Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
Traditionally, the variety of items used to adorn the head – the most tapu part of the body – were an important part of dress. In addition to the use of oils or ochre, adornments included ephemeral feathers, flowers and leaves. Bone, stone or wooden combs, called heru, were worn only by men of important status. Many changes followed colonisation. Men adopted shorter hairstyles. Feathers of introduced birds became used instead of those of indigenous species, which became threatened or even extinct due to the destruction of their habitat. The wearing of carved bone combs has been adopted by women, and the use of greenery in times of mourning is a traditional custom that continues in the 2000s. European trading with Māori ‘Gunnah’s merchandize consisted of a number of the white feathers of the gannet, which are universally worn by both sexes … taking some of the feathers out of the box, in which he had laid them with as much dexterity as if they had been packed up by the most experienced man-milliner in London, he stuck several of them in the heads of the surrounding ladies, who, when thus decorated, congratulated each other with extatic transports.’ 1 Varieties of feathers in headdresses Hair adornments included the elegant, long red streamer-like tail feathers of the amokura (red-tailed tropic bird). Other stories tell of the use of rau o tītapu or awe-nui, the fragile long white dorsal plumes that cover the back of the breeding kōtuku (white heron). The huia became extinct because its feathers were prized by both Māori and Pākehā. Huia had 12 black tail feathers tipped with white. These could be worn singly, or the entire tail might be smoke-dried and worn in the hair. It is also recorded that huia tail feathers were used in ancient times to make a special kind of war headdress, the 12-feathered marereko. Huia feathers were so treasured that specially carved boxes called waka huia were made to store them safely. Toroa and tākapu In the later 18th century artists on James Cook’s voyages portrayed men wearing two or three white feathers from large pelagic (open-sea) birds in their hair. These were usually from the tākapu (gannet) and the toroa (albatross). Heru or combs ranged from the tall one-piece whalebone titireia worn by chiefs, to a variety of heru carved from bird and sometimes even human bone, as well as a single piece or composite heru made of wood. Like all items of dress, they were ultimately disposed of carefully, many being consigned to swamps. Mourning greenery and caps Some tribal groups wore tauā (mourning wreaths) of leaves from locally available plants around their heads as a mark of mourning. Leaves ranged from fast-drooping ferns to kawakawa. This custom continued in the 2000s for important tangihanga. Pōtae tauā were mourning caps. In 1769 both male and female Māori were recorded as wearing large black feathered mourning caps in Queen Charlotte Sound. In the 19th century they were more frequently worn by widows. These bands or close-fitting skullcaps frequently had attachments that hung over the wearer’s eyes. One form of pōtae tauā has survived. Weft-twined in muka (flax fibre) and covered with black-dyed seaweed (probably karepō or rimurehia), this type was identified as a karapō.	<urn:uuid:979df731-a663-45e4-bdf9-ad9ec5fc1b65>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://admin.teara.govt.nz/en/maori-clothing-and-adornment-kakahu-maori/page-7	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00272.warc.gz	en	0.980402	800	3.515625	4	[ -0.08016428351402283, 0.3985556960105896, 0.2769358158111572, 0.17429424822330475, -0.05402402579784393, 0.33208727836608887, 0.5715439915657043, -0.00888148508965969, -0.09834424406290054, 0.30947187542915344, -0.3298630714416504, -0.7689121961593628, 0.04306212067604065, 0.35525158047676...	16	Traditionally, the variety of items used to adorn the head – the most tapu part of the body – were an important part of dress. In addition to the use of oils or ochre, adornments included ephemeral feathers, flowers and leaves. Bone, stone or wooden combs, called heru, were worn only by men of important status. Many changes followed colonisation. Men adopted shorter hairstyles. Feathers of introduced birds became used instead of those of indigenous species, which became threatened or even extinct due to the destruction of their habitat. The wearing of carved bone combs has been adopted by women, and the use of greenery in times of mourning is a traditional custom that continues in the 2000s. European trading with Māori ‘Gunnah’s merchandize consisted of a number of the white feathers of the gannet, which are universally worn by both sexes … taking some of the feathers out of the box, in which he had laid them with as much dexterity as if they had been packed up by the most experienced man-milliner in London, he stuck several of them in the heads of the surrounding ladies, who, when thus decorated, congratulated each other with extatic transports.’ 1 Varieties of feathers in headdresses Hair adornments included the elegant, long red streamer-like tail feathers of the amokura (red-tailed tropic bird). Other stories tell of the use of rau o tītapu or awe-nui, the fragile long white dorsal plumes that cover the back of the breeding kōtuku (white heron). The huia became extinct because its feathers were prized by both Māori and Pākehā. Huia had 12 black tail feathers tipped with white. These could be worn singly, or the entire tail might be smoke-dried and worn in the hair. It is also recorded that huia tail feathers were used in ancient times to make a special kind of war headdress, the 12-feathered marereko. Huia feathers were so treasured that specially carved boxes called waka huia were made to store them safely. Toroa and tākapu In the later 18th century artists on James Cook’s voyages portrayed men wearing two or three white feathers from large pelagic (open-sea) birds in their hair. These were usually from the tākapu (gannet) and the toroa (albatross). Heru or combs ranged from the tall one-piece whalebone titireia worn by chiefs, to a variety of heru carved from bird and sometimes even human bone, as well as a single piece or composite heru made of wood. Like all items of dress, they were ultimately disposed of carefully, many being consigned to swamps. Mourning greenery and caps Some tribal groups wore tauā (mourning wreaths) of leaves from locally available plants around their heads as a mark of mourning. Leaves ranged from fast-drooping ferns to kawakawa. This custom continued in the 2000s for important tangihanga. Pōtae tauā were mourning caps. In 1769 both male and female Māori were recorded as wearing large black feathered mourning caps in Queen Charlotte Sound. In the 19th century they were more frequently worn by widows. These bands or close-fitting skullcaps frequently had attachments that hung over the wearer’s eyes. One form of pōtae tauā has survived. Weft-twined in muka (flax fibre) and covered with black-dyed seaweed (probably karepō or rimurehia), this type was identified as a karapō.	780	ENGLISH	1
While drug use has been very prominent over the past several decades, drugs have had a role in history since before any of us were born. It is important to learn about where drugs like cocaine, tobacco, and marijuana came from as well as the early uses for drugs to better understand the minds of where people came from a long time ago. In the 15th, 16th, and 17 Century In the early 15th, 16th, and 17th century, explorers, traders, and conquerors were interested in discovering everything there was about the New World. Tobacco was discovered during Columbus’s first voyage. Cocaine was found in large areas of South America. Caffeine and LSD was all over the world. Tobacco first came to us when it was introduced by the American Indians. Sailors would smoke this lead and chew it who would then bring it to England. In 1575, the Catholic Church in Mexico forbid smoking in the church. For most of history, countries have struggled with drug use. From 1692-1650, the European states, Constantinople, Japan, and Russia would have anti-tobacco laws but still would not stop people from using drugs. Russia’s Czar Michael Feodorovich would even go so far as to have an overkill penalty in 1634 of slitting a person’s nostrils, canning the soles of someone’s feet, or whipped. Despite this, tobacco would still be considered a premium commodity where people would pay for anything to get their hands on it. European settlers adopted the Cassina plant to prepare the “Black Drink,” “Black Drought,” or “dahoon” to let leaves brew to a drink with alcohol and caffeine. Spanish conquerors in Mexico found peyote by the Incas who would chew leaves from the Erythroxylon coca plant. Coca lead was encouraged by Spanish rulers to control the Indians but the Europeans had strong doubts about its use and did not use it. Europeans reduced the use of peyote and other herbal hallucinogens by the Aztecs. Aztecs used substances as part of religious practices. When Was Morphine Introduced? Morphine would be separated from opium in the early 1800s by European chemists. Throughout history, doctors did not believe morphine would be addicting. They could even cure opium addiction by injecting morphine to correct the indigestion found to be the problem of the addiction. Morphine was popular during the Civil War era for soldiers’ battle injuries. Opiates would also be prescribed for menstrual and menopausal problems. There would be many advertisements of opiates being good help for “female troubles.” Many women would take opiates; especially those that would not be seen at a bar. While the men would drink alcohol in public, women would take opiates at home. When Did People Start Using Cocaine? In 1844, alkaloid cocaine was introduced from coca leaves. In 1883, Dr. Theodor Aschenbrandt, German army doctor, was issued a supply of pure cocaine to Bavarian soldiers that had beneficial results to help them enduring fatigue during battle-like conditions. History remembers Dr. William Halstead, one of the founders of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, who discovered that if cocaine was injected into the nerve, it could serve as a local anesthetic. He became dependent on cocaine after experimenting with it and was “cured” by morphine injections. He would go from having 180 milligrams a day to 90 milligrams for most of his life. In 1884, Sigmund Freud experimented with 50 milligrams of cocaine. He gave cocaine to his sick friend to help relieve the pain his friend was in from his morphine addiction. Freud even gave cocaine to his wife to make her “more lively.” He wrote an essay about how cocaine was a “magical drug” and would continue to use it to relieve his depression. In 1885, German man Erlenmeyer published the first attacks on cocaine calling it an addicting drug. Two years later, Freud stopped using cocaine because of the harmful side effects that he noticed his friend was getting from the drug. When Was Marijuana Introduced? Another important part of drug history was when marijuana was first introduced to Europeans. Cannabis sativa was brought to us by the Spaniards in 1545 after it first appeared in Chile. The excuse for growing this staple crop was for fiber. Jamestown settlers brought cannabis to Virginia in 1611 for fiber as well. New England was introduced to it in 1629 and was a major crop after the Civil War. Around 1832, the use of opium was used for medicinal purposes. There would be widespread advertisements of medications with large amounts of opium. It was advertised that opium can cure anything from nerves to marital problems that would cost the same amount as a bottle of elixir. Marijuana in the Late 19th to Early 20th Century From 1850-1942, the United States Pharmacopeia, which lists widely accepted drugs, found marijuana to be legitimate and was sold under “Extract Cannabis” used to treat neuralgia, gout, rheumatism, tetanus, hydrophobia, epidemic cholera, convulsions chorea, and hemorrhage. On December 2, 1876, Illustrated Police News published a drawing of five women wearing exotic attire smoking marijuana in a private room. Newspapers and magazines would feature stories of marijuana users and their strange habits. Many physicians would use marijuana for experimental purposes, curiosity, and supplying fluid extract to their friends. Marijuana candy would also be sold in sweet shops. There continued to be more useful properties of marijuana compared to when it was first in the United States Pharmacopeia. The attention became so focused on opium addiction that people who used marijuana were ignored. It would seem that throughout history, physicians would be in disbelief over the true powers of drugs. They would not be blind to medicinal purposes but it would be too late before realizing addiction would be another problem that the medical field would need to tackle. Get Treatment Today If you are struggling with addiction, we want to help you. Contact Bayview Recovery Center today. We treat a variety of addiction, such as: Located in Tacoma, Washington, Bayview Center’s mission is to offer clinically-driven programs and services to treat a number of substance abuse disorders along with anxiety and depression using cognitive behavioral therapy, dialectical behavioral therapy, trauma therapy, yoga therapy, and more for a successful recovery. For more information, please call us at 855.478.3650 as we are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.	<urn:uuid:42abe1f2-cb51-44fb-8544-a3d3addc8b8f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bayviewrecovery.com/rehab-blog/early-substance-habits-in-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00435.warc.gz	en	0.980511	1,384	3.484375	3	[ -0.07872013747692108, 0.19908110797405243, 0.4474620819091797, -0.20418445765972137, 0.0059559401124715805, 0.18406793475151062, 0.4786578416824341, 0.3678118884563446, -0.40798503160476685, 0.011934120208024979, -0.06760752201080322, 0.08971761167049408, -0.35137149691581726, 0.3325500488...	1	While drug use has been very prominent over the past several decades, drugs have had a role in history since before any of us were born. It is important to learn about where drugs like cocaine, tobacco, and marijuana came from as well as the early uses for drugs to better understand the minds of where people came from a long time ago. In the 15th, 16th, and 17 Century In the early 15th, 16th, and 17th century, explorers, traders, and conquerors were interested in discovering everything there was about the New World. Tobacco was discovered during Columbus’s first voyage. Cocaine was found in large areas of South America. Caffeine and LSD was all over the world. Tobacco first came to us when it was introduced by the American Indians. Sailors would smoke this lead and chew it who would then bring it to England. In 1575, the Catholic Church in Mexico forbid smoking in the church. For most of history, countries have struggled with drug use. From 1692-1650, the European states, Constantinople, Japan, and Russia would have anti-tobacco laws but still would not stop people from using drugs. Russia’s Czar Michael Feodorovich would even go so far as to have an overkill penalty in 1634 of slitting a person’s nostrils, canning the soles of someone’s feet, or whipped. Despite this, tobacco would still be considered a premium commodity where people would pay for anything to get their hands on it. European settlers adopted the Cassina plant to prepare the “Black Drink,” “Black Drought,” or “dahoon” to let leaves brew to a drink with alcohol and caffeine. Spanish conquerors in Mexico found peyote by the Incas who would chew leaves from the Erythroxylon coca plant. Coca lead was encouraged by Spanish rulers to control the Indians but the Europeans had strong doubts about its use and did not use it. Europeans reduced the use of peyote and other herbal hallucinogens by the Aztecs. Aztecs used substances as part of religious practices. When Was Morphine Introduced? Morphine would be separated from opium in the early 1800s by European chemists. Throughout history, doctors did not believe morphine would be addicting. They could even cure opium addiction by injecting morphine to correct the indigestion found to be the problem of the addiction. Morphine was popular during the Civil War era for soldiers’ battle injuries. Opiates would also be prescribed for menstrual and menopausal problems. There would be many advertisements of opiates being good help for “female troubles.” Many women would take opiates; especially those that would not be seen at a bar. While the men would drink alcohol in public, women would take opiates at home. When Did People Start Using Cocaine? In 1844, alkaloid cocaine was introduced from coca leaves. In 1883, Dr. Theodor Aschenbrandt, German army doctor, was issued a supply of pure cocaine to Bavarian soldiers that had beneficial results to help them enduring fatigue during battle-like conditions. History remembers Dr. William Halstead, one of the founders of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, who discovered that if cocaine was injected into the nerve, it could serve as a local anesthetic. He became dependent on cocaine after experimenting with it and was “cured” by morphine injections. He would go from having 180 milligrams a day to 90 milligrams for most of his life. In 1884, Sigmund Freud experimented with 50 milligrams of cocaine. He gave cocaine to his sick friend to help relieve the pain his friend was in from his morphine addiction. Freud even gave cocaine to his wife to make her “more lively.” He wrote an essay about how cocaine was a “magical drug” and would continue to use it to relieve his depression. In 1885, German man Erlenmeyer published the first attacks on cocaine calling it an addicting drug. Two years later, Freud stopped using cocaine because of the harmful side effects that he noticed his friend was getting from the drug. When Was Marijuana Introduced? Another important part of drug history was when marijuana was first introduced to Europeans. Cannabis sativa was brought to us by the Spaniards in 1545 after it first appeared in Chile. The excuse for growing this staple crop was for fiber. Jamestown settlers brought cannabis to Virginia in 1611 for fiber as well. New England was introduced to it in 1629 and was a major crop after the Civil War. Around 1832, the use of opium was used for medicinal purposes. There would be widespread advertisements of medications with large amounts of opium. It was advertised that opium can cure anything from nerves to marital problems that would cost the same amount as a bottle of elixir. Marijuana in the Late 19th to Early 20th Century From 1850-1942, the United States Pharmacopeia, which lists widely accepted drugs, found marijuana to be legitimate and was sold under “Extract Cannabis” used to treat neuralgia, gout, rheumatism, tetanus, hydrophobia, epidemic cholera, convulsions chorea, and hemorrhage. On December 2, 1876, Illustrated Police News published a drawing of five women wearing exotic attire smoking marijuana in a private room. Newspapers and magazines would feature stories of marijuana users and their strange habits. Many physicians would use marijuana for experimental purposes, curiosity, and supplying fluid extract to their friends. Marijuana candy would also be sold in sweet shops. There continued to be more useful properties of marijuana compared to when it was first in the United States Pharmacopeia. The attention became so focused on opium addiction that people who used marijuana were ignored. It would seem that throughout history, physicians would be in disbelief over the true powers of drugs. They would not be blind to medicinal purposes but it would be too late before realizing addiction would be another problem that the medical field would need to tackle. Get Treatment Today If you are struggling with addiction, we want to help you. Contact Bayview Recovery Center today. We treat a variety of addiction, such as: Located in Tacoma, Washington, Bayview Center’s mission is to offer clinically-driven programs and services to treat a number of substance abuse disorders along with anxiety and depression using cognitive behavioral therapy, dialectical behavioral therapy, trauma therapy, yoga therapy, and more for a successful recovery. For more information, please call us at 855.478.3650 as we are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.	1,423	ENGLISH	1
Nottingham has been a city since 1897, after being a borough since about the sixth century. The 19th century brought great changes in population, size and character, as Nottingham grew from a small borough of 29,000. In 1877 the borough extended its boundaries by taking in the surrounding parishes. The oldest citizens in 1897 could remember the many changes that had taken place in their lifetime. These changes were mainly brought about by the building of houses, factories, public buildings and railways. By 1997 the population had increased from 239,000 in the 1901 census to 278,000 in 2005. New buildings included multi-storey houses, commercial buildings, cinemas, libraries, schools and two universities, and there was much change as a result of 20th-century transport.	<urn:uuid:51264409-43f1-49f8-a62c-c19c8b252f26>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thegreatbritishbookshop.co.uk/book/geoffrey-oldfield/nottingham-a-changing-city-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00557.warc.gz	en	0.989796	157	3.328125	3	[ 0.2753375768661499, -0.22073934972286224, 0.6778250932693481, 0.04224153980612755, 0.3201427161693573, 0.2890680730342865, 0.08189975470304489, -0.3822861313819885, -0.039499107748270035, 0.05593358725309372, 0.2804211974143982, -0.1225224956870079, -0.3586580157279968, -0.2708635926246643...	2	Nottingham has been a city since 1897, after being a borough since about the sixth century. The 19th century brought great changes in population, size and character, as Nottingham grew from a small borough of 29,000. In 1877 the borough extended its boundaries by taking in the surrounding parishes. The oldest citizens in 1897 could remember the many changes that had taken place in their lifetime. These changes were mainly brought about by the building of houses, factories, public buildings and railways. By 1997 the population had increased from 239,000 in the 1901 census to 278,000 in 2005. New buildings included multi-storey houses, commercial buildings, cinemas, libraries, schools and two universities, and there was much change as a result of 20th-century transport.	194	ENGLISH	1
Everyone needs vaccinations It was a typical Tuesday in my former job as chair of surgery at Temple University in Philadelphia, but that morning I felt sluggish. Although I wasn't feeling well, I knew I had three surgical operations to perform that morning followed by an afternoon full of meetings. I trudged out of my apartment and started the 15-minute drive to work. A few miles into my commute, a feeling of illness suddenly enveloped me. I had to pull over and call my chief resident to cancel the morning's surgeries. I turned the car around and headed back home to bed. The next three days were a blur of sore throat and fever; it was the first time I'd had the flu and I swore that I would never endure that experience again. This month is National Immunization Awareness Month which is observed annually, and highlights the importance of immunizations for people of all ages. As all things back to school begin, parents need to make sure their children's immunizations are up to date. Ensuring a child is protected from vaccine-preventable illness is just as important as making sure they have pencils, paper and other classroom essentials. We are frequently reminded that flu vaccination is important for school-age children, who can quickly spread illnesses to one another due to behaviors like not covering their coughs. Frequent hand washing is also important for reducing the spread of illnesses and is something that many children do not do often enough. However, it is important to remember there are other diseases, like measles, mumps and meningococcal disease, which also affect children in the United States, even though they are vaccine-preventable. Immunizations are important for adults as well. For example, adults should get vaccinated to protect their health against tetanus and diphtheria every 10 years, and pregnant women should get the Tdap vaccine during each pregnancy, which also protects against pertussis, commonly known as whooping cough. Adults 60 and older are encouraged to receive the shingles vaccine every five years. Meanwhile, pneumococcal vaccination protects against potentially fatal diseases like pneumonia, pneumococcal meningitis and sepsis. Immunization is especially important for older adults and for adults with chronic conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes or heart disease. Immunization is also important for anyone who is in close contact with the very young or aged, people with weakened immune systems and those who cannot be vaccinated. Although getting vaccinated can sometimes cause redness and discomfort where administered, vaccinations are safe and effective, and their benefits far outweigh the possible side effects. Understanding vaccines, and knowing which immunizations you and your family need is an essential step toward protecting yourself and your community. If you or your children are not up-to-date on your vaccination schedule, make an appointment with your primary care physician today. After what happened that Tuesday in Philadelphia, I make sure that I get all recommended vaccinations. You should too.	<urn:uuid:dd0c9dba-53da-40a2-bba2-d9aae6c8d15b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.caller.com/story/opinion/forums/2016/08/17/everyone-needs-vaccinations/91552372/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00474.warc.gz	en	0.981567	618	3.453125	3	[ 0.0870852991938591, 0.13482683897018433, 0.02667992003262043, -0.5771390795707703, -0.08985717594623566, 0.34672704339027405, 0.47636494040489197, 0.5730476975440979, -0.5293651819229126, -0.09681248664855957, -0.2513885796070099, -0.16161493957042694, 0.32144346833229065, 0.28599092364311...	5	Everyone needs vaccinations It was a typical Tuesday in my former job as chair of surgery at Temple University in Philadelphia, but that morning I felt sluggish. Although I wasn't feeling well, I knew I had three surgical operations to perform that morning followed by an afternoon full of meetings. I trudged out of my apartment and started the 15-minute drive to work. A few miles into my commute, a feeling of illness suddenly enveloped me. I had to pull over and call my chief resident to cancel the morning's surgeries. I turned the car around and headed back home to bed. The next three days were a blur of sore throat and fever; it was the first time I'd had the flu and I swore that I would never endure that experience again. This month is National Immunization Awareness Month which is observed annually, and highlights the importance of immunizations for people of all ages. As all things back to school begin, parents need to make sure their children's immunizations are up to date. Ensuring a child is protected from vaccine-preventable illness is just as important as making sure they have pencils, paper and other classroom essentials. We are frequently reminded that flu vaccination is important for school-age children, who can quickly spread illnesses to one another due to behaviors like not covering their coughs. Frequent hand washing is also important for reducing the spread of illnesses and is something that many children do not do often enough. However, it is important to remember there are other diseases, like measles, mumps and meningococcal disease, which also affect children in the United States, even though they are vaccine-preventable. Immunizations are important for adults as well. For example, adults should get vaccinated to protect their health against tetanus and diphtheria every 10 years, and pregnant women should get the Tdap vaccine during each pregnancy, which also protects against pertussis, commonly known as whooping cough. Adults 60 and older are encouraged to receive the shingles vaccine every five years. Meanwhile, pneumococcal vaccination protects against potentially fatal diseases like pneumonia, pneumococcal meningitis and sepsis. Immunization is especially important for older adults and for adults with chronic conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes or heart disease. Immunization is also important for anyone who is in close contact with the very young or aged, people with weakened immune systems and those who cannot be vaccinated. Although getting vaccinated can sometimes cause redness and discomfort where administered, vaccinations are safe and effective, and their benefits far outweigh the possible side effects. Understanding vaccines, and knowing which immunizations you and your family need is an essential step toward protecting yourself and your community. If you or your children are not up-to-date on your vaccination schedule, make an appointment with your primary care physician today. After what happened that Tuesday in Philadelphia, I make sure that I get all recommended vaccinations. You should too.	602	ENGLISH	1
Portrayal of Women in Shakespeare's Hamlet Shakespeare was possibly the first writer to portray women as strong, crafty, and intelligent. However, he has still received criticism from feminists about his representation of women. Some have even accused him of misogyny. There are only two female characters in the play Hamlet - Gertrude, Hamlet's mother and Ophelia, daughter of Polonius. Any debate based upon gender roles must therefore focus upon these two characters. Shakespeare portrays Gertrude as a woman of power and intelligence - she was Queen for a considerable amount of time - we can safely assume at least 30 years - and she is asked advice on matters by King Claudius - "Do you think 'tis this?" (II.2.152). Gertrude is a woman who married her own brother-in-law; perhaps to remain in her position of power. It is often debated whether or not Gertrude was involved in the killing of King Hamlet - either way, Gertrude seems to have complied fully in her marriage to Claudius - she doesn't seem at all offended by Claudius' presence - perhaps reason to suspect that she was unaware of Claudius' role in Hamlet's death, if she was uninvolved. The ghost tells Hamlet not to judge his mother, or to seek revenge upon her, telling him "leave her to heaven" (I.5.86). This pours doubt upon Gertrude's 'guilt'. Further, her seeming innocence, when confronted by Hamlet as she exclaims "As kill a king!" (III.4.31) would indicate her lack of guilt in or even knowledge of, the murder of old Hamlet. Hamlet himself is certainly convinced, as he tries to 'win her over', later on in the scene: "Throw away the worser part of it, and live the purer with the other half." (III.4.158-159). Gertrude's apparent innocence would highlight Shakespeare's belief that there are women of virtue. Hamlet's attitude towards his mother does change, throughout the play. He scorns the queen's company for 'metal more attractive' (Ophelia) (III.2.119), yet holds a great deal of respect for her - using no daggers when he would speak them to her (III.2.403), and calling her Mother (III.4.214) and 'good lady' (III.4.181). Considering that a son without respect for her would call her 'woman', or even with respect for her standing 'Your Highness', these names are very respectful. It would seem that Hamlet loved Gertrude dearly, and held her in great respect. It would, therefore, be a mistake to brand Shakespeare a 'misogynist'. However, when he dwells upon her marriage to his uncle, he has no respect, whatsoever. He gives her no credit for the marriage - holding the view that she was 'whored' and 'cozened at hoodman-blind' by Claudius. Hamlet's fury at her 'o'erhasty marriage' (II.2.56) makes Hamlet soon forget the respect he had for her, though this seemed to return, once he had judged for himself the fact that she did indeed seem innocent of his father's death. He also used word games with her. These word games are certainly not the way a son would be expected to...	<urn:uuid:921de1a0-a529-43d9-90cd-cd933af7ad43>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/portrayal-of-women-in-shakespeare-s-hamlet	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00005.warc.gz	en	0.984036	727	3.828125	4	[ 0.23393341898918152, -0.12807637453079224, 0.43114909529685974, -0.026498977094888687, -0.29204094409942627, 0.2550268769264221, 0.3517988920211792, 0.4648767113685608, -0.1203044131398201, -0.23779907822608948, -0.08072753250598907, -0.3921484351158142, -0.2085944563150406, 0.126330390572...	1	Portrayal of Women in Shakespeare's Hamlet Shakespeare was possibly the first writer to portray women as strong, crafty, and intelligent. However, he has still received criticism from feminists about his representation of women. Some have even accused him of misogyny. There are only two female characters in the play Hamlet - Gertrude, Hamlet's mother and Ophelia, daughter of Polonius. Any debate based upon gender roles must therefore focus upon these two characters. Shakespeare portrays Gertrude as a woman of power and intelligence - she was Queen for a considerable amount of time - we can safely assume at least 30 years - and she is asked advice on matters by King Claudius - "Do you think 'tis this?" (II.2.152). Gertrude is a woman who married her own brother-in-law; perhaps to remain in her position of power. It is often debated whether or not Gertrude was involved in the killing of King Hamlet - either way, Gertrude seems to have complied fully in her marriage to Claudius - she doesn't seem at all offended by Claudius' presence - perhaps reason to suspect that she was unaware of Claudius' role in Hamlet's death, if she was uninvolved. The ghost tells Hamlet not to judge his mother, or to seek revenge upon her, telling him "leave her to heaven" (I.5.86). This pours doubt upon Gertrude's 'guilt'. Further, her seeming innocence, when confronted by Hamlet as she exclaims "As kill a king!" (III.4.31) would indicate her lack of guilt in or even knowledge of, the murder of old Hamlet. Hamlet himself is certainly convinced, as he tries to 'win her over', later on in the scene: "Throw away the worser part of it, and live the purer with the other half." (III.4.158-159). Gertrude's apparent innocence would highlight Shakespeare's belief that there are women of virtue. Hamlet's attitude towards his mother does change, throughout the play. He scorns the queen's company for 'metal more attractive' (Ophelia) (III.2.119), yet holds a great deal of respect for her - using no daggers when he would speak them to her (III.2.403), and calling her Mother (III.4.214) and 'good lady' (III.4.181). Considering that a son without respect for her would call her 'woman', or even with respect for her standing 'Your Highness', these names are very respectful. It would seem that Hamlet loved Gertrude dearly, and held her in great respect. It would, therefore, be a mistake to brand Shakespeare a 'misogynist'. However, when he dwells upon her marriage to his uncle, he has no respect, whatsoever. He gives her no credit for the marriage - holding the view that she was 'whored' and 'cozened at hoodman-blind' by Claudius. Hamlet's fury at her 'o'erhasty marriage' (II.2.56) makes Hamlet soon forget the respect he had for her, though this seemed to return, once he had judged for himself the fact that she did indeed seem innocent of his father's death. He also used word games with her. These word games are certainly not the way a son would be expected to...	733	ENGLISH	1
The Black Panthers aren’t talked about much. The Panthers had made a huge difference in the civil rights movement. They were not just a Black KKK. They helped revolutionize the thought of African Americans in the U.S. The Black Panther had a huge background of history, goals, and beliefs. Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, Ca 1966, founded the Panthers. They were originally as an African American self defense force and were highly influenced by Malcolm X’s ideas. They were named after Lowndes County Freedom Organization or LCFO. The Panthers had many goals like; giving back to the ghetto, protecting blacks from police brutality, and to help blacks get freedom and jobs. They also had many beliefs like; Malcolm X was a great person, and they believed that gun use was ok if necessary, or if people were oppressing the poor. The Panthers had many accomplishments while they were around, these were some of them. The Panthers gave to the need many times. They did stuff like opened food shelters, health clinics, elementary schools, patrolled urban ghettos to stop police brutality, created offices to teach young black kids, and they said that they were going to start stressing services. The Panthers had many great people join them, but one man had made a huge accomplishment that will never be forgotten. In November of 68’ the Chicago chapter of The B.P.P. was founded by Fred Hampton, he was a strong leader. The accomplishment he had made was that he persuaded all the powerful gangs in Chicago to stop fighting. With what Hampton did there was a lot of change like; the Panthers started to become more of a Marxist-Communist group, and started to turn toward political means. This made it a lot easier to achieve their goals. There were many events in the Black Panther Party wither many people that did them. Here are some of them. In 1968 Bobby Seale was charged with inciting riots during a Democratic Party National Convention. While in prison Seale was also charged with the murder of Alex Rackley, a former police officer. The trial was held on May 25th, 1971, but left with a hung jury. The judge ordered all charges to be dropped. Stokely Carmichael was also important to the Panthers. Carmichael was arrested 35 times for his part in the civil rights movement, and eventually left the U.S. for an African...	<urn:uuid:73b173cd-3b4e-4fde-95df-8f6979018e32>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-black-panther-party	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00464.warc.gz	en	0.99405	494	3.296875	3	[ -0.4766639769077301, 0.4326966106891632, -0.22053414583206177, 0.1267465353012085, -0.1078997328877449, 0.22838696837425232, 0.210835799574852, 0.10684753209352493, -0.23788657784461975, 0.24410288035869598, 0.17933084070682526, 0.09226585179567337, 0.20147496461868286, 0.04963872209191322...	1	The Black Panthers aren’t talked about much. The Panthers had made a huge difference in the civil rights movement. They were not just a Black KKK. They helped revolutionize the thought of African Americans in the U.S. The Black Panther had a huge background of history, goals, and beliefs. Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, Ca 1966, founded the Panthers. They were originally as an African American self defense force and were highly influenced by Malcolm X’s ideas. They were named after Lowndes County Freedom Organization or LCFO. The Panthers had many goals like; giving back to the ghetto, protecting blacks from police brutality, and to help blacks get freedom and jobs. They also had many beliefs like; Malcolm X was a great person, and they believed that gun use was ok if necessary, or if people were oppressing the poor. The Panthers had many accomplishments while they were around, these were some of them. The Panthers gave to the need many times. They did stuff like opened food shelters, health clinics, elementary schools, patrolled urban ghettos to stop police brutality, created offices to teach young black kids, and they said that they were going to start stressing services. The Panthers had many great people join them, but one man had made a huge accomplishment that will never be forgotten. In November of 68’ the Chicago chapter of The B.P.P. was founded by Fred Hampton, he was a strong leader. The accomplishment he had made was that he persuaded all the powerful gangs in Chicago to stop fighting. With what Hampton did there was a lot of change like; the Panthers started to become more of a Marxist-Communist group, and started to turn toward political means. This made it a lot easier to achieve their goals. There were many events in the Black Panther Party wither many people that did them. Here are some of them. In 1968 Bobby Seale was charged with inciting riots during a Democratic Party National Convention. While in prison Seale was also charged with the murder of Alex Rackley, a former police officer. The trial was held on May 25th, 1971, but left with a hung jury. The judge ordered all charges to be dropped. Stokely Carmichael was also important to the Panthers. Carmichael was arrested 35 times for his part in the civil rights movement, and eventually left the U.S. for an African...	503	ENGLISH	1
Lesson time 12:04 min Joyce analyzes very brief narratives—ones with no more than a few pages—for the language and structure they require. As an example, she reads from the William Carlos Williams story “The Use of Force.” Topics include: “The Use of Force” by William Carlos Williams · Work Toward a Delicate Ending [MUSIC PLAYING] - One of the most exciting exercises for a writer to do, particularly an emerging writer, is not to try to write a whole short story or a conventional story. Write a miniature narrative. This could be one paragraph long. It could be a page long. So a miniature narrative takes place very quickly. It's like a poem Robert Frost defined lyric poetry as the melting of ice on a hot stove. You have the ice and the stove, and the ice melts, and that's the poem. And when it's over, it's over. It's going to take place in two minutes. If you can tell a story as briefly as possible, it's more dramatic. If it's too long, then it has the problems of pacing. It could get a little slow. But the shorter you can make a story, the better. If you don't have time for characters, you have time for an incident or an event, something that happens. So I try to get my students always to work in short forms and work up to longer forms, not start on the longer form immediately. [MUSIC PLAYING] "The Use of Force" takes place in about five minutes. It's a brilliant and wonderful, memorable story, probably the best thing that William Carlos Williams wrote in prose. He was a distinguished poet. Now William Carlos Williams was a doctor. He lived in Paterson, New Jersey. He was a doctor, who had many patients who are very poor. Now in those days, a doctor would go out to people's houses. He didn't just wait in his office. Dr. Williams would go out to many poor people. He went out to people who didn't speak English in Paterson, New Jersey, so this story is about something-- I'm sure this happened. He would come back from work at the end of the day totally exhausted. He would go up to his attic. He had a manual typewriter, and he would tap out, maybe with two fingers, he would tap out as fast as he could write something that happened to him. So this brilliant story, obviously based on what happened to him one day. Now as a work of art, he may have revised it. He may have added to it. But basically, the beginning, the middle, what happens, and the end is all based on something that happened. So "The Use of Force" is the title he gives this experience. So he says, "They were new patients to me. All I had was the name, Olson. Please come as down as soon as you can. My daughter's very sick." There's no quotation marks. There's this-- the dialogue is all very rapidly remembered. "When I arrived, I was met by the mother, a big startled looking woman, very clean and apologetic, who said, is this the doctor? Let me in. In the back, she added, you must excuse us, Doctor. We have her in the kitchen, where it's warm, very damp here sometimes. So here we have a child who is sitting on her father's lap, and there's something wrong with her. And she doesn't want to open her mouth to have her throat examined. And the child sits there staring at the doctor, and the doctor tries to get her to open her mouth, so we can check her throat. Well, I said, suppo... The author of some of the most enduring fiction of our time, Joyce Carol Oates has published 58 novels and thousands of short stories, essays, and articles. Now the award-winning author and Princeton University creative writing professor teaches you how to tap into your storytelling instincts. Find ideas from your own experiences and perceptions, experiment with structure, and improve your craft, one sentence at a time. Featured Masterclass Instructor Literary legend Joyce Carol Oates teaches you how to write short stories by developing your voice and exploring classic works of fiction.Explore the Class I loved the feedback in which Joyce said the students story had "too many bits". I think that is the problem with some of my stories. A great piece of advice to remember! Most inspirational set of lectures I've heard. Newly a huge fan of Joyce Carol Oates. Great class. Mrs. Oates is in a very unique place in literature. A place that can be quite hard for aspiring writers to get to. I don't mean it in terms of being succesfull and widely published. I mean it in terms of being in literature. Inside it, close to it, knowledgeable of it. It was a pleasure to get to know this place a bit better. I loved watching and listening to Ms. Oates share her journey and tips. Now, I want to go back and actually do the workbook and homework. One of the main new ideas I got was writing a one event short story. I'll probably go through this class at least 3 times. I've already told my daughter who wants to write fiction, that this is a must do class. Joyce Carol Oates, thank you. Namaste'	<urn:uuid:afafa937-9797-4521-9850-1f550108ce30>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.masterclass.com/classes/joyce-carol-oates-teaches-the-art-of-the-short-story/chapters/form-study-miniature-narrative	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00024.warc.gz	en	0.98551	1,122	4.28125	4	[ -0.38917553424835205, 0.26208069920539856, 0.4268110394477844, 0.2884253263473511, -0.12208132445812225, -0.004601653665304184, -0.1614663153886795, 0.179798886179924, 0.023764993995428085, -0.1778317242860794, -0.1904720664024353, 0.5797016024589539, -0.06080455705523491, 0.58580458164215...	1	Lesson time 12:04 min Joyce analyzes very brief narratives—ones with no more than a few pages—for the language and structure they require. As an example, she reads from the William Carlos Williams story “The Use of Force.” Topics include: “The Use of Force” by William Carlos Williams · Work Toward a Delicate Ending [MUSIC PLAYING] - One of the most exciting exercises for a writer to do, particularly an emerging writer, is not to try to write a whole short story or a conventional story. Write a miniature narrative. This could be one paragraph long. It could be a page long. So a miniature narrative takes place very quickly. It's like a poem Robert Frost defined lyric poetry as the melting of ice on a hot stove. You have the ice and the stove, and the ice melts, and that's the poem. And when it's over, it's over. It's going to take place in two minutes. If you can tell a story as briefly as possible, it's more dramatic. If it's too long, then it has the problems of pacing. It could get a little slow. But the shorter you can make a story, the better. If you don't have time for characters, you have time for an incident or an event, something that happens. So I try to get my students always to work in short forms and work up to longer forms, not start on the longer form immediately. [MUSIC PLAYING] "The Use of Force" takes place in about five minutes. It's a brilliant and wonderful, memorable story, probably the best thing that William Carlos Williams wrote in prose. He was a distinguished poet. Now William Carlos Williams was a doctor. He lived in Paterson, New Jersey. He was a doctor, who had many patients who are very poor. Now in those days, a doctor would go out to people's houses. He didn't just wait in his office. Dr. Williams would go out to many poor people. He went out to people who didn't speak English in Paterson, New Jersey, so this story is about something-- I'm sure this happened. He would come back from work at the end of the day totally exhausted. He would go up to his attic. He had a manual typewriter, and he would tap out, maybe with two fingers, he would tap out as fast as he could write something that happened to him. So this brilliant story, obviously based on what happened to him one day. Now as a work of art, he may have revised it. He may have added to it. But basically, the beginning, the middle, what happens, and the end is all based on something that happened. So "The Use of Force" is the title he gives this experience. So he says, "They were new patients to me. All I had was the name, Olson. Please come as down as soon as you can. My daughter's very sick." There's no quotation marks. There's this-- the dialogue is all very rapidly remembered. "When I arrived, I was met by the mother, a big startled looking woman, very clean and apologetic, who said, is this the doctor? Let me in. In the back, she added, you must excuse us, Doctor. We have her in the kitchen, where it's warm, very damp here sometimes. So here we have a child who is sitting on her father's lap, and there's something wrong with her. And she doesn't want to open her mouth to have her throat examined. And the child sits there staring at the doctor, and the doctor tries to get her to open her mouth, so we can check her throat. Well, I said, suppo... The author of some of the most enduring fiction of our time, Joyce Carol Oates has published 58 novels and thousands of short stories, essays, and articles. Now the award-winning author and Princeton University creative writing professor teaches you how to tap into your storytelling instincts. Find ideas from your own experiences and perceptions, experiment with structure, and improve your craft, one sentence at a time. Featured Masterclass Instructor Literary legend Joyce Carol Oates teaches you how to write short stories by developing your voice and exploring classic works of fiction.Explore the Class I loved the feedback in which Joyce said the students story had "too many bits". I think that is the problem with some of my stories. A great piece of advice to remember! Most inspirational set of lectures I've heard. Newly a huge fan of Joyce Carol Oates. Great class. Mrs. Oates is in a very unique place in literature. A place that can be quite hard for aspiring writers to get to. I don't mean it in terms of being succesfull and widely published. I mean it in terms of being in literature. Inside it, close to it, knowledgeable of it. It was a pleasure to get to know this place a bit better. I loved watching and listening to Ms. Oates share her journey and tips. Now, I want to go back and actually do the workbook and homework. One of the main new ideas I got was writing a one event short story. I'll probably go through this class at least 3 times. I've already told my daughter who wants to write fiction, that this is a must do class. Joyce Carol Oates, thank you. Namaste'	1,109	ENGLISH	1
Dyslexia in lay man terms refers to learning difficulties related to the written word. Specific cause for this has not been found. Dyslexic children are no way less than other children so labeling them does more harm. Here's more about dyslexia. Would you expect a 10-year-old boy to keep still in his chair for more than 5 minutes? Amit, with his mischievously twinkling eyes, endearing smile and outgoing personality seemed to be an intelligent, active boy, just like any of his peers. However, he had been recommended for testing by his pediatrician since he was having difficulty in coping with his schoolwork. He was administered a battery of tests to gauge his capabilities. These tests included tests to determine his Intelligence levels (IQ), Visual Perception, Achievements in written work as well as diagnostic tests for dyslexia. When his results were put together, we found that his IQ was above average at 126 (An average IQ is 90-110), but there was a discrepancy between his potential as seen by his IQ and his achievements. This discrepancy along with other diagnostic tests indicated that he was dyslexic. Amit knew everything orally, but when it came to reading & writing he faced difficulty - a classic case of a learning disability. At the age of 10, he was still reversing some of his letters and had difficulty with directions, doing puzzles, etc. Since he had such excellent verbal skills and seemed in every way like his classmates, his undetected dyslexia had led to his being labelled "lazy". What is Dyslexia The term dyslexia covers a range of symptoms and learning difficulties related to the written word. As such, no single cause for dyslexia has been pinpointed. Possible hypotheses suggest a genetic predisposition, an abnormality in the corpus callosum, a faulty neurological path or a rapid-processing sensory deficit. 5-10% of the world's population, regardless of nationality, income level, sex, race or IQ have dyslexia. Dyslexic people are visual thinkers, so it's hard for them to understand letters, numbers, symbols or written words, which leads to problems with reading, writing, math and attention focus. The dyslexic child has average or above average intelligence - in no way is he "dumb", "stupid" or "lazy" - labels that have been attached to him over the years. He genuinely has a difficulty in basic skills, and is not just playing up. Along with dyslexia, he may also have an Attention Deficit Disorder, as Amit had, which may make him seem like he is "always on the go" almost as if he is "driven by a motor". This makes it difficult for him to attend to what is being taught in school, and thus there are gaps in his knowledge. Dyslexia is more common than you think There are many famous people all over the world that are dyslexic. Among them are artists like Michaelangelo and Rodin, scientists like Einstein and Edison, great orators like President Roosevelt and General Patton, and even entertainers like Tom Cruise and Cher are supposed to be dyslexic. As you may have noticed, they all excel in areas that do not involve the "written word" to a great extent. They were all able to make the best of their skills and overcome their dyslexic problems to excel in their chosen fields. Rejection by Peers Amit had difficulty in the basic skills of reading, spelling and writing; which leads to difficulty in comprehension as well as in problem math, as they too involve the written word. These skills are required for all schoolwork so it was no wonder that he was having trouble coping. His undiagnosed learning disability led his peers to reject him because he did not do well in class. His parents and teachers did not understand his difficulty and labelled him lazy. In a class of 40 children, the teacher could not give him the extra attention he needed. Gradually, he was relegated to the backbench, which was self-defeating as he stopped taking any interest in what was being taught. There was just no motivation to try harder, and so he was further ridiculed. He became the "class clown" - anything to be accepted! What a price to pay! How did Amit's Life Change When Amit was told that he was intelligent and not "dumb" as he has privately labelled himself (he has heard that label often enough), his self-esteem got a much-desired boost. It gave him the self-confidence to take on the world! With the right remedial help, empathetic parents and teachers, and friends who accept him, the dyslexic child has a lot going for him. In the present school system, the ICSE, SSC and HSC boards all give exemptions and provisions to help the dyslexic child compete on an equal footing. They give the child more time to complete the work, marks are not cut for spelling errors so long as the content is clear, he may be given a calculator if he has dyscalculia (i.e. difficulty with computations), or a writer if he has dysgraphia (i.e. difficulty with writing). Exemptions from 2nd language and options to take subjects other than Science and Maths are among the other facilities given to the dyslexic child. Amit is now a much more confident child - not just verbally but also in his work. His parents reported that after the diagnosis of his problem, his tantrums and fits of aggression at home lessened considerably. He started becoming more responsible in day to day activities. In addition, with the right remedial help, he is making progress by leaps and bounds. He is motivated to try to read and spell, since he can finally make sense of the jumble of letters that a page used to represent. Earlier he used to read from memory of a word pattern. He used to think, "I wish I could! I wish I could!" There are still a lot of obstacles in Amit's way. He will always have some difficulty with the written word, but he has the will to try and try again. Like the little engine that could, you can almost hear Amit say, "I know I can! I know I can! I know I can!" as he tackles another mountain of work. Way to go Amit! You can do it! Purnima Mirchandani is a Clinical Psychologist and Remedial teacher in Dyslexia. She has worked for 10 years with developmentally handicapped children at Sadhana School as Special Education teacher and later as Head Psychologist. In recent years, she has worked as a Resource person in the Special Needs Unit at Bombay International School. She has her own clinic since the last 14 years and deals with all kinds of educational problems. For further queries, contact Purnima at firstname.lastname@example.org Reflections of Older Dyslexics	<urn:uuid:a398168c-4015-4a71-b3ad-764fde21fbab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indiaparenting.com/raising-children/125_323/dyslexia.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00322.warc.gz	en	0.990468	1,449	3.359375	3	[ -0.09002231061458588, -0.1030154824256897, 0.2803344428539276, -0.03450648859143257, -0.366201788187027, 0.29416757822036743, 0.25453054904937744, 0.2477533519268036, -0.007057508919388056, -0.5596761107444763, 0.29132741689682007, -0.3061375021934509, 0.6428307294845581, 0.150891453027725...	2	Dyslexia in lay man terms refers to learning difficulties related to the written word. Specific cause for this has not been found. Dyslexic children are no way less than other children so labeling them does more harm. Here's more about dyslexia. Would you expect a 10-year-old boy to keep still in his chair for more than 5 minutes? Amit, with his mischievously twinkling eyes, endearing smile and outgoing personality seemed to be an intelligent, active boy, just like any of his peers. However, he had been recommended for testing by his pediatrician since he was having difficulty in coping with his schoolwork. He was administered a battery of tests to gauge his capabilities. These tests included tests to determine his Intelligence levels (IQ), Visual Perception, Achievements in written work as well as diagnostic tests for dyslexia. When his results were put together, we found that his IQ was above average at 126 (An average IQ is 90-110), but there was a discrepancy between his potential as seen by his IQ and his achievements. This discrepancy along with other diagnostic tests indicated that he was dyslexic. Amit knew everything orally, but when it came to reading & writing he faced difficulty - a classic case of a learning disability. At the age of 10, he was still reversing some of his letters and had difficulty with directions, doing puzzles, etc. Since he had such excellent verbal skills and seemed in every way like his classmates, his undetected dyslexia had led to his being labelled "lazy". What is Dyslexia The term dyslexia covers a range of symptoms and learning difficulties related to the written word. As such, no single cause for dyslexia has been pinpointed. Possible hypotheses suggest a genetic predisposition, an abnormality in the corpus callosum, a faulty neurological path or a rapid-processing sensory deficit. 5-10% of the world's population, regardless of nationality, income level, sex, race or IQ have dyslexia. Dyslexic people are visual thinkers, so it's hard for them to understand letters, numbers, symbols or written words, which leads to problems with reading, writing, math and attention focus. The dyslexic child has average or above average intelligence - in no way is he "dumb", "stupid" or "lazy" - labels that have been attached to him over the years. He genuinely has a difficulty in basic skills, and is not just playing up. Along with dyslexia, he may also have an Attention Deficit Disorder, as Amit had, which may make him seem like he is "always on the go" almost as if he is "driven by a motor". This makes it difficult for him to attend to what is being taught in school, and thus there are gaps in his knowledge. Dyslexia is more common than you think There are many famous people all over the world that are dyslexic. Among them are artists like Michaelangelo and Rodin, scientists like Einstein and Edison, great orators like President Roosevelt and General Patton, and even entertainers like Tom Cruise and Cher are supposed to be dyslexic. As you may have noticed, they all excel in areas that do not involve the "written word" to a great extent. They were all able to make the best of their skills and overcome their dyslexic problems to excel in their chosen fields. Rejection by Peers Amit had difficulty in the basic skills of reading, spelling and writing; which leads to difficulty in comprehension as well as in problem math, as they too involve the written word. These skills are required for all schoolwork so it was no wonder that he was having trouble coping. His undiagnosed learning disability led his peers to reject him because he did not do well in class. His parents and teachers did not understand his difficulty and labelled him lazy. In a class of 40 children, the teacher could not give him the extra attention he needed. Gradually, he was relegated to the backbench, which was self-defeating as he stopped taking any interest in what was being taught. There was just no motivation to try harder, and so he was further ridiculed. He became the "class clown" - anything to be accepted! What a price to pay! How did Amit's Life Change When Amit was told that he was intelligent and not "dumb" as he has privately labelled himself (he has heard that label often enough), his self-esteem got a much-desired boost. It gave him the self-confidence to take on the world! With the right remedial help, empathetic parents and teachers, and friends who accept him, the dyslexic child has a lot going for him. In the present school system, the ICSE, SSC and HSC boards all give exemptions and provisions to help the dyslexic child compete on an equal footing. They give the child more time to complete the work, marks are not cut for spelling errors so long as the content is clear, he may be given a calculator if he has dyscalculia (i.e. difficulty with computations), or a writer if he has dysgraphia (i.e. difficulty with writing). Exemptions from 2nd language and options to take subjects other than Science and Maths are among the other facilities given to the dyslexic child. Amit is now a much more confident child - not just verbally but also in his work. His parents reported that after the diagnosis of his problem, his tantrums and fits of aggression at home lessened considerably. He started becoming more responsible in day to day activities. In addition, with the right remedial help, he is making progress by leaps and bounds. He is motivated to try to read and spell, since he can finally make sense of the jumble of letters that a page used to represent. Earlier he used to read from memory of a word pattern. He used to think, "I wish I could! I wish I could!" There are still a lot of obstacles in Amit's way. He will always have some difficulty with the written word, but he has the will to try and try again. Like the little engine that could, you can almost hear Amit say, "I know I can! I know I can! I know I can!" as he tackles another mountain of work. Way to go Amit! You can do it! Purnima Mirchandani is a Clinical Psychologist and Remedial teacher in Dyslexia. She has worked for 10 years with developmentally handicapped children at Sadhana School as Special Education teacher and later as Head Psychologist. In recent years, she has worked as a Resource person in the Special Needs Unit at Bombay International School. She has her own clinic since the last 14 years and deals with all kinds of educational problems. For further queries, contact Purnima at firstname.lastname@example.org Reflections of Older Dyslexics	1,435	ENGLISH	1
There were ideas long before there were light bulbs. But, of all the ideas that have ever turned into inventions, only the light bulb became a symbol of ideas. Earlier innovations had literalized the experience of “seeing the light,” but no one went around talking about torchlight moments or sketching candles into cartoon thought bubbles. What made the light bulb such an irresistible image for ideas was not just the invention but its inventor. Thomas Edison was already well known by the time he perfected the long-burning incandescent light bulb, but he was photographed next to one of them so often that the public came to associate the bulbs with invention itself. That made sense, by a kind of transitive property of ingenuity: during his lifetime, Edison patented a record-setting one thousand and ninety-three different inventions. On a single day in 1888, he wrote down a hundred and twelve ideas; averaged across his adult life, he patented something roughly every eleven days. There was the light bulb and the phonograph, of course, but also the kinetoscope, the dictating machine, the alkaline battery, and the electric meter. Plus: a sap extractor, a talking doll, the world’s largest rock crusher, an electric pen, a fruit preserver, and a tornado-proof house. Not all these inventions worked or made money. Edison never got anywhere with his ink for the blind, whatever that was meant to be; his concrete furniture, though durable, was doomed; and his failed innovations in mining lost him several fortunes. But he founded more than a hundred companies and employed thousands of assistants, engineers, machinists, and researchers. At the time of his death, according to one estimate, about fifteen billion dollars of the national economy derived from his inventions alone. His was a household name, not least because his name was in every household—plastered on the appliances, devices, and products that defined modernity for so many families. Edison’s detractors insist that his greatest invention was his own fame, cultivated at the expense of collaborators and competitors alike. His defenders counter that his celebrity was commensurate with his brilliance. Even some of his admirers, though, have misunderstood his particular form of inventiveness, which was never about creating something out of nothing. The real nature of his genius is clarified in “Edison” (Random House), a new biography by Edmund Morris, a writer who famously struggled with just how inventive a biographer should be. Lauded for his trilogy of books about Theodore Roosevelt, Morris was scolded for his peculiar book about Ronald Reagan. Edison may have figured out how to illuminate the world, but Morris makes us wonder how best to illuminate a life. Edison did not actually invent the light bulb, of course. People had been making wires incandesce since 1761, and plenty of other inventors had demonstrated and even patented various versions of incandescent lights by 1878, when Edison turned his attention to the problem of illumination. Edison’s gift, here and elsewhere, was not so much inventing as what he called perfecting—finding ways to make things better or cheaper or both. Edison did not look for problems in need of solutions; he looked for solutions in need of modification. Born in 1847 in Ohio and raised in Michigan, Edison had been experimenting since childhood, when he built a chemistry laboratory in his family’s basement. That early endeavor only ever earned him the ire of his mother, who fretted about explosions, so, at thirteen, the young entrepreneur started selling snacks to passengers travelling on the local railroad line from Port Huron to Detroit. He also picked up copies of the Detroit Free Press to hawk on the way home. In 1862, after the Battle of Shiloh, he bought a thousand copies, knowing he would sell them all, and marked up the price more and more the farther he got down the line. While still in his teens, he bought a portable letterpress and started printing his own newspaper aboard the moving train, filling two sides of a broadsheet with local sundries. Its circulation rose to four hundred a week, and Edison took over much of the baggage car. He built a small chemistry laboratory there, too. One day, Edison saw a stationmaster’s young son playing on the tracks and pulled the boy to safety before an oncoming train crushed him; as a reward, the father taught Edison Morse code and showed him how to operate the telegraph machines. This came in handy that summer, when Edison’s lab caused a fire and the conductor kicked him off the train. Forced out of newspapering, Edison spent the next few years as a telegrapher for Western Union and other companies, taking jobs wherever he could find them—Indiana, Ohio, Tennessee, Kentucky. He had time to experiment on the side, and he patented his first invention in 1869: an electric vote recorder that eliminated the need for roll call by instantly tallying votes. It worked so well that no legislative body wanted it, because it left no time for lobbying amid the yeas and nays. That failure cured Edison of any interest in invention for invention’s sake: from then on, he cultivated a taste for the practical and the profitable. Although legislators did not want their votes counted faster, everyone else wanted everything else to move as quickly as possible. Financial companies, for instance, wanted their stock information immediately, and communication companies wanted to speed up their telegram service. Edison’s first lucrative products were a stock-ticker device and a quadruplex telegraph, capable of sending four messages at once. Armed with those inventions, he found financial support for his telegraphy research, and used money from Western Union to buy an abandoned building in New Jersey to serve as a workshop. In 1875, having outgrown that site, he bought thirty acres not far from Newark and began converting the property into what he liked to call his Invention Factory. It was organized around a two-story laboratory, with chemistry experiments on the top floor and a machine shop below. Workshops are at least as old as Hephaestus, but Edison’s was the world’s first research-and-development facility—a model that would later be adopted by governments, universities, and rival corporations. Menlo Park, as it came to be known, was arguably Edison’s most significant invention, since it facilitated so many others, by allowing for the division of problems into discrete chemical, electrical, and physical components, which teams of workers could solve through theory and then experimentation before moving directly into production. Menlo Park also included a three-story house for Edison’s family. In 1871, when he was twenty-four, he married a sixteen-year-old girl named Mary Stilwell, who had taken refuge in his office during a rainstorm. They had three children, two of whom Edison nicknamed Dot and Dash. It is likely thanks to them that the first audio recording ever made, in November of 1877, features Papa Edison reciting “Mary Had a Little Lamb.” The phonograph came about because Edison had been experimenting with telephones, trying to improve on Alexander Graham Bell’s transmitter to achieve better sound quality across longer distances. He first had in mind a kind of answering machine that would transcribe the contents of a call, but he quickly realized that it might be possible to record the voice itself. To test the idea, Edison spoke into a diaphragm with a needle attached; as he spoke, the needle vibrated against a piece of paraffin paper, carving into it the ups and downs of the sound waves. To everyone’s surprise, the design worked: when he added a second needle to retrace the marks in the paper, the vibrating diaphragm reproduced Edison’s voice.	<urn:uuid:d3894a06-3315-43ec-af96-e3075f57157b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/10/28/the-real-nature-of-thomas-edisons-genius	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00253.warc.gz	en	0.982109	1,625	3.34375	3	[ -0.020188020542263985, 0.24066917598247528, 0.3848826289176941, 0.04540226608514786, -0.3602936565876007, 0.23483416438102722, 0.6068041324615479, 0.26046109199523926, 0.0003058115253224969, 0.06597663462162018, 0.056430235505104065, 0.4702643156051636, 0.22871550917625427, 0.1080145835876...	10	There were ideas long before there were light bulbs. But, of all the ideas that have ever turned into inventions, only the light bulb became a symbol of ideas. Earlier innovations had literalized the experience of “seeing the light,” but no one went around talking about torchlight moments or sketching candles into cartoon thought bubbles. What made the light bulb such an irresistible image for ideas was not just the invention but its inventor. Thomas Edison was already well known by the time he perfected the long-burning incandescent light bulb, but he was photographed next to one of them so often that the public came to associate the bulbs with invention itself. That made sense, by a kind of transitive property of ingenuity: during his lifetime, Edison patented a record-setting one thousand and ninety-three different inventions. On a single day in 1888, he wrote down a hundred and twelve ideas; averaged across his adult life, he patented something roughly every eleven days. There was the light bulb and the phonograph, of course, but also the kinetoscope, the dictating machine, the alkaline battery, and the electric meter. Plus: a sap extractor, a talking doll, the world’s largest rock crusher, an electric pen, a fruit preserver, and a tornado-proof house. Not all these inventions worked or made money. Edison never got anywhere with his ink for the blind, whatever that was meant to be; his concrete furniture, though durable, was doomed; and his failed innovations in mining lost him several fortunes. But he founded more than a hundred companies and employed thousands of assistants, engineers, machinists, and researchers. At the time of his death, according to one estimate, about fifteen billion dollars of the national economy derived from his inventions alone. His was a household name, not least because his name was in every household—plastered on the appliances, devices, and products that defined modernity for so many families. Edison’s detractors insist that his greatest invention was his own fame, cultivated at the expense of collaborators and competitors alike. His defenders counter that his celebrity was commensurate with his brilliance. Even some of his admirers, though, have misunderstood his particular form of inventiveness, which was never about creating something out of nothing. The real nature of his genius is clarified in “Edison” (Random House), a new biography by Edmund Morris, a writer who famously struggled with just how inventive a biographer should be. Lauded for his trilogy of books about Theodore Roosevelt, Morris was scolded for his peculiar book about Ronald Reagan. Edison may have figured out how to illuminate the world, but Morris makes us wonder how best to illuminate a life. Edison did not actually invent the light bulb, of course. People had been making wires incandesce since 1761, and plenty of other inventors had demonstrated and even patented various versions of incandescent lights by 1878, when Edison turned his attention to the problem of illumination. Edison’s gift, here and elsewhere, was not so much inventing as what he called perfecting—finding ways to make things better or cheaper or both. Edison did not look for problems in need of solutions; he looked for solutions in need of modification. Born in 1847 in Ohio and raised in Michigan, Edison had been experimenting since childhood, when he built a chemistry laboratory in his family’s basement. That early endeavor only ever earned him the ire of his mother, who fretted about explosions, so, at thirteen, the young entrepreneur started selling snacks to passengers travelling on the local railroad line from Port Huron to Detroit. He also picked up copies of the Detroit Free Press to hawk on the way home. In 1862, after the Battle of Shiloh, he bought a thousand copies, knowing he would sell them all, and marked up the price more and more the farther he got down the line. While still in his teens, he bought a portable letterpress and started printing his own newspaper aboard the moving train, filling two sides of a broadsheet with local sundries. Its circulation rose to four hundred a week, and Edison took over much of the baggage car. He built a small chemistry laboratory there, too. One day, Edison saw a stationmaster’s young son playing on the tracks and pulled the boy to safety before an oncoming train crushed him; as a reward, the father taught Edison Morse code and showed him how to operate the telegraph machines. This came in handy that summer, when Edison’s lab caused a fire and the conductor kicked him off the train. Forced out of newspapering, Edison spent the next few years as a telegrapher for Western Union and other companies, taking jobs wherever he could find them—Indiana, Ohio, Tennessee, Kentucky. He had time to experiment on the side, and he patented his first invention in 1869: an electric vote recorder that eliminated the need for roll call by instantly tallying votes. It worked so well that no legislative body wanted it, because it left no time for lobbying amid the yeas and nays. That failure cured Edison of any interest in invention for invention’s sake: from then on, he cultivated a taste for the practical and the profitable. Although legislators did not want their votes counted faster, everyone else wanted everything else to move as quickly as possible. Financial companies, for instance, wanted their stock information immediately, and communication companies wanted to speed up their telegram service. Edison’s first lucrative products were a stock-ticker device and a quadruplex telegraph, capable of sending four messages at once. Armed with those inventions, he found financial support for his telegraphy research, and used money from Western Union to buy an abandoned building in New Jersey to serve as a workshop. In 1875, having outgrown that site, he bought thirty acres not far from Newark and began converting the property into what he liked to call his Invention Factory. It was organized around a two-story laboratory, with chemistry experiments on the top floor and a machine shop below. Workshops are at least as old as Hephaestus, but Edison’s was the world’s first research-and-development facility—a model that would later be adopted by governments, universities, and rival corporations. Menlo Park, as it came to be known, was arguably Edison’s most significant invention, since it facilitated so many others, by allowing for the division of problems into discrete chemical, electrical, and physical components, which teams of workers could solve through theory and then experimentation before moving directly into production. Menlo Park also included a three-story house for Edison’s family. In 1871, when he was twenty-four, he married a sixteen-year-old girl named Mary Stilwell, who had taken refuge in his office during a rainstorm. They had three children, two of whom Edison nicknamed Dot and Dash. It is likely thanks to them that the first audio recording ever made, in November of 1877, features Papa Edison reciting “Mary Had a Little Lamb.” The phonograph came about because Edison had been experimenting with telephones, trying to improve on Alexander Graham Bell’s transmitter to achieve better sound quality across longer distances. He first had in mind a kind of answering machine that would transcribe the contents of a call, but he quickly realized that it might be possible to record the voice itself. To test the idea, Edison spoke into a diaphragm with a needle attached; as he spoke, the needle vibrated against a piece of paraffin paper, carving into it the ups and downs of the sound waves. To everyone’s surprise, the design worked: when he added a second needle to retrace the marks in the paper, the vibrating diaphragm reproduced Edison’s voice.	1,589	ENGLISH	1
Why do less dense things rise? Recently I was asked this as a puzzle. I had always taken it as a basic truth, but we should be able to explain it in terms of forces. Let's try to explain why helium rises in air. First consider a blob of air in air. It experiences a force downward due to gravity, which is balanced by a force upward due to the pressure differential between where it is now and slightly below that. It stays still. (We know the forces balance because that's just what it means to have a column of fluid, experiencing increasing pressure due to gravity) Now consider a blob of helium in air. The upward force due to the pressure differential overwhelms the downward force due to gravity, because the less massive helium is pulled less strongly by gravity. So the helium will rise until it has the same density as its surroundings; that is, until we are in the first case again and the forces are balanced. I heard this puzzle from Samuel Marks. - We're assuming the blob of helium stays together. This makes sense if it's inside a balloon, but if it's a free-floating blob I think it would disperse as it rises.	<urn:uuid:1e525e8a-b71a-4024-88ea-950cf6af6c28>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://reallyeli.com/posts/why_do_less_dense_things_rise.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00224.warc.gz	en	0.980855	245	3.546875	4	[ -0.7982208132743835, -0.16430436074733734, 0.011980704963207245, -0.030932748690247536, -0.12337159365415573, 0.11245087534189224, 0.29681137204170227, 0.0736064538359642, 0.17048004269599915, -0.0395495630800724, -0.30994221568107605, -0.47985512018203735, -0.05554601177573204, 0.34792718...	4	Why do less dense things rise? Recently I was asked this as a puzzle. I had always taken it as a basic truth, but we should be able to explain it in terms of forces. Let's try to explain why helium rises in air. First consider a blob of air in air. It experiences a force downward due to gravity, which is balanced by a force upward due to the pressure differential between where it is now and slightly below that. It stays still. (We know the forces balance because that's just what it means to have a column of fluid, experiencing increasing pressure due to gravity) Now consider a blob of helium in air. The upward force due to the pressure differential overwhelms the downward force due to gravity, because the less massive helium is pulled less strongly by gravity. So the helium will rise until it has the same density as its surroundings; that is, until we are in the first case again and the forces are balanced. I heard this puzzle from Samuel Marks. - We're assuming the blob of helium stays together. This makes sense if it's inside a balloon, but if it's a free-floating blob I think it would disperse as it rises.	238	ENGLISH	1
