by sharecroppers in the 1930s. This largely African American colony was expanded to nearly 250 people at one time. During the Summer of 2011 the Mississippi began to flood, Pinhook was destroyed on May 2, 2011. The Birds Point- New Madrid levee was blown to save Cairo, Illinois from flooding. Everyone in Pinhook lost their homes that they had lived in for many years. Many are devastated because they loved living in a small community, knowing everyone. These people fled to family or apartments, until they could find a new home. There has been talk of relocating the community as a whole, but the funding is the only issue. In August 2015 remaining buildings were bulldozed.
Pinhook, Missouri Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:def5126a-7eb0-44da-9000-0b8cbd70d21c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Pinhook,_Missouri | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00055.warc.gz | en | 0.989168 | 1,166 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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Location of Pinhook, Missouri
|• Total||0.14 sq mi (0.36 km2)|
|• Land||0.14 sq mi (0.36 km2)|
|• Water||0 sq mi (0 km2)|
|Elevation||302 ft (92 m)|
|• Estimate (2012)||30|
|• Density||214.3/sq mi (82.7/km2)|
|Time zone||Central (CST) (UTC-6)|
|• Summer (DST)||CDT (UTC-5)|
|GNIS feature ID||0741154|
It was settled in the 1920s by sharecroppers. The community takes its name from a nearby ridge of the same name which in turn was so named on account it having the form of a pinhook. The community was hit by water after the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers caused a breach in the Bird’s Point Levee to save the town of Cairo, Illinois. Because of that, the former residents resettled in East Prairie and Sikeston.
Pinhook is located at(36.739225, -89.267693).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0.14 square miles (0.36 km2), all of it land.
As of the census of 2010, there were 30 people, 17 households, and 8 families residing in the village. The population density was 214.3 inhabitants per square mile (82.7/km2). There were 19 housing units at an average density of 135.7 per square mile (52.4/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 3.33% White and 96.67% Black or African American.
There were 17 households of which 11.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.4% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 52.9% were non-families. 52.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.76 and the average family size was 2.63.
The median age in the village was 54 years. 10% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 10% were from 25 to 44; 39.9% were from 45 to 64; and 33.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 50.0% male and 50.0% female.
As of the census of 2000, there were 48 people, 20 households, and 15 families residing in the village. The population density was 336.1 people per square mile (132.4/km²). There were 21 housing units at an average density of 147.0 per square mile (57.9/km²). The racial makeup of the village was 10.42% White, 87.50% African American, and 2.08% from two or more races.
There were 20 households out of which 35.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.0% were married couples living together, 35.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.0% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 2.87.
In the village, the population was spread out with 29.2% under the age of 18, 6.3% from 18 to 24, 29.2% from 25 to 44, 18.8% from 45 to 64, and 16.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 71.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 70.0 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $15,417, and the median income for a family was $16,250. Males had a median income of $23,750 versus $16,250 for females. The per capita income for the village was $10,114. There were 47.1% of families and 55.4% of the population living below the poverty line, including 50.0% of under eighteens and 83.3% of those over 64.
There has been a lot of mystery about the founding of Pinhook. Many people believe that it was founded by sharecroppers in the 1930s. This largely African American colony was expanded to nearly 250 people at one time. During the Summer of 2011 the Mississippi began to flood, Pinhook was destroyed on May 2, 2011. The Birds Point- New Madrid levee was blown to save Cairo, Illinois from flooding. Everyone in Pinhook lost their homes that they had lived in for many years. Many are devastated because they loved living in a small community, knowing everyone. These people fled to family or apartments, until they could find a new home. There has been talk of relocating the community as a whole, but the funding is the only issue. In August 2015 remaining buildings were bulldozed.
Pinhook, Missouri Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 1,392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Douglass does not give the African American female characters enough voice; they all seem to lurk in the shadows of their oppressor. Slavery took its toll on all of its participants, but women fell prey a larger part of the abuse due to the fact that their bodily strength was less and slaveholders perceived them as weaker. However her femininity and grace led to her downfall of pure jealousy by Captain Anthony. Young Douglass witnessed his aunt being beaten which for him was the first time he had seen something so horrific.
There are so many moments in your life when you need a helping hand, so let us take care of great essays and you academic writing. High quality of writing, qualified writers and round-the-clock customer support.
What else do you need? Born in February of on the Holme Hill Farm in Talbot County, Maryland, he grows to become an adventurer in a life that turns out to be more tumultuous than any other.
His mother was a slave named Harriet Bailey and his father was an unknown white man who was a slave owner. He so movingly recounts how women were raped under the guise of increasing the slave population. He sees this as one of the male scapegoats in meeting their insatiable sexual desires.
In the text religious practice of the slave owners remains a recurrent theme. Douglass describes the conditions that they faced together with the other slaves. He was a slave of Captain Anthony and Colonel Lloyd.
As a slave he witnessed a brutal beating and murder of his fellow slave which the law and community do not notice. The exploration of slave trade and its biting effects on the then slaves makes this work very realistic.
It elicits feelings and invokes anybody to share in the pains of the suffering majority who wallowed under the heavy weight of slave trade and labor. Douglass attaches a catharsis quality in the entire work revisiting modern themes of gender and racial discrimination.
When he was eight Douglass was sent to Baltimore to take care of Thomas a son of the Auld family Frederick He later got reading lessons from Mrs. Auld but her husband intervened after knowing this.
He then discovered abolitionist movements in the North as well as those by Irish Catholics. He cruelly and brutally beats Douglass who in turn fights back and Covey decided to leave Frederick alone since that day.
Frederick then moved to live with William Freeland who was a very kind master and as a result he finds a family among his fellow slaves. Douglass then became a Sunday school teacher and he liked this position though it was still a far cry for freedom and he attempted to escape by canoeing the Chesapeake Bay.
This plan failed and after being caught he was moved back to work for Hugh Auld in Baltimore. He was assigned to help out the shipyard workers but was later beaten nearly to death after some of the workers heckle and strike when he tried to fight back.
He was moved to another shipyard where he became proficient at ship caulking but his wages were forcefully turned over to Auld. Douglass later made arrangements with Auld and he hired himself out giving Auld a certain amount every week.The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass This Essay The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass and other 64,+ term papers, college essay examples and free essays are available now on ashio-midori.com Autor: review • June 13, • Essay • Words (4 Pages) • Views4/4(1).
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass by: Frederick Douglass Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass that was is a memoir by Frederick Douglass that was first published in Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Written by Himself (autobiography) Oration, Delivered in Corinthian Hall, Rochester, by Frederick Douglass, July 5 th, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave: Written by Himself study guide contains a biography of Frederick Douglass, literature essays, a complete e-text, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.
Frederick Douglass was a well spoken, highly descriptive author. His fluency with the English language was superb and, without a doubt, collegiate level. After reading his book, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, one would believe Douglass to be a highly educated man.
The reality is 3/5(7). Suggested Essay Topics. ashio-midori.com role do women play in Douglass’s Narrative?Pay close attention to when or if female characters speak, to how female characters relate to Douglass, and to the depiction of women in relation to virtue. | <urn:uuid:05179c1f-4c6d-4791-8c8a-2c4a3b8ac9be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jofijay.ashio-midori.com/essay-about-narrative-of-the-life-of-frederick-douglass-48199uh.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00109.warc.gz | en | 0.980272 | 976 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.01410228852... | 1 | Douglass does not give the African American female characters enough voice; they all seem to lurk in the shadows of their oppressor. Slavery took its toll on all of its participants, but women fell prey a larger part of the abuse due to the fact that their bodily strength was less and slaveholders perceived them as weaker. However her femininity and grace led to her downfall of pure jealousy by Captain Anthony. Young Douglass witnessed his aunt being beaten which for him was the first time he had seen something so horrific.
There are so many moments in your life when you need a helping hand, so let us take care of great essays and you academic writing. High quality of writing, qualified writers and round-the-clock customer support.
What else do you need? Born in February of on the Holme Hill Farm in Talbot County, Maryland, he grows to become an adventurer in a life that turns out to be more tumultuous than any other.
His mother was a slave named Harriet Bailey and his father was an unknown white man who was a slave owner. He so movingly recounts how women were raped under the guise of increasing the slave population. He sees this as one of the male scapegoats in meeting their insatiable sexual desires.
In the text religious practice of the slave owners remains a recurrent theme. Douglass describes the conditions that they faced together with the other slaves. He was a slave of Captain Anthony and Colonel Lloyd.
As a slave he witnessed a brutal beating and murder of his fellow slave which the law and community do not notice. The exploration of slave trade and its biting effects on the then slaves makes this work very realistic.
It elicits feelings and invokes anybody to share in the pains of the suffering majority who wallowed under the heavy weight of slave trade and labor. Douglass attaches a catharsis quality in the entire work revisiting modern themes of gender and racial discrimination.
When he was eight Douglass was sent to Baltimore to take care of Thomas a son of the Auld family Frederick He later got reading lessons from Mrs. Auld but her husband intervened after knowing this.
He then discovered abolitionist movements in the North as well as those by Irish Catholics. He cruelly and brutally beats Douglass who in turn fights back and Covey decided to leave Frederick alone since that day.
Frederick then moved to live with William Freeland who was a very kind master and as a result he finds a family among his fellow slaves. Douglass then became a Sunday school teacher and he liked this position though it was still a far cry for freedom and he attempted to escape by canoeing the Chesapeake Bay.
This plan failed and after being caught he was moved back to work for Hugh Auld in Baltimore. He was assigned to help out the shipyard workers but was later beaten nearly to death after some of the workers heckle and strike when he tried to fight back.
He was moved to another shipyard where he became proficient at ship caulking but his wages were forcefully turned over to Auld. Douglass later made arrangements with Auld and he hired himself out giving Auld a certain amount every week.The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass This Essay The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass and other 64,+ term papers, college essay examples and free essays are available now on ashio-midori.com Autor: review • June 13, • Essay • Words (4 Pages) • Views4/4(1).
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass by: Frederick Douglass Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass that was is a memoir by Frederick Douglass that was first published in Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Written by Himself (autobiography) Oration, Delivered in Corinthian Hall, Rochester, by Frederick Douglass, July 5 th, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave: Written by Himself study guide contains a biography of Frederick Douglass, literature essays, a complete e-text, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.
Frederick Douglass was a well spoken, highly descriptive author. His fluency with the English language was superb and, without a doubt, collegiate level. After reading his book, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, one would believe Douglass to be a highly educated man.
The reality is 3/5(7). Suggested Essay Topics. ashio-midori.com role do women play in Douglass’s Narrative?Pay close attention to when or if female characters speak, to how female characters relate to Douglass, and to the depiction of women in relation to virtue. | 951 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today cars, buses, planes and ships have made it fairly easy to travel from one place to another. As technology advances so do the speeds of many of these transportation devices. However, in the mid 1800s getting from one point to another was difficult. For the United States Army who had to travel from one place to another on foot or horseback, travel was long and hard. Travel time on horses depended on a variety of factors, such as water and terrain. The route the army had to take depended on where water was located for the animals but this often made the journey longer. Seeking a solution to the transportation problem, the United States Army tried an experiment using camels instead of horses for a brief period of time. This object is a reproduction bell like the ones that were used on these camels.
Before railroads crisscrossed the nation there were very few routes available to transport goods and people in the sparsely populated western states. It was thought that camels, being specially adapted to going long distances in harsh terrain with minimal water needs, might be an ideal solution. So in 1853 Jefferson Davis, at the time serving as the Secretary of War, put out his annual report suggesting that camels could be a potential solution to the transportation problem. He was not the first person to suggest this, in 1836 Major George H. Crosman first suggested the use of camels after his experiences in the Black Hawk and Second Seminole wars. Also advocating the use of camels was George R. Glidden an archaeologist who had spent time working in Egypt wrote to the Senate Committee of Military Affairs in support of the use of camels. His main argument for using camels instead of mules was that camels would drink almost any kind of water, even brackish water.
It was not until Davis became Secretary of the War Department that camels were seriously considered for military transportation. However, he first tried to solve the water shortage problem along the routes by building additional wells, but failed. Davis stated that camels were used in other parts of the world where the environment was less than ideal. He believed that the dromedary camel could be used in the “carrying of expresses, making reconnaissance, and moving troops rapidly around the country.” So in the early months of 1855, Davis was granted 30,000 dollars to be used in the camel experiment. Davis was able to send a ship to North Africa and the Levant to purchase the camels that would be put to the test. The project was overseen by Major Henry C. Wayne.
Major Wayne learned a lot about the camels while on the expedition. He learned about the camel’s hump and how it was made up of gelatinous fat which provided the camel with sustenance when it was deprived of food. The camel was able to travel long distances, almost 60 hours non-stop if need be. He learned that the camel traveled well on leveled land and did fair on mountain and valley travel. Camels had calloused soles which enabled them to travel on sandy soils but weren’t well suited for wet clay and mud. Traveling through different terrains and plant life, the camel ate almost any kind of shrubs, even thorny ones. Camel meat was edible and resembled beef, and the milk it provided was similar to a cows. A camel was able to travel six to seven days without water which would solve the issue of not having water on the routes used in the United States.
After hiring people to serve as camel attendants and saddle makers, 33 camels made their way to the Texas coast on February 11, 1856. Having money left over from the expedition, Davis sent for more camels and on February 10, 1857 forty one more camels landed in Indianola, Texas. The camels were sent to join the first shipment northwest of San Antonio. Most of the camels were in overall good health except for few camels who had swollen legs from the long journey. The camels were marched west several miles at a time to help them get adjusted to their new home. The camels were moved from camp to camp until a perfect settlement was found in Camp Verde, Texas. The camels overall proved to be useful, being able to carry up to 600 pounds, and got accustomed to the terrain. There was also some mishaps with the camels as some got sick, and others had bad tempers. Many horses panicked around camels and soldiers did not want to be near them.
In February 1861 Confederate forces took over Camp Verde and with the U.S. Civil War about to break out, no one knew what to do with the animals. For a while the camels were used to travel to Arizona and California and carry supplies and messages. Some of the camels were used to give rides to children, and some were put on auction. Even though the camels proved to be useful, the people who were going to be using them were not convinced. They believed the camels could not make a difference and thought of them as a nuisance. Jefferson Davis who was the main advocate for the camels became President of the Confederate States and could no longer focus on the camels. The camel experiment ultimately failed and the soldiers continued to use horses, eventually upgrading transportation devices as technology advanced. [Joscelynn Garcia] | <urn:uuid:b6304f71-109a-4bd7-b34d-ca533c50861e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.texancultures.com/object-animal-bell/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00174.warc.gz | en | 0.988587 | 1,091 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.290702104568... | 8 | Today cars, buses, planes and ships have made it fairly easy to travel from one place to another. As technology advances so do the speeds of many of these transportation devices. However, in the mid 1800s getting from one point to another was difficult. For the United States Army who had to travel from one place to another on foot or horseback, travel was long and hard. Travel time on horses depended on a variety of factors, such as water and terrain. The route the army had to take depended on where water was located for the animals but this often made the journey longer. Seeking a solution to the transportation problem, the United States Army tried an experiment using camels instead of horses for a brief period of time. This object is a reproduction bell like the ones that were used on these camels.
Before railroads crisscrossed the nation there were very few routes available to transport goods and people in the sparsely populated western states. It was thought that camels, being specially adapted to going long distances in harsh terrain with minimal water needs, might be an ideal solution. So in 1853 Jefferson Davis, at the time serving as the Secretary of War, put out his annual report suggesting that camels could be a potential solution to the transportation problem. He was not the first person to suggest this, in 1836 Major George H. Crosman first suggested the use of camels after his experiences in the Black Hawk and Second Seminole wars. Also advocating the use of camels was George R. Glidden an archaeologist who had spent time working in Egypt wrote to the Senate Committee of Military Affairs in support of the use of camels. His main argument for using camels instead of mules was that camels would drink almost any kind of water, even brackish water.
It was not until Davis became Secretary of the War Department that camels were seriously considered for military transportation. However, he first tried to solve the water shortage problem along the routes by building additional wells, but failed. Davis stated that camels were used in other parts of the world where the environment was less than ideal. He believed that the dromedary camel could be used in the “carrying of expresses, making reconnaissance, and moving troops rapidly around the country.” So in the early months of 1855, Davis was granted 30,000 dollars to be used in the camel experiment. Davis was able to send a ship to North Africa and the Levant to purchase the camels that would be put to the test. The project was overseen by Major Henry C. Wayne.
Major Wayne learned a lot about the camels while on the expedition. He learned about the camel’s hump and how it was made up of gelatinous fat which provided the camel with sustenance when it was deprived of food. The camel was able to travel long distances, almost 60 hours non-stop if need be. He learned that the camel traveled well on leveled land and did fair on mountain and valley travel. Camels had calloused soles which enabled them to travel on sandy soils but weren’t well suited for wet clay and mud. Traveling through different terrains and plant life, the camel ate almost any kind of shrubs, even thorny ones. Camel meat was edible and resembled beef, and the milk it provided was similar to a cows. A camel was able to travel six to seven days without water which would solve the issue of not having water on the routes used in the United States.
After hiring people to serve as camel attendants and saddle makers, 33 camels made their way to the Texas coast on February 11, 1856. Having money left over from the expedition, Davis sent for more camels and on February 10, 1857 forty one more camels landed in Indianola, Texas. The camels were sent to join the first shipment northwest of San Antonio. Most of the camels were in overall good health except for few camels who had swollen legs from the long journey. The camels were marched west several miles at a time to help them get adjusted to their new home. The camels were moved from camp to camp until a perfect settlement was found in Camp Verde, Texas. The camels overall proved to be useful, being able to carry up to 600 pounds, and got accustomed to the terrain. There was also some mishaps with the camels as some got sick, and others had bad tempers. Many horses panicked around camels and soldiers did not want to be near them.
In February 1861 Confederate forces took over Camp Verde and with the U.S. Civil War about to break out, no one knew what to do with the animals. For a while the camels were used to travel to Arizona and California and carry supplies and messages. Some of the camels were used to give rides to children, and some were put on auction. Even though the camels proved to be useful, the people who were going to be using them were not convinced. They believed the camels could not make a difference and thought of them as a nuisance. Jefferson Davis who was the main advocate for the camels became President of the Confederate States and could no longer focus on the camels. The camel experiment ultimately failed and the soldiers continued to use horses, eventually upgrading transportation devices as technology advanced. [Joscelynn Garcia] | 1,120 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As part of RE, Year 6 have been discussing the term remembrance. We started off with a discussion about what the term meant.
Abigail – it means to remember the soldiers who fought in the war
Llukan – remembering loved ones
Anastasya – remembering past events that have happened and people who risked their lives for our country
We then discussed Remembrance day and what that day represents before talking about why it is important to have.
Josh T – it is important because it is an opportunity to remember the people who gave their lives for us
Rishita – it is important to remember those who died in the war
Anastasya – it is important as it shows that we respect what the people did
Khaltum – it is important as it shows appreciation
In RE we have been discussing fairness. The children watched a short video which included a situation where people weren’t being treated fairly. We paused the video at lots of different points to discuss what was happening in the situation, what we thought would be fair and how we thought the children in the video should behave.
What does ‘fair’ mean?
Paris – not being selfish towards other people
Rubylee – everybody gets their share
Miranda – not just thinking of yourself but others too
Tibet – having equal respect for everybody
Lucas – equal
Year 6 have been discussing rules in RE and why we have rules in the world. We also compared rules to laws and discussed how they are similar and again why they are needed in the world.
The children then worked in pairs to think of 10 rules for life. They had to imagine that everybody in the world would only have 10 rules to follow and they could decide what those 10 rules should be.
The children then watched a video that informed them of the 10 commandments from the Christian faith and had to think about how these were similar or different to the rules that they had come up with themselves.
Year 6 discussed what they thought “Roots and commitment” meant. It was a very interesting discussion.
We also discussed how roots and commitment are shown in this country. The children quickly remembered that we have “Remeberance Day”. This is a day the country has committed to remembering World War II. Remembering the past ensures we don’t forget the hardships or victories and how they were achieved.
The class then looked at commitment and what they felt people can and do and commit to.
We decided these were among the most important things to commit to:
We also read and discussed the story of Noah. He showed a lot of commitment as he worked for over a year to build the boat for his family and all the animals. His commitment to God was rewarded. His family survived the flood. We discussed how he would not have known that and and yet he committed regardless of his eventual “reward”.
We often commit to things for lots of reason and not always because we will gain something from it.
That is why a commitment is so hard yet satisfying.
Year 6 Eagles discussed unity and harmony.
They discussed their ideas of what it meant, talking about working together, ensuring there is no war, hatred or fights.
We looked at the story of Noah and how in Christianity, the story is told as God asking Noah to unite the people and follow his commandments. As the people didn’t, God sent rain for 40 days and 40 nights resulting in only Noah and his family being saved from the flood.
Year 6 then discussed Jainism, the oldest Indian language, older than Hinduism. It taught unity and harmony and as with all other religions- it taught forgiveness. A huge emphasis is put on forgiveness and the class discussed why.
“It makes you feel better.”
“To forgive means you keep your friends.”
In Jainism they used forgiveness circles and the class used this concept to research some forgiveness quotes. It turned out that the children were inspired to write their own!
Have a look and see what you think…
Eagles class have been discussing the importance of having rules in society in their RE lesson. They had a very informed discussion on what would happen if there were no rules and looked at how rules are of paramount importance within the religion of Sikhism.
In RE this week, year 6 have been looking into what we all need to survive. They created a mind map of all the elements required to allow us to strive as individuals, and discussed the importance of each one. Next week the children will be shown exactly what we require to survive and they will compare these with their own original ideas.
Year 6 have been invited to take part in a very special ‘Christmas card competition’. Steve McCabe (our local MP) has asked the children to design a Christmas card illustrating what Christmas means to them. The winning entry will be printed and used by Mr McCabe himself.
The child with the winning design will receive a prize such as tickets to the Snow Dome, Dudley Zoo or Cadbury World.
Today Year 6 have been focusing on the RE topic of what is ‘fair and just’. They have been learning about how people can be treated unfairly or with prejudice. We focused on how the Jewish population were persecuted during WWII, and how even today people are still suffering due to the prejudiced behaviour of others.
The children had a very grown up sensible discussion and were able to give their views and opinions on all aspects discussed.
Eagles today discussed feeling joyous! There were lots of great examples!
There were lots of wonderful examples which we went on to explore.
We looked a personal moments of feeling joy and collective times.
Receiving gifts and being included are lovely and are personal but celebrations can be collective.
We started discussing Eid Ul- Fitr which comes at the end of the month of fasting (Ramadan). As Ramadan is now, Eid will be in a few weeks. Lots of children remembered some of the facts about Ramadan. We will be looking at this again next week. | <urn:uuid:a2d7e092-943a-4b32-9f8a-9df62cda39c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://year6.bellsfarm.org/?cat=19 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.981957 | 1,255 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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0.6323054432... | 3 | As part of RE, Year 6 have been discussing the term remembrance. We started off with a discussion about what the term meant.
Abigail – it means to remember the soldiers who fought in the war
Llukan – remembering loved ones
Anastasya – remembering past events that have happened and people who risked their lives for our country
We then discussed Remembrance day and what that day represents before talking about why it is important to have.
Josh T – it is important because it is an opportunity to remember the people who gave their lives for us
Rishita – it is important to remember those who died in the war
Anastasya – it is important as it shows that we respect what the people did
Khaltum – it is important as it shows appreciation
In RE we have been discussing fairness. The children watched a short video which included a situation where people weren’t being treated fairly. We paused the video at lots of different points to discuss what was happening in the situation, what we thought would be fair and how we thought the children in the video should behave.
What does ‘fair’ mean?
Paris – not being selfish towards other people
Rubylee – everybody gets their share
Miranda – not just thinking of yourself but others too
Tibet – having equal respect for everybody
Lucas – equal
Year 6 have been discussing rules in RE and why we have rules in the world. We also compared rules to laws and discussed how they are similar and again why they are needed in the world.
The children then worked in pairs to think of 10 rules for life. They had to imagine that everybody in the world would only have 10 rules to follow and they could decide what those 10 rules should be.
The children then watched a video that informed them of the 10 commandments from the Christian faith and had to think about how these were similar or different to the rules that they had come up with themselves.
Year 6 discussed what they thought “Roots and commitment” meant. It was a very interesting discussion.
We also discussed how roots and commitment are shown in this country. The children quickly remembered that we have “Remeberance Day”. This is a day the country has committed to remembering World War II. Remembering the past ensures we don’t forget the hardships or victories and how they were achieved.
The class then looked at commitment and what they felt people can and do and commit to.
We decided these were among the most important things to commit to:
We also read and discussed the story of Noah. He showed a lot of commitment as he worked for over a year to build the boat for his family and all the animals. His commitment to God was rewarded. His family survived the flood. We discussed how he would not have known that and and yet he committed regardless of his eventual “reward”.
We often commit to things for lots of reason and not always because we will gain something from it.
That is why a commitment is so hard yet satisfying.
Year 6 Eagles discussed unity and harmony.
They discussed their ideas of what it meant, talking about working together, ensuring there is no war, hatred or fights.
We looked at the story of Noah and how in Christianity, the story is told as God asking Noah to unite the people and follow his commandments. As the people didn’t, God sent rain for 40 days and 40 nights resulting in only Noah and his family being saved from the flood.
Year 6 then discussed Jainism, the oldest Indian language, older than Hinduism. It taught unity and harmony and as with all other religions- it taught forgiveness. A huge emphasis is put on forgiveness and the class discussed why.
“It makes you feel better.”
“To forgive means you keep your friends.”
In Jainism they used forgiveness circles and the class used this concept to research some forgiveness quotes. It turned out that the children were inspired to write their own!
Have a look and see what you think…
Eagles class have been discussing the importance of having rules in society in their RE lesson. They had a very informed discussion on what would happen if there were no rules and looked at how rules are of paramount importance within the religion of Sikhism.
In RE this week, year 6 have been looking into what we all need to survive. They created a mind map of all the elements required to allow us to strive as individuals, and discussed the importance of each one. Next week the children will be shown exactly what we require to survive and they will compare these with their own original ideas.
Year 6 have been invited to take part in a very special ‘Christmas card competition’. Steve McCabe (our local MP) has asked the children to design a Christmas card illustrating what Christmas means to them. The winning entry will be printed and used by Mr McCabe himself.
The child with the winning design will receive a prize such as tickets to the Snow Dome, Dudley Zoo or Cadbury World.
Today Year 6 have been focusing on the RE topic of what is ‘fair and just’. They have been learning about how people can be treated unfairly or with prejudice. We focused on how the Jewish population were persecuted during WWII, and how even today people are still suffering due to the prejudiced behaviour of others.
The children had a very grown up sensible discussion and were able to give their views and opinions on all aspects discussed.
Eagles today discussed feeling joyous! There were lots of great examples!
There were lots of wonderful examples which we went on to explore.
We looked a personal moments of feeling joy and collective times.
Receiving gifts and being included are lovely and are personal but celebrations can be collective.
We started discussing Eid Ul- Fitr which comes at the end of the month of fasting (Ramadan). As Ramadan is now, Eid will be in a few weeks. Lots of children remembered some of the facts about Ramadan. We will be looking at this again next week. | 1,215 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who was Job in the Bible?
Question: "Who was Job in the Bible?"
Answer: The life of Job demonstrates that humans are often unaware of the many ways God is at work in the life of each believer. Job’s life is also one that prompts the common question, “Why do bad things happen to good people?” It is the age-old question, and difficult to answer, but believers know that God is always in control, and, no matter what happens, there are no coincidences—nothing happens by chance. Job was a believer; he knew that God was on the throne and in total control, though he had no way of knowing why so many terrible tragedies were occurring in his life.