Life in America lost some of its sweetness in May of 1942. Not only was the country facing war with powerful enemies, but Americans had to cut their sugar consumption in half. The U.S. no longer had access to the countries that had provided most of our sugar. Much of the remaining supply of sweetener was requisitioned by the War Department to ensure that America’s military personnel were well supplied. The U.S. Army, for example, provided its soldiers with more than twice the amount of sugar they had consumed as civilians. And still G.I.s craved more. A Navy study reported that when servicemen bought food to supplement their rations, 40% of their purchases were for candy. Normally, shortages drive up retail prices until only the well-off can afford the in-demand item. To ensure Americans’ sacrifice was evenly distributed, the Office of Price Administration limited all consumer purchases of sugar. Before rationing, Americans consumed on average about one pound of sugar every week. When homemakers were asked, pre-rationing, what was the least amount of sugar they would need to get by, their answers averaged to around 0.6 pounds a week. As it turned out, this was still more than what would become their wartime ration of a half-pound. On April 27, 1942, all sales of sugar were halted. Grocers began selling sugar again on May 5, but only to customers who presented their new war-ration books. Provided the grocer even had sugar to sell, he would tear out the coupon valid for the current two-week period. The shopper would pay about 8¢ and receive one pound of sugar, his or her allotment for that 14-day period. Every American — adults as well as children — received a ration book, so parents didn’t have to take from their rations to feed their children. Not only did Americans learn to get by on less sugar, they endured the shortage for five years, including 22 months after the war ended. Could Americans today cut their sugar intake in half? And just what is their annual consumption? It’s not easy to determine. Many of the sugars we consume occur naturally in our foods. So researchers tend to focus on added sweeteners refined from sugar cane, beets, and corn. Even going by more conservative numbers means Americans eat, on average, 22 teaspoons of added sugar every day. About 20% of Americans eat 48 teaspoons, or one cup, of sugar every day. Promoting the benefits of better health has done little to reverse the consumption rate. According to Stephan Guyenet, even with our awareness of sugar’s contribution to obesity, heart disease, and diabetes, our sugar diet is headed in only one direction. Featured image: U.S. National Archives Become a Saturday Evening Post member and enjoy unlimited access. Subscribe now	<urn:uuid:f7613027-8b56-46cd-b82f-edb94848392b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/2017/05/stomach-americas-wartime-sugar-ration-75-years-ago/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00320.warc.gz	en	0.984594	597	3.359375	3	[ -0.12683895230293274, 0.1872565597295761, 0.10357306152582169, -0.14076264202594757, 0.27016010880470276, 0.08046235144138336, -0.058086685836315155, 0.29716771841049194, -0.30414581298828125, 0.06845224648714066, 0.028454888612031937, -0.04811709374189377, 0.09304047375917435, 0.307569742...	8	Life in America lost some of its sweetness in May of 1942. Not only was the country facing war with powerful enemies, but Americans had to cut their sugar consumption in half. The U.S. no longer had access to the countries that had provided most of our sugar. Much of the remaining supply of sweetener was requisitioned by the War Department to ensure that America’s military personnel were well supplied. The U.S. Army, for example, provided its soldiers with more than twice the amount of sugar they had consumed as civilians. And still G.I.s craved more. A Navy study reported that when servicemen bought food to supplement their rations, 40% of their purchases were for candy. Normally, shortages drive up retail prices until only the well-off can afford the in-demand item. To ensure Americans’ sacrifice was evenly distributed, the Office of Price Administration limited all consumer purchases of sugar. Before rationing, Americans consumed on average about one pound of sugar every week. When homemakers were asked, pre-rationing, what was the least amount of sugar they would need to get by, their answers averaged to around 0.6 pounds a week. As it turned out, this was still more than what would become their wartime ration of a half-pound. On April 27, 1942, all sales of sugar were halted. Grocers began selling sugar again on May 5, but only to customers who presented their new war-ration books. Provided the grocer even had sugar to sell, he would tear out the coupon valid for the current two-week period. The shopper would pay about 8¢ and receive one pound of sugar, his or her allotment for that 14-day period. Every American — adults as well as children — received a ration book, so parents didn’t have to take from their rations to feed their children. Not only did Americans learn to get by on less sugar, they endured the shortage for five years, including 22 months after the war ended. Could Americans today cut their sugar intake in half? And just what is their annual consumption? It’s not easy to determine. Many of the sugars we consume occur naturally in our foods. So researchers tend to focus on added sweeteners refined from sugar cane, beets, and corn. Even going by more conservative numbers means Americans eat, on average, 22 teaspoons of added sugar every day. About 20% of Americans eat 48 teaspoons, or one cup, of sugar every day. Promoting the benefits of better health has done little to reverse the consumption rate. According to Stephan Guyenet, even with our awareness of sugar’s contribution to obesity, heart disease, and diabetes, our sugar diet is headed in only one direction. Featured image: U.S. National Archives Become a Saturday Evening Post member and enjoy unlimited access. Subscribe now	590	ENGLISH	1
Battle of Jutland The 31st of May 1916 AD The Battle of Jutland which took place in the seas between Norway and Denmark over May 31 and June 1 1916 was the greatest sea battle of WWI . Indeed, with 250 vessels engaged in the fighting it can be argued that it was the biggest battle at sea in history. The British fleet had been lured by the Germans into a clash, but the Germans had not finished their preparations – it was intended that U-Boats would be the killer force in the trap – when the gung-ho Beatty led the British battle-cruiser vanguard into the fight. In spite of the huge forces assembled and two days of engagement the battle was not a truly decisive one. Both sides of course claimed victory. Germany most reasonably because The High Seas Fleet sank 14 British craft with a combined tonnage of more than 113,000 tons, killing more than 6,000 British personnel while losing less than half that number themselves in the 62,000 tons of German vessels sunk. The British claim was because The Grand Fleet drove their enemy back to base, unable to contest control of the seas with the surface fleet for the remainder of the war. The uninterrupted British blockade of Germany had a devastating effect on German conduct of the war. Admiral Sir John Jellicoe , the senior British commander, was very aware that had he lost the battle Britain would have been greatly weakened, perhaps incapable of continuing the conflict. For this reason, and perhaps because of exhaustion and a natural hesitancy, he failed to follow through when opportunities beckoned. Both sides learned much of a technical nature from the clash: British firing control and night-fighting equipment were in need of improvement, and many shells were useless unless hitting armour head on. The Germans saw again that their guns’ lack of range was a major problem in engagements. Above all the battle meant that Germany was forced to intensify its use of submarines, becoming more ruthless in attacks on merchant vessels, and it is not unreasonable to see Jutland as the point where the submarine began its dominance of modern naval warfare, though navies the world over continued to be seduced by building huge surface ships. It was also the first battle where a ship carrying a plane was employed, another portent of how future wars at sea would be fought. More famous dates here 6723 views since 28th February 2007 On this day:	<urn:uuid:e1e165b9-1e5e-4c0d-8ed6-5796a7c11223>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ads.information-britain.co.uk/famdates.php?id=248	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00428.warc.gz	en	0.984701	498	3.296875	3	[ -0.14604239165782928, 0.3768114745616913, 0.08923391252756119, -0.2224305272102356, 0.1426796317100525, -0.18749967217445374, -0.12805497646331787, 0.24630333483219147, -0.20319361984729767, -0.4296340346336365, 0.17787528038024902, -0.852829098701477, 0.11829733848571777, 0.28020787239074...	1	Battle of Jutland The 31st of May 1916 AD The Battle of Jutland which took place in the seas between Norway and Denmark over May 31 and June 1 1916 was the greatest sea battle of WWI . Indeed, with 250 vessels engaged in the fighting it can be argued that it was the biggest battle at sea in history. The British fleet had been lured by the Germans into a clash, but the Germans had not finished their preparations – it was intended that U-Boats would be the killer force in the trap – when the gung-ho Beatty led the British battle-cruiser vanguard into the fight. In spite of the huge forces assembled and two days of engagement the battle was not a truly decisive one. Both sides of course claimed victory. Germany most reasonably because The High Seas Fleet sank 14 British craft with a combined tonnage of more than 113,000 tons, killing more than 6,000 British personnel while losing less than half that number themselves in the 62,000 tons of German vessels sunk. The British claim was because The Grand Fleet drove their enemy back to base, unable to contest control of the seas with the surface fleet for the remainder of the war. The uninterrupted British blockade of Germany had a devastating effect on German conduct of the war. Admiral Sir John Jellicoe , the senior British commander, was very aware that had he lost the battle Britain would have been greatly weakened, perhaps incapable of continuing the conflict. For this reason, and perhaps because of exhaustion and a natural hesitancy, he failed to follow through when opportunities beckoned. Both sides learned much of a technical nature from the clash: British firing control and night-fighting equipment were in need of improvement, and many shells were useless unless hitting armour head on. The Germans saw again that their guns’ lack of range was a major problem in engagements. Above all the battle meant that Germany was forced to intensify its use of submarines, becoming more ruthless in attacks on merchant vessels, and it is not unreasonable to see Jutland as the point where the submarine began its dominance of modern naval warfare, though navies the world over continued to be seduced by building huge surface ships. It was also the first battle where a ship carrying a plane was employed, another portent of how future wars at sea would be fought. More famous dates here 6723 views since 28th February 2007 On this day:	531	ENGLISH	1
The novel The Scarlet Letter shows many problems of the human nature that were present at that time and are still present today. There is anger, there is hatred, and there is remorse. Nathaniel Hawthorne shows all three of these problems through his novel. He has Roger Chillingworth show anger when Hester committed adultery, he has Roger say that he hates what he has become, and he has Arthur and Hester show remorse and guilt throughout the entire novel about there misdeeds. The first problem of the human nature listed in the book was anger. He shows anger through Roger, Hester’s husband, first when Roger returns to Boston to find Hester up on the scaffold for committing adultery. He is angry not at her but at himself for letting it happen and knowing it would happen if he had left. “Anger ventilated often hurries toward forgiveness; and concealed often hardens into revenge. ” ~Edward G. Bulwer-Lytton. After he finds Hester on the scaffold he keeps his anger bottled up and then sets out for revenge on Arthur. Even today if we let one of our loved ones be hurt in any way, we would be angry at ourselves for letting the bad things happen to our loved ones. `Out of anger comes revenge, out of revenge comes hatred. Which brings us to our second problem, Hatred? Nathaniel shows hatred not to other people but to himself. Through this novel he has Roger come to hate what he had become through the acts of torturing Arthur. He thought of himself as becoming a monster, which he was. He also started to blame Hester for what he had become. “It is to the credit of human nature, that, except where its selfishness is brought into play, it loves more readily than it hates. Hatred, by a gradual and quiet process, will even be transformed to love, unless the change be impeded by a continually new irritation of the original feeling of hostility. ” ~Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter, Chapter XIII “Another View of Hester”. This quote shows what was happening to Roger, he was originally helping Arthur. But as he stating putting the pieces together, that Arthur was Pearls father, he started gradually torturing him more and more. As I said before from anger comes revenge, and from revenge comes hatred. If a misdeed had come upon a loved one, we would come to hate the one responsible for the misdeed. Then there is remorse, which comes after the revenge and hatred, for you end up regretting what you have done. And all three sinners had shown remorse at some point or another. Hester showed remorse by committing adultery; Arthur had remorse for committing adultery and for not standing on the scaffold and sharing the punishment with Hester; and Roger showed remorse for torturing Arthur after Arthur died on the scaffold. “If each man or woman could understand that every other human life is as full of sorrows, or joys, or base temptations, of heartaches and of remorse as his own . . . how much kinder, how much gentler he would be. ”~ William Allen White. If Roger had just taken the time to notice the pain that Arthur was giving himself just from the remorse of keeping his misdeeds a secret, he probably would not have tortured Arthur to death. And then the remorse of today, every bad deed that is committed today the person who had committed that misdeed would definitely have some sort of remorse or guilt. And so, after four hundred years the human nature hasn’t really changed much. We all get angry, we all have hatred, and we all show remorse for a bad deed. Nathaniel Hawthorne was a brilliant writer that truly captured the problems of the human nature within his novels.	<urn:uuid:b6768c9e-b163-4f53-b707-6bea2cc6ce92>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tbf-sa.co.za/today-will-soon-be-yesterday-scarlett-letter-open-response/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00240.warc.gz	en	0.982037	792	3.359375	3	[ -0.15656033158302307, 0.34014225006103516, 0.4059891998767853, 0.24630090594291687, -0.2930654287338257, 0.1629193127155304, 0.35342633724212646, -0.2471211850643158, -0.020374398678541183, -0.3646565079689026, 0.2761476933956146, 0.06281207501888275, 0.32644301652908325, 0.279780715703964...	3	The novel The Scarlet Letter shows many problems of the human nature that were present at that time and are still present today. There is anger, there is hatred, and there is remorse. Nathaniel Hawthorne shows all three of these problems through his novel. He has Roger Chillingworth show anger when Hester committed adultery, he has Roger say that he hates what he has become, and he has Arthur and Hester show remorse and guilt throughout the entire novel about there misdeeds. The first problem of the human nature listed in the book was anger. He shows anger through Roger, Hester’s husband, first when Roger returns to Boston to find Hester up on the scaffold for committing adultery. He is angry not at her but at himself for letting it happen and knowing it would happen if he had left. “Anger ventilated often hurries toward forgiveness; and concealed often hardens into revenge. ” ~Edward G. Bulwer-Lytton. After he finds Hester on the scaffold he keeps his anger bottled up and then sets out for revenge on Arthur. Even today if we let one of our loved ones be hurt in any way, we would be angry at ourselves for letting the bad things happen to our loved ones. `Out of anger comes revenge, out of revenge comes hatred. Which brings us to our second problem, Hatred? Nathaniel shows hatred not to other people but to himself. Through this novel he has Roger come to hate what he had become through the acts of torturing Arthur. He thought of himself as becoming a monster, which he was. He also started to blame Hester for what he had become. “It is to the credit of human nature, that, except where its selfishness is brought into play, it loves more readily than it hates. Hatred, by a gradual and quiet process, will even be transformed to love, unless the change be impeded by a continually new irritation of the original feeling of hostility. ” ~Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter, Chapter XIII “Another View of Hester”. This quote shows what was happening to Roger, he was originally helping Arthur. But as he stating putting the pieces together, that Arthur was Pearls father, he started gradually torturing him more and more. As I said before from anger comes revenge, and from revenge comes hatred. If a misdeed had come upon a loved one, we would come to hate the one responsible for the misdeed. Then there is remorse, which comes after the revenge and hatred, for you end up regretting what you have done. And all three sinners had shown remorse at some point or another. Hester showed remorse by committing adultery; Arthur had remorse for committing adultery and for not standing on the scaffold and sharing the punishment with Hester; and Roger showed remorse for torturing Arthur after Arthur died on the scaffold. “If each man or woman could understand that every other human life is as full of sorrows, or joys, or base temptations, of heartaches and of remorse as his own . . . how much kinder, how much gentler he would be. ”~ William Allen White. If Roger had just taken the time to notice the pain that Arthur was giving himself just from the remorse of keeping his misdeeds a secret, he probably would not have tortured Arthur to death. And then the remorse of today, every bad deed that is committed today the person who had committed that misdeed would definitely have some sort of remorse or guilt. And so, after four hundred years the human nature hasn’t really changed much. We all get angry, we all have hatred, and we all show remorse for a bad deed. Nathaniel Hawthorne was a brilliant writer that truly captured the problems of the human nature within his novels.	771	ENGLISH	1
During Maths this term we are going to be learning about; Money, Length and Perimeter and Statistics. Have a look at some of our learning below. We have now moved onto learning all about length! We have been looking at using a ruler accurately, making sure we start at the 0cm mark and not the start of the ruler and then counting the full cms and the mms. We have also looked at the relationship between m and cm and have been converting between the two measurements. Today we moved on from adding with money to subtracting with money! We started by physically using the coins to represent the take away. This meant we had to use our knowledge of the coins too to make the amounts! We then moved onto trying to work out the subtraction with a more formal method. Over the last few days we have been solving money problems and converting between Pounds and Pence. Today we started our Money topic off with a money hunt! We had to find different coins and identify them and how much they were worth. We also had to order some coins too!	<urn:uuid:ac87ff69-a6f6-4aa6-94ff-683d58bb6008>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bostonstnicholas.co.uk/maths-6/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00156.warc.gz	en	0.986006	223	3.734375	4	[ -0.36652833223342896, -0.15596939623355865, -0.047817379236221313, -0.17103521525859833, -0.3595365583896637, 0.04705381393432617, 0.011618069373071194, 0.10762012004852295, 0.19096562266349792, 0.11606930196285248, 0.3411523401737213, -0.7444459795951843, 0.03204536810517311, 0.0587519556...	6	During Maths this term we are going to be learning about; Money, Length and Perimeter and Statistics. Have a look at some of our learning below. We have now moved onto learning all about length! We have been looking at using a ruler accurately, making sure we start at the 0cm mark and not the start of the ruler and then counting the full cms and the mms. We have also looked at the relationship between m and cm and have been converting between the two measurements. Today we moved on from adding with money to subtracting with money! We started by physically using the coins to represent the take away. This meant we had to use our knowledge of the coins too to make the amounts! We then moved onto trying to work out the subtraction with a more formal method. Over the last few days we have been solving money problems and converting between Pounds and Pence. Today we started our Money topic off with a money hunt! We had to find different coins and identify them and how much they were worth. We also had to order some coins too!	215	ENGLISH	1
Just as the name implies, large pupils is just to describe people with bigger pupils than most of people. I think people with large pupils may have a pair of pretty eyes. Usually, pupils dilate open in darkness. This is to allow light in to see. From this point, it seems people with large pupils may have good vision especially in overcast or in dark. The pupil is the opening in your eyes that make light in. The iris controls the size of the pupil opening thus some people have large pupils, and some has small ones. The large pupil means the pupil opening is large to let a beam of light into eyes. Normally, it would occur when in dim or dark environment and prevent too much light in when in bright light. Pupil is the small round hole in the iris center of the people's eyes. It is regarded as the channel for the light to enter into the eyes. When you buy the glasses and hear other people say large pupils, it means that the amount of light into your eyes is larger than that through the common pupils.	<urn:uuid:fa5a41e0-1daa-4c2e-8e31-a01f55f57435>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.firmoo.com/answer/question/5077.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00095.warc.gz	en	0.984291	219	3.71875	4	[ 0.4084264934062958, -0.542327344417572, 0.19735325872898102, -0.026926783844828606, -0.19089575111865997, 0.27818095684051514, 0.8850586414337158, -0.02356121502816677, 0.15943880379199982, 0.07838145643472672, 0.17150479555130005, -0.47685009241104126, 0.056900519877672195, 0.031266562640...	6	Just as the name implies, large pupils is just to describe people with bigger pupils than most of people. I think people with large pupils may have a pair of pretty eyes. Usually, pupils dilate open in darkness. This is to allow light in to see. From this point, it seems people with large pupils may have good vision especially in overcast or in dark. The pupil is the opening in your eyes that make light in. The iris controls the size of the pupil opening thus some people have large pupils, and some has small ones. The large pupil means the pupil opening is large to let a beam of light into eyes. Normally, it would occur when in dim or dark environment and prevent too much light in when in bright light. Pupil is the small round hole in the iris center of the people's eyes. It is regarded as the channel for the light to enter into the eyes. When you buy the glasses and hear other people say large pupils, it means that the amount of light into your eyes is larger than that through the common pupils.	214	ENGLISH	1
Assignment 2: LASA 1: Protecting Children From Media For his 10th birthday, Greg was given a handheld videogame system. His parents allowed him to pick any two games. They knew the games might contain violence, because there was a violence rating sign posted on the games, but rationalized that they were only games and other kids play them. Greg would quickly finish dinner and run up to his room to play his games. His parents were pleased to observe that Greg enjoyed their present so much. After a week, his parents noticed that he wasn’t turning off the videogames at bedtime, and had begun turning homework in late. He was up so late playing that he would not get up for school without argument. His parents decided that enough was enough and took the video games away. Greg threw temper tantrums and persuaded his parents to buy him a computer after convincing them that it was necessary to keep up at school. Greg soon returned to the same pattern of behavior where he spent long hours and late nights at the computer. This time, his parents felt a false sense of security that he was doing his homework. One day, his curious parents decided to scan the computer history to see what Web sites Greg was browsing. To their horror, they discovered that Greg was spending many hours online playing interactive, sometimes violently graphic, games on the Internet. He was also chatting with other “gamers”. Before confronting Greg about his behavior, his mother and father agreed to investigate what types of intervention strategies might be available within their community. They have come to you, a behavioral consultant, for advice. Click to Read the Kaiser Family Foundation Study: Generation M2. Media in the Lives of 8- to 18- Year Olds. Describe the issue of exposure to video game violence in today’s society as related to Greg’s situation. Explore issues such as: Hi there! Click one of our representatives below and we will get back to you as soon as possible.	<urn:uuid:01da2a70-02bc-4364-8a00-169dac23b403>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://premiumessaywriters.com/describe-the-issue-of-exposure-to-video-game-violence-in-todays-society-as-related-to-gregs-situation/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00000.warc.gz	en	0.992139	411	3.578125	4	[ -0.3407422602176666, -0.06123916432261467, 0.1657426506280899, -0.684146523475647, 0.091556616127491, 0.12473885715007782, 0.18374855816364288, 0.2251463532447815, -0.11253222078084946, 0.06287117302417755, -0.35948604345321655, 0.33969646692276, 0.15111218392848969, 0.575640857219696, 0...	1	Assignment 2: LASA 1: Protecting Children From Media For his 10th birthday, Greg was given a handheld videogame system. His parents allowed him to pick any two games. They knew the games might contain violence, because there was a violence rating sign posted on the games, but rationalized that they were only games and other kids play them. Greg would quickly finish dinner and run up to his room to play his games. His parents were pleased to observe that Greg enjoyed their present so much. After a week, his parents noticed that he wasn’t turning off the videogames at bedtime, and had begun turning homework in late. He was up so late playing that he would not get up for school without argument. His parents decided that enough was enough and took the video games away. Greg threw temper tantrums and persuaded his parents to buy him a computer after convincing them that it was necessary to keep up at school. Greg soon returned to the same pattern of behavior where he spent long hours and late nights at the computer. This time, his parents felt a false sense of security that he was doing his homework. One day, his curious parents decided to scan the computer history to see what Web sites Greg was browsing. To their horror, they discovered that Greg was spending many hours online playing interactive, sometimes violently graphic, games on the Internet. He was also chatting with other “gamers”. Before confronting Greg about his behavior, his mother and father agreed to investigate what types of intervention strategies might be available within their community. They have come to you, a behavioral consultant, for advice. Click to Read the Kaiser Family Foundation Study: Generation M2. Media in the Lives of 8- to 18- Year Olds. Describe the issue of exposure to video game violence in today’s society as related to Greg’s situation. Explore issues such as: Hi there! Click one of our representatives below and we will get back to you as soon as possible.	401	ENGLISH	1
Haymarket Riot(redirected from Haymarket tragedy) Also found in: Encyclopedia. In the Haymarket Riot of May 4, 1886, the police clashed violently with militant anarchists and labor movement protesters in Chicago. Seven policemen and several protesters were killed, leading to murder convictions for seven radicals, four of whom were executed. The strong public and state reaction against the Haymarket protesters has been called the first Red Scare in U.S. history, and their trial has been widely critized for improper procedure and prosecutorial excess. The Haymarket Riot grew out of labor unrest that had been brewing since the 1870s. Unhappy with difficult working conditions and feeling the pressure of economic depression, workers had engaged in periodic strikes. Strong, sometimes violent police opposition to these strikes led to greater labor militancy. Radicals became increasingly convinced that the struggle between labor and capital had come to a head and that the time for revolution was near. Many anarchists publicly advocated the use of explosives to bring down the capitalist system. In 1886, a broad coalition of labor organizations joined to campaign for an eight-hour workday. On May 1, 1886, this coalition initiated a general strike throughout the United States, the effects of which were particularly strong in Chicago. On May 3, fighting broke out at the McCormick Reaper Works in Chicago, and at least two workers were killed by the police. Outraged at these killings, anarchists, members of the labor movement, and other radicals met for a rally in Chicago's Haymarket Square on May 4. The rally was peaceable until the police attempted to disperse the crowd. Then a bomb was thrown into the police ranks, killing seven officers and wounding sixty more. The police fired in response, killing and wounding like numbers of participants. In an ensuing crackdown against the labor movement, the police arrested hundreds of anarchists and other radicals. Two leading anarchist newspapers were put out of business, and their staffs were imprisoned. Finally, eight noted Chicago radicals and anarchists, including nationally known radical leaders August Spies and Albert Parsons, were indicted for the murder of one of the policemen at Haymarket Square. Public opinion turned swiftly against the protesters, in part because seven of the eight defendants in the case were foreign-born. The trial in the criminal court of Cook County began on June 21, 1886. Despite a lack of evidence linking them directly to the bombing, seven of the eight were convicted of murder and sentenced to death, and the eighth was sentenced to fifteen years in prison. The defendants were held liable for the murder on the ground that they had incited the bombing through inflammatory public speech. The defendants appealed their case to the Illinois Supreme Court which upheld the lower court's decision on September 14, 1887 (Spies v. People, 122 Ill. 1, 12 N.E. 865). Supporters of the defendants undertook a clemency campaign that gathered forty thousand petition signatures. Under pressure from all sides, Governor Richard Oglesby, of Illinois, pardoned two of the seven sentenced to death but sustained the sentences of the other five. One of the seven committed suicide shortly before the date of execution by detonating a small dynamite bomb smuggled to him by a friend. The other four, including Spies and Parsons, were hanged on November 11, 1887. The three remaining Haymarket defendants were pardoned in 1893 by Governor John Peter Altgeld, of Illinois, who also issued a report condemning the trial as unfair. He noted that the presiding judge was clearly biased against the defendants, that the defendants were not proved to be guilty of the crime with which they were charged, and that the jury was "packed" by state prosecutors with members who were prejudiced against the defendants. Later legal scholars have supported Altgeld's conclusions. The questionable jury selection practices in the Haymarket trial, which allowed the seating of jurors who were clearly prejudiced against the defendants, were struck down by a later decision of the Illinois Supreme Court (Coughlin v. People, 144 Ill. 140, 33 N.E. 1 ). Landsman, Stephan. 1986. "When Justice Fails." Review of The Haymarket Tragedy, by Paul Avrich. Michigan Law Review 84 (February–April). Wish, Harvey. 1976. "Haymarket Riot." In Dictionary of American History. Edited by Louise B. Ketz. New York: Scribner.	<urn:uuid:3eb400ac-c90d-4259-993b-0493338a08ed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Haymarket+tragedy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00426.warc.gz	en	0.982697	898	3.453125	3	[ -0.35091453790664673, -0.31943660974502563, -0.04880311340093613, 0.20331422984600067, 0.06907681375741959, 0.7785874605178833, 0.23113566637039185, 0.10878217965364456, -0.11995965242385864, -0.48264655470848083, 0.15705019235610962, 0.09208689630031586, 0.04525043070316315, 0.08890122920...	3	Haymarket Riot(redirected from Haymarket tragedy) Also found in: Encyclopedia. In the Haymarket Riot of May 4, 1886, the police clashed violently with militant anarchists and labor movement protesters in Chicago. Seven policemen and several protesters were killed, leading to murder convictions for seven radicals, four of whom were executed. The strong public and state reaction against the Haymarket protesters has been called the first Red Scare in U.S. history, and their trial has been widely critized for improper procedure and prosecutorial excess. The Haymarket Riot grew out of labor unrest that had been brewing since the 1870s. Unhappy with difficult working conditions and feeling the pressure of economic depression, workers had engaged in periodic strikes. Strong, sometimes violent police opposition to these strikes led to greater labor militancy. Radicals became increasingly convinced that the struggle between labor and capital had come to a head and that the time for revolution was near. Many anarchists publicly advocated the use of explosives to bring down the capitalist system. In 1886, a broad coalition of labor organizations joined to campaign for an eight-hour workday. On May 1, 1886, this coalition initiated a general strike throughout the United States, the effects of which were particularly strong in Chicago. On May 3, fighting broke out at the McCormick Reaper Works in Chicago, and at least two workers were killed by the police. Outraged at these killings, anarchists, members of the labor movement, and other radicals met for a rally in Chicago's Haymarket Square on May 4. The rally was peaceable until the police attempted to disperse the crowd. Then a bomb was thrown into the police ranks, killing seven officers and wounding sixty more. The police fired in response, killing and wounding like numbers of participants. In an ensuing crackdown against the labor movement, the police arrested hundreds of anarchists and other radicals. Two leading anarchist newspapers were put out of business, and their staffs were imprisoned. Finally, eight noted Chicago radicals and anarchists, including nationally known radical leaders August Spies and Albert Parsons, were indicted for the murder of one of the policemen at Haymarket Square. Public opinion turned swiftly against the protesters, in part because seven of the eight defendants in the case were foreign-born. The trial in the criminal court of Cook County began on June 21, 1886. Despite a lack of evidence linking them directly to the bombing, seven of the eight were convicted of murder and sentenced to death, and the eighth was sentenced to fifteen years in prison. The defendants were held liable for the murder on the ground that they had incited the bombing through inflammatory public speech. The defendants appealed their case to the Illinois Supreme Court which upheld the lower court's decision on September 14, 1887 (Spies v. People, 122 Ill. 1, 12 N.E. 865). Supporters of the defendants undertook a clemency campaign that gathered forty thousand petition signatures. Under pressure from all sides, Governor Richard Oglesby, of Illinois, pardoned two of the seven sentenced to death but sustained the sentences of the other five. One of the seven committed suicide shortly before the date of execution by detonating a small dynamite bomb smuggled to him by a friend. The other four, including Spies and Parsons, were hanged on November 11, 1887. The three remaining Haymarket defendants were pardoned in 1893 by Governor John Peter Altgeld, of Illinois, who also issued a report condemning the trial as unfair. He noted that the presiding judge was clearly biased against the defendants, that the defendants were not proved to be guilty of the crime with which they were charged, and that the jury was "packed" by state prosecutors with members who were prejudiced against the defendants. Later legal scholars have supported Altgeld's conclusions. The questionable jury selection practices in the Haymarket trial, which allowed the seating of jurors who were clearly prejudiced against the defendants, were struck down by a later decision of the Illinois Supreme Court (Coughlin v. People, 144 Ill. 140, 33 N.E. 1 ). Landsman, Stephan. 1986. "When Justice Fails." Review of The Haymarket Tragedy, by Paul Avrich. Michigan Law Review 84 (February–April). Wish, Harvey. 1976. "Haymarket Riot." In Dictionary of American History. Edited by Louise B. Ketz. New York: Scribner.	957	ENGLISH	1
Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Lusitania was on its 202nd Atlantic crossing when it was sunk by a German U-Boat in May, 1915. The event is widely believed to have impelled the United States into World War I, but it was another two years before America entered the war on the side of the Triple Entente. Many facts about Lusitania and its operation by Cunard have become mythologized since its tragic sinking, but the truth is the ship was built on a design which made it of value to the Royal Navy in the event of war. In 1982, after decades of denials, the British Foreign Office warned salvers of undetonated ordnance within the wreck of the ship. The ship was world famous before World War I. It was in service for less than a decade, but known for its speed, its luxurious fittings and facilities, and its ability to accommodate over 2,000 passengers. The ship was among the most popular on Cunard Line’s Liverpool to New York route, supplemented by its slightly bigger and faster sister ship, Mauretania. What was largely unknown during the ship’s career (and remains largely unknown today) is that the vessel was built with funds subsidized by the British Admiralty, and was designed to be easily converted to an Armed Merchant Cruiser (AMC) in the event of war. Here is the story of RMS Lusitania and its sinking in 1915. 1. The ship was built to surpass its competition At the beginning of the 20th century, the competition for passengers on the Atlantic was fierce. The best and fastest ships were a point of national pride in Europe. The Germans, Italians, French, and British built passenger liners which vied for the Blue Riband, the award for the fastest crossing. Bragging rights for the most luxurious accommodations, impeccable service, and convenience of schedules, were bandied about between the great shipping lines. All wanted to attract the richest and most famous passengers, using their names in news releases which served to imply the celebrities endorsed their ships over those of the competition. First class passengers aside, it was in the lower classes where the lines made their bread and butter, in the lucrative passage of immigrants to the American east coast ports, particularly New York. The holds of the great liners also carried cargo, and their speed made them ideal for shipping material urgently needed elsewhere. Lusitania was designed and built with those facts in mind. It was built to be fast, to carry thousands of passengers, to offer luxurious cabins and services to the wealthy, and to carry cargo in its holds. In the first decade of the century, Europe was lurching toward war. The designers of Lusitania also considered the role which the ship would play in it when it came.	<urn:uuid:17b5328a-9e4d-4984-9c15-65fb6bc0d42a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historycollection.co/how-the-sinking-of-rms-lusitania-changed-world-war-i/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00367.warc.gz	en	0.985752	583	3.265625	3	[ -0.0029873570892959833, 0.24446576833724976, 0.2237115055322647, -0.3449043035507202, -0.07855796068906784, -0.18623661994934082, -0.07648342102766037, 0.23973208665847778, 0.03295028954744339, -0.17145173251628876, 0.09719936549663544, -0.22638696432113647, 0.008130562491714954, 0.2045744...	2	Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Lusitania was on its 202nd Atlantic crossing when it was sunk by a German U-Boat in May, 1915. The event is widely believed to have impelled the United States into World War I, but it was another two years before America entered the war on the side of the Triple Entente. Many facts about Lusitania and its operation by Cunard have become mythologized since its tragic sinking, but the truth is the ship was built on a design which made it of value to the Royal Navy in the event of war. In 1982, after decades of denials, the British Foreign Office warned salvers of undetonated ordnance within the wreck of the ship. The ship was world famous before World War I. It was in service for less than a decade, but known for its speed, its luxurious fittings and facilities, and its ability to accommodate over 2,000 passengers. The ship was among the most popular on Cunard Line’s Liverpool to New York route, supplemented by its slightly bigger and faster sister ship, Mauretania. What was largely unknown during the ship’s career (and remains largely unknown today) is that the vessel was built with funds subsidized by the British Admiralty, and was designed to be easily converted to an Armed Merchant Cruiser (AMC) in the event of war. Here is the story of RMS Lusitania and its sinking in 1915. 1. The ship was built to surpass its competition At the beginning of the 20th century, the competition for passengers on the Atlantic was fierce. The best and fastest ships were a point of national pride in Europe. The Germans, Italians, French, and British built passenger liners which vied for the Blue Riband, the award for the fastest crossing. Bragging rights for the most luxurious accommodations, impeccable service, and convenience of schedules, were bandied about between the great shipping lines. All wanted to attract the richest and most famous passengers, using their names in news releases which served to imply the celebrities endorsed their ships over those of the competition. First class passengers aside, it was in the lower classes where the lines made their bread and butter, in the lucrative passage of immigrants to the American east coast ports, particularly New York. The holds of the great liners also carried cargo, and their speed made them ideal for shipping material urgently needed elsewhere. Lusitania was designed and built with those facts in mind. It was built to be fast, to carry thousands of passengers, to offer luxurious cabins and services to the wealthy, and to carry cargo in its holds. In the first decade of the century, Europe was lurching toward war. The designers of Lusitania also considered the role which the ship would play in it when it came.	592	ENGLISH	1
George Orwell’s story is set on a farm named Manor Farm. The owner of this farm was Mr. Jones. Mr. Jones was a farmer who worked his animals very hard. Mr. Jones would spend his night’s drinking; due to his drinking, he would sometimes forget to feed his animals. While his animals often went without food, Mr. Jones would have feasts. The animals did not appreciate this treatment and lifestyle. The animals decided to do something about the way they lived. The animals wanted to get out from under the control of the farmer, Mr. Jones. There was a dream, or vision, instilled into the animals of a better life. This life was built around the idea of revolting against Mr. Jones and living a better life. This dream was not only this idea of revolting against Mr. Jones, but the dream was also to revolt against all humans and being free of their control. The pig that had this vision was Old Major. At the beginning of the story, Old Major calls all the animals together to speak to them. Old Major tells the animals of his dream and vision for the animal population. The animals would finally be free of the human’s control. He told them that it would not be an easy task. In order to make this dream and reality was through hard work and unity. Old Major taught them a song called Beasts of England. This song quickly became their anthem and inspiration. A few short days later Old Major drew his final breath and died. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Literacy Analysis of Animal Farm" essay for youCreate order After Old Major’s death, someone had to lead the animals and carry-out Old Major’s vision and dream. Three pigs: Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer took it upon themselves to make Old Major’s dream a reality. They transform old Major’s vision and ideas to create their own philosophy called Animalism. They quickly take action, formulate a plan, and put their philosophy into effect. One night the animals gathered together to run off Mr. Jones. The animals were now in control of the farm and they rename Manor Farm to Animal Farm. When Mr. Jones returns to take back his farm, the animals defeat him and drive him off. This event was remembered as the Battle of Cowshed. Animal Farm seemed to be running smoothly at the beginning. Snowball began teaching the animals how to read. Napoleon took a litter of puppies and trained as well as brainwash them for his own purposes. As time passed Napoleon and Snowball began to disagree on how the farm should be run and what the future of the farm would look like. The two pigs were not skilled in sharing the power. Snowball devised a scheme to build a windmill to aid in the efficiency of the way the farm was run and to bring electricity to the farm. The reason for the windmill was to make life on the farm easier and require less work from the animals on the farm. Napoleon does not see the need for the windmill because he thinks that the problem on the farm is food production. Napoleon urinates on Snowball’s plans for the windmill. Napoleon orders his dogs to run Snowball off the farm. Napoleon is now in charge and he quickly takes action. He forbids meetings other than coming together on Sunday to salute the flag, sing Beasts of England, and receive their work orders for the week. Napoleon also announces that all decisions about the farm will be made by the pigs. Napoleon eventually changed his mind about the windmill and forces the animals build it. Boxer, the horse, works day and night on building the windmill. Boxer was the animal that devoted his time and life to working toward Old Major’s vision for the animals. One night the windmill was found destroyed by lightning but Napoleon placed all the blame upon Snowball. He claimed that snowball had returned to sabotage the farm. Napoleon took all the animals that opposed his rule and stipulations and left them to the mercy of his dog’s teeth. Napoleon now forbids the singing of Beasts of England because he is afraid that the animals might take action and revolt against the pigs. Instead of Beasts of England Napoleon introduces a new song, Comrade Napoleon. Napoleon is now acting more and more like a human, sleeping in the house, drinking, and making trade deals with other farmers (humans). After a trade deal went bad the men in the area came and attacked the farm and blew up the windmill. In this battle, Boxer was severely injured. After the battle, Boxer fell while working on the rebuilding of the windmill due to his injury; Therefore, Napoleon sold him to a glue factory before any of the animals realized. Squealer lies and tells the animals that Boxer had died in peace after Napoleon sent him to get treatment. It was the most afflicting sight I have ever seen! (Orwell pg 48) He also tells the animals that with his dying breath, Boxer praised the rebellion. As the years go by on the farm, they become more like humans every day. They have now begun walking upright and even wearing clothes. Now the commandments, that were painted on the side of the barn at the beginning of the rebellion, have been replaced with more of Napoleon’s propaganda. ALL ANIMALS ARE EQUAL BUT SOME ANIMALS ARE MORE EQUAL THAN OTHERS, (Orwell pg 51-520 was the new saying that had replaced the old commandments. The sheep have begun chanting, Four legs good, two legs better! Four legs good, two legs better! (Orwell pg 51) At the end of the book, the pigs were gathered in the house and the other animals were outside peering in the window and what they saw was not quite like anything they had ever seen before, they saw the pigs but their faces looked as if they were humans. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:7d8b3475-4063-43b0-a5f1-9b68896dbd7d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/literacy-analysis-of-animal-farm-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00519.warc.gz	en	0.985283	1,259	3.375	3	[ 0.019786300137639046, 0.20477303862571716, 0.1776309609413147, 0.37377452850341797, -0.3707684278488159, 0.26750171184539795, -0.04427457973361015, 0.023780185729265213, 0.021461572498083115, 0.4510749578475952, -0.27983778715133667, 0.026300717145204544, 0.20176821947097778, 0.06217376887...	1	George Orwell’s story is set on a farm named Manor Farm. The owner of this farm was Mr. Jones. Mr. Jones was a farmer who worked his animals very hard. Mr. Jones would spend his night’s drinking; due to his drinking, he would sometimes forget to feed his animals. While his animals often went without food, Mr. Jones would have feasts. The animals did not appreciate this treatment and lifestyle. The animals decided to do something about the way they lived. The animals wanted to get out from under the control of the farmer, Mr. Jones. There was a dream, or vision, instilled into the animals of a better life. This life was built around the idea of revolting against Mr. Jones and living a better life. This dream was not only this idea of revolting against Mr. Jones, but the dream was also to revolt against all humans and being free of their control. The pig that had this vision was Old Major. At the beginning of the story, Old Major calls all the animals together to speak to them. Old Major tells the animals of his dream and vision for the animal population. The animals would finally be free of the human’s control. He told them that it would not be an easy task. In order to make this dream and reality was through hard work and unity. Old Major taught them a song called Beasts of England. This song quickly became their anthem and inspiration. A few short days later Old Major drew his final breath and died. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Literacy Analysis of Animal Farm" essay for youCreate order After Old Major’s death, someone had to lead the animals and carry-out Old Major’s vision and dream. Three pigs: Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer took it upon themselves to make Old Major’s dream a reality. They transform old Major’s vision and ideas to create their own philosophy called Animalism. They quickly take action, formulate a plan, and put their philosophy into effect. One night the animals gathered together to run off Mr. Jones. The animals were now in control of the farm and they rename Manor Farm to Animal Farm. When Mr. Jones returns to take back his farm, the animals defeat him and drive him off. This event was remembered as the Battle of Cowshed. Animal Farm seemed to be running smoothly at the beginning. Snowball began teaching the animals how to read. Napoleon took a litter of puppies and trained as well as brainwash them for his own purposes. As time passed Napoleon and Snowball began to disagree on how the farm should be run and what the future of the farm would look like. The two pigs were not skilled in sharing the power. Snowball devised a scheme to build a windmill to aid in the efficiency of the way the farm was run and to bring electricity to the farm. The reason for the windmill was to make life on the farm easier and require less work from the animals on the farm. Napoleon does not see the need for the windmill because he thinks that the problem on the farm is food production. Napoleon urinates on Snowball’s plans for the windmill. Napoleon orders his dogs to run Snowball off the farm. Napoleon is now in charge and he quickly takes action. He forbids meetings other than coming together on Sunday to salute the flag, sing Beasts of England, and receive their work orders for the week. Napoleon also announces that all decisions about the farm will be made by the pigs. Napoleon eventually changed his mind about the windmill and forces the animals build it. Boxer, the horse, works day and night on building the windmill. Boxer was the animal that devoted his time and life to working toward Old Major’s vision for the animals. One night the windmill was found destroyed by lightning but Napoleon placed all the blame upon Snowball. He claimed that snowball had returned to sabotage the farm. Napoleon took all the animals that opposed his rule and stipulations and left them to the mercy of his dog’s teeth. Napoleon now forbids the singing of Beasts of England because he is afraid that the animals might take action and revolt against the pigs. Instead of Beasts of England Napoleon introduces a new song, Comrade Napoleon. Napoleon is now acting more and more like a human, sleeping in the house, drinking, and making trade deals with other farmers (humans). After a trade deal went bad the men in the area came and attacked the farm and blew up the windmill. In this battle, Boxer was severely injured. After the battle, Boxer fell while working on the rebuilding of the windmill due to his injury; Therefore, Napoleon sold him to a glue factory before any of the animals realized. Squealer lies and tells the animals that Boxer had died in peace after Napoleon sent him to get treatment. It was the most afflicting sight I have ever seen! (Orwell pg 48) He also tells the animals that with his dying breath, Boxer praised the rebellion. As the years go by on the farm, they become more like humans every day. They have now begun walking upright and even wearing clothes. Now the commandments, that were painted on the side of the barn at the beginning of the rebellion, have been replaced with more of Napoleon’s propaganda. ALL ANIMALS ARE EQUAL BUT SOME ANIMALS ARE MORE EQUAL THAN OTHERS, (Orwell pg 51-520 was the new saying that had replaced the old commandments. The sheep have begun chanting, Four legs good, two legs better! Four legs good, two legs better! (Orwell pg 51) At the end of the book, the pigs were gathered in the house and the other animals were outside peering in the window and what they saw was not quite like anything they had ever seen before, they saw the pigs but their faces looked as if they were humans. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	1,244	ENGLISH	1
Nikola Tesla is remembered as a brilliant, world-changing inventor who famously developed the Tesla coil, the alternating current electrical system, rotating magnetic field, and countless other concepts that were left unfinished at the time of his death. These achievements are celebrated today, as Tesla’s legacy has enjoyed a resurgence in the last few decades. But what is often left out of the legacy is the man himself, and how his personal philosophies and unique lifestyle helped to shape his greatness. Tesla was born in modern-day Croatia (then part of the Austrian Empire) in 1856. By the time he reached high school, his genius was evident in his ability to perform integral calculus in his head (although his teachers believed he was cheating). Although his father wanted him to become a priest, Tesla was able to convince him to be enrolled in the Austrian Polytechnic in Graz, where he went on to earn high honors until his father’s death in 1879. This period saw him develop a gambling problem, which would cause him to eventually drop out and sever ties with his family. Tesla’s time at Graz was underscored by a fervent work ethic, which caused his teachers to communicate with his father over concerns of his health and mental wellness. However, Tesla claimed that math and engineering were in his nature, and what seemed like work to others was simply instinct to him. After wandering Europe, working as a draftsman and electrician, Tesla landed in France, where he began working for Continental Edison. He quickly rose through the ranks, eventually relocating to New York City, where Edison hired him to tackle difficult problems at his Edison Machine Works in Manhattan. He found success at Edison, but eventually left over a wage dispute. It was at Edison that Tesla found his calling as an inventor, and after leaving went on to found the Tesla Arc Light Company, where he began to make a name for himself. His notorious work ethic bred numerous new and revolutionary ideas. However, Tesla accredited his unique lifestyle to much of his success. For one, he claimed to sleep for an average of only two hours a day. His work only stopped for short naps with the occasional long ‘recovery sleep.’ To others, this only reinforced their opinions that he was a manic workaholic. He once said: “There are so many things to do I do not want to spend time sleeping needlessly. In my family all were poor sleepers. Time spent in sleep is lost time, we always felt.” Secondly, Tesla felt that nature and solitude were important keys to the creative process. He credited solitary walks in nature as the key to many of his greatest inventions. “The mind is sharper and keener in seclusion and uninterrupted solitude,” he said. “Originality thrives in seclusion free of outside influences beating upon us to cripple the creative mind. Be alone, that is the secret of invention; be alone, that is when ideas are born.” Lastly, Tesla was a vegetarian (with the exception that he ate egg whites as a source of protein). His diet was based in simplicity, with root vegetables, leafy greens, grains and dairy his main source of nourishment. He is noted for abstaining from tobacco, tea and coffee, but did enjoy whiskey, calling it “The elixir of life” at one time. He did abstain from alcohol during the government prohibition of it, however. Tesla’s life was long and accomplished, but it was ultimately a selfless nature that drove his desire to improve the world and the lives of his fellow man, a rare trait for businessmen at the time. His achievements rank with the giants of the Industrial revolution, and will cause us to always remember him. Stuff They Don’t Want You To Know – Nikola Tesla Follow Us : - Animals8 months ago German Circus Uses Holograms Instead Of Live Animals For A Cruelty-Free Magical Experience - Nature2 years ago A woman photographed ancient trees for 14 years, and here are the results - Environment4 months ago Bars In Italy Are Starting To Use Pasta Straws To Reduce Plastic Waste - Animals11 months ago The Zoo That Puts People In Moving Cages While Animals Roam Free - Environment3 months ago Forest Garden With 500 Edible Plants Requires Only a Few Hours of Work Per Month - Meditation12 months ago 1 Million Children Get Together And Meditated For World Peace In Thailand - Science & Technology2 years ago If You’re Annoyed By Others Chewing, You May Be A Genius - America2 months ago Bon Jovi Opened 2 Restaurants That Allow People In Need To Eat Free Of Charge	<urn:uuid:4ddfd307-6975-4580-84ac-24a9def95aec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://educateinspirechange.org/science-technology/this-is-how-nikola-teslas-personal-philosophies-and-unique-lifestyle-helped-to-shape-his-greatness/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00101.warc.gz	en	0.981112	982	3.53125	4	[ -0.11284767091274261, 0.6679572463035583, 0.41732001304626465, 0.2273881733417511, -0.7166156768798828, 0.2038034200668335, 0.7310277819633484, 0.4423116147518158, 0.012997644022107124, -0.26407724618911743, -0.18408769369125366, 0.21332715451717377, 0.10325546562671661, 0.5656470060348511...	1	Nikola Tesla is remembered as a brilliant, world-changing inventor who famously developed the Tesla coil, the alternating current electrical system, rotating magnetic field, and countless other concepts that were left unfinished at the time of his death. These achievements are celebrated today, as Tesla’s legacy has enjoyed a resurgence in the last few decades. But what is often left out of the legacy is the man himself, and how his personal philosophies and unique lifestyle helped to shape his greatness. Tesla was born in modern-day Croatia (then part of the Austrian Empire) in 1856. By the time he reached high school, his genius was evident in his ability to perform integral calculus in his head (although his teachers believed he was cheating). Although his father wanted him to become a priest, Tesla was able to convince him to be enrolled in the Austrian Polytechnic in Graz, where he went on to earn high honors until his father’s death in 1879. This period saw him develop a gambling problem, which would cause him to eventually drop out and sever ties with his family. Tesla’s time at Graz was underscored by a fervent work ethic, which caused his teachers to communicate with his father over concerns of his health and mental wellness. However, Tesla claimed that math and engineering were in his nature, and what seemed like work to others was simply instinct to him. After wandering Europe, working as a draftsman and electrician, Tesla landed in France, where he began working for Continental Edison. He quickly rose through the ranks, eventually relocating to New York City, where Edison hired him to tackle difficult problems at his Edison Machine Works in Manhattan. He found success at Edison, but eventually left over a wage dispute. It was at Edison that Tesla found his calling as an inventor, and after leaving went on to found the Tesla Arc Light Company, where he began to make a name for himself. His notorious work ethic bred numerous new and revolutionary ideas. However, Tesla accredited his unique lifestyle to much of his success. For one, he claimed to sleep for an average of only two hours a day. His work only stopped for short naps with the occasional long ‘recovery sleep.’ To others, this only reinforced their opinions that he was a manic workaholic. He once said: “There are so many things to do I do not want to spend time sleeping needlessly. In my family all were poor sleepers. Time spent in sleep is lost time, we always felt.” Secondly, Tesla felt that nature and solitude were important keys to the creative process. He credited solitary walks in nature as the key to many of his greatest inventions. “The mind is sharper and keener in seclusion and uninterrupted solitude,” he said. “Originality thrives in seclusion free of outside influences beating upon us to cripple the creative mind. Be alone, that is the secret of invention; be alone, that is when ideas are born.” Lastly, Tesla was a vegetarian (with the exception that he ate egg whites as a source of protein). His diet was based in simplicity, with root vegetables, leafy greens, grains and dairy his main source of nourishment. He is noted for abstaining from tobacco, tea and coffee, but did enjoy whiskey, calling it “The elixir of life” at one time. He did abstain from alcohol during the government prohibition of it, however. Tesla’s life was long and accomplished, but it was ultimately a selfless nature that drove his desire to improve the world and the lives of his fellow man, a rare trait for businessmen at the time. His achievements rank with the giants of the Industrial revolution, and will cause us to always remember him. Stuff They Don’t Want You To Know – Nikola Tesla Follow Us : - Animals8 months ago German Circus Uses Holograms Instead Of Live Animals For A Cruelty-Free Magical Experience - Nature2 years ago A woman photographed ancient trees for 14 years, and here are the results - Environment4 months ago Bars In Italy Are Starting To Use Pasta Straws To Reduce Plastic Waste - Animals11 months ago The Zoo That Puts People In Moving Cages While Animals Roam Free - Environment3 months ago Forest Garden With 500 Edible Plants Requires Only a Few Hours of Work Per Month - Meditation12 months ago 1 Million Children Get Together And Meditated For World Peace In Thailand - Science & Technology2 years ago If You’re Annoyed By Others Chewing, You May Be A Genius - America2 months ago Bon Jovi Opened 2 Restaurants That Allow People In Need To Eat Free Of Charge	955	ENGLISH	1
35. 28 shows that the Old Testament prophets represented the Lord in respect to the Word and therefore meant the teaching of the church drawn from the Word, and that because of this they were addressed as “children of humanity.” It follows from this that by the various things they suffered and endured they represented the violence done to the literal meaning of the Word by Jews. Isaiah, for example, took the sackcloth off his waist and the sandals off his feet and went naked and barefoot for three years (Isaiah 20:2-3). Similarly, Ezekiel the prophet took a barber’s razor to his head and his beard, burned a third of the hair in the middle of the city, struck a third with a sword, and scattered a third to the wind; also, he bound a few hairs in his hems and eventually threw a few into the midst of a fire and burned them (Ezekiel 5:1-4). Since the prophets represented the Word and therefore meant the teaching of the church drawn from the Word (as just noted), and since the head means wisdom from the Word, the hair and the beard mean the outermost form of truth. It is because of this meaning that inflicting baldness on yourself was a sign of immense grief and being discovered to be bald was an immense disgrace. This and this alone is why the prophet shaved off his hair and his beard - to represent the state of the Jewish church in regard to the Word. This and this alone is why two she-bears tore apart forty-two boys who called Elisha bald (2 Kings 2:23-25)-because as just noted the prophet represented the Word, and his baldness signified the Word without an outermost meaning. We shall see in §49 below that the Nazirites represented the Lord’s Word in its outermost forms, which is why they were commanded to let their hair grow and not to shave any of it. In Hebrew, “Nazirite” actually means “hair.” It was commanded also that the high priest was not to shave his head (Leviticus 21:10) and that the fathers of their families as well were not to do so (Leviticus 21:5). That is why they regarded baldness as such an immense disgrace, as we can tell from the following passages: There will be baldness upon all heads, and every beard will be cut off. (Isaiah 15:2; Jeremiah 48:37) There will be shame upon all faces and baldness on all heads. (Ezekiel 7:18) Every head was made bald and every shoulder hairless. (Ezekiel 29:18) I will put sackcloth around all waists and baldness upon every head. (Amos 8:10) Make yourself bald and cut off your hair because of your precious children; make yourself still more bald, because they have left you and gone into exile. (Micah 1:16) Here making yourself bald and making yourself still more bald means distorting truths of the Word in its outermost forms. Once they have been distorted, as was done by Jews, the whole Word is ruined, because the outermost forms of the Word are what it rests on and what holds it up. In fact, every word in it is a base and support for the Word’s heavenly and spiritual truths. Since a head of hair means truth in its outermost forms, in the spiritual world everyone who trivializes the Word and distorts its literal meaning looks bald; but those who respect and love it have good-looking hair. On this, see §49 below. (:Ссылки Teachings about the Lord 28)	<urn:uuid:afb5ff92-ca11-4521-bc28-a68ed1be8da1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://newchristianbiblestudy.org/ru/multi/bible_american-standard-version_ezekiel_29_16/swedenborg_doctrine-of-sacred-scripture-dole_35	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00216.warc.gz	en	0.984234	777	3.46875	3	[ -0.08503346890211105, 0.34932923316955566, -0.04491537809371948, -0.04047843813896179, -0.456178218126297, -0.02343568205833435, 0.42390739917755127, -0.07704992592334747, -0.2742311358451843, 0.2781088352203369, 0.07366529107093811, -0.4384387135505676, 0.3494901657104492, -0.177234381437...	1	35. 28 shows that the Old Testament prophets represented the Lord in respect to the Word and therefore meant the teaching of the church drawn from the Word, and that because of this they were addressed as “children of humanity.” It follows from this that by the various things they suffered and endured they represented the violence done to the literal meaning of the Word by Jews. Isaiah, for example, took the sackcloth off his waist and the sandals off his feet and went naked and barefoot for three years (Isaiah 20:2-3). Similarly, Ezekiel the prophet took a barber’s razor to his head and his beard, burned a third of the hair in the middle of the city, struck a third with a sword, and scattered a third to the wind; also, he bound a few hairs in his hems and eventually threw a few into the midst of a fire and burned them (Ezekiel 5:1-4). Since the prophets represented the Word and therefore meant the teaching of the church drawn from the Word (as just noted), and since the head means wisdom from the Word, the hair and the beard mean the outermost form of truth. It is because of this meaning that inflicting baldness on yourself was a sign of immense grief and being discovered to be bald was an immense disgrace. This and this alone is why the prophet shaved off his hair and his beard - to represent the state of the Jewish church in regard to the Word. This and this alone is why two she-bears tore apart forty-two boys who called Elisha bald (2 Kings 2:23-25)-because as just noted the prophet represented the Word, and his baldness signified the Word without an outermost meaning. We shall see in §49 below that the Nazirites represented the Lord’s Word in its outermost forms, which is why they were commanded to let their hair grow and not to shave any of it. In Hebrew, “Nazirite” actually means “hair.” It was commanded also that the high priest was not to shave his head (Leviticus 21:10) and that the fathers of their families as well were not to do so (Leviticus 21:5). That is why they regarded baldness as such an immense disgrace, as we can tell from the following passages: There will be baldness upon all heads, and every beard will be cut off. (Isaiah 15:2; Jeremiah 48:37) There will be shame upon all faces and baldness on all heads. (Ezekiel 7:18) Every head was made bald and every shoulder hairless. (Ezekiel 29:18) I will put sackcloth around all waists and baldness upon every head. (Amos 8:10) Make yourself bald and cut off your hair because of your precious children; make yourself still more bald, because they have left you and gone into exile. (Micah 1:16) Here making yourself bald and making yourself still more bald means distorting truths of the Word in its outermost forms. Once they have been distorted, as was done by Jews, the whole Word is ruined, because the outermost forms of the Word are what it rests on and what holds it up. In fact, every word in it is a base and support for the Word’s heavenly and spiritual truths. Since a head of hair means truth in its outermost forms, in the spiritual world everyone who trivializes the Word and distorts its literal meaning looks bald; but those who respect and love it have good-looking hair. On this, see §49 below. (:Ссылки Teachings about the Lord 28)	780	ENGLISH	1
Theodore Roosevelt is our hero. The 26th President of the United States was a soldier, a historian, an amateur scientist, a best-selling writer, an avid outdoorsman and much much more. He has been called the “father of conservation,” because, as president, he authorized the creation of 150 national forests, 18 national monuments, 5 national parks, 4 national game preserves, and 51 federal bird reservations. We think he deserves the moniker. But many people may be unaware that TR has a very important California connection. 116 years ago, in 1903, just two years after becoming our nation’s youngest president at the age of forty-two, following the assassination of President William McKinley, Roosevelt embarked on one of the most important Presidential trips in the history of America. The impact of his trip to California is still being felt today. The trip, taken by railroad, took Roosevelt across the American continent. The 14,000-mile journey began in April, took TR through twenty-five states, and lasted nine weeks. He traveled through the American West, stopped at Yellowstone National Park for a hiking and camping trip with naturalist and essayist John Burroughs. He continued on and ended touring a large swath of the state of California, including Yosemite, which had been declared a national park in 1890. It was a tenuous time for the American environment. Millions of buffalo had been slaughtered across the plains, often for sport, their carcasses left to rot in the sun. The passenger pigeon, a bird that once filled the skies by the billions, had been exterminated. But America was also in the midst of a nature renaissance, and Roosevelt one of its pivotal figures. The impact of his trip to California is still being felt today. Perhaps the most important moment of the journey was his meeting with John Muir on May 15th, 1903. The meeting took place on a train in the dusty town of Raymond, California, the closest station to Yosemite. From there, the men traveled 40 miles (about 8 hours) by stagecoach, which gave them the opportunity to get acquainted. They stopped in Mariposa Grove, where TR saw his first sequoia and had his picture taken driving through the “Tunnel Tree,” which no longer stands. That first night, President Roosevelt dismissed his aides and the press, which was unusual for him because he was a publicity hound. In the wilds of Yosemite, he and Muir spent three days “roughing it,” camping beneath the stars and enjoying conversation around a campfire. It was during those conversations that Muir made the case for the preservation of forests and other natural resources. Likely, these talks created the impetus for Roosevelt’s support for the 1906 Antiquities Act, arguably one of the most important pieces of conservation law in the United States. With the power to proclaim lands as monuments in the public interest, Roosevelt in 1908 set aside some 800,000 acres as Grand Canyon National Monument. Congress later gave it a national park status. Arguably, no other President has had such a singular impact on protecting American lands, and it’s fair to say, we think, that his visit to California had a lot to do with it.	<urn:uuid:1c40197a-846e-47d2-963f-e893e5594e86>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://californiascienceweekly.com/2019/08/30/how-theodore-roosevelts-1903-trip-to-california-gave-birth-to-modern-conservation/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00307.warc.gz	en	0.98218	671	3.296875	3	[ 0.09632657468318939, 0.1211601197719574, 0.3647903501987457, 0.07263544946908951, 0.035710085183382034, 0.17443041503429413, 0.3036142587661743, 0.005866148509085178, -0.029305782169103622, 0.16245582699775696, 0.13616953790187836, 0.008562225848436356, 0.47257351875305176, 0.6513600945472...	8	Theodore Roosevelt is our hero. The 26th President of the United States was a soldier, a historian, an amateur scientist, a best-selling writer, an avid outdoorsman and much much more. He has been called the “father of conservation,” because, as president, he authorized the creation of 150 national forests, 18 national monuments, 5 national parks, 4 national game preserves, and 51 federal bird reservations. We think he deserves the moniker. But many people may be unaware that TR has a very important California connection. 116 years ago, in 1903, just two years after becoming our nation’s youngest president at the age of forty-two, following the assassination of President William McKinley, Roosevelt embarked on one of the most important Presidential trips in the history of America. The impact of his trip to California is still being felt today. The trip, taken by railroad, took Roosevelt across the American continent. The 14,000-mile journey began in April, took TR through twenty-five states, and lasted nine weeks. He traveled through the American West, stopped at Yellowstone National Park for a hiking and camping trip with naturalist and essayist John Burroughs. He continued on and ended touring a large swath of the state of California, including Yosemite, which had been declared a national park in 1890. It was a tenuous time for the American environment. Millions of buffalo had been slaughtered across the plains, often for sport, their carcasses left to rot in the sun. The passenger pigeon, a bird that once filled the skies by the billions, had been exterminated. But America was also in the midst of a nature renaissance, and Roosevelt one of its pivotal figures. The impact of his trip to California is still being felt today. Perhaps the most important moment of the journey was his meeting with John Muir on May 15th, 1903. The meeting took place on a train in the dusty town of Raymond, California, the closest station to Yosemite. From there, the men traveled 40 miles (about 8 hours) by stagecoach, which gave them the opportunity to get acquainted. They stopped in Mariposa Grove, where TR saw his first sequoia and had his picture taken driving through the “Tunnel Tree,” which no longer stands. That first night, President Roosevelt dismissed his aides and the press, which was unusual for him because he was a publicity hound. In the wilds of Yosemite, he and Muir spent three days “roughing it,” camping beneath the stars and enjoying conversation around a campfire. It was during those conversations that Muir made the case for the preservation of forests and other natural resources. Likely, these talks created the impetus for Roosevelt’s support for the 1906 Antiquities Act, arguably one of the most important pieces of conservation law in the United States. With the power to proclaim lands as monuments in the public interest, Roosevelt in 1908 set aside some 800,000 acres as Grand Canyon National Monument. Congress later gave it a national park status. Arguably, no other President has had such a singular impact on protecting American lands, and it’s fair to say, we think, that his visit to California had a lot to do with it.	693	ENGLISH	1