Job was "blameless and upright; he feared God and shunned evil" (Job 1:1). He had ten children and was a man of great wealth. The Bible tells us that one day Satan presented himself before God and God asked Satan what he thought of Job. Satan accused Job of honoring God only because God had blessed him. So, God allowed Satan to take away Job’s wealth and his children. Later, God allowed Satan to afflict Job physically. Job grieved deeply but did not charge God with wrongdoing (Job 1:22; 42:7–8).
Job’s friends were certain that Job must have sinned in order to deserve punishment and argued with him about it. But Job maintained his innocence, though he confessed that he wanted to die and did ask questions of God. A younger man, Elihu, attempted to speak on God’s behalf before God, Himself, answered Job. Job 38—42 contain some of the most stunning poetry about the magnitude and might of God. Job responded to God’s discourse in humility and repentance, saying he had spoken of things he did not know (Job 40:3–5; 42:1–6). God told Job’s friends that He was angry with them for speaking falsehoods about Him, unlike Job who had spoken truth (Job 42:7–8). God told them to offer sacrifices and that Job would pray on their behalf and God would accept Job’s prayer. Job did so, likely forgiving his friends for their harshness himself. God restored Job’s fortunes two-fold (Job 42:10) and "blessed the latter part of Job’s life more than the former part" (Job 42:12). Job lived 140 years after his suffering.
Job never lost his faith in God, even under the most heartbreaking circumstances that tested him to his core. It’s hard to imagine losing everything we own in one day—property, possessions, and even children. Most men would sink into depression and perhaps even become suicidal after such massive loss. Though depressed enough to curse the day of his birth (Job 3:1–26), Job never cursed God (Job 2:9–10) nor did he waver in his understanding that God was still in control. Job’s three friends, on the other hand, instead of comforting him, gave him bad advice and even accused him of committing sins so grievous that God was punishing him with misery. Job knew God well enough to know that He did not work that way; in fact, he had such an intimate, personal relationship with Him that he was able to say, “Though he slay me, yet will I hope in him; I will surely defend my ways to his face” (Job 13:15). When Job’s wife suggested he curse God and die, Job replied "You are talking like a foolish woman. Shall we accept good from God, and not trouble?" (Job 2:10).
Job’s plight, from the death of his children and loss of his property to the physical torment he endured, plus the harangue of his so-called friends, never caused his faith to waver. He knew who his Redeemer was, he knew that He was a living Savior, and he knew that someday He would physically stand on the earth (Job 19:25). He understood that man’s days are ordained (numbered) and they cannot be changed (Job 14:5). The spiritual depth of Job shows throughout the book. James refers to Job as an example of perseverance, writing, "Brothers and sisters, as an example of patience in the face of suffering, take the prophets who spoke in the name of the Lord. As you know, we count as blessed those who have persevered. You have heard of Job’s perseverance and have seen what the Lord finally brought about. The Lord is full of compassion and mercy" (James 5:10–11).
There are also several scientific and historical facts in the book of Job. The book implied the earth is round long before the advent of modern science (Job 22:14). The book mentions dinosaurs—not by that name, but the description of the behemoth is certainly dinosaur-like—living side by side with man (Job 40:15–24).
The book of Job gives us a glimpse behind the veil that separates earthly life from the heavenly. In the beginning of the book, we see that Satan and his fallen angels are still allowed access to heaven, going in and out to the prescribed meetings that take place there. What is obvious from these accounts is that Satan is busy working his evil on earth, as recorded in Job 1:6–7. Also, this account shows how Satan is “the accuser of the brethren,” which corresponds to Revelation 12:10, and it shows his arrogance and pride, as written in Isaiah 14:13–14. It is amazing to see how Satan challenges God; he has no scruples about confronting the Most High. The account in Job shows Satan as he truly is—haughty and evil to the core.
Perhaps the greatest lesson we learn from the book of Job is that God does not have to answer to anyone for what He does or does not do. Job’s experience teaches us that we may never know the specific reason for suffering, but we must trust in our sovereign, holy, righteous God. His ways are perfect (Psalm 18:30). Since God’s ways are perfect, we can trust that whatever He does—and whatever He allows—is also perfect. We can’t expect to understand God’s mind perfectly, as He reminds us, “For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways. . . . For as the heavens are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher than your ways and my thoughts than your thoughts” (Isaiah 55:8–9).
Our responsibility to God is to obey Him, to trust Him, and to submit to His will, whether we understand it or not. When we do, we will find God in the midst of our trials—possibly even because of our trials. We will see more clearly the magnificence of our God, and we will say, with Job, “My ears had heard of you but now my eyes have seen you” (Job 42:5).
Recommended Resource: Job: A Man of Heroic Endurance by Charles Swindoll
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
Is the book of Job a true story or a parable/allegory?
The patience of Job—why is Job famous for being patient?
What was Elihu’s message to Job?
What is the importance of the land of Uz in the Bible?
Who was Aaron in the Bible?
Questions about People in the Bible
Who was Job in the Bible? | <urn:uuid:e5c1a884-00cf-415d-974c-409dc42ae774> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gotquestions.org/life-Job.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00188.warc.gz | en | 0.980914 | 1,603 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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Question: "Who was Job in the Bible?"
Answer: The life of Job demonstrates that humans are often unaware of the many ways God is at work in the life of each believer. Job’s life is also one that prompts the common question, “Why do bad things happen to good people?” It is the age-old question, and difficult to answer, but believers know that God is always in control, and, no matter what happens, there are no coincidences—nothing happens by chance. Job was a believer; he knew that God was on the throne and in total control, though he had no way of knowing why so many terrible tragedies were occurring in his life.
Job was "blameless and upright; he feared God and shunned evil" (Job 1:1). He had ten children and was a man of great wealth. The Bible tells us that one day Satan presented himself before God and God asked Satan what he thought of Job. Satan accused Job of honoring God only because God had blessed him. So, God allowed Satan to take away Job’s wealth and his children. Later, God allowed Satan to afflict Job physically. Job grieved deeply but did not charge God with wrongdoing (Job 1:22; 42:7–8).
Job’s friends were certain that Job must have sinned in order to deserve punishment and argued with him about it. But Job maintained his innocence, though he confessed that he wanted to die and did ask questions of God. A younger man, Elihu, attempted to speak on God’s behalf before God, Himself, answered Job. Job 38—42 contain some of the most stunning poetry about the magnitude and might of God. Job responded to God’s discourse in humility and repentance, saying he had spoken of things he did not know (Job 40:3–5; 42:1–6). God told Job’s friends that He was angry with them for speaking falsehoods about Him, unlike Job who had spoken truth (Job 42:7–8). God told them to offer sacrifices and that Job would pray on their behalf and God would accept Job’s prayer. Job did so, likely forgiving his friends for their harshness himself. God restored Job’s fortunes two-fold (Job 42:10) and "blessed the latter part of Job’s life more than the former part" (Job 42:12). Job lived 140 years after his suffering.
Job never lost his faith in God, even under the most heartbreaking circumstances that tested him to his core. It’s hard to imagine losing everything we own in one day—property, possessions, and even children. Most men would sink into depression and perhaps even become suicidal after such massive loss. Though depressed enough to curse the day of his birth (Job 3:1–26), Job never cursed God (Job 2:9–10) nor did he waver in his understanding that God was still in control. Job’s three friends, on the other hand, instead of comforting him, gave him bad advice and even accused him of committing sins so grievous that God was punishing him with misery. Job knew God well enough to know that He did not work that way; in fact, he had such an intimate, personal relationship with Him that he was able to say, “Though he slay me, yet will I hope in him; I will surely defend my ways to his face” (Job 13:15). When Job’s wife suggested he curse God and die, Job replied "You are talking like a foolish woman. Shall we accept good from God, and not trouble?" (Job 2:10).
Job’s plight, from the death of his children and loss of his property to the physical torment he endured, plus the harangue of his so-called friends, never caused his faith to waver. He knew who his Redeemer was, he knew that He was a living Savior, and he knew that someday He would physically stand on the earth (Job 19:25). He understood that man’s days are ordained (numbered) and they cannot be changed (Job 14:5). The spiritual depth of Job shows throughout the book. James refers to Job as an example of perseverance, writing, "Brothers and sisters, as an example of patience in the face of suffering, take the prophets who spoke in the name of the Lord. As you know, we count as blessed those who have persevered. You have heard of Job’s perseverance and have seen what the Lord finally brought about. The Lord is full of compassion and mercy" (James 5:10–11).
There are also several scientific and historical facts in the book of Job. The book implied the earth is round long before the advent of modern science (Job 22:14). The book mentions dinosaurs—not by that name, but the description of the behemoth is certainly dinosaur-like—living side by side with man (Job 40:15–24).
The book of Job gives us a glimpse behind the veil that separates earthly life from the heavenly. In the beginning of the book, we see that Satan and his fallen angels are still allowed access to heaven, going in and out to the prescribed meetings that take place there. What is obvious from these accounts is that Satan is busy working his evil on earth, as recorded in Job 1:6–7. Also, this account shows how Satan is “the accuser of the brethren,” which corresponds to Revelation 12:10, and it shows his arrogance and pride, as written in Isaiah 14:13–14. It is amazing to see how Satan challenges God; he has no scruples about confronting the Most High. The account in Job shows Satan as he truly is—haughty and evil to the core.
Perhaps the greatest lesson we learn from the book of Job is that God does not have to answer to anyone for what He does or does not do. Job’s experience teaches us that we may never know the specific reason for suffering, but we must trust in our sovereign, holy, righteous God. His ways are perfect (Psalm 18:30). Since God’s ways are perfect, we can trust that whatever He does—and whatever He allows—is also perfect. We can’t expect to understand God’s mind perfectly, as He reminds us, “For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways. . . . For as the heavens are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher than your ways and my thoughts than your thoughts” (Isaiah 55:8–9).
Our responsibility to God is to obey Him, to trust Him, and to submit to His will, whether we understand it or not. When we do, we will find God in the midst of our trials—possibly even because of our trials. We will see more clearly the magnificence of our God, and we will say, with Job, “My ears had heard of you but now my eyes have seen you” (Job 42:5).
Recommended Resource: Job: A Man of Heroic Endurance by Charles Swindoll
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
Is the book of Job a true story or a parable/allegory?
The patience of Job—why is Job famous for being patient?
What was Elihu’s message to Job?
What is the importance of the land of Uz in the Bible?
Who was Aaron in the Bible?
Questions about People in the Bible
Who was Job in the Bible? | 1,591 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When you think of the savagery of the Old West, Minnesota doesn’t leap to mind. Montana, yes; South Dakota, yes; Arizona, yes, but not a Midwestern state that sits on the eastern edge of the West.
Yet, Minnesota played a pivotal role in the bloody conflict between whites and Indians that spanned nearly three decades: it was here that the first great Plains Indian war began; that one of the most notorious Indian uprisings took hundreds of lives, and where America saw its “greatest mass execution.”
The state was only four years old—most of its young men were off fighting the Civil War—when it was thrust into a second “war within a war in its own backyard,” one that catapulted Minnesota into what became known as the “Great Sioux Uprising of 1862.”
This event launched a series of Indian wars on the Northern Plains that didn’t end until the Battle of Wounded Knee in 1890. But Minnesota is where it started.
And hunger began it.
The crops had failed in 1861 and that winter had been one of near starvation for the Sioux who had sold 24 million acres of rich agricultural land and now lived on reservations, existing on the annuity payments for their property, which totaled some $3 million. But the 1862 payments that normally came in late June and early July didn’t arrive. By mid-August, Indians began showing up at agency headquarters, demanding food from the warehouses, which they would pay for once their checks came.
Some agency officials gave them food; others were stingy. Storekeeper Andrew J. Myrick callously remarked, “If they’re hungry, let them eat grass.” He would die for those words.
But it was a trivial egg-stealing incident that mushroomed into war: six weeks of bloody, brutal fighting that took the lives of at least 450 white settlers and soldiers—and maybe as many as 800—and a couple of dozen Indian warriors.
As Chief Big Eagle told it, hunting had been unproductive for four weary and hungry Sioux warriors one hot August morning when they chanced upon a nest of chicken eggs near a farmhouse. One warrior took the eggs despite his companions’ warning that stealing from the whites would cause trouble. Dashing the eggs to the ground in anger, he shouted, “You are afraid of the white man, you are afraid to take eggs from him even though you are starving.”
According to Big Eagle, a companion angrily replied, “I am not afraid of the white man and to show I am not, I will go to his house and shoot him. Are you brave enough to go with me?” The others agreed to accompany him to the nearby homestead of Robinson Jones in Acton Township. Cunningly, they challenged Jones and his neighbors, Howard Baker and Veronius Webster, to test their marksmanship. A target was placed on a tree and the Indians and whites emptied their rifles at the mark. The Indians immediately reloaded, but the white men neglected to take that precaution. Suddenly, the Sioux turned on the settlers and brutally shot down Webster, Baker, Jones and his wife and Clara Wilson, their adopted daughter.
The four culprits, later identified by Big Eagle as Brown Wing, Killing Ghost, Breaking Up and Runs Against Something While Crawling, stole several horses and fled to their Rice Creek village on the Minnesota River. It was obvious to everyone that this was a bad situation—white women had been killed, which surely meant retaliation and possibly no more annuity checks.
The Great Sioux Uprising of 1862
Some chiefs immediately wanted to go to war; others urged caution, but all agreed only Little Crow had the ability and prestige to lead a successful attack.
Riders summoned Chiefs Mankato, Wabasha, Traveling Hail and Big Eagle to the home of Little Crow. As related by Big Eagle, Little Crow told the council, “Braves, you are like little children: you know not what you do. You are full of the white man’s devil water, you are like dogs in the hot moon that snap at their own shadows. We are like little herds of buffalo; the great herds are no more. The whites are as many as the locusts. Kill one or ten whites and ten times ten will come to kill you. Count your fingers all day long and the whites with guns will come faster than you can count.” Little Crow’s admonitions—which history would prove to be prophetic—went unheeded so he reluctantly agreed to lead the uprising.
The carnage began immediately. Small bands of Indians swooped down on unsuspecting homesteaders. The men were quickly gunned down and axed by the warriors while the women and children were assaulted and either killed or taken captive. After plundering the homes and barns, the Indians burned the farms and fields.
Encouraged by their early successes and the whites’ feeble response, the Indians turned their attentions to the settlements. Anticipating an easy victory, several hundred armed and painted Indians surrounded Lower Agency. The unarmed whites were quickly overwhelmed.
Andrew Myrick was among the first to die. He was found near his home, his mouth stuffed with grass.
The Sioux swept through the Minnesota Valley in an orgy of killing, raping, looting and burning. The whites who survived told of the bone-chilling war hoops that accompanied unmerciful attacks on loved ones. Panicked homesteaders fled to the larger settlements for safety, often relying on the walls of brick buildings to survive. One hotel, the two-story Dacotah House “was so crowded, the women had to remove their hoop skirts.”
One hero, a Christian Indian named John Other Day, led 62 whites across the river to safety. In retaliation, the Indians burned his farm and destroyed his crops. After the uprising, a grateful government awarded him $2,500 for his bravery.
The last significant battle occurred on September 23 when Col. Henry Sibley, who commanded a force of 1,619 men, faced off against 1,000 Indians. Sibley’s command camped at Battle Lake near present-day Echo. That night, the Sioux stealthily approached. At dawn, the raiders attacked in a fan-shaped formation, yet Capt. Mark Hendrick’s howitzers “mowed down the Indians like grass.”
It was a decisive victory for Col. Sibley. In a letter to his wife, he stated the Indians “received a severe blow and will not be able to make another stand.” His assumption was correct. There would be no more organized warfare by the Sioux in Minnesota. Now, the troops could concentrate on release of the captives and capture of the troublemakers.
Sibley was concerned Little Crow would kill all the hostages and indeed, the Sioux chief wanted to do just that. Fortunately, by this time, Little Crow’s influence had waned and the Indians refused to carry out his wishes. Chiefs Wabasha and Taopi were desperately trying to end the hostilities and Little Paul, a highly respected Sioux orator, spoke strongly in favor of ending the warfare and releasing the prisoners. As a result, Wabasha sent Joseph Campbell, a mixed-blood (people of mixed Indian and white ancestry), to let Sibley know the captives were safe and the soldiers could come for them.
Military Trial—“A Travesty of Justice”
The captives were held at a camp near the mouth of the Chippewa River near Montevideo. It quickly became known as Camp Release. Sibley, with an escort of troops, entered the Indian Camp, “with drums beating and colors flying.” An eyewitness wrote, “The poor creatures, half starved and nearly naked, wept with joy at their release.” The rescued numbered 269—mostly women and children—the men having been killed.
Sibley sent most of the rescued to Fort Ridgely; orphaned children were sent to settlements near their homes and most were adopted by relatives. Some women remained at Camp Release to testify at the trials of the Indians.
Nearly 2,000 Sioux were taken into custody and trials began almost immediately. A five-man military commission, headed by Col. William Crooks, prepared to try the accused.
Joseph Godfrey, a mixed-blood, greatly aided the prosecution. Godfrey was the first person tried and sentenced to hang, but his sentence was reduced to 10 years imprisonment when he agreed to testify. Intelligent and articulate, he helped convict many Indians. (Godfrey was released after three years and farmed peacefully near Niobrara, Nebraska, until his death in 1909.)
Urged to hurry, the commission settled as many as 40 cases each day, some lasting just five minutes. “Reading the records today buttresses the impression that the trials were a travesty of justice,” writes Kenneth Carley in his 1976 account of the uprising for the Minnesota Historical Society. “It is true that those in charge had to resist public pressure to do away with all the Indians, guilty and innocent alike, and it must also be pointed out that the trials were conducted by a military commission and not by a court of law. Nevertheless, many of the proceedings were too hasty and quite a number of prisoners were condemned on flimsy evidence.”
On November 5, the commission finished its work. Of 392 Indians tried, 307 were sentenced to hang and 16 were given prison terms. Col. Sibley approved all but one death sentence—the exception being the brother of John Other Day.
Most of the Indians were naive and couldn’t understand why they were being punished for honorable warfare. Many offered ridiculous extenuating circumstances. Some admitted firing only one or two shots, but argued they never hit anyone because they were such poor shots and their guns were inaccurate. Others claimed to be eating corn during the battles, while some had bellyaches and weren’t able to join the fighting. One admitted stealing a horse, “but it was a very small one.”
President Lincoln Names the Condemned
Sibley wanted to execute the condemned at once but was unsure of his authority. Therefore, on November 7, he forwarded a list of the condemned and complete records of their convictions to President Lincoln. The president received many appeals from the press, Minnesota Governor Ramsey and others urging immediate execution. Episcopalian Bishop Henry Whipple was one of the few who urged clemency: “This affair must not be settled with passion, but by calm thought.”
Lincoln heeded the advice of those seeking mercy and on December 6, 1862, commuted the death sentences of all but 39 warriors who had been convicted of wanton murder and rape. The president’s decision—he hand-wrote every name on Executive Mansion stationery—was unpopular with most Minnesotans. (One man on the list would later get a reprieve, leaving 38 to die.)
The condemned were held at Camp Lincoln but when enraged citizens threatened “frontier justice,” the Indians were moved to a more secure jail in Mankato to await execution on December 26.
On Christmas Day, families of the 38 were allowed a last visit. Most of the Indians were resigned to their fate. Rdainyanka, son-in-law of Chief Wabasha and a leader in the uprising, eloquently wrote his father-in-law, “I am set apart for execution and will die in a few days. My wife and children are dear to me. Let them not grieve for me. Let them remember that the brave should be prepared to meet death and I will do as becomes a Dakota.”
At dawn on December 26, the 38 began chanting their death songs. Their chains were removed and their arms were bound with ropes. At 10 a.m., they were taken from the prison to the huge wooden scaffold. Martial law had been declared and 1,400 soldiers surrounded the condemned. Thousands of civilians thronged the area to watch the proceedings. To a slow, measured drumbeat, the Sioux climbed the stairs of the scaffold. At the end of the third drum roll, William Duley, an uprising survivor, stepped forward and cut the rope to release the traps. As the 38 dropped to their deaths, there was a prolonged cheer from the soldiers and citizens. This would become known as “America’s greatest mass execution.”
Sioux War Aftermath
Little Crow, leader of the uprising, was conspicuously absent from the trials and punishment. When the fighting ended, he had fled to Canada. In June 1863, accompanied by 16 warriors, Little Crow returned to Minnesota to steal horses. It would be his last foray. Several whites were killed at this time and Little Crow’s band was assumed responsible. On July 3, the chief and his son Wowinapa were ambushed near Hutchinson by Nathan and Chauncey Lamson. Little Crow was killed and taken to Hutchinson where he was scalped, mutilated and buried in a pile of offal. In 1971, he received a more dignified burial when his remains were interred at Flandrau in a quiet ceremony. Little Crow’s grandson, 88-year-old Jesse Wakeman, said, “We decided Ta-O-Ya-Te-Dutah [Little Crow] should be buried among his own with only his own on hand.”
The executions weren’t the end of the Sioux Wars. Minnesotans retaliated against all Indians, whether they’d been involved in the uprising or not. “The Sioux Indians of Minnesota must be exterminated or driven forever beyond the borders of the state,” Governor Ramsey declared. He demanded, and Congress agreed, that the Indians’ annuity money should be spent to compensate white victims of the uprising (even though some of the claims were so extravagant, they were outrageous).
The Minnesota government even persecuted a peaceful Winnebago tribe that had taken no part in the Sioux War. That the Winnebagos “lived on choice farm lands coveted by the whites raises a presumption that the settlers may well have been prompted by economic motives, coupled with fear and prejudice in wanting to get rid of the unfortunate Winnebago,” Carley writes.
And of course, this was just the beginning of blood that would flow for decades.
As Carley reports, “The Minnesota Uprising of 1862 was still fresh in the nation’s memory when it became aware of such Indian leaders as Red Cloud, Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. Bloody battles at Fort Phil Kearny, the Little Bighorn, and, in 1890, Wounded Knee, brought to an end at last the generation of Indian warfare that had begun at Acton in August, 1862.”
Larry H. Johns is a freelance writer who lives most of the year in Bloomington, Minnesota, but spends his winters in Arizona. He often writes about sports and logging and became fascinated by the 1862 uprising when he moved to Minnesota in 1965. | <urn:uuid:b65ecb8a-dcfe-4cfd-a30b-cd457a68f3b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://truewestmagazine.com/article/if-theyre-hungry-let-them-eat-grass/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00467.warc.gz | en | 0.984668 | 3,167 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.46860346... | 7 | When you think of the savagery of the Old West, Minnesota doesn’t leap to mind. Montana, yes; South Dakota, yes; Arizona, yes, but not a Midwestern state that sits on the eastern edge of the West.
Yet, Minnesota played a pivotal role in the bloody conflict between whites and Indians that spanned nearly three decades: it was here that the first great Plains Indian war began; that one of the most notorious Indian uprisings took hundreds of lives, and where America saw its “greatest mass execution.”
The state was only four years old—most of its young men were off fighting the Civil War—when it was thrust into a second “war within a war in its own backyard,” one that catapulted Minnesota into what became known as the “Great Sioux Uprising of 1862.”
This event launched a series of Indian wars on the Northern Plains that didn’t end until the Battle of Wounded Knee in 1890. But Minnesota is where it started.
And hunger began it.
The crops had failed in 1861 and that winter had been one of near starvation for the Sioux who had sold 24 million acres of rich agricultural land and now lived on reservations, existing on the annuity payments for their property, which totaled some $3 million. But the 1862 payments that normally came in late June and early July didn’t arrive. By mid-August, Indians began showing up at agency headquarters, demanding food from the warehouses, which they would pay for once their checks came.
Some agency officials gave them food; others were stingy. Storekeeper Andrew J. Myrick callously remarked, “If they’re hungry, let them eat grass.” He would die for those words.
But it was a trivial egg-stealing incident that mushroomed into war: six weeks of bloody, brutal fighting that took the lives of at least 450 white settlers and soldiers—and maybe as many as 800—and a couple of dozen Indian warriors.
As Chief Big Eagle told it, hunting had been unproductive for four weary and hungry Sioux warriors one hot August morning when they chanced upon a nest of chicken eggs near a farmhouse. One warrior took the eggs despite his companions’ warning that stealing from the whites would cause trouble. Dashing the eggs to the ground in anger, he shouted, “You are afraid of the white man, you are afraid to take eggs from him even though you are starving.”
According to Big Eagle, a companion angrily replied, “I am not afraid of the white man and to show I am not, I will go to his house and shoot him. Are you brave enough to go with me?” The others agreed to accompany him to the nearby homestead of Robinson Jones in Acton Township. Cunningly, they challenged Jones and his neighbors, Howard Baker and Veronius Webster, to test their marksmanship. A target was placed on a tree and the Indians and whites emptied their rifles at the mark. The Indians immediately reloaded, but the white men neglected to take that precaution. Suddenly, the Sioux turned on the settlers and brutally shot down Webster, Baker, Jones and his wife and Clara Wilson, their adopted daughter.
The four culprits, later identified by Big Eagle as Brown Wing, Killing Ghost, Breaking Up and Runs Against Something While Crawling, stole several horses and fled to their Rice Creek village on the Minnesota River. It was obvious to everyone that this was a bad situation—white women had been killed, which surely meant retaliation and possibly no more annuity checks.
The Great Sioux Uprising of 1862
Some chiefs immediately wanted to go to war; others urged caution, but all agreed only Little Crow had the ability and prestige to lead a successful attack.
Riders summoned Chiefs Mankato, Wabasha, Traveling Hail and Big Eagle to the home of Little Crow. As related by Big Eagle, Little Crow told the council, “Braves, you are like little children: you know not what you do. You are full of the white man’s devil water, you are like dogs in the hot moon that snap at their own shadows. We are like little herds of buffalo; the great herds are no more. The whites are as many as the locusts. Kill one or ten whites and ten times ten will come to kill you. Count your fingers all day long and the whites with guns will come faster than you can count.” Little Crow’s admonitions—which history would prove to be prophetic—went unheeded so he reluctantly agreed to lead the uprising.
The carnage began immediately. Small bands of Indians swooped down on unsuspecting homesteaders. The men were quickly gunned down and axed by the warriors while the women and children were assaulted and either killed or taken captive. After plundering the homes and barns, the Indians burned the farms and fields.
Encouraged by their early successes and the whites’ feeble response, the Indians turned their attentions to the settlements. Anticipating an easy victory, several hundred armed and painted Indians surrounded Lower Agency. The unarmed whites were quickly overwhelmed.
Andrew Myrick was among the first to die. He was found near his home, his mouth stuffed with grass.
The Sioux swept through the Minnesota Valley in an orgy of killing, raping, looting and burning. The whites who survived told of the bone-chilling war hoops that accompanied unmerciful attacks on loved ones. Panicked homesteaders fled to the larger settlements for safety, often relying on the walls of brick buildings to survive. One hotel, the two-story Dacotah House “was so crowded, the women had to remove their hoop skirts.”
One hero, a Christian Indian named John Other Day, led 62 whites across the river to safety. In retaliation, the Indians burned his farm and destroyed his crops. After the uprising, a grateful government awarded him $2,500 for his bravery.
The last significant battle occurred on September 23 when Col. Henry Sibley, who commanded a force of 1,619 men, faced off against 1,000 Indians. Sibley’s command camped at Battle Lake near present-day Echo. That night, the Sioux stealthily approached. At dawn, the raiders attacked in a fan-shaped formation, yet Capt. Mark Hendrick’s howitzers “mowed down the Indians like grass.”
It was a decisive victory for Col. Sibley. In a letter to his wife, he stated the Indians “received a severe blow and will not be able to make another stand.” His assumption was correct. There would be no more organized warfare by the Sioux in Minnesota. Now, the troops could concentrate on release of the captives and capture of the troublemakers.