Decline and Disarray uk The disorder and decline of the Roman Empire took place in the 3rd century from the Octavian. Several factors did contribute to the fall of the kingdom. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman state in the imperial periods. The Roman Empire political system lasted for nearly five centuries. The Roman state gave Gaius Octavius the name Augustus after years of bitter war when he became undisputed. The kingdom had a solidified political control of its lands. The empire till lasted till German inversions when there was economic decline and poor political shape. Poor political rule was one of the factors that led to the decline of the Roman Empire. Julius Caesar who was the Roman leader ruled the Roman Republic as a dictator. He was finally assassinated and the Rome Empire descended for more than ten years of political upheaval. Civil wars also emerged that claimed many lives. After the defeat Gaius the senate in 27 BC proclaimed him Augustus that meant the exalted or holy one. The Republic of Roma which was lasted to about 500years was dead and never to be revived. Buy Decline and Disarray essay paper online * Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system. Roman imperialism that introduced extremes of wealth and poverty led to rise of conflict within the Roman state as it shaped both social and economic state. The flood military plunder who captured and suppressed slaves led to up-rise of rebellious units against the rule. The immense wealth was only accessed by the ambitious of the Roman nobles who struggled for their personal concerns rather than collective rule. The Romans themselves believed that wealth of the empire corrupted the nobles in the Roman Republic. Rome Empire lacked a strong administration that was to guide and administer the state and control the army. The old system of administratio was unsuitable to rule the empire that had grown larger than before. New military institutions were to be created to maintain its dominance. Through the building of the new administration the empire could then easily manage the rising number of individuals and to unit them. Military institutions were to recruit has many young men to the army as possible to protect the empire from civil wars. The economy of the empire fell due to high taxes that were imposed on the Romans. The rise of the taxes was due to inadequate treasury of funds in the empire. The rate of debasement and the inflation of the economy resulted in a disastrous rule. The coinage had become nearly worthless, that lump of with the thin veneer of silver outside was that cheap. The government demands ate up the foundations of production plus the surplus resulting to the succumbing of the economy. The older silver-free coins were driven by the newly ones that were much valuable and were circulated. With the coins reduced to almost worthless the people and the government were abridged to bartering for services and goods. Taxes were collected in a haphazard and awful manner with the burdens falling heaviest on areas where the army was in a position. The farms that were a major source of income to the people were evacuated. Most of the people turned to be beggars since they would not meet their daily requirements. To avoid this duty the council made it compulsory for those who met the property requirements. Invasion of civil wars on the empire weakened it making it less secure and lose their power. The wars crushed down the economy of the state leasing to high taxes imposed to the people to meet the government`s requirements. Julio-Claudine Empires were also leaders of the empire. Tiberius was a conscious general in Germany and a fine imperial administrator. He alienated senators with his personal moodiness. Despite his weakness Tiberius left the empire with secure boundaries and a healthy treasury. He worked to unite the empire though it had been faced with difficulties like civil wars. Caligula was another Roman empire, who revived the treason trials of Tiberius. He had his fall downs such as he opened a brothel in the palace, raped whoever he wished and he reported on the woman`s deeds to her husband. He committed some illegal deeds like incest; he killed for greed and thought he should be treated like god. Commodus ruled from 180 to 192 BC. He was a lazy leader and led a life of debauchery with giving control to his freedmen and later he sold imperial favours. By performing like a slave in the he disgraced his status. He called himself the Roman Hercules. Through all this leadership of poor quality the Roman Empire remained a challenged state. Nero was another leader of the Rome Empire who ruled with a lot of inadequacies. He murdered his mother and wife during his leadership. He took his senators’ illegally property and severely taxed the people to create his own magnificent home. He had many killed during his time of leadership and for all that happened he put the blame on the Christians. Domitian based his leadership under conspiracies. He came up with new ways through which he tortured and harassed the Jews and philosophers. He executed officials and confiscated their properties especially those who opposed his policies. All these led to the fall of the ancient Roman Empire. The people turned out to be peasants enslaved in their own state. Related history essays - Japan, China, India, Response to Western Imperialism - History: Black Mammy - A Besieged Roman Empire - The Panic of 1819 in the United States - President Eisenhowers Nuclear Policy - The Life of George Washington - Causes and Consequences of World War Two - Changing Concept - The Witch Hunts in Scotland - Socio History of the U.S from 1920-1963 Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:93a0dda6-c13a-4935-a47c-29ad4aaa4ba4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primewritings.co.uk/essays/history/decline-and-disarray.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00039.warc.gz	en	0.983686	1,161	3.265625	3	[ -0.2947292923927307, 0.2392425537109375, 0.7602888941764832, 0.3317527174949646, -0.11013060063123703, -0.14691442251205444, -0.2227133959531784, 0.4351031184196472, 0.03183974325656891, -0.21163490414619446, 0.3657505512237549, -0.46901220083236694, 0.3325613737106323, 0.24387907981872559...	1	Decline and Disarray uk The disorder and decline of the Roman Empire took place in the 3rd century from the Octavian. Several factors did contribute to the fall of the kingdom. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman state in the imperial periods. The Roman Empire political system lasted for nearly five centuries. The Roman state gave Gaius Octavius the name Augustus after years of bitter war when he became undisputed. The kingdom had a solidified political control of its lands. The empire till lasted till German inversions when there was economic decline and poor political shape. Poor political rule was one of the factors that led to the decline of the Roman Empire. Julius Caesar who was the Roman leader ruled the Roman Republic as a dictator. He was finally assassinated and the Rome Empire descended for more than ten years of political upheaval. Civil wars also emerged that claimed many lives. After the defeat Gaius the senate in 27 BC proclaimed him Augustus that meant the exalted or holy one. The Republic of Roma which was lasted to about 500years was dead and never to be revived. Buy Decline and Disarray essay paper online * Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system. Roman imperialism that introduced extremes of wealth and poverty led to rise of conflict within the Roman state as it shaped both social and economic state. The flood military plunder who captured and suppressed slaves led to up-rise of rebellious units against the rule. The immense wealth was only accessed by the ambitious of the Roman nobles who struggled for their personal concerns rather than collective rule. The Romans themselves believed that wealth of the empire corrupted the nobles in the Roman Republic. Rome Empire lacked a strong administration that was to guide and administer the state and control the army. The old system of administratio was unsuitable to rule the empire that had grown larger than before. New military institutions were to be created to maintain its dominance. Through the building of the new administration the empire could then easily manage the rising number of individuals and to unit them. Military institutions were to recruit has many young men to the army as possible to protect the empire from civil wars. The economy of the empire fell due to high taxes that were imposed on the Romans. The rise of the taxes was due to inadequate treasury of funds in the empire. The rate of debasement and the inflation of the economy resulted in a disastrous rule. The coinage had become nearly worthless, that lump of with the thin veneer of silver outside was that cheap. The government demands ate up the foundations of production plus the surplus resulting to the succumbing of the economy. The older silver-free coins were driven by the newly ones that were much valuable and were circulated. With the coins reduced to almost worthless the people and the government were abridged to bartering for services and goods. Taxes were collected in a haphazard and awful manner with the burdens falling heaviest on areas where the army was in a position. The farms that were a major source of income to the people were evacuated. Most of the people turned to be beggars since they would not meet their daily requirements. To avoid this duty the council made it compulsory for those who met the property requirements. Invasion of civil wars on the empire weakened it making it less secure and lose their power. The wars crushed down the economy of the state leasing to high taxes imposed to the people to meet the government`s requirements. Julio-Claudine Empires were also leaders of the empire. Tiberius was a conscious general in Germany and a fine imperial administrator. He alienated senators with his personal moodiness. Despite his weakness Tiberius left the empire with secure boundaries and a healthy treasury. He worked to unite the empire though it had been faced with difficulties like civil wars. Caligula was another Roman empire, who revived the treason trials of Tiberius. He had his fall downs such as he opened a brothel in the palace, raped whoever he wished and he reported on the woman`s deeds to her husband. He committed some illegal deeds like incest; he killed for greed and thought he should be treated like god. Commodus ruled from 180 to 192 BC. He was a lazy leader and led a life of debauchery with giving control to his freedmen and later he sold imperial favours. By performing like a slave in the he disgraced his status. He called himself the Roman Hercules. Through all this leadership of poor quality the Roman Empire remained a challenged state. Nero was another leader of the Rome Empire who ruled with a lot of inadequacies. He murdered his mother and wife during his leadership. He took his senators’ illegally property and severely taxed the people to create his own magnificent home. He had many killed during his time of leadership and for all that happened he put the blame on the Christians. Domitian based his leadership under conspiracies. He came up with new ways through which he tortured and harassed the Jews and philosophers. He executed officials and confiscated their properties especially those who opposed his policies. All these led to the fall of the ancient Roman Empire. The people turned out to be peasants enslaved in their own state. Related history essays - Japan, China, India, Response to Western Imperialism - History: Black Mammy - A Besieged Roman Empire - The Panic of 1819 in the United States - President Eisenhowers Nuclear Policy - The Life of George Washington - Causes and Consequences of World War Two - Changing Concept - The Witch Hunts in Scotland - Socio History of the U.S from 1920-1963 Most popular orders	1,170	ENGLISH	1
Anna Jarvis, the founder of Mother's Day, was born in present day Webster, West Virginia in a two-story wooden house built by her father, Granville E. Jarvis, in 1854. The family lived in the home during the most important times in American History. General George B. McClellan used this house as his headquarters during the Civil War. He commanded forces during the Rich Mountain campaign to ensure that the Confederates did not overtake this portion of the state. The home is open today for historical tours and paranormal tours. Anna Jarvis was born in present day Webster, West Virginia on May 1, 1864 in a two-story wooden house built by her father in 1854. Her mother, Ann Marie Reaves Jarvis, saved thousands of lives simply by teaching women in her Mothers Friendship Clubs how to nurse and about sanitation. The Friendship Clubs were formed in 1860 by Mrs. Jarvis after losing a lot of her children. She learned all of this from her famous physician brother James Reeves, MD. The Jarvis family lived in the house for some of the most important times in American history. The house was a focal point for the Civil War. General George B. McClellan used it as his headquarters when he and his soldiers camped across the street from the house which is now known as Ocean Pearl Felton Historic Park. He commanded forces during the Rich Mountain campaign to ensure that the Confederates did not overtake this portion of the state. Because of Route 250, Webster was very important during the Civil War. It ran between the two biggest cities in what was then Virginia passing right in front of the Jarvis House. It was important because of strategic reasons for both the North and the South. The Confederacy and Union used Route 250 in order to enter enemy territory. Mrs. Jarvis and her Mother's Day Work Clubs took a neutral stand with the sides of the war. They nursed the Union and the Confederates. In 1865, she organized an event called Mothers' Friendship Day. This helped calm opposing families in the war and united communities that were torn apart by the war. She wished that there would be a holiday that would honor mothers. It was Anna Jarvis, her daughter, that honored her wish and established Mother's Day. She used the day of the anniversary of her mother's death as the date for this special day.	<urn:uuid:29411adc-9482-49de-a4b4-5534b58a2b22>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/7592	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00519.warc.gz	en	0.986488	474	3.5625	4	[ -0.1022259071469307, 0.35217320919036865, 0.5462954640388489, -0.07959021627902985, -0.24513567984104156, 0.232271209359169, 0.11265760660171509, -0.13857720792293549, -0.40369531512260437, -0.00934418011456728, 0.07182858884334564, -0.08698324859142303, -0.006519971415400505, 0.2678767740...	2	Anna Jarvis, the founder of Mother's Day, was born in present day Webster, West Virginia in a two-story wooden house built by her father, Granville E. Jarvis, in 1854. The family lived in the home during the most important times in American History. General George B. McClellan used this house as his headquarters during the Civil War. He commanded forces during the Rich Mountain campaign to ensure that the Confederates did not overtake this portion of the state. The home is open today for historical tours and paranormal tours. Anna Jarvis was born in present day Webster, West Virginia on May 1, 1864 in a two-story wooden house built by her father in 1854. Her mother, Ann Marie Reaves Jarvis, saved thousands of lives simply by teaching women in her Mothers Friendship Clubs how to nurse and about sanitation. The Friendship Clubs were formed in 1860 by Mrs. Jarvis after losing a lot of her children. She learned all of this from her famous physician brother James Reeves, MD. The Jarvis family lived in the house for some of the most important times in American history. The house was a focal point for the Civil War. General George B. McClellan used it as his headquarters when he and his soldiers camped across the street from the house which is now known as Ocean Pearl Felton Historic Park. He commanded forces during the Rich Mountain campaign to ensure that the Confederates did not overtake this portion of the state. Because of Route 250, Webster was very important during the Civil War. It ran between the two biggest cities in what was then Virginia passing right in front of the Jarvis House. It was important because of strategic reasons for both the North and the South. The Confederacy and Union used Route 250 in order to enter enemy territory. Mrs. Jarvis and her Mother's Day Work Clubs took a neutral stand with the sides of the war. They nursed the Union and the Confederates. In 1865, she organized an event called Mothers' Friendship Day. This helped calm opposing families in the war and united communities that were torn apart by the war. She wished that there would be a holiday that would honor mothers. It was Anna Jarvis, her daughter, that honored her wish and established Mother's Day. She used the day of the anniversary of her mother's death as the date for this special day.	498	ENGLISH	1
The essay compares how England and France solidified their colonial empires through contact with the natives. It is found that France was more diplomatic in its handling of the slaves as compared to England. England and France Colonial Empires England and France were the two major colonialists of various countries in North American and African continents (Wilder, 2003; Wilson, 1998). During the period of colony their core values helped catapult them into the new world in search of freedom, food, and source of income (Bulliet, Crossley & Headrick, 2010). These two countries had their social, economical, and political aspects which propelled them towards the new world order. These made the two nations to start up their colonies in different countries and states which they felt they could dominate and protect their interests. However, for them to succeed they needed to establish rapport between them and the natives in the place of the colony (Kumar, 2006). These two nations were able to colonize other states because the natives in those places welcomed them. The French were warmly welcomed by the natives who made them establish their life and economy (Wilder, 2003). France was in total dependant of the natives because they had to survive in the harsh climate in the host nations. Fortunately, native people were influential in helping them to settle. They did trade with the natives and as trade continued for a period of time it led to intermarriages between them and the natives (Richter, 2001). This type of trade made the natives to be dependent on the colonialist because they relied on the goods from the French, to which the latter took an advantage to colonize the natives. Nevertheless, the French treated the natives with great diplomacy (Wilder, 2003). At first England became dependant on their natives for food since they never planted crops, but later on they started colonizing the natives (Wilson, 1998). They believed the natives should be treated as the Spanish previously treated them. Hence, when they could not negotiate for food or resources, they could take it with force and also searched and destroyed raids which natives established to reciprocate the treatment (Richter, 2001; Wilson, 1998). Unlike the French, England did not treat its natives with diplomacy. In conclusion, a drive for power and more resources led to colonization of natives by the French and England. The rapport created between the settlers and natives ensured a smooth settlement but which later became colonization. The French much integrated with the culture of the natives as opposed to England which placed itself in a superior position.	<urn:uuid:0632ea5f-29b1-4ba7-b1b0-704e9bb7593e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freeessays.page/england-and-france-colonial-empires/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00260.warc.gz	en	0.981054	511	4	4	[ -0.15202757716178894, 0.2779615521430969, 0.3789583742618561, -0.4448472857475281, 0.1370168775320053, -0.3464692533016205, -0.025972265750169754, 0.2071070671081543, 0.1556510031223297, -0.15103831887245178, 0.052083756774663925, -0.3682247996330261, 0.1656385213136673, 0.312311589717865,...	8	The essay compares how England and France solidified their colonial empires through contact with the natives. It is found that France was more diplomatic in its handling of the slaves as compared to England. England and France Colonial Empires England and France were the two major colonialists of various countries in North American and African continents (Wilder, 2003; Wilson, 1998). During the period of colony their core values helped catapult them into the new world in search of freedom, food, and source of income (Bulliet, Crossley & Headrick, 2010). These two countries had their social, economical, and political aspects which propelled them towards the new world order. These made the two nations to start up their colonies in different countries and states which they felt they could dominate and protect their interests. However, for them to succeed they needed to establish rapport between them and the natives in the place of the colony (Kumar, 2006). These two nations were able to colonize other states because the natives in those places welcomed them. The French were warmly welcomed by the natives who made them establish their life and economy (Wilder, 2003). France was in total dependant of the natives because they had to survive in the harsh climate in the host nations. Fortunately, native people were influential in helping them to settle. They did trade with the natives and as trade continued for a period of time it led to intermarriages between them and the natives (Richter, 2001). This type of trade made the natives to be dependent on the colonialist because they relied on the goods from the French, to which the latter took an advantage to colonize the natives. Nevertheless, the French treated the natives with great diplomacy (Wilder, 2003). At first England became dependant on their natives for food since they never planted crops, but later on they started colonizing the natives (Wilson, 1998). They believed the natives should be treated as the Spanish previously treated them. Hence, when they could not negotiate for food or resources, they could take it with force and also searched and destroyed raids which natives established to reciprocate the treatment (Richter, 2001; Wilson, 1998). Unlike the French, England did not treat its natives with diplomacy. In conclusion, a drive for power and more resources led to colonization of natives by the French and England. The rapport created between the settlers and natives ensured a smooth settlement but which later became colonization. The French much integrated with the culture of the natives as opposed to England which placed itself in a superior position.	552	ENGLISH	1
It is one of the most famous examples of the influence of science on environmental policy. In 1972, the first head of the EPA, William Ruckelshaus, faced “a preponderance of the evidence” showing the effects of the pesticide DDT on birds and other wildlife. By then, Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring had become a classic, clearly laying out the adverse effects of the pesticide. DDT sprayed on crops was poisoning the ecosystem, causing the thinning of eggshells for birds like the bald eagle, accumulating in the fatty tissues of animals and wiping out many more creatures than the crop-eating insects it was targeting. The case against DDT was seen by many as overwhelming, but the decision to ban the pesticide was by no means preordained. The EPA faced major legal challenges and Ruckelshaus proceeded surely and meticulously, weighing the scientific evidence with a lawyer’s eye. His carefully laid out opinion became a case study on the role of science in policy. “I am convinced by a preponderance of the evidence that, once used DDT is an uncontrollable, durable chemical that persists in the aquatic and terrestrial environments,” he wrote, giving the scientific findings a legal framework (“a preponderance of the evidence” was a lawyerly phrase Ruckelshaus would use more than once) that would jumpstart the newly formed EPA. It was really just the beginning. Over the years, Ruckelshaus’s evidence-based approach would become familiar as he faced other major decisions at the EPA, and eventually later as a champion and organizer of Puget Sound recovery efforts. When William Ruckelshaus (known to many informally as “Bill”) died on November 27th, he left such a broad legacy of accomplishments that his work as the country’s first EPA administrator sometimes did not even make the lead in his obituary. He is often first remembered as a key player in the so-called “Saturday Night Massacre” when he resigned rather than comply with President Richard Nixon’s order to fire special prosecutor Archibald Cox. Cox had been assigned to investigate the Watergate break-in that eventually led to impeachment proceedings against Nixon. “I thought what the president was doing was fundamentally wrong,” he later told The New York Times. “I was convinced that Cox had only been doing what he had the authority to do…He hadn’t engaged in any extraordinary improprieties, quite the contrary.” After resigning his post and eventually leaving Washington, D.C. in 1975, Ruckelshaus moved to the other Washington, where his environmental and policy legacy would continue — along with a sidetrack to head the EPA a second time in the 1980s. When the Washington State Legislature formed the Puget Sound Partnership in 2007, Ruckelshaus was a natural choice as co-leader. He had already been a chief organizer, along with Billy Frank, of the state’s Shared Strategy to recover Chinook salmon. The success of that venture from 1999 to 2001 had shown policymakers the value of coordinated state, tribal and federal environmental efforts. If such a thing could be done for salmon, why not the entire Puget Sound? “Bill’s legacy echoes in almost everything we do,” recalls Ken Currens, who worked with Ruckelshaus on Chinook recovery and later served as the first science director of the Puget Sound Partnership. Currens, now manager of the Conservation Program at the Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission, says Ruckelshaus was a master at connecting science with policy. “I think he understood the huge value of science in terms of providing clarity and clearing up uncertainty. And it was something that people could agree on. It was fact based.” During his tenure, Ruckelshaus regularly attended the Puget Sound Partnership’s Science Panel meetings, and “he was not afraid to ask scientists hard questions,” Currens remembers. “He knew they were hard questions, but when you looked at him you could also see that he had a twinkle in his eye. He knew he was putting you on the spot, so there was kind of this sense of humor that went along with it that made it OK.” He also knew that science offered few quick fixes. He expected that cleaning up Puget Sound would take some time. Back in 2005, before the creation of the Puget Sound Partnership, his views were prescient. “It’s relatively easy to generate a lot of enthusiasm for Puget Sound in the short term,” he said. “Sustaining the effort to clean it up is somewhat tougher.” Now, as the effort to clean up Puget Sound moves into 2020 and beyond, it will have to continue without Ruckelshaus. “He carried the ball for a long time,” says Currens. Judging by a preponderance of the evidence, he will be missed. –Jeff Rice, Puget Sound Institute	<urn:uuid:7b4b1b7b-eec6-492c-8850-d1cc4dd9cd15>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pugetsoundinstitute.org/2019/12/remembering-bill-ruckelshaus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00295.warc.gz	en	0.981852	1,070	3.28125	3	[ -0.13347965478897095, 0.18283593654632568, 0.26945728063583374, -0.08124832808971405, 0.32003915309906006, 0.14810562133789062, 0.43419018387794495, 0.41076627373695374, 0.11492985486984253, -0.17085851728916168, -0.21371003985404968, -0.050938501954078674, 0.10913984477519989, 0.084093436...	1	It is one of the most famous examples of the influence of science on environmental policy. In 1972, the first head of the EPA, William Ruckelshaus, faced “a preponderance of the evidence” showing the effects of the pesticide DDT on birds and other wildlife. By then, Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring had become a classic, clearly laying out the adverse effects of the pesticide. DDT sprayed on crops was poisoning the ecosystem, causing the thinning of eggshells for birds like the bald eagle, accumulating in the fatty tissues of animals and wiping out many more creatures than the crop-eating insects it was targeting. The case against DDT was seen by many as overwhelming, but the decision to ban the pesticide was by no means preordained. The EPA faced major legal challenges and Ruckelshaus proceeded surely and meticulously, weighing the scientific evidence with a lawyer’s eye. His carefully laid out opinion became a case study on the role of science in policy. “I am convinced by a preponderance of the evidence that, once used DDT is an uncontrollable, durable chemical that persists in the aquatic and terrestrial environments,” he wrote, giving the scientific findings a legal framework (“a preponderance of the evidence” was a lawyerly phrase Ruckelshaus would use more than once) that would jumpstart the newly formed EPA. It was really just the beginning. Over the years, Ruckelshaus’s evidence-based approach would become familiar as he faced other major decisions at the EPA, and eventually later as a champion and organizer of Puget Sound recovery efforts. When William Ruckelshaus (known to many informally as “Bill”) died on November 27th, he left such a broad legacy of accomplishments that his work as the country’s first EPA administrator sometimes did not even make the lead in his obituary. He is often first remembered as a key player in the so-called “Saturday Night Massacre” when he resigned rather than comply with President Richard Nixon’s order to fire special prosecutor Archibald Cox. Cox had been assigned to investigate the Watergate break-in that eventually led to impeachment proceedings against Nixon. “I thought what the president was doing was fundamentally wrong,” he later told The New York Times. “I was convinced that Cox had only been doing what he had the authority to do…He hadn’t engaged in any extraordinary improprieties, quite the contrary.” After resigning his post and eventually leaving Washington, D.C. in 1975, Ruckelshaus moved to the other Washington, where his environmental and policy legacy would continue — along with a sidetrack to head the EPA a second time in the 1980s. When the Washington State Legislature formed the Puget Sound Partnership in 2007, Ruckelshaus was a natural choice as co-leader. He had already been a chief organizer, along with Billy Frank, of the state’s Shared Strategy to recover Chinook salmon. The success of that venture from 1999 to 2001 had shown policymakers the value of coordinated state, tribal and federal environmental efforts. If such a thing could be done for salmon, why not the entire Puget Sound? “Bill’s legacy echoes in almost everything we do,” recalls Ken Currens, who worked with Ruckelshaus on Chinook recovery and later served as the first science director of the Puget Sound Partnership. Currens, now manager of the Conservation Program at the Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission, says Ruckelshaus was a master at connecting science with policy. “I think he understood the huge value of science in terms of providing clarity and clearing up uncertainty. And it was something that people could agree on. It was fact based.” During his tenure, Ruckelshaus regularly attended the Puget Sound Partnership’s Science Panel meetings, and “he was not afraid to ask scientists hard questions,” Currens remembers. “He knew they were hard questions, but when you looked at him you could also see that he had a twinkle in his eye. He knew he was putting you on the spot, so there was kind of this sense of humor that went along with it that made it OK.” He also knew that science offered few quick fixes. He expected that cleaning up Puget Sound would take some time. Back in 2005, before the creation of the Puget Sound Partnership, his views were prescient. “It’s relatively easy to generate a lot of enthusiasm for Puget Sound in the short term,” he said. “Sustaining the effort to clean it up is somewhat tougher.” Now, as the effort to clean up Puget Sound moves into 2020 and beyond, it will have to continue without Ruckelshaus. “He carried the ball for a long time,” says Currens. Judging by a preponderance of the evidence, he will be missed. –Jeff Rice, Puget Sound Institute	1,029	ENGLISH	1
An analysis of the rule of ramses the second the third pharaoh of the nineteenth dynasty in egypt He managed to fend off invasions from the Hittites and Nubians. Had the Hittite king Muwatalli II committed his reserve forces to the battle, Ramses and the Egyptian army could have been destroyed. They are decorated with the usual scenes of the king before various deities. InCairo Museum Egyptologists noticed that the mummy's condition was rapidly deteriorating. Min festival This is an ancient festival dating back to pre-dynastic Egypt, though it was still popular at the time of Ramesses II. Ramesses ii children Ramesseum The temple complex built by Ramesses II between Qurna and the desert has been known as the Ramesseum since the 19th century. In August , contractors relocated it to save it from exhaust fumes that were causing it to deteriorate. Ramses II defaced the monuments of previous reigning dynasties which had fallen out of favor, and sought to return Egyptian religion to how it had been before the reign of Akhenaton. In ancient Egypt , red-haired people were believed to be adherents of the god Seth Towards the end of his full life, Ramses II suffered major health problems including a hunched back attributable to arthritis and an abscessed tooth Ramses II outlived almost all of his family. Nearly all of his subjects had been born during his reign. Ramesses II also campaigned south of the first cataract into Nubia. The practice of placing shabti dolls in the tombs and graves of the dead was precisely for this purpose: so the dolls would take the place of the deceased in work projects. He was also responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign in Libya. No pharaoh ever surpassed the building achievements of Ramses II. A temple of Seti I, of which nothing is now left but the foundations, once stood to the right of the hypostyle hall. He is also known as Ozymandias in the Greek sources, from a transliteration into Greek of a part of Ramesses's throne name, Usermaatre Setepenre, "Ra's mighty truth, chosen of Ra". He then charged the eastern wing of the assembled foe with such ferocity that they gave way, allowing the Egyptians to escape the net which Muwatalli had cast for them Strategically, however, the result was a defeat for the Egyptians, who were obliged to retire homeward. This was proved to be a successful campaign with Ramses returning home with Canaanite royal prisoners and plunder. Over the ensuing years, Ramesses II would return to campaign against the Hittites and even achieved several spectacular victories at a time of Hittite weakness due to a dispute over Muwatallis' succession to briefly capture the cities of Tunip, where no Egyptian soldier had been seen since the time of Thutmose III almost years previously, and even Kadesh in his Eighth and Ninth Years. Researchers observed "an abscess by his teeth which was serious enough to have caused death by infection, although this cannot be determined with certainty". In addition, his campaigns restored land to Egypt that had been previously lost to these empires. Seawright The festival was carried out by the king himself, followed by his wife, royal family, and court. based on 3 review	<urn:uuid:b31c0c20-99cd-46db-a8dc-36fb6bd17bc7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://vytovytypacady.whatshanesaid.com/an-analysis-of-the-rule-of-ramses-the-second-the-third-pharaoh-of-the-nineteenth-dynasty-in-egypt333674382yc.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00396.warc.gz	en	0.984187	701	3.359375	3	[ -0.13867327570915222, 1.0622477531433105, 0.07643792033195496, 0.19957700371742249, -0.4014100432395935, -0.2167237102985382, 0.07340661436319351, -0.19767074286937714, -0.09449189156293869, -0.02205260843038559, -0.3862718939781189, -0.5320353507995605, 0.5315862894058228, 0.0019203531555...	1	An analysis of the rule of ramses the second the third pharaoh of the nineteenth dynasty in egypt He managed to fend off invasions from the Hittites and Nubians. Had the Hittite king Muwatalli II committed his reserve forces to the battle, Ramses and the Egyptian army could have been destroyed. They are decorated with the usual scenes of the king before various deities. InCairo Museum Egyptologists noticed that the mummy's condition was rapidly deteriorating. Min festival This is an ancient festival dating back to pre-dynastic Egypt, though it was still popular at the time of Ramesses II. Ramesses ii children Ramesseum The temple complex built by Ramesses II between Qurna and the desert has been known as the Ramesseum since the 19th century. In August , contractors relocated it to save it from exhaust fumes that were causing it to deteriorate. Ramses II defaced the monuments of previous reigning dynasties which had fallen out of favor, and sought to return Egyptian religion to how it had been before the reign of Akhenaton. In ancient Egypt , red-haired people were believed to be adherents of the god Seth Towards the end of his full life, Ramses II suffered major health problems including a hunched back attributable to arthritis and an abscessed tooth Ramses II outlived almost all of his family. Nearly all of his subjects had been born during his reign. Ramesses II also campaigned south of the first cataract into Nubia. The practice of placing shabti dolls in the tombs and graves of the dead was precisely for this purpose: so the dolls would take the place of the deceased in work projects. He was also responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign in Libya. No pharaoh ever surpassed the building achievements of Ramses II. A temple of Seti I, of which nothing is now left but the foundations, once stood to the right of the hypostyle hall. He is also known as Ozymandias in the Greek sources, from a transliteration into Greek of a part of Ramesses's throne name, Usermaatre Setepenre, "Ra's mighty truth, chosen of Ra". He then charged the eastern wing of the assembled foe with such ferocity that they gave way, allowing the Egyptians to escape the net which Muwatalli had cast for them Strategically, however, the result was a defeat for the Egyptians, who were obliged to retire homeward. This was proved to be a successful campaign with Ramses returning home with Canaanite royal prisoners and plunder. Over the ensuing years, Ramesses II would return to campaign against the Hittites and even achieved several spectacular victories at a time of Hittite weakness due to a dispute over Muwatallis' succession to briefly capture the cities of Tunip, where no Egyptian soldier had been seen since the time of Thutmose III almost years previously, and even Kadesh in his Eighth and Ninth Years. Researchers observed "an abscess by his teeth which was serious enough to have caused death by infection, although this cannot be determined with certainty". In addition, his campaigns restored land to Egypt that had been previously lost to these empires. Seawright The festival was carried out by the king himself, followed by his wife, royal family, and court. based on 3 review	701	ENGLISH	1
Built in 1917, the ex-USS Laub was transferred to the RN and commissioned as HMS Burwell in Halifax on October 9 th , 1940. It then sailed for the UK to undergo modifications to suit RN purposes. Following convoy work in the Northwest Approaches, it was transferred to the newly formed Newfoundland Escort Force in June 1941 and served in the North Atlantic until the spring of 1943. A former signalman with Burwell, Albert E. Owen, joined the ship in November 1942 and remembers her as “a rusty, obsolete and practically useless” vessel that took nine months to get out of Liverpool where “she rested at one time or another in nearly every drydock in the place.” Once out of drydock, she was “assailed by a Navigating Officer whose mishaps would have ruined the insurance company for which he worked in peace time.” In March 1943, Burwell departed the UK with a convoy destined for Algiers. Mr. Owen recalls the ship being more of a liability than an asset. After offering assistance to a corvette in a U-boat hunt, the corvette responded to Burwell with the message “Can the blind lead the blind?” Burwell limped into Gibraltar after being detached from the convoy due to engineering problems. Her orders were revised and, instead of Algiers, the destination was the Azores. The Portuguese navy was busy picking up survivors from the U-boat activities in the area and, on arrival at the island of Sao Miguel, the ship was met with “a ragged army of survivors” who were keen to see their first British ship in months. The ship’s supply of cigarettes quickly disappeared. Portugal was officially neutral in WWII and all survivors were to be interned for the duration of hostilities. Unbeknownst to all on board, the ship had 37 stowaways when it sailed from Sao Miguel. Since they had a second stop in the Azores, at the island of Fayal, to deliver compass equipment to the British merchant ship SS Horarata, the captain was extremely anxious about the situation. To have 37 stowaways on board indicated one of two things: he had no respect for international law regarding internment or he was too inept to maintain proper security in his ship. Neither scenario was good. While at anchor and delivering parts to Horarata, Burwell was approached by a barge with a Portuguese commodore and his staff on board. Fearing the embarrassment of being caught with stowaways, the captain quickly came up with a plan. According to Mr. Owen, There was only one remedy available to the skipper in such an emergency – gin and angostura bitters! With due naval dignity, the Portuguese Commodore was piped aboard and wheeled straight down into Burwell’s Wardroom. When he and his Flag Lieutenant re-appeared two hours later, they both had the glazed and happy look all customers wear when leaving the pub at closing time. Supporting each other unsteadily, they fell into their barge and made their way contentedly back to shore for a late dinner. As soon as the barge departed, both Burwell and Horarata immediately weighed anchor and headed for home. Consistent to the end, Burwell broke down three times during the transit forcing the merchant ship to circle around her while repairs were being made. On arrival in the UK, Horarata sent a signal to Burwell thanking them for their protection. Mr. Owen, being a signalman, was on the bridge and broke out in laughter with that message. The captain did not share his sense of humour and he was given seven days stoppage of leave. Burwell survived the war and Mr. Owen says it qualified as the “luckiest ship afloat.” He recalls that they only fired its ancient 4” gun once. This was fortunate since, on that one occasion, “every light in the ship went out, the cockroaches went raving mad and we sprang leaks all over the place.” Burwell was reduced to reserve status in the fall of 1943 and later nominated for service as an air target ship. In early 1945, it was reduced again to unmaintained reserve status and laid up at Milford Haven. Burwell’s gun shield presents an optimistic, perhaps dreamy, image of its prowess on the high seas. The reason for an RN ship to use a large maple leaf on its gun shield is not known. Since RCN pay was higher than RN pay, it may represent the ship’s company’s wishful thinking for enhanced pay along with an enhanced service record. Notes: 1. “Thank God We Have a Navy”, Albert Edward Owen, contribution to WW2 People’s War, An archive of World War Two memories – written by the public, gathered by the BBC.	<urn:uuid:9c20db8e-93dd-4a9d-94a8-90e135be08a9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://crowsnestnl.ca/6-02-hms-burwell-h-94/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00177.warc.gz	en	0.982042	1,017	3.375	3	[ -0.022281814366579056, 0.26009225845336914, 0.35907334089279175, -0.5509135723114014, -0.05385974049568176, -0.4126465320587158, -0.24913077056407928, 0.02610471472144127, -0.07406023889780045, -0.2222394347190857, 0.24241052567958832, -0.4913640320301056, -0.020609524101018906, -0.0352073...	4	Built in 1917, the ex-USS Laub was transferred to the RN and commissioned as HMS Burwell in Halifax on October 9 th , 1940. It then sailed for the UK to undergo modifications to suit RN purposes. Following convoy work in the Northwest Approaches, it was transferred to the newly formed Newfoundland Escort Force in June 1941 and served in the North Atlantic until the spring of 1943. A former signalman with Burwell, Albert E. Owen, joined the ship in November 1942 and remembers her as “a rusty, obsolete and practically useless” vessel that took nine months to get out of Liverpool where “she rested at one time or another in nearly every drydock in the place.” Once out of drydock, she was “assailed by a Navigating Officer whose mishaps would have ruined the insurance company for which he worked in peace time.” In March 1943, Burwell departed the UK with a convoy destined for Algiers. Mr. Owen recalls the ship being more of a liability than an asset. After offering assistance to a corvette in a U-boat hunt, the corvette responded to Burwell with the message “Can the blind lead the blind?” Burwell limped into Gibraltar after being detached from the convoy due to engineering problems. Her orders were revised and, instead of Algiers, the destination was the Azores. The Portuguese navy was busy picking up survivors from the U-boat activities in the area and, on arrival at the island of Sao Miguel, the ship was met with “a ragged army of survivors” who were keen to see their first British ship in months. The ship’s supply of cigarettes quickly disappeared. Portugal was officially neutral in WWII and all survivors were to be interned for the duration of hostilities. Unbeknownst to all on board, the ship had 37 stowaways when it sailed from Sao Miguel. Since they had a second stop in the Azores, at the island of Fayal, to deliver compass equipment to the British merchant ship SS Horarata, the captain was extremely anxious about the situation. To have 37 stowaways on board indicated one of two things: he had no respect for international law regarding internment or he was too inept to maintain proper security in his ship. Neither scenario was good. While at anchor and delivering parts to Horarata, Burwell was approached by a barge with a Portuguese commodore and his staff on board. Fearing the embarrassment of being caught with stowaways, the captain quickly came up with a plan. According to Mr. Owen, There was only one remedy available to the skipper in such an emergency – gin and angostura bitters! With due naval dignity, the Portuguese Commodore was piped aboard and wheeled straight down into Burwell’s Wardroom. When he and his Flag Lieutenant re-appeared two hours later, they both had the glazed and happy look all customers wear when leaving the pub at closing time. Supporting each other unsteadily, they fell into their barge and made their way contentedly back to shore for a late dinner. As soon as the barge departed, both Burwell and Horarata immediately weighed anchor and headed for home. Consistent to the end, Burwell broke down three times during the transit forcing the merchant ship to circle around her while repairs were being made. On arrival in the UK, Horarata sent a signal to Burwell thanking them for their protection. Mr. Owen, being a signalman, was on the bridge and broke out in laughter with that message. The captain did not share his sense of humour and he was given seven days stoppage of leave. Burwell survived the war and Mr. Owen says it qualified as the “luckiest ship afloat.” He recalls that they only fired its ancient 4” gun once. This was fortunate since, on that one occasion, “every light in the ship went out, the cockroaches went raving mad and we sprang leaks all over the place.” Burwell was reduced to reserve status in the fall of 1943 and later nominated for service as an air target ship. In early 1945, it was reduced again to unmaintained reserve status and laid up at Milford Haven. Burwell’s gun shield presents an optimistic, perhaps dreamy, image of its prowess on the high seas. The reason for an RN ship to use a large maple leaf on its gun shield is not known. Since RCN pay was higher than RN pay, it may represent the ship’s company’s wishful thinking for enhanced pay along with an enhanced service record. Notes: 1. “Thank God We Have a Navy”, Albert Edward Owen, contribution to WW2 People’s War, An archive of World War Two memories – written by the public, gathered by the BBC.	1,011	ENGLISH	1
Alexander Dubček led Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring of 1968. Though Alexander Dubček was a communist, he erred on the side of reform, which went against what his masters in Moscow would have wanted for Czechoslovakia as they feared the break-up of the Warsaw Pact. Dubček’s fall from grace and power was swift. Dubček was born in 1921 in Uhrovek, Slovakia. When he was aged four, his family moved to the Soviet Union and he grew up in the solidly communist country where the rule of Joseph Stalin was supreme. Dubček became a product of the Soviet education system and became a loyal communist. In 1938, Dubček returned to Slovakia and secretly joined the Communist Party in 1939. The occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939 and the Second World War focussed the attention of the people against a common foe so that internal politics mattered little. In 1944, Dubček joined the Slovak Resistance. The end of the war brought huge changes to Eastern Europe. The Cold War and the enmity between East and West meant that Stalin demanded an effective barrier around the Soviet Union so that if war in Europe did occur, countries like Czechoslovakia, Poland and Romania would take the brunt before and if the battlefield reached the Soviet border. Above all else, Stalin wanted to avoid the horrific devastation suffered by the Soviet Union during World War Two and the Eastern Bloc became his protective barrier. Immediately after World War Two, the Russian secret police, the KGB, removed anyone who was considered to be a problem from East European nations under Soviet control. Loyal communists were installed into government positions so that all these countries would be loyal to Moscow without question. Dubček had not yet reached such heights but was appointed a Communist Party official in 1949. Between 1955 and 1958, he was sent back to the Soviet Union to receive “political education” and his success in this area propelled him into higher government posts. By 1958, Dubček was seen as a good reliable communist who would support the leadership in Moscow. When he returned to Czechoslovakia, Dubček was appointed Principal Secretary of the Slovak Communist Party in Bratislava. He gained a reputation for effective leadership in Slovakia and as a man who did not want to buck the system. In the mid-1960’s there was mounting dissent towards the Party’s leader in Czechoslovakia, Antonin Novotný who failed to solve the country’s increasingly difficult economic situation. While he did not lead the attacks against Novotný, Dubček did allow himself to be put forward as the man who should succeed him. On January 5th 1968, the party’s central committee nominated Dubček to succeed Novotný after the Czechoslovak Party Central Committee passed a vote of no confidence in Novotný. What happened next must have come as a great surprise to the communist leaders in Moscow. Dubček announced that he wanted the Czech Communist Party to remain the predominant party in Czechoslovakia, but that he wanted the totalitarian aspects of the party to be reduced. Communist Party members in Czechoslovakia were given the right to challenge party policy as opposed to the traditional acceptance of all government policy. Party members were given the right to act “according to their conscience”. In what became known as the ‘Prague Spring’, he also announced the end of censorship and the right of Czech citizens to criticise the government. Newspapers took the opportunity to produce scathing reports about government incompetence and corruption. Dubček also announced that farmers would have the right to form independent co-operatives and that trade unions would have increased rights to bargain for their members. Crucially, however, Dubček stated that Czechoslovakia had no intention of leaving the Warsaw Pact. Between July and August 1968, he met senior Moscow politicians on the Slovakian-Ukraine border to reassure them that they had nothing to worry about and that what he was trying to achieve would have no bearing on the Warsaw Pact and its ability to compete with NATO. He repeated the same message to all members of the Warsaw Pact on August 3rd 1968. However, Dubček was informed by Moscow that they had discovered evidence that West Germany was planning to invade the Sudetenland and that the Soviet Union would provide Czechoslovakia with the troops needed to protect her from invasion. Dubček refused the offer but he must have known that this would count for nothing. His reassurances about not leaving the Warsaw Pact were ignored and on August 20th/21st Soviet troops (with token forces from other members of the Warsaw Pact) invaded Czechoslovakia. Dubček was arrested by released after talks in Moscow. Dubček claimed that the talks had been “comradely” and that he was abandoning his reform programme. As a result, Dubček remained as First Secretary until April 1969 when he was appointed Speaker of the Federal Assembly until he was expelled from the Communist Party in 1970. Following his expulsion, he was banished to Bratislava where he worked in a timber yard. For the next nineteen years he was, and had to be, politically dormant. However, Dubček had a political renaissance in 1989 when the Cold War ended. In November 1989, Dubček was once again appointed Speaker of the Federal Assembly. He was fiercely against the split between what was to become the Czech Republic and Slovakia as he felt that a continued union between the two best benefited both. However, he never got to see the ultimate development and outcome of the ‘Velvet Revolution’ as in July 1992 he was badly injured in a car accident and died from his injuries in November 1992. - The Prague Spring of 1968 is the term used for the brief period of time when the government of Czechoslovakia led by Alexander Dubček seemingly…	<urn:uuid:dadf7dc7-3456-4e70-8e9b-d5cf3abb5fb4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/the-cold-war/alexander-dubcek/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00024.warc.gz	en	0.988005	1,217	3.625	4	[ -0.3251914381980896, 0.18745580315589905, 0.0882573351264, 0.03428742289543152, -0.36203300952911377, 0.24687837064266205, -0.012149271555244923, 0.21228115260601044, -0.1878238320350647, -0.2309577763080597, 0.3243609070777893, -0.17340165376663208, 0.3641284108161926, -0.0971346050500869...	10	Alexander Dubček led Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring of 1968. Though Alexander Dubček was a communist, he erred on the side of reform, which went against what his masters in Moscow would have wanted for Czechoslovakia as they feared the break-up of the Warsaw Pact. Dubček’s fall from grace and power was swift. Dubček was born in 1921 in Uhrovek, Slovakia. When he was aged four, his family moved to the Soviet Union and he grew up in the solidly communist country where the rule of Joseph Stalin was supreme. Dubček became a product of the Soviet education system and became a loyal communist. In 1938, Dubček returned to Slovakia and secretly joined the Communist Party in 1939. The occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939 and the Second World War focussed the attention of the people against a common foe so that internal politics mattered little. In 1944, Dubček joined the Slovak Resistance. The end of the war brought huge changes to Eastern Europe. The Cold War and the enmity between East and West meant that Stalin demanded an effective barrier around the Soviet Union so that if war in Europe did occur, countries like Czechoslovakia, Poland and Romania would take the brunt before and if the battlefield reached the Soviet border. Above all else, Stalin wanted to avoid the horrific devastation suffered by the Soviet Union during World War Two and the Eastern Bloc became his protective barrier. Immediately after World War Two, the Russian secret police, the KGB, removed anyone who was considered to be a problem from East European nations under Soviet control. Loyal communists were installed into government positions so that all these countries would be loyal to Moscow without question. Dubček had not yet reached such heights but was appointed a Communist Party official in 1949. Between 1955 and 1958, he was sent back to the Soviet Union to receive “political education” and his success in this area propelled him into higher government posts. By 1958, Dubček was seen as a good reliable communist who would support the leadership in Moscow. When he returned to Czechoslovakia, Dubček was appointed Principal Secretary of the Slovak Communist Party in Bratislava. He gained a reputation for effective leadership in Slovakia and as a man who did not want to buck the system. In the mid-1960’s there was mounting dissent towards the Party’s leader in Czechoslovakia, Antonin Novotný who failed to solve the country’s increasingly difficult economic situation. While he did not lead the attacks against Novotný, Dubček did allow himself to be put forward as the man who should succeed him. On January 5th 1968, the party’s central committee nominated Dubček to succeed Novotný after the Czechoslovak Party Central Committee passed a vote of no confidence in Novotný. What happened next must have come as a great surprise to the communist leaders in Moscow. Dubček announced that he wanted the Czech Communist Party to remain the predominant party in Czechoslovakia, but that he wanted the totalitarian aspects of the party to be reduced. Communist Party members in Czechoslovakia were given the right to challenge party policy as opposed to the traditional acceptance of all government policy. Party members were given the right to act “according to their conscience”. In what became known as the ‘Prague Spring’, he also announced the end of censorship and the right of Czech citizens to criticise the government. Newspapers took the opportunity to produce scathing reports about government incompetence and corruption. Dubček also announced that farmers would have the right to form independent co-operatives and that trade unions would have increased rights to bargain for their members. Crucially, however, Dubček stated that Czechoslovakia had no intention of leaving the Warsaw Pact. Between July and August 1968, he met senior Moscow politicians on the Slovakian-Ukraine border to reassure them that they had nothing to worry about and that what he was trying to achieve would have no bearing on the Warsaw Pact and its ability to compete with NATO. He repeated the same message to all members of the Warsaw Pact on August 3rd 1968. However, Dubček was informed by Moscow that they had discovered evidence that West Germany was planning to invade the Sudetenland and that the Soviet Union would provide Czechoslovakia with the troops needed to protect her from invasion. Dubček refused the offer but he must have known that this would count for nothing. His reassurances about not leaving the Warsaw Pact were ignored and on August 20th/21st Soviet troops (with token forces from other members of the Warsaw Pact) invaded Czechoslovakia. Dubček was arrested by released after talks in Moscow. Dubček claimed that the talks had been “comradely” and that he was abandoning his reform programme. As a result, Dubček remained as First Secretary until April 1969 when he was appointed Speaker of the Federal Assembly until he was expelled from the Communist Party in 1970. Following his expulsion, he was banished to Bratislava where he worked in a timber yard. For the next nineteen years he was, and had to be, politically dormant. However, Dubček had a political renaissance in 1989 when the Cold War ended. In November 1989, Dubček was once again appointed Speaker of the Federal Assembly. He was fiercely against the split between what was to become the Czech Republic and Slovakia as he felt that a continued union between the two best benefited both. However, he never got to see the ultimate development and outcome of the ‘Velvet Revolution’ as in July 1992 he was badly injured in a car accident and died from his injuries in November 1992. - The Prague Spring of 1968 is the term used for the brief period of time when the government of Czechoslovakia led by Alexander Dubček seemingly…	1,279	ENGLISH	1
Creative dance can increase social skills in children with autism spectrum disorder Researchers at the University of Utah have found the use of creative dance helps increase social play skills in children with autism spectrum disorder. "Research has demonstrated that play is central to the development of children's language and cognitive skills," said Catherine Nelson, associate professor of special education at the U. "However, children with autism often have difficulties with social play and play with objects such as toys." The study, published in the June edition of Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, examined methods for increasing the quality of play of three preschool-aged children with autism who were in classes primarily comprised of children without disabilities. Therefore, the interventions chosen for the study were ones that all children in the preschool classrooms could enjoy without singling out the children with autism. Typical preschool activities include large group circle time and learning centers that contain a variety of toys and materials that target children's learning. In this study, favored play materials of the children with autism were added to the learning centers along with associated toy accessories that increase the potential for child-to-child interaction. Creative dance activities were then added to the circle time and new and interactive ways to use the previously identified play materials were practiced during the activities. "For example, one of the children with autism liked pushing small match box cars back and forth on the floor," said Susan Johnston, chair of special education at the U. "Such cars were added to one of the learning centers along with a play mat representing a town. Creative dance activities included having the children 'drive' around the room with hula hoops representing car steering wheels. Concepts such as driving slow and fast, stopping and going, and visiting the library and gas station were practiced within the activity. Following the dance activity, the child and his peers went to the learning centers and instead of simply pushing the cars back and forth, he played with the other children, using the pretend play skills he had just practiced." By the end of the study, all three children demonstrated gains in social play skills as well as complexity of play with objects. However, the gains made did not maintain when the intervention ended. The results of the study suggest that motivating movement-based interventions targeting interactive and more complex play can lead to improved play skills in children with autism, however, such interventions must be on-going if gains are to continue.	<urn:uuid:1788516d-38b2-4eb5-a1b1-6705cf80569a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://medicalxpress.com/news/2017-06-creative-social-skills-children-autism.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00407.warc.gz	en	0.982701	487	3.796875	4	[ -0.19437867403030396, -0.32905083894729614, 0.402960866689682, -0.23848679661750793, -0.37025636434555054, 0.8040148019790649, -0.07917794585227966, 0.1898103654384613, 0.016816573217511177, -0.1369435042142868, 0.44289740920066833, 0.4781385064125061, 0.17421607673168182, 0.15850055217742...	2	Creative dance can increase social skills in children with autism spectrum disorder Researchers at the University of Utah have found the use of creative dance helps increase social play skills in children with autism spectrum disorder. "Research has demonstrated that play is central to the development of children's language and cognitive skills," said Catherine Nelson, associate professor of special education at the U. "However, children with autism often have difficulties with social play and play with objects such as toys." The study, published in the June edition of Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, examined methods for increasing the quality of play of three preschool-aged children with autism who were in classes primarily comprised of children without disabilities. Therefore, the interventions chosen for the study were ones that all children in the preschool classrooms could enjoy without singling out the children with autism. Typical preschool activities include large group circle time and learning centers that contain a variety of toys and materials that target children's learning. In this study, favored play materials of the children with autism were added to the learning centers along with associated toy accessories that increase the potential for child-to-child interaction. Creative dance activities were then added to the circle time and new and interactive ways to use the previously identified play materials were practiced during the activities. "For example, one of the children with autism liked pushing small match box cars back and forth on the floor," said Susan Johnston, chair of special education at the U. "Such cars were added to one of the learning centers along with a play mat representing a town. Creative dance activities included having the children 'drive' around the room with hula hoops representing car steering wheels. Concepts such as driving slow and fast, stopping and going, and visiting the library and gas station were practiced within the activity. Following the dance activity, the child and his peers went to the learning centers and instead of simply pushing the cars back and forth, he played with the other children, using the pretend play skills he had just practiced." By the end of the study, all three children demonstrated gains in social play skills as well as complexity of play with objects. However, the gains made did not maintain when the intervention ended. The results of the study suggest that motivating movement-based interventions targeting interactive and more complex play can lead to improved play skills in children with autism, however, such interventions must be on-going if gains are to continue.	474	ENGLISH	1
Previously posted at: https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/carole-lombard-killed-in-plane-crash On January 16, 1942, the actress Carole Lombard, famous for her roles in such screwball comedies as My Man Godfrey and To Be or Not to Be, and for her marriage to the actor Clark Gable, is killed when the TWA DC-3 plane she is traveling in crashes en route from Las Vegas to Los Angeles. She was 33. Gable and Lombard met in 1932 during the filming of No Man of Her Own. He was just starting out on his trajectory as one of Hollywood’s top leading men and she was a talented comedic actress trying to prove herself in more serious roles. Both were married at the time–Gable to a wealthy Texas widow 10 years his senior and Lombard to the actor William Powell–and neither showed much interest in the other. When they met again, three years later, Lombard had divorced Powell and Gable was separated from his wife, and things proceeded quite differently. Much to the media’s delight, the new couple was open with their affection, calling each other Ma and Pa and exchanging quirky, expensive gifts. In early 1939, Gable’s wife finally granted him a divorce, and he married Lombard that April. In January 1942, shortly after America’s entrance into World War II, Howard Dietz, the publicity director of the MGM film studio, recruited Lombard for a tour to sell war bonds in her home state of Indiana. Gable, who had been asked to serve as the head of the actors’ branch of the wartime Hollywood Victory Committee, stayed in Los Angeles, where he was set to begin filming Somewhere I’ll Find You with Lana Turner. Dietz advised Lombard to avoid airplane travel, because he feared for its reliability and safety, and she did most of the trip by train, stopping at various locations on the way to Indianapolis and raising some $2 million for the war effort. On the way home, however, Lombard didn’t want to wait for the train, and instead boarded the TWA DC-3 in Las Vegas with her mother, Elizabeth Peters, and a group that included the MGM publicity agent Otto Winkler and 15 young Army pilots. Shortly after takeoff, the plane veered off course. Warning beacons that might have helped guide the pilot had been blacked out because of fears about Japanese bombers, and the plane smashed into a cliff near the top of Potosi Mountain. Search parties were able to retrieve Lombard’s body, and she was buried next to her mother at Forest Lawn Cemetery in Glendale, California, under a marker that read “Carole Lombard Gable.” Hysterical with grief and adrift in the empty house he had shared with Lombard, Gable drank heavily and struggled to complete his work on Somewhere I’ll Find You. He was comforted by worried friends, including the actress Joan Crawford. That August, Gable decided to enlist in the U.S. Army Air Forces. He spent most of the war in the United Kingdom, and flew several combat missions (including one to Germany), earning several decorations for his efforts. He would remarry twice more, but when he died in 1960 Gable was interred at Forest Lawn, next to Lombard.	<urn:uuid:b0238571-c879-4667-a7c8-7d008b69442f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.tribalsleuth.com/2020/01/16/actress-carole-lombard-killed-in-plane-crash/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00426.warc.gz	en	0.982281	708	3.296875	3	[ -0.6150486469268799, 0.49700599908828735, 0.24511978030204773, -0.12986677885055542, -0.3386932611465454, 0.052299316972494125, 0.14699207246303558, 0.1407172679901123, -0.13388827443122864, -0.5173301100730896, 0.2344689816236496, 0.3851320147514343, 0.32812678813934326, 0.410787940025329...	3	Previously posted at: https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/carole-lombard-killed-in-plane-crash On January 16, 1942, the actress Carole Lombard, famous for her roles in such screwball comedies as My Man Godfrey and To Be or Not to Be, and for her marriage to the actor Clark Gable, is killed when the TWA DC-3 plane she is traveling in crashes en route from Las Vegas to Los Angeles. She was 33. Gable and Lombard met in 1932 during the filming of No Man of Her Own. He was just starting out on his trajectory as one of Hollywood’s top leading men and she was a talented comedic actress trying to prove herself in more serious roles. Both were married at the time–Gable to a wealthy Texas widow 10 years his senior and Lombard to the actor William Powell–and neither showed much interest in the other. When they met again, three years later, Lombard had divorced Powell and Gable was separated from his wife, and things proceeded quite differently. Much to the media’s delight, the new couple was open with their affection, calling each other Ma and Pa and exchanging quirky, expensive gifts. In early 1939, Gable’s wife finally granted him a divorce, and he married Lombard that April. In January 1942, shortly after America’s entrance into World War II, Howard Dietz, the publicity director of the MGM film studio, recruited Lombard for a tour to sell war bonds in her home state of Indiana. Gable, who had been asked to serve as the head of the actors’ branch of the wartime Hollywood Victory Committee, stayed in Los Angeles, where he was set to begin filming Somewhere I’ll Find You with Lana Turner. Dietz advised Lombard to avoid airplane travel, because he feared for its reliability and safety, and she did most of the trip by train, stopping at various locations on the way to Indianapolis and raising some $2 million for the war effort. On the way home, however, Lombard didn’t want to wait for the train, and instead boarded the TWA DC-3 in Las Vegas with her mother, Elizabeth Peters, and a group that included the MGM publicity agent Otto Winkler and 15 young Army pilots. Shortly after takeoff, the plane veered off course. Warning beacons that might have helped guide the pilot had been blacked out because of fears about Japanese bombers, and the plane smashed into a cliff near the top of Potosi Mountain. Search parties were able to retrieve Lombard’s body, and she was buried next to her mother at Forest Lawn Cemetery in Glendale, California, under a marker that read “Carole Lombard Gable.” Hysterical with grief and adrift in the empty house he had shared with Lombard, Gable drank heavily and struggled to complete his work on Somewhere I’ll Find You. He was comforted by worried friends, including the actress Joan Crawford. That August, Gable decided to enlist in the U.S. Army Air Forces. He spent most of the war in the United Kingdom, and flew several combat missions (including one to Germany), earning several decorations for his efforts. He would remarry twice more, but when he died in 1960 Gable was interred at Forest Lawn, next to Lombard.	705	ENGLISH	1
THE LADY WITH THE LAMP BORN – 12 May 1820 DIED -13 August 1910 Florence Nightingale was best known for her contributions to nursing as well as statistics. She was a gallant woman who glorified the role of women nurses. She came to light during the Crimean War in which she aided the wounded soldiers. Florence changed the concept of the profession of nursing from untrained to highly skilled and relevant to the field of medicine. In 1860, Florence also established St. Thomas’ Hospital and the Nightingale School for Nurses. Early Life and Her Determination Florence Nightingale was born on May 12, 1820, into a wealthy and upper-class British family. She was the daughter of William Edward Nightingale and Frances Nightingale nee Smith. William’s mother was the niece of Peter Nightingale upon whose terms William took up his estate as well as the name of Nightingale. They moved back to London in 1821. Florence, named after her place of birth (Florence, Tuscany, Italy) inherited a humanitarian nature. She was educated by her father. He once took her on a trip to Europe and there she met a Parisian Hostess named Mary Clarke who never gave any thought to upper-class British women and thought them inconsequential but she bonded with Florence and the latter was immensely influenced by Clarke’s ideas of how women could be equal to men which roused in her a new spark of resistance and determination to work. Nightingale first had a strong desire to devote her life in service of others at Embley Park in 1837 where she was certain to have received calls from God. In her days of youth, Florence did respect her family’s opposition to her working but in 1844, she finally entered the working field despite her family’s opposition and rebelling against the society’s notion of what was to become of a cultured and accomplished young woman. She went ahead and educated herself in the art and science of nursing. Florence was said to be a graceful lady and despite her hard demeanor she was said to behold a charming personality. Her most prominent relationship was said to be with a politician and a poet Richard Monckton Mines, a nine yearlong courtship that she ended because she felt it would interfere with her purpose of social service. She further traveled to Greece and Egypt and many more places and wrote voraciously. Her writings of Egypt are a symbol of her philosophy of life. She visited various temples in the Nile as well as Thebes where she again felt God be calling for her and wrote in her diary “God called me in the morning and asked me would I do good for him alone without a reputation”. When she visited the Lutheran religious community and watched Pastor Theodor Fliedner working for the good of sick and deprived. She termed it as a turning point in her life upon which she joined The Institute of Kaiserswerth where she underwent four months of medical training and wrote a book named The Institute of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine. In 1853, she joined the Institute for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen as a superintendent in London which she retained as long as 1854. The annual income of $65,000 given to her by her father allowed her to live comfortably.	<urn:uuid:1ff4fa7c-1553-49b0-9999-3c2d06dd0a94>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thewhyculture.com/people/florence-nightingale/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00148.warc.gz	en	0.988701	694	3.65625	4	[ -0.08145929872989655, 0.40229570865631104, 0.36913251876831055, 0.15257681906223297, -0.25801223516464233, 0.21667852997779846, 0.22708283364772797, 0.15402159094810486, -0.04555018991231918, 0.27515709400177, -0.3122216463088989, -0.10625700652599335, -0.012742831371724606, 0.043518703430...	3	THE LADY WITH THE LAMP BORN – 12 May 1820 DIED -13 August 1910 Florence Nightingale was best known for her contributions to nursing as well as statistics. She was a gallant woman who glorified the role of women nurses. She came to light during the Crimean War in which she aided the wounded soldiers. Florence changed the concept of the profession of nursing from untrained to highly skilled and relevant to the field of medicine. In 1860, Florence also established St. Thomas’ Hospital and the Nightingale School for Nurses. Early Life and Her Determination Florence Nightingale was born on May 12, 1820, into a wealthy and upper-class British family. She was the daughter of William Edward Nightingale and Frances Nightingale nee Smith. William’s mother was the niece of Peter Nightingale upon whose terms William took up his estate as well as the name of Nightingale. They moved back to London in 1821. Florence, named after her place of birth (Florence, Tuscany, Italy) inherited a humanitarian nature. She was educated by her father. He once took her on a trip to Europe and there she met a Parisian Hostess named Mary Clarke who never gave any thought to upper-class British women and thought them inconsequential but she bonded with Florence and the latter was immensely influenced by Clarke’s ideas of how women could be equal to men which roused in her a new spark of resistance and determination to work. Nightingale first had a strong desire to devote her life in service of others at Embley Park in 1837 where she was certain to have received calls from God. In her days of youth, Florence did respect her family’s opposition to her working but in 1844, she finally entered the working field despite her family’s opposition and rebelling against the society’s notion of what was to become of a cultured and accomplished young woman. She went ahead and educated herself in the art and science of nursing. Florence was said to be a graceful lady and despite her hard demeanor she was said to behold a charming personality. Her most prominent relationship was said to be with a politician and a poet Richard Monckton Mines, a nine yearlong courtship that she ended because she felt it would interfere with her purpose of social service. She further traveled to Greece and Egypt and many more places and wrote voraciously. Her writings of Egypt are a symbol of her philosophy of life. She visited various temples in the Nile as well as Thebes where she again felt God be calling for her and wrote in her diary “God called me in the morning and asked me would I do good for him alone without a reputation”. When she visited the Lutheran religious community and watched Pastor Theodor Fliedner working for the good of sick and deprived. She termed it as a turning point in her life upon which she joined The Institute of Kaiserswerth where she underwent four months of medical training and wrote a book named The Institute of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine. In 1853, she joined the Institute for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen as a superintendent in London which she retained as long as 1854. The annual income of $65,000 given to her by her father allowed her to live comfortably.	711	ENGLISH	1