Sibley was concerned Little Crow would kill all the hostages and indeed, the Sioux chief wanted to do just that. Fortunately, by this time, Little Crow’s influence had waned and the Indians refused to carry out his wishes. Chiefs Wabasha and Taopi were desperately trying to end the hostilities and Little Paul, a highly respected Sioux orator, spoke strongly in favor of ending the warfare and releasing the prisoners. As a result, Wabasha sent Joseph Campbell, a mixed-blood (people of mixed Indian and white ancestry), to let Sibley know the captives were safe and the soldiers could come for them.
Military Trial—“A Travesty of Justice”
The captives were held at a camp near the mouth of the Chippewa River near Montevideo. It quickly became known as Camp Release. Sibley, with an escort of troops, entered the Indian Camp, “with drums beating and colors flying.” An eyewitness wrote, “The poor creatures, half starved and nearly naked, wept with joy at their release.” The rescued numbered 269—mostly women and children—the men having been killed.
Sibley sent most of the rescued to Fort Ridgely; orphaned children were sent to settlements near their homes and most were adopted by relatives. Some women remained at Camp Release to testify at the trials of the Indians.
Nearly 2,000 Sioux were taken into custody and trials began almost immediately. A five-man military commission, headed by Col. William Crooks, prepared to try the accused.
Joseph Godfrey, a mixed-blood, greatly aided the prosecution. Godfrey was the first person tried and sentenced to hang, but his sentence was reduced to 10 years imprisonment when he agreed to testify. Intelligent and articulate, he helped convict many Indians. (Godfrey was released after three years and farmed peacefully near Niobrara, Nebraska, until his death in 1909.)
Urged to hurry, the commission settled as many as 40 cases each day, some lasting just five minutes. “Reading the records today buttresses the impression that the trials were a travesty of justice,” writes Kenneth Carley in his 1976 account of the uprising for the Minnesota Historical Society. “It is true that those in charge had to resist public pressure to do away with all the Indians, guilty and innocent alike, and it must also be pointed out that the trials were conducted by a military commission and not by a court of law. Nevertheless, many of the proceedings were too hasty and quite a number of prisoners were condemned on flimsy evidence.”
On November 5, the commission finished its work. Of 392 Indians tried, 307 were sentenced to hang and 16 were given prison terms. Col. Sibley approved all but one death sentence—the exception being the brother of John Other Day.
Most of the Indians were naive and couldn’t understand why they were being punished for honorable warfare. Many offered ridiculous extenuating circumstances. Some admitted firing only one or two shots, but argued they never hit anyone because they were such poor shots and their guns were inaccurate. Others claimed to be eating corn during the battles, while some had bellyaches and weren’t able to join the fighting. One admitted stealing a horse, “but it was a very small one.”
President Lincoln Names the Condemned
Sibley wanted to execute the condemned at once but was unsure of his authority. Therefore, on November 7, he forwarded a list of the condemned and complete records of their convictions to President Lincoln. The president received many appeals from the press, Minnesota Governor Ramsey and others urging immediate execution. Episcopalian Bishop Henry Whipple was one of the few who urged clemency: “This affair must not be settled with passion, but by calm thought.”
Lincoln heeded the advice of those seeking mercy and on December 6, 1862, commuted the death sentences of all but 39 warriors who had been convicted of wanton murder and rape. The president’s decision—he hand-wrote every name on Executive Mansion stationery—was unpopular with most Minnesotans. (One man on the list would later get a reprieve, leaving 38 to die.)
The condemned were held at Camp Lincoln but when enraged citizens threatened “frontier justice,” the Indians were moved to a more secure jail in Mankato to await execution on December 26.
On Christmas Day, families of the 38 were allowed a last visit. Most of the Indians were resigned to their fate. Rdainyanka, son-in-law of Chief Wabasha and a leader in the uprising, eloquently wrote his father-in-law, “I am set apart for execution and will die in a few days. My wife and children are dear to me. Let them not grieve for me. Let them remember that the brave should be prepared to meet death and I will do as becomes a Dakota.”
At dawn on December 26, the 38 began chanting their death songs. Their chains were removed and their arms were bound with ropes. At 10 a.m., they were taken from the prison to the huge wooden scaffold. Martial law had been declared and 1,400 soldiers surrounded the condemned. Thousands of civilians thronged the area to watch the proceedings. To a slow, measured drumbeat, the Sioux climbed the stairs of the scaffold. At the end of the third drum roll, William Duley, an uprising survivor, stepped forward and cut the rope to release the traps. As the 38 dropped to their deaths, there was a prolonged cheer from the soldiers and citizens. This would become known as “America’s greatest mass execution.”
Sioux War Aftermath
Little Crow, leader of the uprising, was conspicuously absent from the trials and punishment. When the fighting ended, he had fled to Canada. In June 1863, accompanied by 16 warriors, Little Crow returned to Minnesota to steal horses. It would be his last foray. Several whites were killed at this time and Little Crow’s band was assumed responsible. On July 3, the chief and his son Wowinapa were ambushed near Hutchinson by Nathan and Chauncey Lamson. Little Crow was killed and taken to Hutchinson where he was scalped, mutilated and buried in a pile of offal. In 1971, he received a more dignified burial when his remains were interred at Flandrau in a quiet ceremony. Little Crow’s grandson, 88-year-old Jesse Wakeman, said, “We decided Ta-O-Ya-Te-Dutah [Little Crow] should be buried among his own with only his own on hand.”
The executions weren’t the end of the Sioux Wars. Minnesotans retaliated against all Indians, whether they’d been involved in the uprising or not. “The Sioux Indians of Minnesota must be exterminated or driven forever beyond the borders of the state,” Governor Ramsey declared. He demanded, and Congress agreed, that the Indians’ annuity money should be spent to compensate white victims of the uprising (even though some of the claims were so extravagant, they were outrageous).
The Minnesota government even persecuted a peaceful Winnebago tribe that had taken no part in the Sioux War. That the Winnebagos “lived on choice farm lands coveted by the whites raises a presumption that the settlers may well have been prompted by economic motives, coupled with fear and prejudice in wanting to get rid of the unfortunate Winnebago,” Carley writes.
And of course, this was just the beginning of blood that would flow for decades.
As Carley reports, “The Minnesota Uprising of 1862 was still fresh in the nation’s memory when it became aware of such Indian leaders as Red Cloud, Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. Bloody battles at Fort Phil Kearny, the Little Bighorn, and, in 1890, Wounded Knee, brought to an end at last the generation of Indian warfare that had begun at Acton in August, 1862.”
Larry H. Johns is a freelance writer who lives most of the year in Bloomington, Minnesota, but spends his winters in Arizona. He often writes about sports and logging and became fascinated by the 1862 uprising when he moved to Minnesota in 1965. | 3,131 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day …….. 27th September 1990
The town of Gundagai is located on the Murrumbidgee River 390 km south-west of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Australian explorer Hamilton Hume, together with immigrant William Hovell, were the first Europeans to visit when they passed through the area in 1824, and their expedition subsequently opened up the area for farming land. Explorer Charles Sturt identified a spot near Gundagai as the best crossing point of the river for coaches and drovers. A settlement gradually grew up along the Murrumbidgee River at the river crossing, and by 1852, there were around 300 people living along the river flats. The flats had already shown they were prone to flooding, but people ignored the warnings and stayed in close proximity to the water. Torrential rain had been falling in the Snowy Mountains for most of the month of June 1852. Despite the rising river, many people chose to wait out the floods in the lofts of their houses rather than evacuate, as they were familiar with floods. However, in the early hours of 25 June 1852, a torrent swept down the Murrumbidgee valley. Houses collapsed and people were swept away. A punt sent out to rescue people capsized, its occupants thrown into the raging waters. Two Aborigines, Yarri and Jackey Jackey, showed great courage and heroism as they took their canoes out into the torrent to rescue people stranded in trees and the water. Although they rescued 49, another 89 were killed in the Gundagai flood. After another, higher flood in 1853, the town was relocated at its current site on the hill, Mount Parnassus, above the river. Yarri, who led the rescue, has been honoured through the years with various small monuments around the town. On 27 September 1990, NSW Premier Nick Greiner formally unveiled a headstone for Yarri’s grave, which had lain unmarked for a century. | <urn:uuid:67ca641e-9609-4387-8180-804c8a3de42d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://twistedhistory.net.au/2017/09/27/aboriginal-hero-yarri-honoured-with-a-headstone-1852-gundagai-floods-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.986081 | 406 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.4283681213855... | 7 | On this day …….. 27th September 1990
The town of Gundagai is located on the Murrumbidgee River 390 km south-west of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Australian explorer Hamilton Hume, together with immigrant William Hovell, were the first Europeans to visit when they passed through the area in 1824, and their expedition subsequently opened up the area for farming land. Explorer Charles Sturt identified a spot near Gundagai as the best crossing point of the river for coaches and drovers. A settlement gradually grew up along the Murrumbidgee River at the river crossing, and by 1852, there were around 300 people living along the river flats. The flats had already shown they were prone to flooding, but people ignored the warnings and stayed in close proximity to the water. Torrential rain had been falling in the Snowy Mountains for most of the month of June 1852. Despite the rising river, many people chose to wait out the floods in the lofts of their houses rather than evacuate, as they were familiar with floods. However, in the early hours of 25 June 1852, a torrent swept down the Murrumbidgee valley. Houses collapsed and people were swept away. A punt sent out to rescue people capsized, its occupants thrown into the raging waters. Two Aborigines, Yarri and Jackey Jackey, showed great courage and heroism as they took their canoes out into the torrent to rescue people stranded in trees and the water. Although they rescued 49, another 89 were killed in the Gundagai flood. After another, higher flood in 1853, the town was relocated at its current site on the hill, Mount Parnassus, above the river. Yarri, who led the rescue, has been honoured through the years with various small monuments around the town. On 27 September 1990, NSW Premier Nick Greiner formally unveiled a headstone for Yarri’s grave, which had lain unmarked for a century. | 447 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The British postal system was the Royal Mail because it was originally used only for sending royal and government communications. In 1635 Charles I made the service available to the general public, but 200 years later the system was an archaic, expensive mess, from which it was rescued by schoolteacher, Rowland Hill. In 1835, Hill published a pamphlet entitled ‘Post Office Reform’ which led to various reforms and the introduction of the first postage stamp. On 10 January 1840, the ‘Uniform Penny Post’ was established throughout the UK and Ireland, facilitating the safe, speedy and cheap conveyance of letters, and from 6 May could be prepaid with the first postage stamp, known as the Penny Black, writes JIM REES.
A good idea often springs from asking ‘what if’? Take something as straight-forward as posting a letter. How could such a simple task be made more efficient and profitable? Answer: you just turn it on its head so that the person who pays for the delivery of the letter is not the addressee, but the sender.
That means that the service gets the money up front and it really doesn’t matter if the addressee accepts it or not.
That’s the way it works now, but it wasn’t always like that. Originally, the charge was paid by the receiver, but what if he or she didn’t want it (might be a bill!) and refused to pay for it? Then the service was out of pocket.
If the sender really wants something delivered then the sender should pay. Simple.
The English General Post Office was established by Charles I in 1643, but it was only one of several systems. Private enterprises and individual contractors had preceded it and they continued to operate after its introduction.
In the 1650s, Oliver Cromwell’s administration gave the state postal system official sanction in an effort to give it a greater coherence. Cromwell died in 1658 and his son Richard succeeded him as Lord Protector, a king in all but name.
But many people wanted the ‘real’ monarchy back and when Charles II was crowned king in 1660, in what is known in England as the Restoration of the Monarchy, one of his first acts was to take a more than passing interest in the postal service.
Charles and his followers were paranoid. They were suspicious of everything they did not control. They knew that letters were ripe for sedition – they knew it because they had used it to great effect in getting the monarchy restored!
What had been a useful weapon in their intrigues would be equally dangerous to them now that they were back in power.
The General Post Office was more or less turned into a monopoly.
Now that it was an arm of government, letters, packages and parcels entrusted to it were, for the duration of transit, the Royal Mail – and, by definition, the property of the monarch. | <urn:uuid:8b868d10-9a3b-464f-b5ac-dc7ad4dd1d4b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.irelandsown.ie/the-penny-post/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00050.warc.gz | en | 0.985676 | 608 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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-0.17113497853... | 9 | The British postal system was the Royal Mail because it was originally used only for sending royal and government communications. In 1635 Charles I made the service available to the general public, but 200 years later the system was an archaic, expensive mess, from which it was rescued by schoolteacher, Rowland Hill. In 1835, Hill published a pamphlet entitled ‘Post Office Reform’ which led to various reforms and the introduction of the first postage stamp. On 10 January 1840, the ‘Uniform Penny Post’ was established throughout the UK and Ireland, facilitating the safe, speedy and cheap conveyance of letters, and from 6 May could be prepaid with the first postage stamp, known as the Penny Black, writes JIM REES.
A good idea often springs from asking ‘what if’? Take something as straight-forward as posting a letter. How could such a simple task be made more efficient and profitable? Answer: you just turn it on its head so that the person who pays for the delivery of the letter is not the addressee, but the sender.
That means that the service gets the money up front and it really doesn’t matter if the addressee accepts it or not.
That’s the way it works now, but it wasn’t always like that. Originally, the charge was paid by the receiver, but what if he or she didn’t want it (might be a bill!) and refused to pay for it? Then the service was out of pocket.
If the sender really wants something delivered then the sender should pay. Simple.
The English General Post Office was established by Charles I in 1643, but it was only one of several systems. Private enterprises and individual contractors had preceded it and they continued to operate after its introduction.
In the 1650s, Oliver Cromwell’s administration gave the state postal system official sanction in an effort to give it a greater coherence. Cromwell died in 1658 and his son Richard succeeded him as Lord Protector, a king in all but name.
But many people wanted the ‘real’ monarchy back and when Charles II was crowned king in 1660, in what is known in England as the Restoration of the Monarchy, one of his first acts was to take a more than passing interest in the postal service.
Charles and his followers were paranoid. They were suspicious of everything they did not control. They knew that letters were ripe for sedition – they knew it because they had used it to great effect in getting the monarchy restored!
What had been a useful weapon in their intrigues would be equally dangerous to them now that they were back in power.
The General Post Office was more or less turned into a monopoly.
Now that it was an arm of government, letters, packages and parcels entrusted to it were, for the duration of transit, the Royal Mail – and, by definition, the property of the monarch. | 605 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Was Lewis Howard Latimer?
Inventor and engineer Lewis Howard Latimer was born to parents who had fled slavery. Latimer learned the art of mechanical drawing while working at a patent firm. Over the course of his career as a draftsman, Latimer worked closely with Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell, in addition to designing his own inventions.
Early Life and Family
Latimer was born in Chelsea, Massachusetts, on September 4, 1848. Latimer was the youngest of four children born to George and Rebecca Latimer, who had escaped from slavery in Virginia six years before his birth. Captured in Boston and brought to trial as a fugitive, George Latimer was defended by abolitionists Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison. He was eventually able to purchase his freedom, with the help of a local minister, and began raising a family with Rebecca in nearby Chelsea. George disappeared shortly after the Dred Scott decision in 1857, possibly fearing a return to slavery and the South.
Helping to Patent the Telephone and Light Bulb
After his father's departure, Latimer worked to help support his mother and family. In 1864, at the age of 16, Latimer lied about his age in order to enlist in the United States Navy during the Civil War. Returning to Boston after an honorable discharge, he accepted a menial position at the Crosby and Gould patent law office. He taught himself mechanical drawing and drafting by observing the work of draftsmen at the firm. Recognizing Latimer's talent and promise, the firm partners promoted him from office boy to draftsman. In addition to assisting others, Latimer designed a number of his own inventions, including an improved railroad car bathroom and an early air conditioning unit.
Latimer's talents were well-matched to the post-Civil War period, which saw a large number of scientific and engineering breakthroughs. Latimer was directly involved with one of these inventions: the telephone. Working with Bell, Latimer helped draft the patent for Bell's design of the telephone. He was also involved in the field of incandescent lighting, a particularly competitive field, working for Hiram Maxim and Edison.
Latimer's deep knowledge of both patents and electrical engineering made Latimer an indispensable partner to Edison as he promoted and defended his light bulb design. In 1890, Latimer published a book entitled Incandescent Electric Lighting: A Practical Description of the Edison System. He continued to work as a patent consultant until 1922.
Personal Life and Death
Latimer married Mary Wilson in 1873, and they had two daughters together. The Latimers were active members of the Unitarian Church and Latimer was consistently involved in Civil War veterans groups, including the Grand Army of the Republic. In addition to his drafting skills, Latimer enjoyed other creative pastimes, including playing the flute and writing poetry and plays. In his spare time, he taught mechanical drawing and English to recent immigrants at the Henry Street Settlement in New York.
Lewis Howard Latimer died on December 11, 1928, in Flushing, Queens, New York. His wife, Mary, predeceased him by four years.
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0.04046349227428... | 5 | Who Was Lewis Howard Latimer?
Inventor and engineer Lewis Howard Latimer was born to parents who had fled slavery. Latimer learned the art of mechanical drawing while working at a patent firm. Over the course of his career as a draftsman, Latimer worked closely with Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell, in addition to designing his own inventions.
Early Life and Family
Latimer was born in Chelsea, Massachusetts, on September 4, 1848. Latimer was the youngest of four children born to George and Rebecca Latimer, who had escaped from slavery in Virginia six years before his birth. Captured in Boston and brought to trial as a fugitive, George Latimer was defended by abolitionists Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison. He was eventually able to purchase his freedom, with the help of a local minister, and began raising a family with Rebecca in nearby Chelsea. George disappeared shortly after the Dred Scott decision in 1857, possibly fearing a return to slavery and the South.
Helping to Patent the Telephone and Light Bulb
After his father's departure, Latimer worked to help support his mother and family. In 1864, at the age of 16, Latimer lied about his age in order to enlist in the United States Navy during the Civil War. Returning to Boston after an honorable discharge, he accepted a menial position at the Crosby and Gould patent law office. He taught himself mechanical drawing and drafting by observing the work of draftsmen at the firm. Recognizing Latimer's talent and promise, the firm partners promoted him from office boy to draftsman. In addition to assisting others, Latimer designed a number of his own inventions, including an improved railroad car bathroom and an early air conditioning unit.
Latimer's talents were well-matched to the post-Civil War period, which saw a large number of scientific and engineering breakthroughs. Latimer was directly involved with one of these inventions: the telephone. Working with Bell, Latimer helped draft the patent for Bell's design of the telephone. He was also involved in the field of incandescent lighting, a particularly competitive field, working for Hiram Maxim and Edison.
Latimer's deep knowledge of both patents and electrical engineering made Latimer an indispensable partner to Edison as he promoted and defended his light bulb design. In 1890, Latimer published a book entitled Incandescent Electric Lighting: A Practical Description of the Edison System. He continued to work as a patent consultant until 1922.
Personal Life and Death
Latimer married Mary Wilson in 1873, and they had two daughters together. The Latimers were active members of the Unitarian Church and Latimer was consistently involved in Civil War veterans groups, including the Grand Army of the Republic. In addition to his drafting skills, Latimer enjoyed other creative pastimes, including playing the flute and writing poetry and plays. In his spare time, he taught mechanical drawing and English to recent immigrants at the Henry Street Settlement in New York.
Lewis Howard Latimer died on December 11, 1928, in Flushing, Queens, New York. His wife, Mary, predeceased him by four years.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 682 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In answer to the question do frogs have teeth most frogs do in fact have some teeth of sort. They are called maxillary teeth and are located in the top jaw of the frog. They form a small cone shape at the top of the mouth. There are also other teeth known as vomerine teeth which are located in the roof of the mouth of the frog. They are used to hold their prey.
Frogs do not have any teeth in their lower jaw. This does not cause any problem to the frog as they do not tend to chew their food. It usually gets swallowed in one go! Toads do not have teeth.
Why do frogs have teeth? You might think that a frog would need to use its teeth in some form of self-protection, to bite a predator, but in fact this is not necessary. Some frogs have other forms and methods of protecting themselves, so generally speaking, teeth aren't really necessary for biting. Teeth are really just for holding on to their prey before swallowing it.
However, a few years ago, scientists did discover that the tree-dwelling Gastrotheca guentheri are the only frogs with teeth on both their upper and lower jaw. It is thought that they might have lost these teeth millions of years ago, and somehow they have managed to resurface.
The Gastrotheca guentheri is more commonly known as the marsupial frog. It is different from marsupial mammals though as it tends to carry its eggs in pouches that can be found on its' back, rather than in a pouch at the front.
Going from data generated from DNA and fossils it was discovered that these frogs lost their teeth over 200 million years ago. It has since been discovered that they could have got their teeth back a mere 20 million years ago!
The vomerine teeth are there specifically to hold on to the frog's prey. Do frog have teeth to chew their food? No. Really the teeth are there just to cling on to the prey which they do with the aid of the tongue also. Similarly, the maxillary teeth are used to hold on to the frog's prey.
However, the African Bullfrog does have teeth and they are quite sharp too! They use them for eating their food, but they have also been known to bite a human when they feel threatened or are being picked up! You have been warned! Check out the video above of the African Bullfrog and its teeth! They certainly do have teeth. These frogs are big and their teeth can draw blood. So because the man in the film is picking up the bullfrog, the frog is using his teeth to let him know that he is not happy about this at all!
To find out more about frog reproduction, pleaseclick here...
Dec 08, 19 01:24 PM
axolotl are able to grow back fingers, toes and even whole limbs within a short space of time
Nov 27, 19 04:37 PM
the most poisonous frog of them all is the golden poison dart frog and is there a cure?
Nov 24, 19 09:46 AM
Discover how frogs have an amazing capacity to survive and thrive and their diverse habitats
Do frogs have teeth? Find out here...
Is it possible that frogs can predict earthquakes?
Have you heard of the frog that breaks its own bones? The Horror Frog...
For for information on frogs and toads just click the link | <urn:uuid:100bf3cb-3601-4f45-9795-545f3810984b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.frog-garden.com/Do-frogs-have-teeth.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00395.warc.gz | en | 0.981602 | 708 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.2832837700843811... | 1 | In answer to the question do frogs have teeth most frogs do in fact have some teeth of sort. They are called maxillary teeth and are located in the top jaw of the frog. They form a small cone shape at the top of the mouth. There are also other teeth known as vomerine teeth which are located in the roof of the mouth of the frog. They are used to hold their prey.
Frogs do not have any teeth in their lower jaw. This does not cause any problem to the frog as they do not tend to chew their food. It usually gets swallowed in one go! Toads do not have teeth.
Why do frogs have teeth? You might think that a frog would need to use its teeth in some form of self-protection, to bite a predator, but in fact this is not necessary. Some frogs have other forms and methods of protecting themselves, so generally speaking, teeth aren't really necessary for biting. Teeth are really just for holding on to their prey before swallowing it.
However, a few years ago, scientists did discover that the tree-dwelling Gastrotheca guentheri are the only frogs with teeth on both their upper and lower jaw. It is thought that they might have lost these teeth millions of years ago, and somehow they have managed to resurface.
The Gastrotheca guentheri is more commonly known as the marsupial frog. It is different from marsupial mammals though as it tends to carry its eggs in pouches that can be found on its' back, rather than in a pouch at the front.
Going from data generated from DNA and fossils it was discovered that these frogs lost their teeth over 200 million years ago. It has since been discovered that they could have got their teeth back a mere 20 million years ago!
The vomerine teeth are there specifically to hold on to the frog's prey. Do frog have teeth to chew their food? No. Really the teeth are there just to cling on to the prey which they do with the aid of the tongue also. Similarly, the maxillary teeth are used to hold on to the frog's prey.
However, the African Bullfrog does have teeth and they are quite sharp too! They use them for eating their food, but they have also been known to bite a human when they feel threatened or are being picked up! You have been warned! Check out the video above of the African Bullfrog and its teeth! They certainly do have teeth. These frogs are big and their teeth can draw blood. So because the man in the film is picking up the bullfrog, the frog is using his teeth to let him know that he is not happy about this at all!
To find out more about frog reproduction, pleaseclick here...
Dec 08, 19 01:24 PM
axolotl are able to grow back fingers, toes and even whole limbs within a short space of time
Nov 27, 19 04:37 PM
the most poisonous frog of them all is the golden poison dart frog and is there a cure?
Nov 24, 19 09:46 AM
Discover how frogs have an amazing capacity to survive and thrive and their diverse habitats
Do frogs have teeth? Find out here...
Is it possible that frogs can predict earthquakes?
Have you heard of the frog that breaks its own bones? The Horror Frog...
For for information on frogs and toads just click the link | 718 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sydney, Australia is the most populated city on the Continent. The city is built near one of the world’s largest natural harbors, and “Sydneysiders” are some of the most multicultural people in the world. For at least 30,000 years, the area around Sydney has been inhabited by indigenous people.
British settlers that came to the area called hese people “Eora,” which translated literally to “from this place.” The British noted as many as 8,000 people inhabiting the area, and they were divided amongst 29 separate clans.
The Cadigal Clan lived near Port Jackson, around Sydney Cove, and they shared three principle languages amongst other tribes on the island. Island natives seemed to be nomads. They engaged in frequent camping, fishing, and they had learned to strip trees of their bark for tools and food. They also collected shells and ate fish.
Much of these old societies were washed away with the tide of modernism. There are still rock art pieces, and engravings, to be found in National Parks. Ku-ring-gai National Park features engravings at Bobbin Head, where visitors can walk fire trails to find them.
Lieutenant James Cook is credited with the first meeting of natives in April of 1770. His encounter was with the Gweagol people, and he found them to be hostile towards his crew. He dealt with the natives only a short time, collecting food and supplies, as he was commissioned on a scientific mission to study the eastern coast line of Australia. | <urn:uuid:47653253-c653-4858-bba6-3b13aa61482f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://globaltraveltourism.com/the-indigenous-culture-of-sydney/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00287.warc.gz | en | 0.985393 | 325 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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... | 15 | Sydney, Australia is the most populated city on the Continent. The city is built near one of the world’s largest natural harbors, and “Sydneysiders” are some of the most multicultural people in the world. For at least 30,000 years, the area around Sydney has been inhabited by indigenous people.
British settlers that came to the area called hese people “Eora,” which translated literally to “from this place.” The British noted as many as 8,000 people inhabiting the area, and they were divided amongst 29 separate clans.
The Cadigal Clan lived near Port Jackson, around Sydney Cove, and they shared three principle languages amongst other tribes on the island. Island natives seemed to be nomads. They engaged in frequent camping, fishing, and they had learned to strip trees of their bark for tools and food. They also collected shells and ate fish.
Much of these old societies were washed away with the tide of modernism. There are still rock art pieces, and engravings, to be found in National Parks. Ku-ring-gai National Park features engravings at Bobbin Head, where visitors can walk fire trails to find them.
Lieutenant James Cook is credited with the first meeting of natives in April of 1770. His encounter was with the Gweagol people, and he found them to be hostile towards his crew. He dealt with the natives only a short time, collecting food and supplies, as he was commissioned on a scientific mission to study the eastern coast line of Australia. | 322 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born: 384 BC
Died At Age: 62
Born in: Athens
Famous as: Statesman & Orator
Died on: 322 BC
place of death: Island of Kalaureia
City: Athens, Greece
Diseases & Disabilities: Stammered / Stuttered
Cause of Death: Suicide
Demosthenes was one of the most important historical figures from ancient Greek. A celebrated orator and statesman of his times, he is credited to have contributed considerably to the development of rhetoric and oration in ancient Athens. Orphaned at a young age, he was brought by his guardians who took advantage of the vast inheritance his father had left him. In spite of being an educated young man he could not speak well because of a speech impediment. However, he worked hard to overcome this impediment and became a great orator. He used his oratory skills to gain back from his guardians a portion of his inheritance. In addition to his oratory skills, he was also an excellent writer who used to write speeches for clients involved in judicial cases. A man of very high intelligence, he could handle all kinds of cases which earned him several wealthy and powerful clients. His judiciary experience made him an apt candidate for politics as well. He is best known for his orations that were directed against King Philip II of Macedon who had been formally in war with Athens. He gave many powerful speeches as the ambassador of Athens in opposing Macedon’s expansion into Athens. Demosthenes sought to safeguard his city from Macedon’s onslaught and preserve Athens’s freedom.
- Demosthenes was born in 384 BC. His father, also named Demosthenes was a wealthy sword-maker belonging to the local tribe, Pandionis.He was orphaned at the age of seven. His father had left him a hefty inheritance, but his legal guardians misused the wealth that was rightfully his.He suffered from a speech impediment as a youngster and had to work hard to overcome it.When he was 20, he sued his guardians for his inheritance but was able to retrieve only a portion of what his father had actually left him.While fighting for his legal rights he began improving his oratory skills in order to effectively defend his case. From 364-361 BC, he delivered five orations against his guardians.He underwent training to improve his oration. Different historians provide varying details of his training but it is widely accepted that he was trained under Isaeus.Continue Reading BelowCareer
- Demosthenes became a logographer—one who writes speeches for those involved in judicial cases—in 361 BC. He could manage any kind of cases and had many influential clients. His legal career paved the way for a political career later on.He served as a trierarch in 363 and 359 BC. A trierarch was an officer who commanded a trireme, or a ship.He continued practicing law from 355-541 BC. He also wrote speeches against individuals who tried to repeal tax exemptions. His speeches were in opposition of corruption and were directed against people accused of illegal activities.He delivered his first political oration, ‘On the Navy’ in 354 BC. In this speech, he proposed reforming boards in order to fund the Athenian fleet.In 352 BC, he gave the speech, ‘For the Megalopolitans’ followed by ‘On the Liberty of the Rhodians’ in 351 BC. He opposed Eubulus, the most powerful Athenian statesman in both of these speeches.Athens had been at war with Macedonia since 357 BC. King Philip of Macedon had already seized Amphipolis and Pydna, and was trying to annex Athens. Demosthenes viewed the King as a danger to the independence of all Greek cities and launched a series of speeches directed against him.He delivered the First Philippic in 351 BC in which he urged the Athenians to be ready for war and advocated the creation of a flexible military force to fight Philip’s army.Philip II attacked Olynthus in 349 BC. Athens and Olynthus were allies and he urged Athens to help Olynthus through three speeches known as the ‘Olynthiacs’ delivered in 349 BC.Demosthenes went to Peloponnese to detach certain cities from Macedon’s influence but was unsuccessful in doing so. He delivered the Second Philippic as a bitter attack against Philip in 344 BC.He delivered the Third and Fourth Philippics in 341 BC.Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC and Alexander III was made the new King of Macedon. Demosthenes celebrated the death of Philip II with his fellow Athenians.Major Works
- Demosthenes is regarded as the most prominent orator of ancient Greek, best known for his speeches directed against King Philip II of Macedon, the worst enemy of Athens. He delivered four such speeches, known as the four Philippics in his attacks against the king.Personal Life & Legacy
- He was married to the daughter of Heliodorus, a prominent Athenian citizen. The name of his wife is not known. He had one daughter who died young and unmarried.After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, the new ruler demanded that Demosthenes be handed over to him. Demosthenes was sentenced to death but he managed to escape to a sanctuary in Kalaureia. However, he was soon discovered and he committed suicide by drinking poison in order to escape his capture.The Athenians erected a statue in his honour years after his death and decreed that free meals be provided to his descendants in the Prytaneum.
How To CiteArticle Title- Demosthenes BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/demosthenes-1212.phpLast Updated- November 02, 2017
People Also Viewed | <urn:uuid:4e10abe7-8f84-4499-92f5-a43ad7b579d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/demosthenes-1212.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00235.warc.gz | en | 0.989646 | 1,242 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.5466798543930054... | 2 | Born: 384 BC
Died At Age: 62
Born in: Athens
Famous as: Statesman & Orator
Died on: 322 BC
place of death: Island of Kalaureia
City: Athens, Greece
Diseases & Disabilities: Stammered / Stuttered
Cause of Death: Suicide
Demosthenes was one of the most important historical figures from ancient Greek. A celebrated orator and statesman of his times, he is credited to have contributed considerably to the development of rhetoric and oration in ancient Athens. Orphaned at a young age, he was brought by his guardians who took advantage of the vast inheritance his father had left him. In spite of being an educated young man he could not speak well because of a speech impediment. However, he worked hard to overcome this impediment and became a great orator. He used his oratory skills to gain back from his guardians a portion of his inheritance. In addition to his oratory skills, he was also an excellent writer who used to write speeches for clients involved in judicial cases. A man of very high intelligence, he could handle all kinds of cases which earned him several wealthy and powerful clients. His judiciary experience made him an apt candidate for politics as well. He is best known for his orations that were directed against King Philip II of Macedon who had been formally in war with Athens. He gave many powerful speeches as the ambassador of Athens in opposing Macedon’s expansion into Athens. Demosthenes sought to safeguard his city from Macedon’s onslaught and preserve Athens’s freedom.
- Demosthenes was born in 384 BC. His father, also named Demosthenes was a wealthy sword-maker belonging to the local tribe, Pandionis.He was orphaned at the age of seven. His father had left him a hefty inheritance, but his legal guardians misused the wealth that was rightfully his.He suffered from a speech impediment as a youngster and had to work hard to overcome it.When he was 20, he sued his guardians for his inheritance but was able to retrieve only a portion of what his father had actually left him.While fighting for his legal rights he began improving his oratory skills in order to effectively defend his case. From 364-361 BC, he delivered five orations against his guardians.He underwent training to improve his oration. Different historians provide varying details of his training but it is widely accepted that he was trained under Isaeus.Continue Reading BelowCareer
- Demosthenes became a logographer—one who writes speeches for those involved in judicial cases—in 361 BC. He could manage any kind of cases and had many influential clients. His legal career paved the way for a political career later on.He served as a trierarch in 363 and 359 BC. A trierarch was an officer who commanded a trireme, or a ship.He continued practicing law from 355-541 BC. He also wrote speeches against individuals who tried to repeal tax exemptions. His speeches were in opposition of corruption and were directed against people accused of illegal activities.He delivered his first political oration, ‘On the Navy’ in 354 BC. In this speech, he proposed reforming boards in order to fund the Athenian fleet.In 352 BC, he gave the speech, ‘For the Megalopolitans’ followed by ‘On the Liberty of the Rhodians’ in 351 BC. He opposed Eubulus, the most powerful Athenian statesman in both of these speeches.Athens had been at war with Macedonia since 357 BC. King Philip of Macedon had already seized Amphipolis and Pydna, and was trying to annex Athens. Demosthenes viewed the King as a danger to the independence of all Greek cities and launched a series of speeches directed against him.He delivered the First Philippic in 351 BC in which he urged the Athenians to be ready for war and advocated the creation of a flexible military force to fight Philip’s army.Philip II attacked Olynthus in 349 BC. Athens and Olynthus were allies and he urged Athens to help Olynthus through three speeches known as the ‘Olynthiacs’ delivered in 349 BC.Demosthenes went to Peloponnese to detach certain cities from Macedon’s influence but was unsuccessful in doing so. He delivered the Second Philippic as a bitter attack against Philip in 344 BC.He delivered the Third and Fourth Philippics in 341 BC.Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC and Alexander III was made the new King of Macedon. Demosthenes celebrated the death of Philip II with his fellow Athenians.Major Works
- Demosthenes is regarded as the most prominent orator of ancient Greek, best known for his speeches directed against King Philip II of Macedon, the worst enemy of Athens. He delivered four such speeches, known as the four Philippics in his attacks against the king.Personal Life & Legacy
- He was married to the daughter of Heliodorus, a prominent Athenian citizen. The name of his wife is not known. He had one daughter who died young and unmarried.After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, the new ruler demanded that Demosthenes be handed over to him. Demosthenes was sentenced to death but he managed to escape to a sanctuary in Kalaureia. However, he was soon discovered and he committed suicide by drinking poison in order to escape his capture.The Athenians erected a statue in his honour years after his death and decreed that free meals be provided to his descendants in the Prytaneum.
How To CiteArticle Title- Demosthenes BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/demosthenes-1212.phpLast Updated- November 02, 2017
People Also Viewed | 1,273 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As a combat medic in World War II, Army Technician 5th Grade Harold A. Garman dove into the Seine River in France to pull a boat of wounded soldiers to safety amid enemy machine-gun fire.
Garman joined the Army in Albion, Illinois, in 1942. By Aug. 25, 1944, he was a private serving as a medic in Company B, 5th Medical Battalion, 5th Infantry Division in Montereau, France. For his actions that day, he received the Medal of Honor on March 29, 1945.
According to Garman's Medal of Honor citation, the enemy opened fire with a machine gun on a boatload of wounded soldiers just as the boat reached the middle of the Seine. The men in the boat jumped into the water — except for one, who was too badly wounded.
Two of those in the water couldn't swim because of their wounds, so they clung to the sides of the boat. When Garman saw the wounded soldiers were in extreme danger, he jumped into the river and towed the boat to safety as the Germans continued to fire.
"This soldier's heroism not only saved the lives of the three patients, but so inspired his comrades that additional boats were immediately procured and the evacuation of the wounded resumed," the citation continued.
Garman died at age 74 on Aug, 13, 1992, and is buried in Albion.
Combat medics were the first to answer the call for aid during the war. Their main objective was to help the wounded as quickly as possible and move the wounded away from the front lines. Medics would often come under fire as they evaluated the patient, applied a tourniquet, administered morphine for pain, and cleaned wounds. When that happened, the medics would drag the patient to safety.
It's estimated that 830,000 medic cards were distributed to personnel throughout World War II. Physicians, dentists, nurses and combat medics, such as Garman, cared for about 14 million patients during that time. | <urn:uuid:011dacab-31bb-403f-80bb-bd42c6d2d2d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.defense.gov/explore/story/Article/1962524/medal-of-honor-monday-army-tech-5th-grade-harold-a-garman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00542.warc.gz | en | 0.986864 | 412 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.4877308011054992... | 1 | As a combat medic in World War II, Army Technician 5th Grade Harold A. Garman dove into the Seine River in France to pull a boat of wounded soldiers to safety amid enemy machine-gun fire.
Garman joined the Army in Albion, Illinois, in 1942. By Aug. 25, 1944, he was a private serving as a medic in Company B, 5th Medical Battalion, 5th Infantry Division in Montereau, France. For his actions that day, he received the Medal of Honor on March 29, 1945.
According to Garman's Medal of Honor citation, the enemy opened fire with a machine gun on a boatload of wounded soldiers just as the boat reached the middle of the Seine. The men in the boat jumped into the water — except for one, who was too badly wounded.
Two of those in the water couldn't swim because of their wounds, so they clung to the sides of the boat. When Garman saw the wounded soldiers were in extreme danger, he jumped into the river and towed the boat to safety as the Germans continued to fire.
"This soldier's heroism not only saved the lives of the three patients, but so inspired his comrades that additional boats were immediately procured and the evacuation of the wounded resumed," the citation continued.
Garman died at age 74 on Aug, 13, 1992, and is buried in Albion.
Combat medics were the first to answer the call for aid during the war. Their main objective was to help the wounded as quickly as possible and move the wounded away from the front lines. Medics would often come under fire as they evaluated the patient, applied a tourniquet, administered morphine for pain, and cleaned wounds. When that happened, the medics would drag the patient to safety.
It's estimated that 830,000 medic cards were distributed to personnel throughout World War II. Physicians, dentists, nurses and combat medics, such as Garman, cared for about 14 million patients during that time. | 441 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A very pivotal moment in South African history for Indians.
#CROWNTHEBROWN: It has been 71 years since the Cato Manor riots, our ancestors experienced history like never before. We have often heard about South African riots from family members – especially Indian uncles – when they are all conversing around the table with their glasses filled to the rim, but what really happened during the Durban 1949 riots?
Let us unpack the ‘Durban Riots of 1949‘ and why this is such a significant moment in history within our South African Indian community.
The days between 13 – 15 January 1949 brought about one of the most horrific riots that set Indians against Blacks of South Africa. It was exactly 71 years ago when Indians were targeted by Black South Africans in Durban. This was known as the anti-Indian program fueled – literally – as White South Africans provided paraffin to Blacks to use in their fight against Indians.
The bloodshed of the riots led to cases of grievous harm, incidents of rape and the massacre of Indians. Approximately 142 lives were taken and these riots created around 40 000 Indian refugees.
One instance was of a 13-year-old boy who was drenched in paraffin, thrown into a drum and set alight. His sin? He was of Indian origin.Ronnie Govender
The beginning of the end
On the first day of the riots, 13 January, a clash between an Indian shopkeeper and an African male escalated which brought about a humongous crowd of Indians and Africans in a violent outbreak in the Grey Street Area. Word of the incident spread overnight and African workers from urban and rural areas came together to retaliate the next day.
The retaliation led to large-scale racial violence directed at Indians throughout Durban. Groups began to humiliate, beat and kill Indians as well as raping Indian women. This violence led to many Indians leaving the country.
The rage grew and African groups targeted Indian-owned stores and houses. The rioters frequently attacked Indians in lower income areas and those in African ‘city slums’.The riots made its way to Victoria street and assailants began stoning vehicles driven by Indians and looting Indian stores whilst chanting “Usuthu!”.
A police detective present at the riots within the community stated that the talk of the town was that it was time to get rid of Indians. African leaders organized riots from workers’ hostels and took advantage of the lack of police intervention. They used weapons, attacking both people and properties. The groups would celebrate at the end of each riot day for the work they have done by trying to eliminate Indians in the community.
Eventually, the government troops blockaded Indian districts where most of the murders, rape, attacks. Looting and arson took place. One horrific incident that really impacted many was the burning of a shop were four Indian women and a dozen children were stuck inside the store whilst the male owner ended up being stabbed in several places and died. The owner’s younger son was left on the road with his head split open. What an horrific sight.
The peak of violence happened on the 15th, when Africans burnt many Indian families alive. The military and police got involved after this and established a sense of order.
The aftermath of these riots caused a massacre which resulted in 142 deaths and 1087 injuries. 300 Buildings were destroyed and 2000 structures damaged. It also created 40 000 Indian refugees followed by many suicides during this time. This dreadful experience left many families disintegrated and led to economic instability, stress, racial discrimination and utter humiliation.
Let us never forget those who lost their lives and those who were injured. A painful time in history but a time worth remembering to celebrate those individuals that lost their lives during this time. | <urn:uuid:9d1e55c3-18d3-4c04-99b6-70fd157fd7da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianspice.co.za/2020/01/remembering-the-durban-1949-riots/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.984288 | 771 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.6236419... | 4 | A very pivotal moment in South African history for Indians.
#CROWNTHEBROWN: It has been 71 years since the Cato Manor riots, our ancestors experienced history like never before. We have often heard about South African riots from family members – especially Indian uncles – when they are all conversing around the table with their glasses filled to the rim, but what really happened during the Durban 1949 riots?
Let us unpack the ‘Durban Riots of 1949‘ and why this is such a significant moment in history within our South African Indian community.
The days between 13 – 15 January 1949 brought about one of the most horrific riots that set Indians against Blacks of South Africa. It was exactly 71 years ago when Indians were targeted by Black South Africans in Durban. This was known as the anti-Indian program fueled – literally – as White South Africans provided paraffin to Blacks to use in their fight against Indians.
The bloodshed of the riots led to cases of grievous harm, incidents of rape and the massacre of Indians. Approximately 142 lives were taken and these riots created around 40 000 Indian refugees.
One instance was of a 13-year-old boy who was drenched in paraffin, thrown into a drum and set alight. His sin? He was of Indian origin.Ronnie Govender
The beginning of the end
On the first day of the riots, 13 January, a clash between an Indian shopkeeper and an African male escalated which brought about a humongous crowd of Indians and Africans in a violent outbreak in the Grey Street Area. Word of the incident spread overnight and African workers from urban and rural areas came together to retaliate the next day.
The retaliation led to large-scale racial violence directed at Indians throughout Durban. Groups began to humiliate, beat and kill Indians as well as raping Indian women. This violence led to many Indians leaving the country.
The rage grew and African groups targeted Indian-owned stores and houses. The rioters frequently attacked Indians in lower income areas and those in African ‘city slums’.The riots made its way to Victoria street and assailants began stoning vehicles driven by Indians and looting Indian stores whilst chanting “Usuthu!”.
A police detective present at the riots within the community stated that the talk of the town was that it was time to get rid of Indians. African leaders organized riots from workers’ hostels and took advantage of the lack of police intervention. They used weapons, attacking both people and properties. The groups would celebrate at the end of each riot day for the work they have done by trying to eliminate Indians in the community.
Eventually, the government troops blockaded Indian districts where most of the murders, rape, attacks. Looting and arson took place. One horrific incident that really impacted many was the burning of a shop were four Indian women and a dozen children were stuck inside the store whilst the male owner ended up being stabbed in several places and died. The owner’s younger son was left on the road with his head split open. What an horrific sight.
The peak of violence happened on the 15th, when Africans burnt many Indian families alive. The military and police got involved after this and established a sense of order.
The aftermath of these riots caused a massacre which resulted in 142 deaths and 1087 injuries. 300 Buildings were destroyed and 2000 structures damaged. It also created 40 000 Indian refugees followed by many suicides during this time. This dreadful experience left many families disintegrated and led to economic instability, stress, racial discrimination and utter humiliation.
Let us never forget those who lost their lives and those who were injured. A painful time in history but a time worth remembering to celebrate those individuals that lost their lives during this time. | 802 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prior to 1861, the area now known as Larimer County was a part of the Nebraska Territory. Larimer County was created by an act of the first Territorial Legislature of Colorado, approved November 1, 1861. The County as created was bounded on the north by Wyoming; east by Weld County; south by Boulder and Summit Counties; and west by the Snowy range or Continental Divide (including North Park).
Larimer County, as originally created, was ninety (90) miles long and fifty-one (51) miles wide at its widest part, the width varying according to the trend of the mountains on its western boundary, and contained approximately 4,300 square miles of territory, or 2,752,000 acres. In 1874 Grand County was carved out of Summit County and its northern boundary formed a part of the southern boundary of Larimer County. Even though the area known as North Park was not affected by this change, local officials assumed differently and, therefore, enumerated it as part of Grand County in the 1880 and 1885 censuses.
No further change was made in the Larimer County boundaries until the Seventeenth General Assembly of Colorado, in the winter of 1909, created Jackson county out of that portion known as North Park, reducing the overall size of Larimer County to approximately 2,800 square miles, or 1,792,000 acres.
At the time Larimer County was originally created, La Porte was named as the county seat. But at an election held in 1868, the county seat was moved to Fort Collins by a vote of the people of the County.
Colorado Counties Map
Larimer County Map, 1901
Township Map of Larimer County, Colorado.
It was based on an 1899 map. | <urn:uuid:11a81419-0e3e-4f06-b384-6ea0f6b8766d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lcgsco.org/larimer-county-colorado-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00078.warc.gz | en | 0.981156 | 359 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.154643893... | 7 | Prior to 1861, the area now known as Larimer County was a part of the Nebraska Territory. Larimer County was created by an act of the first Territorial Legislature of Colorado, approved November 1, 1861. The County as created was bounded on the north by Wyoming; east by Weld County; south by Boulder and Summit Counties; and west by the Snowy range or Continental Divide (including North Park).
Larimer County, as originally created, was ninety (90) miles long and fifty-one (51) miles wide at its widest part, the width varying according to the trend of the mountains on its western boundary, and contained approximately 4,300 square miles of territory, or 2,752,000 acres. In 1874 Grand County was carved out of Summit County and its northern boundary formed a part of the southern boundary of Larimer County. Even though the area known as North Park was not affected by this change, local officials assumed differently and, therefore, enumerated it as part of Grand County in the 1880 and 1885 censuses.
No further change was made in the Larimer County boundaries until the Seventeenth General Assembly of Colorado, in the winter of 1909, created Jackson county out of that portion known as North Park, reducing the overall size of Larimer County to approximately 2,800 square miles, or 1,792,000 acres.
At the time Larimer County was originally created, La Porte was named as the county seat. But at an election held in 1868, the county seat was moved to Fort Collins by a vote of the people of the County.
Colorado Counties Map
Larimer County Map, 1901
Township Map of Larimer County, Colorado.
It was based on an 1899 map. | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Himanshu Nainani Jun 25, A Spanish writer, poet and philosopher, who himself became a revolution of Spanish literature and language. His contribution towards Spanish literary was so impactful that people started calling the language as La lengua de Cervantes The language of Cervantes.
The Spanish writer died more than years ago. Why does he still deserve attention? Soldier and slave That same year he left Spain for Italy. In any event, in going to Italy Cervantes was doing what many young Spaniards of the time did to further their careers in one way or another.
It seems that for a time he served as chamberlain in the household of Cardinal Giulio Acquaviva in Rome. However, by he had enlisted as a soldier in a Spanish infantry regiment stationed in Naplesthen a possession of the Spanish crown.
He was there for about a year before he saw active service. A confrontation between the Turkish fleet and the naval forces of Venicethe papacyand Spain was inevitable. In mid-September Cervantes sailed on board the Marquesa, part of the large fleet under the command of Don Juan de Austria that engaged the enemy on October 7 in the Gulf of Lepanto near Corinth.
The fierce battle ended in a crushing defeat for the Turks that was ultimately to break their control of the Mediterranean.
Though stricken with a fever, he refused to stay below and joined the thick of the fighting. He received two gunshot wounds in the chest, and a third rendered his left hand useless for the rest of his life.
He always looked back on his conduct in the battle with pride.
He must also, when opportunity offered, have been familiarizing himself with Italian literature. Perhaps with a recommendation for promotion to the rank of captain, more likely just leaving the army, he set sail for Spain in September with letters of commendation to the king from the duque de Sessa and Don Juan himself.
On this voyage his ship was attacked and captured by Barbary piratesand Cervantes, together with his brother Rodrigo, was sold into slavery in Algiersthe centre of the Christian slave traffic in the Muslim world. The letters he carried magnified his importance in the eyes of his captors.
This had the effect of raising his ransom price, and thus prolonging his captivity, while also, it appears, protecting his person from punishment by death, mutilation, or torture when his four daring bids to escape were frustrated.
At least two contemporary records of the life led by Christian captives in Algiers at this time mention Cervantes. He clearly made a name for himself for courage and leadership among the captive community.
Civil servant and writer Back in Spain, Cervantes spent most of the rest of his life in a manner that contrasted entirely with his decade of action and danger. He would be constantly short of money and in tedious and exacting employment; it would be 25 years before he scored a major literary success with Don Quixote.
On his return home he found that prices had risen and the standard of living for many, particularly those of the middle class, including his family, had fallen. The euphoria of Lepanto was a thing of the past.
The most he succeeded in acquiring was a brief appointment as royal messenger to OranAlgeria, in Miguel de Cervantes, c. Late in he married Catalina de Salazar y Palacios, 18 years his junior. She had a small property in the village of Esquivias in La Mancha. Little is known about their emotional relationship.
Neither is there any special reason to suppose that Catalina was an inspiration or a model for characters in the poetry Cervantes was now writing or in his first published fictionLa Galatea ; Galatea: A Pastoral Romancein the newly fashionable genre of the pastoral romance.
The publisher, Blas de Robles, paid him 1, reales for it, a good price for a first book. The dedication of the work to Ascanio Colonna, a friend of Acquaviva, was a bid for patronage that does not seem to have been productive.
La Galatea breaks off in mid-narrative; judging by his repeatedly expressed hopes of writing a sequel, Cervantes evidently maintained a lasting fondness for the work.
Cervantes also turned his hand to the writing of drama at this time, the early dawn of the Golden Age of the Spanish theatre.
Many years afterward he claimed to have written 20 or 30 plays in this period, which, he noted, were received by the public without being booed off the stage or having the actors pelted with vegetables. The number is vague; only two certainly survive from this time, the historical tragedy of La Numancia s; Numantia: Fixed theatre sites were just becoming established in the major cities of Spain, and there was an expanding market geared to satisfying the demands of a public ever more hungry for entertainment.
Lope de Vega was about to respond to the call, stamping his personal imprint on the Spanish comedia and rendering all earlier drama, including that of Cervantes, old-fashioned or inadequate by comparison.Cervantes, Miguel de (–) Spanish novelist, poet, and dramatist.
Cervantes published two volumes of his masterpiece Don Quixote de la Mancha (, ). Don Quixote is a great archetype of Western fiction; the picaresque hero who misapplies the logic of .
an American novelist and artist active in the first half of the twentieth century. Born in Chicago, Illinois, he graduated from Harvard College in Best known for his U.S.A.
trilogy, which consists of the novels The 42nd Parallel (), () and The Big Money (). Spanish mystic and poet (), a Doctor of the Church, who was born Juan de Yepes.
Along with his spiritual mentor St. Theresa of Avila, he was a founder of the Discalced Carmelites, a Catholic mendicant order that devotes itself to a life of prayer. The Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes, the largest digital archive of Spanish-language historical and literary works in the world, is named after the author.
References in other works [ edit ] Don Quixote has been the subject of a . Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra was a Spanish novelist, poet, and playwright. His novel Don Quixote is often considered his magnum opus, as well as the first modern novel.
It is assumed that Miguel de Cervantes was born in Alcalá de Henares. Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes created one of the world's greatest literary masterpieces, 'Don Quixote,' in the early s.
Synopsis Miguel de Cervantes was born near Madrid in | <urn:uuid:a94f3873-8724-499e-ad73-5dd247b888a8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lusaqojapeji.monstermanfilm.com/a-biography-and-life-of-miguel-de-cervantes-spanish-novelist-dramatist-and-a-poet-34654oc.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.980612 | 1,408 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.465446412563324... | 1 | By Himanshu Nainani Jun 25, A Spanish writer, poet and philosopher, who himself became a revolution of Spanish literature and language. His contribution towards Spanish literary was so impactful that people started calling the language as La lengua de Cervantes The language of Cervantes.
The Spanish writer died more than years ago. Why does he still deserve attention? Soldier and slave That same year he left Spain for Italy. In any event, in going to Italy Cervantes was doing what many young Spaniards of the time did to further their careers in one way or another.
It seems that for a time he served as chamberlain in the household of Cardinal Giulio Acquaviva in Rome. However, by he had enlisted as a soldier in a Spanish infantry regiment stationed in Naplesthen a possession of the Spanish crown.
He was there for about a year before he saw active service. A confrontation between the Turkish fleet and the naval forces of Venicethe papacyand Spain was inevitable. In mid-September Cervantes sailed on board the Marquesa, part of the large fleet under the command of Don Juan de Austria that engaged the enemy on October 7 in the Gulf of Lepanto near Corinth.
The fierce battle ended in a crushing defeat for the Turks that was ultimately to break their control of the Mediterranean.
Though stricken with a fever, he refused to stay below and joined the thick of the fighting. He received two gunshot wounds in the chest, and a third rendered his left hand useless for the rest of his life.
He always looked back on his conduct in the battle with pride.
He must also, when opportunity offered, have been familiarizing himself with Italian literature. Perhaps with a recommendation for promotion to the rank of captain, more likely just leaving the army, he set sail for Spain in September with letters of commendation to the king from the duque de Sessa and Don Juan himself.
On this voyage his ship was attacked and captured by Barbary piratesand Cervantes, together with his brother Rodrigo, was sold into slavery in Algiersthe centre of the Christian slave traffic in the Muslim world. The letters he carried magnified his importance in the eyes of his captors.