An Introduction to Practising This guide is aimed at pupils and their parents/carers alike. I occasionally get asked how much practice a child should be doing. My answer is always that a pupil needs to be playing every day. The goal is to inspire the student to eventually self-motivate themselves. A child who does this is one who plays every day, feels comfortable and able at the instrument, and perhaps most importantly, gets positive feedback from parents and carers. Playing the piano is enormously complex both as a physical and mental activity, and as such requires plenty of time to learn. Nobody expects to be able to pick up a hammer and chisel and carve the Discobolus on the first try. Likewise, progress in musical technique takes constant practice over time, and just as a kettle that is continually removed from the heat will take longer to boil, gaps in a practice routine will result in a pupil whose technique never 'boils'. I say routine because, in the end, a routine is required for the busy children and adult learners these days. It is easy to find time to brush teeth and eat meals (or perhaps the other way around!), because these things are done every day and often at the same times every day. Playing the piano can be the same, and soon it will no longer be a 'chore' for either parent or pupil. Often my students explain to me that they didn't practice at all this week for the following reasons (true story). “I didn't practise this week because,” “I had a sleepover/playdate” “My mum told me not to” “My grandparents were visiting” “My parents haven't unpacked my piano” “I had to go to the dentist” “I wasn't allowed to because my sister was practising” “I don't have a piano” These excuses wouldn't need to be made if a routine was in place, and the lesson would then have been productive. As it is, the lesson was probably spent re-learning exactly what was done the week previous, while the fingers are even more out of shape. The most effective routine I have ever seen in any pupil is one that is before school. The children and adults who wake up a bit earlier and do their practising in the morning are the ones who show the most steady progress, and the ones who consequently enjoy it more. The final point is on positive feedback. Children spend their childhood looking to role-models for how to behave and guidance on which are the most worthwhile pursuits. The way babies, toddlers, and young children do this is by doing something and then observing the role-model's reaction. If it's a good reaction, then the child is more likely to do it again. This extrapolates very simply and directly into: children emulate their role-model. If you as a parent never listen to Beethoven, do not be surprised when your child shows zero interest in Beethoven, no matter how much you want them to. My daughter is 3 years old as I write this and is in the ideal situation of having in the house two musician parents and two pianos. As I practise on one, she more often than not will sit at the other one and play at the same time (the distraction took some getting used to for me, but I certainly didn't want to discourage her!) I often look over at her and see that she is watching me carefully and copying my arm movements. It's hard to express in words my delight at seeing this. I have encouraged Elsa to enjoy the music that I think is good and worth her time. Before her first birthday, we started listening to Beethoven's Coriolanus while I would bounce and move her in time to the music. Her taste has bloomed since then to encompass LvB's symphonies, especially the 7th, which accounts for 95% of her requests. She also enjoys the “scared” pieces of Scriabin that I play, my Ya Sibiryachka and O Canada variations, and of course nursery rhymes. But most importantly, she has never once asked me to put on Rick Astley, which is fine by me.	<urn:uuid:3ad15dba-6893-409a-a531-58fcd95be12c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.iainlaks.com/an-introduction-to-practising	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00556.warc.gz	en	0.983714	885	3.671875	4	[ 0.20348909497261047, -0.2940830588340759, 0.5548834800720215, -0.6349639892578125, -0.7551683783531189, 0.41946175694465637, 0.02852775901556015, -0.008347908034920692, 0.08630670607089996, -0.24889767169952393, 0.028402183204889297, 0.009071579203009605, -0.12939715385437012, 0.3230137228...	9	An Introduction to Practising This guide is aimed at pupils and their parents/carers alike. I occasionally get asked how much practice a child should be doing. My answer is always that a pupil needs to be playing every day. The goal is to inspire the student to eventually self-motivate themselves. A child who does this is one who plays every day, feels comfortable and able at the instrument, and perhaps most importantly, gets positive feedback from parents and carers. Playing the piano is enormously complex both as a physical and mental activity, and as such requires plenty of time to learn. Nobody expects to be able to pick up a hammer and chisel and carve the Discobolus on the first try. Likewise, progress in musical technique takes constant practice over time, and just as a kettle that is continually removed from the heat will take longer to boil, gaps in a practice routine will result in a pupil whose technique never 'boils'. I say routine because, in the end, a routine is required for the busy children and adult learners these days. It is easy to find time to brush teeth and eat meals (or perhaps the other way around!), because these things are done every day and often at the same times every day. Playing the piano can be the same, and soon it will no longer be a 'chore' for either parent or pupil. Often my students explain to me that they didn't practice at all this week for the following reasons (true story). “I didn't practise this week because,” “I had a sleepover/playdate” “My mum told me not to” “My grandparents were visiting” “My parents haven't unpacked my piano” “I had to go to the dentist” “I wasn't allowed to because my sister was practising” “I don't have a piano” These excuses wouldn't need to be made if a routine was in place, and the lesson would then have been productive. As it is, the lesson was probably spent re-learning exactly what was done the week previous, while the fingers are even more out of shape. The most effective routine I have ever seen in any pupil is one that is before school. The children and adults who wake up a bit earlier and do their practising in the morning are the ones who show the most steady progress, and the ones who consequently enjoy it more. The final point is on positive feedback. Children spend their childhood looking to role-models for how to behave and guidance on which are the most worthwhile pursuits. The way babies, toddlers, and young children do this is by doing something and then observing the role-model's reaction. If it's a good reaction, then the child is more likely to do it again. This extrapolates very simply and directly into: children emulate their role-model. If you as a parent never listen to Beethoven, do not be surprised when your child shows zero interest in Beethoven, no matter how much you want them to. My daughter is 3 years old as I write this and is in the ideal situation of having in the house two musician parents and two pianos. As I practise on one, she more often than not will sit at the other one and play at the same time (the distraction took some getting used to for me, but I certainly didn't want to discourage her!) I often look over at her and see that she is watching me carefully and copying my arm movements. It's hard to express in words my delight at seeing this. I have encouraged Elsa to enjoy the music that I think is good and worth her time. Before her first birthday, we started listening to Beethoven's Coriolanus while I would bounce and move her in time to the music. Her taste has bloomed since then to encompass LvB's symphonies, especially the 7th, which accounts for 95% of her requests. She also enjoys the “scared” pieces of Scriabin that I play, my Ya Sibiryachka and O Canada variations, and of course nursery rhymes. But most importantly, she has never once asked me to put on Rick Astley, which is fine by me.	838	ENGLISH	1
Warfare History Network Where were the carriers? Key point: These capital ships had to suffice since the American carriers were away. During the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 the primary target was Battleship Row. These capital ships had to suffice since the American carriers were away. Among the battleships lined up alongside Ford Island was the USS West Virginia, a twenty-year-old warship with a crew of over a thousand. During the battle the ship took seven torpedo hits along the port side along with two bomb strikes around its superstructure. The ship rapidly flooded, settling on the floor of the harbor with her superstructure above water. In the aftermath of the attack frantic efforts were made to save survivors trapped below decks on the sunken and damaged ships. Hulls were cut open and divers darted beneath the waves in desperate attempts to save them. The minesweeper Tern lay alongside the “Weevee,” as the battleship was nicknamed, playing water over the fires burning aboard her. When the fires were extinguished at 2PM, the Tern moved over to the Arizona. Commander D. H. Clark, the Fleet Maintenance Officer, reported on December 9 the West Virginia was “doubtful,” estimating twelve to eighteen months for repairs if she could be saved at all. Stripped for Useful Items Since the ship couldn’t be quickly salvaged, it was stripped for useful items. Guards were posted on the ship starting on December 8 to protect against looting, theft or espionage. Sentry duty aboard the half-sunken wreck of their former home was a sad time for them. During the quiets times some sailors reported hearing tapping noises coming from below decks. They believed the noise came from trapped crew members signaling desperately for help. There were some 70 men missing from the ship’s complement. Their officers told them it was only the sound of wreckage and loose items floating in and around the ship, banging into the hull. Not As Bad as First Suspected Source : Link to Author	<urn:uuid:4eb5be5a-2a26-4cd4-bbce-2199248650b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://e-news.us/this-is-why-japan-targeted-battleship-row-in-the-attack-on-pearl-harbor/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00524.warc.gz	en	0.9822	424	3.6875	4	[ -0.062200792133808136, 0.20356647670269012, 0.07907543331384659, -0.4210074841976166, 0.023567207157611847, 0.03286634385585785, 0.16985848546028137, 0.34330782294273376, -0.28429844975471497, -0.23123764991760254, 0.25074222683906555, -0.13542702794075012, 0.021597446873784065, 0.35830235...	1	Warfare History Network Where were the carriers? Key point: These capital ships had to suffice since the American carriers were away. During the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 the primary target was Battleship Row. These capital ships had to suffice since the American carriers were away. Among the battleships lined up alongside Ford Island was the USS West Virginia, a twenty-year-old warship with a crew of over a thousand. During the battle the ship took seven torpedo hits along the port side along with two bomb strikes around its superstructure. The ship rapidly flooded, settling on the floor of the harbor with her superstructure above water. In the aftermath of the attack frantic efforts were made to save survivors trapped below decks on the sunken and damaged ships. Hulls were cut open and divers darted beneath the waves in desperate attempts to save them. The minesweeper Tern lay alongside the “Weevee,” as the battleship was nicknamed, playing water over the fires burning aboard her. When the fires were extinguished at 2PM, the Tern moved over to the Arizona. Commander D. H. Clark, the Fleet Maintenance Officer, reported on December 9 the West Virginia was “doubtful,” estimating twelve to eighteen months for repairs if she could be saved at all. Stripped for Useful Items Since the ship couldn’t be quickly salvaged, it was stripped for useful items. Guards were posted on the ship starting on December 8 to protect against looting, theft or espionage. Sentry duty aboard the half-sunken wreck of their former home was a sad time for them. During the quiets times some sailors reported hearing tapping noises coming from below decks. They believed the noise came from trapped crew members signaling desperately for help. There were some 70 men missing from the ship’s complement. Their officers told them it was only the sound of wreckage and loose items floating in and around the ship, banging into the hull. Not As Bad as First Suspected Source : Link to Author	416	ENGLISH	1
Suitor and Papa By Anton Chekhov- Summary and Solved Questions Category : NCERT SOLUTIONS FOR CLASS 11TH Suitor and Papa By Anton Chekhov The story”The Suitor and Papa” authored by Russian writer describes the futility of marriage, relationship, and family in European society. It delineates a contemporary society in which marriage is given secondary importance rather than job and enjoyment. Petrovich Milkin was a decent companion of Nastya. They hung out and the people thought they were lovers. Nastya’s father was not an exception for this misconception. People started to ask Milken about their marriage and the young fellow realized the danger he was in. Before he could flee from the country, Nastya’s father calked Milkin for a meeting to discuss the marriage. Milkin attempted to avoid the looming fiasco of marriage by asserting he was a Kondrashkin’s a drunkard, he had fled with stolen money and that he was mad. But in spite of every allegation that he heaped upon him, Nastya’s father found the essential goodness in the young fellow. At last Milkin approached his friend and specialist to certify him mad. On hearing Milkin looked for a medical certification to expel a marriage, the friendly doctor refused to confirm his friend insane because he believed that an insane person can’t escape from marriage! Summary And Critical Analysis This critical analysis or evaluation will help students understand the question/answer; reference to context; character analysis and also the content of the story. It will enable them to formulate their own comments and interpretations on the story and understand well its theme, plot setting, etc. These meaningful, value-based things enhance student creativity. • Petrovich Milkin = A young Man • Anastasia (Nastya) = Kondrashkin’s daughter • Kondrashkin = Anastasia’s Father • Dr. Fituyev = A Psychiatrist • Petrovich Milkin hung out with Nastya, one of the Kondrashin’s daughters. Seeing this, most people thought that Milkin and Nastya were lovers and would marry. • Milkin’s friends begun asking him about their marriage but Milkin was not interested in getting married. • Well, he had been intimate with Nastya dined almost every evening, walked together there but Milkin had no designs of marrying Nastya. •Seeing this, his friends and Nastya’s family would compel him to wed the young girl who loved him, Milkin chooses to leave the spot. In this way, he goes to Nastya’s home and meets her father Kondrashkin. He tells him that he will be leaving the place the following day. • Kondrashkin is annoyed and shocked. He calls it dishonest. He requests Milkin to propose to his daughter Nastya. • At this point, Milkin presents a number of reasons to evade the matter. • Milkin admits that he would find no better girl than Nastya if he had wished to get married, he says that the two had different convictions and views. • Kondrashkin counters this contention by saying that all people have varying perspectives and feelings and that he could never meet any lady who had similar perspectives and feelings. He further says that after a couple of days of their marriage, the harsh edges would be scoured off and there will be no distinctions throughout their life. Milkin says that he was not a proper match for Nastya because he was a poor man. • The crafty Kondrashkin laughs at this. He reminds Milkin that he was a salaried man. • Milkin is unsuccessful again so he comes up with another lie that he is a drunkard! • Kondrashkin says that he does not believe this. Milkin being a good young man, no, he could not believe he drinks. • Now Milkin realizes that Kondrashkin was determined to get him married to Nastya. Instantly, he says that he took bribes! • Kondrashin laughs at it, too. He reminds Milkin that everyone in the world took bribes. Milkin feels like being disarmed and defeated. • Next, Milkin goes a little more dramatic and says that he could any time be arrested for embezzlement. He was on a trial. • At this, Kondrashkin appears to have abandoned his pursuit. He asks Milkin how much amount he had embezzled a big amount of a 144, 000 ruble (it is ruble because the story is Russian). • Kondrashkin goes silent for a while and predicts that Milkin will be sent to a Siberian prison if he is caught. He tells him that Nastya will follow him to Siberia as her love is pure. He, therefore, asks Milkin to propose to her. • Milkin now comprehends that the two were playing a similar game-the man was forcing him to wed his little daughter at any expense! Milkin’s brain tinkles by and by and he says that he would be attempted not just for misappropriation, but also for fabrication. • The intelligent Kondrashkin laughs at this because there will be the same punishment for the two crimes! • Milkin now says that he is a runaway convict. Kondrashkin becomes silent for a moment and then asks Milkin why he had not been arrested yet. Milkin says that he had been living in somebody’s else identity. • Kondrashkin thinks about it. He is abruptly cheered. He asks Milkin to wed Nastya because in that way the police could never discover him until death. Milkin makes another endeavor he says he is insane! Kondrashkin is no such senseless that he would trust it. He says that lunatics can’t contend so legitimately and reasonably as Milkin did. Milkin rises and goes out to get a doctor’s certificate to prove his madness. • Milkin meets Dr. Fituyev, a Psychiatrist. The doctor doesn’t find anything wrong with Milkin. • Milkin urges the doctor to certify him insane to avoid getting married. • Dr. Fituyev says that he could not certify Milkin because anyone who doesn’t wish to get married is a wise man. • The doctor asks him to come for a mental fitness certificate anytime he decides to get married. • Milkin has no way out. He sits down, helpless. QUESTION ANSWERS OF THE SUITOR AND PAPA Q. Why did Pyotr’s friend ask for a stag party? A. Pyotr’s friend asked for a stag party because there were rumours all around about Pyotr’s marriage. Q. Why did Pyotr’s friend conclude that he was planning to marry Nastya? A. Pyotr’s friend concluded that Pyotr was planning to marry Nastya because Pyotr would spend days with the kondrashkins. He would dine with them and go with Nastya and Konrashkins for walks. He would also take her bunches of flowers. Q. Pyotr’s friend says, I’m glad for Kondrashkin’s sake rather than yours. Why? A. Pyotr’s friend says that because he was happy for Kondrashkin’s sake because Kondrashkin had seven daughters and the marriage of Milkin with Nastya would mean that one of his liability would be settled by the poor father. Q. I’ll drop in tomorrow and sort it out with that blocked of Kondrashkin’s….” What was Pyotr’s planning to sort out with Kondrashkin? A. Pyotr planned to sort out with Kondrashkin that he had no plan to marry his daughter. He wished him to know that he was not interested in getting married to his daughter when he had been dining at his place and walking with Nastya and that all this would never mean that he would marry his daughter. Q. In what state was Pyotr when he went to meet Konderashkin? How do you know? A. Pyotr was in a state of displeasure and anger. His rumours of getting married to Kondrashkin’s daughter Nastya had frustrated him. We know all this only when in a disturbed and confused state he entered the study of Kondrashkin. Q. What issue was Kondrashkin accusing Pyotr of evading? A. Kondrashkin was accusing Pyotr of evading his daughter Nastya’s marriage issue. Q. Pyotr cited many reasons for not proposing to Anastasia. List them. A. Pyotr cited many reasons in order to avoid getting married to Anastsaia. The reasons are listed as under: - that he was a drunkard, - that he took bribes, - that he had embezzled a hundred and forty-four thousands, - that he was on the trait for embezzlement, - that he was a runaway convict, - that he was mad and - that marriage is forbidden to a mad person. Q. Do you think the reasons Pyotr put forth were genuine? How do you know? A. We believe the reasons were somehow genuine for Pyotr had no choice but to concoct reasons to avoid getting hitched with Nastya for the court councilor seemed to use his hospitality as a pressure tactic to force the young Milkin to agree to marry Anastasia. Q. When he failed to convince Kondrashkin, what did Pyotr almost family decided to do? A. After failing to persuade Kondrashkin, Pyotr decided to pretend insanity, a Hamlet device, so that he would not be allowed to marry legally. He almost decided to visit one of his friends, a doctor, and get a certificate from him to prove that he was crazy. Q. Why does Fithyev refuse to certify Pyotr as mad, despite being his friend? A. Fithyev refuses to certify him as mad for he believed that anyone who did not want to get married could not be insane. He thinks that avoiding marriage is being wise.	<urn:uuid:372ace65-b1ac-4523-8c39-fc955286b4a3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://smartenglishnotes.com/2019/05/27/suitor-and-papa-by-anton-chekhov-summary-and-solved-questions/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00006.warc.gz	en	0.984924	2,258	3.515625	4	[ -0.40226107835769653, 0.2500240206718445, -0.23538430035114288, -0.3119712769985199, -0.12118744850158691, -0.07987990230321884, 0.5062183141708374, 0.3740749955177307, 0.03895185887813568, -0.028752367943525314, 0.03462487459182739, -0.1428728699684143, 0.13831347227096558, 0.087704159319...	1	Suitor and Papa By Anton Chekhov- Summary and Solved Questions Category : NCERT SOLUTIONS FOR CLASS 11TH Suitor and Papa By Anton Chekhov The story”The Suitor and Papa” authored by Russian writer describes the futility of marriage, relationship, and family in European society. It delineates a contemporary society in which marriage is given secondary importance rather than job and enjoyment. Petrovich Milkin was a decent companion of Nastya. They hung out and the people thought they were lovers. Nastya’s father was not an exception for this misconception. People started to ask Milken about their marriage and the young fellow realized the danger he was in. Before he could flee from the country, Nastya’s father calked Milkin for a meeting to discuss the marriage. Milkin attempted to avoid the looming fiasco of marriage by asserting he was a Kondrashkin’s a drunkard, he had fled with stolen money and that he was mad. But in spite of every allegation that he heaped upon him, Nastya’s father found the essential goodness in the young fellow. At last Milkin approached his friend and specialist to certify him mad. On hearing Milkin looked for a medical certification to expel a marriage, the friendly doctor refused to confirm his friend insane because he believed that an insane person can’t escape from marriage! Summary And Critical Analysis This critical analysis or evaluation will help students understand the question/answer; reference to context; character analysis and also the content of the story. It will enable them to formulate their own comments and interpretations on the story and understand well its theme, plot setting, etc. These meaningful, value-based things enhance student creativity. • Petrovich Milkin = A young Man • Anastasia (Nastya) = Kondrashkin’s daughter • Kondrashkin = Anastasia’s Father • Dr. Fituyev = A Psychiatrist • Petrovich Milkin hung out with Nastya, one of the Kondrashin’s daughters. Seeing this, most people thought that Milkin and Nastya were lovers and would marry. • Milkin’s friends begun asking him about their marriage but Milkin was not interested in getting married. • Well, he had been intimate with Nastya dined almost every evening, walked together there but Milkin had no designs of marrying Nastya. •Seeing this, his friends and Nastya’s family would compel him to wed the young girl who loved him, Milkin chooses to leave the spot. In this way, he goes to Nastya’s home and meets her father Kondrashkin. He tells him that he will be leaving the place the following day. • Kondrashkin is annoyed and shocked. He calls it dishonest. He requests Milkin to propose to his daughter Nastya. • At this point, Milkin presents a number of reasons to evade the matter. • Milkin admits that he would find no better girl than Nastya if he had wished to get married, he says that the two had different convictions and views. • Kondrashkin counters this contention by saying that all people have varying perspectives and feelings and that he could never meet any lady who had similar perspectives and feelings. He further says that after a couple of days of their marriage, the harsh edges would be scoured off and there will be no distinctions throughout their life. Milkin says that he was not a proper match for Nastya because he was a poor man. • The crafty Kondrashkin laughs at this. He reminds Milkin that he was a salaried man. • Milkin is unsuccessful again so he comes up with another lie that he is a drunkard! • Kondrashkin says that he does not believe this. Milkin being a good young man, no, he could not believe he drinks. • Now Milkin realizes that Kondrashkin was determined to get him married to Nastya. Instantly, he says that he took bribes! • Kondrashin laughs at it, too. He reminds Milkin that everyone in the world took bribes. Milkin feels like being disarmed and defeated. • Next, Milkin goes a little more dramatic and says that he could any time be arrested for embezzlement. He was on a trial. • At this, Kondrashkin appears to have abandoned his pursuit. He asks Milkin how much amount he had embezzled a big amount of a 144, 000 ruble (it is ruble because the story is Russian). • Kondrashkin goes silent for a while and predicts that Milkin will be sent to a Siberian prison if he is caught. He tells him that Nastya will follow him to Siberia as her love is pure. He, therefore, asks Milkin to propose to her. • Milkin now comprehends that the two were playing a similar game-the man was forcing him to wed his little daughter at any expense! Milkin’s brain tinkles by and by and he says that he would be attempted not just for misappropriation, but also for fabrication. • The intelligent Kondrashkin laughs at this because there will be the same punishment for the two crimes! • Milkin now says that he is a runaway convict. Kondrashkin becomes silent for a moment and then asks Milkin why he had not been arrested yet. Milkin says that he had been living in somebody’s else identity. • Kondrashkin thinks about it. He is abruptly cheered. He asks Milkin to wed Nastya because in that way the police could never discover him until death. Milkin makes another endeavor he says he is insane! Kondrashkin is no such senseless that he would trust it. He says that lunatics can’t contend so legitimately and reasonably as Milkin did. Milkin rises and goes out to get a doctor’s certificate to prove his madness. • Milkin meets Dr. Fituyev, a Psychiatrist. The doctor doesn’t find anything wrong with Milkin. • Milkin urges the doctor to certify him insane to avoid getting married. • Dr. Fituyev says that he could not certify Milkin because anyone who doesn’t wish to get married is a wise man. • The doctor asks him to come for a mental fitness certificate anytime he decides to get married. • Milkin has no way out. He sits down, helpless. QUESTION ANSWERS OF THE SUITOR AND PAPA Q. Why did Pyotr’s friend ask for a stag party? A. Pyotr’s friend asked for a stag party because there were rumours all around about Pyotr’s marriage. Q. Why did Pyotr’s friend conclude that he was planning to marry Nastya? A. Pyotr’s friend concluded that Pyotr was planning to marry Nastya because Pyotr would spend days with the kondrashkins. He would dine with them and go with Nastya and Konrashkins for walks. He would also take her bunches of flowers. Q. Pyotr’s friend says, I’m glad for Kondrashkin’s sake rather than yours. Why? A. Pyotr’s friend says that because he was happy for Kondrashkin’s sake because Kondrashkin had seven daughters and the marriage of Milkin with Nastya would mean that one of his liability would be settled by the poor father. Q. I’ll drop in tomorrow and sort it out with that blocked of Kondrashkin’s….” What was Pyotr’s planning to sort out with Kondrashkin? A. Pyotr planned to sort out with Kondrashkin that he had no plan to marry his daughter. He wished him to know that he was not interested in getting married to his daughter when he had been dining at his place and walking with Nastya and that all this would never mean that he would marry his daughter. Q. In what state was Pyotr when he went to meet Konderashkin? How do you know? A. Pyotr was in a state of displeasure and anger. His rumours of getting married to Kondrashkin’s daughter Nastya had frustrated him. We know all this only when in a disturbed and confused state he entered the study of Kondrashkin. Q. What issue was Kondrashkin accusing Pyotr of evading? A. Kondrashkin was accusing Pyotr of evading his daughter Nastya’s marriage issue. Q. Pyotr cited many reasons for not proposing to Anastasia. List them. A. Pyotr cited many reasons in order to avoid getting married to Anastsaia. The reasons are listed as under: - that he was a drunkard, - that he took bribes, - that he had embezzled a hundred and forty-four thousands, - that he was on the trait for embezzlement, - that he was a runaway convict, - that he was mad and - that marriage is forbidden to a mad person. Q. Do you think the reasons Pyotr put forth were genuine? How do you know? A. We believe the reasons were somehow genuine for Pyotr had no choice but to concoct reasons to avoid getting hitched with Nastya for the court councilor seemed to use his hospitality as a pressure tactic to force the young Milkin to agree to marry Anastasia. Q. When he failed to convince Kondrashkin, what did Pyotr almost family decided to do? A. After failing to persuade Kondrashkin, Pyotr decided to pretend insanity, a Hamlet device, so that he would not be allowed to marry legally. He almost decided to visit one of his friends, a doctor, and get a certificate from him to prove that he was crazy. Q. Why does Fithyev refuse to certify Pyotr as mad, despite being his friend? A. Fithyev refuses to certify him as mad for he believed that anyone who did not want to get married could not be insane. He thinks that avoiding marriage is being wise.	2,115	ENGLISH	1
Vicksburg’s Lee Paper Company, later Simpson Paper Co. and most recently known as Fox River Paper Co., was originally built to fill a need for a rag-content paper mill in the Kalamazoo Valley paper producing region. Vicksburg was selected because it had a good supply of clean water, two railroads and was centrally located to possible paper markets. Scores of workers of Polish ancestry, some of whom had paper making experience, were brought to the mill from Chicago and other areas. When construction was completed in 1905, production was 35,000 pounds per day. There were 205 employees whose wages ran from 20 cents per hour to 32-1/2 cents an hour. Girls earned 10 cents an hour sometimes working 50 to 60 hours a week. Textiles in the form of worn-out clothing and other rags formed the raw material for rag-content paper. Women sorted the rags, removed buttons and foreign objects in the Rag Room. The cloth was shredded, cooked and processed into fine-quality writing papers. Under Manager Norman Bardeen, the mill managed to operate throughout the Great Depression, though hours were cut and the available work was spread around so that as many employees as possible could take home a paycheck, however small.	<urn:uuid:4e414fe5-a282-45b2-8036-af6aec0f1ed4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://vicksburghistory.org/lee-paper-company/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00505.warc.gz	en	0.986298	258	3.296875	3	[ -0.5655495524406433, -0.2354791760444641, -0.2781723737716675, 0.2719953954219818, 0.14150504767894745, 0.10880062729120255, -0.4490678608417511, 0.031992822885513306, -0.5665502548217773, 0.05659748613834381, 0.21812494099140167, -0.13285189867019653, -0.0451003834605217, -0.1010977923870...	8	Vicksburg’s Lee Paper Company, later Simpson Paper Co. and most recently known as Fox River Paper Co., was originally built to fill a need for a rag-content paper mill in the Kalamazoo Valley paper producing region. Vicksburg was selected because it had a good supply of clean water, two railroads and was centrally located to possible paper markets. Scores of workers of Polish ancestry, some of whom had paper making experience, were brought to the mill from Chicago and other areas. When construction was completed in 1905, production was 35,000 pounds per day. There were 205 employees whose wages ran from 20 cents per hour to 32-1/2 cents an hour. Girls earned 10 cents an hour sometimes working 50 to 60 hours a week. Textiles in the form of worn-out clothing and other rags formed the raw material for rag-content paper. Women sorted the rags, removed buttons and foreign objects in the Rag Room. The cloth was shredded, cooked and processed into fine-quality writing papers. Under Manager Norman Bardeen, the mill managed to operate throughout the Great Depression, though hours were cut and the available work was spread around so that as many employees as possible could take home a paycheck, however small.	269	ENGLISH	1
There are two main themes that Hawthorne he uses in the novel both are related. Through his diction Hawthorne seems to emphasize the severity of Puritan law as a theme, the other is the strictness of Puritan society. In the opening chapter he carefully describes the prison as an ugly edificeand gloomy even though the prison is old, it still has the power to enforce the severe Puritan laws whatever they may be. He describes the door of the prison as being . Heavily timbered with oak and studded with iron spikes. The second theme deals with the strictness of Puritan society. In the start of second chapter the women in the town are speaking with great malice about Hester Prynne they speak of her as though she has committed the severest of crimes. This woman has brought shame upon us all and ought to die. Through these few women Hawthorne gives the impression that Hester is of very bad character, the women describe her as a hussy. Yet when she finally steps out Hawthorne describes her as an elegant and beautiful woman. It is not till she comes out of prison till Hawthorne starts showing his true opinion about the severity of the puritanical society. The people are very offended by the fact that this Scarlet letter which is supposed to be a punishment for Hester is worn so beautifully as they comment that she makes pride out of what, they worthy gentlemen, meant for a punishment. Hawthorne then begins to show that Hester is of great character as she stays strong through her ordeals, the society is strict in many ways and he seems to have sympathy for her as he describes how cruel the people treat her. The scarlet letter has now become a sort of lesson to the community.	<urn:uuid:f4f4e0e4-271f-4d59-93fb-7ff3cd93177c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://monsterliterature.com/scarlet-letter-logs/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00269.warc.gz	en	0.981228	355	3.296875	3	[ -0.39272773265838623, 0.14212863147258759, 0.031878527253866196, -0.1877201348543167, -0.3514290452003479, 0.12358306348323822, 0.36902135610580444, -0.28463563323020935, -0.14147934317588806, -0.15600451827049255, 0.04947651922702789, -0.01117668952792883, 0.1184147447347641, 0.1321933716...	3	There are two main themes that Hawthorne he uses in the novel both are related. Through his diction Hawthorne seems to emphasize the severity of Puritan law as a theme, the other is the strictness of Puritan society. In the opening chapter he carefully describes the prison as an ugly edificeand gloomy even though the prison is old, it still has the power to enforce the severe Puritan laws whatever they may be. He describes the door of the prison as being . Heavily timbered with oak and studded with iron spikes. The second theme deals with the strictness of Puritan society. In the start of second chapter the women in the town are speaking with great malice about Hester Prynne they speak of her as though she has committed the severest of crimes. This woman has brought shame upon us all and ought to die. Through these few women Hawthorne gives the impression that Hester is of very bad character, the women describe her as a hussy. Yet when she finally steps out Hawthorne describes her as an elegant and beautiful woman. It is not till she comes out of prison till Hawthorne starts showing his true opinion about the severity of the puritanical society. The people are very offended by the fact that this Scarlet letter which is supposed to be a punishment for Hester is worn so beautifully as they comment that she makes pride out of what, they worthy gentlemen, meant for a punishment. Hawthorne then begins to show that Hester is of great character as she stays strong through her ordeals, the society is strict in many ways and he seems to have sympathy for her as he describes how cruel the people treat her. The scarlet letter has now become a sort of lesson to the community.	356	ENGLISH	1
Unusual Bible Customs: Old and New Testaments The Benefit of Learning Bible Customs Researching Bible customs is fascinating, but more than sating curiosity, it helps us to understand the Scriptures and their context more succinctly. Jesus often used the culture and customs of the day to use as illustrations in his messages. The Old Testament is full of intriguing customs as well. Come with me on this journey of exploration and understanding of the customs in the Bible. Wailing and lamenting When there was a death, the Jews would wail and lament for days. There was an initial death wail which was loud, long, and shrill, to let neighbors know there had been a death. They used certain phrases in their lamentations and actually hired professional mourners to wail and lament on behalf of the dead. This wailing is done at the time of death and leading up to the funeral, but not after. Rending of garments This was a Jewish custom practiced for thousands of years and can be found in both Old and New Testaments. The tearing of garments was an expression of grief or mourning of someone who had died. - Jacob tore his garment when he saw the bloody garment of Joseph, thinking he had been killed by a wild animal (Genesis 37:33-34). - David and his men tore their garments at the news that Saul and Jonathan had been killed in battle (2 Samuel 1:11-12). - Job tore his garment when he received news that his ten children had all died at once (Job 11:18-20). His closest friends also tore their garments when they saw Job's physical suffering (Job 2:12). It is notable that the rending of the garment was done before the funeral, as was the wailing and lamenting. It was, in fact, the second step in the mourning process. Rending the garments was also a sign of righteous indignation. The Pharisees tore their garments when they thought Jesus was committing blaspheme. Paul and Barnabas tore their garments when idolaters tried to worship them. It was a way of rejecting what the men were doing. What the idolators were doing was a form of blasphemy. Sackcloth and ashes Sackcloth was a rough, burlap type fabric that people in mourning wore. This was done while pouring ashes over their heads. It occurred after the initial rending of the garment. Rather than wearing fine, comfortable clothing, they wore coarse sackcloth that chafed and was uncomfortable. Rather than washing, they poured ashes over themselves. Putting on sackcloth and ashes was also a sign of humility. It was also practiced as a sign of repentance or performing penance. The washing of feet was a practice extended to guests in the Hebrew home. This action was usually performed by a lowly servant and was a show of humility and honor to the guest. Sandals were worn for thousands of years and roads were hot and dusty, and muddy during the wet season. The feet were always in need of refreshment and cleaning when entering a home. The first time we read of this ritual is when Abraham offered to wash the feet of his three guests in Genesis 18:4. Jesus washed the disciples' feet during the last supper. Since this was usually the duty of the lowliest of slaves or servants, Peter rebuked Jesus for attempting to wash his feet. The Lord, in Peter's mind, was too great to stoop to such a lowly act. Jesus answered him, “If I do not wash you, you have no part with Me.” Peter then replied, “Lord, not my feet only, but also my hands and my head!” What happened next was quite telling: "Jesus said, 'He who is bathed needs only to wash his feet, but is completely clean; and you are clean, but not all of you.' For He knew who would betray Him; therefore He said, 'You are not all clean.' "After washing their feet, he put on his robe again and sat down and asked, “Do you understand what I was doing? You call me ‘Teacher’ and ‘Lord,’ and you are right because that’s what I am. And since I, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you ought to wash each other’s feet. I have given you an example to follow. Do as I have done to you. I tell you the truth, slaves are not greater than their master. Nor is the messenger more important than the one who sends the message. Now that you know these things, God will bless you for doing them" (John 13: 12-17). If you remember, the disciples were always arguing about which of them was going to be the greatest in God's kingdom; who was going to sit at His right hand and rule with Him. So this was a very purposeful and necessary lesson for them; namely, to be as humble servants to God and one another. Greeted with a kiss In many nations, Israel being one, it is customary to greet someone with a kiss on both cheeks. Thus, this expression of welcome was particularly practiced when a guest entered a home. The master of the house would greet his guest, then seal it with a welcome kiss, first on the right cheek, then the left. In Luke 7, Jesus was invited to dine with Simon the Pharisee. There were many religious hypocrites there as well. A woman entered and wept tears on Jesus' feet. She then dried them with her hair and kissed His feet over and over. The Pharisees were appalled because she was a known woman of ill repute. Jesus reminded them that they did not kiss Him when he entered, nor wash his feet, nor anoint His head with oil, as this humble woman had done. Anointing the head with oil I mentioned above that the host, Simon the Pharisee, did not anoint Jesus' head with oil. Anointing oil was olive oil mixed with fragrant spices. This also was a common custom when a guest entered a home. To omit this practice, and the others above was a sign of rudeness and insult to the guest. As a guest in Simon the Pharisee's home, Jesus was not honored by these basic acts of hospitality. It brought them up short when He reminded them that this sinful woman had done for Him what they did not do, meaning she was the one with a right heart. A Strange marriage proposal In Ruth 3 we see a strange custom that has caused many Bible scholars to disagree on the meaning and intent of Ruth's actions. Ruth went to Boaz at the threshing floor in the middle of the night and lay at his feet. So she went down to the threshing floor and did according to all that her mother-in-law instructed her. And after Boaz had eaten and drunk and his heart was cheerful, he went to lie down at the end of the heap of grain; and she came softly, uncovered his feet, and lay down. Now it happened at midnight that the man was startled, and turned himself; and there, a woman was lying at his feet. And he said, “Who are you?” So she answered, “I am Ruth, your maidservant. Take your maidservant under your wing, for you are a close relative.” In the days of Ruth and Boaz, it was not unusual for a servant to lay crossways at his master's feet and be allowed to have some of his covering. The clothes worn by day were also worn during sleep, so there was no indecent behavior or intent, and so it was with Ruth and Boaz that night. By laying crossways at Boaz's feet, Ruth was showing submission and humility. She lay there quietly waiting for God's timing for Boaz to awaken. When he woke up, she asked for him to take her under his wing (spread his garment over her, indicating she wanted him to marry her), for she was a widow, and he her relative. He understood this to mean she was seeking him to take her as his wife. The Hebrew custom was that if a man died, the closest male relative was to marry the widow and care for her. Boaz went through the process of finding the closest kinsmen that was next in line to marry Ruth and offered her to him first, as was lawful. The man was not interested, leaving Boaz to marry her. A read of the entire book of Ruth reveals that Boaz was impressed by Ruth's virtuous character, and sought to protect her in every way. In no way was this act of Ruth's an attempt to make sexual advances. Because Boaz did not try to take advantage of Ruth, we can see he was an honorable man and truly cared for Ruth. In ancient Israel, the parents of a male child chose his mate. Since the law mandated that the Hebrew men were to marry only Hebrew women, the parents of the son sought out only a Hebrew girl they felt would fit in with the family, rather than just be pleasing to the son. Sometimes the girl was given a choice to marry the man chosen. Rebekah's family asked if she would be willing to marry Isaac (Genesis 24:57-58). Ultimately, it was up to the parents to make the final decision. It was not unusual for the bride and groom to have never met. It also was not unusual for a young girl to have to marry an older man. Marital love was meant to follow, not precede the nuptials; however, we do see exceptions in the Bible. Jacob loved Rachel and waited for her for 14 years. The betrothal was a binding covenant to marry. It could not be broken. Papers were signed. There was a ceremony for the betrothal in which the families of both bride and groom met, along with two witnesses. The groom gave the bride a ring, or some other token of value, and said to her, "See by this ring [or this token] thou art set apart for me, according to the law of Moses and of Israel." Betrothal is not a wedding. The wedding was not performed for at least a year after the betrothal. We read in the Gospels that Joseph and Mary were betrothed when she became with child. Their betrothal was a legal and binding covenant, but they were not yet formally married, thus it presented a quandary for Joseph. We know, however, that God came to him in a dream and told him to wed Mary. The prospective groom was required to offer the bride's family compensation, called a dowry. The idea behind this is that losing the daughter causes some inconvenience to her family. She usually helped the family with shepherding or working the fields, and thus the family was losing a worker. If the groom could not give the bride's family cash, he would work it off in service. This is what Jacob did when he sought to marry Rachel (Genesis 29). Methods of Punishment Crucifixion was a capital punishment executed by the Romans. Of course, we know that Jesus was crucified. Not only was death by crucifixion slow, and extremely painful, but it was meant to humiliate and let people know that it would be their fate should they defy or sin against Rome. The one being crucified was stripped, and hung in a prominent place, on display to all the world. The Apostles Peter, Andrew, Bartholomew, and Philip are said to have been crucified as well. The Old Testament law commanded stoning as the punishment for many wrongdoings, everything from adultery to disobeying one's parents. In Acts 7:54-60, we find stoning in the case of Stephen, whom the religious leaders accused of blaspheme. Also, in John 8:1-11, they brought a woman caught in adultery to Jesus and said, "Moses said to stone one caught in adultery, what do you say?" They were right. The law of Moses commanded that women (and men) caught in adultery were to be stoned (Deuteronomy 22:23-24). Fortunately for this woman, Jesus forgave her instead and turned it around on the Jewish leaders by saying "He who has never sinned, cast the first stone." Paul was stoned on one occasion in the city of Lystra. They found him dead but prayed for him, and the next day he left town with Barnabas (Acts 14:19-20). In the case of Paul and Stephen, they were stoned unjustly; however, God proclaimed throughout the Scriptures that He is holy and that his people, too, ought to be holy. The act of stoning someone for a grave sin was meant to send a message to the people to fear God and His laws. The community was involved in the stoning as a message of intolerance to sin and to be holy. Stoning was also done by other societies. In the Old and New Testaments, whippings were a common punishment. The whips were most often made with leather with little bits of metal or bone tied onto the ends. This shredded the skin and made whipping even more painful. For serious crime, the criminal was given forty lashes minus one. Some did not live through the scourgings. I would imagine there was a terrible problem with infection afterward as well. Paul and Silas were similarly beaten with rods on their back in Acts 16:20 -24. In 2 Corinthians 11:25, he states that he was beaten with rods on three occasions. John the Baptist was beheaded by command of Herod Antipas. John was beheaded for calling out Herod for his sin of taking his brother's wife. The Apostle James, brother of Apostle John, was beheaded in Acts 12:2. Beheading was most often done with a sword. Many times we find in the Bible that once a person was killed in a war, his head was cut off. This happened after David killed Goliath (1 Samuel 17:51). King Saul also had his head cut off by the Philistines the day after his death on the battlefield (1 Chronicles 10:8-9). Gouging out the eyes was also a punishment used by many countries in the Bible; such was the case with Sampson in Judges 16:21. His lover, Delilah, whined and pouted until he told her the secret of his supernatural strength, which was his long hair. While he slept, she sent a message to her Philistine cohorts to come, and as she waited for them, she ordered a servant to cut his hair, rendering him weak. His strength was gone and he was captured and they gouged out his eyes. Which custom mentioned here would you like to see today? Gnashing of teeth The most well-known verse about the gnashing of teeth is from Matthew 8:12 where Jesus described what it will be like in the outer darkness of hell. He said, "...where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth." Gnashing of teeth often accompanies weeping in the Scriptures. It indicates that one is in severe pain or suffering, as with eyes squeezed tight, and teeth clenched or grinding. Have you ever had that happen when you've hit your funny bone, or something much worse? Nearly every time "weeping and the gnashing of teeth" is mentioned in the New Testament, it is in the context of hell, and the person who rejects Jesus Christ. We find this ancient custom in Ruth 4:8. Boaz found Elimilech's next of kin and asked if he wanted to buy Elimelech's land and take Ruth as his wife. The man declined; therefore Boaz, as next in line as kin, redeemed the inheritance and Ruth and sealed the deal by taking off his sandal and handing it to the kin who forfeited. The full custom actually went that both men traded sandals. Although it does not state that the other kinsmen gave his sandal to Boaz, it is presumed he did. They did this in the company of witnesses. The custom of trading sandals was used in land sale transactions. The land was sold in triangles, and whatever size of the triangle the purchaser could walk off in the agreed upon amount of time was his. Since the walking was done in sandals, the trading of the sandal was like a title to the land. Shaking the dust of their feet This is an interesting custom and actually makes perfect sense when you put it in context. In Luke 9:3-5 Jesus is sending out his disciples to minister in His name: He said to the apostles, "When you travel, don't take a walking stick. Also, don't carry a bag, food, or money. Take for your trip only the clothes you are wearing. When you go into a house, stay there until it is time to leave. If the people in the town will not welcome you, go outside the town and shake the dust off of your feet. This will be a warning to them." In Acts 13, Paul and Barnabas were expelled from Antioch when certain Jews became jealous and angry for the huge, positive response Paul and Barnabas got for their good news message. As they left, Paul and Barnabas shook the dust off their feet against them. The act of shaking the dust off one's feet when leaving a town had several meanings. In both the Luke 9 and Acts 13 scenarios, the disciples were being rejected by the city or a large contingent. Jesus told them to shake the dust off their feet in warning. Acts 13 says Paul and Barnabas shook the dust off their feet against them. In both cases, they had done what they had come to do - preach the Gospel. In both cases, they were rejected and they realized they had done all they could do and chose to move on. The warning was because they had refused the message from God, their chance to find salvation was gone, and they could expect judgment. Paul and Barnabas were saying, "We're done with you. Suffer the consequences for your rejection of Jesus Christ." More Customs Can Be Found There are many more customs from the Bible to research. As we learn about them our understanding of passages, stories, parables, and idioms will grow. Questions & Answers How were people fed in prison? Unfortunately, they were not fed by the prisons. Prisoners had to depend of friends and family to provide for their basic needs. I heard on the radio a pastor say that tradition in the time of Hagar and Sarah when she conceived Ishmael, Hagar would have sat on the lap of Sarah when they were having intercourse? I can't say for sure but that sounds pretty far-fetched. Physically it seems impossible. You can do research about it online by reputable sites.Helpful 4 Why did Isaac not extend a blessing to both Jacob and Esau instead of only one son? Why could not the inheritance/blessing be shared between the sons? The blessing Isaac gave to Jacob was one designated only for the firstborn who had a special status in the family. The firstborn was the one to inherit the father's estate upon his death. The firstborn was also given the status of head of household when the father dies. Esau was the firstborn but in Genesis 25 we read that Esau despised his birthright. He had come in from a day of hunting and was ravenous. Jacob gave him a stew if he would give him his birthright. Foolishly, Esau readily did so saying "What is a birthright to me?" I don't think it was taken seriously by Esau and it doesn't appear that Isaac knew about it because in chapter 27 Rebekah and Jacob contrived a plan to deceive the very old and blind Isaac into getting this firstborn blessing. Esau was devastated and wanted the same blessing. But there is only one blessing of this nature and it is a binding one in the eyes of the Lord regardless that it was given through deception. In Leviticus it is mentioned that payment must be made if someone was dedicated to God. What does it mean? From what I can determine it was a redemption price. If you read, you'll notice different prices for different people. Men were the work to be done. One commentary said, "The redemption price had nothing to do with the inherent worth of men and women; it had everything to do with the practicality of production in an agrarian society." Did Jewish women whip their hair violently while praising God, or where did this custom originate? I have never researched this but not likely. Women were required to wear head coverings.Helpful 1 © 2012 Lori Colbo	<urn:uuid:ee96fc6a-2ef0-4e0b-8c2a-f6639f3856da>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://owlcation.com/humanities/Unusual-Bible-Customs-Old-and-New-Testaments	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00273.warc.gz	en	0.990016	4,335	3.828125	4	[ -0.2695462703704834, 0.7190526723861694, 0.4325571656227112, -0.2645268440246582, 0.50654137134552, 0.1114005297422409, 0.35024571418762207, 0.05243680626153946, -0.24697139859199524, -0.21315936744213104, 0.08601018786430359, 0.25302207469940186, 0.05854346603155136, 0.09213057160377502, ...	1	Unusual Bible Customs: Old and New Testaments The Benefit of Learning Bible Customs Researching Bible customs is fascinating, but more than sating curiosity, it helps us to understand the Scriptures and their context more succinctly. Jesus often used the culture and customs of the day to use as illustrations in his messages. The Old Testament is full of intriguing customs as well. Come with me on this journey of exploration and understanding of the customs in the Bible. Wailing and lamenting When there was a death, the Jews would wail and lament for days. There was an initial death wail which was loud, long, and shrill, to let neighbors know there had been a death. They used certain phrases in their lamentations and actually hired professional mourners to wail and lament on behalf of the dead. This wailing is done at the time of death and leading up to the funeral, but not after. Rending of garments This was a Jewish custom practiced for thousands of years and can be found in both Old and New Testaments. The tearing of garments was an expression of grief or mourning of someone who had died. - Jacob tore his garment when he saw the bloody garment of Joseph, thinking he had been killed by a wild animal (Genesis 37:33-34). - David and his men tore their garments at the news that Saul and Jonathan had been killed in battle (2 Samuel 1:11-12). - Job tore his garment when he received news that his ten children had all died at once (Job 11:18-20). His closest friends also tore their garments when they saw Job's physical suffering (Job 2:12). It is notable that the rending of the garment was done before the funeral, as was the wailing and lamenting. It was, in fact, the second step in the mourning process. Rending the garments was also a sign of righteous indignation. The Pharisees tore their garments when they thought Jesus was committing blaspheme. Paul and Barnabas tore their garments when idolaters tried to worship them. It was a way of rejecting what the men were doing. What the idolators were doing was a form of blasphemy. Sackcloth and ashes Sackcloth was a rough, burlap type fabric that people in mourning wore. This was done while pouring ashes over their heads. It occurred after the initial rending of the garment. Rather than wearing fine, comfortable clothing, they wore coarse sackcloth that chafed and was uncomfortable. Rather than washing, they poured ashes over themselves. Putting on sackcloth and ashes was also a sign of humility. It was also practiced as a sign of repentance or performing penance. The washing of feet was a practice extended to guests in the Hebrew home. This action was usually performed by a lowly servant and was a show of humility and honor to the guest. Sandals were worn for thousands of years and roads were hot and dusty, and muddy during the wet season. The feet were always in need of refreshment and cleaning when entering a home. The first time we read of this ritual is when Abraham offered to wash the feet of his three guests in Genesis 18:4. Jesus washed the disciples' feet during the last supper. Since this was usually the duty of the lowliest of slaves or servants, Peter rebuked Jesus for attempting to wash his feet. The Lord, in Peter's mind, was too great to stoop to such a lowly act. Jesus answered him, “If I do not wash you, you have no part with Me.” Peter then replied, “Lord, not my feet only, but also my hands and my head!” What happened next was quite telling: "Jesus said, 'He who is bathed needs only to wash his feet, but is completely clean; and you are clean, but not all of you.' For He knew who would betray Him; therefore He said, 'You are not all clean.' "After washing their feet, he put on his robe again and sat down and asked, “Do you understand what I was doing? You call me ‘Teacher’ and ‘Lord,’ and you are right because that’s what I am. And since I, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you ought to wash each other’s feet. I have given you an example to follow. Do as I have done to you. I tell you the truth, slaves are not greater than their master. Nor is the messenger more important than the one who sends the message. Now that you know these things, God will bless you for doing them" (John 13: 12-17). If you remember, the disciples were always arguing about which of them was going to be the greatest in God's kingdom; who was going to sit at His right hand and rule with Him. So this was a very purposeful and necessary lesson for them; namely, to be as humble servants to God and one another. Greeted with a kiss In many nations, Israel being one, it is customary to greet someone with a kiss on both cheeks. Thus, this expression of welcome was particularly practiced when a guest entered a home. The master of the house would greet his guest, then seal it with a welcome kiss, first on the right cheek, then the left. In Luke 7, Jesus was invited to dine with Simon the Pharisee. There were many religious hypocrites there as well. A woman entered and wept tears on Jesus' feet. She then dried them with her hair and kissed His feet over and over. The Pharisees were appalled because she was a known woman of ill repute. Jesus reminded them that they did not kiss Him when he entered, nor wash his feet, nor anoint His head with oil, as this humble woman had done. Anointing the head with oil I mentioned above that the host, Simon the Pharisee, did not anoint Jesus' head with oil. Anointing oil was olive oil mixed with fragrant spices. This also was a common custom when a guest entered a home. To omit this practice, and the others above was a sign of rudeness and insult to the guest. As a guest in Simon the Pharisee's home, Jesus was not honored by these basic acts of hospitality. It brought them up short when He reminded them that this sinful woman had done for Him what they did not do, meaning she was the one with a right heart. A Strange marriage proposal In Ruth 3 we see a strange custom that has caused many Bible scholars to disagree on the meaning and intent of Ruth's actions. Ruth went to Boaz at the threshing floor in the middle of the night and lay at his feet. So she went down to the threshing floor and did according to all that her mother-in-law instructed her. And after Boaz had eaten and drunk and his heart was cheerful, he went to lie down at the end of the heap of grain; and she came softly, uncovered his feet, and lay down. Now it happened at midnight that the man was startled, and turned himself; and there, a woman was lying at his feet. And he said, “Who are you?” So she answered, “I am Ruth, your maidservant. Take your maidservant under your wing, for you are a close relative.” In the days of Ruth and Boaz, it was not unusual for a servant to lay crossways at his master's feet and be allowed to have some of his covering. The clothes worn by day were also worn during sleep, so there was no indecent behavior or intent, and so it was with Ruth and Boaz that night. By laying crossways at Boaz's feet, Ruth was showing submission and humility. She lay there quietly waiting for God's timing for Boaz to awaken. When he woke up, she asked for him to take her under his wing (spread his garment over her, indicating she wanted him to marry her), for she was a widow, and he her relative. He understood this to mean she was seeking him to take her as his wife. The Hebrew custom was that if a man died, the closest male relative was to marry the widow and care for her. Boaz went through the process of finding the closest kinsmen that was next in line to marry Ruth and offered her to him first, as was lawful. The man was not interested, leaving Boaz to marry her. A read of the entire book of Ruth reveals that Boaz was impressed by Ruth's virtuous character, and sought to protect her in every way. In no way was this act of Ruth's an attempt to make sexual advances. Because Boaz did not try to take advantage of Ruth, we can see he was an honorable man and truly cared for Ruth. In ancient Israel, the parents of a male child chose his mate. Since the law mandated that the Hebrew men were to marry only Hebrew women, the parents of the son sought out only a Hebrew girl they felt would fit in with the family, rather than just be pleasing to the son. Sometimes the girl was given a choice to marry the man chosen. Rebekah's family asked if she would be willing to marry Isaac (Genesis 24:57-58). Ultimately, it was up to the parents to make the final decision. It was not unusual for the bride and groom to have never met. It also was not unusual for a young girl to have to marry an older man. Marital love was meant to follow, not precede the nuptials; however, we do see exceptions in the Bible. Jacob loved Rachel and waited for her for 14 years. The betrothal was a binding covenant to marry. It could not be broken. Papers were signed. There was a ceremony for the betrothal in which the families of both bride and groom met, along with two witnesses. The groom gave the bride a ring, or some other token of value, and said to her, "See by this ring [or this token] thou art set apart for me, according to the law of Moses and of Israel." Betrothal is not a wedding. The wedding was not performed for at least a year after the betrothal. We read in the Gospels that Joseph and Mary were betrothed when she became with child. Their betrothal was a legal and binding covenant, but they were not yet formally married, thus it presented a quandary for Joseph. We know, however, that God came to him in a dream and told him to wed Mary. The prospective groom was required to offer the bride's family compensation, called a dowry. The idea behind this is that losing the daughter causes some inconvenience to her family. She usually helped the family with shepherding or working the fields, and thus the family was losing a worker. If the groom could not give the bride's family cash, he would work it off in service. This is what Jacob did when he sought to marry Rachel (Genesis 29). Methods of Punishment Crucifixion was a capital punishment executed by the Romans. Of course, we know that Jesus was crucified. Not only was death by crucifixion slow, and extremely painful, but it was meant to humiliate and let people know that it would be their fate should they defy or sin against Rome. The one being crucified was stripped, and hung in a prominent place, on display to all the world. The Apostles Peter, Andrew, Bartholomew, and Philip are said to have been crucified as well. The Old Testament law commanded stoning as the punishment for many wrongdoings, everything from adultery to disobeying one's parents. In Acts 7:54-60, we find stoning in the case of Stephen, whom the religious leaders accused of blaspheme. Also, in John 8:1-11, they brought a woman caught in adultery to Jesus and said, "Moses said to stone one caught in adultery, what do you say?" They were right. The law of Moses commanded that women (and men) caught in adultery were to be stoned (Deuteronomy 22:23-24). Fortunately for this woman, Jesus forgave her instead and turned it around on the Jewish leaders by saying "He who has never sinned, cast the first stone." Paul was stoned on one occasion in the city of Lystra. They found him dead but prayed for him, and the next day he left town with Barnabas (Acts 14:19-20). In the case of Paul and Stephen, they were stoned unjustly; however, God proclaimed throughout the Scriptures that He is holy and that his people, too, ought to be holy. The act of stoning someone for a grave sin was meant to send a message to the people to fear God and His laws. The community was involved in the stoning as a message of intolerance to sin and to be holy. Stoning was also done by other societies. In the Old and New Testaments, whippings were a common punishment. The whips were most often made with leather with little bits of metal or bone tied onto the ends. This shredded the skin and made whipping even more painful. For serious crime, the criminal was given forty lashes minus one. Some did not live through the scourgings. I would imagine there was a terrible problem with infection afterward as well. Paul and Silas were similarly beaten with rods on their back in Acts 16:20 -24. In 2 Corinthians 11:25, he states that he was beaten with rods on three occasions. John the Baptist was beheaded by command of Herod Antipas. John was beheaded for calling out Herod for his sin of taking his brother's wife. The Apostle James, brother of Apostle John, was beheaded in Acts 12:2. Beheading was most often done with a sword. Many times we find in the Bible that once a person was killed in a war, his head was cut off. This happened after David killed Goliath (1 Samuel 17:51). King Saul also had his head cut off by the Philistines the day after his death on the battlefield (1 Chronicles 10:8-9). Gouging out the eyes was also a punishment used by many countries in the Bible; such was the case with Sampson in Judges 16:21. His lover, Delilah, whined and pouted until he told her the secret of his supernatural strength, which was his long hair. While he slept, she sent a message to her Philistine cohorts to come, and as she waited for them, she ordered a servant to cut his hair, rendering him weak. His strength was gone and he was captured and they gouged out his eyes. Which custom mentioned here would you like to see today? Gnashing of teeth The most well-known verse about the gnashing of teeth is from Matthew 8:12 where Jesus described what it will be like in the outer darkness of hell. He said, "...where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth." Gnashing of teeth often accompanies weeping in the Scriptures. It indicates that one is in severe pain or suffering, as with eyes squeezed tight, and teeth clenched or grinding. Have you ever had that happen when you've hit your funny bone, or something much worse? Nearly every time "weeping and the gnashing of teeth" is mentioned in the New Testament, it is in the context of hell, and the person who rejects Jesus Christ. We find this ancient custom in Ruth 4:8. Boaz found Elimilech's next of kin and asked if he wanted to buy Elimelech's land and take Ruth as his wife. The man declined; therefore Boaz, as next in line as kin, redeemed the inheritance and Ruth and sealed the deal by taking off his sandal and handing it to the kin who forfeited. The full custom actually went that both men traded sandals. Although it does not state that the other kinsmen gave his sandal to Boaz, it is presumed he did. They did this in the company of witnesses. The custom of trading sandals was used in land sale transactions. The land was sold in triangles, and whatever size of the triangle the purchaser could walk off in the agreed upon amount of time was his. Since the walking was done in sandals, the trading of the sandal was like a title to the land. Shaking the dust of their feet This is an interesting custom and actually makes perfect sense when you put it in context. In Luke 9:3-5 Jesus is sending out his disciples to minister in His name: He said to the apostles, "When you travel, don't take a walking stick. Also, don't carry a bag, food, or money. Take for your trip only the clothes you are wearing. When you go into a house, stay there until it is time to leave. If the people in the town will not welcome you, go outside the town and shake the dust off of your feet. This will be a warning to them." In Acts 13, Paul and Barnabas were expelled from Antioch when certain Jews became jealous and angry for the huge, positive response Paul and Barnabas got for their good news message. As they left, Paul and Barnabas shook the dust off their feet against them. The act of shaking the dust off one's feet when leaving a town had several meanings. In both the Luke 9 and Acts 13 scenarios, the disciples were being rejected by the city or a large contingent. Jesus told them to shake the dust off their feet in warning. Acts 13 says Paul and Barnabas shook the dust off their feet against them. In both cases, they had done what they had come to do - preach the Gospel. In both cases, they were rejected and they realized they had done all they could do and chose to move on. The warning was because they had refused the message from God, their chance to find salvation was gone, and they could expect judgment. Paul and Barnabas were saying, "We're done with you. Suffer the consequences for your rejection of Jesus Christ." More Customs Can Be Found There are many more customs from the Bible to research. As we learn about them our understanding of passages, stories, parables, and idioms will grow. Questions & Answers How were people fed in prison? Unfortunately, they were not fed by the prisons. Prisoners had to depend of friends and family to provide for their basic needs. I heard on the radio a pastor say that tradition in the time of Hagar and Sarah when she conceived Ishmael, Hagar would have sat on the lap of Sarah when they were having intercourse? I can't say for sure but that sounds pretty far-fetched. Physically it seems impossible. You can do research about it online by reputable sites.Helpful 4 Why did Isaac not extend a blessing to both Jacob and Esau instead of only one son? Why could not the inheritance/blessing be shared between the sons? The blessing Isaac gave to Jacob was one designated only for the firstborn who had a special status in the family. The firstborn was the one to inherit the father's estate upon his death. The firstborn was also given the status of head of household when the father dies. Esau was the firstborn but in Genesis 25 we read that Esau despised his birthright. He had come in from a day of hunting and was ravenous. Jacob gave him a stew if he would give him his birthright. Foolishly, Esau readily did so saying "What is a birthright to me?" I don't think it was taken seriously by Esau and it doesn't appear that Isaac knew about it because in chapter 27 Rebekah and Jacob contrived a plan to deceive the very old and blind Isaac into getting this firstborn blessing. Esau was devastated and wanted the same blessing. But there is only one blessing of this nature and it is a binding one in the eyes of the Lord regardless that it was given through deception. In Leviticus it is mentioned that payment must be made if someone was dedicated to God. What does it mean? From what I can determine it was a redemption price. If you read, you'll notice different prices for different people. Men were the work to be done. One commentary said, "The redemption price had nothing to do with the inherent worth of men and women; it had everything to do with the practicality of production in an agrarian society." Did Jewish women whip their hair violently while praising God, or where did this custom originate? I have never researched this but not likely. Women were required to wear head coverings.Helpful 1 © 2012 Lori Colbo	4,340	ENGLISH	1
\|The Haitian Revolution The year is 1791. The United States is in its first years as the first republic in the western hemisphere. Europe is in disarray as the French Revolution burns across the face of France and the French revolutionaries are getting ready to draft the Declaration of the Rights of Man. And on the tropical French-owned island of Haiti, far from anyone’s eyes, French craftsmen, planters, soldiers and government officials are closely watching the events unfolding in their homeland. It is an uncertain time; no one knows if the revolution will be successful or not and loyalties are deeply divided. While they watch the revolution in France, however, the planters are unaware that a revolution is brewing beneath their very feet. The French plantations in Haiti contained some of the cruelest conditions that African slaves had ever had to endure. The coffee and sugar plantation required vast amounts of labor in order to make a profit, and as a result, the slave population far outnumbered the French population. In addition, because of the large number of slaves, the African slaves have retained much of their culture and established their own social and justice systems separate from the French. But the French, even with the examples of the American and French revolutions, are blissfully unaware of the fire they are sitting on. Then on August 22, 1791, barely over two years after the French peasants stormed the Bastille, 100,000 African slaves rose up against the hated French in Haiti. They were led by a religious leader named Boukman and their revolution was different than both the American and French revolutions in that it was driven entirely by sheer hatred. These men and women had been enslaved most (or all) of their lives. They wanted more than just liberty, they wanted vengeance. Over the next three weeks, the Haitian slaves burned every plantation in the western half of Haiti and executed every Frenchman they could find. The French fled to the coast and pleaded with the war-torn government of France to get them out of Haiti, while the island burned around them. The great hero of the Haitian Revolution was a slave named François Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture. He was a fifty year old carriage driver when the war broke out and while he did not participate in the burning of the plantations or the executions of the plantation owners, he did quickly realize that the revolution would fail unless the slaves became more organized, both politically and militarily. His first move was to train a small group of slaves, who trained other slaves, who trained other slaves and so on. He then realized that Haiti was caught between three nations; France, who wanted Haiti back, and England and Spain, who wanted Haiti for themselves. Toussaint’s genius was in figuring out how to play all three nations off of each other. By doing so, each would destroy the others and leave Haiti to the black revolutionaries. In the end, Haiti remained under the nominal protection of France with Toussaint as their leader. But France had their own problems to deal with and pretty much left Haiti alone to do as they wished. Toussaint was such a great leader that he was as well loved by the French as he was by the Haitians and things continued in this way until the early 1800s when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in France. Aside from the fact that Napoleon did not like sharing power, he also was a devoted racist and passionately despised blacks. Napoleon sent General Victor Leclerc with over twenty thousand soldiers to kick out Toussaint, who then waged guerilla warfare against the French. Eventually he made peace with the French and retired from public life in 1802. In 1803, the French tricked him into a meeting where he was arrested and sent to France, and he died in prison later that year. After the death of Toussaint, the revolution was carried on by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, another ex-slave. But unlike Toussaint, Dessalines was very angry over his treatment as a slave and was determined never to allow the return of slavery. The war fought between LeClerc and Dessalines was, on both sides, one of the bloodiest and most horrifying struggles in history. LeClerc was desperate to leave Haiti, as his men were dying of yellow fever and the guerrilla attacks were taking a large toll on his men. So he decided to simply execute blacks whenever and wherever he found them. The slaughter that he committed on innocent civilians was not repeated for 150 years, and his successor, Jean-Baptiste Rochambeau, simply continued this policy. Dessalines responded that every atrocity committed by the French would be returned to them and for every Haitian killed by the French, the revolutionaries would kill one Frenchman. Meanwhile, as all of this was going on, Dessalines ordered the immediate execution of all Europeans that had ever expressed any kind of opposition to the new revolutionary government. Napoleon did little to nothing during this time. Finally, 12 years after the war had begun, Rochambeau surrendered and went back to France, and Dessalines declared Haiti to be a republic. He took the three-colored French flag and removed the white from it, creating the red and blue flag of Haiti, and Haiti has been an independent nation ever since. The response in the United States was immediate and dramatic. The Haitian Revolution suddenly changed the equation that had been operating in North America. The white slave owners had always believed themselves to be kind and fatherly, while expecting the slaves to be child-like and grateful. And while white slave owners would publicly declare that slaves were happy being slaves, in reality they knew otherwise and slave owners all throughout the southern United States began to build “slave shelters” to hide in if the American slaves were to ever revolt.	<urn:uuid:d5b3e3fc-1264-430d-b762-d51c837ec6ef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essaydocs.org/the-haitian-revolution.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00039.warc.gz	en	0.984367	1,203	3.625	4	[ -0.014819872565567493, 0.238569974899292, 0.26431381702423096, -0.22042998671531677, 0.24389269948005676, 0.10376054048538208, -0.3277919590473175, 0.5013649463653564, 0.07080350816249847, 0.4168035387992859, 0.1015302911400795, 0.17504973709583282, -0.38971424102783203, 0.2035587131977081...	1	\|The Haitian Revolution The year is 1791. The United States is in its first years as the first republic in the western hemisphere. Europe is in disarray as the French Revolution burns across the face of France and the French revolutionaries are getting ready to draft the Declaration of the Rights of Man. And on the tropical French-owned island of Haiti, far from anyone’s eyes, French craftsmen, planters, soldiers and government officials are closely watching the events unfolding in their homeland. It is an uncertain time; no one knows if the revolution will be successful or not and loyalties are deeply divided. While they watch the revolution in France, however, the planters are unaware that a revolution is brewing beneath their very feet. The French plantations in Haiti contained some of the cruelest conditions that African slaves had ever had to endure. The coffee and sugar plantation required vast amounts of labor in order to make a profit, and as a result, the slave population far outnumbered the French population. In addition, because of the large number of slaves, the African slaves have retained much of their culture and established their own social and justice systems separate from the French. But the French, even with the examples of the American and French revolutions, are blissfully unaware of the fire they are sitting on. Then on August 22, 1791, barely over two years after the French peasants stormed the Bastille, 100,000 African slaves rose up against the hated French in Haiti. They were led by a religious leader named Boukman and their revolution was different than both the American and French revolutions in that it was driven entirely by sheer hatred. These men and women had been enslaved most (or all) of their lives. They wanted more than just liberty, they wanted vengeance. Over the next three weeks, the Haitian slaves burned every plantation in the western half of Haiti and executed every Frenchman they could find. The French fled to the coast and pleaded with the war-torn government of France to get them out of Haiti, while the island burned around them. The great hero of the Haitian Revolution was a slave named François Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture. He was a fifty year old carriage driver when the war broke out and while he did not participate in the burning of the plantations or the executions of the plantation owners, he did quickly realize that the revolution would fail unless the slaves became more organized, both politically and militarily. His first move was to train a small group of slaves, who trained other slaves, who trained other slaves and so on. He then realized that Haiti was caught between three nations; France, who wanted Haiti back, and England and Spain, who wanted Haiti for themselves. Toussaint’s genius was in figuring out how to play all three nations off of each other. By doing so, each would destroy the others and leave Haiti to the black revolutionaries. In the end, Haiti remained under the nominal protection of France with Toussaint as their leader. But France had their own problems to deal with and pretty much left Haiti alone to do as they wished. Toussaint was such a great leader that he was as well loved by the French as he was by the Haitians and things continued in this way until the early 1800s when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in France. Aside from the fact that Napoleon did not like sharing power, he also was a devoted racist and passionately despised blacks. Napoleon sent General Victor Leclerc with over twenty thousand soldiers to kick out Toussaint, who then waged guerilla warfare against the French. Eventually he made peace with the French and retired from public life in 1802. In 1803, the French tricked him into a meeting where he was arrested and sent to France, and he died in prison later that year. After the death of Toussaint, the revolution was carried on by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, another ex-slave. But unlike Toussaint, Dessalines was very angry over his treatment as a slave and was determined never to allow the return of slavery. The war fought between LeClerc and Dessalines was, on both sides, one of the bloodiest and most horrifying struggles in history. LeClerc was desperate to leave Haiti, as his men were dying of yellow fever and the guerrilla attacks were taking a large toll on his men. So he decided to simply execute blacks whenever and wherever he found them. The slaughter that he committed on innocent civilians was not repeated for 150 years, and his successor, Jean-Baptiste Rochambeau, simply continued this policy. Dessalines responded that every atrocity committed by the French would be returned to them and for every Haitian killed by the French, the revolutionaries would kill one Frenchman. Meanwhile, as all of this was going on, Dessalines ordered the immediate execution of all Europeans that had ever expressed any kind of opposition to the new revolutionary government. Napoleon did little to nothing during this time. Finally, 12 years after the war had begun, Rochambeau surrendered and went back to France, and Dessalines declared Haiti to be a republic. He took the three-colored French flag and removed the white from it, creating the red and blue flag of Haiti, and Haiti has been an independent nation ever since. The response in the United States was immediate and dramatic. The Haitian Revolution suddenly changed the equation that had been operating in North America. The white slave owners had always believed themselves to be kind and fatherly, while expecting the slaves to be child-like and grateful. And while white slave owners would publicly declare that slaves were happy being slaves, in reality they knew otherwise and slave owners all throughout the southern United States began to build “slave shelters” to hide in if the American slaves were to ever revolt.	1,215	ENGLISH	1