This had the effect of raising his ransom price, and thus prolonging his captivity, while also, it appears, protecting his person from punishment by death, mutilation, or torture when his four daring bids to escape were frustrated.
At least two contemporary records of the life led by Christian captives in Algiers at this time mention Cervantes. He clearly made a name for himself for courage and leadership among the captive community.
Civil servant and writer Back in Spain, Cervantes spent most of the rest of his life in a manner that contrasted entirely with his decade of action and danger. He would be constantly short of money and in tedious and exacting employment; it would be 25 years before he scored a major literary success with Don Quixote.
On his return home he found that prices had risen and the standard of living for many, particularly those of the middle class, including his family, had fallen. The euphoria of Lepanto was a thing of the past.
The most he succeeded in acquiring was a brief appointment as royal messenger to OranAlgeria, in Miguel de Cervantes, c. Late in he married Catalina de Salazar y Palacios, 18 years his junior. She had a small property in the village of Esquivias in La Mancha. Little is known about their emotional relationship.
Neither is there any special reason to suppose that Catalina was an inspiration or a model for characters in the poetry Cervantes was now writing or in his first published fictionLa Galatea ; Galatea: A Pastoral Romancein the newly fashionable genre of the pastoral romance.
The publisher, Blas de Robles, paid him 1, reales for it, a good price for a first book. The dedication of the work to Ascanio Colonna, a friend of Acquaviva, was a bid for patronage that does not seem to have been productive.
La Galatea breaks off in mid-narrative; judging by his repeatedly expressed hopes of writing a sequel, Cervantes evidently maintained a lasting fondness for the work.
Cervantes also turned his hand to the writing of drama at this time, the early dawn of the Golden Age of the Spanish theatre.
Many years afterward he claimed to have written 20 or 30 plays in this period, which, he noted, were received by the public without being booed off the stage or having the actors pelted with vegetables. The number is vague; only two certainly survive from this time, the historical tragedy of La Numancia s; Numantia: Fixed theatre sites were just becoming established in the major cities of Spain, and there was an expanding market geared to satisfying the demands of a public ever more hungry for entertainment.
Lope de Vega was about to respond to the call, stamping his personal imprint on the Spanish comedia and rendering all earlier drama, including that of Cervantes, old-fashioned or inadequate by comparison.Cervantes, Miguel de (–) Spanish novelist, poet, and dramatist.
Cervantes published two volumes of his masterpiece Don Quixote de la Mancha (, ). Don Quixote is a great archetype of Western fiction; the picaresque hero who misapplies the logic of .
an American novelist and artist active in the first half of the twentieth century. Born in Chicago, Illinois, he graduated from Harvard College in Best known for his U.S.A.
trilogy, which consists of the novels The 42nd Parallel (), () and The Big Money (). Spanish mystic and poet (), a Doctor of the Church, who was born Juan de Yepes.
Along with his spiritual mentor St. Theresa of Avila, he was a founder of the Discalced Carmelites, a Catholic mendicant order that devotes itself to a life of prayer. The Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes, the largest digital archive of Spanish-language historical and literary works in the world, is named after the author.
References in other works [ edit ] Don Quixote has been the subject of a . Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra was a Spanish novelist, poet, and playwright. His novel Don Quixote is often considered his magnum opus, as well as the first modern novel.
It is assumed that Miguel de Cervantes was born in Alcalá de Henares. Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes created one of the world's greatest literary masterpieces, 'Don Quixote,' in the early s.
Synopsis Miguel de Cervantes was born near Madrid in | 1,390 | ENGLISH | 1 |
HISTORY OF PRESTON
Image Source: Toronto Public Library
Image Source: Toronto Public Library
Image Source: The Record
The story of Preston, Ontario, Canada begins in the early 1800s with the arrival of a group of German-speaking Mennonites from Pennsylvania. The land upon which they settled was acquired from the Six Nations through a land speculator named Richard Beasley.
Among the first settlers to arrive in what was later to become Preston was John Erb, who acquired 7500 acres including land at the confluence of the Grand and Speed Rivers. Mr. Erb and his wife settled on his Speed River lands in 1805 and built a sawmill on the banks of the river in 1806. A gristmill followed in 1807. The sawmill has long since disappeared, but the gristmill was the beginning of a flour milling business that has operated continuously on that spot to the present day. The site is recognized as the oldest continuously operating industrial site in the region.
It was around Mr. Erb's mills, known locally as Cambridge Mills that the settlement that became Preston began. It was not Mr. Erb's intent, however, to create a town. Mr. Erb consistently refused to sell land for commercial development and it was not until after his death in 1832 that his lands to the south of the Speed River were surveyed and divided into lots.
The task of surveying the land fell to William Scollick, a surveyor, conveyancer and Justice of the Peace from Preston, Lancashire, England, who completed the survey of Mr. Erb's lands in 1834. The linear shape of the survey with virtually all the buildings in the settlement stretched out along the Great Road from Dundas is said to have reminded Mr. Scollick of his native town in England and he gave the name of Preston to the settlement.
The sale of the newly surveyed lands immediately attracted a significant number of tradesmen, artisans and craftsmen primarily young German immigrants who had recently arrived in North America. These men saw a place where the German language was spoken, where much of the land had been cleared and where there was an acute shortage of skilled artisans and craftsmen. The population grew rapidly from about 250 inhabitants in 1836 to about 1600 in 1855. Of these, approximately 70% were German in origin. Preston's location on the Great Road into the interior of the province made it a natural stop for travellers and with its eight hotels and taverns attracted more Europeans than any other village in the area.
By the middle of the nineteenth century, these European travellers were joined in increasing numbers by people who were attracted to the town's mineral springs which were thought to possess remarkable curative powers in the treatment of a variety of ailments. The springs were discovered accidentally in 1837 by a member of the Erb family who were drilling for salt and found instead "stinky water". The water, with its high sulphur content, was well named and was initially thought to be worthless. It was not long, however, before some enterprising businessmen and medical practitioners let it be known that the mineral springs, while not heated like that of some European health spas, could offer relief if not an outright cure for a number of ailments including arthritis and rheumatism. Soon three major hotels, first the North American and later the Del Monte and finally the Sulphur Springs, sprang up to serve the well-heeled clientele which began to arrive in Preston from all over North America to "take the waters".
While the town became an important destination for those seeking to renew their sometimes fragile health, the well-being of the town itself was in question. Between 1861 and 1871 Preston's population declined from 1539 to 1409 and showed only a marginal increase to 1419 by 1881. It was not until 1891 that the population once again began to increase and it was not until 1900 that the population broke through the 2,000 barrier. Part of the reason for this turnaround can be traced to the coming of the electric railway systems that began to serve the community in 1894.
The idea of an electric railway to connect Preston with Galt, its larger neighbour to the southeast, was first proposed in 1890. At first, Preston's town council was not eager to get the town involved in a potentially hazardous railway scheme and it was not until 1893 that Preston Council decided to enter negotiations. In many ways, the building of the electric railway marked Preston's emergence from its well-earned identity as a "sleepy German town" where very little happened to a much more energetic presence in the region.
A steady growth followed and the decades of the 1950s and the 1960s saw the continuing growth of Preston's industrial base and the gradual expansion of the town toward the borders of its nearest neighbours Galt and Hespeler. By the late 1960s, a move was underway to institute a new level of local government that would see the creation of a new Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Included in that plan was the formation of a new city to be formed by the amalgamation of Preston with its immediate neighbours Galt and Hespeler.
The plan, proposed by the Provincial government in the name of administrative and economic efficiency, was not met with universal approval. In the end, it was the common interests and the long-standing relationships that had developed between the communities over the years that finally prevailed. It was noted at the time that despite the municipalities' long-standing rivalries, there was very little difference between them in areas such as type of labour force, newspaper circulation, ethnic origin and religious affiliation. In addition, problems resulting from the continued growth of all three municipalities were better solved with the pooling of their resources. Thus, on January 1, 1973, the Town of Preston ceased to exist as a separate political entity as it became part of the new City of Cambridge. | <urn:uuid:58a6a41d-0981-4e70-b0b2-dc2ffa1ac34d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.discoverpreston.ca/about-preston | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.986246 | 1,209 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.1074558123... | 14 | HISTORY OF PRESTON
Image Source: Toronto Public Library
Image Source: Toronto Public Library
Image Source: The Record
The story of Preston, Ontario, Canada begins in the early 1800s with the arrival of a group of German-speaking Mennonites from Pennsylvania. The land upon which they settled was acquired from the Six Nations through a land speculator named Richard Beasley.
Among the first settlers to arrive in what was later to become Preston was John Erb, who acquired 7500 acres including land at the confluence of the Grand and Speed Rivers. Mr. Erb and his wife settled on his Speed River lands in 1805 and built a sawmill on the banks of the river in 1806. A gristmill followed in 1807. The sawmill has long since disappeared, but the gristmill was the beginning of a flour milling business that has operated continuously on that spot to the present day. The site is recognized as the oldest continuously operating industrial site in the region.
It was around Mr. Erb's mills, known locally as Cambridge Mills that the settlement that became Preston began. It was not Mr. Erb's intent, however, to create a town. Mr. Erb consistently refused to sell land for commercial development and it was not until after his death in 1832 that his lands to the south of the Speed River were surveyed and divided into lots.
The task of surveying the land fell to William Scollick, a surveyor, conveyancer and Justice of the Peace from Preston, Lancashire, England, who completed the survey of Mr. Erb's lands in 1834. The linear shape of the survey with virtually all the buildings in the settlement stretched out along the Great Road from Dundas is said to have reminded Mr. Scollick of his native town in England and he gave the name of Preston to the settlement.
The sale of the newly surveyed lands immediately attracted a significant number of tradesmen, artisans and craftsmen primarily young German immigrants who had recently arrived in North America. These men saw a place where the German language was spoken, where much of the land had been cleared and where there was an acute shortage of skilled artisans and craftsmen. The population grew rapidly from about 250 inhabitants in 1836 to about 1600 in 1855. Of these, approximately 70% were German in origin. Preston's location on the Great Road into the interior of the province made it a natural stop for travellers and with its eight hotels and taverns attracted more Europeans than any other village in the area.
By the middle of the nineteenth century, these European travellers were joined in increasing numbers by people who were attracted to the town's mineral springs which were thought to possess remarkable curative powers in the treatment of a variety of ailments. The springs were discovered accidentally in 1837 by a member of the Erb family who were drilling for salt and found instead "stinky water". The water, with its high sulphur content, was well named and was initially thought to be worthless. It was not long, however, before some enterprising businessmen and medical practitioners let it be known that the mineral springs, while not heated like that of some European health spas, could offer relief if not an outright cure for a number of ailments including arthritis and rheumatism. Soon three major hotels, first the North American and later the Del Monte and finally the Sulphur Springs, sprang up to serve the well-heeled clientele which began to arrive in Preston from all over North America to "take the waters".
While the town became an important destination for those seeking to renew their sometimes fragile health, the well-being of the town itself was in question. Between 1861 and 1871 Preston's population declined from 1539 to 1409 and showed only a marginal increase to 1419 by 1881. It was not until 1891 that the population once again began to increase and it was not until 1900 that the population broke through the 2,000 barrier. Part of the reason for this turnaround can be traced to the coming of the electric railway systems that began to serve the community in 1894.
The idea of an electric railway to connect Preston with Galt, its larger neighbour to the southeast, was first proposed in 1890. At first, Preston's town council was not eager to get the town involved in a potentially hazardous railway scheme and it was not until 1893 that Preston Council decided to enter negotiations. In many ways, the building of the electric railway marked Preston's emergence from its well-earned identity as a "sleepy German town" where very little happened to a much more energetic presence in the region.
A steady growth followed and the decades of the 1950s and the 1960s saw the continuing growth of Preston's industrial base and the gradual expansion of the town toward the borders of its nearest neighbours Galt and Hespeler. By the late 1960s, a move was underway to institute a new level of local government that would see the creation of a new Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Included in that plan was the formation of a new city to be formed by the amalgamation of Preston with its immediate neighbours Galt and Hespeler.
The plan, proposed by the Provincial government in the name of administrative and economic efficiency, was not met with universal approval. In the end, it was the common interests and the long-standing relationships that had developed between the communities over the years that finally prevailed. It was noted at the time that despite the municipalities' long-standing rivalries, there was very little difference between them in areas such as type of labour force, newspaper circulation, ethnic origin and religious affiliation. In addition, problems resulting from the continued growth of all three municipalities were better solved with the pooling of their resources. Thus, on January 1, 1973, the Town of Preston ceased to exist as a separate political entity as it became part of the new City of Cambridge. | 1,282 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Theatres were closed during the Puritan Age. During the Restoration Age, they re-opened with new types of plays and performances which were different than the before.
- The theatres which were indoor were much smaller than the Elizabethan theatres. They didn’t have a platform, but there was a picture frame stage with different sceneries. The lighting was artificial and the actors would enter from the side.
- The audience was of the middle class and upper-class people. Most of the features of Restoration Drama are seen even today.
- The success of the plays of the Restoration period was dependent upon the strange staging devices, weird plots, and dramatized language.
- Attention was increased to the commercial rather than artistic aspect of making theatre.
- Earlier Elizabethan texts like King Lear were given a happy ending.
- Horse-shoe shape was given to the theatres with an inclined stage; thus allowing more people to enjoy drama.
There were mainly two main development in Restoration Drama
1. Restoration Tragedy
If the age of Restoration (1660-1700) A.D. is one of the most splendid periods in the records of English Drama, it is on the account of Comedy of Manners. The so-called Heroic Tragedy which had a brief run concurrently with the Comedy of Manners had also a little of popularity, but was too unnatural and artificial and merely a type of French soil.
Heroic Tragedy was also called “Heroic Drama”, but Dryden, the main supporter of Tragedy, called it “Heroic Drama”. These plays were written in the Classical model of the rhymed heroic couplet and later in blank verse tragedy.
This tragedy was only near tragedy. The theme of the heroic plays was based on the struggle between love and honor, the hero and heroine were cast on the grand scale and their dialogues consisted of elaborate speeches, in rhymed 10-syllabled couplets, full of emotional and bombastic of such kind that its parallel would not be found.
The heroes and heroines would show great nobility. This would create admiration for the audience. The play would make people wonder and also excite the imaginations.
There was a hero, a heroine, and a villain. The villain was a dominating character. From 1660 onwards, the plays were male-dominated, but in the 1670s and 1680s, the focus shifted from hero to heroine.
The heroic play flourished for some 20 years and then died a natural death, exhausted by its own excess. Dryden is the major writer of dramatic tragedy.
The Conquest of Granada is one of the better heroic tragedies, but Dryden’s most successful achievement is All for Love. Other heroic dramatists were Nathaniel Lee and Thomas Otway. | <urn:uuid:6fd8764e-61be-4949-bae3-a89048e4c243> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://englishsummary.com/restoration-drama/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00317.warc.gz | en | 0.985969 | 589 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.1548043489... | 1 | - Theatres were closed during the Puritan Age. During the Restoration Age, they re-opened with new types of plays and performances which were different than the before.
- The theatres which were indoor were much smaller than the Elizabethan theatres. They didn’t have a platform, but there was a picture frame stage with different sceneries. The lighting was artificial and the actors would enter from the side.
- The audience was of the middle class and upper-class people. Most of the features of Restoration Drama are seen even today.
- The success of the plays of the Restoration period was dependent upon the strange staging devices, weird plots, and dramatized language.
- Attention was increased to the commercial rather than artistic aspect of making theatre.
- Earlier Elizabethan texts like King Lear were given a happy ending.
- Horse-shoe shape was given to the theatres with an inclined stage; thus allowing more people to enjoy drama.
There were mainly two main development in Restoration Drama
1. Restoration Tragedy
If the age of Restoration (1660-1700) A.D. is one of the most splendid periods in the records of English Drama, it is on the account of Comedy of Manners. The so-called Heroic Tragedy which had a brief run concurrently with the Comedy of Manners had also a little of popularity, but was too unnatural and artificial and merely a type of French soil.
Heroic Tragedy was also called “Heroic Drama”, but Dryden, the main supporter of Tragedy, called it “Heroic Drama”. These plays were written in the Classical model of the rhymed heroic couplet and later in blank verse tragedy.
This tragedy was only near tragedy. The theme of the heroic plays was based on the struggle between love and honor, the hero and heroine were cast on the grand scale and their dialogues consisted of elaborate speeches, in rhymed 10-syllabled couplets, full of emotional and bombastic of such kind that its parallel would not be found.
The heroes and heroines would show great nobility. This would create admiration for the audience. The play would make people wonder and also excite the imaginations.
There was a hero, a heroine, and a villain. The villain was a dominating character. From 1660 onwards, the plays were male-dominated, but in the 1670s and 1680s, the focus shifted from hero to heroine.
The heroic play flourished for some 20 years and then died a natural death, exhausted by its own excess. Dryden is the major writer of dramatic tragedy.
The Conquest of Granada is one of the better heroic tragedies, but Dryden’s most successful achievement is All for Love. Other heroic dramatists were Nathaniel Lee and Thomas Otway. | 584 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In January of 1856, a radical physician from Massachusetts, Charles Robinson, won election as governor of Kansas. President Franklin Pierce declared him and others in his government to be revolutionaries and ordered their arrest. Pierce’s wife, Jane Pierce, interceded and her husband agreed to free Robinson from the miserable prison where he was confined.
Lobbying her husband was one of the few political actions undertaken by Jane Pierce – other than imploring her husband to leave politics and never return. Jane was one of the first ladies of the United States least suited to the position.
The marriage of Franklin Pierce and Jane Means Appleton was an unlikely one to begin with. Pierce had attended Bowdoin College in Maine, where Jane’s father had presided as president.
Jane was born March 12, 1806, in Hampton, N.H., the daughter of the Rev. Jesse Appleton and Elizabeth Means Appleton.
Her father was a strict religious zealot, prone to compulsive dieting to offset his sedentary lifestyle. He held a fanatical devotion to his duties and to his goal of making Bowdoin students more pious. He slept but four hours a day for years.
In 1809, Jesse Appleton moved his family from Hampton to take the post at Bowdoin. He died 10 years later at the age of 47. The Appletons left Brunswick, Maine, one year before Franklin entered the college in 1820.
The couple would meet in New Hampshire years later when Franklin was pushing 30 and Jane in her late 20s.
Devout and Depressed
Jane was, like her father, stick thin. She was smart, but devout in her faith. Prone to depression, it’s not clear how Jane and Franklin came to meet, though he would have likely known her brother at Bowdoin.
He was a dashing, young congressman with a thirst for liquor who enjoyed Washington’s social whirlwind. She was a lifelong teetotaler with a strong dislike of society.
Overriding her family’s objections, Jane married Franklin in 1834, and the two lived in Concord, N.H. Franklin pursued a successful career as a lawyer. Though he gave up politics at her request in 1842, Franklin secretly urged friends to put his name up to become the Democratic nominee for president. He received the nomination and won office in 1852, much to his wife’s disappointment.
Jane Pierce bore the death of all three of her children, the last just months before the Pierces were to leave New Hampshire for Washington. She spent the first half of Pierce’s presidency in mourning, refusing all political and social responsibilities. Jane Pierce had prayed that Franklin would lose the race for presidency, and she believed there was a divine connection between deaths of her children and Franklin’s political activities.
The White House and Later
She did eventually take an interest in politics and attended congressional hearings. Her biographers say that when Dr. Robinson was imprisoned, she convinced her husband to release him. Robinson was one of the anti-slavery activists fighting to turn Kansas into a state where slavery was illegal. Franklin Pierce, on the other hand, supported a pro-slavery government. Nevertheless, he yielded and released Robinson.
When Franklin’s presidency ended, he and Jane undertook an effort to restore Jane’s health and happiness. They toured the Caribbean and Europe. He even dabbled in sobriety, but the effort failed. Depressed and suffering from tuberculosis, Jane Pierce spent her final days with her sister in Andover, Mass,. until she died in 1863.
At the end, the two were ideologically divided over the Civil War, with Jane taking the abolitionist side and Franklin opposing war with the South. Franklin resumed his heavy drinking and would follow Jane to the grave in 1869.
This story about Jane Pierce was updated in 2018. | <urn:uuid:f1b08a97-1adb-4ee9-810d-971f01c9cbb0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/jane-means-appleton-pierce-new-hampshires-unlikely-first-lady/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00464.warc.gz | en | 0.985283 | 807 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.3374082744121... | 2 | In January of 1856, a radical physician from Massachusetts, Charles Robinson, won election as governor of Kansas. President Franklin Pierce declared him and others in his government to be revolutionaries and ordered their arrest. Pierce’s wife, Jane Pierce, interceded and her husband agreed to free Robinson from the miserable prison where he was confined.
Lobbying her husband was one of the few political actions undertaken by Jane Pierce – other than imploring her husband to leave politics and never return. Jane was one of the first ladies of the United States least suited to the position.
The marriage of Franklin Pierce and Jane Means Appleton was an unlikely one to begin with. Pierce had attended Bowdoin College in Maine, where Jane’s father had presided as president.
Jane was born March 12, 1806, in Hampton, N.H., the daughter of the Rev. Jesse Appleton and Elizabeth Means Appleton.
Her father was a strict religious zealot, prone to compulsive dieting to offset his sedentary lifestyle. He held a fanatical devotion to his duties and to his goal of making Bowdoin students more pious. He slept but four hours a day for years.
In 1809, Jesse Appleton moved his family from Hampton to take the post at Bowdoin. He died 10 years later at the age of 47. The Appletons left Brunswick, Maine, one year before Franklin entered the college in 1820.
The couple would meet in New Hampshire years later when Franklin was pushing 30 and Jane in her late 20s.
Devout and Depressed
Jane was, like her father, stick thin. She was smart, but devout in her faith. Prone to depression, it’s not clear how Jane and Franklin came to meet, though he would have likely known her brother at Bowdoin.
He was a dashing, young congressman with a thirst for liquor who enjoyed Washington’s social whirlwind. She was a lifelong teetotaler with a strong dislike of society.
Overriding her family’s objections, Jane married Franklin in 1834, and the two lived in Concord, N.H. Franklin pursued a successful career as a lawyer. Though he gave up politics at her request in 1842, Franklin secretly urged friends to put his name up to become the Democratic nominee for president. He received the nomination and won office in 1852, much to his wife’s disappointment.
Jane Pierce bore the death of all three of her children, the last just months before the Pierces were to leave New Hampshire for Washington. She spent the first half of Pierce’s presidency in mourning, refusing all political and social responsibilities. Jane Pierce had prayed that Franklin would lose the race for presidency, and she believed there was a divine connection between deaths of her children and Franklin’s political activities.
The White House and Later
She did eventually take an interest in politics and attended congressional hearings. Her biographers say that when Dr. Robinson was imprisoned, she convinced her husband to release him. Robinson was one of the anti-slavery activists fighting to turn Kansas into a state where slavery was illegal. Franklin Pierce, on the other hand, supported a pro-slavery government. Nevertheless, he yielded and released Robinson.
When Franklin’s presidency ended, he and Jane undertook an effort to restore Jane’s health and happiness. They toured the Caribbean and Europe. He even dabbled in sobriety, but the effort failed. Depressed and suffering from tuberculosis, Jane Pierce spent her final days with her sister in Andover, Mass,. until she died in 1863.
At the end, the two were ideologically divided over the Civil War, with Jane taking the abolitionist side and Franklin opposing war with the South. Franklin resumed his heavy drinking and would follow Jane to the grave in 1869.
This story about Jane Pierce was updated in 2018. | 814 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During professor O’Neill’s lecture on the Human/Nature relationship in antiquity, he talked about the ancients having a much different relationship with the world around them compared to today. People’s idea of the world was more influenced by religion and legends, as those offered explanations for the the un-explainable before modern science. Gods and other deities protected nature and trees. Poets and other writers used this for inspiration in poems, and this is how most people in cities learned about life in the country. Nature was personified, as the forces behind the workings of the natural world were often thought as beings that resembled humans. People back then felt more connected with the world around them for a few reasons. One being with less technology, people become more dependent on basic resources and ways of doing things. The second, and arguably more important, was the fact that with the anthropomorphizing of nature and the literature of the time, the natural would seemed seemed more serene and like there more basic and easy than it was in reality. Back then, the average opinion of nature seemed to be more idealized, and the average person was more in tune with the beauty of nature. | <urn:uuid:94483020-5ccf-4828-a3e9-51006ae380e8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://web.colby.edu/humanslashnature/2015/10/30/humannature-in-antiquity/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00068.warc.gz | en | 0.9828 | 242 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.32099145650863... | 4 | During professor O’Neill’s lecture on the Human/Nature relationship in antiquity, he talked about the ancients having a much different relationship with the world around them compared to today. People’s idea of the world was more influenced by religion and legends, as those offered explanations for the the un-explainable before modern science. Gods and other deities protected nature and trees. Poets and other writers used this for inspiration in poems, and this is how most people in cities learned about life in the country. Nature was personified, as the forces behind the workings of the natural world were often thought as beings that resembled humans. People back then felt more connected with the world around them for a few reasons. One being with less technology, people become more dependent on basic resources and ways of doing things. The second, and arguably more important, was the fact that with the anthropomorphizing of nature and the literature of the time, the natural would seemed seemed more serene and like there more basic and easy than it was in reality. Back then, the average opinion of nature seemed to be more idealized, and the average person was more in tune with the beauty of nature. | 238 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery During The 19th Century Essay example
There was an economic boom for slave labor in the 19th century. This was facilitated by the invention of cotton gin by Eli Whitney. Southern planters looked upon this labor to work their lands. There was developed gang labor system. In this system work was assigned to black drivers closely supervised by white overseers. It is estimated that cotton production yielded over four million bales annually which was over 60% of the world’s cotton. The whites enjoyed all this return at the expense of their slaves.
The south was economically rich than any other European nation except England. Much of the proceeds from his trade were used to finance the American industrial revolution. This gave them more influence among other states hence the continued operation of slavery. A few group of slaves worked in the planter’s homes as cooks, nursemaids and as craftsmen. These groups rarely became factory workers.… | <urn:uuid:66772457-10b3-4871-8a6a-dae57ebc19e8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/Slavery-During-The-19th-Century/FKMJKJZLG6EEX | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00039.warc.gz | en | 0.985997 | 191 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.27054029703... | 1 | Slavery During The 19th Century Essay example
There was an economic boom for slave labor in the 19th century. This was facilitated by the invention of cotton gin by Eli Whitney. Southern planters looked upon this labor to work their lands. There was developed gang labor system. In this system work was assigned to black drivers closely supervised by white overseers. It is estimated that cotton production yielded over four million bales annually which was over 60% of the world’s cotton. The whites enjoyed all this return at the expense of their slaves.
The south was economically rich than any other European nation except England. Much of the proceeds from his trade were used to finance the American industrial revolution. This gave them more influence among other states hence the continued operation of slavery. A few group of slaves worked in the planter’s homes as cooks, nursemaids and as craftsmen. These groups rarely became factory workers.… | 188 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It’s easy to forget that children all over the world are raised in periods of war. In our series on the archaeology of WW1, we’ve discussed the impact of war on men, women, landscapes and even animals. This time, we’re going to turn our attention to children, because although the tale of the WW2 evacuees is often told, by comparison, the experience of children who grew up during WW1 is rarely heard.
It seems so shocking to see such a small child sit so calmly on her mother’s lap as they both wear these alien-looking masks, but many children would have grown up with this as the norm. Gas attacks were a real threat, and masks were incorporated into daily life, which changed during WW1 right down to the very basics.
Food was rationed and luxuries like toys and sweets just weren’t available in the same capacity. Mothers had to go to work, and in many cases, older children had to join them in the workplace too.
This caused a huge set back in movements to enforce compulsory education for the under 14’s. In fact, H.A.L. Fisher, chairman of the board of education estimated that “between the start of the war and 1917, 600,000 children had been put to work”. This was not only physically and emotionally demanding, but meant that many older children missed out on years of education.
Dreaming of daddy
With mass conscription, thousands suddenly became army children. Civilian men prepared to leave home, having volunteered through choice, the weight of social pressures such as the White Feather Campaign or forced conscription.
Postcards like this may have been kept as mementos or even sent out to the front line to remind soldiers of what was waiting for them back home.
Men who managed to survive the war came back changed. They returned in their thousands with devastating injuries, missing limbs and suffering the effects of toxic gases, but even those without physical injury suffered mental scars.
Settling back into daily life was often a struggle, tormented by their experiences and unable to talk about it openly. Conditions such as shell shock were only just beginning to be understood by medics, but did any of that make sense to children who couldn’t understand why their fathers had come back so distant, troubled and resorting to alcohol? Children simply cannot comprehend the effects of trauma in a world that they have not experienced.
Some children were only infants when the war began and would have had little or no memory of their fathers. The arrival of a strange man into a house that had been female dominated until then must have been confusing, doubly so as these men struggled to adjust into a society where gender roles were changing.
With over five million men sent off to fight abroad, their absence meant many young children grew up in a female dominated sphere, with little to no influence from young men.
Even teachers (typically male in this period) were replaced by women in wartime England. Gender roles and social habits were changing at lightning speed, which threw the media into a moral panic about ‘juvenile delinquency’ and the effects of an absence of disciplinarian father figures in a society where women now went to work and attended public houses (the horror!).
Some women remarried, and their children found it hard to accept their new father figure. Sometimes the new husband came with his own children, and no time for a new family. Children might be sent to live with relatives instead, causing long term emotional issues. Those who stayed might face a beating. Of course not every new man was a Disney style evil step-father and some children welcomed a new father openly.
One of the worst experiences must have been for those whose father had been shot for cowardice. 306 British men were sentenced to be shot at dawn, and with this came a nasty social stigma and the withdrawal of an army pension for the grieving family. Shame overshadowed the tragedy and children were encouraged to hide their feelings.
Of course, many of these issues lead to reform. The Education Act of 1918 ended child labour. Girls growing into young ladies gained the right to vote for the first time, and could take up a wider range of employment. Working conditions improved, and day to day life was no longer dictated by black outs and ration books. Children could live like children again, and in many cases would be able to experience more than their fathers before them.
Support great archaeology
DigVentures crowdfunds archaeological projects that everyone can be part of, in the UK and overseas. With help from people all over the world, we investigate the past and publish our discoveries online for free. Support one of our digs and you can choose to excavate alongside our team, or watch our discoveries online! | <urn:uuid:61e43887-9f92-4430-a1ba-c40f83994c11> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://digventures.com/2015/02/from-playtime-to-wartime-how-children-experienced-ww1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.983882 | 989 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.56564635038... | 1 | It’s easy to forget that children all over the world are raised in periods of war. In our series on the archaeology of WW1, we’ve discussed the impact of war on men, women, landscapes and even animals. This time, we’re going to turn our attention to children, because although the tale of the WW2 evacuees is often told, by comparison, the experience of children who grew up during WW1 is rarely heard.
It seems so shocking to see such a small child sit so calmly on her mother’s lap as they both wear these alien-looking masks, but many children would have grown up with this as the norm. Gas attacks were a real threat, and masks were incorporated into daily life, which changed during WW1 right down to the very basics.
Food was rationed and luxuries like toys and sweets just weren’t available in the same capacity. Mothers had to go to work, and in many cases, older children had to join them in the workplace too.
This caused a huge set back in movements to enforce compulsory education for the under 14’s. In fact, H.A.L. Fisher, chairman of the board of education estimated that “between the start of the war and 1917, 600,000 children had been put to work”. This was not only physically and emotionally demanding, but meant that many older children missed out on years of education.
Dreaming of daddy
With mass conscription, thousands suddenly became army children. Civilian men prepared to leave home, having volunteered through choice, the weight of social pressures such as the White Feather Campaign or forced conscription.
Postcards like this may have been kept as mementos or even sent out to the front line to remind soldiers of what was waiting for them back home.
Men who managed to survive the war came back changed. They returned in their thousands with devastating injuries, missing limbs and suffering the effects of toxic gases, but even those without physical injury suffered mental scars.
Settling back into daily life was often a struggle, tormented by their experiences and unable to talk about it openly. Conditions such as shell shock were only just beginning to be understood by medics, but did any of that make sense to children who couldn’t understand why their fathers had come back so distant, troubled and resorting to alcohol? Children simply cannot comprehend the effects of trauma in a world that they have not experienced.
Some children were only infants when the war began and would have had little or no memory of their fathers. The arrival of a strange man into a house that had been female dominated until then must have been confusing, doubly so as these men struggled to adjust into a society where gender roles were changing.
With over five million men sent off to fight abroad, their absence meant many young children grew up in a female dominated sphere, with little to no influence from young men.
Even teachers (typically male in this period) were replaced by women in wartime England. Gender roles and social habits were changing at lightning speed, which threw the media into a moral panic about ‘juvenile delinquency’ and the effects of an absence of disciplinarian father figures in a society where women now went to work and attended public houses (the horror!).
Some women remarried, and their children found it hard to accept their new father figure. Sometimes the new husband came with his own children, and no time for a new family. Children might be sent to live with relatives instead, causing long term emotional issues. Those who stayed might face a beating. Of course not every new man was a Disney style evil step-father and some children welcomed a new father openly.
One of the worst experiences must have been for those whose father had been shot for cowardice. 306 British men were sentenced to be shot at dawn, and with this came a nasty social stigma and the withdrawal of an army pension for the grieving family. Shame overshadowed the tragedy and children were encouraged to hide their feelings.
Of course, many of these issues lead to reform. The Education Act of 1918 ended child labour. Girls growing into young ladies gained the right to vote for the first time, and could take up a wider range of employment. Working conditions improved, and day to day life was no longer dictated by black outs and ration books. Children could live like children again, and in many cases would be able to experience more than their fathers before them.
Support great archaeology
DigVentures crowdfunds archaeological projects that everyone can be part of, in the UK and overseas. With help from people all over the world, we investigate the past and publish our discoveries online for free. Support one of our digs and you can choose to excavate alongside our team, or watch our discoveries online! | 971 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In order to encourage further seafaring adventurers, the British Admiralty had offered a reward of 20,000 guineas to the first person to find a way through to the NorthWest Passage. Sir John Franklin, supposedly at the end of his career as a sailor and explorer, applied for one further chance. He had fought alongside Lord Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar and his earlier expeditions had helped survey
1,760 km of the northern Canadian coastline. He had also been governor of Tasmania but returned after a bitter dispute with the colonial secretary there. He was now 58 and initially thought too old to be given such a dangerous mission. However, he was, after considerable lobbying, given the opportunity to mount a final expedition to try and locate the North-West Passage. He was given command of two massive ships, the aptly named HMS Terror (345 tonnes) and HMS Erebus (380 tonnes). Franklin would command and sail the Erebus and Captain Crozier would command the Terror, although still under Franklin’s supreme command of the overall total of 129 men. They set out in 1845 and carried supplies estimated to last them three and a half years! They never returned and not one sailor was ever found alive.
Arctic Sea Ice Map Photo Gallery
There were several search expeditions sent out to look for them, including some sent by the indomitable Lady Franklin who refused for many years to accept that her husband had perished. She even consulted clairvoyants who predicted where the sailors could be found, or at least their remains, but no one would take those predictions seriously. She never gave up and continually badgered everyone of importance to allow further expeditions to continue the search; including such notables as the Prime Minister, the Emperor of France, the Tsar of Russia and the President of the United States. After a further rescue expedition was also lost in 1852, the Admiralty authorised one final attempt to look for the two lost crews.
Francis McClintock led this search party but only the rescue expedition was found, although one of its leaders, Robert McClure, actually discovered the entrance to the North-West Passage. Unfortunately however, he didn’t navigate it but walked for most of its length. John Rae, an officer of the Hudson’s Bay Company, while surveying the coast of Boothia Peninsula, finally came back with the news everyone had been dreading. Local native traders had provided clues about the fate of Franklin and his men and the mystery of what had become of them. It seemed that they had been trapped in the ice with their boats for some considerable time and had eventually succumbed to lead poisoning from seepage of their canned supplies. There was additional evidence, although never officially accepted, that possibly driven mad by the poisoning, some of Franklin’s sailors had resorted to cannibalism. This would have been unthinkable in Victorian society, particularly by those who would not really understand the enormous deprivation experienced by such heroic adventurers and how desperate they would have become. Jane Franklin naturally refused to accept that terrible accusation as fact, as did her friend, the author Charles Dickens, who philosophised, ‘The men who learn endurance are they who call the whole world brother.’ However as recently as 1992 some of the crew’s skeletons have been discovered which showed cuts made by knives consistent with cutting flesh.
Over several years some ravaged corpses and skeletons were discovered and in 1857 Lady Franklin financed a further search expedition, again under the command of Francis McClintock. His ship, The Fox, first sailed to Baffin Bay, where it was iced in for the first winter and then sailed to Bellot Strait. Contact was made with the Inuit tribe that Rae had met who confirmed again the story of the deaths of Franklin’s men. McClintock’s lieutenant, Robert Hobson, whilst exploring the coast of King William Island, then made a startling discovery. In a cairn, Hobson found the only written record of what had befallen Franklin and his men. On a standard Navy form were two messages. The first was dated 28 May 1847 and stated that the ships Erebus and Terror had survived two winters without serious mishap. It ended with the two simple words ‘All well.’ With stark and despairing words, the second, added in the margin, told a very different story. It was dated 25 April 1848. ‘Erebus and Terror were deserted on 22 April. Sir John Franklin died 11 June 1847. Deaths to this date 9 officers and 15 men.’ There is no further record of anyone having subsequently survived. The epitaph of Sir John Franklin was written at his wife’s request by the poet laureate of the day, Lord Alfred Tennyson and placed in Westminster Abbey. The British Government and most others, appalled at the terrible loss of life suffered by this and many other expeditions, lost their previously keen desire to explore further for several decades. Even today there is a continuing fascination in Franklin’s expeditions; the Royal Canadian Mounted Police are currently sending out a 20 metre patrol boat in an effort to locate the remains of Erebus and Terror. This is part of a 35,000 km adventure of rediscovery, retracing the voyage of the police schooner that first circumnavigated North America through the North-West Passage.
Subsequent to Franklin’s time there have been many polar explorations to and through these frozen lands and some incredible exploits. Having experienced myself, though not to the same degree, the powerful emotional pull of the North Pole, I could appreciate and understand the ‘Arctic Fever’ that has gripped so many through the centuries. The immense desire to make the long and arduous journey across wastes of ice and snow that always threaten to overwhelm and to reach the end goal, no matter at what cost to yourself and your sanity, can only be understood by someone who has been similarly gripped or who has attempted to travel there. The Arctic is a desolate place.
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- The Authentic Yoga Retreat Where? Cumbria, England | <urn:uuid:aece921b-f4dc-443f-9c66-43f7ee9c3527> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://travelquaz.com/arctic-sea-ice-map.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.98113 | 1,318 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.144240349... | 1 | In order to encourage further seafaring adventurers, the British Admiralty had offered a reward of 20,000 guineas to the first person to find a way through to the NorthWest Passage. Sir John Franklin, supposedly at the end of his career as a sailor and explorer, applied for one further chance. He had fought alongside Lord Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar and his earlier expeditions had helped survey
1,760 km of the northern Canadian coastline. He had also been governor of Tasmania but returned after a bitter dispute with the colonial secretary there. He was now 58 and initially thought too old to be given such a dangerous mission. However, he was, after considerable lobbying, given the opportunity to mount a final expedition to try and locate the North-West Passage. He was given command of two massive ships, the aptly named HMS Terror (345 tonnes) and HMS Erebus (380 tonnes). Franklin would command and sail the Erebus and Captain Crozier would command the Terror, although still under Franklin’s supreme command of the overall total of 129 men. They set out in 1845 and carried supplies estimated to last them three and a half years! They never returned and not one sailor was ever found alive.
Arctic Sea Ice Map Photo Gallery
There were several search expeditions sent out to look for them, including some sent by the indomitable Lady Franklin who refused for many years to accept that her husband had perished. She even consulted clairvoyants who predicted where the sailors could be found, or at least their remains, but no one would take those predictions seriously. She never gave up and continually badgered everyone of importance to allow further expeditions to continue the search; including such notables as the Prime Minister, the Emperor of France, the Tsar of Russia and the President of the United States. After a further rescue expedition was also lost in 1852, the Admiralty authorised one final attempt to look for the two lost crews.
Francis McClintock led this search party but only the rescue expedition was found, although one of its leaders, Robert McClure, actually discovered the entrance to the North-West Passage. Unfortunately however, he didn’t navigate it but walked for most of its length. John Rae, an officer of the Hudson’s Bay Company, while surveying the coast of Boothia Peninsula, finally came back with the news everyone had been dreading. Local native traders had provided clues about the fate of Franklin and his men and the mystery of what had become of them. It seemed that they had been trapped in the ice with their boats for some considerable time and had eventually succumbed to lead poisoning from seepage of their canned supplies. There was additional evidence, although never officially accepted, that possibly driven mad by the poisoning, some of Franklin’s sailors had resorted to cannibalism. This would have been unthinkable in Victorian society, particularly by those who would not really understand the enormous deprivation experienced by such heroic adventurers and how desperate they would have become. Jane Franklin naturally refused to accept that terrible accusation as fact, as did her friend, the author Charles Dickens, who philosophised, ‘The men who learn endurance are they who call the whole world brother.’ However as recently as 1992 some of the crew’s skeletons have been discovered which showed cuts made by knives consistent with cutting flesh.
Over several years some ravaged corpses and skeletons were discovered and in 1857 Lady Franklin financed a further search expedition, again under the command of Francis McClintock. His ship, The Fox, first sailed to Baffin Bay, where it was iced in for the first winter and then sailed to Bellot Strait. Contact was made with the Inuit tribe that Rae had met who confirmed again the story of the deaths of Franklin’s men. McClintock’s lieutenant, Robert Hobson, whilst exploring the coast of King William Island, then made a startling discovery. In a cairn, Hobson found the only written record of what had befallen Franklin and his men. On a standard Navy form were two messages. The first was dated 28 May 1847 and stated that the ships Erebus and Terror had survived two winters without serious mishap. It ended with the two simple words ‘All well.’ With stark and despairing words, the second, added in the margin, told a very different story. It was dated 25 April 1848. ‘Erebus and Terror were deserted on 22 April. Sir John Franklin died 11 June 1847. Deaths to this date 9 officers and 15 men.’ There is no further record of anyone having subsequently survived. The epitaph of Sir John Franklin was written at his wife’s request by the poet laureate of the day, Lord Alfred Tennyson and placed in Westminster Abbey. The British Government and most others, appalled at the terrible loss of life suffered by this and many other expeditions, lost their previously keen desire to explore further for several decades. Even today there is a continuing fascination in Franklin’s expeditions; the Royal Canadian Mounted Police are currently sending out a 20 metre patrol boat in an effort to locate the remains of Erebus and Terror. This is part of a 35,000 km adventure of rediscovery, retracing the voyage of the police schooner that first circumnavigated North America through the North-West Passage.
Subsequent to Franklin’s time there have been many polar explorations to and through these frozen lands and some incredible exploits. Having experienced myself, though not to the same degree, the powerful emotional pull of the North Pole, I could appreciate and understand the ‘Arctic Fever’ that has gripped so many through the centuries. The immense desire to make the long and arduous journey across wastes of ice and snow that always threaten to overwhelm and to reach the end goal, no matter at what cost to yourself and your sanity, can only be understood by someone who has been similarly gripped or who has attempted to travel there. The Arctic is a desolate place.
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The Allies endeavored to rid postwar Germany of Nazi elites. But many Third Reich judges continued to work in as legal professionals in West Germany — until one brave student shined the spotlight.
Two years after World War II ended, Reinhard Strecker left Germany for Paris, France, with the intention of never again setting foot on German soil. When he did return to Germany in 1954 to fulfill his parents' express wish, he was shocked to see many judges from the Nazi period still in office.
Speaking to DW, Strecker said he had vowed to only stay if Germany changed. "I thought it was idiotic to build up a democratic system with the help of the former criminals. So I had to do something about it," he said.
After defeating Hitler, the Allies and Soviet Union launched a denazification program to rid German society of Nazi sympathizers and ideology. About 200,000 individuals deemed dangerous and suspected of having been involved in Nazi crimes were banned from holding public positions of responsibility and placed in internment camps.
The Nuremberg trials and prosecution of Nazi Germany's major war criminals — resulting in 12 death sentences — were the manifestation of the victors' determination to severely punish those responsible for the atrocities. Trials targeting individual vocational groups would follow later.
But the thorough denazification program presented a problem for the Allies, as historian Marc von Miquel argues in "Karrieren im Zwielicht" ("Shady Careers"),a book about Nazi elites in post-war Germany. He points out the chronic lack of judges "during a time when scores of refugees were returning home and black markets were booming and crime threatened to become endemic."
Not enough judges
And because of this shortage of judges, the entry bar was lowered accordingly. "Until the early 1960s, between 1,100 and 1,200 known Nazi judges served as public prosecutors and judges in Allied-occupied Germany," estimates Klaus-Detlev Godau-Schüttke, who authored the study "Der Bundesgerichtshof. Justiz in Deutschland" ("The Federal Court of Justice. The German Judiciary"). Many of them had previously handed down summary death sentences in Nazi-occupied countries like Poland and Denmark. Some critics for this reason labeled it a de-facto "renazification" of Allied-occupied Germany.
Von Miquel argues that during the 1947 German Jurists' Conference, when the Nuremberg trials focused on the legal profession, it became evident that German lawyers were unwilling to act against incriminated colleagues. He writes that the conference spokesman, Lindau District Court President Hermann Müllereisert, dismissed the law applied at the Nuremberg trials as "specifically targeted at Germans in order to exact revenge on political opponents."
Over time, the general mood in West Germany shifted as well. Miquel argues that "while initially there was broad support for the Nuremberg trials, over time this gave away to an aversion against the Allies' efforts to deliver justice during subsequent trials.
Adenauer was "no Nazi"
Reinhard Strecker, who was born into a family of lawyers in 1930, says he had his parents to thank for the fact he never became a Nazi sympathizer. "They strictly opposed the Nazis," he said. "My father was a founder member of the Confessing Church [a German Protestant movement during Nazi Germany that sought to remain independent]. Both my mother and father made clear to us kids that we should never have anything to do with the Nazis."
In the fall of 1954, Strecker moved to West Berlin and obtained his high school diploma at the age of 24. He then began studying Indo-European languages at Berlin's Freie Universität. Though pretty soon, he began devoting most of his energy to hunting down Nazi sympathizers still holding influential positions in legal and medical professions in West Germany.
His activism was partially inspired by an East German propaganda campaign from the mid-1950s, which drew attention to Nazi war criminals who had been allowed to continue working and pursuing their careers in West Germany after 1949.
"I was determined to stop the process that began under [Chancellor] Konrad Adenauer; I wanted nothing to do with what was reemerging in Germany. All the Nazis that I had hated were now back in office," recalls Strecker, who today is a silver-haired pensioner.
He says German Chancellor Adenauer certainly wasn't a Nazi himself but "after 1945 did work together closely with them." Strecker claims Adenauer was keen to "prevent Nazi criminals going on trial in Germany."
Together with fellow students, Strecker gathered documents to ascertain the true identity of these Nazi sympathizers. "This was painstaking work, we could not allow ourselves to make even the slightest mistake."
When West German archives refused to let him review their documents, he turned to East German authorities. Ignoring accusations he could become a useful Communist propaganda tool, he began trawling through East German archives in 1958. Since then, he has gone through and copied more than 3,000 files.
Together with like-minded student activists, he presented a small selection of these files in Frankfurt in spring 1959. Later that year, they curated an exhibition in the city of Karlsruhe, the seat both of Germany's Constitutional Court and Federal Court of Justice. The exhibition, entitled "Ungesühnte Nazijustiz,"which roughly translates as "Nazi Judges Who Never Faced Justice," became an overnight sensation. It name-and-shamed more than 100 former Nazis who continued to hold powerful positions in post-war Germany. The publicity it received, meant the topic could no longer be swept under the carpet.
The exhibition toured across West Germany and thereafter Great Britain and the Netherlands. Then, in 1960, Strecker took things one step further and lodged formal complaints against 43 judges known to be Nazi sympathizers.
Strecker had no qualms about cooperating with Communist authorities in Poland and Czechoslovakia in his quest to dig up compromising material on Nazi judges. But Strecker says neither West German nor East German authorities fully trusted him. Grinning, he recalls that "Bonn viewed me as Communist, while East Berlin deemed me a CIA agent."
Help from London
But Strecker refused to be intimidated. "Adenauer repeatedly announced that after May 8, 1960, everything would be forgiven and forgotten, even manslaughter and murder – he wanted to grant full amnesty," Strecker remembers. "But I could not stand the thought of these criminals holding office. That's why I had to fight."
On a trip to London, Strecker shared his insights with British lawmakers. Subsequently, British Foreign Minister Selwyn Lloyd flew to Bonn to meet and chastise Chancellor Adenauer for his professed leniency towards former Nazi elites. "Adenauer had to take back his amnesty promise, that was my big achievement," Strecker says. It took until 1979, however, until the German parliament finally scrapped the statute of limitations for murder and genocide.
Even though no judges were ever prosecuted in West Germany for their work in the Third Reich, Strecker is pleased with his efforts. "Thanks also to my work, Germans after many decades finally came to understand that the Nazi period was one never-ending crime." Back in 1945, he says, "I was alone in this view."
This piece is part of the Guilt without Atonement project by DW's Polish desk in cooperation with Interia and Wirtualna Polska. | <urn:uuid:38b984f8-4d0c-43a4-a8dd-67c30d2605e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dw.com/en/the-student-who-hunted-nazi-judges-in-postwar-germany/a-51456270 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00535.warc.gz | en | 0.980479 | 1,547 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.32870787382125854... | 2 | The Allies endeavored to rid postwar Germany of Nazi elites. But many Third Reich judges continued to work in as legal professionals in West Germany — until one brave student shined the spotlight.
Two years after World War II ended, Reinhard Strecker left Germany for Paris, France, with the intention of never again setting foot on German soil. When he did return to Germany in 1954 to fulfill his parents' express wish, he was shocked to see many judges from the Nazi period still in office.
Speaking to DW, Strecker said he had vowed to only stay if Germany changed. "I thought it was idiotic to build up a democratic system with the help of the former criminals. So I had to do something about it," he said.
After defeating Hitler, the Allies and Soviet Union launched a denazification program to rid German society of Nazi sympathizers and ideology. About 200,000 individuals deemed dangerous and suspected of having been involved in Nazi crimes were banned from holding public positions of responsibility and placed in internment camps.
The Nuremberg trials and prosecution of Nazi Germany's major war criminals — resulting in 12 death sentences — were the manifestation of the victors' determination to severely punish those responsible for the atrocities. Trials targeting individual vocational groups would follow later.
But the thorough denazification program presented a problem for the Allies, as historian Marc von Miquel argues in "Karrieren im Zwielicht" ("Shady Careers"),a book about Nazi elites in post-war Germany. He points out the chronic lack of judges "during a time when scores of refugees were returning home and black markets were booming and crime threatened to become endemic."
Not enough judges
And because of this shortage of judges, the entry bar was lowered accordingly. "Until the early 1960s, between 1,100 and 1,200 known Nazi judges served as public prosecutors and judges in Allied-occupied Germany," estimates Klaus-Detlev Godau-Schüttke, who authored the study "Der Bundesgerichtshof. Justiz in Deutschland" ("The Federal Court of Justice. The German Judiciary"). Many of them had previously handed down summary death sentences in Nazi-occupied countries like Poland and Denmark. Some critics for this reason labeled it a de-facto "renazification" of Allied-occupied Germany.
Von Miquel argues that during the 1947 German Jurists' Conference, when the Nuremberg trials focused on the legal profession, it became evident that German lawyers were unwilling to act against incriminated colleagues. He writes that the conference spokesman, Lindau District Court President Hermann Müllereisert, dismissed the law applied at the Nuremberg trials as "specifically targeted at Germans in order to exact revenge on political opponents."
Over time, the general mood in West Germany shifted as well. Miquel argues that "while initially there was broad support for the Nuremberg trials, over time this gave away to an aversion against the Allies' efforts to deliver justice during subsequent trials.
Adenauer was "no Nazi"
Reinhard Strecker, who was born into a family of lawyers in 1930, says he had his parents to thank for the fact he never became a Nazi sympathizer. "They strictly opposed the Nazis," he said. "My father was a founder member of the Confessing Church [a German Protestant movement during Nazi Germany that sought to remain independent]. Both my mother and father made clear to us kids that we should never have anything to do with the Nazis."
In the fall of 1954, Strecker moved to West Berlin and obtained his high school diploma at the age of 24. He then began studying Indo-European languages at Berlin's Freie Universität. Though pretty soon, he began devoting most of his energy to hunting down Nazi sympathizers still holding influential positions in legal and medical professions in West Germany.
His activism was partially inspired by an East German propaganda campaign from the mid-1950s, which drew attention to Nazi war criminals who had been allowed to continue working and pursuing their careers in West Germany after 1949.
"I was determined to stop the process that began under [Chancellor] Konrad Adenauer; I wanted nothing to do with what was reemerging in Germany. All the Nazis that I had hated were now back in office," recalls Strecker, who today is a silver-haired pensioner.
He says German Chancellor Adenauer certainly wasn't a Nazi himself but "after 1945 did work together closely with them." Strecker claims Adenauer was keen to "prevent Nazi criminals going on trial in Germany."
Together with fellow students, Strecker gathered documents to ascertain the true identity of these Nazi sympathizers. "This was painstaking work, we could not allow ourselves to make even the slightest mistake."
When West German archives refused to let him review their documents, he turned to East German authorities. Ignoring accusations he could become a useful Communist propaganda tool, he began trawling through East German archives in 1958. Since then, he has gone through and copied more than 3,000 files.
Together with like-minded student activists, he presented a small selection of these files in Frankfurt in spring 1959. Later that year, they curated an exhibition in the city of Karlsruhe, the seat both of Germany's Constitutional Court and Federal Court of Justice. The exhibition, entitled "Ungesühnte Nazijustiz,"which roughly translates as "Nazi Judges Who Never Faced Justice," became an overnight sensation. It name-and-shamed more than 100 former Nazis who continued to hold powerful positions in post-war Germany. The publicity it received, meant the topic could no longer be swept under the carpet.
The exhibition toured across West Germany and thereafter Great Britain and the Netherlands. Then, in 1960, Strecker took things one step further and lodged formal complaints against 43 judges known to be Nazi sympathizers.
Strecker had no qualms about cooperating with Communist authorities in Poland and Czechoslovakia in his quest to dig up compromising material on Nazi judges. But Strecker says neither West German nor East German authorities fully trusted him. Grinning, he recalls that "Bonn viewed me as Communist, while East Berlin deemed me a CIA agent."
Help from London
But Strecker refused to be intimidated. "Adenauer repeatedly announced that after May 8, 1960, everything would be forgiven and forgotten, even manslaughter and murder – he wanted to grant full amnesty," Strecker remembers. "But I could not stand the thought of these criminals holding office. That's why I had to fight."