The topics that can be composed on European history are endless and therefore, you have a great list to choose from. However, in this article, only the major ones will be focused on. These are essay question for History. Question are already written out for you convenience. Copyrighted by George Smith. Modern European History 1. What did Paul Valery mean in saying that the mind of Europe doubted itself profoundly? Beforepeople in Europe believed in progress, peace, prosperity, reason, and rights of individuals. During that time, people began to believe in the Enlightenment, industrial developments were just starting and scientific advances began to take place. People then really believed in progression and further developments. Unfortunately, World War I broke out. Nevertheless, the optimistic people of Europe still did not doubt the outcome and were so convinced that it was not going to have any long term effects. They looked toward happier times and hoped life will go back to where it was before. But little did they know, as a result of the war, total war broke out and crushed all the hopes and accomplishments European history research papers the people had established. And as this lasted over the years, the age of anxiety was created. They did not know what was going to happen after the war. Many intellectuals began to doubt the Enlightenment and even the future of Western civilization. This state of uncertainty and unpredictability brought out many modern philosophers of that time. One of them was a French poet and critic Paul Valery. He stated that "Europe was looking at its future with dark foreboding. People were so terrified by it that they were still in shock and unsure of its outcome and consequence and the possibility that it might cause another war to break out. Valery saw that many people suffered from anxiety. He argued that the people looked at the future with great unease and discomfort for what the war had done and what the war will cause. He also suggested that "Europe doubted itself profoundly" because of all the lost of all optimistic ideas and accomplishments. People did not have to strength or will to believe in themselves anymore. They were too devastated by the war. They also saw no hope and thus doubted themselves for making any more progress. Why do you think many veterans felt that they were part of a lost generation? Veterans during the war were just realizing what the war is all about. Most of them grew up in the war knowing nothing of life but despair, fear, death, and sorrow. These veterans felt that they were part of a last generation upon whom which the war was caused by. Now these young man must carry on the blood shed and fight for their fathers and country. What reasons can you think of why many Germans were attracted to paramilitary organizations immediately after the war? Germans were attracted to paramilitary organizations immediately after the war. The war had brought violence, pleasure, and the excitement of survival for thousands of soldiers. During these years of excitements, soldiers began to gain new ideas of life and moral judgements. After returning home from the war they were bored just sitting around not fulfilling their thirst for more blood shed and adventure. It was the war that held them together as a union, that never discharged them, that will always provide a home and excitement for them. The Germans saw a great opportunity and gain their gasp on these soldiers. In a way, the soldiers fulfilled both Germany and themselves. How did Sigmund Freud describe the prevailing mood in Europe just prior to the war. How did the war alter this mood and create a "legacy of embitterment"? Life prior to the war was full of joy and happy things to look forward to. People were making progress, developments were taking place, and western civilization was beginning to make some real progress and establishments. But as the war broke out, people lost all hope and dreams.A List Of Controversial Research Paper Topics On European History European history is one of the places that have multiple topics one can research on. The topics that can be composed on European history are endless and therefore, you have a great list to choose from. Get a Custom Paper on European History: Free papers will not meet the guidelines of your specific project. If you need a custom essay on European History: we can write you a high quality authentic essay. History papers on Aaron Burr Jr. Burr was an American politician. He was the third Vice President of the United States, serving during Thomas Jefferson European History view all. European History; 20th Century Europe; Europe & The World Wars All research papers are owned by The Paper Store Enterprises, Inc. and are the property of the. European History as Told Through Diaghilevs Rite of Spring - Many often associate the 19th Century with old-fashioned ideas and customs, whereas the 20th Century is seen as the ‘modern era’. Research within librarian-selected research topics on European History from the Questia online library, including full-text online books, academic journals, magazines, newspapers and more. European History Research Paper This sample European History Research Paper is published for educational and informational purposes only. Free research papers are not written by our writers, they are contributed by users, so we are not responsible for the content of this free sample paper.	<urn:uuid:4a235c2d-a71c-4615-b341-6a75e496a47e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://vunajyp.ashio-midori.com/european-history-research-papers-41927il.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00242.warc.gz	en	0.980022	1,071	3.515625	4	[ -0.33572515845298767, 0.5864372849464417, 0.09611843526363373, -0.03912056237459183, -0.16963300108909607, 0.5359970331192017, -0.1014741063117981, 0.2851446270942688, 0.16856606304645538, 0.08415579050779343, 0.2235669642686844, 0.10146906971931458, -0.25077733397483826, 0.457639157772064...	2	The topics that can be composed on European history are endless and therefore, you have a great list to choose from. However, in this article, only the major ones will be focused on. These are essay question for History. Question are already written out for you convenience. Copyrighted by George Smith. Modern European History 1. What did Paul Valery mean in saying that the mind of Europe doubted itself profoundly? Beforepeople in Europe believed in progress, peace, prosperity, reason, and rights of individuals. During that time, people began to believe in the Enlightenment, industrial developments were just starting and scientific advances began to take place. People then really believed in progression and further developments. Unfortunately, World War I broke out. Nevertheless, the optimistic people of Europe still did not doubt the outcome and were so convinced that it was not going to have any long term effects. They looked toward happier times and hoped life will go back to where it was before. But little did they know, as a result of the war, total war broke out and crushed all the hopes and accomplishments European history research papers the people had established. And as this lasted over the years, the age of anxiety was created. They did not know what was going to happen after the war. Many intellectuals began to doubt the Enlightenment and even the future of Western civilization. This state of uncertainty and unpredictability brought out many modern philosophers of that time. One of them was a French poet and critic Paul Valery. He stated that "Europe was looking at its future with dark foreboding. People were so terrified by it that they were still in shock and unsure of its outcome and consequence and the possibility that it might cause another war to break out. Valery saw that many people suffered from anxiety. He argued that the people looked at the future with great unease and discomfort for what the war had done and what the war will cause. He also suggested that "Europe doubted itself profoundly" because of all the lost of all optimistic ideas and accomplishments. People did not have to strength or will to believe in themselves anymore. They were too devastated by the war. They also saw no hope and thus doubted themselves for making any more progress. Why do you think many veterans felt that they were part of a lost generation? Veterans during the war were just realizing what the war is all about. Most of them grew up in the war knowing nothing of life but despair, fear, death, and sorrow. These veterans felt that they were part of a last generation upon whom which the war was caused by. Now these young man must carry on the blood shed and fight for their fathers and country. What reasons can you think of why many Germans were attracted to paramilitary organizations immediately after the war? Germans were attracted to paramilitary organizations immediately after the war. The war had brought violence, pleasure, and the excitement of survival for thousands of soldiers. During these years of excitements, soldiers began to gain new ideas of life and moral judgements. After returning home from the war they were bored just sitting around not fulfilling their thirst for more blood shed and adventure. It was the war that held them together as a union, that never discharged them, that will always provide a home and excitement for them. The Germans saw a great opportunity and gain their gasp on these soldiers. In a way, the soldiers fulfilled both Germany and themselves. How did Sigmund Freud describe the prevailing mood in Europe just prior to the war. How did the war alter this mood and create a "legacy of embitterment"? Life prior to the war was full of joy and happy things to look forward to. People were making progress, developments were taking place, and western civilization was beginning to make some real progress and establishments. But as the war broke out, people lost all hope and dreams.A List Of Controversial Research Paper Topics On European History European history is one of the places that have multiple topics one can research on. The topics that can be composed on European history are endless and therefore, you have a great list to choose from. Get a Custom Paper on European History: Free papers will not meet the guidelines of your specific project. If you need a custom essay on European History: we can write you a high quality authentic essay. History papers on Aaron Burr Jr. Burr was an American politician. He was the third Vice President of the United States, serving during Thomas Jefferson European History view all. European History; 20th Century Europe; Europe & The World Wars All research papers are owned by The Paper Store Enterprises, Inc. and are the property of the. European History as Told Through Diaghilevs Rite of Spring - Many often associate the 19th Century with old-fashioned ideas and customs, whereas the 20th Century is seen as the ‘modern era’. Research within librarian-selected research topics on European History from the Questia online library, including full-text online books, academic journals, magazines, newspapers and more. European History Research Paper This sample European History Research Paper is published for educational and informational purposes only. Free research papers are not written by our writers, they are contributed by users, so we are not responsible for the content of this free sample paper.	1,054	ENGLISH	1
A level history aqa Watch How would you answer this question for a essay? "the courts of James 1st and Charles 1st were only important for the entertainment and social activities that took place there" explain why you agree or disagree with this view If you agree it was only good for entertainment and social activities, then you should dismiss any advantages, talk about expense and that other important things happened outside court. If you disagree, then you need to identify what else went on at court and why it was important, things like diplomacy, politics, keeping an eye on enemies, using it as a reward or punishment. How important were these activities? You will only know by doing your research, finding your reasons and then supporting them with evidence you have found.	<urn:uuid:a0999cac-3c9b-475d-988d-b5c492127a81>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/showthread.php?t=6165688	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00430.warc.gz	en	0.984197	155	3.484375	3	[ -0.40090852975845337, 0.11906160414218903, 0.35148459672927856, -0.7075595855712891, -0.22114981710910797, 0.2651687562465668, 0.8300533890724182, -0.09712088853120804, 0.2712741494178772, -0.0798579603433609, -0.026672381907701492, 0.5106942653656006, 0.3497875928878784, 0.195963025093078...	1	A level history aqa Watch How would you answer this question for a essay? "the courts of James 1st and Charles 1st were only important for the entertainment and social activities that took place there" explain why you agree or disagree with this view If you agree it was only good for entertainment and social activities, then you should dismiss any advantages, talk about expense and that other important things happened outside court. If you disagree, then you need to identify what else went on at court and why it was important, things like diplomacy, politics, keeping an eye on enemies, using it as a reward or punishment. How important were these activities? You will only know by doing your research, finding your reasons and then supporting them with evidence you have found.	155	ENGLISH	1
The United States patent legislation system certainly did not surface overnight. In fact, federal patent lawInternational Patent LawAn Act to promote the progress of useful Arts, it was enacted into law on April 10th, 1790. The bill was signed by President George Washington, which would essentially become the structure on which current United States patent laws are built on today. Furthermore, the Patent Act of 1790 would prove to be historic because it would be the first time that the law in the United States would grant inventors specific rights to their inventions and creations. Even though states had implemented certain patent systems, the Act of 1790 would provide for a national infrastructure recognizing those rights. The new law would also implement an administrative office charged with the responsibility of governing patents. The board consisted of the Secretary of State, the Secretary of War, and the Attorney General. This would comprise the first Patent Board of the United States, which surely influenced the creation of the United States Patent and Trademark Office.	<urn:uuid:ebf136ee-05ff-4a53-a6c5-8fe3dfd1904c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://patent.laws.com/patent-act-of-1790/patent-act-of-1790-background	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00113.warc.gz	en	0.980572	198	4.03125	4	[ -0.6763375401496887, 0.007269415073096752, 0.2525724172592163, -0.2810707986354828, -0.24420592188835144, 0.4246436059474945, 0.16126199066638947, 0.195089653134346, -0.2318221926689148, 0.21971918642520905, -0.13683077692985535, 0.6243172287940979, -0.07877470552921295, 0.1199565827846527...	1	The United States patent legislation system certainly did not surface overnight. In fact, federal patent lawInternational Patent LawAn Act to promote the progress of useful Arts, it was enacted into law on April 10th, 1790. The bill was signed by President George Washington, which would essentially become the structure on which current United States patent laws are built on today. Furthermore, the Patent Act of 1790 would prove to be historic because it would be the first time that the law in the United States would grant inventors specific rights to their inventions and creations. Even though states had implemented certain patent systems, the Act of 1790 would provide for a national infrastructure recognizing those rights. The new law would also implement an administrative office charged with the responsibility of governing patents. The board consisted of the Secretary of State, the Secretary of War, and the Attorney General. This would comprise the first Patent Board of the United States, which surely influenced the creation of the United States Patent and Trademark Office.	208	ENGLISH	1
The combination of an undeveloped training program and unstable aircraft contributed to short life expectancies for WWI fighter pilots. In fact, WWI pilots had a higher chance of being killed during training than in the heroic combat dogfights we’ve seen portrayed in movies. Yet, despite the odds, young American men volunteered in droves to become part of the Allied air fleet. Flying itself was still in its infancy, having been invented less than 15 years earlier with the historic Wright brothers’ flight in 1903. In 1917, when the U.S. entered the war, the idea of flying high above the action as opposed to a dull life in the trenches was novel and thrilling. But German air forces were formidable, featuring the likes of Manfred von Richthofen, infamously known as the “Red Baron,” who was credited with 80 air combat kills. With an ever-increasing demand for pilots to fuel the Allied leaders’ air-fighting force, proper training for U.S. aviators was cut short. The training process During WWI, flight training in the U.S. primarily consisted of two stages: Before graduating from flight training, cadets were required to be able to perform sideslips, loops, a simulated uncontrolled fall, and other aerobatic maneuvers. Although pilots were taught by instructors in dual-control planes, the instructors didn’t have much more flight time than their students. In these early days of flight, there was no quality control and little supervision. Because the U.S. was short on aircraft, most cadets were then shipped off to Europe to complete their training with 90 hours of advanced combat readiness. All told, the young aviators in the U.S. Army Signal Corps received just 140 hours of flight training over a few months before going into combat. By contrast, it takes about two years of specialized training to become an operational fighter pilot today. Flying WWI aircraft In modern-day aviation, it takes years to design, test, and produce a new aircraft model. In WWI, however, new airplanes were put into action within weeks of design. The aerodynamics and “bugs” of these aircraft were worked out on the fly—that is, literally as they were flown. Even more amazingly, some U.S. pilot trainees were even required to build their own aircraft. A letter from a 95-year old WWI aviator veteran recalled the construction of their Jennys. Here’s an excerpt: “[All of our Jennys] were in crates and we had to uncrate and rig them. What we did rigging them would scare the pants off of me today. When the wing-fitting holes did not line up properly, we’d take a rat-tail file and line them up….My Jenny had neither a compass nor a gas gauge. The only instrument on the dashboard was an ‘on and off’ switch.” — Captain Ira Milton Jones, President, Legal of WorldWare I Overseas Flyers (Read more here). Unsurprisingly, these early airplanes lacked maneuverability and stability and were subject to falling apart or engine failure without warning. Furthermore, the cockpits during this period were so small that pilots couldn’t wear parachutes. Once in Europe, the pilots did not find the aircraft much improved. Most WWI enthusiasts are familiar with the British Sopwith Camel biplane fighter, which took down more German aircraft than any other Allied aircraft. While the Camel was highly maneuverable, its sensitivity and instability made it difficult to fly. Almost as many pilots died while training to fly the Camel as the number of men who died flying it in combat. All in all, it’s estimated that for every 18 trained combat pilots, one died in a flying accident during WWI. Fortunately, much was learned from the experiences of the fledgling U.S. Air Corps in “The Great War” and flight training has improved rapidly in the years since. Thanks to the brave aviators who gave their lives in the early days of flight, the aviation industry was propelled forward, and safety protocols advanced tremendously.	<urn:uuid:e6d91a69-bd2b-48dd-94c0-616b9402a501>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hartzellprop.com/how-were-fighter-pilots-trained-in-wwi/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00386.warc.gz	en	0.984533	866	3.796875	4	[ -0.2965986728668213, 0.41915297508239746, 0.1205635517835617, -0.0840139240026474, -0.27211397886276245, 0.47546684741973877, -0.33786529302597046, 0.3766239583492279, 0.1668906956911087, -0.16854901611804962, -0.19717276096343994, 0.17575997114181519, 0.11119957268238068, 0.66281235218048...	9	The combination of an undeveloped training program and unstable aircraft contributed to short life expectancies for WWI fighter pilots. In fact, WWI pilots had a higher chance of being killed during training than in the heroic combat dogfights we’ve seen portrayed in movies. Yet, despite the odds, young American men volunteered in droves to become part of the Allied air fleet. Flying itself was still in its infancy, having been invented less than 15 years earlier with the historic Wright brothers’ flight in 1903. In 1917, when the U.S. entered the war, the idea of flying high above the action as opposed to a dull life in the trenches was novel and thrilling. But German air forces were formidable, featuring the likes of Manfred von Richthofen, infamously known as the “Red Baron,” who was credited with 80 air combat kills. With an ever-increasing demand for pilots to fuel the Allied leaders’ air-fighting force, proper training for U.S. aviators was cut short. The training process During WWI, flight training in the U.S. primarily consisted of two stages: Before graduating from flight training, cadets were required to be able to perform sideslips, loops, a simulated uncontrolled fall, and other aerobatic maneuvers. Although pilots were taught by instructors in dual-control planes, the instructors didn’t have much more flight time than their students. In these early days of flight, there was no quality control and little supervision. Because the U.S. was short on aircraft, most cadets were then shipped off to Europe to complete their training with 90 hours of advanced combat readiness. All told, the young aviators in the U.S. Army Signal Corps received just 140 hours of flight training over a few months before going into combat. By contrast, it takes about two years of specialized training to become an operational fighter pilot today. Flying WWI aircraft In modern-day aviation, it takes years to design, test, and produce a new aircraft model. In WWI, however, new airplanes were put into action within weeks of design. The aerodynamics and “bugs” of these aircraft were worked out on the fly—that is, literally as they were flown. Even more amazingly, some U.S. pilot trainees were even required to build their own aircraft. A letter from a 95-year old WWI aviator veteran recalled the construction of their Jennys. Here’s an excerpt: “[All of our Jennys] were in crates and we had to uncrate and rig them. What we did rigging them would scare the pants off of me today. When the wing-fitting holes did not line up properly, we’d take a rat-tail file and line them up….My Jenny had neither a compass nor a gas gauge. The only instrument on the dashboard was an ‘on and off’ switch.” — Captain Ira Milton Jones, President, Legal of WorldWare I Overseas Flyers (Read more here). Unsurprisingly, these early airplanes lacked maneuverability and stability and were subject to falling apart or engine failure without warning. Furthermore, the cockpits during this period were so small that pilots couldn’t wear parachutes. Once in Europe, the pilots did not find the aircraft much improved. Most WWI enthusiasts are familiar with the British Sopwith Camel biplane fighter, which took down more German aircraft than any other Allied aircraft. While the Camel was highly maneuverable, its sensitivity and instability made it difficult to fly. Almost as many pilots died while training to fly the Camel as the number of men who died flying it in combat. All in all, it’s estimated that for every 18 trained combat pilots, one died in a flying accident during WWI. Fortunately, much was learned from the experiences of the fledgling U.S. Air Corps in “The Great War” and flight training has improved rapidly in the years since. Thanks to the brave aviators who gave their lives in the early days of flight, the aviation industry was propelled forward, and safety protocols advanced tremendously.	842	ENGLISH	1
THE RISE AND SPREAD OF BUDDHISM IT is interesting to turn from the mental and moral activities of Athens and Alexandria, and the growth of human ideas in the Mediterranean world, to the almost entirely separate intellectual life of India. Here was a civilization which from the first seems to have grown up upon its own roots and with a character of its own. It was cut off from the civilizations to the west and to the east by vast mountain barriers and desert regions. The Aryan tribes who had come down into the peninsula soon lost touch with their kindred to the west and north, and developed upon lines of their own. This was more particularly the case with those who had passed on into the Ganges country and beyond. They found a civilization already scattered over India, the Dravidian civilization. This had arisen independently, just as the Sumerian, Cretan, and Egyptian civilizations seem to have arisen, out of that widespread development of the Neolithic culture, the heliolithic culture, whose characteristics we have already described. They revived and changed this Dravidian civilization much as the Greeks did the Ægean or the Semites the Sumerian. These Indian Aryans were living under different conditions - Rhys Davids' Buddhism and other writings by him have been our chief guide here. - Pronounced Ashoka.	<urn:uuid:85c26c40-dee3-414d-aad0-0143e08ecb07>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/439	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00476.warc.gz	en	0.980289	277	3.296875	3	[ -0.2130938619375229, 0.32510635256767273, 0.16437497735023499, -0.26972582936286926, -0.4676831066608429, -0.02620338462293148, 0.14234039187431335, 0.01942235417664051, -0.2197265625, 0.11058839410543442, -0.040128838270902634, -0.3036080598831177, 0.22689038515090942, 0.16819077730178833...	1	THE RISE AND SPREAD OF BUDDHISM IT is interesting to turn from the mental and moral activities of Athens and Alexandria, and the growth of human ideas in the Mediterranean world, to the almost entirely separate intellectual life of India. Here was a civilization which from the first seems to have grown up upon its own roots and with a character of its own. It was cut off from the civilizations to the west and to the east by vast mountain barriers and desert regions. The Aryan tribes who had come down into the peninsula soon lost touch with their kindred to the west and north, and developed upon lines of their own. This was more particularly the case with those who had passed on into the Ganges country and beyond. They found a civilization already scattered over India, the Dravidian civilization. This had arisen independently, just as the Sumerian, Cretan, and Egyptian civilizations seem to have arisen, out of that widespread development of the Neolithic culture, the heliolithic culture, whose characteristics we have already described. They revived and changed this Dravidian civilization much as the Greeks did the Ægean or the Semites the Sumerian. These Indian Aryans were living under different conditions - Rhys Davids' Buddhism and other writings by him have been our chief guide here. - Pronounced Ashoka.	275	ENGLISH	1
Queen Vashti does not obey the king 1 This happened when King Xerxes ruled over 127 parts of the kingdom of Persia. He ruled from India to Cush. 2 King Xerxes lived in the capital, the city called Susa. 3 When King Xerxes had ruled for more than 2 years, he gave a big feast. The feast was for all the important men who had authority in the kingdom. 1:3Cush was the Persian name for a certain country. It included almost all the country that is called Sudan today. It also included some of the country called Ethiopia today. Susa was where the kings of Persia lived in the winter. 4 The feast was for 180 days. King Xerxes wanted to show everyone how rich and powerful he was. 5 When this feast finished, he gave another feast. This happened in the palace gardens. It was for seven days. This feast was for everyone who lived in the city called Susa. It was for people who were important. And it was for people who were not important. 6 The gardens had blue and white curtains. People had made the curtains out of linen and purple material. There were beds that people had made from gold and silver. The floor had many valuable stones in it. 1:6Only rich people would have material of blue and white linen. And only rich people would have purple material. 7 People drank from gold cups. Each cup was different. The king let everyone have his own wine. 8 Each man had as much wine to drink as he wanted. But no man had to drink any wine if he did not want to. That is what the king had said to all his officers. 9 Queen Vashti was the king's wife. She gave a feast for all the women in the palace. 10 On the seventh day, King Xerxes was feeling happy. He told his eunuchs that they must come to him. Their names were Mehuman, Biztha, Harbona, Bigtha, Abagtha, Zethar and Carcas. 11 He told them that they must bring Queen Vashti to him. He said that she must wear her royal crown. King Xerxes wanted to show everyone how beautiful his queen was. 12 The eunuchs told Queen Vashti what the king had said. But she would not go to him. This made King Xerxes very angry. 13 The king had men who knew the law. He always asked them what to do when someone did not obey him. 14 He trusted these men. Their names were Carshena, Shethar, Admatha, Tarshish, Meres, Marsena and Memucan. These men always sat next to the king. They had a lot of authority in the kingdom. 15 The king asked them, ‘What must I do with Queen Vashti? The eunuchs told her what I said. But she did not obey me. What is the law about this?’ 16 In front of the king and all the important men, Memucan (one of the men) replied, ‘The queen has not only done something wrong to you. She has done something wrong to all the important men in your kingdom. 17 When other wives hear about this, they will not obey their own husbands. All the women in the kingdom will say, “King Xerxes said that Queen Vashti should come to him. But she would not come.” 18 So now, the wives of the king's officers will not obey their husbands. This will make their husbands angry. 19 If it makes the king happy, we suggest this: The king should make a law. Someone should write this law with the other laws of Media and Persia so that nobody can change it. This law should say that Vashti must not stand in front of you again. Then find a better woman to be queen. 20 When people know the law, all women will obey their husbands. They will obey them if they are rich or poor.’ 21 The king and his officers liked this idea. And so they did as Memucan said. 22 Men on horses took the law to all the parts of the kingdom. The king said that people must write the law in many languages. They must write it in the languages of all who lived in the kingdom. The law said that every man must rule over his children and his wife. 1:22Queen Vashti had not obeyed her husband. So now, other wives in the kingdom would think that they did not have to obey their own husbands. Other wives would not respect their husbands. The king sent Queen Vashti away because she would not obey him. She would never see the king again. So King Xerxes made this law: All married women must obey and respect their husbands.	<urn:uuid:64630d13-c8b4-4b41-8478-a37cbdfe83ac>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.easyenglish.bible/bible/easy/esther/1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00382.warc.gz	en	0.992465	997	3.484375	3	[ -0.15217718482017517, 0.5793588757514954, 0.3548874855041504, -0.13480523228645325, -0.3178885281085968, -0.34919273853302, 0.5512368679046631, -0.16812127828598022, 0.04959273338317871, 0.36991608142852783, -0.035789795219898224, -0.03436464071273804, 0.5093356966972351, -0.02130953036248...	6	Queen Vashti does not obey the king 1 This happened when King Xerxes ruled over 127 parts of the kingdom of Persia. He ruled from India to Cush. 2 King Xerxes lived in the capital, the city called Susa. 3 When King Xerxes had ruled for more than 2 years, he gave a big feast. The feast was for all the important men who had authority in the kingdom. 1:3Cush was the Persian name for a certain country. It included almost all the country that is called Sudan today. It also included some of the country called Ethiopia today. Susa was where the kings of Persia lived in the winter. 4 The feast was for 180 days. King Xerxes wanted to show everyone how rich and powerful he was. 5 When this feast finished, he gave another feast. This happened in the palace gardens. It was for seven days. This feast was for everyone who lived in the city called Susa. It was for people who were important. And it was for people who were not important. 6 The gardens had blue and white curtains. People had made the curtains out of linen and purple material. There were beds that people had made from gold and silver. The floor had many valuable stones in it. 1:6Only rich people would have material of blue and white linen. And only rich people would have purple material. 7 People drank from gold cups. Each cup was different. The king let everyone have his own wine. 8 Each man had as much wine to drink as he wanted. But no man had to drink any wine if he did not want to. That is what the king had said to all his officers. 9 Queen Vashti was the king's wife. She gave a feast for all the women in the palace. 10 On the seventh day, King Xerxes was feeling happy. He told his eunuchs that they must come to him. Their names were Mehuman, Biztha, Harbona, Bigtha, Abagtha, Zethar and Carcas. 11 He told them that they must bring Queen Vashti to him. He said that she must wear her royal crown. King Xerxes wanted to show everyone how beautiful his queen was. 12 The eunuchs told Queen Vashti what the king had said. But she would not go to him. This made King Xerxes very angry. 13 The king had men who knew the law. He always asked them what to do when someone did not obey him. 14 He trusted these men. Their names were Carshena, Shethar, Admatha, Tarshish, Meres, Marsena and Memucan. These men always sat next to the king. They had a lot of authority in the kingdom. 15 The king asked them, ‘What must I do with Queen Vashti? The eunuchs told her what I said. But she did not obey me. What is the law about this?’ 16 In front of the king and all the important men, Memucan (one of the men) replied, ‘The queen has not only done something wrong to you. She has done something wrong to all the important men in your kingdom. 17 When other wives hear about this, they will not obey their own husbands. All the women in the kingdom will say, “King Xerxes said that Queen Vashti should come to him. But she would not come.” 18 So now, the wives of the king's officers will not obey their husbands. This will make their husbands angry. 19 If it makes the king happy, we suggest this: The king should make a law. Someone should write this law with the other laws of Media and Persia so that nobody can change it. This law should say that Vashti must not stand in front of you again. Then find a better woman to be queen. 20 When people know the law, all women will obey their husbands. They will obey them if they are rich or poor.’ 21 The king and his officers liked this idea. And so they did as Memucan said. 22 Men on horses took the law to all the parts of the kingdom. The king said that people must write the law in many languages. They must write it in the languages of all who lived in the kingdom. The law said that every man must rule over his children and his wife. 1:22Queen Vashti had not obeyed her husband. So now, other wives in the kingdom would think that they did not have to obey their own husbands. Other wives would not respect their husbands. The king sent Queen Vashti away because she would not obey him. She would never see the king again. So King Xerxes made this law: All married women must obey and respect their husbands.	1,012	ENGLISH	1
The Black Knight Satellite Thermal blanket debris photographed from Endeavor, STS-88. Image courtesy of the Image Science & Analysis Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center Stories say it's up there in the blackness right now, just outside the Earth's glow. It tumbles slowly and deliberately through the darkness, sweeping smoothly along its unrelenting orbit. The Earth spins below, largely unaware of its unauthorized parasitic visitor. It is the Black Knight satellite, a mysterious object cirling the Earth, of unknown (and possibly alien) origin — the story says it's up there right now, and has been for 13,000 years. Like so many stories of weird phenomena, the Black Knight satellite legend starts with Nicola Tesla. It's said that he picked up a repeating radio signal in 1899, that he believed was coming from space, and said so publicly at a conference. In the 1920s, amateur HAM radio operators were able to receive this same signal. Next, scientists in Oslo, Norway experimenting with short wave transmissions into space in 1928, began picking up Long Delay Echoes (LDEs), a not fully understood phenomenon in which they received echoes several seconds after transmission. The apparent explanation finally came in 1954 when newspapers (including the St. Louis Post Dispatch and the San Francisco Examiner) reported an announcement from the US Air Force that two satellites were found to be orbiting the Earth, at a time when no nation yet had the ability to launch them. It appeared that Black Knight had been detected by multiple lines of evidence, and was confirmed by the US Air Force. By 1960, both the United States and the Soviet Union had hardware in orbit. But on February 11, 1960, newspapers everywhere reported some alarming news: that somebody else also had something in orbit. A radar screen, designed by the US Navy to detect enemy spy satellites, had picked something up. It was described as a dark, tumbling object. It wasn't ours, and it wasn't the Soviets' either. The next day, newspapers reported a bit more information. The mysterious object was orbiting at about 79 degrees off from the equator, not the 90 degrees of a proper polar orbit. Its orbit was also highly eccentric, with an apogee of 1,728 km but a perigee of only 216 km. The object made a complete orbit every 104.5 minutes. At the time, the Navy was tracking one known casing from an old Discoverer launch, a half shell a bit less than 6 meters long. Discoverer VIII had launched on November 20, 1959, a stepping stone toward launching a man into space and then recovering him in a parachuting capsule. The launch went as planned, but its mission to eject its 136 kg capsule didn't go so well. The capsule's casings came off as planned, but the capsule itself went astray into an orbit somewhat similar to that of the mystery object, and was eventually declared lost. The Navy tracked one of the casings, which was then orbiting every 103 minutes at 80 degrees, with an apogee of 950 km and a perigee of 187 km. Black Knight's object was similar, but not exactly the same. And then, in 1963, astronaut Gordon Cooper reported seeing a greenish UFO during his 15th orbit on board Mercury 9. It was witnessed on the radar screens by approximately 100 people at NASA's Muchea Tracking Station near Perth, Australia. An official explanation given later was that Cooper's electronics malfunctioned, and he breathed in too much CO2 which gave him hallucinations. Black Knight's reality seemed to be undeniable. In 1973, Scottish researcher Duncan Lunan wanted to know for certain. He went back to the Norwegian scientists' LDE data and analyzed it. Lunan discovered that it was a star chart pointing the way to Epsilon Boötis, a double star in the constellation of Boötes. Whatever Black Knight was, it appeared to be transmitting an invitation from the people of Epsilon Boötis, an invitation that was 12,600 years old, according to Lunan's analysis. The final piece of proof came in 1998, when the space shuttle Endeavor made its first flight to the International Space Station on flight STS-88. Astronauts aboard Endeavor took many photographs of a strange object, which were widely available to the public on the NASA website. But soon the photographs all disappeared. They reappeared some time later, with new URLs, and with various descriptions explaining them all away as pieces of debris or space junk. The photographs were of high quality and unmistakably showed some type of craft. Since then we've known just about all there is to know about Black Knight. We know what it looks like, where it came from, when it came, its purpose as an ambassador, and it's been endorsed by so many reliable witnesses in the space program. So then, why does nobody know about it; and why does NASA fail to acknowledge its existence? What a great story. The idea of a 13,000-year-old alien satellite orbiting the Earth is about as exciting as it can get. People often accuse me of debunking stories like this, but I don't see it that way at all. I simply want to know more. I want to open the box wider and learn what's really going on. I don't want to stop here and say "That sounds weird"; I want to learn the solution to the mystery. To those of you who dismiss this as debunking, I really have to say I don't understand why learning the whole story is seen as a negative process. I'm excited by it, and I was excited to learn what's behind the Black Knight satellite. Here's what I found. It turns out that all the bits of history making up the story of Black Knight are unrelated. The phrase "black knight" is so common that I was unable to determine when that name first became a part of the story. It seems improbable that the name would have come from any spacefaring nations at the time, as it's such a common name and has probably been assigned to any number of real projects. From 1958 through 1965, the United Kingdom launched 22 rockets in a program named Black Knight, intended to test various re-entry vehicles. But Black Knight never put anything into orbit; indeed, its second stage fired on the way down, not the way up, to better stress the re-entry vehicle. Take that name out of the equation, and all the links of the chain fall apart. All the events said to be connected to the Black Knight satellite were well documented on their own, and none (at the time) made any mention of such a name. Nicola Tesla did indeed pick up rhythmic radio signals in 1899, and he did believe they came from space. Today we believe he was correct, and that what he picked up were pulsars, giant deep space sources of pulsing radio signals that were formally discovered in 1968. As pulsars were unknown in Tesla's day, he did his best to explain what he thought they might be: intelligent but undeciphered signals. The Norwegian scientists did indeed receive LDE radio reflections, and their cause remains nearly as much a mystery today as it did then. Today we have five probable explanations, any or all of which may be responsible for some LDEs, and they mostly pertain to strange effects in the Earth's ionosphere. They are among about 15 plausible explanations. None of these includes orbiting alien satellites; although if an alien satellite elected to enter our orbit, record our transmissions, and transmit them back to us 8 seconds later, it could well have the same effect. When Duncan Lunan did his translation of the LDE data in 1973 and came up with the star map, he never had any thought of Black Knight or any other strange polar satellite. In fact his interpretation was that the LDEs were coming from the Earth's L5 Lagrangian point. L4 and L5 are two points along the moon's orbit, one 60° ahead of it and the other 60° behind, which are stable and where gravimetric effects from the Earth and Moon will hold an object in steady orbit. Moreover, Lunan later acknowledged that his method was not only unscientific but that he'd made outright errors, and retracted it. So despite today's pop-culture story, there never has been any reasonable interpretation of anything connecting Epsilon Boötis to either a mysterious satellite or to a date of 12,600 years ago. Those 1954 newspaper reports of two satellites in orbit? It was merely tongue-in-cheek reporting of the wild claims of a UFO crank trying to sell a book. The Air Force officer cited was merely a guy who had seen a UFO once, but in no way corroborated the idea of unknown satellites orbiting Earth. Nothing to do with the alleged Black Knight. The most interesting part of the story was in 1960, when the Discoverer satellites were being launched. Secretary of the Air Force Dudley Sharp told newspapers that this new mystery object was probably the second casing from Discoverer VIII, the twin of the known piece they were already tracking, as it was the right size and in about the right place. This was soon confirmed. TIME magazine even reported the identification, but since a mundane explanation is not as exciting as a mystery object, it was back page news. And there's another interesting footnote about the Discoverer program. In 1992, a Central Intelligence Agency program called Corona was declassified, and revealed that the Discoverer rockets were not about launching guys into space at all, but were actually carrying Corona spy satellites. The reason to use a polar orbit is that the craft eventually flies over every part of the Earth, and it's possible to photograph everything; unlike conventional semi-equatorial orbits that can only cover within a certain range of latitude. Back in those days there was no such thing as transmitting digital images back to Earth, so film cameras had to be used, and the film had to be dropped back to Earth to be developed and studied. The Corona KH-1 camera would de-orbit, pop a parachute, and then the parachute would be captured mid-air by a JC-130 recovery aircraft. So although the entire Discoverer program was a front, the launches and results reported in newspapers at the time were indeed correct according to what was later declassified. The Corona camera aboard Discoverer VIII was indeed lost exactly as reported in the 1960 newspapers, and its casings and their eccentric orbit were also correctly reported. So what was it that Gordon Cooper saw from Mercury 9, and that was corroborated by all those radar operators? According to Cooper himself (who died in 2004), what he saw was nothing at all. But make no mistake, Gordon Cooper reported seeing many UFOs during his flight career. He remains adamant about a fleet of UFOs that he says flew overhead while he was stationed in Germany, though nobody else there reports having known anything about it. But Cooper is also adamant that the Mercury 9 UFO — his supposed sighting of a greenish Black Knight in 1963 — is a complete fabrication by UFO authors that never happened. He offered all the transcripts, including his own originals, as proof that no such thing was reported during his flight. The story appears in virtually every UFO book about the Black Knight case, but there's no record of any such thing from NASA, from the radar station personnel, or from any contemporary source. It's purely an invention of modern writers. So that leaves us with Endeavor's STS-88 flight, and their startling photographs of a spacecraft. There are a lot of things wrong with this part of the story. First of all, the shuttle always flew in a semi-equatorial orbit, as does the International Space Station. An object passing in a polar orbit would have gone by at tens of thousands of kilometers per hour, far too fast to be visible, and certainly far too fast for so many high-quality photos to be taken. During one of the astronauts' EVAs, a thermal blanket was lost and drifted away — silver on one side and black on the other. It was photographed extensively. It was crumpled and formed an odd shape. If you didn't know what to expect, the average person would have no clue what it was. But, unfortunately for the legend and fortunately for the astronauts, it simply wasn't an alien satellite. I had a lot of fun learning more about this story. I learned a lot of history and some astronomical facts I didn't know. I'm glad I took the trouble, because if I had simply accepted the story that there's an alien satellite orbiting the Earth, I'd be wrong and I wouldn't have learned anything new. Worse, I'd have made a logical error, in being forced to accept a whole galaxy of wrong assumptions in order to shoehorn an improbable alien satellite into my reality. Neither legend nor mere debunking lead anywhere useful; it's only by tracking down the true facts that we earn the real rewards. Correction: An earlier version of this incorrectly said that objects in perpendicular low Earth orbit would pass at "thousands of kilometers per second". In fact it's about 10 km/s, or about 36,000 km/h, if my math is right. Correction: An earlier version of this said that the thermal blanket was discovered during the STS-88 initial visual inspection following launch, but it was actually lost and photographed during a subsequent EVA. Cite this article: Copyright ©2020 Skeptoid Media, Inc. All Rights Reserved.	<urn:uuid:d24d0ec2-3773-40de-86f8-2fbbd7988723>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4365	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00514.warc.gz	en	0.980836	2,785	3.578125	4	[ -0.13212502002716064, 0.2219761312007904, -0.14994020760059357, -0.42705410718917847, 0.21233642101287842, -0.44528210163116455, 0.14638634026050568, -0.054792825132608414, -0.1077699363231659, 0.13126641511917114, 0.3027583062648773, 0.01112508587539196, -0.20433878898620605, 0.2218978404...	2	The Black Knight Satellite Thermal blanket debris photographed from Endeavor, STS-88. Image courtesy of the Image Science & Analysis Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center Stories say it's up there in the blackness right now, just outside the Earth's glow. It tumbles slowly and deliberately through the darkness, sweeping smoothly along its unrelenting orbit. The Earth spins below, largely unaware of its unauthorized parasitic visitor. It is the Black Knight satellite, a mysterious object cirling the Earth, of unknown (and possibly alien) origin — the story says it's up there right now, and has been for 13,000 years. Like so many stories of weird phenomena, the Black Knight satellite legend starts with Nicola Tesla. It's said that he picked up a repeating radio signal in 1899, that he believed was coming from space, and said so publicly at a conference. In the 1920s, amateur HAM radio operators were able to receive this same signal. Next, scientists in Oslo, Norway experimenting with short wave transmissions into space in 1928, began picking up Long Delay Echoes (LDEs), a not fully understood phenomenon in which they received echoes several seconds after transmission. The apparent explanation finally came in 1954 when newspapers (including the St. Louis Post Dispatch and the San Francisco Examiner) reported an announcement from the US Air Force that two satellites were found to be orbiting the Earth, at a time when no nation yet had the ability to launch them. It appeared that Black Knight had been detected by multiple lines of evidence, and was confirmed by the US Air Force. By 1960, both the United States and the Soviet Union had hardware in orbit. But on February 11, 1960, newspapers everywhere reported some alarming news: that somebody else also had something in orbit. A radar screen, designed by the US Navy to detect enemy spy satellites, had picked something up. It was described as a dark, tumbling object. It wasn't ours, and it wasn't the Soviets' either. The next day, newspapers reported a bit more information. The mysterious object was orbiting at about 79 degrees off from the equator, not the 90 degrees of a proper polar orbit. Its orbit was also highly eccentric, with an apogee of 1,728 km but a perigee of only 216 km. The object made a complete orbit every 104.5 minutes. At the time, the Navy was tracking one known casing from an old Discoverer launch, a half shell a bit less than 6 meters long. Discoverer VIII had launched on November 20, 1959, a stepping stone toward launching a man into space and then recovering him in a parachuting capsule. The launch went as planned, but its mission to eject its 136 kg capsule didn't go so well. The capsule's casings came off as planned, but the capsule itself went astray into an orbit somewhat similar to that of the mystery object, and was eventually declared lost. The Navy tracked one of the casings, which was then orbiting every 103 minutes at 80 degrees, with an apogee of 950 km and a perigee of 187 km. Black Knight's object was similar, but not exactly the same. And then, in 1963, astronaut Gordon Cooper reported seeing a greenish UFO during his 15th orbit on board Mercury 9. It was witnessed on the radar screens by approximately 100 people at NASA's Muchea Tracking Station near Perth, Australia. An official explanation given later was that Cooper's electronics malfunctioned, and he breathed in too much CO2 which gave him hallucinations. Black Knight's reality seemed to be undeniable. In 1973, Scottish researcher Duncan Lunan wanted to know for certain. He went back to the Norwegian scientists' LDE data and analyzed it. Lunan discovered that it was a star chart pointing the way to Epsilon Boötis, a double star in the constellation of Boötes. Whatever Black Knight was, it appeared to be transmitting an invitation from the people of Epsilon Boötis, an invitation that was 12,600 years old, according to Lunan's analysis. The final piece of proof came in 1998, when the space shuttle Endeavor made its first flight to the International Space Station on flight STS-88. Astronauts aboard Endeavor took many photographs of a strange object, which were widely available to the public on the NASA website. But soon the photographs all disappeared. They reappeared some time later, with new URLs, and with various descriptions explaining them all away as pieces of debris or space junk. The photographs were of high quality and unmistakably showed some type of craft. Since then we've known just about all there is to know about Black Knight. We know what it looks like, where it came from, when it came, its purpose as an ambassador, and it's been endorsed by so many reliable witnesses in the space program. So then, why does nobody know about it; and why does NASA fail to acknowledge its existence? What a great story. The idea of a 13,000-year-old alien satellite orbiting the Earth is about as exciting as it can get. People often accuse me of debunking stories like this, but I don't see it that way at all. I simply want to know more. I want to open the box wider and learn what's really going on. I don't want to stop here and say "That sounds weird"; I want to learn the solution to the mystery. To those of you who dismiss this as debunking, I really have to say I don't understand why learning the whole story is seen as a negative process. I'm excited by it, and I was excited to learn what's behind the Black Knight satellite. Here's what I found. It turns out that all the bits of history making up the story of Black Knight are unrelated. The phrase "black knight" is so common that I was unable to determine when that name first became a part of the story. It seems improbable that the name would have come from any spacefaring nations at the time, as it's such a common name and has probably been assigned to any number of real projects. From 1958 through 1965, the United Kingdom launched 22 rockets in a program named Black Knight, intended to test various re-entry vehicles. But Black Knight never put anything into orbit; indeed, its second stage fired on the way down, not the way up, to better stress the re-entry vehicle. Take that name out of the equation, and all the links of the chain fall apart. All the events said to be connected to the Black Knight satellite were well documented on their own, and none (at the time) made any mention of such a name. Nicola Tesla did indeed pick up rhythmic radio signals in 1899, and he did believe they came from space. Today we believe he was correct, and that what he picked up were pulsars, giant deep space sources of pulsing radio signals that were formally discovered in 1968. As pulsars were unknown in Tesla's day, he did his best to explain what he thought they might be: intelligent but undeciphered signals. The Norwegian scientists did indeed receive LDE radio reflections, and their cause remains nearly as much a mystery today as it did then. Today we have five probable explanations, any or all of which may be responsible for some LDEs, and they mostly pertain to strange effects in the Earth's ionosphere. They are among about 15 plausible explanations. None of these includes orbiting alien satellites; although if an alien satellite elected to enter our orbit, record our transmissions, and transmit them back to us 8 seconds later, it could well have the same effect. When Duncan Lunan did his translation of the LDE data in 1973 and came up with the star map, he never had any thought of Black Knight or any other strange polar satellite. In fact his interpretation was that the LDEs were coming from the Earth's L5 Lagrangian point. L4 and L5 are two points along the moon's orbit, one 60° ahead of it and the other 60° behind, which are stable and where gravimetric effects from the Earth and Moon will hold an object in steady orbit. Moreover, Lunan later acknowledged that his method was not only unscientific but that he'd made outright errors, and retracted it. So despite today's pop-culture story, there never has been any reasonable interpretation of anything connecting Epsilon Boötis to either a mysterious satellite or to a date of 12,600 years ago. Those 1954 newspaper reports of two satellites in orbit? It was merely tongue-in-cheek reporting of the wild claims of a UFO crank trying to sell a book. The Air Force officer cited was merely a guy who had seen a UFO once, but in no way corroborated the idea of unknown satellites orbiting Earth. Nothing to do with the alleged Black Knight. The most interesting part of the story was in 1960, when the Discoverer satellites were being launched. Secretary of the Air Force Dudley Sharp told newspapers that this new mystery object was probably the second casing from Discoverer VIII, the twin of the known piece they were already tracking, as it was the right size and in about the right place. This was soon confirmed. TIME magazine even reported the identification, but since a mundane explanation is not as exciting as a mystery object, it was back page news. And there's another interesting footnote about the Discoverer program. In 1992, a Central Intelligence Agency program called Corona was declassified, and revealed that the Discoverer rockets were not about launching guys into space at all, but were actually carrying Corona spy satellites. The reason to use a polar orbit is that the craft eventually flies over every part of the Earth, and it's possible to photograph everything; unlike conventional semi-equatorial orbits that can only cover within a certain range of latitude. Back in those days there was no such thing as transmitting digital images back to Earth, so film cameras had to be used, and the film had to be dropped back to Earth to be developed and studied. The Corona KH-1 camera would de-orbit, pop a parachute, and then the parachute would be captured mid-air by a JC-130 recovery aircraft. So although the entire Discoverer program was a front, the launches and results reported in newspapers at the time were indeed correct according to what was later declassified. The Corona camera aboard Discoverer VIII was indeed lost exactly as reported in the 1960 newspapers, and its casings and their eccentric orbit were also correctly reported. So what was it that Gordon Cooper saw from Mercury 9, and that was corroborated by all those radar operators? According to Cooper himself (who died in 2004), what he saw was nothing at all. But make no mistake, Gordon Cooper reported seeing many UFOs during his flight career. He remains adamant about a fleet of UFOs that he says flew overhead while he was stationed in Germany, though nobody else there reports having known anything about it. But Cooper is also adamant that the Mercury 9 UFO — his supposed sighting of a greenish Black Knight in 1963 — is a complete fabrication by UFO authors that never happened. He offered all the transcripts, including his own originals, as proof that no such thing was reported during his flight. The story appears in virtually every UFO book about the Black Knight case, but there's no record of any such thing from NASA, from the radar station personnel, or from any contemporary source. It's purely an invention of modern writers. So that leaves us with Endeavor's STS-88 flight, and their startling photographs of a spacecraft. There are a lot of things wrong with this part of the story. First of all, the shuttle always flew in a semi-equatorial orbit, as does the International Space Station. An object passing in a polar orbit would have gone by at tens of thousands of kilometers per hour, far too fast to be visible, and certainly far too fast for so many high-quality photos to be taken. During one of the astronauts' EVAs, a thermal blanket was lost and drifted away — silver on one side and black on the other. It was photographed extensively. It was crumpled and formed an odd shape. If you didn't know what to expect, the average person would have no clue what it was. But, unfortunately for the legend and fortunately for the astronauts, it simply wasn't an alien satellite. I had a lot of fun learning more about this story. I learned a lot of history and some astronomical facts I didn't know. I'm glad I took the trouble, because if I had simply accepted the story that there's an alien satellite orbiting the Earth, I'd be wrong and I wouldn't have learned anything new. Worse, I'd have made a logical error, in being forced to accept a whole galaxy of wrong assumptions in order to shoehorn an improbable alien satellite into my reality. Neither legend nor mere debunking lead anywhere useful; it's only by tracking down the true facts that we earn the real rewards. Correction: An earlier version of this incorrectly said that objects in perpendicular low Earth orbit would pass at "thousands of kilometers per second". In fact it's about 10 km/s, or about 36,000 km/h, if my math is right. Correction: An earlier version of this said that the thermal blanket was discovered during the STS-88 initial visual inspection following launch, but it was actually lost and photographed during a subsequent EVA. Cite this article: Copyright ©2020 Skeptoid Media, Inc. All Rights Reserved.	2,913	ENGLISH	1
Our collection of children's picture books featuring Black and Indigenous people and People of Color (BIPOC) is available to the public. You can use the Search Tool below to find titles. Inclusion of a title in the collection DOES NOT EQUAL recommendation. See our related readings page for suggested tools for evaluating books. You can find titles by typing a keyword into the search bar below (e.g. adoption, birthday, holidays, princess, dinosaur, etc.), or by selecting one or a combo of filters on the left. First time here? Start here! 31 matching booksShow Filters Eric and his best friend Tommy decide to play a trick on his little sister Julieta, who believes she is going to see a dragon during the school trip to the museum. A boy learns about his family history and the Partition of India from his great uncle, through stories told over a beloved old teacup. "In this picture book, Lucy and her friends learn about basketball, play 3-on-3 and watch a professional game."-- "Sumo Joe and his friends pretend to be sumo wrestlers, but when his little sister who takes Aikido wants to join them, Sumo Joe must choose between his friends and his sister. Includes author's note about sumo and aikido, and illustrated glossary"-- Pilar has social anxiety, but when tryouts for her favorite ballet are held she uses the coping techniques she has learned and her love of dance to persevere. José de la Luz Sáenz (1888–1953)—or Luz—believed in fighting for what was right. Although he was born in the United States, he and his family experienced prejudice because of their Mexican heritage. When World War I broke out, Luz volunteered to join the fight. Because of his ability to quickly learn languages, he became part of the Intelligence Office in Europe. However, despite his hard work and intellect, Luz often didn’t receive credit for his contributions. Upon his return to the US, he joined other Mexican-Americans whom he had met in the army to fight for equality. His contribution, along with others, ultimately led to the creation of the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), which is the oldest Latino civil rights organization. Soldier for Equality is based in part on Luz’s diary during the war. It includes a biography of Luz’s later years, an author’s note, a timeline, a bibliography, and an index. -- publisher Young Rene's teacher is calling role one morning, and Rene is dismayed to hear someone else answer to his name. It's not only that he thought he was the only person with that name, but also that the new student who answers is a girl. That afternoon his classmates tease, "Rene has a girl's name." Complimented by playful illustrations, this bilingual picture book follows Colato Lainez's own experiences, when he was faced with a challenge to his own name as a child. This witty story about a young boy's odyssey to find out the meaning of his name will challenge readers aged 3 to 7 to chart cross-cultural differences by gaining an understanding about themselves and the people around them. --From the Publisher Missy is trying to decide what to buy during her weekly Daddy Day when she meets a new friend and learns she can buy pizza for people who cannot afford a slice. Includes facts about Rosa's Fresh Pizza in Philadelphia. A reclamation of the Mexican serenata tradition, follow the story of a young boy who asks his father if there is a song for a boy who loves a boy. Amal is back! Older than he was in his first book, (Amal's Eid), our friend is ready to try his first Ramadan fast. That means no eating or drinking while the sun is in the sky. He's very excited to fast like his parents and grandparents...but halfway through the day, he starts to feel dizzy. Will Amal make it to sunset without eating or drinking? And if he needs to drink or eat, will he be able to try again tomorrow? Join Amal as he learns about tradition and the love and support of family, even when things go differently than he planned.	<urn:uuid:08af900f-ebe5-4f8e-8eec-a0d928191b8a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://diversebookfinder.org/books/?dbf-search=1&q=%2A&fq%5B%5D=cross-group-sub%3A%22Positive%22&fq%5B%5D=gender%3A%22Boy%2FMan%22&fq%5B%5D=content%3A%22Bi%2Fmultilingual%22	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00076.warc.gz	en	0.981628	889	3.78125	4	[ -0.2245297133922577, 0.0214412659406662, 0.04233985394239426, -0.14558076858520508, -0.31523120403289795, 0.1468030959367752, 0.04025013744831085, 0.2653524875640869, -0.24706892669200897, 0.026005130261182785, 0.41483771800994873, -0.008617408573627472, 0.05590147525072098, 0.344482451677...	1	Our collection of children's picture books featuring Black and Indigenous people and People of Color (BIPOC) is available to the public. You can use the Search Tool below to find titles. Inclusion of a title in the collection DOES NOT EQUAL recommendation. See our related readings page for suggested tools for evaluating books. You can find titles by typing a keyword into the search bar below (e.g. adoption, birthday, holidays, princess, dinosaur, etc.), or by selecting one or a combo of filters on the left. First time here? Start here! 31 matching booksShow Filters Eric and his best friend Tommy decide to play a trick on his little sister Julieta, who believes she is going to see a dragon during the school trip to the museum. A boy learns about his family history and the Partition of India from his great uncle, through stories told over a beloved old teacup. "In this picture book, Lucy and her friends learn about basketball, play 3-on-3 and watch a professional game."-- "Sumo Joe and his friends pretend to be sumo wrestlers, but when his little sister who takes Aikido wants to join them, Sumo Joe must choose between his friends and his sister. Includes author's note about sumo and aikido, and illustrated glossary"-- Pilar has social anxiety, but when tryouts for her favorite ballet are held she uses the coping techniques she has learned and her love of dance to persevere. José de la Luz Sáenz (1888–1953)—or Luz—believed in fighting for what was right. Although he was born in the United States, he and his family experienced prejudice because of their Mexican heritage. When World War I broke out, Luz volunteered to join the fight. Because of his ability to quickly learn languages, he became part of the Intelligence Office in Europe. However, despite his hard work and intellect, Luz often didn’t receive credit for his contributions. Upon his return to the US, he joined other Mexican-Americans whom he had met in the army to fight for equality. His contribution, along with others, ultimately led to the creation of the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), which is the oldest Latino civil rights organization. Soldier for Equality is based in part on Luz’s diary during the war. It includes a biography of Luz’s later years, an author’s note, a timeline, a bibliography, and an index. -- publisher Young Rene's teacher is calling role one morning, and Rene is dismayed to hear someone else answer to his name. It's not only that he thought he was the only person with that name, but also that the new student who answers is a girl. That afternoon his classmates tease, "Rene has a girl's name." Complimented by playful illustrations, this bilingual picture book follows Colato Lainez's own experiences, when he was faced with a challenge to his own name as a child. This witty story about a young boy's odyssey to find out the meaning of his name will challenge readers aged 3 to 7 to chart cross-cultural differences by gaining an understanding about themselves and the people around them. --From the Publisher Missy is trying to decide what to buy during her weekly Daddy Day when she meets a new friend and learns she can buy pizza for people who cannot afford a slice. Includes facts about Rosa's Fresh Pizza in Philadelphia. A reclamation of the Mexican serenata tradition, follow the story of a young boy who asks his father if there is a song for a boy who loves a boy. Amal is back! Older than he was in his first book, (Amal's Eid), our friend is ready to try his first Ramadan fast. That means no eating or drinking while the sun is in the sky. He's very excited to fast like his parents and grandparents...but halfway through the day, he starts to feel dizzy. Will Amal make it to sunset without eating or drinking? And if he needs to drink or eat, will he be able to try again tomorrow? Join Amal as he learns about tradition and the love and support of family, even when things go differently than he planned.	862	ENGLISH	1
A topic in constant debate in today’s society is whether or not women should stay at home. Various points of view keep this topic in ongoing discussion. There is a part of society who thinks that women should stay at home rather than become part of the workforce because they consider it to be the correct way of living for females. On the contrary, another part of society believes women do not have to stay at home since they have the same rights as men. Nowadays people are still not prepared for women to work out of home despite their equal rights, however, a woman’s place is in the home. First and foremost, women are now able to attain the same levels that men are in business as well as other realms previously male dominated. Even though the society may not be completely prepared to include women in the world of jobs, there are some jobs that women can perform as well, if not better than men. This breakthrough in women’s rights has allowed women to achieve that which they fought for for so many years. However, there are more reasons why women should stay, with the most important being their naturally ability to feed an infant child. Although men are able to feed the babies they are not prepared y nature to carry out this role, and it has been scientifically proven that only a mother’s natural breast milk contains the antibodies necessary to fight many common pediatric infections. Without the female gender, babies would not grow up as healthy had they not been fed by their moms. Including the important fact previously mentioned, there are many other reasons that support this topic. One of them is the physical power that men possess. This natural power allows men to work harder and longer in comparison to a female. This can be seen in athletic events, in which women are always behind men. Moreover, if we want to continue talking about the different aptitudes of each gender, men have a better capacity to carry out jobs where a clear and responsible mind is required. For example, Nobel Prizes are more commonly rewarded to men. It can be seen throughout history that many of the most notable achievements have been acquired by men. For instance, Alexander Fleming discovered the penicillin, the light was invented by the American inventor Thomas Edison, and the most notable of all these achievements was the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. These examples show how in the early years men were born to fight for better life for their families. Not to discriminate against women, but they were supposed to stay at home feeding their children and doing all the housework before the men arrived home. Though society has changed from back then, the minds of many men are still the same. In fact, it is beneficial for women to stay at home because they receive smaller salaries on average. Though many of these jobs outside of the home require the same skills for both genders, women get paid less. This salary, in comparison to all that they accomplish while staying at home, such as the cost of child care and housekeeping, outweighs that which they ould earn outside of the home. Due to this inequality, men are forced to work as well such as women are to stay at home, in order to have the most efficient household possible. To summarize, the society is still very male chauvinistically dominated, refusing to allow women to believe they are as useful as men. Society divides the tasks of life into the different genders and does not let both genders work together. Therefore, women should have to stay at home while the men are allowed to work outside of the home. The world is changing, but women’s role within the home should not.	<urn:uuid:2828541c-4c94-4b5c-8930-c494d4226797>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thenewstandardgallery.com/females-job/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00126.warc.gz	en	0.98467	737	3.34375	3	[ -0.12409579753875732, 0.20598873496055603, -0.10762698948383331, -0.1399030089378357, 0.1332865059375763, 0.2887771725654602, 0.10606949031352997, 0.1759675294160843, -0.026379603892564774, 0.0468599870800972, -0.23106059432029724, -0.05733015015721321, -0.05743183568120003, 0.093055233359...	2	A topic in constant debate in today’s society is whether or not women should stay at home. Various points of view keep this topic in ongoing discussion. There is a part of society who thinks that women should stay at home rather than become part of the workforce because they consider it to be the correct way of living for females. On the contrary, another part of society believes women do not have to stay at home since they have the same rights as men. Nowadays people are still not prepared for women to work out of home despite their equal rights, however, a woman’s place is in the home. First and foremost, women are now able to attain the same levels that men are in business as well as other realms previously male dominated. Even though the society may not be completely prepared to include women in the world of jobs, there are some jobs that women can perform as well, if not better than men. This breakthrough in women’s rights has allowed women to achieve that which they fought for for so many years. However, there are more reasons why women should stay, with the most important being their naturally ability to feed an infant child. Although men are able to feed the babies they are not prepared y nature to carry out this role, and it has been scientifically proven that only a mother’s natural breast milk contains the antibodies necessary to fight many common pediatric infections. Without the female gender, babies would not grow up as healthy had they not been fed by their moms. Including the important fact previously mentioned, there are many other reasons that support this topic. One of them is the physical power that men possess. This natural power allows men to work harder and longer in comparison to a female. This can be seen in athletic events, in which women are always behind men. Moreover, if we want to continue talking about the different aptitudes of each gender, men have a better capacity to carry out jobs where a clear and responsible mind is required. For example, Nobel Prizes are more commonly rewarded to men. It can be seen throughout history that many of the most notable achievements have been acquired by men. For instance, Alexander Fleming discovered the penicillin, the light was invented by the American inventor Thomas Edison, and the most notable of all these achievements was the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. These examples show how in the early years men were born to fight for better life for their families. Not to discriminate against women, but they were supposed to stay at home feeding their children and doing all the housework before the men arrived home. Though society has changed from back then, the minds of many men are still the same. In fact, it is beneficial for women to stay at home because they receive smaller salaries on average. Though many of these jobs outside of the home require the same skills for both genders, women get paid less. This salary, in comparison to all that they accomplish while staying at home, such as the cost of child care and housekeeping, outweighs that which they ould earn outside of the home. Due to this inequality, men are forced to work as well such as women are to stay at home, in order to have the most efficient household possible. To summarize, the society is still very male chauvinistically dominated, refusing to allow women to believe they are as useful as men. Society divides the tasks of life into the different genders and does not let both genders work together. Therefore, women should have to stay at home while the men are allowed to work outside of the home. The world is changing, but women’s role within the home should not.	722	ENGLISH	1