On a trip to London, Strecker shared his insights with British lawmakers. Subsequently, British Foreign Minister Selwyn Lloyd flew to Bonn to meet and chastise Chancellor Adenauer for his professed leniency towards former Nazi elites. "Adenauer had to take back his amnesty promise, that was my big achievement," Strecker says. It took until 1979, however, until the German parliament finally scrapped the statute of limitations for murder and genocide.
Even though no judges were ever prosecuted in West Germany for their work in the Third Reich, Strecker is pleased with his efforts. "Thanks also to my work, Germans after many decades finally came to understand that the Nazi period was one never-ending crime." Back in 1945, he says, "I was alone in this view."
This piece is part of the Guilt without Atonement project by DW's Polish desk in cooperation with Interia and Wirtualna Polska. | 1,595 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) is one of the most famous artist in the world. He was born to William Wright (a music teacher and a Baptist minister) and Anna Lloyd Wright. Her mother was a strong and self reliant woman who had an influence over his son’s career. She would maneuver to stay at the forefront of Wrights life. It is often argued that Wright became an architect at her mother’s wish (Treibler, 8). The aim of this paper is to critically discuss about Frank Lloyd Wright and his art while detailing some of his famous artworks.
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Frank Lloyd Wright
Frank Lloyd Wright was born in June 8, 1867 in Richland Center and died in April 9, 1959. Wright was married with three wives and had seven children. He studied civil engineering at the University of Wisconsin and later travelled to Chicago where he became an apprentice to Joseph Silbee, a Chicagoan architect at around the age of twenty. He later worked for Louis Sullivan and by the age of 31, he had designed about 800 buildings but only 380 houses were built in 36 states in America while three were built in Japan. He is well known for his long horizontal residential designs popularly known as Prairie style homes. Some of his houses are still there and can be seen in Chicago (Dahlen).
In 1909 Wright went to Europe and after he returned to the U.S. and built a Taliesin. This was once a place he lived, his studio and an agricultural operation. Unfortunately in 1914, the Taliesin was ravaged by fire and killed 7 people (Treibler, 7). The Taliesin is one of the world’s subtlest spatial compositions of that time (8). The Taliesin is currently operated by the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation and it is open for tours.
Frank LLoyd Wright founded the prairie school of architecture and his creations included public buildings, churches, residential houses, office buildings and museums. Some of the several building styles that he is well known for include the Chicago style, Western concrete block, Prairie style, Usonian and Shinge style. The prairie style resulted from Wright focusing on applying organic principles on residential architecture. Most of his residences were created and integrated to some specific geographic settings and he was more concerned with the relationship of buildings to the land. It is thought that the prairie style was as a result of Wright spending time on his family farm and for his great love of the land as a kid. He had the basic idea that a building should organically grow from the land and that is why he used nature to get ideas on the color, textureand forms of building. According to him, a residential building should be one with unites the inside and outside entities. He termed this the “organic architecture” (Dahlen). In his buildings, Wright was influenced by the Jeffersonian ideal of an agrarian society.
Frank Wright worked on several artworks and developed most of the houses in the first 10 years of the 19th century (Treibler, 18). Some of the famous artworks are discussed below.
The imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan
This was an impressive hotel shaped like an H. it had its main public rooms and lobby in the central area while pools and gardens filled the courtyard. The building is especially famous because it survived several earthquakes because Wright had considered floating foundations and flexible wall structures. He built thicker walls at the base to give the building lower centre of gravity. The building however has since been demolished (Toothman). The hotel building existed from 1916 to 1922 in Tokyo, Japan but was later destroyed in 1968.
I chose this building because it is one of the famous arts of Wright outside the U.S., in Japan. The imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan house is represented in figure 1 below.
Figure 1 The imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan
The Price Water
This is the only skyscraper ever built by Wright. The building is situated in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. Wright build the tower that showcases his love for organic, horizontal and homey things and its inspiration comes from a tree. The building was originally built to accommodate offices, living space and retail but now it houses a restaurant, a hotel and an art center. The building’s stunning colors on the interior are set in geometrical murals of sky blue, rich red and gold (Toothman). The building is located in Bartlesville, Oklahoma and was opened in 1956 does exist up to date (Kirschner 1).
I love this 221-foot building, the only skyscraper that Wright managed to build especially with its tree like structure. The Price water skyscraper is represented in figure 2 below.
Figure 2 The Price Water
This was one of Wright’s textile blocks that he built in the 1930s and probably the best known of his buildings. The building overhangs a waterfall are a cantilevered design that has terraces that extends over the water and it includes a staircase that extends below the lliving room into the water surface below it. Wright felt that he needed to design the house in such a way that the people inside do not visualize the building, a plan he felt would heighten the excitement and the awe to viewers (Toothman). I particularly love this building because according to available literature by Steffensen (2009), shook the Fallingwater out of his sleeve and designed the now world famous building. The story of the Falling water serves as the introduction to Wrights persona. The Fallingwater house was designed in 1936 but opened t the public in 1954. It is represented below.
Figure 3 the Fallingwater house
The Robie House
I felt that the Robie house should also be featured because it espouses Wright’s prairie style. It was in the first decade of 20th century that Wright pioneered the Prairie style. The style emphasized on long horizontal using such features like glass corners and cantilevered roofs to eliminate boxiness. The Robie house, built in Chicago, encompasses all these and has a cantilevered roof of about 20 feet after its last support with art-glass details (Toothman). Treibler (18) refers the Robie house as a steamship because it was built by a narrow corner lot and had a streamlined design and resembled a ship. Wright then later experimented with his own house. The house, a modern residential architecture, was located in Oak Park Illinois. He built the house in triangular form with a big gable that was used to shelter the entrance to the house. He kept a Palladian window as a historical architectural device. Wright also used geometry in his architecture and used to love to practice with breaking down squares instead of having square rooms. The building is located in Chicago and was completed in 1910.
Figure 4 the Robie House in Chicago
Frank Lloyd can be compared to another famous artist Le Corbusier. The two are some of the architects who represented themselves through their work. Wright’s Falling water and Le Corbusier’s Villa Voyage are both perfect examples of artists expressing themselves through their work. The houses were built to exhibit each of the artist’s ideals and designs. The two houses are also abstract cubes in which different geometric elements are employed. However, some there is a particular sneering of Wright whereby some people snub him as “intellectually shallow” when compared to the more intelligent and enlightened architects like Le Corbusier. But recently, Wright has been receiving accolades for his great and respectable work (Peter).
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0.583422303... | 1 | Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) is one of the most famous artist in the world. He was born to William Wright (a music teacher and a Baptist minister) and Anna Lloyd Wright. Her mother was a strong and self reliant woman who had an influence over his son’s career. She would maneuver to stay at the forefront of Wrights life. It is often argued that Wright became an architect at her mother’s wish (Treibler, 8). The aim of this paper is to critically discuss about Frank Lloyd Wright and his art while detailing some of his famous artworks.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Frank Lloyd Wright
Frank Lloyd Wright was born in June 8, 1867 in Richland Center and died in April 9, 1959. Wright was married with three wives and had seven children. He studied civil engineering at the University of Wisconsin and later travelled to Chicago where he became an apprentice to Joseph Silbee, a Chicagoan architect at around the age of twenty. He later worked for Louis Sullivan and by the age of 31, he had designed about 800 buildings but only 380 houses were built in 36 states in America while three were built in Japan. He is well known for his long horizontal residential designs popularly known as Prairie style homes. Some of his houses are still there and can be seen in Chicago (Dahlen).
In 1909 Wright went to Europe and after he returned to the U.S. and built a Taliesin. This was once a place he lived, his studio and an agricultural operation. Unfortunately in 1914, the Taliesin was ravaged by fire and killed 7 people (Treibler, 7). The Taliesin is one of the world’s subtlest spatial compositions of that time (8). The Taliesin is currently operated by the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation and it is open for tours.
Frank LLoyd Wright founded the prairie school of architecture and his creations included public buildings, churches, residential houses, office buildings and museums. Some of the several building styles that he is well known for include the Chicago style, Western concrete block, Prairie style, Usonian and Shinge style. The prairie style resulted from Wright focusing on applying organic principles on residential architecture. Most of his residences were created and integrated to some specific geographic settings and he was more concerned with the relationship of buildings to the land. It is thought that the prairie style was as a result of Wright spending time on his family farm and for his great love of the land as a kid. He had the basic idea that a building should organically grow from the land and that is why he used nature to get ideas on the color, textureand forms of building. According to him, a residential building should be one with unites the inside and outside entities. He termed this the “organic architecture” (Dahlen). In his buildings, Wright was influenced by the Jeffersonian ideal of an agrarian society.
Frank Wright worked on several artworks and developed most of the houses in the first 10 years of the 19th century (Treibler, 18). Some of the famous artworks are discussed below.
The imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan
This was an impressive hotel shaped like an H. it had its main public rooms and lobby in the central area while pools and gardens filled the courtyard. The building is especially famous because it survived several earthquakes because Wright had considered floating foundations and flexible wall structures. He built thicker walls at the base to give the building lower centre of gravity. The building however has since been demolished (Toothman). The hotel building existed from 1916 to 1922 in Tokyo, Japan but was later destroyed in 1968.
I chose this building because it is one of the famous arts of Wright outside the U.S., in Japan. The imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan house is represented in figure 1 below.
Figure 1 The imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan
The Price Water
This is the only skyscraper ever built by Wright. The building is situated in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. Wright build the tower that showcases his love for organic, horizontal and homey things and its inspiration comes from a tree. The building was originally built to accommodate offices, living space and retail but now it houses a restaurant, a hotel and an art center. The building’s stunning colors on the interior are set in geometrical murals of sky blue, rich red and gold (Toothman). The building is located in Bartlesville, Oklahoma and was opened in 1956 does exist up to date (Kirschner 1).
I love this 221-foot building, the only skyscraper that Wright managed to build especially with its tree like structure. The Price water skyscraper is represented in figure 2 below.
Figure 2 The Price Water
This was one of Wright’s textile blocks that he built in the 1930s and probably the best known of his buildings. The building overhangs a waterfall are a cantilevered design that has terraces that extends over the water and it includes a staircase that extends below the lliving room into the water surface below it. Wright felt that he needed to design the house in such a way that the people inside do not visualize the building, a plan he felt would heighten the excitement and the awe to viewers (Toothman). I particularly love this building because according to available literature by Steffensen (2009), shook the Fallingwater out of his sleeve and designed the now world famous building. The story of the Falling water serves as the introduction to Wrights persona. The Fallingwater house was designed in 1936 but opened t the public in 1954. It is represented below.
Figure 3 the Fallingwater house
The Robie House
I felt that the Robie house should also be featured because it espouses Wright’s prairie style. It was in the first decade of 20th century that Wright pioneered the Prairie style. The style emphasized on long horizontal using such features like glass corners and cantilevered roofs to eliminate boxiness. The Robie house, built in Chicago, encompasses all these and has a cantilevered roof of about 20 feet after its last support with art-glass details (Toothman). Treibler (18) refers the Robie house as a steamship because it was built by a narrow corner lot and had a streamlined design and resembled a ship. Wright then later experimented with his own house. The house, a modern residential architecture, was located in Oak Park Illinois. He built the house in triangular form with a big gable that was used to shelter the entrance to the house. He kept a Palladian window as a historical architectural device. Wright also used geometry in his architecture and used to love to practice with breaking down squares instead of having square rooms. The building is located in Chicago and was completed in 1910.
Figure 4 the Robie House in Chicago
Frank Lloyd can be compared to another famous artist Le Corbusier. The two are some of the architects who represented themselves through their work. Wright’s Falling water and Le Corbusier’s Villa Voyage are both perfect examples of artists expressing themselves through their work. The houses were built to exhibit each of the artist’s ideals and designs. The two houses are also abstract cubes in which different geometric elements are employed. However, some there is a particular sneering of Wright whereby some people snub him as “intellectually shallow” when compared to the more intelligent and enlightened architects like Le Corbusier. But recently, Wright has been receiving accolades for his great and respectable work (Peter).
Most popular orders | 1,655 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Christopher Columbus′ Voyage to the Americas
Back in 1492, Christopher Columbus voyaged across the America. He entered America through the Atlantic Ocean from Spain. He made a number of four trips in the years 1492, 1493, 1498, and 1502. His main objective was to discover a direct route that would connect Asia and Europe via the ocean. We should note that Columbus never discovered such a route. Columbus trip to America brought awareness about the existence of America.
Columbus though did not discover America because in his journey he encountered some people who were already settled in America. Although his main quest was to discover a direct water way, his objectives changed when he reached America and discovered the new continent of America. He mentioned that the islands in America were beautiful and provided a hoe for many people. Thesis: Columbus preconceived thought about the trip was to discover a direct water way to connect Europe and Spain but his ideas changed completely when he discovered a new continent with beautiful islands and people.
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Historical context on the period and author
Christopher Columbus led a group of transatlantic maritime voyages that was the first group of European explorer to first encounter or to discover the existence of America. During that period, back in the year 1492, not much or nothing was known about the existence of the continent of American. After their encounter with America, the Spanish based voyage led by Columbus discovered that the people living in America did not have access to and did not know how to use weapons.
As a result of their vulnerability, Columbus and his maritime group were the first Spanish colonizers of the Native Americans. Many believed that Columbus and is group were the first people to discover America, but the Viking voyage had explored America before during the 11th century. It was through Columbus voyage that led to the Americans and Europeans first encounter though, which gave birth to colonization.
The European and Asians were faced with a major mobility challenge because moving from Europe to Asia by land was next to impossible. This was because the route was very long and dangerous because of armies and raiders. Christopher Columbus thought of an idea that would solve their problem. He wanted to discover a safe sailing route that would cut across the Atlantic Ocean to connect Europe and Asia. Initially, they used to sail around the continent of Africa along West Africa and Cape of Good Hope. Although his idea was good, his mathematical logic was incorrect. He underestimated the circumference of the earth, his idea did not materialize.
Columbus wanted riches and popularity in Spain. He made a contract with the heads of Spain that 10% of the discovered riches would be his. He also claimed the governorship of the encountered land. This was before starting sail. Contrary to his expectations, Columbus and his voyage first landed on an island in Bahamas. He expected to land in Asia. | <urn:uuid:1bb19097-7e88-4f9b-84be-2e4166dae21d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.aresearchguide.com/christopher-columbus-voyage-americas.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00048.warc.gz | en | 0.983094 | 613 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.367950797080... | 2 | Christopher Columbus′ Voyage to the Americas
Back in 1492, Christopher Columbus voyaged across the America. He entered America through the Atlantic Ocean from Spain. He made a number of four trips in the years 1492, 1493, 1498, and 1502. His main objective was to discover a direct route that would connect Asia and Europe via the ocean. We should note that Columbus never discovered such a route. Columbus trip to America brought awareness about the existence of America.
Columbus though did not discover America because in his journey he encountered some people who were already settled in America. Although his main quest was to discover a direct water way, his objectives changed when he reached America and discovered the new continent of America. He mentioned that the islands in America were beautiful and provided a hoe for many people. Thesis: Columbus preconceived thought about the trip was to discover a direct water way to connect Europe and Spain but his ideas changed completely when he discovered a new continent with beautiful islands and people.
|Watch out! This sample can be used by anyone…
Order your own unique sample on “Christopher Columbus′ Voyage
*Service is provided by our writing partner Gradesfixer.
Historical context on the period and author
Christopher Columbus led a group of transatlantic maritime voyages that was the first group of European explorer to first encounter or to discover the existence of America. During that period, back in the year 1492, not much or nothing was known about the existence of the continent of American. After their encounter with America, the Spanish based voyage led by Columbus discovered that the people living in America did not have access to and did not know how to use weapons.
As a result of their vulnerability, Columbus and his maritime group were the first Spanish colonizers of the Native Americans. Many believed that Columbus and is group were the first people to discover America, but the Viking voyage had explored America before during the 11th century. It was through Columbus voyage that led to the Americans and Europeans first encounter though, which gave birth to colonization.
The European and Asians were faced with a major mobility challenge because moving from Europe to Asia by land was next to impossible. This was because the route was very long and dangerous because of armies and raiders. Christopher Columbus thought of an idea that would solve their problem. He wanted to discover a safe sailing route that would cut across the Atlantic Ocean to connect Europe and Asia. Initially, they used to sail around the continent of Africa along West Africa and Cape of Good Hope. Although his idea was good, his mathematical logic was incorrect. He underestimated the circumference of the earth, his idea did not materialize.
Columbus wanted riches and popularity in Spain. He made a contract with the heads of Spain that 10% of the discovered riches would be his. He also claimed the governorship of the encountered land. This was before starting sail. Contrary to his expectations, Columbus and his voyage first landed on an island in Bahamas. He expected to land in Asia. | 627 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Palatine of the Rhine in Germany was a historical territory of the Holy Roman Empire, administered by a count. The land was divided into two regions. The Upper Palatinate, located in northern Bavaria, remained under Bavarian authority, and the Lower Palatinate, located between Luxembourg and the Rhine River, was an independent state. Heidelberg was its capital until the 18th century. The boundaries of the Palatinate varied with the political and dynastic fortunes of the counts palatine.
In 1356, a Papal decree made the Count an Elector of the Holy Roman Empire, and during the Reformation, the Palatinate accepted Protestantism and became the foremost Calvinist region in Germany. After Martin Luther published his 95 Theses on the door of the castle church at Wittenberg on October 31, 1517, many of his followers came under considerable religious persecution for their beliefs. Perhaps for reasons of mutual comfort and support, these folks who shared a common view on religion, gathered in the Palatine.
In 1618, E lector Friedrich V’s acceptance of Bohemia’s offer of its crown touched off the Thirty Years War. From 1618 to 1648 was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history, and the beginning of much persecution the Palatines would have to endure for the next 100 years.
The Palatine country suffered greatly from the horrors of fire and sword as well as from pillage and plunder by the French armies as the Roman Catholic armies sought to crush the religious freedom of a politically-divided Protestantism. Many armies and bands of mercenaries, both of friends and foe, devoured the substance of the Palatines. The Thirty Years War was a complicated catastrophe from which the Palatinate never really recovered. Instead of politically leading Germany, the Palatinate became a spoil, fought over by other states and countries.
A weakened Palatinate was no match for French ruler Louis XIV, who, seeking to increase his Empire sent his forces to ravage the region of the Palatine. Every large city on the Rhine above Cologne was sacked. The War of the Palatinate from 1688 to 1697 only served to further weaken an already famine Palatine. The result was a large scale emigration from 1689-1697.
In 1702, the War of the Spanish Succession began in Europe and lasted until 1713, causing a great deal of instability for the Palatines. To make matters worse, there was a major freeze in the winter of 1708 in the Palatinate. It was the harshest winter the Palatinate has seen in 100 years. On January 10, 1709 the Rhine River froze and was closed for five weeks. Wine froze into ice. Grapevines died. Cattle died in their sheds.
While the land of the Palatinate had originally been good for its inhabitants, many of whom were farmers, vineyard operators etc., residents finally came to the realization that oppressive taxation, religious bickering, hunger for more and better land, the advertising of the English colonies in America and the favorable attitude of the British government toward settlement in the North American colonies were reasons enough to abandon their homeland. The scene was set for a mass migration and over the next century that is what happened as literally thousands upon thousands of Palatines fled to America.
Hans Jacob Speck and his family lived near Baden, Germany, in the Ruppurr-Karlsruhe district, which was roughly 61.9km, or about an hour, south of Heidelberg. Jacob was born in the year 1670 and had worked most of his life as a butcher. He died on January 14, 1736.
About a year after his father died, Jacob's son, Michael Martin, better known as Martin Speck, took a boat ride down the Rhine River to Rotterdam, where he boarded the ship Friendship and sailed to Dover, England. On September 20, 1738, approximately one year after he began his journey, Martin set foot on American soil when his ship reached port in Philadelphia.
Martin, who was born in 1703 during the War of the Spanish Succession, had grown up as his father had lived....suffering the effects of war and famine throughout the Palatinate. I imagine that he lay awake at night wondering what life might be like in the new world, and now he was in America and would live out his days without the sufferings that continued back in his homeland.
Supposedly, this is correct: Hans Jacob Speck, Martin Speck, Jacob Speck, Sr., George Speck, John Speck, William Calvin Speck, James Wiley Speck, Obed Speck, Cecil Speck, Darrell Speck, ME.
In 1933, 3,358 Jews lived in Karlsruhe. In 1945, because of the actions of the Nazi regime, there were only 18 Jews in Karlsruhe. Many had been exported or expelled or emigrated. Between 1933 and 1945, more than 1,000 of them were killed.
Many of Martin's relatives also migrated to America. For more reading on the Palatine saga read The Palatine Project
"But I know Whom I have believed And am persuaded that He is able To keep that which I’ve committed Unto Him against that day&qu...
James Arness died today. Gunsmoke was every one's favorite TV show back when I was a kid. For years, at my house, we watched every singl...
When I think of the 70's, I think of the greatest rock and roll music ever. It is now included in a music genre that is known today a...
(This photo was made in the 1950's as the Goat Man passed through my town) Charles McCartney was born on July 6, 1901. In 1915, at age ... | <urn:uuid:a32afa03-dfc2-4339-8fb5-e31fb3dc0efb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.randyspecktacular.com/2011/04/fight-for-freedom.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00496.warc.gz | en | 0.987463 | 1,224 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.244315937... | 1 | The Palatine of the Rhine in Germany was a historical territory of the Holy Roman Empire, administered by a count. The land was divided into two regions. The Upper Palatinate, located in northern Bavaria, remained under Bavarian authority, and the Lower Palatinate, located between Luxembourg and the Rhine River, was an independent state. Heidelberg was its capital until the 18th century. The boundaries of the Palatinate varied with the political and dynastic fortunes of the counts palatine.
In 1356, a Papal decree made the Count an Elector of the Holy Roman Empire, and during the Reformation, the Palatinate accepted Protestantism and became the foremost Calvinist region in Germany. After Martin Luther published his 95 Theses on the door of the castle church at Wittenberg on October 31, 1517, many of his followers came under considerable religious persecution for their beliefs. Perhaps for reasons of mutual comfort and support, these folks who shared a common view on religion, gathered in the Palatine.
In 1618, E lector Friedrich V’s acceptance of Bohemia’s offer of its crown touched off the Thirty Years War. From 1618 to 1648 was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history, and the beginning of much persecution the Palatines would have to endure for the next 100 years.
The Palatine country suffered greatly from the horrors of fire and sword as well as from pillage and plunder by the French armies as the Roman Catholic armies sought to crush the religious freedom of a politically-divided Protestantism. Many armies and bands of mercenaries, both of friends and foe, devoured the substance of the Palatines. The Thirty Years War was a complicated catastrophe from which the Palatinate never really recovered. Instead of politically leading Germany, the Palatinate became a spoil, fought over by other states and countries.
A weakened Palatinate was no match for French ruler Louis XIV, who, seeking to increase his Empire sent his forces to ravage the region of the Palatine. Every large city on the Rhine above Cologne was sacked. The War of the Palatinate from 1688 to 1697 only served to further weaken an already famine Palatine. The result was a large scale emigration from 1689-1697.
In 1702, the War of the Spanish Succession began in Europe and lasted until 1713, causing a great deal of instability for the Palatines. To make matters worse, there was a major freeze in the winter of 1708 in the Palatinate. It was the harshest winter the Palatinate has seen in 100 years. On January 10, 1709 the Rhine River froze and was closed for five weeks. Wine froze into ice. Grapevines died. Cattle died in their sheds.
While the land of the Palatinate had originally been good for its inhabitants, many of whom were farmers, vineyard operators etc., residents finally came to the realization that oppressive taxation, religious bickering, hunger for more and better land, the advertising of the English colonies in America and the favorable attitude of the British government toward settlement in the North American colonies were reasons enough to abandon their homeland. The scene was set for a mass migration and over the next century that is what happened as literally thousands upon thousands of Palatines fled to America.
Hans Jacob Speck and his family lived near Baden, Germany, in the Ruppurr-Karlsruhe district, which was roughly 61.9km, or about an hour, south of Heidelberg. Jacob was born in the year 1670 and had worked most of his life as a butcher. He died on January 14, 1736.
About a year after his father died, Jacob's son, Michael Martin, better known as Martin Speck, took a boat ride down the Rhine River to Rotterdam, where he boarded the ship Friendship and sailed to Dover, England. On September 20, 1738, approximately one year after he began his journey, Martin set foot on American soil when his ship reached port in Philadelphia.
Martin, who was born in 1703 during the War of the Spanish Succession, had grown up as his father had lived....suffering the effects of war and famine throughout the Palatinate. I imagine that he lay awake at night wondering what life might be like in the new world, and now he was in America and would live out his days without the sufferings that continued back in his homeland.
Supposedly, this is correct: Hans Jacob Speck, Martin Speck, Jacob Speck, Sr., George Speck, John Speck, William Calvin Speck, James Wiley Speck, Obed Speck, Cecil Speck, Darrell Speck, ME.
In 1933, 3,358 Jews lived in Karlsruhe. In 1945, because of the actions of the Nazi regime, there were only 18 Jews in Karlsruhe. Many had been exported or expelled or emigrated. Between 1933 and 1945, more than 1,000 of them were killed.
Many of Martin's relatives also migrated to America. For more reading on the Palatine saga read The Palatine Project
"But I know Whom I have believed And am persuaded that He is able To keep that which I’ve committed Unto Him against that day&qu...
James Arness died today. Gunsmoke was every one's favorite TV show back when I was a kid. For years, at my house, we watched every singl...
When I think of the 70's, I think of the greatest rock and roll music ever. It is now included in a music genre that is known today a...
(This photo was made in the 1950's as the Goat Man passed through my town) Charles McCartney was born on July 6, 1901. In 1915, at age ... | 1,301 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Wounding of the Chiefs
A S soon as it was light Agamemnon called the Greeks, and Hector called the Trojans to battle, nor were either unwilling to obey. For a time the fighting was equal, but at noon, at the time when a man who is cutting down trees upon the hills grows weary of his work and longs for food, then the Greeks began to prevail. And the first man to break through the line of the Trojans was King Agamemnon. Never before had the King done such mighty deeds, for he drove the Trojans back to the very walls of the city. Hector himself did not dare to stand up before him, for Iris brought this message to him from Zeus: "So long as Agamemnon fights in the front, do you hold back, for this is the day on which it is his lot to win great honour for himself; but when he shall be wounded, then do you go forward, and you shall have strength to drive the Greeks before you till they come to the ships, and the sun shall set." So Hector held back, and after a while the King was wounded. There were two sons of Antenor in one chariot, and they came against him. First the King threw his spear at the younger of the two, but missed his aim. Then the Trojan thrust at Agamemnon with his spear, driving it against his breastplate. With all his strength he drove it, but the silver which was in the breastplate turned the spear, so that it bent as if it had been of lead. Then the King caught the spear in his hand, and drove it through the neck of his adversary, so that he fell dead from the chariot. But when the elder brother saw this he also thrust at the King with his spear, nor did he thrust in vain, but he pierced his arm beneath the elbow. But him also did the King slay, wounding him first with his spear and afterwards cutting off his head with his sword. For a time, while the wound was warm, the King still fought, but when it grew cold and stiff, then the pain was greater than he could bear, and he said to his charioteer, "Now carry me back to the ships, for I cannot fight any more."
The next of the chiefs that was wounded was Diomed. Him Paris wounded with an arrow as he was stripping the arms from a Trojan which he had slain. For Paris hid himself behind the pillar which stood on the tomb of Ilu, and shot his arrows from thence. On the ankle of the right foot did Paris hit him, and when he saw that he had not shot the arrow in vain, he cried out aloud: "I wish that I had wounded you in the loin, bold Diomed, then you would have troubled the men of Troy no more!"