On This Day 19th January 1526 On 19th January 1526, Isabel of Austria, Queen of Denmark, died, aged only 24. Isabel was the second daughter of Philip the Fair, Duke of Burgundy, and Juana I of Castile. Her brothers were later the Holy Roman Emperors, Charles V and Ferdinand I. Isabel’s father died when she was only five, and the mental state of her mother (Juana was considered to be insane) led to her being brought up at the court of her aunt, Marguerite of Austria, who was Regent of the Netherlands. At the age of thirteen, Isabel was married by proxy to Christian II, a man twenty years her senior. Christian’s proxy for the wedding, rather bizarrely, was Isabel’s own grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian. A year later, in 1515, Isabel travelled to Denmark to join her husband, by whom she had three children: John, Dorothea and Christina. The kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden were linked in a complex union, called the Kalmar Union (more here) and at various times Christian was King of all three countries. The marriage did not start well – Christian had a mistress, Dyveke Sigridsdatter, to whom he was deeply attached, and was also strongly influence by Dyveke’s mother, who held surprising levels of power for a woman not of noble birth. After Dyveke’s death, matters improved and Isabel acted as Regent in her husband’s absence. Christian was deposed in 1523 by his nephew and the royal couple went into exile in the Netherlands. Like many educated women of the 1520s, Isabella was interested in religious reform and even Lutheranism, but as harder lines began to be drawn between Catholics and Lutherans, this was a difficult position for the Emperor’s sister. Picture is of an altarpiece in the Carmelite Cloister in Elsinore showing Isabel and Christian II On This Day 18th January 1486 On 18th January 1486 Henry VII married Elizabeth of York. The marriage had first been mooted during the reign of Edward IV, Elizabeth’s father, as a way of reconciling the warring houses of Lancaster and York, but it seems unlikely Edward would have agreed – there were far better matches for his daughter than a penniless exile with a slim claim to the throne. After Edward’s death, however, there seemed to be more mileage in the idea, and Henry and Elizabeth’s mothers (Lady Margaret Beaufort and Elizabeth Woodville, respectively), agreed that this would be the best way to overthrow Richard III, who had usurped the throne from Elizabeth Woodville’s sons. Henry, exiled in Brittany, swore an oath in Vannes Cathedral to marry Elizabeth. In 1485, Henry won the Battle of Bosworth, however, although Elizabeth was put into the care of his mother, he did not marry her immediately. In the Parliament of December 1485, Sir Thomas Lovell put forward a petition for the King to marry ‘the illustrious Lady Elizabeth’ to which Henry graciously consented. A papal dispensation was obtained (they were third cousins). The ceremony was performed by Cardinal Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury, in Westminster Abbey, where they now lie entombed, side by side. The couple went on to have seven children and seem to have become been genuinely attached to each other. Picture is of tomb of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York, in Westminster Abbey On This Day 17th January 1517 On 17th January 1517, Margaret Grey (nee Wootton), Marchioness of Dorset, gave birth to a son, who was named Henry, after his father’s cousin, King Henry VIII, probably at the family’s home at Bradgate in Leicestershire. Henry Grey inherited his title in 1533, and three years later, with the King’s permission, he married Lady Frances Brandon, the daughter of Mary, the French Queen, by whom he had three daughters. In 1536, he was created a Knight of the Bath, on the eve of Anne Boleyn’s coronation, and bore the Sword of State. Henry was an early convert to evangelicalism, and became increasingly attached to Protestantism as time went on. He was not named as a member of the Council appointed by Henry VIII to govern for the young king, Edward VI, but as a close associate of the Duke of Northumberland, who took over control of the Government in 1552, he was granted the Dukedom of Suffolk on the death of his wife’s two brothers. Together with Northumberland, he conspired to put his daughter, Lady Jane Grey, on the throne on the death of Edward VI. Initially pardoned, he became involved in Wyatt’s Rebellion and was executed in 1554. Read more on Henry’s second, equally unfortunate, daughter, Lady Katherine Grey, here The many branches of the Grey family produced legions of soldiers, administrators, justices of the peace, and other middle-ranking functionaries as they served the English kings from the conquest onward. In the 1460s, Thomas Grey, heir to the barony of Ferrers, had his fortune made when his beautiful mother captured the king’s heart and hand. In this article, Melita Thomas, author of The House of Grey, examines the relationship between Thomas and his mother, and the more troubled mother-son relationships of later Grey generations.Read article	<urn:uuid:9e8572a6-a9be-4f34-8fd8-0ce7a0e1769e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tudortimes.co.uk/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00357.warc.gz	en	0.985559	1,159	3.515625	4	[ -0.21818459033966064, 0.44928401708602905, 0.288494735956192, -0.3799327611923218, -0.0076236119493842125, -0.49413251876831055, -0.3104891777038574, 0.008444679901003838, 0.23447056114673615, -0.0007048116531223059, 0.029956355690956116, -0.37460801005363464, 0.01721927709877491, 0.008076...	1	On This Day 19th January 1526 On 19th January 1526, Isabel of Austria, Queen of Denmark, died, aged only 24. Isabel was the second daughter of Philip the Fair, Duke of Burgundy, and Juana I of Castile. Her brothers were later the Holy Roman Emperors, Charles V and Ferdinand I. Isabel’s father died when she was only five, and the mental state of her mother (Juana was considered to be insane) led to her being brought up at the court of her aunt, Marguerite of Austria, who was Regent of the Netherlands. At the age of thirteen, Isabel was married by proxy to Christian II, a man twenty years her senior. Christian’s proxy for the wedding, rather bizarrely, was Isabel’s own grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian. A year later, in 1515, Isabel travelled to Denmark to join her husband, by whom she had three children: John, Dorothea and Christina. The kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden were linked in a complex union, called the Kalmar Union (more here) and at various times Christian was King of all three countries. The marriage did not start well – Christian had a mistress, Dyveke Sigridsdatter, to whom he was deeply attached, and was also strongly influence by Dyveke’s mother, who held surprising levels of power for a woman not of noble birth. After Dyveke’s death, matters improved and Isabel acted as Regent in her husband’s absence. Christian was deposed in 1523 by his nephew and the royal couple went into exile in the Netherlands. Like many educated women of the 1520s, Isabella was interested in religious reform and even Lutheranism, but as harder lines began to be drawn between Catholics and Lutherans, this was a difficult position for the Emperor’s sister. Picture is of an altarpiece in the Carmelite Cloister in Elsinore showing Isabel and Christian II On This Day 18th January 1486 On 18th January 1486 Henry VII married Elizabeth of York. The marriage had first been mooted during the reign of Edward IV, Elizabeth’s father, as a way of reconciling the warring houses of Lancaster and York, but it seems unlikely Edward would have agreed – there were far better matches for his daughter than a penniless exile with a slim claim to the throne. After Edward’s death, however, there seemed to be more mileage in the idea, and Henry and Elizabeth’s mothers (Lady Margaret Beaufort and Elizabeth Woodville, respectively), agreed that this would be the best way to overthrow Richard III, who had usurped the throne from Elizabeth Woodville’s sons. Henry, exiled in Brittany, swore an oath in Vannes Cathedral to marry Elizabeth. In 1485, Henry won the Battle of Bosworth, however, although Elizabeth was put into the care of his mother, he did not marry her immediately. In the Parliament of December 1485, Sir Thomas Lovell put forward a petition for the King to marry ‘the illustrious Lady Elizabeth’ to which Henry graciously consented. A papal dispensation was obtained (they were third cousins). The ceremony was performed by Cardinal Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury, in Westminster Abbey, where they now lie entombed, side by side. The couple went on to have seven children and seem to have become been genuinely attached to each other. Picture is of tomb of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York, in Westminster Abbey On This Day 17th January 1517 On 17th January 1517, Margaret Grey (nee Wootton), Marchioness of Dorset, gave birth to a son, who was named Henry, after his father’s cousin, King Henry VIII, probably at the family’s home at Bradgate in Leicestershire. Henry Grey inherited his title in 1533, and three years later, with the King’s permission, he married Lady Frances Brandon, the daughter of Mary, the French Queen, by whom he had three daughters. In 1536, he was created a Knight of the Bath, on the eve of Anne Boleyn’s coronation, and bore the Sword of State. Henry was an early convert to evangelicalism, and became increasingly attached to Protestantism as time went on. He was not named as a member of the Council appointed by Henry VIII to govern for the young king, Edward VI, but as a close associate of the Duke of Northumberland, who took over control of the Government in 1552, he was granted the Dukedom of Suffolk on the death of his wife’s two brothers. Together with Northumberland, he conspired to put his daughter, Lady Jane Grey, on the throne on the death of Edward VI. Initially pardoned, he became involved in Wyatt’s Rebellion and was executed in 1554. Read more on Henry’s second, equally unfortunate, daughter, Lady Katherine Grey, here The many branches of the Grey family produced legions of soldiers, administrators, justices of the peace, and other middle-ranking functionaries as they served the English kings from the conquest onward. In the 1460s, Thomas Grey, heir to the barony of Ferrers, had his fortune made when his beautiful mother captured the king’s heart and hand. In this article, Melita Thomas, author of The House of Grey, examines the relationship between Thomas and his mother, and the more troubled mother-son relationships of later Grey generations.Read article	1,175	ENGLISH	1
Science: This week the students were busy little scientists! They added clay to their prehistoric animal skeletons to make them look like a more realistic model. They also designed and constructed a new tool that a paleontologist could use. Once their prototype was finished they tested them out to see how well they would work. Check out the pictures below! Reading: This week we read several great books including: Shortcut, A Color of His Own, and What Ruby Shared. The main skills that we worked on were using strategies to solve tricky words, and we also practiced making predictions. Writing: Our personal narratives are coming along nicely. This week we focused on making our stories longer and stronger by adding more details. We also reviewed strategies for writing a strong conclusion. Math: Throughout chapter 2 we are learning about the following topics: - even and odd numbers - number patterns - repeated addition	<urn:uuid:51ddc836-a624-475f-b41a-9c51e89b3067>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://2nd-grade-smiles.blogspot.com/2019/09/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00030.warc.gz	en	0.980385	181	4.1875	4	[ -0.4682673215866089, 0.03052709624171257, 0.09002728760242462, 0.039636410772800446, -0.40414273738861084, -0.0386086031794548, -0.5033378601074219, 0.5307485461235046, -0.3774455487728119, -0.02646907977759838, 0.13434618711471558, -0.2954615354537964, 0.2047049105167389, 0.51038646697998...	1	Science: This week the students were busy little scientists! They added clay to their prehistoric animal skeletons to make them look like a more realistic model. They also designed and constructed a new tool that a paleontologist could use. Once their prototype was finished they tested them out to see how well they would work. Check out the pictures below! Reading: This week we read several great books including: Shortcut, A Color of His Own, and What Ruby Shared. The main skills that we worked on were using strategies to solve tricky words, and we also practiced making predictions. Writing: Our personal narratives are coming along nicely. This week we focused on making our stories longer and stronger by adding more details. We also reviewed strategies for writing a strong conclusion. Math: Throughout chapter 2 we are learning about the following topics: - even and odd numbers - number patterns - repeated addition	178	ENGLISH	1
On Thursday 3rd of October, as part of our Stone Age theme, Year 3 had a visit from Jeffrey Andrews, who is an artist. He brought some fossils and tools in to show us. We had a discussion as to what each of the tools was for, and how the fossils were made. Can you make a guess as to what each of the tools or weapons was used for? Jeffrey encouraged the children to take part in a dig. First they had to get ready. Hi visibility vests are important as archaeology can be a dangerous business! Next came the dig. As mentioned before, the children were given strict instructions on how to use the tools needed for the dig. The children gave each other the required jobs, and had to work closely in a team. The children had to record their finds, noting how many their were and providing a description. The children found seeds, pottery, charcoal and bones! The children were able to use their skills of deduction to talk about their finds, and relate it the other work they have done in class.	<urn:uuid:7a25b2d8-aabd-4c79-ba2d-1a71e3bd40cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.shirleymanor.co.uk/archaeology/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00104.warc.gz	en	0.993523	221	3.78125	4	[ -0.20085971057415009, 0.006102141924202442, 0.5037124156951904, 0.02259715460240841, -0.2973307967185974, 0.1667906641960144, 0.12478598207235336, -0.006445034872740507, -0.7043337225914001, 0.14104072749614716, 0.06926394253969193, -0.25965070724487305, 0.1127721518278122, 0.2218073755502...	9	On Thursday 3rd of October, as part of our Stone Age theme, Year 3 had a visit from Jeffrey Andrews, who is an artist. He brought some fossils and tools in to show us. We had a discussion as to what each of the tools was for, and how the fossils were made. Can you make a guess as to what each of the tools or weapons was used for? Jeffrey encouraged the children to take part in a dig. First they had to get ready. Hi visibility vests are important as archaeology can be a dangerous business! Next came the dig. As mentioned before, the children were given strict instructions on how to use the tools needed for the dig. The children gave each other the required jobs, and had to work closely in a team. The children had to record their finds, noting how many their were and providing a description. The children found seeds, pottery, charcoal and bones! The children were able to use their skills of deduction to talk about their finds, and relate it the other work they have done in class.	215	ENGLISH	1
A BRIEF HISTORY OF HOMES IN ENGLAND By Tim Lambert The Celts lived in round houses. They were built around a central pole with horizontal poles radiating outwards from it. They rested on vertical poles. Walls were of wattle and daub and roofs were thatched. Around the walls inside the huts were benches, which also doubled up as beds. The Celts also used low tables. After the Roman Conquest upper class Celts adopted the Roman way of life. They built villas modeled on Roman buildings and they enjoyed luxuries such as mosaics and even a form of central heating called a hypocaust. Wealthy Romans also had wall paintings called murals in their houses. In their windows they had panes of glass. Of course poorer Romans had none of these things. Their houses were simple and plain and the main form of heating was braziers. For the wealthy furniture was very comfortable. It was upholstered and finely carved. People ate while reclining on couches. Oil lamps were used for light. Furthermore some people had a piped water supply. Water was brought into towns in aqueducts they went along lead pipes to individual houses. However Roman rule probably made little difference to most poor Celts, especially in the north and extreme southwest of England. For them life went on much as it had before. Their houses remained simple huts. Life in Roman Britain Life was hard in Anglo-Saxon times and homes were rough. There were no panes of glass in windows, even in a thane's (noble's) hall and there were no chimneys. Floors were of earth or sometimes they were dug out and had wooden floorboards placed over them. There were no carpets. Rich people's houses were rough, crowded and uncomfortable. Even a thanes hall was really just a large wooden hut although it was usually hung with rich tapestries. Thanes also like to show off any gold they owned. Any furniture must have been simple and heavy such as wooden chests. A Peasants Hut In The Middle Ages Peasants homes were simple wooden huts. They had wooden frames filled in with wattle and daub (strips of wood woven together and covered in a 'plaster' of animal hair and clay). However, in some parts of the country huts were made of stone. Peasants huts were either whitewashed or painted in bright colors. The poorest people lived in one-room huts. Slightly better off peasants lived in huts with one or two rooms. There were no panes of glass in the windows only wooden shutters, which were closed at night. The floors were of hard earth sometimes covered in straw for warmth. In the middle of a Medieval peasant's hut was a fire used for cooking and heating. There was no chimney. Any furniture was very basic. Chairs were very expensive and no peasant could afford one. Instead, they sat on benches or stools. They would have a simple wooden table and chests for storing clothes and other valuables. Tools and pottery vessels were hung on hooks. The peasants slept on straw and they did not have pillows. Instead, they rested their heads on wooden logs. The peasant's wife cooked on a cauldron suspended over the fire and the family ate from wooden bowls. Candles were expensive so peasants usually used rushlights (rushes dipped in animal fat). At night in summer and all day in winter the peasants shared their huts with their animals. Parts of it were screened off for the livestock. Their body heat helped to keep the hut warm. Rich People's Houses In The Middle Ages The Normans, at first, built castles of wood. In the early 12th century stone replaced them. In the towns, wealthy merchants began living in stone houses. (The first ordinary people to live in stone houses were Jews. They had to live in stone houses for safety). In Saxon times a rich man and his entire household lived together in one great hall. In the Middle Ages, the great hall was still the center of a castle but the lord had his own room above it. This room was called the solar. In it the lord slept in a bed, which was surrounded by curtains, both for privacy and to keep out drafts. The other members of the lord's household, such as his servants, slept on the floor of the great hall. At one or both ends of the great hall, there was a fireplace and chimney. In the Middle Ages, chimneys were a luxury. As time passed they became more common but only a small minority could afford them. Certainly, no peasant could afford one. About 1180 for the first time since the Romans rich people had panes of glass in the windows. At first, glass was very expensive and only rich people could afford it but by the late 13th and early 14th centuries, the middle classes began to have glass in some of their windows. Those people who could not afford glass could use thin strips of horn or pieces of linen soaked in tallow or resin which were translucent. Furniture in the Middle Ages was very basic. Even in a rich household chairs were rare. Most people sat on stools or benches. Rich people also had tables and large chests, which doubled up as beds. Rich peoples homes were hung with wool tapestries or painted linen. They were not just for decoration. They also helped keep out drafts. In a castle, the toilet or garderobe was a chute built into the thickness of the wall. The seat was made of stone. Sometimes the garderobe emptied straight into the moat! Medieval Merchant's House in Southampton Life in the Middle Ages 16th Century Homes In the Middle Ages rich people's houses were designed for defense rather than comfort. In the 16th century, life was safer so houses no longer had to be easy to defend. It was an age when rich people built grand houses e.g. Cardinal Wolsey built Hampton Court Palace. Late the Countess of Shrewsbury built Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire. People below the rich but above the poor built sturdy 'half-timbered' houses. They were made with a timber frame filled in with wattle and daub (wickerwork and plaster). In the late 16th century some people built or rebuilt their houses with a wooden frame filled in with bricks. Roofs were usually thatched though some well off people had tiles. (In London all houses had tiles because of the fear of fire). Furniture was more plentiful in the 16th century than in the Middle Ages but it was still basic. In a wealthy home, it was usually made of oak and was heavy and massive. Tudor furniture was expected to last for generations. You expected to pass it on to your children and even your grandchildren. Comfortable beds became more and more common in the 16th century and increasing numbers of middle class people slept on feather mattresses rather than straw ones. Chairs were more common than in the Middle Ages but they were still expensive. Even in an upper class home children and servants sat on stools. The poor had to make do with stools and benches. In the 15th century only a small minority of people could afford glass windows. During the 16th century, they became much more common. However, they were still expensive. If you moved house you took your glass windows with you! Tudor windows were made of small pieces of glass held together by strips of lead. They were called lattice windows. However the poor still had to make do with strips of linen soaked in linseed oil. Chimneys were also a luxury in the 16th century, although they became more common. Furthermore, in the Middle Ages, a well to do person's house was dominated by the great hall. In the 16th century well off people houses became divided into more rooms. In wealthy Tudor houses the walls of rooms were lined with oak panelling to keep out drafts. People slept in four-poster beds hung with curtains to reduce drafts. In the 16th century, some people had wallpaper but it was very expensive. Other wealthy people hung tapestries or painted cloths on their walls. In the 16th century carpets were a luxury only the richest people could afford. They were usually too expensive to put on the floor! Instead, they were often hung on the wall or over tables. People covered the floors with rushes or reeds (or mats of woven reeds or rushes) which they strewed with sweet smelling herbs. In the 16th century prosperous people lit their homes with beeswax candles. However, they were expensive. Other made used candles made from tallow (animal fat) which gave off an unpleasant smell and the poorest people made do with rush lights (rushes dipped in animal fat). In the 16th century, the rich had clocks in their homes. The very rich had pocket watches although most people relied on pocket sundials. Rich Tudors were also fond of gardens. Many had mazes, fountains, and topiary (hedges cut into shapes). Less well off people used their gardens to grow vegetables and herbs. None of the improvements of the 16th century applied to the poor. They continued to live in simple huts with one or two rooms (occasionally three). Smoke escaped through a hole in the thatched roof. Floors were of hard earth and furniture was very basic, benches, stools, a table, and wooden chests. They slept on mattresses stuffed with straw or thistledown. The mattresses lay on ropes strung across a wooden frame. In 1596 Sir John Harrington invented a flushing lavatory with a cistern. However, the idea failed to catch on. People continued to use chamber pots or cess pits, which were cleaned by men called gong farmers. (In the 16th century a toilet was called jakes). Life in the 16th Century Rich 17th Century People's Homes In the late 17th century furniture for the wealthy became more comfortable and much more finely decorated. In the early 17th century furniture was plain and heavy. It was usually made of oak. In the late 17th century furniture for the rich was often made of walnut or (from the 1680s) mahogany. It was decorated in new ways. One was veneering. (Thin pieces of expensive wood were laid over cheaper wood). Some furniture was also inlaid. Wood was carved out and the hollow was filled in with mother of pearl. At this time lacquering arrived in England. Pieces of furniture were coated with lacquer in bright colors. Furthermore new types of furniture were introduced. In the mid 17th century chests of drawers became common. Grandfather clocks also became popular. Later in the century, the bookcase was introduced. Chairs also became far more comfortable. Upholstered (padded and covered) chairs became common in wealthy people's homes. In the 1680s the first real armchairs appeared. In the early 17th century the architect Inigo Jones introduced the classical style of architecture (based on ancient Greek and Roman styles). He designed the Banqueting Hall in Whitehall, which was the first purely classical building in England. The late 17th century was a great age of building grand country homes, displaying the wealth of the upper class at that time. Poor People's Homes in the 17th Century However all the improvements in furniture did not apply to the poor. Their furniture remained very plain and basic. However there were some improvements in poor people's houses in the 17th century. In the Middle Ages, ordinary people's homes were usually made of wood. However in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, many were built or rebuilt in stone or brick. By the late 17th century even poor people usually lived in houses made of brick or stone. They were a big improvement over wooden houses. They were warmer and drier. In the 16th century chimneys were a luxury. However, during the 17th century chimneys became more common and by the late 17th century even the poor had them. Furthermore in 1600 glass windows were a luxury. Poor people made do with linen soaked in linseed oil. However, during the 17th century glass became cheaper and by the late 17th century even the poor had glass windows. In the early 17th century there were only casement windows (ones that open on hinges). In the later 17th century sash windows were introduced. They were in two sections and they slid up and down vertically to open and shut. Although poor people's homes improved in some ways they remained very small and crowded. Most of the poor lived in huts of 2 or 3 rooms. Some families lived in just one room. 18th Century Homes In the 18th century a small minority of the population lived in luxury. The rich built great country houses. A famous landscape gardener called Lancelot Brown (1715-1783) created beautiful gardens. (He was known as 'Capability' Brown from his habit of looking at land and saying it had 'great capabilities'). The leading architect of the 18th century was Robert Adam (1728-1792). He created a style called neo-classical and he designed many 18th century country houses. The wealthy owned comfortable upholstered furniture. They owned beautiful furniture, some of it veneered or inlaid. In the 18th century much fine furniture was made by Thomas Chippendale (1718-1779), George Hepplewhite (?-1786) and Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806). The famous clock maker James Cox (1723-1800) made exquisite clocks for the rich. However the poor had none of these things. Craftsmen and laborers lived in 2 or 3 rooms. The poorest people lived in just one room. Their furniture was very simple and plain. 19th Century Homes In the 19th century well off people in Britain lived in very comfortable houses. (Although their servants lived in cramped quarters, often in the attic). For the first time, furniture was mass-produced. That meant it was cheaper but unfortunately standards of design fell. To us 19th century middle class homes would seem overcrowded with furniture, ornaments, and knick-knacks. However, only a small minority could afford this comfortable lifestyle. In the early 19th century housing for the poor was dreadful. Often they lived in 'back-to-backs'. These were houses of three (or sometimes only two) rooms, one of top of the other. The houses were literally back-to-back. The back of one house joined onto the back of another and they only had windows on one side. The bottom room was used as a living room and kitchen. The two rooms upstairs were used as bedrooms. The worst homes were cellar dwellings. These were one-room cellars. They were damp and poorly ventilated. The poorest people slept on piles of straw because they could not afford beds. Fortunately in the 1840s local councils passed by-laws banning cellar dwellings. They also banned any new back to backs. The old ones were gradually demolished and replaced over the following decades. In the early 19th century skilled workers usually lived in 'through houses' i.e. ones that were not joined to the backs of other houses. Usually, they had two rooms downstairs and two upstairs. The downstairs front room was kept for best. The family kept their best furniture and ornaments in this room. They spent most of their time in the downstairs back room, which served as a kitchen and living room. As the 19th century passed more and more working class people could afford this lifestyle. In the USA Augustus Pope patented the first modern burglar alarm in 1853. Melville Bissell invented a carpet sweeper in 1876. In the late 19th century workers houses greatly improved. After 1875 most towns passed building regulations which stated that e.g. new houses must be a certain distance apart, rooms must be of a certain size and have windows of a certain size. By the 1880s most working class people lived in houses with two rooms downstairs and two or even three bedrooms. Most had a small garden. At the end of the 19th century, some houses for skilled workers were built with the latest luxury - an indoor toilet. Most 19th century homes also had a scullery. In it was a 'copper', a metal container for washing clothes. The copper was filled with water and soap powder was added. To wash the clothes they were turned with a wooden tool called a dolly. Or you used a metal plunger with holes in it to push clothes up and down. Wet clothes were wrung through a device called a mangle or wringer to dry them. At the beginning of the 19th century people cooked over an open fire. This was very wasteful as most of the heat went up the chimney. In the 1820s an iron cooker called a range was introduced. It was a much more efficient way of cooking because most of the heat was contained within. By the mid-19th century ranges were common. Most of them had a boiler behind the coal fire where water was heated. However, even at the end of the 19th century there were still many families living in one room. Old houses were sometimes divided up into separate dwellings. Sometimes if windows were broken slum landlords could not or would not replace them. So they were 'repaired' with paper. Or rags were stuffed into holes in the glass. Gaslight first became common in well off people's homes in the 1840s. By the late 1870s, most working class homes had gaslight, at least downstairs. Bedrooms might have oil lamps. Gas fires first became common in the 1880s. Gas cookers first became common in the 1890s. Joseph Swan invented the electric light bulb in 1878. Edison invented an improved version in 1879. However electric light was expensive and it took a long time to replace gas in people's homes. In the early 19th century only rich people had bathrooms. People did take baths but only a few people had actual rooms for washing. In the 1870s and 1880s, many middle class people had bathrooms built. The water was heated by gas. Working class people had a tin bath and washed in front of the kitchen range. In the 1890s, for the well to do, a new style or art and decoration appeared called Art Nouveau. It involved swirling and flowing lines and stylized plant forms. Life in the 19th Century 20th Century Homes At the start of the 20th century working class homes in Britain had two rooms downstairs. The front room and the back room. The front room was kept for best and children were not allowed to play there. In the front room, the family kept their best furniture and ornaments. The back room was the kitchen and it was where the family spent most of their time. Most families cooked on a coal-fired stove called a range, which also heated the room. This lifestyle changed in the early 20th century as gas cookers became common. They did not heat the room so people began to spend most of their time in the front room or living room, by the fire. Rising living standards meant it was possible to furnish all rooms properly not just one. During the 20th century, ordinary people's furniture greatly improved in quality and design. In the 1920s and 1930s, a new style of furniture and architecture was introduced. It was called Art Deco and it used geometric shapes instead of the flowing lines of the earlier Art Nouveau. The name art deco came from an exhibition held in Paris in 1925 called the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs. At the beginning of the 20th century only rich people could afford electric light. Other people used gas. Ordinary people did not have electric light until the 1920s and 1930s. In the early 20th century vacuum cleaners and washing machines were available but only rich people could afford them. They became more common in the 1930s, though they were still expensive. By 1959 about two-thirds of British homes had a vacuum cleaner. However, fridges and washing machines did not become really common till the 1960s. The first practical electric fire was made in 1912 but they did not become common until the 1930s. Central heating became common in the 1960s and 1970s. Double glazing became common in the 1980s. Plastic or PVC was first used in the 1940s. By the 1960s all kinds of household goods from drain pipes to combs were made of plastic. In 1900 about 90% of the population rented their home. However, home ownership became more common during the 20th century. By 1939 about 27% of the population owned their own house. Meanwhile, the first council houses were built before the First World War. More were built in the 1920s and 1930s and some slum clearance took place. However, council houses remained rare until after World War II. After 1945 many more were built and they became common. In the early 1950s many homes still did not have bathrooms and only had outside lavatories. The situation greatly improved in the late 1950s and 1960s. Large-scale slum clearance took place when whole swathes of old terraced houses were demolished. High-rise flats replaced some of them. However, flats proved to be unpopular with many people. Some people who lived in the new flats felt isolated. The old terraced houses may have been grim but at least they often had a strong sense of community, which was usually not true of the flats that replaced them. In 1968 a gas explosion wrecked a block of flats at Ronan Point in London and public opinion turned against them. In the 1970s the emphasis turned to renovate old houses rather than replacing them. Then, in 1979 the British government adopted a policy of selling council houses. Life in the 20th Century A timeline of houses A history of furniture A history of housework A history of toilets Last revised 2019	<urn:uuid:a9283fb6-03c9-491e-87e0-5ec01edfc14a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://localhistories.org/homes.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00118.warc.gz	en	0.992876	4,587	3.734375	4	[ 0.4060433506965637, 0.1980491280555725, 0.8013361692428589, 0.12711839377880096, 0.09539088606834412, -0.2239462435245514, -0.3035498261451721, -0.12436327338218689, 0.18274568021297455, 0.16719618439674377, -0.20379489660263062, -0.5804672241210938, 0.058978889137506485, 0.040719095617532...	2	A BRIEF HISTORY OF HOMES IN ENGLAND By Tim Lambert The Celts lived in round houses. They were built around a central pole with horizontal poles radiating outwards from it. They rested on vertical poles. Walls were of wattle and daub and roofs were thatched. Around the walls inside the huts were benches, which also doubled up as beds. The Celts also used low tables. After the Roman Conquest upper class Celts adopted the Roman way of life. They built villas modeled on Roman buildings and they enjoyed luxuries such as mosaics and even a form of central heating called a hypocaust. Wealthy Romans also had wall paintings called murals in their houses. In their windows they had panes of glass. Of course poorer Romans had none of these things. Their houses were simple and plain and the main form of heating was braziers. For the wealthy furniture was very comfortable. It was upholstered and finely carved. People ate while reclining on couches. Oil lamps were used for light. Furthermore some people had a piped water supply. Water was brought into towns in aqueducts they went along lead pipes to individual houses. However Roman rule probably made little difference to most poor Celts, especially in the north and extreme southwest of England. For them life went on much as it had before. Their houses remained simple huts. Life in Roman Britain Life was hard in Anglo-Saxon times and homes were rough. There were no panes of glass in windows, even in a thane's (noble's) hall and there were no chimneys. Floors were of earth or sometimes they were dug out and had wooden floorboards placed over them. There were no carpets. Rich people's houses were rough, crowded and uncomfortable. Even a thanes hall was really just a large wooden hut although it was usually hung with rich tapestries. Thanes also like to show off any gold they owned. Any furniture must have been simple and heavy such as wooden chests. A Peasants Hut In The Middle Ages Peasants homes were simple wooden huts. They had wooden frames filled in with wattle and daub (strips of wood woven together and covered in a 'plaster' of animal hair and clay). However, in some parts of the country huts were made of stone. Peasants huts were either whitewashed or painted in bright colors. The poorest people lived in one-room huts. Slightly better off peasants lived in huts with one or two rooms. There were no panes of glass in the windows only wooden shutters, which were closed at night. The floors were of hard earth sometimes covered in straw for warmth. In the middle of a Medieval peasant's hut was a fire used for cooking and heating. There was no chimney. Any furniture was very basic. Chairs were very expensive and no peasant could afford one. Instead, they sat on benches or stools. They would have a simple wooden table and chests for storing clothes and other valuables. Tools and pottery vessels were hung on hooks. The peasants slept on straw and they did not have pillows. Instead, they rested their heads on wooden logs. The peasant's wife cooked on a cauldron suspended over the fire and the family ate from wooden bowls. Candles were expensive so peasants usually used rushlights (rushes dipped in animal fat). At night in summer and all day in winter the peasants shared their huts with their animals. Parts of it were screened off for the livestock. Their body heat helped to keep the hut warm. Rich People's Houses In The Middle Ages The Normans, at first, built castles of wood. In the early 12th century stone replaced them. In the towns, wealthy merchants began living in stone houses. (The first ordinary people to live in stone houses were Jews. They had to live in stone houses for safety). In Saxon times a rich man and his entire household lived together in one great hall. In the Middle Ages, the great hall was still the center of a castle but the lord had his own room above it. This room was called the solar. In it the lord slept in a bed, which was surrounded by curtains, both for privacy and to keep out drafts. The other members of the lord's household, such as his servants, slept on the floor of the great hall. At one or both ends of the great hall, there was a fireplace and chimney. In the Middle Ages, chimneys were a luxury. As time passed they became more common but only a small minority could afford them. Certainly, no peasant could afford one. About 1180 for the first time since the Romans rich people had panes of glass in the windows. At first, glass was very expensive and only rich people could afford it but by the late 13th and early 14th centuries, the middle classes began to have glass in some of their windows. Those people who could not afford glass could use thin strips of horn or pieces of linen soaked in tallow or resin which were translucent. Furniture in the Middle Ages was very basic. Even in a rich household chairs were rare. Most people sat on stools or benches. Rich people also had tables and large chests, which doubled up as beds. Rich peoples homes were hung with wool tapestries or painted linen. They were not just for decoration. They also helped keep out drafts. In a castle, the toilet or garderobe was a chute built into the thickness of the wall. The seat was made of stone. Sometimes the garderobe emptied straight into the moat! Medieval Merchant's House in Southampton Life in the Middle Ages 16th Century Homes In the Middle Ages rich people's houses were designed for defense rather than comfort. In the 16th century, life was safer so houses no longer had to be easy to defend. It was an age when rich people built grand houses e.g. Cardinal Wolsey built Hampton Court Palace. Late the Countess of Shrewsbury built Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire. People below the rich but above the poor built sturdy 'half-timbered' houses. They were made with a timber frame filled in with wattle and daub (wickerwork and plaster). In the late 16th century some people built or rebuilt their houses with a wooden frame filled in with bricks. Roofs were usually thatched though some well off people had tiles. (In London all houses had tiles because of the fear of fire). Furniture was more plentiful in the 16th century than in the Middle Ages but it was still basic. In a wealthy home, it was usually made of oak and was heavy and massive. Tudor furniture was expected to last for generations. You expected to pass it on to your children and even your grandchildren. Comfortable beds became more and more common in the 16th century and increasing numbers of middle class people slept on feather mattresses rather than straw ones. Chairs were more common than in the Middle Ages but they were still expensive. Even in an upper class home children and servants sat on stools. The poor had to make do with stools and benches. In the 15th century only a small minority of people could afford glass windows. During the 16th century, they became much more common. However, they were still expensive. If you moved house you took your glass windows with you! Tudor windows were made of small pieces of glass held together by strips of lead. They were called lattice windows. However the poor still had to make do with strips of linen soaked in linseed oil. Chimneys were also a luxury in the 16th century, although they became more common. Furthermore, in the Middle Ages, a well to do person's house was dominated by the great hall. In the 16th century well off people houses became divided into more rooms. In wealthy Tudor houses the walls of rooms were lined with oak panelling to keep out drafts. People slept in four-poster beds hung with curtains to reduce drafts. In the 16th century, some people had wallpaper but it was very expensive. Other wealthy people hung tapestries or painted cloths on their walls. In the 16th century carpets were a luxury only the richest people could afford. They were usually too expensive to put on the floor! Instead, they were often hung on the wall or over tables. People covered the floors with rushes or reeds (or mats of woven reeds or rushes) which they strewed with sweet smelling herbs. In the 16th century prosperous people lit their homes with beeswax candles. However, they were expensive. Other made used candles made from tallow (animal fat) which gave off an unpleasant smell and the poorest people made do with rush lights (rushes dipped in animal fat). In the 16th century, the rich had clocks in their homes. The very rich had pocket watches although most people relied on pocket sundials. Rich Tudors were also fond of gardens. Many had mazes, fountains, and topiary (hedges cut into shapes). Less well off people used their gardens to grow vegetables and herbs. None of the improvements of the 16th century applied to the poor. They continued to live in simple huts with one or two rooms (occasionally three). Smoke escaped through a hole in the thatched roof. Floors were of hard earth and furniture was very basic, benches, stools, a table, and wooden chests. They slept on mattresses stuffed with straw or thistledown. The mattresses lay on ropes strung across a wooden frame. In 1596 Sir John Harrington invented a flushing lavatory with a cistern. However, the idea failed to catch on. People continued to use chamber pots or cess pits, which were cleaned by men called gong farmers. (In the 16th century a toilet was called jakes). Life in the 16th Century Rich 17th Century People's Homes In the late 17th century furniture for the wealthy became more comfortable and much more finely decorated. In the early 17th century furniture was plain and heavy. It was usually made of oak. In the late 17th century furniture for the rich was often made of walnut or (from the 1680s) mahogany. It was decorated in new ways. One was veneering. (Thin pieces of expensive wood were laid over cheaper wood). Some furniture was also inlaid. Wood was carved out and the hollow was filled in with mother of pearl. At this time lacquering arrived in England. Pieces of furniture were coated with lacquer in bright colors. Furthermore new types of furniture were introduced. In the mid 17th century chests of drawers became common. Grandfather clocks also became popular. Later in the century, the bookcase was introduced. Chairs also became far more comfortable. Upholstered (padded and covered) chairs became common in wealthy people's homes. In the 1680s the first real armchairs appeared. In the early 17th century the architect Inigo Jones introduced the classical style of architecture (based on ancient Greek and Roman styles). He designed the Banqueting Hall in Whitehall, which was the first purely classical building in England. The late 17th century was a great age of building grand country homes, displaying the wealth of the upper class at that time. Poor People's Homes in the 17th Century However all the improvements in furniture did not apply to the poor. Their furniture remained very plain and basic. However there were some improvements in poor people's houses in the 17th century. In the Middle Ages, ordinary people's homes were usually made of wood. However in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, many were built or rebuilt in stone or brick. By the late 17th century even poor people usually lived in houses made of brick or stone. They were a big improvement over wooden houses. They were warmer and drier. In the 16th century chimneys were a luxury. However, during the 17th century chimneys became more common and by the late 17th century even the poor had them. Furthermore in 1600 glass windows were a luxury. Poor people made do with linen soaked in linseed oil. However, during the 17th century glass became cheaper and by the late 17th century even the poor had glass windows. In the early 17th century there were only casement windows (ones that open on hinges). In the later 17th century sash windows were introduced. They were in two sections and they slid up and down vertically to open and shut. Although poor people's homes improved in some ways they remained very small and crowded. Most of the poor lived in huts of 2 or 3 rooms. Some families lived in just one room. 18th Century Homes In the 18th century a small minority of the population lived in luxury. The rich built great country houses. A famous landscape gardener called Lancelot Brown (1715-1783) created beautiful gardens. (He was known as 'Capability' Brown from his habit of looking at land and saying it had 'great capabilities'). The leading architect of the 18th century was Robert Adam (1728-1792). He created a style called neo-classical and he designed many 18th century country houses. The wealthy owned comfortable upholstered furniture. They owned beautiful furniture, some of it veneered or inlaid. In the 18th century much fine furniture was made by Thomas Chippendale (1718-1779), George Hepplewhite (?-1786) and Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806). The famous clock maker James Cox (1723-1800) made exquisite clocks for the rich. However the poor had none of these things. Craftsmen and laborers lived in 2 or 3 rooms. The poorest people lived in just one room. Their furniture was very simple and plain. 19th Century Homes In the 19th century well off people in Britain lived in very comfortable houses. (Although their servants lived in cramped quarters, often in the attic). For the first time, furniture was mass-produced. That meant it was cheaper but unfortunately standards of design fell. To us 19th century middle class homes would seem overcrowded with furniture, ornaments, and knick-knacks. However, only a small minority could afford this comfortable lifestyle. In the early 19th century housing for the poor was dreadful. Often they lived in 'back-to-backs'. These were houses of three (or sometimes only two) rooms, one of top of the other. The houses were literally back-to-back. The back of one house joined onto the back of another and they only had windows on one side. The bottom room was used as a living room and kitchen. The two rooms upstairs were used as bedrooms. The worst homes were cellar dwellings. These were one-room cellars. They were damp and poorly ventilated. The poorest people slept on piles of straw because they could not afford beds. Fortunately in the 1840s local councils passed by-laws banning cellar dwellings. They also banned any new back to backs. The old ones were gradually demolished and replaced over the following decades. In the early 19th century skilled workers usually lived in 'through houses' i.e. ones that were not joined to the backs of other houses. Usually, they had two rooms downstairs and two upstairs. The downstairs front room was kept for best. The family kept their best furniture and ornaments in this room. They spent most of their time in the downstairs back room, which served as a kitchen and living room. As the 19th century passed more and more working class people could afford this lifestyle. In the USA Augustus Pope patented the first modern burglar alarm in 1853. Melville Bissell invented a carpet sweeper in 1876. In the late 19th century workers houses greatly improved. After 1875 most towns passed building regulations which stated that e.g. new houses must be a certain distance apart, rooms must be of a certain size and have windows of a certain size. By the 1880s most working class people lived in houses with two rooms downstairs and two or even three bedrooms. Most had a small garden. At the end of the 19th century, some houses for skilled workers were built with the latest luxury - an indoor toilet. Most 19th century homes also had a scullery. In it was a 'copper', a metal container for washing clothes. The copper was filled with water and soap powder was added. To wash the clothes they were turned with a wooden tool called a dolly. Or you used a metal plunger with holes in it to push clothes up and down. Wet clothes were wrung through a device called a mangle or wringer to dry them. At the beginning of the 19th century people cooked over an open fire. This was very wasteful as most of the heat went up the chimney. In the 1820s an iron cooker called a range was introduced. It was a much more efficient way of cooking because most of the heat was contained within. By the mid-19th century ranges were common. Most of them had a boiler behind the coal fire where water was heated. However, even at the end of the 19th century there were still many families living in one room. Old houses were sometimes divided up into separate dwellings. Sometimes if windows were broken slum landlords could not or would not replace them. So they were 'repaired' with paper. Or rags were stuffed into holes in the glass. Gaslight first became common in well off people's homes in the 1840s. By the late 1870s, most working class homes had gaslight, at least downstairs. Bedrooms might have oil lamps. Gas fires first became common in the 1880s. Gas cookers first became common in the 1890s. Joseph Swan invented the electric light bulb in 1878. Edison invented an improved version in 1879. However electric light was expensive and it took a long time to replace gas in people's homes. In the early 19th century only rich people had bathrooms. People did take baths but only a few people had actual rooms for washing. In the 1870s and 1880s, many middle class people had bathrooms built. The water was heated by gas. Working class people had a tin bath and washed in front of the kitchen range. In the 1890s, for the well to do, a new style or art and decoration appeared called Art Nouveau. It involved swirling and flowing lines and stylized plant forms. Life in the 19th Century 20th Century Homes At the start of the 20th century working class homes in Britain had two rooms downstairs. The front room and the back room. The front room was kept for best and children were not allowed to play there. In the front room, the family kept their best furniture and ornaments. The back room was the kitchen and it was where the family spent most of their time. Most families cooked on a coal-fired stove called a range, which also heated the room. This lifestyle changed in the early 20th century as gas cookers became common. They did not heat the room so people began to spend most of their time in the front room or living room, by the fire. Rising living standards meant it was possible to furnish all rooms properly not just one. During the 20th century, ordinary people's furniture greatly improved in quality and design. In the 1920s and 1930s, a new style of furniture and architecture was introduced. It was called Art Deco and it used geometric shapes instead of the flowing lines of the earlier Art Nouveau. The name art deco came from an exhibition held in Paris in 1925 called the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs. At the beginning of the 20th century only rich people could afford electric light. Other people used gas. Ordinary people did not have electric light until the 1920s and 1930s. In the early 20th century vacuum cleaners and washing machines were available but only rich people could afford them. They became more common in the 1930s, though they were still expensive. By 1959 about two-thirds of British homes had a vacuum cleaner. However, fridges and washing machines did not become really common till the 1960s. The first practical electric fire was made in 1912 but they did not become common until the 1930s. Central heating became common in the 1960s and 1970s. Double glazing became common in the 1980s. Plastic or PVC was first used in the 1940s. By the 1960s all kinds of household goods from drain pipes to combs were made of plastic. In 1900 about 90% of the population rented their home. However, home ownership became more common during the 20th century. By 1939 about 27% of the population owned their own house. Meanwhile, the first council houses were built before the First World War. More were built in the 1920s and 1930s and some slum clearance took place. However, council houses remained rare until after World War II. After 1945 many more were built and they became common. In the early 1950s many homes still did not have bathrooms and only had outside lavatories. The situation greatly improved in the late 1950s and 1960s. Large-scale slum clearance took place when whole swathes of old terraced houses were demolished. High-rise flats replaced some of them. However, flats proved to be unpopular with many people. Some people who lived in the new flats felt isolated. The old terraced houses may have been grim but at least they often had a strong sense of community, which was usually not true of the flats that replaced them. In 1968 a gas explosion wrecked a block of flats at Ronan Point in London and public opinion turned against them. In the 1970s the emphasis turned to renovate old houses rather than replacing them. Then, in 1979 the British government adopted a policy of selling council houses. Life in the 20th Century A timeline of houses A history of furniture A history of housework A history of toilets Last revised 2019	4,823	ENGLISH	1
In I.T. students had an introduction to coding. They had to find the shortest possible code to move their fruit from one corner of the paper to the other. It was a fun challenge to see which path was the shortest and why. Students discovered that in this example the most optimal route included the least amount of turns. Properties of Shape Students in Miss Anne’s junior kindergarten class participated in a science experiment where they had to discover which shapes roll and which shapes do not roll. Students used a ramp to discover the properties of shapes. The students in Mrs. Powell’s class worked in teams of three on a classroom design project. Each team compiled a report including a design proposal for the set up of the classroom with the desks, furniture, carpets and bookshelves. The students measured the area and perimeter of the classroom. Each day the recorder kept notes as the team went through the process of putting the report together. During the process, the word builder helped the group learn new vocabulary by looking up definitions in the dictionary and finding synonyms for their new words. As well, each group had to present an advertisement to “sell” their idea to the other students. At the end, each group printed their report and shared their advertisement. One group used the Bookmaker app to create a book on an iPad using screen shots of their report papers. After the presentations, the students took a gallery walk to get a closer look at all of the parts of the reports that were shared. A vote was cast and one design was selected by all. The classroom was transformed and the students had a small celebration and had some time to enjoy the new set up. Structures in Story Throughout a unit on buildings and structures the Donatello class read the story, “The Three Little Pigs: an Architectural Tale.” In the story the first little pig builds a house of scraps, the second pig builds a house of glass and the third builds a house of bricks. Students were asked to build three houses using scraps, “glass,” and “bricks.” Students then tested out their houses to see if they could withstand “The Big Bad Wolf.”	<urn:uuid:80d16c1b-9497-438c-a45b-f371a6f52110>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pythagorasacademy.ca/2017/01/24/2919/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00445.warc.gz	en	0.980585	454	3.859375	4	[ -0.13944192230701447, 0.117519311606884, 0.20444504916667938, 0.21080119907855988, -0.5277013778686523, 0.37677520513534546, -0.36137571930885315, 0.30825087428092957, 0.025933243334293365, 0.23439916968345642, 0.23369146883487701, -0.1300707459449768, -0.1093050092458725, 0.17096455395221...	2	In I.T. students had an introduction to coding. They had to find the shortest possible code to move their fruit from one corner of the paper to the other. It was a fun challenge to see which path was the shortest and why. Students discovered that in this example the most optimal route included the least amount of turns. Properties of Shape Students in Miss Anne’s junior kindergarten class participated in a science experiment where they had to discover which shapes roll and which shapes do not roll. Students used a ramp to discover the properties of shapes. The students in Mrs. Powell’s class worked in teams of three on a classroom design project. Each team compiled a report including a design proposal for the set up of the classroom with the desks, furniture, carpets and bookshelves. The students measured the area and perimeter of the classroom. Each day the recorder kept notes as the team went through the process of putting the report together. During the process, the word builder helped the group learn new vocabulary by looking up definitions in the dictionary and finding synonyms for their new words. As well, each group had to present an advertisement to “sell” their idea to the other students. At the end, each group printed their report and shared their advertisement. One group used the Bookmaker app to create a book on an iPad using screen shots of their report papers. After the presentations, the students took a gallery walk to get a closer look at all of the parts of the reports that were shared. A vote was cast and one design was selected by all. The classroom was transformed and the students had a small celebration and had some time to enjoy the new set up. Structures in Story Throughout a unit on buildings and structures the Donatello class read the story, “The Three Little Pigs: an Architectural Tale.” In the story the first little pig builds a house of scraps, the second pig builds a house of glass and the third builds a house of bricks. Students were asked to build three houses using scraps, “glass,” and “bricks.” Students then tested out their houses to see if they could withstand “The Big Bad Wolf.”	430	ENGLISH	1
West New Britain is an area located in the country of Papua New Guinea. During the 1900’s the island was under the administration of Australia until its independence in 1975. During Australia’s administration there were kiaps, also known as patrol officers, who were assigned to record the process of preparing Papua New Guinea for its Independence. During the years of 1968 through 1969 in West New Britain there was a great focus on the construction of building roads. What makes theses documents so interesting now is that they are historical records, which gives readers a glimpse in to the past. Throughout the Patrol reports that I reviewed the District Commissioner K.W. Dyer repeatedly recommends that the patrol officers should continue to regularly be around the people. At one point the District Commissioner states, “He would also work with the adjoining villagers, broaden their understanding of our efforts and stimulate their own endeavors.”(pg 11) As we can see there was a concern to involve villagers their economic development. There also appears to be a push for copra production. With many diary entries conceding that the production is low, however the patrol officers are certain that in time it would increase in a few years. One of the least challenging things about examining my sources was already having a primary source such as the patrol reports assigned to us. Searching for relevant information about the late 1960’s Papua New Guinea was probably one of the most difficult things to do. When I was explaining the patrol reports I tried to stay unbiased by telling it from their point of view. In the future the technology used to find reports will probably be easier because more people have online access and will not have to visit the library to receive this information. I think that microfilm will probably be discontinued because the Internet now provides faster access to information that we are searching for.	<urn:uuid:e7f5a8b2-2543-4e75-bc13-d1d336475583>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://knit.ucsd.edu/patrollingthepast/2018/07/22/aboutness-statement/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00212.warc.gz	en	0.981911	370	3.359375	3	[ -0.3745063841342926, -0.04015147313475609, 0.43916866183280945, -0.3730716407299042, 0.614064633846283, 0.408068984746933, -0.2352931648492813, 0.15477868914604187, -0.31220027804374695, 0.40970462560653687, 0.0003151812416035682, -0.3909095525741577, 0.05806221440434456, 0.357705861330032...	7	West New Britain is an area located in the country of Papua New Guinea. During the 1900’s the island was under the administration of Australia until its independence in 1975. During Australia’s administration there were kiaps, also known as patrol officers, who were assigned to record the process of preparing Papua New Guinea for its Independence. During the years of 1968 through 1969 in West New Britain there was a great focus on the construction of building roads. What makes theses documents so interesting now is that they are historical records, which gives readers a glimpse in to the past. Throughout the Patrol reports that I reviewed the District Commissioner K.W. Dyer repeatedly recommends that the patrol officers should continue to regularly be around the people. At one point the District Commissioner states, “He would also work with the adjoining villagers, broaden their understanding of our efforts and stimulate their own endeavors.”(pg 11) As we can see there was a concern to involve villagers their economic development. There also appears to be a push for copra production. With many diary entries conceding that the production is low, however the patrol officers are certain that in time it would increase in a few years. One of the least challenging things about examining my sources was already having a primary source such as the patrol reports assigned to us. Searching for relevant information about the late 1960’s Papua New Guinea was probably one of the most difficult things to do. When I was explaining the patrol reports I tried to stay unbiased by telling it from their point of view. In the future the technology used to find reports will probably be easier because more people have online access and will not have to visit the library to receive this information. I think that microfilm will probably be discontinued because the Internet now provides faster access to information that we are searching for.	379	ENGLISH	1
Marco Polo was an Italian explorer. His well-documented travels to China were some of the most influential in world history, and did much to kickstart the European age of exploration. Marco Polo was born in Venice, Italy on September 15, 1254. His father and uncle were prosperous merchants who already begun trading with Chinese and Eastern merchants. Because of the constant threat of war, the Polos left Venice and eventually settled in what is now Uzbekistan. The move east to Uzbekistan made trading with China and the East much easier. In 1264, Marco's father Nicolo, and uncle, Maffio set out on a two-year long journey to meet Kublai Khan, the emperor of China in what is now Beijing. According to the account of Marco Polo, Kublai Khan received them well and requested they come back to teach the Chinese people Christianity and western customs. Marco Polo's Descriptions of China and the Silk Road In 1271, the Polos set out to return to China. This time, they took Marco with them. The four year voyage across western and central Asia was long and arduous. After traveling by sea to the Persian gulf, the Polos were forced to take an ancient caravan route through present day Iraq, Iran, and Turkmenistan. They then traversed the desolate Gobi Desert, and made their way through several ancient mercantile cities. In the spring of 1275, the Polos finally reached Shangdu, the summer residence of Kublai Khan. The route taken by the Polos became known as The Silk Road. Kublai Khan and his royal court immediately took a liking to Marco and appointed him commissioner in the Mongol government. In the meantime, Marco studied the native languages and culture. Marco soon became a trusted advisor to Kublai Khan and began recording his observations of the great ruler and his vast territories, palaces, arms, and riches. Marco described the vast Asian trading network and, in particular, the thriving silk, iron, and salt industries. He also described the foreign concept of paper money as well as Chinese inventions such as porcelain pottery (China). Marco wrote that Khan's city (known as Cambuluc) was the most fantastic city in the world. When Marco's descriptions reached Europe, a new generation of explorers was born who imagined amazing fortune for themselves in the East. Marco remained with Kublai Khan for seventeen years and recorded his observations throughout China. His recordings of a culture completely unknown in Europe proved priceless. Marco's Journal is Published In 1292, the Polo's finally traveled home. The voyage took three years and took the Polos to the Spice Islands (Indonesia), where Marco described the exotic sights and amazing resources. After he returned to Italy, Marco was imprisoned during a clash between Venice and Genoa. While in prison, Marco dictated his observations to a fellow prisoner. His descriptions were soon published as a book called "II Milione", or, The Travels of Marco Polo. The book became a huge success and undoubtedly inspired future explorers such as Christopher Columbus. Marco Polo died in 1324.	<urn:uuid:714eab7d-3262-4ba6-b62d-9f56d420f890>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/uploads/activities/legends/silkroad.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00461.warc.gz	en	0.981281	635	3.90625	4	[ -0.10251481831073761, -0.010876034386456013, 0.18636782467365265, -0.356431245803833, -0.25562500953674316, -0.19315512478351593, 0.37903112173080444, 0.031197918578982353, 0.04947667196393013, -0.14892587065696716, 0.3641069829463959, -0.6391358375549316, 0.15806211531162262, 0.3606826663...	2	Marco Polo was an Italian explorer. His well-documented travels to China were some of the most influential in world history, and did much to kickstart the European age of exploration. Marco Polo was born in Venice, Italy on September 15, 1254. His father and uncle were prosperous merchants who already begun trading with Chinese and Eastern merchants. Because of the constant threat of war, the Polos left Venice and eventually settled in what is now Uzbekistan. The move east to Uzbekistan made trading with China and the East much easier. In 1264, Marco's father Nicolo, and uncle, Maffio set out on a two-year long journey to meet Kublai Khan, the emperor of China in what is now Beijing. According to the account of Marco Polo, Kublai Khan received them well and requested they come back to teach the Chinese people Christianity and western customs. Marco Polo's Descriptions of China and the Silk Road In 1271, the Polos set out to return to China. This time, they took Marco with them. The four year voyage across western and central Asia was long and arduous. After traveling by sea to the Persian gulf, the Polos were forced to take an ancient caravan route through present day Iraq, Iran, and Turkmenistan. They then traversed the desolate Gobi Desert, and made their way through several ancient mercantile cities. In the spring of 1275, the Polos finally reached Shangdu, the summer residence of Kublai Khan. The route taken by the Polos became known as The Silk Road. Kublai Khan and his royal court immediately took a liking to Marco and appointed him commissioner in the Mongol government. In the meantime, Marco studied the native languages and culture. Marco soon became a trusted advisor to Kublai Khan and began recording his observations of the great ruler and his vast territories, palaces, arms, and riches. Marco described the vast Asian trading network and, in particular, the thriving silk, iron, and salt industries. He also described the foreign concept of paper money as well as Chinese inventions such as porcelain pottery (China). Marco wrote that Khan's city (known as Cambuluc) was the most fantastic city in the world. When Marco's descriptions reached Europe, a new generation of explorers was born who imagined amazing fortune for themselves in the East. Marco remained with Kublai Khan for seventeen years and recorded his observations throughout China. His recordings of a culture completely unknown in Europe proved priceless. Marco's Journal is Published In 1292, the Polo's finally traveled home. The voyage took three years and took the Polos to the Spice Islands (Indonesia), where Marco described the exotic sights and amazing resources. After he returned to Italy, Marco was imprisoned during a clash between Venice and Genoa. While in prison, Marco dictated his observations to a fellow prisoner. His descriptions were soon published as a book called "II Milione", or, The Travels of Marco Polo. The book became a huge success and undoubtedly inspired future explorers such as Christopher Columbus. Marco Polo died in 1324.	655	ENGLISH	1
Главная > Реферат >Остальные работы Dracula And Women Essay, Research Paper Women: Object/Men: Protectors Bram Stoker s novel, Dracula, exhibits many characteristics of nineteenth century Gothic novels. In fact, this novel may be the best representation of the time period. It includes the elements typical of the novel: morbid melancholy, figures of the supernatural, dark romance, mysterious setting, and many twists and turns. It also incorporates the differences in the roles of gender, which are obvious in the story. One example is that the men in the story seem to be very protective of their women. They treat these women more like objects or pieces of property than a person. These men try to keep their women away from Dracula because Dracula feeds on mortal blood. They would go to a great extent to keep their women away from Dracula s evil-doings. Throughout the novel, these men refer to the women as their women. One can say that the women were not accustomed to think or decide for themselves. The actions of most of these women were dependent on the commands of their husbands. Mina did whatever her husband told her to do. [She] went to bed when the men had gone, (they had gone after Dracula) simply because they told [her] to . (Stoker, 263) The reason why these women could not think for themselves, or even do the things that men do, is because many of these women did not have the mentality of a man. During that time, almost all of the women lacked skills such as typing, writing in shorthand, and knowing simple math calculations. There was only one woman mentioned in the novel who had the brain of a man and her name is Wilhelmina Murray, who is Jonathan Harker s fianc . She knew how to type, write in shorthand, memorized the timetables, and so much more. She had the body of a woman, yet the brain of a man. Whether or not she thinks like a man, she was still forbidden to do anything with the men because she is a woman. This just shows that no matter how much a woman tries, she is still limited to certain activities. The men see these women as innocent and frail beings that are very gullible and the men would do anything to keep their women out of danger. They also thought that women were less intelligent than men and could not learn as well. . The reason why these men would forbid their women to certain activities is because they think they do not want any harm done to their women. However, their true purpose was to insure that the gap between the roles of gender would not be bridged by allowing women the same opportunities; therefore, women would never attain the superior mentality of men. Many women are innocent before they wed because they are not exposed to certain behaviors that men dream about. However, women are also very curious about this topic. Women are very innocent to such matters. They are very clueless as to what or how this topic is perceived. The vampire bite plays a very similar role to this certain topic. The vampire bite is a metaphor for sexuality. When a vampire, such as Dracula, bites you, he does not just bite you on the neck, he lures you to him or lures you to invite him into your room or your boundary. Once he is in your boundary, he would seduce you and start to kiss you. Of course, once he seduces you, he starts to kiss you and eventually, you would kiss him back. Now, you and the vampire (Dracula) are making out ; this is the foreplay before he starts to feed on your blood. Moreover, this is very sexual. Therefore, once the women are exposed to this vampire bite or experience it, they are no longer considered innocent. After Dracula bites the woman, they crave for more of Dracula s bite. This craving for more of Dracula s bite is very sexual because they welcome Dracula into their room and perform this foreplay before he feeds on her blood. Therefore, the men in the novel try their best to keep their women away from Dracula because of how he influences their women. Unfortunately, no matter how hard the men tried to save their women from such danger, Dracula stole one of their women away from them. Dracula stole Lucy Westenra, who is the honorable Arthur Holmwood s fianc . Dracula had bitten her many times. With Lucy s habit of sleepwalking, it only made the job easier for Dracula. No one, not even Mina, who slept in the same bed with her, knew about the vampire bite. Every morning, while Lucy was asleep, Mina would hear Lucy wheezing as if she was struggling to breathe. Later into the novel, Dr. Van Helsing discovered the bite. From then on, Lucy was pampered like a baby. Both the doctor and John Seward would always keep Lucy in sight. They were even hesitant to tell Arthur about Lucy s condition. They gave Lucy a blood transfusion when she was lacking blood. They gave her their own blood to try to save her precious life. Not only that, but they smeared garlic all over her bedroom windows and door (any form of entrance), placed a crucifix by her bed and never left her side when she was ill. They made her stay in bed and wouldn t let her out of their sight for fear that Dracula would pay her another visit. Even though she was dead, they still tried to save her. When she was dead, they found out that she became a vampire. Therefore, they stalked her to try to free her soul from the evil. By doing so, they rammed a stake through her heart, smeared her lips and coffin with garlic and cut her head off. Once her soul was free, they felt relieved; unfortunately, they had to kill Dracula to save everyone else who was bitten by him. (Stoker, 214-238) One of the people that were bitten by Dracula is Mina. However, the men did not know about this until Renfield informed them. The men were on their quest to kill Dracula when Mina was bitten. Before they found out about Mina having been bitten by Dracula, they tried their best to protect her from Dracula. They would not let her join them in their quest, for she was a woman, or rather, their woman. After they found out about Mina, they paid close attention to her. They would not let her do more things than usual. They treated her like a delicate rose. However, Mina was still Mina. She clung to her husband s arm, and held it tight as though her clinging could protect him from any harm that might come, (Stoker, 313). Not only did she have the brain of a man; she also had the mentality to protect her property (Jonathan). In turn, the men tried to protect her. When the men finally took Mina along with them in their quest, they wouldn t let her out of their sight. While Arthur, John, Quincy, and Jonathan were chasing after Dracula towards the end of the novel, Helsing and Mina were waiting for their arrival. While they waited, Helsing made a ring of fire around Mina to protect her from the evil. This ring of fire symbolizes possession. Throughout the novel, Mina is a possession of the men in the novel. Dracula tries to possess this property of the men (Mina). Once Dracula have their women, the men are Dracula s also for [His] revenge is just begun! [He] spread it over centuries, and time is on [his] side. [Their] girls that [they] all love are [his] already; and through them [the men] and others shall yet be [his] [his] creatures, to do [his] bidding, and to be [his] jackals when [he] want[s] to feed. Bah! (Stoker, 312). The roles of gender play an important role in determining the behavior of the characters in Dracula. There are two types of women in flux here: the traditional nineteenth century proper women and the promiscuous sexual predator. What separates the two is the symbolic vampire bite, which represents sexuality. The men, who take it upon themselves to guard their women from the bite of lust, may be unaware of their other purpose: to protect the role of the proper woman. - Dracula Strengths And Weaknesses Essay, Research Paper I. Strengths A. Immortal 1. Speaks of history ... power is used is when Dracula attacks Mina and Harker does not wake ... to have a calming effect on Dracula when Dracula was filled with blood lust ... - ... And Theophilus Essay, Research Paper 1. Theophilus Lover of God, a Christian, probably a Roman, to whom ... He was married to Drusilla, the daughter of Herod ... had taken Drusilla from another man and was living ... to preach to Felix and Drusilla. He reasoned with ... - Freud And Caligula Essay, Research Paper Sigmund Freud was ... commonly seen in families, when the husband and wife have a fight ... bed with his sister Drusilla. Instability within the hierarchy ... his sexual confusion and promiscuity with women and children of both ... - Gay And Lesbian Essay, Research Paper Historians have traced ... dance together. Female impersonators and women playing male roles, both ... maniac the Emperor really was. Dracula's Daughter (1936) brought ... Anne Carlisle played both a woman and a gay man in the ... - Dracula-Play Review Essay, Research Paper Dracula Dracula is a penetrating look at the ... was interesting, and changes were quick and effectively done. Dracula takes place in ... special effects. When the flash went off, my heart jumped and I definitely ...	<urn:uuid:610ee89e-f518-4a23-833d-11575da554f9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://works.doklad.ru/view/B2Ntv9zAy9c.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00343.warc.gz	en	0.983451	2,055	3.375	3	[ -0.18184418976306915, 0.6888983249664307, -0.08834874629974365, 0.34041959047317505, -0.07846961915493011, -0.07087858766317368, 0.12386217713356018, 0.09982196986675262, 0.33244049549102783, -0.16062647104263306, 0.02239934727549553, 0.0749543160200119, -0.09622247517108917, 0.25615823268...	2	Главная > Реферат >Остальные работы Dracula And Women Essay, Research Paper Women: Object/Men: Protectors Bram Stoker s novel, Dracula, exhibits many characteristics of nineteenth century Gothic novels. In fact, this novel may be the best representation of the time period. It includes the elements typical of the novel: morbid melancholy, figures of the supernatural, dark romance, mysterious setting, and many twists and turns. It also incorporates the differences in the roles of gender, which are obvious in the story. One example is that the men in the story seem to be very protective of their women. They treat these women more like objects or pieces of property than a person. These men try to keep their women away from Dracula because Dracula feeds on mortal blood. They would go to a great extent to keep their women away from Dracula s evil-doings. Throughout the novel, these men refer to the women as their women. One can say that the women were not accustomed to think or decide for themselves. The actions of most of these women were dependent on the commands of their husbands. Mina did whatever her husband told her to do. [She] went to bed when the men had gone, (they had gone after Dracula) simply because they told [her] to . (Stoker, 263) The reason why these women could not think for themselves, or even do the things that men do, is because many of these women did not have the mentality of a man. During that time, almost all of the women lacked skills such as typing, writing in shorthand, and knowing simple math calculations. There was only one woman mentioned in the novel who had the brain of a man and her name is Wilhelmina Murray, who is Jonathan Harker s fianc . She knew how to type, write in shorthand, memorized the timetables, and so much more. She had the body of a woman, yet the brain of a man. Whether or not she thinks like a man, she was still forbidden to do anything with the men because she is a woman. This just shows that no matter how much a woman tries, she is still limited to certain activities. The men see these women as innocent and frail beings that are very gullible and the men would do anything to keep their women out of danger. They also thought that women were less intelligent than men and could not learn as well. . The reason why these men would forbid their women to certain activities is because they think they do not want any harm done to their women. However, their true purpose was to insure that the gap between the roles of gender would not be bridged by allowing women the same opportunities; therefore, women would never attain the superior mentality of men. Many women are innocent before they wed because they are not exposed to certain behaviors that men dream about. However, women are also very curious about this topic. Women are very innocent to such matters. They are very clueless as to what or how this topic is perceived. The vampire bite plays a very similar role to this certain topic. The vampire bite is a metaphor for sexuality. When a vampire, such as Dracula, bites you, he does not just bite you on the neck, he lures you to him or lures you to invite him into your room or your boundary. Once he is in your boundary, he would seduce you and start to kiss you. Of course, once he seduces you, he starts to kiss you and eventually, you would kiss him back. Now, you and the vampire (Dracula) are making out ; this is the foreplay before he starts to feed on your blood. Moreover, this is very sexual. Therefore, once the women are exposed to this vampire bite or experience it, they are no longer considered innocent. After Dracula bites the woman, they crave for more of Dracula s bite. This craving for more of Dracula s bite is very sexual because they welcome Dracula into their room and perform this foreplay before he feeds on her blood. Therefore, the men in the novel try their best to keep their women away from Dracula because of how he influences their women. Unfortunately, no matter how hard the men tried to save their women from such danger, Dracula stole one of their women away from them. Dracula stole Lucy Westenra, who is the honorable Arthur Holmwood s fianc . Dracula had bitten her many times. With Lucy s habit of sleepwalking, it only made the job easier for Dracula. No one, not even Mina, who slept in the same bed with her, knew about the vampire bite. Every morning, while Lucy was asleep, Mina would hear Lucy wheezing as if she was struggling to breathe. Later into the novel, Dr. Van Helsing discovered the bite. From then on, Lucy was pampered like a baby. Both the doctor and John Seward would always keep Lucy in sight. They were even hesitant to tell Arthur about Lucy s condition. They gave Lucy a blood transfusion when she was lacking blood. They gave her their own blood to try to save her precious life. Not only that, but they smeared garlic all over her bedroom windows and door (any form of entrance), placed a crucifix by her bed and never left her side when she was ill. They made her stay in bed and wouldn t let her out of their sight for fear that Dracula would pay her another visit. Even though she was dead, they still tried to save her. When she was dead, they found out that she became a vampire. Therefore, they stalked her to try to free her soul from the evil. By doing so, they rammed a stake through her heart, smeared her lips and coffin with garlic and cut her head off. Once her soul was free, they felt relieved; unfortunately, they had to kill Dracula to save everyone else who was bitten by him. (Stoker, 214-238) One of the people that were bitten by Dracula is Mina. However, the men did not know about this until Renfield informed them. The men were on their quest to kill Dracula when Mina was bitten. Before they found out about Mina having been bitten by Dracula, they tried their best to protect her from Dracula. They would not let her join them in their quest, for she was a woman, or rather, their woman. After they found out about Mina, they paid close attention to her. They would not let her do more things than usual. They treated her like a delicate rose. However, Mina was still Mina. She clung to her husband s arm, and held it tight as though her clinging could protect him from any harm that might come, (Stoker, 313). Not only did she have the brain of a man; she also had the mentality to protect her property (Jonathan). In turn, the men tried to protect her. When the men finally took Mina along with them in their quest, they wouldn t let her out of their sight. While Arthur, John, Quincy, and Jonathan were chasing after Dracula towards the end of the novel, Helsing and Mina were waiting for their arrival. While they waited, Helsing made a ring of fire around Mina to protect her from the evil. This ring of fire symbolizes possession. Throughout the novel, Mina is a possession of the men in the novel. Dracula tries to possess this property of the men (Mina). Once Dracula have their women, the men are Dracula s also for [His] revenge is just begun! [He] spread it over centuries, and time is on [his] side. [Their] girls that [they] all love are [his] already; and through them [the men] and others shall yet be [his] [his] creatures, to do [his] bidding, and to be [his] jackals when [he] want[s] to feed. Bah! (Stoker, 312). The roles of gender play an important role in determining the behavior of the characters in Dracula. There are two types of women in flux here: the traditional nineteenth century proper women and the promiscuous sexual predator. What separates the two is the symbolic vampire bite, which represents sexuality. The men, who take it upon themselves to guard their women from the bite of lust, may be unaware of their other purpose: to protect the role of the proper woman. - Dracula Strengths And Weaknesses Essay, Research Paper I. Strengths A. Immortal 1. Speaks of history ... power is used is when Dracula attacks Mina and Harker does not wake ... to have a calming effect on Dracula when Dracula was filled with blood lust ... - ... And Theophilus Essay, Research Paper 1. Theophilus Lover of God, a Christian, probably a Roman, to whom ... He was married to Drusilla, the daughter of Herod ... had taken Drusilla from another man and was living ... to preach to Felix and Drusilla. He reasoned with ... - Freud And Caligula Essay, Research Paper Sigmund Freud was ... commonly seen in families, when the husband and wife have a fight ... bed with his sister Drusilla. Instability within the hierarchy ... his sexual confusion and promiscuity with women and children of both ... - Gay And Lesbian Essay, Research Paper Historians have traced ... dance together. Female impersonators and women playing male roles, both ... maniac the Emperor really was. Dracula's Daughter (1936) brought ... Anne Carlisle played both a woman and a gay man in the ... - Dracula-Play Review Essay, Research Paper Dracula Dracula is a penetrating look at the ... was interesting, and changes were quick and effectively done. Dracula takes place in ... special effects. When the flash went off, my heart jumped and I definitely ...	2,065	ENGLISH	1
My niece is in first grade. She has always loved to listen to stories, but when we were together to celebrate Christmas at my parents’ house this year, she was reluctant to read books herself. When I finally convinced her to read with me, it was clear why: While she knows her letter sounds cold, nearly every word was a struggle. Sure, she recognized words like “the” and “is” with good automaticity. But she needed to sound out lots and lots of common words (like, well, lots) every time she came across them. A big part of the problem, I saw, was with sight words. While there are some differences in opinion about what the term “sight words” really means, nearly all educators agree that recognizing them automatically is critical to fluent reading. Some educators like to explain that sight words are words that don’t “follow the rules” and so just have to be memorized. “Have” is a great example. Kids learn that when there is a vowel-consonant-e pattern at the end of a word, the first vowel is long. But in “have,” the a sounds short, despite the e at the end. English has a lot of words like this, and unfortunately most of them are among our most common words. Other educators say that sight words are simply common words that kids should recognize immediately because they occur so frequently in texts that sounding them out each time would be laborious (as my niece discovered). Words like “her”, “get”, and “open” are examples of words like this: they “follow the rules” and occur frequently. Regardless of the definition one uses, sight words are important, and knowing how to read and spell them without much conscious thought or effort is enormously helpful to young students. Luckily, there are lots of ways to make learning sight words fun. Over the next few posts, I’ll share some ideas that I’ve found to be very useful, even with severely dyslexic students. Stay tuned!	<urn:uuid:77b95f33-bab1-455c-8e3d-78421c70a40b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://blog.yellincenter.com/2020/01/sight-words-part-one.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00339.warc.gz	en	0.980182	441	3.765625	4	[ -0.000995685113593936, -0.491844117641449, 0.19767270982265472, -0.32288140058517456, -0.3682045340538025, 0.12316647171974182, 0.6503598690032959, -0.10123452544212341, 0.01866508089005947, -0.2143956422805786, 0.3669920563697815, 0.08176775276660919, 0.11123812943696976, 0.32815578579902...	12	My niece is in first grade. She has always loved to listen to stories, but when we were together to celebrate Christmas at my parents’ house this year, she was reluctant to read books herself. When I finally convinced her to read with me, it was clear why: While she knows her letter sounds cold, nearly every word was a struggle. Sure, she recognized words like “the” and “is” with good automaticity. But she needed to sound out lots and lots of common words (like, well, lots) every time she came across them. A big part of the problem, I saw, was with sight words. While there are some differences in opinion about what the term “sight words” really means, nearly all educators agree that recognizing them automatically is critical to fluent reading. Some educators like to explain that sight words are words that don’t “follow the rules” and so just have to be memorized. “Have” is a great example. Kids learn that when there is a vowel-consonant-e pattern at the end of a word, the first vowel is long. But in “have,” the a sounds short, despite the e at the end. English has a lot of words like this, and unfortunately most of them are among our most common words. Other educators say that sight words are simply common words that kids should recognize immediately because they occur so frequently in texts that sounding them out each time would be laborious (as my niece discovered). Words like “her”, “get”, and “open” are examples of words like this: they “follow the rules” and occur frequently. Regardless of the definition one uses, sight words are important, and knowing how to read and spell them without much conscious thought or effort is enormously helpful to young students. Luckily, there are lots of ways to make learning sight words fun. Over the next few posts, I’ll share some ideas that I’ve found to be very useful, even with severely dyslexic students. Stay tuned!	406	ENGLISH	1
Today is Remembrance Day in Canada, or Veterans Day in the United States. It is a day to salute, give thanks to, and reflect upon those who fought for our countries in past wars. 100 years ago today — November 11, 1919 — King George V of England started this tradition. Originally it was called Armistice Day. This was because it marked a year since the armistice (peace treaty signing) to officially end World War I (1914–1918). But at this time, the world was doing more than just remembering this moment of peace. It was trying to preserve it. And to do so, some people came up with a completely new and unique idea. They called it the League of Nations. Too much war Before we get to why this idea was so special, let's take a look at the world before WWI. There was a LOT of war. This was especially true in Europe where the borders of some countries had been drawn and redrawn every few years for thousands of years. If nations had conflict with one another, diplomats would try to come to agreements or make alliances (partnerships). But generally, sooner or later these conflicts always led to war. WWI was different. At the time, it was the worst conflict the planet had ever seen. There had to be a better way than just fighting it out, thought many. As it turns out, people had long been thinking about making an organization of all the world's countries that could help solve disputes and promote peace, calling it a "league of nations" before WWI even began. But now that the war was finished, it was the time to do it for real. A league of our own The League of Nations took real shape in 1919 during the Paris Peace Conferences, which included Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and the United States. Then US President Woodrow Wilson pushed his fellow nations hard to create an international organization that would "protect great and small states alike". On June 28, 1919, the group agreed, signing a promise that led to the League of Nations becoming a reality on January 16, 1920. Over the next 26 years, the League would have as many as 58 members. It helped to solve dozens of disputes between countries, fight for the rights of workers, combat disease, and much more. It was unlike anything the world had ever seen. If at first you don't succeed... Of course, the League of Nations sadly didn't fulfill the biggest dream of those who helped create it. In September of 1939, Nazi Germany invaded Poland and World War II (1939–1945) began. By this time, the League had long been ineffective. Countries like Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union simply left. And strangely, the United States never joined. But the idea lived on. When WWII ended, countries around the world doubled their efforts to make an international organization of peace and resolution, and it still survives today under the name United Nations (UN). The UN still isn't perfect but on this day where we remember the many thousands of soldiers who fought and died in service of our countries, it is also worth remembering the many who tried to make sure we never again saw war as the only option.	<urn:uuid:1a541024-88cc-4550-9991-0c1a366c448c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://owlconnected.com/archives/100-years-ago-league-of-nations	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00277.warc.gz	en	0.98367	668	4.0625	4	[ -0.3917497992515564, 0.6358631253242493, 0.6274471282958984, -0.10817992687225342, -0.04463527724146843, -0.09589972347021103, 0.11141356825828552, 0.255988746881485, 0.27537769079208374, 0.24458950757980347, 0.2875128984451294, 0.11296197026968002, 0.20744013786315918, 0.652948260307312, ...	8	Today is Remembrance Day in Canada, or Veterans Day in the United States. It is a day to salute, give thanks to, and reflect upon those who fought for our countries in past wars. 100 years ago today — November 11, 1919 — King George V of England started this tradition. Originally it was called Armistice Day. This was because it marked a year since the armistice (peace treaty signing) to officially end World War I (1914–1918). But at this time, the world was doing more than just remembering this moment of peace. It was trying to preserve it. And to do so, some people came up with a completely new and unique idea. They called it the League of Nations. Too much war Before we get to why this idea was so special, let's take a look at the world before WWI. There was a LOT of war. This was especially true in Europe where the borders of some countries had been drawn and redrawn every few years for thousands of years. If nations had conflict with one another, diplomats would try to come to agreements or make alliances (partnerships). But generally, sooner or later these conflicts always led to war. WWI was different. At the time, it was the worst conflict the planet had ever seen. There had to be a better way than just fighting it out, thought many. As it turns out, people had long been thinking about making an organization of all the world's countries that could help solve disputes and promote peace, calling it a "league of nations" before WWI even began. But now that the war was finished, it was the time to do it for real. A league of our own The League of Nations took real shape in 1919 during the Paris Peace Conferences, which included Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and the United States. Then US President Woodrow Wilson pushed his fellow nations hard to create an international organization that would "protect great and small states alike". On June 28, 1919, the group agreed, signing a promise that led to the League of Nations becoming a reality on January 16, 1920. Over the next 26 years, the League would have as many as 58 members. It helped to solve dozens of disputes between countries, fight for the rights of workers, combat disease, and much more. It was unlike anything the world had ever seen. If at first you don't succeed... Of course, the League of Nations sadly didn't fulfill the biggest dream of those who helped create it. In September of 1939, Nazi Germany invaded Poland and World War II (1939–1945) began. By this time, the League had long been ineffective. Countries like Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union simply left. And strangely, the United States never joined. But the idea lived on. When WWII ended, countries around the world doubled their efforts to make an international organization of peace and resolution, and it still survives today under the name United Nations (UN). The UN still isn't perfect but on this day where we remember the many thousands of soldiers who fought and died in service of our countries, it is also worth remembering the many who tried to make sure we never again saw war as the only option.	696	ENGLISH	1
One of the more interesting devices developed for railroad use during the early diesel era wasn't a locomotive at all but the Mars Light, a safety mechanism designed by Jerry Kennelly. The light oscillated to warn bystanders of oncoming trains (as well as crews from an approaching train) but was also meant for use by fire departments. It became most popular in the railroad industry for use in passenger and commuter service where trains would regularly be stopping and starting from busy train stations. The Mars came in a wide range of patterns and colors generating enough demand that Kennelly eventually formed his own company to sell his patented product. One line in particular, the Chicago & North Western, used the Mars extensively even on steam locomotives which was quite fascinating. The history of the Mars Light is tricky and difficult to track down. The company which produced it was the Mars Signal Light Company, founded by Jerry Kennelly in the late 1930s after successful tests with his product on the Chicago & North Western in 1936. On February 16, 1937 he formally received a patent for his design beginning with what he termed the "FL" model. Kennelly was a Chicago firefighter and believed a highly visible, rotating light would be beneficial not only for fire departments but also railroads. Unfortunately, his company was said to have little interest in advertising their products, which from a historical context makes it difficult to trace. Additionally, Mars did not seem to catalog many of its standard models and instead custom-tailored them to either specific locomotives or by request from railroads. For instance, some designs were portable while others mounted directly onto locomotives. One of the more interesting applications of the Mars Light was its use on steam locomotives. Most roads tended to mount them either on top of the smokebox or towards the center, above the primary headlight. Wherever they were situated it made for an interesting look. On the C&NW, the railroad is said to have used Mars' model SB-R-250 on its 4-6-2 Pacifics, notably in commuter service. This type used a red lens and featured a reflector and incandescent bulb all of which was housed in a circular casing. However, it becomes difficult in distinguishing Mars models since the SB-R-250, for example, could be fitted with either a red or white lens. The latter, for instance, was used almost exclusively by the Nickel Plate Road on its 2-8-4 Berkshires. Of note is that Union Pacific's operating Northern, #844, also carries an SB-R-250 sporting a red lens. The Mars catalog and how it listed its products is still not entirely known although some designations which are include the following: "SB" referred to Sealed Beam, "WR" was short for a White-Red, and if a single-digit number followed this was said to refer to the number of bulbs used. There was also normally a trailing number that typically described the specific model type. What makes its system even more confusing, however, is its hazy references. The SB-R-250 highlighted above used by the Nickel Plate, for instance, used a white lens even though the "R" described it as having a red lens. The confusion, however, goes even further beyond this. The company also had a wide range of products that would not fit the above designation such as the OS-250-RE-14, AWR-12-2, WR-5000-A, and others. In any event, it seems railroads had a particular model or type that they preferred on their locomotives. During the diesel era a Mars Light looked much more attractive as it was flush-mounted on the nose of cab units, particularly Electro-Motive's E and F series. On the Southern Pacific the company was famous for its use of Mars' vertical SBW/R-2-300/1 models that would sit directly atop the short, high-hood of its early road-switchers such as GP7s, GP9s, SD7s, and SD9s. Over the years the Mars Light came in a wide range of orbiting displays from the common figure-eight pattern to vertical or horizontal oscillating motions all of which were designed to clearly and easily catch the attention of bystanders or motorists to keep them clear of railroad rights-of-way. During this time the lights featured a single bulb or up to three in different colors (normally red or white). While the Mars Light was the most common form used during its era the company did have competition from the Pyle-National Company, which used its Gyralight that functioned somewhat similarly except that instead of oscillating it moved in an elliptical pattern. Between the late 1960s and early 1970s Mars opened a location in Naples, Florida and while there the company was purchased by the Trippe Light Company, which renamed itself as Tri Lite Mars or Tri Lite, Inc. Today, the operation is again back in Chicago and still produces warning lights and sirens although no longer designed for railroad applications. Because Mars Lights often required added maintenance most railroads stopped using them by the 1980s. However, they can still be found on many historic locomotives at museums and excursion railroads, more as a novelty than anything else. For more reading about the history of diesel locomotives consider Mike Schafer’s Vintage Diesel Locomotives which looks at virtually all of the classic builders and models from Alco PAs to early EMD Geeps. If you’re interested in classic FMs, or diesels in general, this book gives an excellent general history of both. You may also want to consider the book Evolution of the American Diesel Locomotive by author J. Parker Lamb. As the title implies the book looks at the history and development of the diesel locomotives, covering 200 pages, from its earliest beginnings to the newest designs and models operated today.	<urn:uuid:8e8945db-2c63-4488-ba8b-59253ce6ed4f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.american-rails.com/mars.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00131.warc.gz	en	0.981764	1,218	3.453125	3	[ -0.3352088928222656, 0.15701597929000854, -0.03515319526195526, 0.23445522785186768, -0.14560440182685852, 0.27507826685905457, 0.09433956444263458, 0.49976956844329834, -0.553523063659668, 0.09376353025436401, 0.1454339325428009, -0.05696431174874306, -0.37711095809936523, 0.1126812696456...	2	One of the more interesting devices developed for railroad use during the early diesel era wasn't a locomotive at all but the Mars Light, a safety mechanism designed by Jerry Kennelly. The light oscillated to warn bystanders of oncoming trains (as well as crews from an approaching train) but was also meant for use by fire departments. It became most popular in the railroad industry for use in passenger and commuter service where trains would regularly be stopping and starting from busy train stations. The Mars came in a wide range of patterns and colors generating enough demand that Kennelly eventually formed his own company to sell his patented product. One line in particular, the Chicago & North Western, used the Mars extensively even on steam locomotives which was quite fascinating. The history of the Mars Light is tricky and difficult to track down. The company which produced it was the Mars Signal Light Company, founded by Jerry Kennelly in the late 1930s after successful tests with his product on the Chicago & North Western in 1936. On February 16, 1937 he formally received a patent for his design beginning with what he termed the "FL" model. Kennelly was a Chicago firefighter and believed a highly visible, rotating light would be beneficial not only for fire departments but also railroads. Unfortunately, his company was said to have little interest in advertising their products, which from a historical context makes it difficult to trace. Additionally, Mars did not seem to catalog many of its standard models and instead custom-tailored them to either specific locomotives or by request from railroads. For instance, some designs were portable while others mounted directly onto locomotives. One of the more interesting applications of the Mars Light was its use on steam locomotives. Most roads tended to mount them either on top of the smokebox or towards the center, above the primary headlight. Wherever they were situated it made for an interesting look. On the C&NW, the railroad is said to have used Mars' model SB-R-250 on its 4-6-2 Pacifics, notably in commuter service. This type used a red lens and featured a reflector and incandescent bulb all of which was housed in a circular casing. However, it becomes difficult in distinguishing Mars models since the SB-R-250, for example, could be fitted with either a red or white lens. The latter, for instance, was used almost exclusively by the Nickel Plate Road on its 2-8-4 Berkshires. Of note is that Union Pacific's operating Northern, #844, also carries an SB-R-250 sporting a red lens. The Mars catalog and how it listed its products is still not entirely known although some designations which are include the following: "SB" referred to Sealed Beam, "WR" was short for a White-Red, and if a single-digit number followed this was said to refer to the number of bulbs used. There was also normally a trailing number that typically described the specific model type. What makes its system even more confusing, however, is its hazy references. The SB-R-250 highlighted above used by the Nickel Plate, for instance, used a white lens even though the "R" described it as having a red lens. The confusion, however, goes even further beyond this. The company also had a wide range of products that would not fit the above designation such as the OS-250-RE-14, AWR-12-2, WR-5000-A, and others. In any event, it seems railroads had a particular model or type that they preferred on their locomotives. During the diesel era a Mars Light looked much more attractive as it was flush-mounted on the nose of cab units, particularly Electro-Motive's E and F series. On the Southern Pacific the company was famous for its use of Mars' vertical SBW/R-2-300/1 models that would sit directly atop the short, high-hood of its early road-switchers such as GP7s, GP9s, SD7s, and SD9s. Over the years the Mars Light came in a wide range of orbiting displays from the common figure-eight pattern to vertical or horizontal oscillating motions all of which were designed to clearly and easily catch the attention of bystanders or motorists to keep them clear of railroad rights-of-way. During this time the lights featured a single bulb or up to three in different colors (normally red or white). While the Mars Light was the most common form used during its era the company did have competition from the Pyle-National Company, which used its Gyralight that functioned somewhat similarly except that instead of oscillating it moved in an elliptical pattern. Between the late 1960s and early 1970s Mars opened a location in Naples, Florida and while there the company was purchased by the Trippe Light Company, which renamed itself as Tri Lite Mars or Tri Lite, Inc. Today, the operation is again back in Chicago and still produces warning lights and sirens although no longer designed for railroad applications. Because Mars Lights often required added maintenance most railroads stopped using them by the 1980s. However, they can still be found on many historic locomotives at museums and excursion railroads, more as a novelty than anything else. For more reading about the history of diesel locomotives consider Mike Schafer’s Vintage Diesel Locomotives which looks at virtually all of the classic builders and models from Alco PAs to early EMD Geeps. If you’re interested in classic FMs, or diesels in general, this book gives an excellent general history of both. You may also want to consider the book Evolution of the American Diesel Locomotive by author J. Parker Lamb. As the title implies the book looks at the history and development of the diesel locomotives, covering 200 pages, from its earliest beginnings to the newest designs and models operated today.	1,244	ENGLISH	1
The British love of beef, particularly for lunch on a Sunday, is a part of the national identity. Roast beef is eaten so often that even the French started calling Englishmen "rosbifs" in the 18th century. The Sunday roast is as much a tradition today as it was a few hundred years ago. It has even spread from the family dinner table to pubs and other days of the week. Origins of the Sunday Roast The Sunday roast came to prominence during the reign of King Henry VII in 1485. The British used to consume a considerable amount of meat. The Yeomen of the Guard—the royal bodyguards—have affectionately been known as "Beefeaters" since the 15th century because of their love of eating roast beef. In 1871, William Kitchiner, author of "Apicius Redivivus: Or, The Cook's Oracle," recommended eating 6 pounds of meat each week as part of a healthy diet. (He also recommended 4 1/2 pounds of bread and a pint of beer every day.) Today in the U.K., a meat eater's diet can include approximately 3 pounds of meat each week—only 7 ounces of which is beef—and some would even consider that too much. Kitchener also describes in the book how to roast "the noble sirloin of about fifteen pounds" before the fire for four hours. This method of hanging the meat on a spit demanded a sizable fireplace to feed a large household. The meat was served not only on Sunday but as cold cuts, stews, and pies throughout the week. The less well-off did not have the luxury of a large fireplace or the money for much meat. For many, a smaller weekly roast would be dropped off at the baker's en route to church and cooked in the cooling bread ovens (bread was not baked on a Sunday). With access for all to cook meat, the tradition of the British Sunday lunch began and still continues today. The ubiquitous partner to the roast was, and still is, a Yorkshire pudding. The pudding was not served alongside the meat as is often seen today. Instead, it was a starter dish served with lots of gravy. By eating it first, the hope was that everyone would be too full and eat less meat on the main course (which, of course, was very expensive). The Modern Sunday Roast Though meat is no longer roasted in front of the fire, and today is baked in the modern oven, the term "Sunday roast" is still used. On Sundays throughout the U.K., pubs and restaurants are packed full for the roast dinner; some even serve the meal on other days of the week. But for many, cooking and serving Sunday lunch at home is the very heart of British food and cooking. It's considered the time for families or friends to get together and share great food. The Sunday Roast Reflected in the Arts "The Roast Beef of Old England," an English patriotic ballad, was written by Henry Fielding for his play "The Grub-Street Opera," first performed in 1731: When mighty Roast Beef was the Englishman's food, It ennobled our brains and enriched our blood. Our soldiers were brave, and our courtiers were good Oh! The Roast Beef of old England, And old English Roast Beef! Imagine a meal that is so delicious and traditional, it inspires a song!	<urn:uuid:f9d2e5f0-54f5-4c66-ac38-04aeb8ce878d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thespruceeats.com/history-of-the-british-sunday-roast-4149600	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00349.warc.gz	en	0.981912	714	3.328125	3	[ 0.05836017429828644, 0.2557772994041443, -0.1944589614868164, -0.033111948519945145, 0.22321882843971252, -0.3804430365562439, -0.10438015311956406, -0.2141956239938736, -0.17042005062103271, -0.05199269950389862, -0.3772702217102051, -0.4147511422634125, 0.08302165567874908, -0.0185110606...	13	The British love of beef, particularly for lunch on a Sunday, is a part of the national identity. Roast beef is eaten so often that even the French started calling Englishmen "rosbifs" in the 18th century. The Sunday roast is as much a tradition today as it was a few hundred years ago. It has even spread from the family dinner table to pubs and other days of the week. Origins of the Sunday Roast The Sunday roast came to prominence during the reign of King Henry VII in 1485. The British used to consume a considerable amount of meat. The Yeomen of the Guard—the royal bodyguards—have affectionately been known as "Beefeaters" since the 15th century because of their love of eating roast beef. In 1871, William Kitchiner, author of "Apicius Redivivus: Or, The Cook's Oracle," recommended eating 6 pounds of meat each week as part of a healthy diet. (He also recommended 4 1/2 pounds of bread and a pint of beer every day.) Today in the U.K., a meat eater's diet can include approximately 3 pounds of meat each week—only 7 ounces of which is beef—and some would even consider that too much. Kitchener also describes in the book how to roast "the noble sirloin of about fifteen pounds" before the fire for four hours. This method of hanging the meat on a spit demanded a sizable fireplace to feed a large household. The meat was served not only on Sunday but as cold cuts, stews, and pies throughout the week. The less well-off did not have the luxury of a large fireplace or the money for much meat. For many, a smaller weekly roast would be dropped off at the baker's en route to church and cooked in the cooling bread ovens (bread was not baked on a Sunday). With access for all to cook meat, the tradition of the British Sunday lunch began and still continues today. The ubiquitous partner to the roast was, and still is, a Yorkshire pudding. The pudding was not served alongside the meat as is often seen today. Instead, it was a starter dish served with lots of gravy. By eating it first, the hope was that everyone would be too full and eat less meat on the main course (which, of course, was very expensive). The Modern Sunday Roast Though meat is no longer roasted in front of the fire, and today is baked in the modern oven, the term "Sunday roast" is still used. On Sundays throughout the U.K., pubs and restaurants are packed full for the roast dinner; some even serve the meal on other days of the week. But for many, cooking and serving Sunday lunch at home is the very heart of British food and cooking. It's considered the time for families or friends to get together and share great food. The Sunday Roast Reflected in the Arts "The Roast Beef of Old England," an English patriotic ballad, was written by Henry Fielding for his play "The Grub-Street Opera," first performed in 1731: When mighty Roast Beef was the Englishman's food, It ennobled our brains and enriched our blood. Our soldiers were brave, and our courtiers were good Oh! The Roast Beef of old England, And old English Roast Beef! Imagine a meal that is so delicious and traditional, it inspires a song!	712	ENGLISH	1
Determining the cause of the financial collapse has been sought by everyone from Congress to the small business owner. This question has brought people to conclusions that range from Wall Street greed to a poorly regulated system. Responses are based primarily on opinion because there have been very few verified facts that one can point to as the cause. This may be because the answer is that a confluence of factors, many of which are poorly understood, caused the collapse. One of these factors is financial innovation, which created derivative securities that purportedly produced safe instruments by removing or diversifying away the inherent risk in the underlying assets. The question is: did these instruments really reduce the underlying risk or in fact increase it? (Learn more about derivatives in The Barnyard Basics of Derivatives and Are Derivatives Safe For Retail Investors?) Derivatives: An OverviewDerivative instruments were created after the 1970s as a way to manage risk and create insurance against downside. They were created in response to the recent experience of the oil shock, high inflation and a 50% drop in the U.S. stock market. As a result, instruments, such as options, which are a way to benefit from the upside without owning the security or protect against the downside by paying a small premium, were invented. Pricing these derivatives was, at first, a difficult task until the creation of the Black Scholes model. Other instruments include credit default swaps, which protect against a counterparty defaulting, and collateralized debt obligations, which is a form of securitization where loans with underlying collateral (such as mortgages) are pooled. Pricing was also difficult with these instruments, but unlike options, a reliable model was not developed. 2003-2007 - The Real Use (or Overuse!)The initial intention was to defend against risk and protect against the downside. However, derivatives became speculative tools often used to take on more risk in order to maximize profits and returns. There were two intertwined issues at work here: securitized products, which were difficult to price and analyze, were traded and sold, and many positions were leveraged in order to reap the highest possible gain. Banks, which did not want to hold onto loans, pooled these assets into vehicles to create securitized instruments that they sold to investors such as pension funds, which needed to meet an increasingly difficult-to-reach hurdle rate of 8-9%. Because there were fewer and fewer good credit-worthy customers to lend to (as these customers had already borrowed to fill their needs), banks turned to subprime borrowers and established securities with poor underlying credit-quality loans that were then passed off to investors. Investors relied on the rating agencies to certify that the securitized instruments were of high credit quality. This was the problem. Derivatives do ensure against risk when used properly, but when the packaged instruments get so complicated that neither the borrower nor the rating agency understands them or their risk, the initial premise fails. Not only did investors, like pension funds, get stuck holding securities that in reality turned out to be equally as risky as holding the underlying loan, banks got stuck as well. Banks held many of these instruments on their books as a means of satisfying fixed-income requirements and using these assets as collateral. However, as write-downs were incurred by financial institutions, it became apparent that they had less assets than what was required. When the average recovery rate for the "high quality" instrument was approximately 32 cents on the dollar and the mezzanine instrument in reality only returned five cents on the dollar, a huge negative surprise was felt by investors and institutions holding these "safe" instruments. (Learn more in The Fall Of The Market In The Fall Of 2008.) Borrowed FundsBanks borrowed funds to lend in order to create more and more securitized products. As a result, many of these instruments were created using margin, or borrowed funds, so that the firms did not have to provide a full outlay of capital. The massive amount of leverage used during this time completely amplified the problem. Banks' capital structures went from leverage ratios of 15:1 to 30:1. For instance, by mid 2008, the market for credit default swaps exceeded the entire world economic output by $50 trillion. As a result, any profit or loss was magnified. And in a system that had very poor regulation or oversight, a company could get into trouble fast. This was no more evident than with AIG, which had around $400 billion of credit default swaps on its book, an amount that unsurprisingly it did not have capital to cover. (Read more about AIG in Falling Giant: A Case Study Of AIG.) ConclusionThe arguments of the cause of the financial collapse may go on for a long time, and there may never be a consensus explanation. However, we know that the use of derivative securities played a pivotal role in the system that collapsed; securities, whose true invention was to lessen risk, in fact seemed to have exacerbated it. And when margin was added into the mix, a recipe for disaster was defined. (Learn more about the financial collapse in The 2007-08 Financial Crisis In Review.)	<urn:uuid:95f7bd2d-d95e-40b7-a29e-b13a9fb7e84c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/0210/did-derivatives-cause-the-recession.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00396.warc.gz	en	0.983066	1,047	3.265625	3	[ -0.2148071825504303, -0.28458550572395325, 0.0245610773563385, -0.058204974979162216, -0.05329570174217224, -0.0023810481652617455, 0.15794815123081207, 0.34384894371032715, 0.2554961144924164, -0.1287698745727539, 0.19305723905563354, 0.09142372757196426, 0.24991078674793243, -0.020367354...	1	Determining the cause of the financial collapse has been sought by everyone from Congress to the small business owner. This question has brought people to conclusions that range from Wall Street greed to a poorly regulated system. Responses are based primarily on opinion because there have been very few verified facts that one can point to as the cause. This may be because the answer is that a confluence of factors, many of which are poorly understood, caused the collapse. One of these factors is financial innovation, which created derivative securities that purportedly produced safe instruments by removing or diversifying away the inherent risk in the underlying assets. The question is: did these instruments really reduce the underlying risk or in fact increase it? (Learn more about derivatives in The Barnyard Basics of Derivatives and Are Derivatives Safe For Retail Investors?) Derivatives: An OverviewDerivative instruments were created after the 1970s as a way to manage risk and create insurance against downside. They were created in response to the recent experience of the oil shock, high inflation and a 50% drop in the U.S. stock market. As a result, instruments, such as options, which are a way to benefit from the upside without owning the security or protect against the downside by paying a small premium, were invented. Pricing these derivatives was, at first, a difficult task until the creation of the Black Scholes model. Other instruments include credit default swaps, which protect against a counterparty defaulting, and collateralized debt obligations, which is a form of securitization where loans with underlying collateral (such as mortgages) are pooled. Pricing was also difficult with these instruments, but unlike options, a reliable model was not developed. 2003-2007 - The Real Use (or Overuse!)The initial intention was to defend against risk and protect against the downside. However, derivatives became speculative tools often used to take on more risk in order to maximize profits and returns. There were two intertwined issues at work here: securitized products, which were difficult to price and analyze, were traded and sold, and many positions were leveraged in order to reap the highest possible gain. Banks, which did not want to hold onto loans, pooled these assets into vehicles to create securitized instruments that they sold to investors such as pension funds, which needed to meet an increasingly difficult-to-reach hurdle rate of 8-9%. Because there were fewer and fewer good credit-worthy customers to lend to (as these customers had already borrowed to fill their needs), banks turned to subprime borrowers and established securities with poor underlying credit-quality loans that were then passed off to investors. Investors relied on the rating agencies to certify that the securitized instruments were of high credit quality. This was the problem. Derivatives do ensure against risk when used properly, but when the packaged instruments get so complicated that neither the borrower nor the rating agency understands them or their risk, the initial premise fails. Not only did investors, like pension funds, get stuck holding securities that in reality turned out to be equally as risky as holding the underlying loan, banks got stuck as well. Banks held many of these instruments on their books as a means of satisfying fixed-income requirements and using these assets as collateral. However, as write-downs were incurred by financial institutions, it became apparent that they had less assets than what was required. When the average recovery rate for the "high quality" instrument was approximately 32 cents on the dollar and the mezzanine instrument in reality only returned five cents on the dollar, a huge negative surprise was felt by investors and institutions holding these "safe" instruments. (Learn more in The Fall Of The Market In The Fall Of 2008.) Borrowed FundsBanks borrowed funds to lend in order to create more and more securitized products. As a result, many of these instruments were created using margin, or borrowed funds, so that the firms did not have to provide a full outlay of capital. The massive amount of leverage used during this time completely amplified the problem. Banks' capital structures went from leverage ratios of 15:1 to 30:1. For instance, by mid 2008, the market for credit default swaps exceeded the entire world economic output by $50 trillion. As a result, any profit or loss was magnified. And in a system that had very poor regulation or oversight, a company could get into trouble fast. This was no more evident than with AIG, which had around $400 billion of credit default swaps on its book, an amount that unsurprisingly it did not have capital to cover. (Read more about AIG in Falling Giant: A Case Study Of AIG.) ConclusionThe arguments of the cause of the financial collapse may go on for a long time, and there may never be a consensus explanation. However, we know that the use of derivative securities played a pivotal role in the system that collapsed; securities, whose true invention was to lessen risk, in fact seemed to have exacerbated it. And when margin was added into the mix, a recipe for disaster was defined. (Learn more about the financial collapse in The 2007-08 Financial Crisis In Review.)	1,069	ENGLISH	1
Adoption in Ancient Greece The Ancient Greek family (or oikos) involved a complex web of relationships between he who was essentially the Man of the House, and those in his care. The family begins at the head, with the owner, kyrios, of the home. There can be two forms of kyrios: leader of the family estate, and leader of a person. Though these positions are often designated to the same person, there are many exceptions in which this is not the case (Modrzejewski). Every woman and child required a kyrios to care for and protect them. Boys would be overseen by their father until adulthood, and girls would be overseen by their father until marriage. If there was no father, an adult male relative could be the kyrios, or one would be appointed. This is like modern-day foster homes or resource families. When men married, they would be kyrios of their wives who would now live in their estate (MacDowell, 1978). The kyrios of the estate oversaw all the land he inherited. If he was the only son, he would retain all his father's land, but if he was one of many sons, they would evenly split the land among them to create separate oikoi from the original. If the man inheriting the land had unmarried sisters, he would have to save a part of the oikos for her dowry to her future husband. The kyrios of the home was the oldest, non-retired man who laid claim to the estate. A man's son could only take over his estate once the man retired or died. When a man retired, he would still live in his home, but his son or sons would now be kyrios of the estate. However, the sons would not become kyrios of their retired father or their mother, just their wives and children. If their father died and the sons still had unmarried sisters, they would become kyrios of those sisters until they married and moved into their husbands' oikos (MacDowell, 1978). The organization of Greek law regarding family was rather strict. There was a rigid, Caste-esque system that dictated who inherited power or responsibility, who inherited property, and from whom such prizes were inherited. All the subsequently strict mechanisms of defining family in Ancient Greek culture fell from this notion of succession and inheritance (Modrzejewski). Since succession was only a privilege allotted to males, the only paths of succession fell from 1. Having a male heir, 2. Having no male heir, or 3. Having no heir at all. If the kyrios of an estate has a male heir, that heir will inherit all his property and debts. If the son or sons were not of age when the father died, they would have a guardian care for them until they were old enough. Because of this, orphans (fatherless children) were heavily protected from violence and manipulation under the law (MacDowell, 1978). If the kyrios left no male heirs, but left female heirs, the heiress's main goal was to produce a suitable heir for the estate. If she was unmarried, she would be wed to the nearest willing and unmarried male relative to her father, and he would take the land. If she was married, the nearest willing and unmarried relative to her father could still lay claim to her, in which case she would be divorced from her husband and forced into this new marriage with her new kyrios, and it was expected of her to make an heir (MacDowell, 1978). If the kyrios died with no heir, male or female, the nearest relative would lay claim to the oikos. Unlike the female child of a diseased kyrios, the wife of a deceased kyrios laid no claim to the oikos whatsoever. Succession was most importantly a direct line of male inheritance, so any sons this widow would have with any other man would lay no claim to the oikos of the deceased (MacDowell, 1978). Marriage in Ancient Greece typically consisted of a young woman fourteen or fifteen years of age and an adult man of around thirty years old. For reasons concerning inheritance a woman could not marry men directly related to her, such as her father or son, but could marry her half-brother on her father's side, or anyone more distantly related than that. Though a woman must be faithful to her husband (because they wanted to guarantee clear succession) a man did not have to be faithful to his wife. However, any mistress or concubine a man had was legally illegitimate, and so were any children she may produce, though they may still reside in the man's home with him and his wife (MacDowell, 1978). Athenian divorce was messy, mainly because people were directly tied to their estates, and after the joining of different estates it was difficult to determine what was returned and what was to remain (a problem society hasn't definitively solved in over 2000 years). The most common method of divorce is the husband individually and legally declaring he would no longer wish to be married to his wife. Divorce was uncommon, but if a man could marry another woman who would provide him more land, more money, stronger heirs, or access to higher positions of power, he would likely divorce his wife and marry this new woman. The father of a young woman could also remove her from the marriage for seemingly any reason, however it seems this method was only used when the father believed his daughter was being abused (Cohn-Haft). Because of inheritance, children in Ancient Greek history were precious, and to be well cared for. There were very few situations in which the child's father was not in full control. The first is if the father has passed then a new kyrios for the child would be found, but there are other exceptions. The woman who takes care of a baby from birth, the baby's nurse, must be allowed a limited amount of power over the child. If a marriage was split or the parents were mistreating the child, a relative or guardian of the state could take over. Situations like this allow for the concession of power for specific reasons. Otherwise, the kyrios is always in charge of the children (Wolff, 1944). But a growing population and a shortage of land also seem to have created internal strife between the poor and the rich in many city-states. The major preoccupation of modern legislation on adoption is the welfare of the adopted child. In ancient Greek cities adoption was used mainly as a succession strategy for childless people. It also entailed duties of a religious character for the adopted person. Adoption has always had a public dimension, expressed either with a declaration in the marketplace or in a civic ceremony or, as in Hellenistic Egypt and Byzantium, with the written instrument or, as happens today, with a court decree. The laws of Gortyn regulate in detail the process of adoption (called anpansis). Only male adults had the right to adopt. The adoption took place in public, in the agora. The declaration was followed by a ceremony in the political association (hetaireia) of the adopter and a sacrifice. The existence of natural children was not an impediment to adopting other children. Legal implications related mainly to inheritance. If the adopter died without natural heirs, then the adopted inherited his property as well as the obligation to perform religious rites. If the adopter had natural sons (or daughters), then the adopted received a portion equal to that of the natural heiresses. If the adopted died without natural children, the property he inherited was transferred to the next of kin (epiballontes) of the adopter. The adoption was cancelled in public and the adopter had to pay 10 staters to the judge, who in his turn gave this amount to the adopted. In Athens adoption ((eis)poiesis) was geared towards the establishment of an heir to the adopter's property and the continuation of his oikos (family). Adoptions could be per- formed in one of three ways: during the lifetime of the adopter (inter vivos), by will (testamentary), and posthumously. Only men could adopt, and it was more likely that adult men rather than boys would be adopted. The adopted was able to inherit the of the adopter like a natural son, without any property previous legal formalities. Testamentary adoption was intro- duced by Solon at the beginning of the 6th century BC. It allowed a man without sons to adopt by testament an adult male, who would inherit from him. If there was a natural daughter, the adopted son would either marry her himself or provide her with a dowry equal to half of the paternal property. Elderly people were safeguarded from being manipulated by a law annulling an adoption if the adopter was very old or suffered from a mental or physical illness or was under the influence of drugs or was threatened. Finally, and most curiously, a posthumous adoption could be performed by the family in the context of a mutually acceptable settlement. As for other Greek cities we know that in Sparta an adoption took place in front of the kings while in Thebes there was a connection between adoption and grants of land. Adoptions are attested in many inscriptions, especially from Rhodes. How can I conclude my essay? The word legacy and family during ancient Greece was an essential part of the empire, was the way to guarantee good and... View the full answer	<urn:uuid:cd0080cb-9064-4f7f-88e5-47d95e3f872a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.coursehero.com/tutors-problems/Ancient-History/19990312-Adoption-in-Ancient-Greece-The-AncientGreek-family-or-oikos-involved/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00248.warc.gz	en	0.987553	1,993	4.03125	4	[ 0.0008892036275938153, 0.29570886492729187, -0.041999462991952896, -0.45156076550483704, -0.11567732691764832, -0.45650508999824524, -0.08965709805488586, 0.037878744304180145, -0.15790897607803345, 0.035654425621032715, 0.018352359533309937, -0.06291402876377106, 0.2265767902135849, 0.231...	1	Adoption in Ancient Greece The Ancient Greek family (or oikos) involved a complex web of relationships between he who was essentially the Man of the House, and those in his care. The family begins at the head, with the owner, kyrios, of the home. There can be two forms of kyrios: leader of the family estate, and leader of a person. Though these positions are often designated to the same person, there are many exceptions in which this is not the case (Modrzejewski). Every woman and child required a kyrios to care for and protect them. Boys would be overseen by their father until adulthood, and girls would be overseen by their father until marriage. If there was no father, an adult male relative could be the kyrios, or one would be appointed. This is like modern-day foster homes or resource families. When men married, they would be kyrios of their wives who would now live in their estate (MacDowell, 1978). The kyrios of the estate oversaw all the land he inherited. If he was the only son, he would retain all his father's land, but if he was one of many sons, they would evenly split the land among them to create separate oikoi from the original. If the man inheriting the land had unmarried sisters, he would have to save a part of the oikos for her dowry to her future husband. The kyrios of the home was the oldest, non-retired man who laid claim to the estate. A man's son could only take over his estate once the man retired or died. When a man retired, he would still live in his home, but his son or sons would now be kyrios of the estate. However, the sons would not become kyrios of their retired father or their mother, just their wives and children. If their father died and the sons still had unmarried sisters, they would become kyrios of those sisters until they married and moved into their husbands' oikos (MacDowell, 1978). The organization of Greek law regarding family was rather strict. There was a rigid, Caste-esque system that dictated who inherited power or responsibility, who inherited property, and from whom such prizes were inherited. All the subsequently strict mechanisms of defining family in Ancient Greek culture fell from this notion of succession and inheritance (Modrzejewski). Since succession was only a privilege allotted to males, the only paths of succession fell from 1. Having a male heir, 2. Having no male heir, or 3. Having no heir at all. If the kyrios of an estate has a male heir, that heir will inherit all his property and debts. If the son or sons were not of age when the father died, they would have a guardian care for them until they were old enough. Because of this, orphans (fatherless children) were heavily protected from violence and manipulation under the law (MacDowell, 1978). If the kyrios left no male heirs, but left female heirs, the heiress's main goal was to produce a suitable heir for the estate. If she was unmarried, she would be wed to the nearest willing and unmarried male relative to her father, and he would take the land. If she was married, the nearest willing and unmarried relative to her father could still lay claim to her, in which case she would be divorced from her husband and forced into this new marriage with her new kyrios, and it was expected of her to make an heir (MacDowell, 1978). If the kyrios died with no heir, male or female, the nearest relative would lay claim to the oikos. Unlike the female child of a diseased kyrios, the wife of a deceased kyrios laid no claim to the oikos whatsoever. Succession was most importantly a direct line of male inheritance, so any sons this widow would have with any other man would lay no claim to the oikos of the deceased (MacDowell, 1978). Marriage in Ancient Greece typically consisted of a young woman fourteen or fifteen years of age and an adult man of around thirty years old. For reasons concerning inheritance a woman could not marry men directly related to her, such as her father or son, but could marry her half-brother on her father's side, or anyone more distantly related than that. Though a woman must be faithful to her husband (because they wanted to guarantee clear succession) a man did not have to be faithful to his wife. However, any mistress or concubine a man had was legally illegitimate, and so were any children she may produce, though they may still reside in the man's home with him and his wife (MacDowell, 1978). Athenian divorce was messy, mainly because people were directly tied to their estates, and after the joining of different estates it was difficult to determine what was returned and what was to remain (a problem society hasn't definitively solved in over 2000 years). The most common method of divorce is the husband individually and legally declaring he would no longer wish to be married to his wife. Divorce was uncommon, but if a man could marry another woman who would provide him more land, more money, stronger heirs, or access to higher positions of power, he would likely divorce his wife and marry this new woman. The father of a young woman could also remove her from the marriage for seemingly any reason, however it seems this method was only used when the father believed his daughter was being abused (Cohn-Haft). Because of inheritance, children in Ancient Greek history were precious, and to be well cared for. There were very few situations in which the child's father was not in full control. The first is if the father has passed then a new kyrios for the child would be found, but there are other exceptions. The woman who takes care of a baby from birth, the baby's nurse, must be allowed a limited amount of power over the child. If a marriage was split or the parents were mistreating the child, a relative or guardian of the state could take over. Situations like this allow for the concession of power for specific reasons. Otherwise, the kyrios is always in charge of the children (Wolff, 1944). But a growing population and a shortage of land also seem to have created internal strife between the poor and the rich in many city-states. The major preoccupation of modern legislation on adoption is the welfare of the adopted child. In ancient Greek cities adoption was used mainly as a succession strategy for childless people. It also entailed duties of a religious character for the adopted person. Adoption has always had a public dimension, expressed either with a declaration in the marketplace or in a civic ceremony or, as in Hellenistic Egypt and Byzantium, with the written instrument or, as happens today, with a court decree. The laws of Gortyn regulate in detail the process of adoption (called anpansis). Only male adults had the right to adopt. The adoption took place in public, in the agora. The declaration was followed by a ceremony in the political association (hetaireia) of the adopter and a sacrifice. The existence of natural children was not an impediment to adopting other children. Legal implications related mainly to inheritance. If the adopter died without natural heirs, then the adopted inherited his property as well as the obligation to perform religious rites. If the adopter had natural sons (or daughters), then the adopted received a portion equal to that of the natural heiresses. If the adopted died without natural children, the property he inherited was transferred to the next of kin (epiballontes) of the adopter. The adoption was cancelled in public and the adopter had to pay 10 staters to the judge, who in his turn gave this amount to the adopted. In Athens adoption ((eis)poiesis) was geared towards the establishment of an heir to the adopter's property and the continuation of his oikos (family). Adoptions could be per- formed in one of three ways: during the lifetime of the adopter (inter vivos), by will (testamentary), and posthumously. Only men could adopt, and it was more likely that adult men rather than boys would be adopted. The adopted was able to inherit the of the adopter like a natural son, without any property previous legal formalities. Testamentary adoption was intro- duced by Solon at the beginning of the 6th century BC. It allowed a man without sons to adopt by testament an adult male, who would inherit from him. If there was a natural daughter, the adopted son would either marry her himself or provide her with a dowry equal to half of the paternal property. Elderly people were safeguarded from being manipulated by a law annulling an adoption if the adopter was very old or suffered from a mental or physical illness or was under the influence of drugs or was threatened. Finally, and most curiously, a posthumous adoption could be performed by the family in the context of a mutually acceptable settlement. As for other Greek cities we know that in Sparta an adoption took place in front of the kings while in Thebes there was a connection between adoption and grants of land. Adoptions are attested in many inscriptions, especially from Rhodes. How can I conclude my essay? The word legacy and family during ancient Greece was an essential part of the empire, was the way to guarantee good and... View the full answer	1,983	ENGLISH	1
This movie took place in 1900 when the iron horse was the mode of transportation from East to West. But in the mid 1800’s it was one rough ride to get out west. CALIFORNIA ADMISSION DAY is a legal holiday in the state of California. California’s admission into the Union as the thirty-first state back in 1850 is being celebrated today. As part of the Compromise of 1850 California was admitted to the Union as a free state after being ceded to the United States by Mexico at the end of the Mexican-American War in 1848. You can fall in love at first sight with a place as with a person. – Alec Waugh The state of California offers any type of scenery you might like – from ocean to forest to skyscrapers in cities. In the 1800’s there was a different reason for folks to take a wagon train headed west – GOLD. Back then it wasn’t as simple as hopping in the station wagon and driving along highways. It was a very rough ride in a covered wagon instead. Some people did not survive the trip, as disease and weather conditions sometimes took lives. If you want to get a good idea of what it was like to travel in a covered wagon along the Oregon Trail, there are excerpts from Margaret Frink’s diary online. She was born in 1818 and married her husband in 1839. They decided to head west to California in 1850. They settled in Sacramento but lived in several parts of California. Of course there are several movies depicting the travels in the 1800’s out west. We consider those folks pioneers and know their lives were not easy, but they hung on to hope and dreamed of a better life. I admire those who hold on to hope and forge ahead regardless of the risk. They kept their wits about them and held on to faith in God. To dare is to lose one’s footing momentarily. To not dare is to lose oneself. – Søren Kierkegaard Along the way there was surely pain, suffering and loss. Wives buried husbands, parents buried children. Today we see forgetting the curling iron on a trip as devastating. Really???	<urn:uuid:30f22894-c4d0-43f0-affe-d9b243d0b0bb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hearthungerblog.wordpress.com/tag/state/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00009.warc.gz	en	0.983311	457	3.328125	3	[ 0.08961706608533859, 0.03985678032040596, 0.11451774835586548, 0.17672467231750488, -0.4317227303981781, 0.22404827177524567, -0.11461204290390015, 0.2678019404411316, -0.2549804151058197, -0.3032407760620117, 0.08459558337926865, -0.11702170968055725, 0.42402321100234985, 0.36962050199508...	4	This movie took place in 1900 when the iron horse was the mode of transportation from East to West. But in the mid 1800’s it was one rough ride to get out west. CALIFORNIA ADMISSION DAY is a legal holiday in the state of California. California’s admission into the Union as the thirty-first state back in 1850 is being celebrated today. As part of the Compromise of 1850 California was admitted to the Union as a free state after being ceded to the United States by Mexico at the end of the Mexican-American War in 1848. You can fall in love at first sight with a place as with a person. – Alec Waugh The state of California offers any type of scenery you might like – from ocean to forest to skyscrapers in cities. In the 1800’s there was a different reason for folks to take a wagon train headed west – GOLD. Back then it wasn’t as simple as hopping in the station wagon and driving along highways. It was a very rough ride in a covered wagon instead. Some people did not survive the trip, as disease and weather conditions sometimes took lives. If you want to get a good idea of what it was like to travel in a covered wagon along the Oregon Trail, there are excerpts from Margaret Frink’s diary online. She was born in 1818 and married her husband in 1839. They decided to head west to California in 1850. They settled in Sacramento but lived in several parts of California. Of course there are several movies depicting the travels in the 1800’s out west. We consider those folks pioneers and know their lives were not easy, but they hung on to hope and dreamed of a better life. I admire those who hold on to hope and forge ahead regardless of the risk. They kept their wits about them and held on to faith in God. To dare is to lose one’s footing momentarily. To not dare is to lose oneself. – Søren Kierkegaard Along the way there was surely pain, suffering and loss. Wives buried husbands, parents buried children. Today we see forgetting the curling iron on a trip as devastating. Really???	471	ENGLISH	1