But Diomed answered: "If I could but meet you face to face, you coward, your bow and your arrows would not help you. As for this graze on my foot, I care no more for it than if a woman or a child had struck me. Come near, and I will show you what are the wounds which I make with my spear."
Then he beckoned to Ulysses that he should stand before him while he drew the arrow from his foot. And Ulysses did so. But when he had drawn out the arrow, the pain was so great that he could not stand up, for all the brave words that he had spoken. And he bade his charioteer drive him back to the ships.
So Ulysses was left alone. Not one of the chiefs stood by him, for now that King Agamemnon and Diomed had departed, there was great fear upon all the Greeks. And Ulysses said to himself: "Now what shall I do? It would be a shameful thing to fly from these Trojans, though there are many of them, and I am alone; but it would be still worse, if I were to be taken here and slain. Surely it is the doing of Zeus, that this trouble is come upon the Greeks, and who am I that I should fight against Zeus? Yet why do I talk in this way? It is only the coward who draws back; a brave man stands in his place, whether he lives or dies." But while he was thinking these things many Trojans came about him, as dogs come about a wild boar in a wood, and the boar stands at bay, and gnashes his big white teeth. So Ulysses stood thrusting here and there with his long spear. Five chiefs he slew; but one of the five, before he was slain, wounded him in the side, scraping the flesh from the ribs. Then Ulysses cried out for help; three times he cried, and the third time Menelaüs heard him, and called to Ajax.
"O Ajax, I hear the voice of Ulysses, and it sounds like the voice of one who is in great trouble. Maybe the Trojans have surrounded him. Come, let us help him for it would be a great loss to the Greeks if he were to come to harm."
Then he led the way to the place from which the voice seemed to come, and Ajax followed him. And when they came to Ulysses, they found it was as Menelaüs had said; for the Trojans had beset Ulysses, as the jackals beset a deer with long horns among the hills. The beast cannot fly because the hunter has wounded it with an arrow from his bow, and the wound has become stiff, and he stands at bay. Then a lion comes, and the jackals are scattered in a moment. So the Trojans were scattered when Ajax came. Then Menelaüs took Ulysses by the hand, and led him out of the throng, while Ajax drove the Trojans before him.
And now yet another chief was wounded, for Paris from his hiding-place behind the pillar on the tomb of Ilus shot an arrow at Machāon, and wounded him on the right shoulder. And one of the chiefs cried to old Nestor, who was fighting close by: "Quick, Nestor, take Machāon in your chariot, and drive him to the ships, for the life of a physician is worth the lives of many men."
So Nestor took Machāon in his chariot, and touched his horses with the whip, and they galloped to the ships.
Now Hector was fighting on the other side of the plain, and his charioteer said to him: "See how Ajax is driving our people before him. Let us go and stop him." So they went, lashing the horses that they might go the faster, and the chariot rolled over many bodies of men, and the axle and the sides of it were red with blood. Then Zeus put fear into the heart of the great Ajax himself. He would not fly, but he turned round, throwing his great shield over his shoulder, and moved towards the ships slowly, step by step. It was as when an ass breaks into a field and eats the standing corn, and the children of the village beat him with sticks. Their arms are weak, and the sticks are broken on the beast's back, for he is slow in going, nor do they drive him out till he has eaten his fill. So the Trojans thrust at Ajax their lances. And now he would turn and face them, and now he would take a step backwards towards the ships.
Now Achilles was standing on the stern of his ship, looking at the battle, and Patroclus stood by him. And when old Nestor passed by taking Machāon to the ships, Achilles said to his friend: "Soon, I think, will the Greeks come and pray me to help them, for they are in great trouble. But go now and see who was this whom Nestor is taking to the ships. His shoulders, I thought were the shoulders of Machāon, but his face I could not see, for the horses went by very fast."
Then Patroclus ran to do his errand. Meanwhile Nestor took Machāon to his tent. And there the girl that waited on the old man mixed for them a bowl of drink. First she set a table, and laid on it a bronze charger, and on it she put a flask of wine, and a leek, with which to flavour it, and yellow honey, and barley meal. And she fetched from another part of the tent a great bowl with four handles. On each side of the bowl there was a pair of handles, and on each handle there was a dove, wrought in bronze, and the doves seemed to be pecking at each other. A very big bowl it was, and, when it was full, so heavy that a man could scarcely lift it from the table; but Nestor, though he was old, could lift it easily. Then the girl poured the wine from the flask into the bowl, and put honey into it, and shredded cheese made from goat's milk, and the leek to flavour it. And when the mess was ready, she bade them drink. So they drank, and talked together.
But while they talked, Patroclus stood in the door of the tent. And Nestor went to him, and took him by the hand, and said: "Come now and sit down with us, and drink from the bowl." But Patroclus would not. "Stay me not," he said; "I came to see who it was whom you have brought wounded out of the battle. And now I see that it is Machāon. Therefore I will go back without delay, for you know what kind of man is Achilles, how he quickly grows angry and is ready to blame."
Then said Nestor: "What does Achilles care about the Greeks? Why does he ask who are wounded? O Patroclus, do you remember the day when Ulysses and I came to the house of Peleus? Your father was there, and we feasted in the hall; and when the feast was finished, then we told Peleus why we had come, how we were gathering the chiefs of Greece to go and fight against Troy. And you and Achilles were eager to go. And old men gave you much advice. Old Peleus said to Achilles: 'You must always be the very first in battle.' But to you your father said: 'Achilles is of nobler birth than you, and he is stronger by far. But you are older, and years give wisdom. Therefore it will be your part to give him good counsel when there is need.' Why then do you not advise him to help us? And if he is still resolved not to go forth to the battle, then let him send you forth, and let him lend you his armour to wear. Then the Trojans will think that Achilles himself has come back to the battle, and they will be afraid, and we shall have a breathing space."
Then Patroclus turned and ran back to the tent of Achilles. | <urn:uuid:3c30aa69-c9c9-43f2-b30a-f6580557d878> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=church&book=iliad&story=wounding | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00340.warc.gz | en | 0.992013 | 2,325 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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A S soon as it was light Agamemnon called the Greeks, and Hector called the Trojans to battle, nor were either unwilling to obey. For a time the fighting was equal, but at noon, at the time when a man who is cutting down trees upon the hills grows weary of his work and longs for food, then the Greeks began to prevail. And the first man to break through the line of the Trojans was King Agamemnon. Never before had the King done such mighty deeds, for he drove the Trojans back to the very walls of the city. Hector himself did not dare to stand up before him, for Iris brought this message to him from Zeus: "So long as Agamemnon fights in the front, do you hold back, for this is the day on which it is his lot to win great honour for himself; but when he shall be wounded, then do you go forward, and you shall have strength to drive the Greeks before you till they come to the ships, and the sun shall set." So Hector held back, and after a while the King was wounded. There were two sons of Antenor in one chariot, and they came against him. First the King threw his spear at the younger of the two, but missed his aim. Then the Trojan thrust at Agamemnon with his spear, driving it against his breastplate. With all his strength he drove it, but the silver which was in the breastplate turned the spear, so that it bent as if it had been of lead. Then the King caught the spear in his hand, and drove it through the neck of his adversary, so that he fell dead from the chariot. But when the elder brother saw this he also thrust at the King with his spear, nor did he thrust in vain, but he pierced his arm beneath the elbow. But him also did the King slay, wounding him first with his spear and afterwards cutting off his head with his sword. For a time, while the wound was warm, the King still fought, but when it grew cold and stiff, then the pain was greater than he could bear, and he said to his charioteer, "Now carry me back to the ships, for I cannot fight any more."
The next of the chiefs that was wounded was Diomed. Him Paris wounded with an arrow as he was stripping the arms from a Trojan which he had slain. For Paris hid himself behind the pillar which stood on the tomb of Ilu, and shot his arrows from thence. On the ankle of the right foot did Paris hit him, and when he saw that he had not shot the arrow in vain, he cried out aloud: "I wish that I had wounded you in the loin, bold Diomed, then you would have troubled the men of Troy no more!"
But Diomed answered: "If I could but meet you face to face, you coward, your bow and your arrows would not help you. As for this graze on my foot, I care no more for it than if a woman or a child had struck me. Come near, and I will show you what are the wounds which I make with my spear."
Then he beckoned to Ulysses that he should stand before him while he drew the arrow from his foot. And Ulysses did so. But when he had drawn out the arrow, the pain was so great that he could not stand up, for all the brave words that he had spoken. And he bade his charioteer drive him back to the ships.
So Ulysses was left alone. Not one of the chiefs stood by him, for now that King Agamemnon and Diomed had departed, there was great fear upon all the Greeks. And Ulysses said to himself: "Now what shall I do? It would be a shameful thing to fly from these Trojans, though there are many of them, and I am alone; but it would be still worse, if I were to be taken here and slain. Surely it is the doing of Zeus, that this trouble is come upon the Greeks, and who am I that I should fight against Zeus? Yet why do I talk in this way? It is only the coward who draws back; a brave man stands in his place, whether he lives or dies." But while he was thinking these things many Trojans came about him, as dogs come about a wild boar in a wood, and the boar stands at bay, and gnashes his big white teeth. So Ulysses stood thrusting here and there with his long spear. Five chiefs he slew; but one of the five, before he was slain, wounded him in the side, scraping the flesh from the ribs. Then Ulysses cried out for help; three times he cried, and the third time Menelaüs heard him, and called to Ajax.
"O Ajax, I hear the voice of Ulysses, and it sounds like the voice of one who is in great trouble. Maybe the Trojans have surrounded him. Come, let us help him for it would be a great loss to the Greeks if he were to come to harm."
Then he led the way to the place from which the voice seemed to come, and Ajax followed him. And when they came to Ulysses, they found it was as Menelaüs had said; for the Trojans had beset Ulysses, as the jackals beset a deer with long horns among the hills. The beast cannot fly because the hunter has wounded it with an arrow from his bow, and the wound has become stiff, and he stands at bay. Then a lion comes, and the jackals are scattered in a moment. So the Trojans were scattered when Ajax came. Then Menelaüs took Ulysses by the hand, and led him out of the throng, while Ajax drove the Trojans before him.
And now yet another chief was wounded, for Paris from his hiding-place behind the pillar on the tomb of Ilus shot an arrow at Machāon, and wounded him on the right shoulder. And one of the chiefs cried to old Nestor, who was fighting close by: "Quick, Nestor, take Machāon in your chariot, and drive him to the ships, for the life of a physician is worth the lives of many men."
So Nestor took Machāon in his chariot, and touched his horses with the whip, and they galloped to the ships.
Now Hector was fighting on the other side of the plain, and his charioteer said to him: "See how Ajax is driving our people before him. Let us go and stop him." So they went, lashing the horses that they might go the faster, and the chariot rolled over many bodies of men, and the axle and the sides of it were red with blood. Then Zeus put fear into the heart of the great Ajax himself. He would not fly, but he turned round, throwing his great shield over his shoulder, and moved towards the ships slowly, step by step. It was as when an ass breaks into a field and eats the standing corn, and the children of the village beat him with sticks. Their arms are weak, and the sticks are broken on the beast's back, for he is slow in going, nor do they drive him out till he has eaten his fill. So the Trojans thrust at Ajax their lances. And now he would turn and face them, and now he would take a step backwards towards the ships.
Now Achilles was standing on the stern of his ship, looking at the battle, and Patroclus stood by him. And when old Nestor passed by taking Machāon to the ships, Achilles said to his friend: "Soon, I think, will the Greeks come and pray me to help them, for they are in great trouble. But go now and see who was this whom Nestor is taking to the ships. His shoulders, I thought were the shoulders of Machāon, but his face I could not see, for the horses went by very fast."
Then Patroclus ran to do his errand. Meanwhile Nestor took Machāon to his tent. And there the girl that waited on the old man mixed for them a bowl of drink. First she set a table, and laid on it a bronze charger, and on it she put a flask of wine, and a leek, with which to flavour it, and yellow honey, and barley meal. And she fetched from another part of the tent a great bowl with four handles. On each side of the bowl there was a pair of handles, and on each handle there was a dove, wrought in bronze, and the doves seemed to be pecking at each other. A very big bowl it was, and, when it was full, so heavy that a man could scarcely lift it from the table; but Nestor, though he was old, could lift it easily. Then the girl poured the wine from the flask into the bowl, and put honey into it, and shredded cheese made from goat's milk, and the leek to flavour it. And when the mess was ready, she bade them drink. So they drank, and talked together.
But while they talked, Patroclus stood in the door of the tent. And Nestor went to him, and took him by the hand, and said: "Come now and sit down with us, and drink from the bowl." But Patroclus would not. "Stay me not," he said; "I came to see who it was whom you have brought wounded out of the battle. And now I see that it is Machāon. Therefore I will go back without delay, for you know what kind of man is Achilles, how he quickly grows angry and is ready to blame."
Then said Nestor: "What does Achilles care about the Greeks? Why does he ask who are wounded? O Patroclus, do you remember the day when Ulysses and I came to the house of Peleus? Your father was there, and we feasted in the hall; and when the feast was finished, then we told Peleus why we had come, how we were gathering the chiefs of Greece to go and fight against Troy. And you and Achilles were eager to go. And old men gave you much advice. Old Peleus said to Achilles: 'You must always be the very first in battle.' But to you your father said: 'Achilles is of nobler birth than you, and he is stronger by far. But you are older, and years give wisdom. Therefore it will be your part to give him good counsel when there is need.' Why then do you not advise him to help us? And if he is still resolved not to go forth to the battle, then let him send you forth, and let him lend you his armour to wear. Then the Trojans will think that Achilles himself has come back to the battle, and they will be afraid, and we shall have a breathing space."
Then Patroclus turned and ran back to the tent of Achilles. | 2,320 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scientists Create Memory Test to Monitor People’s Subjective Sense of Age
Memory tests are designed so that researchers can observe how many variables, particularly age affect memory. Even though these tests are effective in measuring memory loss over time, researchers from a memory lab at Texas A&M University were more interested in studying the effect of taking these memory tests on older participants. The research team stated that they noticed how nervous and worried volunteers were about performing well on these tests. The team then proceeded to create a test that could measure the volunteer's subjective sense of age.
"It really demonstrates the power of context," the co-author of the study, Lisa Geraci said according to NPR. Geraci is an associate professor of psychology at Texas A&M.
For this study, the research team recruited 22 participants with an average age of 75. Before taking a memory test, the participants reported feeling, on average, 58-years-old. They were confident and felt good about themselves. They were then given a list of 30 nouns and were asked to study them for a total of two minutes. The participants had to recall as many nouns as they could within the time span of three minutes. Even though the volunteers performed well on the test, when they were asked how old they felt after the experiment, the average age was 63. The researchers discovered that within just five minutes, the memory test made the participants feel five years older.
"Older people do much better on memory tests when they expect to excel," commented Geraci. "It shows that you can create experiences to improve performance and even well being. Older adults are really good at a lot of things, but we don't focus on that. We focus on what they can't do."
The researchers believe that the memory test reminded the volunteers of their fear of aging. The experiment tested their cognitive skills, which made them self-conscious about their abilities. This study suggests that encouraging seniors and helping them build confidence could improve their mental health. The study was published in Psychological Science. | <urn:uuid:207a2b0b-ce22-493a-b13f-b3c743df4a3f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.counselheal.com/articles/7122/20131011/scientists-create-memory-test-monitor-people-s-subjective-sense-age.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00386.warc.gz | en | 0.983425 | 415 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.54194128513336... | 3 | Scientists Create Memory Test to Monitor People’s Subjective Sense of Age
Memory tests are designed so that researchers can observe how many variables, particularly age affect memory. Even though these tests are effective in measuring memory loss over time, researchers from a memory lab at Texas A&M University were more interested in studying the effect of taking these memory tests on older participants. The research team stated that they noticed how nervous and worried volunteers were about performing well on these tests. The team then proceeded to create a test that could measure the volunteer's subjective sense of age.
"It really demonstrates the power of context," the co-author of the study, Lisa Geraci said according to NPR. Geraci is an associate professor of psychology at Texas A&M.
For this study, the research team recruited 22 participants with an average age of 75. Before taking a memory test, the participants reported feeling, on average, 58-years-old. They were confident and felt good about themselves. They were then given a list of 30 nouns and were asked to study them for a total of two minutes. The participants had to recall as many nouns as they could within the time span of three minutes. Even though the volunteers performed well on the test, when they were asked how old they felt after the experiment, the average age was 63. The researchers discovered that within just five minutes, the memory test made the participants feel five years older.
"Older people do much better on memory tests when they expect to excel," commented Geraci. "It shows that you can create experiences to improve performance and even well being. Older adults are really good at a lot of things, but we don't focus on that. We focus on what they can't do."
The researchers believe that the memory test reminded the volunteers of their fear of aging. The experiment tested their cognitive skills, which made them self-conscious about their abilities. This study suggests that encouraging seniors and helping them build confidence could improve their mental health. The study was published in Psychological Science. | 410 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 8th February, 1915, the Australian government received a request for air assistance from the Viceroy of India. In response, the Australian government formed what is now known as the Mesopotamian half-flight, or Australian half-flight, which sailed for Bombay (and from there to Basra, in what is now Iraq) on 20th April.
At this point in time, the Australian Flying Corps was still in its infancy, and while it could provide trained airmen, support crew and repair equipment, it could not spare any aircraft. These were instead provided by the Indian government, and on arrival in Basra on May 26th, the half-flight had access to three pusher (propeller behind the cockpit, rather than in front) biplanes (two Maurice Farman Shorthorns and a Maurice Farman Longhorn).
The planes available for the half-flight were of fairly early design, and were not suitable for the desert conditions. To start with, their top speed was only 50mph, while the desert wind (called the Shamal) often reached 80mph, so at top speed the planes would fly backwards. Secondly, the warmer desert air reduced the aircraft lift capability, and so sometimes they could not take off. Also, the Longhorn was a second-hand aircraft, which had persistent mechanical problems, so spent most of its time being repaired.
After arrival, the airplanes were immediately put to use on reconnaissance missions. Shortly afterwards, the Indian Army captured the town of Amara, and the airbase was moved there on 9th June.
On 4th July, the half-flight was reinforced with two Caudron G3 aircraft, which were still not up-to-date, but generally preferred to the Farmans. Later, on 30th July, one of the Caudrons was forced to land in enemy territory due to mechanical problems. It was later reported that the crew were killed by local hostile Arabs after a running gun-battle over several miles. This was Australia's first air-casualty of the war.
On 24th August, the British reinforced the half-flight with additional men and four additional aircraft (Martinsyde S1s) to form a full squadron (renamed 30th Squadron RFC). Further aircraft (three Maurice Farman sea-planes) were added to the squadron in September. Because the Tigris river was too shallow for the sea-planes to use at that time of year, the sea-planes were converted into Shorthorns.
The Indian army attack on Kut occurred on 27th September, and was the city was soon captured. 30 Squadron's base of operations was soon moved there. In October, four BE2c aircraft arrived, and the squadron was divided into two flights (A and B), with the Australian half-flight incorporated into B flight. The Indian army soon met with stiff opposition outside Baghdad, and were forced back to Kut on 4th December, where the city was put to siege. Due to the perceived limited usefulness of aircraft in a siege, the remaining Australian aircraft was flown out of Kut towards Egypt on 7th December, where it was eventually incorporated into 1 Squadron AFC. | <urn:uuid:5d5c8ce5-d8ba-4298-90b3-08037acfe8d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.fact-index.com/m/me/mesopotamian_half_flight.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00433.warc.gz | en | 0.988592 | 651 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.779187917709... | 2 | On 8th February, 1915, the Australian government received a request for air assistance from the Viceroy of India. In response, the Australian government formed what is now known as the Mesopotamian half-flight, or Australian half-flight, which sailed for Bombay (and from there to Basra, in what is now Iraq) on 20th April.
At this point in time, the Australian Flying Corps was still in its infancy, and while it could provide trained airmen, support crew and repair equipment, it could not spare any aircraft. These were instead provided by the Indian government, and on arrival in Basra on May 26th, the half-flight had access to three pusher (propeller behind the cockpit, rather than in front) biplanes (two Maurice Farman Shorthorns and a Maurice Farman Longhorn).
The planes available for the half-flight were of fairly early design, and were not suitable for the desert conditions. To start with, their top speed was only 50mph, while the desert wind (called the Shamal) often reached 80mph, so at top speed the planes would fly backwards. Secondly, the warmer desert air reduced the aircraft lift capability, and so sometimes they could not take off. Also, the Longhorn was a second-hand aircraft, which had persistent mechanical problems, so spent most of its time being repaired.
After arrival, the airplanes were immediately put to use on reconnaissance missions. Shortly afterwards, the Indian Army captured the town of Amara, and the airbase was moved there on 9th June.
On 4th July, the half-flight was reinforced with two Caudron G3 aircraft, which were still not up-to-date, but generally preferred to the Farmans. Later, on 30th July, one of the Caudrons was forced to land in enemy territory due to mechanical problems. It was later reported that the crew were killed by local hostile Arabs after a running gun-battle over several miles. This was Australia's first air-casualty of the war.
On 24th August, the British reinforced the half-flight with additional men and four additional aircraft (Martinsyde S1s) to form a full squadron (renamed 30th Squadron RFC). Further aircraft (three Maurice Farman sea-planes) were added to the squadron in September. Because the Tigris river was too shallow for the sea-planes to use at that time of year, the sea-planes were converted into Shorthorns.
The Indian army attack on Kut occurred on 27th September, and was the city was soon captured. 30 Squadron's base of operations was soon moved there. In October, four BE2c aircraft arrived, and the squadron was divided into two flights (A and B), with the Australian half-flight incorporated into B flight. The Indian army soon met with stiff opposition outside Baghdad, and were forced back to Kut on 4th December, where the city was put to siege. Due to the perceived limited usefulness of aircraft in a siege, the remaining Australian aircraft was flown out of Kut towards Egypt on 7th December, where it was eventually incorporated into 1 Squadron AFC. | 664 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An influential concept in the study of the relationship between attitudes and behavior.
First proposed by Leon Festinger in 1957, the theory of cognitive dissonance is based on the principle that people prefer their cognitions, or beliefs, to be consistent with each other and with their own behavior.
Inconsistency, or dissonance, among their own ideas makes people uneasy enough to alter these ideas so that they will agree with each other. For example, smokers forced to deal with the opposing thoughts "I smoke" and "smoking is dangerous" are likely to alter one of them by deciding to quit smoking. Alternatively, one can diffuse dissonance by reducing its importance (discounting the evidence against smoking or adopting the view that smoking will not harm you personally); adding new information that gives more weight to one of the dissonant beliefs or appears to reconcile them (deciding that smoking is less dangerous than the stresses it helps alleviate).
In a classic study of cognitive dissonance, subjects were asked to perform a dull task and then to persuade others that this task was interesting and enjoyable. Some were paid one dollar to do this, while others were paid $20, and all of their attitudes toward the task were measured at the conclusion of the experiment. The subjects who had been paid one dollar showed a marked improvement in their attitude toward the task, while the more highly paid subjects did not. The designers of the experiment interpreted their results in the following way. Cognitive dissonance was created in all of the subjects by the conflicting facts that the task had been boring and that they were saying it was interesting—their statements and beliefs did not match. However, those who were paid $20 had been given a justification for lying: they could tell themselves that their actions made some kind of sense. However, the actions of the other group made no sense unless they could persuade themselves that the task had indeed been interesting. Thus they acted to reduce the dissonance by changing their original belief.
Children have shown similar responses to experimental situations involving cognitive dissonance. In one case, children were asked not to play with an appealing toy. One experimenter made this request mildly and politely while another one made it in a threatening fashion. Those children who had accommodated the polite request also became less attracted to the toy, since liking the toy and giving it up were conflicting experiences that created dissonance. However, the children who were threatened felt no pressure to change their opinions about the toy since they had a logical reason for giving it up.
Several types of cognitive dissonance have been identified. In post-decision dissonance, a person must decide between two choices, each of which has both positive and negative components (in other contexts, this type of situation is called a multiple approach-avoidance conflict). Forced compliance dissonance occurs when people are forced to act in ways that conflict with their beliefs and can not find any way to justify their actions to themselves. Dissonance also occurs when people are exposed to new information that threatens or changes their current beliefs. Various group situations also generate cognitive dissonance. It occurs when a person must abandon old beliefs or adopt new ones in order to join a group, when
members disagree with each other, and when the group as a whole has its central beliefs threatened by an external event or by the receipt of new information.
Festinger proposed that some individuals have a higher tolerance for cognitive dissonance than others. Subsequent researchers have found correlations between various personality traits, such as extroversion, and the ability to withstand dissonance.
Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957.
- Cognitive Psychology
- Cognitive Development - Piaget's stages of cognitive development, Modern views
- Other Free Encyclopedias | <urn:uuid:dfc30bae-0111-4fee-aff6-aafbc72f0c2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://psychology.jrank.org/pages/125/Cognitive-Dissonance.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00101.warc.gz | en | 0.981072 | 767 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.400610953569412... | 3 | An influential concept in the study of the relationship between attitudes and behavior.
First proposed by Leon Festinger in 1957, the theory of cognitive dissonance is based on the principle that people prefer their cognitions, or beliefs, to be consistent with each other and with their own behavior.
Inconsistency, or dissonance, among their own ideas makes people uneasy enough to alter these ideas so that they will agree with each other. For example, smokers forced to deal with the opposing thoughts "I smoke" and "smoking is dangerous" are likely to alter one of them by deciding to quit smoking. Alternatively, one can diffuse dissonance by reducing its importance (discounting the evidence against smoking or adopting the view that smoking will not harm you personally); adding new information that gives more weight to one of the dissonant beliefs or appears to reconcile them (deciding that smoking is less dangerous than the stresses it helps alleviate).
In a classic study of cognitive dissonance, subjects were asked to perform a dull task and then to persuade others that this task was interesting and enjoyable. Some were paid one dollar to do this, while others were paid $20, and all of their attitudes toward the task were measured at the conclusion of the experiment. The subjects who had been paid one dollar showed a marked improvement in their attitude toward the task, while the more highly paid subjects did not. The designers of the experiment interpreted their results in the following way. Cognitive dissonance was created in all of the subjects by the conflicting facts that the task had been boring and that they were saying it was interesting—their statements and beliefs did not match. However, those who were paid $20 had been given a justification for lying: they could tell themselves that their actions made some kind of sense. However, the actions of the other group made no sense unless they could persuade themselves that the task had indeed been interesting. Thus they acted to reduce the dissonance by changing their original belief.
Children have shown similar responses to experimental situations involving cognitive dissonance. In one case, children were asked not to play with an appealing toy. One experimenter made this request mildly and politely while another one made it in a threatening fashion. Those children who had accommodated the polite request also became less attracted to the toy, since liking the toy and giving it up were conflicting experiences that created dissonance. However, the children who were threatened felt no pressure to change their opinions about the toy since they had a logical reason for giving it up.
Several types of cognitive dissonance have been identified. In post-decision dissonance, a person must decide between two choices, each of which has both positive and negative components (in other contexts, this type of situation is called a multiple approach-avoidance conflict). Forced compliance dissonance occurs when people are forced to act in ways that conflict with their beliefs and can not find any way to justify their actions to themselves. Dissonance also occurs when people are exposed to new information that threatens or changes their current beliefs. Various group situations also generate cognitive dissonance. It occurs when a person must abandon old beliefs or adopt new ones in order to join a group, when
members disagree with each other, and when the group as a whole has its central beliefs threatened by an external event or by the receipt of new information.
Festinger proposed that some individuals have a higher tolerance for cognitive dissonance than others. Subsequent researchers have found correlations between various personality traits, such as extroversion, and the ability to withstand dissonance.
Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957.
- Cognitive Psychology
- Cognitive Development - Piaget's stages of cognitive development, Modern views
- Other Free Encyclopedias | 785 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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