Two proposals in the 1870s were to shape the fight against industrial expansion in the Lake District in the decades that followed. The first was a rumoured proposal to build a railway line between Kendal and Ambleside to transport iron ore mined from Helvellyn. The second was to allow Manchester Corporation to use the lake at Thirlmere as a reservoir from which to pipe water nearly 100 miles to the city. Central to the campaigns to prevent both developments taking place were Robert Somervell and John Ruskin. Although Hardwicke is credited with the title of ‘Defender of the Lakes’ he had minimal involvement in these pivotal campaigns against industrial exploitation of the Lakes. It was in 1875 that Somervell, aged only twenty-four and the son of a wealthy shoe manufacturer based in Kendal, heard vague talk of a railway line being built between Windermere and Ambleside. He was stung into protest and set about gathering signatures for a petition to be sent to Parliament opposing the proposal. He sent one of his workers to make contact with local people to gather their support. Ruskin allowed him access to his address book so that Somervell could contact influential people beyond the Lake District. The petition to Parliament was not needed as the railway rumour never turned into a formal plan. In 1876 Somervell published a pamphlet, A Protest against the Extension of Railways in the Lake District, in which he marshalled his arguments against any expansion, reprinted a number of newspaper articles that supported his protest, and added a Preface by Ruskin. It only sold a few copies and he was left with a financial loss. This did not deter him, however, when the Thirlmere scheme became public knowledge. During the nineteenth century Manchester’s industrial might and population had grown significantly and this put a major demand on the city’s need for water. By the mid-1860s, Manchester Waterworks Committee were being told that additional supplies were needed to support the city’s growing demand for water. After looking at a number of alternatives they concluded that turning Thirlmere in the Lake District into a reservoir and piping the water to Manchester was the best long-term option. In August 1876 Manchester Corporation approved the purchase of land and water rights in the area. Reports in the press began to circulate about Manchester’s intention to apply to Parliament for permission to dam Thirlmere and build a reservoir that would supply the city with fifty million gallons of water per day. Manchester clearly needed more water in the long term and the city had the financial muscle-power to fund the undertaking. There were also many in the Lake District who were supportive of the scheme. Some were landowners who stood to make large sums of money by selling their land, others were local residents and tradespeople who would benefit from increased jobs and trade. But what was new about Thirlmere, and which, no one in Manchester Corporation had taken into account, was that this proposal was the first to be made in the heart of the Lake District, whose unique landscape had been largely left undisturbed for centuries. For all the arguments that Somervell brought to bear against the Thirlmere proposal, it was this uniqueness and unspoilt beauty of the area that was to have a profound effect on how future industrial projects in areas such as the Lakes would be assessed. A new era in conservation was about to unfold. In February 1877 a number of residents in the Lake District were so concerned by what they were hearing and reading that they were jolted into action. About 60 people attended a meeting at the Prince of Wales Hotel in Grasmere, Robert Somervell being one of them. This meeting led to the formation of the Thirlmere Defence Association (TDA), the first such organised and coordinated campaign group in the Lake District. Somervell, as secretary of the TDA, used the three thousand names that Ruskin had given him from their earlier railway protest as a starting point to elicit support. The TDA soon had a fund of £3000 and a list of subscribers that included many notable names from the world of politics, academia, the church, and the arts. Somervell and his supporters did not attempt to deny that Manchester needed more water. What they objected to was the proposal to take it from Thirlmere, arguing that other sources should be considered, and that even if Thirlmere had to be used, Manchester’s plan could be improved in many ways. The Parliamentary Bill to enable Manchester to proceed with its scheme was laid before Parliament in December 1877. Normally, during the Committee stage of a Bill, only those parties who were directly impacted economically were allowed to give evidence. Because of the widespread interest generated by this Bill it was agreed that it would be discussed in Parliament before a Select Committee which would hear evidence from all interested parties, including the TDA. Although the Select Committee found in favour of Manchester they acknowledged that ‘the public at large has also an inheritance in the beautiful scenery of these mountains and lakes’. This was a fundamental turning point for future conservation projects and a major victory for the TDA. It meant that the wider interests of the public, and not purely economic considerations, had to be taken into account when assessing such proposals in the future. As the Bill progressed through the Parliamentary process the TDA objected that so many changes had now been made to it that it was no longer the same Bill that had originally been proposed. The Lord’s Examiner on Standing Orders agreed and the Bill was rejected on technical grounds. The TDA knew, however, that this was a hollow victory and that Manchester Corporation would return with a revised Bill. Manchester Corporation never expected the strength or nature of the opposition that the TDA were able to muster. The rejection of the Bill gave the TDA an opportunity to engage in further discussions with the Corporation to ensure that meaningful safeguards to their concerns were included in the new Bill being prepared for Parliament. A ‘Manchester Corporation Waterworks Act’ returned to the House of Commons in early 1879 and received Royal Assent on 23 May. Although the Thirlmere Scheme was finally approved in 1879 it did not end there. Building and engineering works did not commence for a number of years. By the time that they did, Hardwicke was firmly established in his role as ‘Defender of the Lakes’. Robert Somervell spent the early 1880s between Cambridge, where he was studying, and the Lake District, but did not play a leading role in the campaigns that were to shape the future of conservation in the area. In 1887 he became Bursar of Eton, a position he was to occupy for over thirty years. He was a modest individual who did not wish to trumpet his achievements. Nevertheless, he should be given credit for his pioneering actions. Whilst the Lake District was not a frenzy of conservation activity, Hardwicke knew that much was happening in other parts of the country. Newly-formed groups such as the Commons Preservation Society (CPS), the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association, and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, were trying to stem the tide of urban spread, land closures, building restorations, and industrial developments. So one can imagine his shock when he sat down to read the London Evening Standard of 1 February 1883. The newspaper said they had received a letter from Colonel Grenall, Lingholme, Keswick, drawing their attention to the Braithwaite and Buttermere Railway Bill that was making its way through Parliament. This short article must have hit Hardwicke like a bolt of lightning. He clearly had not expected any such happening and his reaction was immediate. He fired off an angry response that was probably the most impactful letter that he ever wrote. It was a withering attack on the greed of entrepreneurs who are only interested in lining their own pockets and who have no concern for damage that might be caused to the landscape. At the same time, it was a wake-up call to the nation. Take note and do something about developments harmful to beautiful scenery before it is too late. Other letters quickly followed denouncing the proposed development, including one from the CPS. Following the example of the Thirlmere campaign, a Derwentwater and Borrowdale Defence Committee was organised to publicise the arguments against the railway as widely as possible and elicit donations for a fund to fight the Bill in Parliament. The publicity and money-raising campaign was orchestrated by a small number of individuals. Many regional and national newspapers supported the Defence Committee. The Defence Committee challenged the railway promoter’s assertion that the railway was for the public good. Economically they showed that the line could not make a profit without further investment, an increase in the amount of slate mined, and the building of spur lines to other quarries. They also rejected the claim that the line would be used to carry passengers and cattle. Echoing the arguments put forward by the Thirlmere campaigners, the primary focus of the case against the railway was the damage that would be done to the scenic beauty of the area. As with Thirlmere, not everyone in the Lake District was an opponent of the railway. Some local newspapers came out in support, arguing that the railway would bring in more people and jobs. There were also claims that the voices of the local inhabitants were being drowned out by middle-class aesthetes and other notables in public life, many of whom had no connection with the area other than the occasional visit. Meanwhile, the Parliamentary process continued and, despite the activity of the Defence Committee, the Bill was approved at its Second Reading. On 9 April, however, in an unexpected turn of events, which no-one saw coming, the Bill was suddenly withdrawn and the railway proposal was dead and buried. The success of the railway campaign was by no means due to Hardwicke alone. The Defence Committee made much in their publicity that the Commons Preservation Society were actively involved in all facets of the campaign including strategy, legal and parliamentary expertise, and fund raising. In addition, the core of the Defence Committee was made up of a number of outstanding individuals such as W.H. Hills, a retired bookseller living in Ambleside. Hardwicke and his colleagues knew that other railway proposals were likely to follow and he wasted no time in publicising the necessity for a permanent organisation to protect the Lake District. At the annual meeting of the Wordsworth Society on 2 May 1883 Hardwicke gave a paper on ‘The Proposed Permanent Lake District Defence Society’. The presentation bears all the hallmarks of having been written entirely by Hardwicke. He knew full well that if he could get Wordsworth Society members on board then the new society would have a great chance of being successful. His presentation to them was couched in terms such that they could hardly refuse to back him. It was a masterly stroke in marketing the idea of a Lake District Defence Society (LDDS). Hardwicke’s presentation was a major landmark in the history of preservation of the Lake District. The embryonic Derwentwater and Borrowdale Defence Committee provided the blueprint for the new organisation. Its leadership formed the core of the LDDS executive with Gordon Somervell as Hon. Treasurer, Hardwicke, Hon. Secretary, and W. H. Hills and Albert Fleming as executive members. Like Robert Somervell, it is easy to forget men like Hills who laboured away in the cause of Lake District conservation, working in the background under Hardwicke’s exuberant personality. Within such men, however, the Lake District may not have become what it is today. After the Wordsworth Society meeting, much needed to be done to get the new organisation off the ground. Publicity was essential to spread the word about the existence of the LDDS, membership had to be recruited, and funds raised so that it could fight the battles that were expected. Hills drafted the first publicity/recruiting leaflet of the LDDS. Archive holdings of these early leaflets show how much debate took place before the remit of the new society was agreed. Everyone supported the view that the society was against railway and mineral exploitation. Hardwicke, however, was keen to see that rights of way and commons were protected. Other executive members disagreed, fearing that they would alienate local landowners. In addition to an executive committee, local committees were formed in major cities such as Manchester, Liverpool and London. Both Robert Hunter and Octavia Hill, future co-founders of the National Trust along with Hardwicke, were members of the London Committee. The fledgling LDDS was very fortunate in that contemporaneous with Hardwicke’s appeal to the Wordsworth Society an Ennerdale Railway Bill was laid before Parliament. Like the Braithwaite proposal a few months earlier, the Ennerdale Bill was weak, being another example of speculators wanting to make a profit without due consideration of the economics of their case or damage to the Lake District. And this time the importance of the Lake District to the nation as a whole was fresh in the minds of the public and the newspapers. The new proposal was to build a 6-mile line near Ennerdale Water on the western side of the Lake District that would carry iron ore to the existing Whitehaven-Egremont-Cleator line. In some ways the Ennerdale Railway became a recruiting vehicle for the LDDS. Hardwicke appeared before the Select Committee in Parliament discussing the Bill. He must have felt overjoyed when it was rejected by the Committee on economic grounds on the 18 July 1883. Having defeated a number of railway bills, the LDDS was, by 1885, well-versed in putting forward arguments against attempts to further develop the rail network in the Lakes. The arguments rested on a common set of themes. There would be long-term damage to the landscape and no resulting economic, or other, benefits. Such proposals were made for purely speculative purposes by a small minority of businessmen. The LDDS argued that the Lake District was already easily accessible by rail to anyone who wanted to visit and that the proposals made to date would not have helped the many thousands in towns and cities who wanted to visit the Lakes as a place of rest and recreation. In late 1886, however, a railway bill was published proposing to extend the line from Windermere to Ambleside, laying the ground for future expansion to Grasmere and Keswick. The Ambleside Railway Bill differed from earlier proposals. It had solid backing in the local community – from tradesmen, hotelkeepers, industrialists, some landowners and Town Councils. And its promoters had gone to considerable length to ensure that possible damage to the landscape was minimised. The LDDS and CPS were against the Bill, as were most national and regional newspapers. Arguments and counter-arguments filled the columns of many newspapers with each side shouting loudly that their opponents were telling untruths. This time, however, Hardwicke was not the driving force behind the opposition to the Bill. During January and February 1887 when the Bill was being debated in Parliament he was recuperating from illness, first in France, then in Egypt. It was left to Hills to spearhead the campaign against the Ambleside Bill. Hills was very ably supported by the CPS, especially James Bryce, its chairman. After passing its second reading, the Ambleside Railway Bill was sent to a Select Committee for detailed discussion. Although Hardwicke had returned from abroad in early March it was decided not to call him as an expert witness before the Committee. After a number of days discussing the Bill, the Committee rejected it purely on economic grounds. Crucially, for the LDDS and other opponents of the Bill, the London and North-Western Railway, who the promoters hoped would work the line once built, had withdrawn their support. This completely undermined the initial economic logic of the proposal. The Select Committee made clear that they rejected the Ambleside Railway Bill purely upon financial grounds, and expressed ‘no opinion upon the alleged probable advantages of the line to the district’. It seems clear that had the London and North-Western Railway supported the Bill it may well have passed. It is ironic that Hardwicke and his colleagues had a railway company to thank for ensuring that Wordsworth’s great concern that a line would be built from Windermere to Keswick did not come to pass. Railways, however, were not the only enemy that threatened the landscape of the Lake District. In 1885, six years after the passing of the Thirlmere Act, Manchester Corporation began engineering work to dam the lake at Thirlmere and convert it into a massive reservoir that would raise the water by 50 feet and allow up to 50 million gallons of water a day to be extracted. As part of the 1879 Act, Manchester Corporation had also agreed to build a new road high up on the west side of Thirlmere. During the six years that passed after the 1879 Act, Manchester had downgraded their forecasts of the amount of water they needed to take from Thirlmere. The new forecasts suggested that Manchester only needed 10 million gallons of water per day and that the water level would rise by only 20 feet. On hearing this news the LDDS Executive were jubilant. They had always thought that the new road would be unsightly and spoil the landscape. Now, they concluded, it was not needed and they wrote to the Waterworks Committee that the new road could be abandoned. The three signatories to this letter were Hardwicke and Hills for the LDDS, and George Shaw-Lefevre for the CPS. This offer must have been music to the ears of the Waterworks Committee, for they were being given an opportunity to save many thousands of pounds. Any agreement, however, to abandon a new road on the west side of the lake would necessitate an amendment to the 1879 Act. Unfortunately, in taking their decision, the LDDS were acting in haste and on their own initiative. They had not consulted any other parties who might have a stake in the new road such as local residents, hoteliers, tradesmen etc. The defeat of the railway proposals seems to have led the LDDS leaders to believe that they really did know what was best for the Lake District. Later developments showed that they had misjudged the situation and been out-of-touch with local views. Hardwicke also faced a dilemma. He was at this time standing for election as an Independent Liberal for the Keswick Division of Cumberland County Council. Not surprisingly many of the electors who were in favour of the new road wanted to know what his views were on the subject. There are no records of Hardwicke’s comments on the new road during his election campaign. After his election on 18 January 1889, however, subsequent events led to the view that he either altered his opinion or gave ambiguous answers. Recognising that his position as both a member of the LDDS Executive and a County Councillor were now in some conflict Hardwicke took matters into his own hands and resigned from the LDDS. This must have been an agonising decision for Hardwicke to take. He, and others, had badly misjudged the situation and the strong views of people living in the area. It was certainly a mistake for the LDDS to suggest to Manchester Corporation that the road be abandoned without any consultation with others who might be affected. Whether Hardwicke then gave some support for the new road in his election campaign is not known, but it seems as if some of his colleagues thought he had. It is also probable that he and Hills had forged too close a relationship with the Waterworks Committee. Hardwicke’s resignation was never mentioned in any press reports. Eventually Manchester Corporation agreed to honour their initial obligations and the new road was built. This was the first defeat suffered by the LDDS and it came about because of their own insistence that they were right and could speak on behalf of all the communities involved. The reservoir was officially opened on 12 October 1894 with both Hills and Hardwicke attending. It was during the 1880s that the LDDS had a major impact on preserving the scenery of the Lake District. Railway expansion and mining speculators were the most headline catching campaigns. But there were numerous other smaller campaigns involving roads, bridges, footpaths etc. that did not make the headlines. So what did the LDDS achieve? Perhaps its greatest achievement was not any specific campaign. Rather it was that it constantly kept the Lake District prominently before the public eye. It ensured that the preservation of the landscape of the area became a national issue. The battle cry that the Lake District was unique and a national asset was successfully sold to the nation. It is no coincidence that it was a failure to buy land in the Lake District in 1893 that galvanised Hardwicke, Octavia Hill and Robert Hunter to bring to fruition the idea of a National Trust. One might argue that so successful was the LDDS in keeping the Lake District at the forefront of national conservation consciousness that without it the formation of a National Trust would have been delayed. The LDDS was also the platform which brought Hardwicke to national prominence as the ‘Defender of the Lakes’. Other people worked diligently behind the scenes in the various campaigns, no one more so than W. H. Hills whose contribution was acknowledged by Hardwicke in his book, Literary Associations of the English Lakes (1894). It was Hardwicke, however, who became the public face of the Lake District. He did this by sheer force of personality and energy. He was the first to make an appeal for a permanent organisation to protect the Lake District. Even though he resigned from it, he remained the public embodiment of the fight to preserve the area in its natural condition for the nation for ever. - Hits: 229	<urn:uuid:6d08a848-c137-4ea6-9851-2b4df92ff6ef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hdrawnsley.com/index.php/life-times/biography/defender-of-the-lakes	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00438.warc.gz	en	0.986656	4,512	3.5	4	[ -0.23016367852687836, -0.10463236272335052, -0.09047326445579529, 0.14292208850383759, -0.1182534247636795, 0.27558383345603943, -0.26912230253219604, 0.002178685739636421, -0.6835103631019592, -0.17134316265583038, -0.13555674254894257, -0.4823077321052551, 0.02829892188310623, -0.1316815...	1	Two proposals in the 1870s were to shape the fight against industrial expansion in the Lake District in the decades that followed. The first was a rumoured proposal to build a railway line between Kendal and Ambleside to transport iron ore mined from Helvellyn. The second was to allow Manchester Corporation to use the lake at Thirlmere as a reservoir from which to pipe water nearly 100 miles to the city. Central to the campaigns to prevent both developments taking place were Robert Somervell and John Ruskin. Although Hardwicke is credited with the title of ‘Defender of the Lakes’ he had minimal involvement in these pivotal campaigns against industrial exploitation of the Lakes. It was in 1875 that Somervell, aged only twenty-four and the son of a wealthy shoe manufacturer based in Kendal, heard vague talk of a railway line being built between Windermere and Ambleside. He was stung into protest and set about gathering signatures for a petition to be sent to Parliament opposing the proposal. He sent one of his workers to make contact with local people to gather their support. Ruskin allowed him access to his address book so that Somervell could contact influential people beyond the Lake District. The petition to Parliament was not needed as the railway rumour never turned into a formal plan. In 1876 Somervell published a pamphlet, A Protest against the Extension of Railways in the Lake District, in which he marshalled his arguments against any expansion, reprinted a number of newspaper articles that supported his protest, and added a Preface by Ruskin. It only sold a few copies and he was left with a financial loss. This did not deter him, however, when the Thirlmere scheme became public knowledge. During the nineteenth century Manchester’s industrial might and population had grown significantly and this put a major demand on the city’s need for water. By the mid-1860s, Manchester Waterworks Committee were being told that additional supplies were needed to support the city’s growing demand for water. After looking at a number of alternatives they concluded that turning Thirlmere in the Lake District into a reservoir and piping the water to Manchester was the best long-term option. In August 1876 Manchester Corporation approved the purchase of land and water rights in the area. Reports in the press began to circulate about Manchester’s intention to apply to Parliament for permission to dam Thirlmere and build a reservoir that would supply the city with fifty million gallons of water per day. Manchester clearly needed more water in the long term and the city had the financial muscle-power to fund the undertaking. There were also many in the Lake District who were supportive of the scheme. Some were landowners who stood to make large sums of money by selling their land, others were local residents and tradespeople who would benefit from increased jobs and trade. But what was new about Thirlmere, and which, no one in Manchester Corporation had taken into account, was that this proposal was the first to be made in the heart of the Lake District, whose unique landscape had been largely left undisturbed for centuries. For all the arguments that Somervell brought to bear against the Thirlmere proposal, it was this uniqueness and unspoilt beauty of the area that was to have a profound effect on how future industrial projects in areas such as the Lakes would be assessed. A new era in conservation was about to unfold. In February 1877 a number of residents in the Lake District were so concerned by what they were hearing and reading that they were jolted into action. About 60 people attended a meeting at the Prince of Wales Hotel in Grasmere, Robert Somervell being one of them. This meeting led to the formation of the Thirlmere Defence Association (TDA), the first such organised and coordinated campaign group in the Lake District. Somervell, as secretary of the TDA, used the three thousand names that Ruskin had given him from their earlier railway protest as a starting point to elicit support. The TDA soon had a fund of £3000 and a list of subscribers that included many notable names from the world of politics, academia, the church, and the arts. Somervell and his supporters did not attempt to deny that Manchester needed more water. What they objected to was the proposal to take it from Thirlmere, arguing that other sources should be considered, and that even if Thirlmere had to be used, Manchester’s plan could be improved in many ways. The Parliamentary Bill to enable Manchester to proceed with its scheme was laid before Parliament in December 1877. Normally, during the Committee stage of a Bill, only those parties who were directly impacted economically were allowed to give evidence. Because of the widespread interest generated by this Bill it was agreed that it would be discussed in Parliament before a Select Committee which would hear evidence from all interested parties, including the TDA. Although the Select Committee found in favour of Manchester they acknowledged that ‘the public at large has also an inheritance in the beautiful scenery of these mountains and lakes’. This was a fundamental turning point for future conservation projects and a major victory for the TDA. It meant that the wider interests of the public, and not purely economic considerations, had to be taken into account when assessing such proposals in the future. As the Bill progressed through the Parliamentary process the TDA objected that so many changes had now been made to it that it was no longer the same Bill that had originally been proposed. The Lord’s Examiner on Standing Orders agreed and the Bill was rejected on technical grounds. The TDA knew, however, that this was a hollow victory and that Manchester Corporation would return with a revised Bill. Manchester Corporation never expected the strength or nature of the opposition that the TDA were able to muster. The rejection of the Bill gave the TDA an opportunity to engage in further discussions with the Corporation to ensure that meaningful safeguards to their concerns were included in the new Bill being prepared for Parliament. A ‘Manchester Corporation Waterworks Act’ returned to the House of Commons in early 1879 and received Royal Assent on 23 May. Although the Thirlmere Scheme was finally approved in 1879 it did not end there. Building and engineering works did not commence for a number of years. By the time that they did, Hardwicke was firmly established in his role as ‘Defender of the Lakes’. Robert Somervell spent the early 1880s between Cambridge, where he was studying, and the Lake District, but did not play a leading role in the campaigns that were to shape the future of conservation in the area. In 1887 he became Bursar of Eton, a position he was to occupy for over thirty years. He was a modest individual who did not wish to trumpet his achievements. Nevertheless, he should be given credit for his pioneering actions. Whilst the Lake District was not a frenzy of conservation activity, Hardwicke knew that much was happening in other parts of the country. Newly-formed groups such as the Commons Preservation Society (CPS), the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association, and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, were trying to stem the tide of urban spread, land closures, building restorations, and industrial developments. So one can imagine his shock when he sat down to read the London Evening Standard of 1 February 1883. The newspaper said they had received a letter from Colonel Grenall, Lingholme, Keswick, drawing their attention to the Braithwaite and Buttermere Railway Bill that was making its way through Parliament. This short article must have hit Hardwicke like a bolt of lightning. He clearly had not expected any such happening and his reaction was immediate. He fired off an angry response that was probably the most impactful letter that he ever wrote. It was a withering attack on the greed of entrepreneurs who are only interested in lining their own pockets and who have no concern for damage that might be caused to the landscape. At the same time, it was a wake-up call to the nation. Take note and do something about developments harmful to beautiful scenery before it is too late. Other letters quickly followed denouncing the proposed development, including one from the CPS. Following the example of the Thirlmere campaign, a Derwentwater and Borrowdale Defence Committee was organised to publicise the arguments against the railway as widely as possible and elicit donations for a fund to fight the Bill in Parliament. The publicity and money-raising campaign was orchestrated by a small number of individuals. Many regional and national newspapers supported the Defence Committee. The Defence Committee challenged the railway promoter’s assertion that the railway was for the public good. Economically they showed that the line could not make a profit without further investment, an increase in the amount of slate mined, and the building of spur lines to other quarries. They also rejected the claim that the line would be used to carry passengers and cattle. Echoing the arguments put forward by the Thirlmere campaigners, the primary focus of the case against the railway was the damage that would be done to the scenic beauty of the area. As with Thirlmere, not everyone in the Lake District was an opponent of the railway. Some local newspapers came out in support, arguing that the railway would bring in more people and jobs. There were also claims that the voices of the local inhabitants were being drowned out by middle-class aesthetes and other notables in public life, many of whom had no connection with the area other than the occasional visit. Meanwhile, the Parliamentary process continued and, despite the activity of the Defence Committee, the Bill was approved at its Second Reading. On 9 April, however, in an unexpected turn of events, which no-one saw coming, the Bill was suddenly withdrawn and the railway proposal was dead and buried. The success of the railway campaign was by no means due to Hardwicke alone. The Defence Committee made much in their publicity that the Commons Preservation Society were actively involved in all facets of the campaign including strategy, legal and parliamentary expertise, and fund raising. In addition, the core of the Defence Committee was made up of a number of outstanding individuals such as W.H. Hills, a retired bookseller living in Ambleside. Hardwicke and his colleagues knew that other railway proposals were likely to follow and he wasted no time in publicising the necessity for a permanent organisation to protect the Lake District. At the annual meeting of the Wordsworth Society on 2 May 1883 Hardwicke gave a paper on ‘The Proposed Permanent Lake District Defence Society’. The presentation bears all the hallmarks of having been written entirely by Hardwicke. He knew full well that if he could get Wordsworth Society members on board then the new society would have a great chance of being successful. His presentation to them was couched in terms such that they could hardly refuse to back him. It was a masterly stroke in marketing the idea of a Lake District Defence Society (LDDS). Hardwicke’s presentation was a major landmark in the history of preservation of the Lake District. The embryonic Derwentwater and Borrowdale Defence Committee provided the blueprint for the new organisation. Its leadership formed the core of the LDDS executive with Gordon Somervell as Hon. Treasurer, Hardwicke, Hon. Secretary, and W. H. Hills and Albert Fleming as executive members. Like Robert Somervell, it is easy to forget men like Hills who laboured away in the cause of Lake District conservation, working in the background under Hardwicke’s exuberant personality. Within such men, however, the Lake District may not have become what it is today. After the Wordsworth Society meeting, much needed to be done to get the new organisation off the ground. Publicity was essential to spread the word about the existence of the LDDS, membership had to be recruited, and funds raised so that it could fight the battles that were expected. Hills drafted the first publicity/recruiting leaflet of the LDDS. Archive holdings of these early leaflets show how much debate took place before the remit of the new society was agreed. Everyone supported the view that the society was against railway and mineral exploitation. Hardwicke, however, was keen to see that rights of way and commons were protected. Other executive members disagreed, fearing that they would alienate local landowners. In addition to an executive committee, local committees were formed in major cities such as Manchester, Liverpool and London. Both Robert Hunter and Octavia Hill, future co-founders of the National Trust along with Hardwicke, were members of the London Committee. The fledgling LDDS was very fortunate in that contemporaneous with Hardwicke’s appeal to the Wordsworth Society an Ennerdale Railway Bill was laid before Parliament. Like the Braithwaite proposal a few months earlier, the Ennerdale Bill was weak, being another example of speculators wanting to make a profit without due consideration of the economics of their case or damage to the Lake District. And this time the importance of the Lake District to the nation as a whole was fresh in the minds of the public and the newspapers. The new proposal was to build a 6-mile line near Ennerdale Water on the western side of the Lake District that would carry iron ore to the existing Whitehaven-Egremont-Cleator line. In some ways the Ennerdale Railway became a recruiting vehicle for the LDDS. Hardwicke appeared before the Select Committee in Parliament discussing the Bill. He must have felt overjoyed when it was rejected by the Committee on economic grounds on the 18 July 1883. Having defeated a number of railway bills, the LDDS was, by 1885, well-versed in putting forward arguments against attempts to further develop the rail network in the Lakes. The arguments rested on a common set of themes. There would be long-term damage to the landscape and no resulting economic, or other, benefits. Such proposals were made for purely speculative purposes by a small minority of businessmen. The LDDS argued that the Lake District was already easily accessible by rail to anyone who wanted to visit and that the proposals made to date would not have helped the many thousands in towns and cities who wanted to visit the Lakes as a place of rest and recreation. In late 1886, however, a railway bill was published proposing to extend the line from Windermere to Ambleside, laying the ground for future expansion to Grasmere and Keswick. The Ambleside Railway Bill differed from earlier proposals. It had solid backing in the local community – from tradesmen, hotelkeepers, industrialists, some landowners and Town Councils. And its promoters had gone to considerable length to ensure that possible damage to the landscape was minimised. The LDDS and CPS were against the Bill, as were most national and regional newspapers. Arguments and counter-arguments filled the columns of many newspapers with each side shouting loudly that their opponents were telling untruths. This time, however, Hardwicke was not the driving force behind the opposition to the Bill. During January and February 1887 when the Bill was being debated in Parliament he was recuperating from illness, first in France, then in Egypt. It was left to Hills to spearhead the campaign against the Ambleside Bill. Hills was very ably supported by the CPS, especially James Bryce, its chairman. After passing its second reading, the Ambleside Railway Bill was sent to a Select Committee for detailed discussion. Although Hardwicke had returned from abroad in early March it was decided not to call him as an expert witness before the Committee. After a number of days discussing the Bill, the Committee rejected it purely on economic grounds. Crucially, for the LDDS and other opponents of the Bill, the London and North-Western Railway, who the promoters hoped would work the line once built, had withdrawn their support. This completely undermined the initial economic logic of the proposal. The Select Committee made clear that they rejected the Ambleside Railway Bill purely upon financial grounds, and expressed ‘no opinion upon the alleged probable advantages of the line to the district’. It seems clear that had the London and North-Western Railway supported the Bill it may well have passed. It is ironic that Hardwicke and his colleagues had a railway company to thank for ensuring that Wordsworth’s great concern that a line would be built from Windermere to Keswick did not come to pass. Railways, however, were not the only enemy that threatened the landscape of the Lake District. In 1885, six years after the passing of the Thirlmere Act, Manchester Corporation began engineering work to dam the lake at Thirlmere and convert it into a massive reservoir that would raise the water by 50 feet and allow up to 50 million gallons of water a day to be extracted. As part of the 1879 Act, Manchester Corporation had also agreed to build a new road high up on the west side of Thirlmere. During the six years that passed after the 1879 Act, Manchester had downgraded their forecasts of the amount of water they needed to take from Thirlmere. The new forecasts suggested that Manchester only needed 10 million gallons of water per day and that the water level would rise by only 20 feet. On hearing this news the LDDS Executive were jubilant. They had always thought that the new road would be unsightly and spoil the landscape. Now, they concluded, it was not needed and they wrote to the Waterworks Committee that the new road could be abandoned. The three signatories to this letter were Hardwicke and Hills for the LDDS, and George Shaw-Lefevre for the CPS. This offer must have been music to the ears of the Waterworks Committee, for they were being given an opportunity to save many thousands of pounds. Any agreement, however, to abandon a new road on the west side of the lake would necessitate an amendment to the 1879 Act. Unfortunately, in taking their decision, the LDDS were acting in haste and on their own initiative. They had not consulted any other parties who might have a stake in the new road such as local residents, hoteliers, tradesmen etc. The defeat of the railway proposals seems to have led the LDDS leaders to believe that they really did know what was best for the Lake District. Later developments showed that they had misjudged the situation and been out-of-touch with local views. Hardwicke also faced a dilemma. He was at this time standing for election as an Independent Liberal for the Keswick Division of Cumberland County Council. Not surprisingly many of the electors who were in favour of the new road wanted to know what his views were on the subject. There are no records of Hardwicke’s comments on the new road during his election campaign. After his election on 18 January 1889, however, subsequent events led to the view that he either altered his opinion or gave ambiguous answers. Recognising that his position as both a member of the LDDS Executive and a County Councillor were now in some conflict Hardwicke took matters into his own hands and resigned from the LDDS. This must have been an agonising decision for Hardwicke to take. He, and others, had badly misjudged the situation and the strong views of people living in the area. It was certainly a mistake for the LDDS to suggest to Manchester Corporation that the road be abandoned without any consultation with others who might be affected. Whether Hardwicke then gave some support for the new road in his election campaign is not known, but it seems as if some of his colleagues thought he had. It is also probable that he and Hills had forged too close a relationship with the Waterworks Committee. Hardwicke’s resignation was never mentioned in any press reports. Eventually Manchester Corporation agreed to honour their initial obligations and the new road was built. This was the first defeat suffered by the LDDS and it came about because of their own insistence that they were right and could speak on behalf of all the communities involved. The reservoir was officially opened on 12 October 1894 with both Hills and Hardwicke attending. It was during the 1880s that the LDDS had a major impact on preserving the scenery of the Lake District. Railway expansion and mining speculators were the most headline catching campaigns. But there were numerous other smaller campaigns involving roads, bridges, footpaths etc. that did not make the headlines. So what did the LDDS achieve? Perhaps its greatest achievement was not any specific campaign. Rather it was that it constantly kept the Lake District prominently before the public eye. It ensured that the preservation of the landscape of the area became a national issue. The battle cry that the Lake District was unique and a national asset was successfully sold to the nation. It is no coincidence that it was a failure to buy land in the Lake District in 1893 that galvanised Hardwicke, Octavia Hill and Robert Hunter to bring to fruition the idea of a National Trust. One might argue that so successful was the LDDS in keeping the Lake District at the forefront of national conservation consciousness that without it the formation of a National Trust would have been delayed. The LDDS was also the platform which brought Hardwicke to national prominence as the ‘Defender of the Lakes’. Other people worked diligently behind the scenes in the various campaigns, no one more so than W. H. Hills whose contribution was acknowledged by Hardwicke in his book, Literary Associations of the English Lakes (1894). It was Hardwicke, however, who became the public face of the Lake District. He did this by sheer force of personality and energy. He was the first to make an appeal for a permanent organisation to protect the Lake District. Even though he resigned from it, he remained the public embodiment of the fight to preserve the area in its natural condition for the nation for ever. - Hits: 229	4,564	ENGLISH	1
On December 14, 1776, the 8th Virginia’s Sergeant Thomas McCarty wrote in his diary, “I lay in camp and the excessive cold weather made me very unwell.” He and the rest of Washington’s army lay shivering on the west bank of the Delaware River, temporarily safe from the enemy who had chased them all the way from New York. This was the Revolution’s darkest time. Washington was losing. Badly. His troops were barefoot and hungry, and most of their enlistments were about to expire. People were giving up. Richard Stockton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, swore allegiance to the King. Many others believed the cause was lost. For the enlisted men, the immediate problem was the historically cold December weather. McCarty had frostbite. “I had great pain with my finger,” he wrote on December 9, “as the nail came clean off.” For shelter, he made a hut out of tree branches. It burned down on the thirteenth, along with nearly everything he had. McCarty and the other men in Captain William Croghan’s company of Pittsburgh men had had it rough. They were separated from the rest of the regiment by hundreds of miles because they had missed the spring rendezvous at Suffolk, Virginia. Now, freezing in the snow after being hounded across New Jersey by the enemy, things looked very bleak. In two weeks, most of the army would go home—but not Croghan's men. Soldiers from Virginia (including Pittsburgh) were on two year enlistments. On December 14, 1776, it looked like they would remain behind only to see the Revolution’s last gasp. But things were about to look very different. is researching the history of the Revolutionary War's 8th Virginia Regiment. Its ten companies formed on the frontier, from the Cumberland Gap to Pittsburgh. © 2015-2020 Gabriel Neville	<urn:uuid:ed48e9b3-0e9f-4cab-ba70-4a0755027d5e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.8thvirginia.com/blog/frostbite-and-fire	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00184.warc.gz	en	0.987071	405	3.828125	4	[ -0.5434194803237915, 0.3002334237098694, 0.3881780505180359, 0.22189861536026, 0.28593331575393677, 0.329836368560791, 0.058419276028871536, -0.0338200107216835, -0.5239743590354919, 0.07614802569150925, 0.07270558178424835, 0.09657888114452362, 0.17564666271209717, 0.2758679986000061, -...	11	On December 14, 1776, the 8th Virginia’s Sergeant Thomas McCarty wrote in his diary, “I lay in camp and the excessive cold weather made me very unwell.” He and the rest of Washington’s army lay shivering on the west bank of the Delaware River, temporarily safe from the enemy who had chased them all the way from New York. This was the Revolution’s darkest time. Washington was losing. Badly. His troops were barefoot and hungry, and most of their enlistments were about to expire. People were giving up. Richard Stockton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, swore allegiance to the King. Many others believed the cause was lost. For the enlisted men, the immediate problem was the historically cold December weather. McCarty had frostbite. “I had great pain with my finger,” he wrote on December 9, “as the nail came clean off.” For shelter, he made a hut out of tree branches. It burned down on the thirteenth, along with nearly everything he had. McCarty and the other men in Captain William Croghan’s company of Pittsburgh men had had it rough. They were separated from the rest of the regiment by hundreds of miles because they had missed the spring rendezvous at Suffolk, Virginia. Now, freezing in the snow after being hounded across New Jersey by the enemy, things looked very bleak. In two weeks, most of the army would go home—but not Croghan's men. Soldiers from Virginia (including Pittsburgh) were on two year enlistments. On December 14, 1776, it looked like they would remain behind only to see the Revolution’s last gasp. But things were about to look very different. is researching the history of the Revolutionary War's 8th Virginia Regiment. Its ten companies formed on the frontier, from the Cumberland Gap to Pittsburgh. © 2015-2020 Gabriel Neville	399	ENGLISH	1
The Death of King Edward I at Burgh-by-Sands (Cumbria) in 1307 King Edward's I Fortresses and Castels - England Braveheart King Longshanks Brian Blessed as King Edward I Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. Before his accession to the throne, he was commonly referred to as The Lord Edward. The first son of Henry III, Edward was involved from an early age in the political intrigues of his father's reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he briefly sided with a baronial reform movement, supporting the Provisions of Oxford. After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained loyal throughout the subsequent armed conflict, known as the Second Barons' War. After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, but escaped after a few months and joined the fight against Simon de Montfort. Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land. The crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 19 August.	<urn:uuid:d5624a28-45ee-4234-ad71-c782bcbd3590>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.spectroom.com/102118346-edward-i-of-england	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00045.warc.gz	en	0.988634	295	3.625	4	[ -0.22392013669013977, 0.15909293293952942, 0.16924536228179932, -0.04695233702659607, -0.15780450403690338, -0.4450918734073639, 0.42898181080818176, -0.347876638174057, 0.12752382457256317, -0.20560400187969208, -0.2180425226688385, -0.6828810572624207, 0.12267759442329407, -0.35548388957...	1	The Death of King Edward I at Burgh-by-Sands (Cumbria) in 1307 King Edward's I Fortresses and Castels - England Braveheart King Longshanks Brian Blessed as King Edward I Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. Before his accession to the throne, he was commonly referred to as The Lord Edward. The first son of Henry III, Edward was involved from an early age in the political intrigues of his father's reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he briefly sided with a baronial reform movement, supporting the Provisions of Oxford. After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained loyal throughout the subsequent armed conflict, known as the Second Barons' War. After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, but escaped after a few months and joined the fight against Simon de Montfort. Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land. The crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 19 August.	321	ENGLISH	1
The curriculum resources have been edited by our Curator of Education & Director of Research, Urszula Szczepinska, and are now available in our teaching trunks (middle and high school level) shipped to schools across the country free of charge. The trunks also contain an award-winning book, Memories of Survival, and a multiple-award-winning 30-minute documentary, “Through the Eye of the Needle: The Art of Esther Nisenthal Krinitz,” completed in late 2011. On her thirteenth birthday, June 12, 1942, Anne Frank received a diary as a gift. At that time, she and her family were living peacefully in Amsterdam, Holland after being forced to flee Hitler’s anti-Jewish regime in Germany. One month after receiving her diary, Anne and her family must go into hiding in the “Secret Annex,” a hidden portion of the building where Anne’s father worked. On the eve of World War II, Clara Heller and her family lived in Antwerp, Belgium. Her family moved there from Romania when her father, on his way to vote, was beaten because he was a Jew. In Belgium, the family was a prosperous member of the community and enjoyed religious freedom. Clara was a happy, active teenager, but her life changed dramatically when the Germans invaded Belgium. Her family attempted to flee without success, first to France, and then to England. The autobiography of Nechama Tec is a moving account of her childhood in Nazi occupied Poland. Nechama’s family is forced to take refuge with Polish Christians to prevent their capture and deportation. As an eleven-year-old, Nechama shares her confusion about the war, her struggles to stay with her family, and her ability to “pass” in Christian society. Tec is able to put into words the feelings of so many like herself who were faced with the challenge of changing their identity, religion, and beliefs in order to survive. Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston retells the moving story of her time spent in the Manzanar internment camp from 1942 to 1945. Jeanne and her family, along with ten thousand other Japanese-Americans, were forced from their home by the U.S. government into the desolate desert of California. There, surrounded by guard towers, armed soldiers, and barbed wire, Meet Sanu, Eric, and April, three children from three very different families and learn about their lives. Their stories emphasize the seemingly minor and everyday ways heritage is transmitted through stories, songs, games, language, and special occasions. The stories told in this book show the importance of choice and adaptation in forging a cultural identity. They enable the readers to examine their own families: what makes them the same, what makes them distinct, and how this uniqueness is celebrated. This collection of the poetry, diary entries, and artwork was created by children who were imprisoned in the Terezin concentration camp from 1942 to 1944. Terezin was a ghetto/camp for Jews on their way to concentration camps and the Germans used this camp as a “model camp.” There were facades of stores, houses, and cafes all used to fool the Red Cross. The children held in Terezin played, secretly attended school, drew, wrote, and acted. Within the camp they saw two very different realities: meadows, hills, and birds in some areas, and flies, food lines, starving people, concrete and bunks, beatings and executions in others. Once Jacob Gutgeld lived with his family in a beautiful house in Warsaw, Poland. He went to school and played hide –and –seek in the woods with his friends. But everything changed the day the Nazi soldiers invaded in 1939. Suddenly it wasn’t safe to be Jewish anymore. They had to leave their home and move to the ghetto. One afternoon, eight- year- old Jacob slipped through a hole in the ghetto wall to meet Alex Roslan, a kind Christian man who agreed to be his new “uncle”. The Roslan family, at the risk of their own lives, kept Jacob’s identity as a Jew hidden. Every day of hiding meant a new danger and a threat of discovery. Jacob worried about his real family and longed to go to school and play outside like the Roslan children. It is 1919 and Rifka’s brother Nathan has deserted the Russian army. This puts the family at great risk, so to protect themselves, twelve-year-old Rifka and her family flee Russia for America in the hope of a better life. After barely escaping from Russia into Poland, Rifka’s family is on their way to Warsaw to purchase steamship tickets to America. While on the train, Rifka contracts ringworm from another passenger. Because of this condition she is refused passage to America. Her family leaves without her, and she is sent to Belgium to be treated for the disease. Finally, when she is cured, she sets out for America. Elie Wiesel’s autobiography is a moving account relating his experiences as a teenager in Transylvania. He shares his memories of living with his family in a ghetto, his transport to Auschwitz and then Buchenwald, and his eventual liberation. Elie lived with his family in the town of Sighet and prior to 1944 there was little effect felt from Hitler’s regime. Despite warnings, the Wiesel family and others in the small town did not feel threatened by the rumors of roundups and mass killings. With the eventual liquidation of the ghetto, the Wiesels are sent to Auschwitz. Elie loses his mother and sister, and he and his father are forced to endure constant terror and unspeakable conditions. This simple but heroic story tells the true-life events that shaped the lives of one Japanese family and thousands of Polish Jews. The book is told through the eyes of a five year old d, Hiroki Sugihara. In 1940 Hiroki’s father, Chiune Sugihara was the Japanese consul to Lithuania. With the spread of German control throughout Europe, Jews began to flee Poland in search of safety from the Nazis. One such opportunity was to seek refuge through a foreign government. When thousands of fleeing Jews came to Sugihara to request safe-transit visas, Sugihara had to make a decision; only issue a few visas, as was permitted by Japanese law, or go against direct orders and issue as many visas as possible. This memoir retells the author’s experiences as a child growing up in Holland and her decision as a teenager to join the Dutch Resistance. This group of brave men and women risked their lives to aid Jews in escaping Nazi persecution and death. Ippisch began her work in the resistance by escorting Jews to safety and later by finding safe meeting places for key members of the underground to discuss their plans. It was during one of these meetings that Ippisch and her colleagues were discovered and arrested. Ippisch was sent to a German prison, where she endured inhuman conditions and was interrogated about her involvement in the organization. During these interrogations she refused to reveal any information that would help the Germans. In telling her own story, Ippisch shares not only her own moral courage, but also the strength of the exiled Dutch government, and the resilience of thousands of ordinary people in Holland during the war. This book is based on the true experiences of a Polish journalist, now dead, whom Uri Orlev met in Israel when they were both adults. Marek, his mother, and stepfather are a family living outside the Warsaw Ghetto in Poland. When Marek turns fourteen, his stepfather tells him of his smuggling operations, which provides food and sometimes weapons to Jews in the ghetto, and includes him in the illegal activity. When Marek’s mother discovers that Marek has joined two young thugs to steal from a ghetto escapee, she reveals the true identity of his father, who is Jewish. Marek’s remorse leads him to befriend another escapee and find him shelter. Vowels and Consonants have always been enemies. Each thought they were the more important asset to the alphabet. Vowels were smug and stuck up and Consonants were strong and sassy. Although they lived in constant indifference, they never did wage battle. But one day they began a terrible war to prove who were the better letters. When the war was looking quite grim, an enemy of the entire alphabet appears. The soldiers stopped fighting and the Vowels and Consonants had to work together to fight “the terrible scribble.” They composed words and sentences that became too much for the scribble to challenge. The Vowels and Consonants realized what could be accomplished by working together. This is a young girl’s account of day-to-day living in war-torn Bosnia. Through her descriptions, we learn about her personal thoughts and feelings. Her entries capture experiences that are common adolescent concerns: worries about being popular, entertainment, and what will happen in the future. Before war broke out, Zlata Filipovic was a normal, happy twelve-year-old, but life changed in the spring of 1992 when Serbian artillery positions were placed on hills above her home, and the shelling of Sarajevo began. Zlata was forced to spend much of her time in a cellar protected from the bombings. Food, electricity, and water were scarce and friends and relatives were injured and killed in the gunfire and bombings. Zlata lost her innocence and childhood because of the war. When we read her diary, we read of her confusion, fear, and despair, but we also learn of her strength, love, and belief in basic human goodness.	<urn:uuid:66f81c9e-0b12-4fef-b9f5-cd91d011f8d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.flholocaustmuseum.org/learn/Curriculum/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00451.warc.gz	en	0.982409	2,022	3.296875	3	[ 0.10411825776100159, 0.8158589601516724, 0.2812623977661133, -0.1836560219526291, 0.18791607022285461, 0.4926135540008545, -0.3198593854904175, 0.15484067797660828, -0.19171585142612457, 0.018567945808172226, -0.016262328252196312, -0.1633453667163849, -0.060546860098838806, 0.446251213550...	1	The curriculum resources have been edited by our Curator of Education & Director of Research, Urszula Szczepinska, and are now available in our teaching trunks (middle and high school level) shipped to schools across the country free of charge. The trunks also contain an award-winning book, Memories of Survival, and a multiple-award-winning 30-minute documentary, “Through the Eye of the Needle: The Art of Esther Nisenthal Krinitz,” completed in late 2011. On her thirteenth birthday, June 12, 1942, Anne Frank received a diary as a gift. At that time, she and her family were living peacefully in Amsterdam, Holland after being forced to flee Hitler’s anti-Jewish regime in Germany. One month after receiving her diary, Anne and her family must go into hiding in the “Secret Annex,” a hidden portion of the building where Anne’s father worked. On the eve of World War II, Clara Heller and her family lived in Antwerp, Belgium. Her family moved there from Romania when her father, on his way to vote, was beaten because he was a Jew. In Belgium, the family was a prosperous member of the community and enjoyed religious freedom. Clara was a happy, active teenager, but her life changed dramatically when the Germans invaded Belgium. Her family attempted to flee without success, first to France, and then to England. The autobiography of Nechama Tec is a moving account of her childhood in Nazi occupied Poland. Nechama’s family is forced to take refuge with Polish Christians to prevent their capture and deportation. As an eleven-year-old, Nechama shares her confusion about the war, her struggles to stay with her family, and her ability to “pass” in Christian society. Tec is able to put into words the feelings of so many like herself who were faced with the challenge of changing their identity, religion, and beliefs in order to survive. Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston retells the moving story of her time spent in the Manzanar internment camp from 1942 to 1945. Jeanne and her family, along with ten thousand other Japanese-Americans, were forced from their home by the U.S. government into the desolate desert of California. There, surrounded by guard towers, armed soldiers, and barbed wire, Meet Sanu, Eric, and April, three children from three very different families and learn about their lives. Their stories emphasize the seemingly minor and everyday ways heritage is transmitted through stories, songs, games, language, and special occasions. The stories told in this book show the importance of choice and adaptation in forging a cultural identity. They enable the readers to examine their own families: what makes them the same, what makes them distinct, and how this uniqueness is celebrated. This collection of the poetry, diary entries, and artwork was created by children who were imprisoned in the Terezin concentration camp from 1942 to 1944. Terezin was a ghetto/camp for Jews on their way to concentration camps and the Germans used this camp as a “model camp.” There were facades of stores, houses, and cafes all used to fool the Red Cross. The children held in Terezin played, secretly attended school, drew, wrote, and acted. Within the camp they saw two very different realities: meadows, hills, and birds in some areas, and flies, food lines, starving people, concrete and bunks, beatings and executions in others. Once Jacob Gutgeld lived with his family in a beautiful house in Warsaw, Poland. He went to school and played hide –and –seek in the woods with his friends. But everything changed the day the Nazi soldiers invaded in 1939. Suddenly it wasn’t safe to be Jewish anymore. They had to leave their home and move to the ghetto. One afternoon, eight- year- old Jacob slipped through a hole in the ghetto wall to meet Alex Roslan, a kind Christian man who agreed to be his new “uncle”. The Roslan family, at the risk of their own lives, kept Jacob’s identity as a Jew hidden. Every day of hiding meant a new danger and a threat of discovery. Jacob worried about his real family and longed to go to school and play outside like the Roslan children. It is 1919 and Rifka’s brother Nathan has deserted the Russian army. This puts the family at great risk, so to protect themselves, twelve-year-old Rifka and her family flee Russia for America in the hope of a better life. After barely escaping from Russia into Poland, Rifka’s family is on their way to Warsaw to purchase steamship tickets to America. While on the train, Rifka contracts ringworm from another passenger. Because of this condition she is refused passage to America. Her family leaves without her, and she is sent to Belgium to be treated for the disease. Finally, when she is cured, she sets out for America. Elie Wiesel’s autobiography is a moving account relating his experiences as a teenager in Transylvania. He shares his memories of living with his family in a ghetto, his transport to Auschwitz and then Buchenwald, and his eventual liberation. Elie lived with his family in the town of Sighet and prior to 1944 there was little effect felt from Hitler’s regime. Despite warnings, the Wiesel family and others in the small town did not feel threatened by the rumors of roundups and mass killings. With the eventual liquidation of the ghetto, the Wiesels are sent to Auschwitz. Elie loses his mother and sister, and he and his father are forced to endure constant terror and unspeakable conditions. This simple but heroic story tells the true-life events that shaped the lives of one Japanese family and thousands of Polish Jews. The book is told through the eyes of a five year old d, Hiroki Sugihara. In 1940 Hiroki’s father, Chiune Sugihara was the Japanese consul to Lithuania. With the spread of German control throughout Europe, Jews began to flee Poland in search of safety from the Nazis. One such opportunity was to seek refuge through a foreign government. When thousands of fleeing Jews came to Sugihara to request safe-transit visas, Sugihara had to make a decision; only issue a few visas, as was permitted by Japanese law, or go against direct orders and issue as many visas as possible. This memoir retells the author’s experiences as a child growing up in Holland and her decision as a teenager to join the Dutch Resistance. This group of brave men and women risked their lives to aid Jews in escaping Nazi persecution and death. Ippisch began her work in the resistance by escorting Jews to safety and later by finding safe meeting places for key members of the underground to discuss their plans. It was during one of these meetings that Ippisch and her colleagues were discovered and arrested. Ippisch was sent to a German prison, where she endured inhuman conditions and was interrogated about her involvement in the organization. During these interrogations she refused to reveal any information that would help the Germans. In telling her own story, Ippisch shares not only her own moral courage, but also the strength of the exiled Dutch government, and the resilience of thousands of ordinary people in Holland during the war. This book is based on the true experiences of a Polish journalist, now dead, whom Uri Orlev met in Israel when they were both adults. Marek, his mother, and stepfather are a family living outside the Warsaw Ghetto in Poland. When Marek turns fourteen, his stepfather tells him of his smuggling operations, which provides food and sometimes weapons to Jews in the ghetto, and includes him in the illegal activity. When Marek’s mother discovers that Marek has joined two young thugs to steal from a ghetto escapee, she reveals the true identity of his father, who is Jewish. Marek’s remorse leads him to befriend another escapee and find him shelter. Vowels and Consonants have always been enemies. Each thought they were the more important asset to the alphabet. Vowels were smug and stuck up and Consonants were strong and sassy. Although they lived in constant indifference, they never did wage battle. But one day they began a terrible war to prove who were the better letters. When the war was looking quite grim, an enemy of the entire alphabet appears. The soldiers stopped fighting and the Vowels and Consonants had to work together to fight “the terrible scribble.” They composed words and sentences that became too much for the scribble to challenge. The Vowels and Consonants realized what could be accomplished by working together. This is a young girl’s account of day-to-day living in war-torn Bosnia. Through her descriptions, we learn about her personal thoughts and feelings. Her entries capture experiences that are common adolescent concerns: worries about being popular, entertainment, and what will happen in the future. Before war broke out, Zlata Filipovic was a normal, happy twelve-year-old, but life changed in the spring of 1992 when Serbian artillery positions were placed on hills above her home, and the shelling of Sarajevo began. Zlata was forced to spend much of her time in a cellar protected from the bombings. Food, electricity, and water were scarce and friends and relatives were injured and killed in the gunfire and bombings. Zlata lost her innocence and childhood because of the war. When we read her diary, we read of her confusion, fear, and despair, but we also learn of her strength, love, and belief in basic human goodness.	1,996	ENGLISH	1
Feast Day of St. Lawrence The esteem in which the Church holds Lawrence is seen in the fact that today’s celebration ranks as a feast. We know very little about his life. He is one of those whose martyrdom made a deep and lasting impression on the early Church. Celebration of his feast day spread rapidly. He was a Roman deacon under Pope Saint Sixtus II. Four days after this pope was put to death, Lawrence and four clerics suffered martyrdom, probably during the persecution of the Emperor Valerian. Legendary details of Lawrence’s death were known to Damasus, Prudentius, Ambrose, and Augustine. The church built over his tomb became one of the seven principal churches in Rome and a favorite place for Roman pilgrimages. A well-known legend has persisted from earliest times. As deacon in Rome, Lawrence was charged with the responsibility for the material goods of the Church, and the distribution of alms to the poor. When Lawrence knew he would be arrested like the pope, he sought out the poor, widows, and orphans of Rome and gave them all the money he had on hand, selling even the sacred vessels of the altar to increase the sum. When the prefect of Rome heard of this, he imagined that the Christians must have considerable treasure. He sent for Lawrence and said, “You Christians say we are cruel to you, but that is not what I have in mind. I am told that your priests offer in gold, that the sacred blood is received in silver cups, that you have golden candlesticks at your evening services. Now, your doctrine says you must render to Caesar what is his. Bring these treasures—the emperor needs them to maintain his forces. God does not cause money to be counted: He brought none of it into the world with him—only words. Give me the money, therefore, and be rich in words.” Lawrence replied that the Church was indeed rich. “I will show you a valuable part. But give me time to set everything in order and make an inventory.” After three days he gathered a great number of blind, lame, maimed, leprous, orphaned, and widowed persons and put them in rows. When the prefect arrived, Lawrence simply said, “These are the treasure of the Church.” The prefect was so angry he told Lawrence that he would indeed have his wish to die—but it would be by inches. He had a great gridiron prepared with coals beneath it, and had Lawrence’s body placed on it. After the martyr had suffered the pain for a long time, the legend concludes, he made his famous cheerful remark, “It is well done. Turn me over!” Once again we have a saint about whom almost nothing is known, yet one who has received extraordinary honor in the Church since the fourth century. Almost nothing—yet the greatest fact of his life is certain: He died for Christ. We who are hungry for details about the lives of the saints are again reminded that their holiness was after all, a total response to Christ, expressed perfectly by a death like this. Saint Lawrence is the Patron Saint of Cooks and the Poor. St. Lawrence, pray for us.	<urn:uuid:0d162395-48a1-46c7-9c3c-ce9a40c6475c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dailybeatitude.com/index.php?archive=2019-08-10	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00404.warc.gz	en	0.984179	682	3.75	4	[ -0.3704271912574768, 0.470257043838501, 0.04164741933345795, -0.0840238556265831, -0.1306406855583191, -0.16777437925338745, 0.03058328479528427, 0.27313941717147827, 0.4902679920196533, 0.160751074552536, 0.17430360615253448, 0.004293406847864389, 0.046598710119724274, 0.1774035096168518,...	1	Feast Day of St. Lawrence The esteem in which the Church holds Lawrence is seen in the fact that today’s celebration ranks as a feast. We know very little about his life. He is one of those whose martyrdom made a deep and lasting impression on the early Church. Celebration of his feast day spread rapidly. He was a Roman deacon under Pope Saint Sixtus II. Four days after this pope was put to death, Lawrence and four clerics suffered martyrdom, probably during the persecution of the Emperor Valerian. Legendary details of Lawrence’s death were known to Damasus, Prudentius, Ambrose, and Augustine. The church built over his tomb became one of the seven principal churches in Rome and a favorite place for Roman pilgrimages. A well-known legend has persisted from earliest times. As deacon in Rome, Lawrence was charged with the responsibility for the material goods of the Church, and the distribution of alms to the poor. When Lawrence knew he would be arrested like the pope, he sought out the poor, widows, and orphans of Rome and gave them all the money he had on hand, selling even the sacred vessels of the altar to increase the sum. When the prefect of Rome heard of this, he imagined that the Christians must have considerable treasure. He sent for Lawrence and said, “You Christians say we are cruel to you, but that is not what I have in mind. I am told that your priests offer in gold, that the sacred blood is received in silver cups, that you have golden candlesticks at your evening services. Now, your doctrine says you must render to Caesar what is his. Bring these treasures—the emperor needs them to maintain his forces. God does not cause money to be counted: He brought none of it into the world with him—only words. Give me the money, therefore, and be rich in words.” Lawrence replied that the Church was indeed rich. “I will show you a valuable part. But give me time to set everything in order and make an inventory.” After three days he gathered a great number of blind, lame, maimed, leprous, orphaned, and widowed persons and put them in rows. When the prefect arrived, Lawrence simply said, “These are the treasure of the Church.” The prefect was so angry he told Lawrence that he would indeed have his wish to die—but it would be by inches. He had a great gridiron prepared with coals beneath it, and had Lawrence’s body placed on it. After the martyr had suffered the pain for a long time, the legend concludes, he made his famous cheerful remark, “It is well done. Turn me over!” Once again we have a saint about whom almost nothing is known, yet one who has received extraordinary honor in the Church since the fourth century. Almost nothing—yet the greatest fact of his life is certain: He died for Christ. We who are hungry for details about the lives of the saints are again reminded that their holiness was after all, a total response to Christ, expressed perfectly by a death like this. Saint Lawrence is the Patron Saint of Cooks and the Poor. St. Lawrence, pray for us.	653	ENGLISH	1
Austrian women are earning on average 23.4 percent less than men in the country, according to Statistik Austria. Many women in Austria only have part time jobs but often also bear responsibility for unpaid jobs such as childcare and domestic housework. “This is very traditional in Austria – that women do unpaid jobs and men concentrate on paid jobs,” says Ines Stilling, Head of Women and Gender Equality at the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education and Women’s Affairs. A lack of affordable childcare places means women cannot quickly return to work and often have to take part time work, which leads to themon average being under presented in senior posts and getting paid less. Over the course of their career therefore, women earn less in lifetime which means they also have lower pensions. Compared to other EU countries Austria has one of the largest gender wage gaps. The EU average of the gender pay gap was 16.4 percent in 2012. Despite this, Austria is known as having some of the highest quality of life in the world, as well as some of the lowest unemployment levels in Europe. There are some initiatives that help women ensure they are getting paid the same as their male counterparts. The Austrian Law on Equal Treatment forces employers to publish the average employee wage by occupational groups and gender, which gives women the opportunity to see if they should be earning a higher salary.	<urn:uuid:19082132-0174-4587-8321-3258f960c556>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://austrianindependent.com/news/green_austria/2014-04-16/15318/austrian_women_earning_over_fifth_less_than_men/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00120.warc.gz	en	0.982183	281	3.265625	3	[ -0.10715918242931366, 0.20455153286457062, -0.45926785469055176, -0.2295156568288803, 0.06701584160327911, 0.14089982211589813, -0.09620215743780136, -0.13961410522460938, 0.22084258496761322, 0.13967882096767426, 0.18076950311660767, -0.45773738622665405, 0.060508809983730316, 0.134800210...	15	Austrian women are earning on average 23.4 percent less than men in the country, according to Statistik Austria. Many women in Austria only have part time jobs but often also bear responsibility for unpaid jobs such as childcare and domestic housework. “This is very traditional in Austria – that women do unpaid jobs and men concentrate on paid jobs,” says Ines Stilling, Head of Women and Gender Equality at the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education and Women’s Affairs. A lack of affordable childcare places means women cannot quickly return to work and often have to take part time work, which leads to themon average being under presented in senior posts and getting paid less. Over the course of their career therefore, women earn less in lifetime which means they also have lower pensions. Compared to other EU countries Austria has one of the largest gender wage gaps. The EU average of the gender pay gap was 16.4 percent in 2012. Despite this, Austria is known as having some of the highest quality of life in the world, as well as some of the lowest unemployment levels in Europe. There are some initiatives that help women ensure they are getting paid the same as their male counterparts. The Austrian Law on Equal Treatment forces employers to publish the average employee wage by occupational groups and gender, which gives women the opportunity to see if they should be earning a higher salary.	279	ENGLISH	1
Military Campaign against the Soviet Union Hitler expected a quick campaign against the Soviet Union. In this regard he and his military planners were caught in their own ethnic and racial stereotypes. They thought of Slavs as stupid and incompetent and believed that the Communist Soviet Union was in the grip of Jews, whom they regarded as cowardly and perfidious. Such attitudes caused the German leaders to make some severe miscalculations. Initial German military successes were indeed impressive; German units reached the outskirts of Moscow in early December 1941. Hitler and his generals had anticipated quick victory, another lightning war ending with German victory. But the German invasion did not turn out as planned and the German army was exhausted after months of campaigning. The Soviets were better equipped than the German planners thought and the Germans themselves were overextended and had not thought it necessary to prepare the army for winter. Moreover, the speedy German advance had caused the forces to outrun their supply lines, which were vulnerable due to the great distances involved (Moscow is almost 1,000 miles east of Berlin). In December 1941, the Soviet Union launched a major counterattack against the center of the front, driving the Germans back from Moscow in chaos. Only weeks later were the Germans able to stabilize the front east of Smolensk, but it was clear to everybody, even Hitler, that the war would last much longer than they had anticipated. Treatment of Soviet Prisoners of War In January 1942, Hitler authorized better treatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs) because the war had bogged down and German authorities decided Soviet POWs were a useful source of wartime labor. The labor shortage in the German war economy was reaching critical proportions. They provided Soviet POWs with slightly better rations—though they were still far short of the rations allotted to other POWs and to the German civilian population. As a result, the enormous death rate among the Soviet POWs was contained, but until the end of the war it was still much higher than that among the other POWs. In 1943 and 1944, however, the death rates soared again due to starvation and disease. Soviet POWs were involved in heavy labor: building roads, in coal mining, agriculture, and construction. The change in policy towards Soviet POWs underscores the commitment of the Nazi regime to the killing of Jews. Despite the severe labor shortage, the SS killed millions of Jews in occupied Poland during 1942. After the war, the suffering of Soviet POWs who survived German captivity did not end. While they were liberated from Nazi camps, Soviet authorities often accused its POWs of collaboration with the Nazis. After their repatriation, many of them faced interrogation and trial before Soviet authorities. In most cases they were convicted of collaboration and sentenced to confinement in a Soviet forced-labor camp. Most of them remained there until after the death of Josef Stalin in 1953. Series: Soviet Prisoners of War Critical Thinking Questions - Investigate international norms for treatment of POWs at this time. What treaties and understandings about the treatment of POWs are currently in place? - Were the German population and the peoples of occupied nations aware of the existence of these camps? What responsibilities do other countries have, if any, when nations mistreat their own civilians, deported groups, and/or POWs?	<urn:uuid:dc349f99-6645-47a4-ae6e-578500c488b4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/forced-labor-soviet-pows-january-1942-through-may-1945	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00309.warc.gz	en	0.983563	674	3.953125	4	[ -0.685287594795227, 0.7024109363555908, 0.10404440760612488, 0.27992650866508484, 0.2474215030670166, 0.1573520004749298, -0.24005547165870667, 0.2753005027770996, -0.05755510926246643, -0.19671712815761566, 0.3554874658584595, 0.003906754776835442, 0.36413872241973877, 0.3350594639778137,...	14	Military Campaign against the Soviet Union Hitler expected a quick campaign against the Soviet Union. In this regard he and his military planners were caught in their own ethnic and racial stereotypes. They thought of Slavs as stupid and incompetent and believed that the Communist Soviet Union was in the grip of Jews, whom they regarded as cowardly and perfidious. Such attitudes caused the German leaders to make some severe miscalculations. Initial German military successes were indeed impressive; German units reached the outskirts of Moscow in early December 1941. Hitler and his generals had anticipated quick victory, another lightning war ending with German victory. But the German invasion did not turn out as planned and the German army was exhausted after months of campaigning. The Soviets were better equipped than the German planners thought and the Germans themselves were overextended and had not thought it necessary to prepare the army for winter. Moreover, the speedy German advance had caused the forces to outrun their supply lines, which were vulnerable due to the great distances involved (Moscow is almost 1,000 miles east of Berlin). In December 1941, the Soviet Union launched a major counterattack against the center of the front, driving the Germans back from Moscow in chaos. Only weeks later were the Germans able to stabilize the front east of Smolensk, but it was clear to everybody, even Hitler, that the war would last much longer than they had anticipated. Treatment of Soviet Prisoners of War In January 1942, Hitler authorized better treatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs) because the war had bogged down and German authorities decided Soviet POWs were a useful source of wartime labor. The labor shortage in the German war economy was reaching critical proportions. They provided Soviet POWs with slightly better rations—though they were still far short of the rations allotted to other POWs and to the German civilian population. As a result, the enormous death rate among the Soviet POWs was contained, but until the end of the war it was still much higher than that among the other POWs. In 1943 and 1944, however, the death rates soared again due to starvation and disease. Soviet POWs were involved in heavy labor: building roads, in coal mining, agriculture, and construction. The change in policy towards Soviet POWs underscores the commitment of the Nazi regime to the killing of Jews. Despite the severe labor shortage, the SS killed millions of Jews in occupied Poland during 1942. After the war, the suffering of Soviet POWs who survived German captivity did not end. While they were liberated from Nazi camps, Soviet authorities often accused its POWs of collaboration with the Nazis. After their repatriation, many of them faced interrogation and trial before Soviet authorities. In most cases they were convicted of collaboration and sentenced to confinement in a Soviet forced-labor camp. Most of them remained there until after the death of Josef Stalin in 1953. Series: Soviet Prisoners of War Critical Thinking Questions - Investigate international norms for treatment of POWs at this time. What treaties and understandings about the treatment of POWs are currently in place? - Were the German population and the peoples of occupied nations aware of the existence of these camps? What responsibilities do other countries have, if any, when nations mistreat their own civilians, deported groups, and/or POWs?	695	ENGLISH	1
(WTNH) — There are many things parents do to support their child’s math learning. Researchers from Vanderbilt University surveyed parents of preschoolers about a wide variety of activities they do at home with their child. They found that when it comes to early math development, greater emphasis is placed on early numeracy, or the ability to count and compare numbers. But developmental psychologist Bethany Rittle-Johnson believes, “there’s more to math than number.” She says there are everyday activities that parents can do to broaden their preschooler’s math knowledge of not only numbers, but also spatial and patterning skills. Rittle-Johnson said, “That include things like building with blocks and Legos and doing puzzles and using lots of spatial words like ‘up’ and ‘beside’ and ‘under’. They also found that parents beliefs about their child’s math skills related to the type of support they provided. “So if they thought their children were better in number, they were doing more number activities with their children,” Rittle-Johnson said. “And if they thought their children were better at making and thinking about pattern, they were doing more patterning activities with their children.” But whether it’s legos, a card game, or building blocks, these all provide opportunities for parents to build up their child’s math skills. Another thing the researchers found was that the parent’s beliefs in their own math skills, were related to the type of support they provided for spatial math, like playing with blocks. That is, if the parent was confident in their spatial abilities, or the ability to imagine things in three dimension, then they provided more support for spatial math.	<urn:uuid:1bcb5116-4752-4161-beb7-ad6c1262751c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wtnh.com/on-air/connecticut-families/connecticut-families-extra-creating-a-math-friendly-environment/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00105.warc.gz	en	0.980036	373	3.8125	4	[ -0.20060041546821594, -0.3576853573322296, 0.16279852390289307, -0.6172571182250977, -0.5207610726356506, 0.4965479075908661, -0.0680062398314476, 0.08071326464414597, 0.04665515199303627, 0.07028545439243317, -0.13292647898197174, 0.10282007604837418, -0.015261770226061344, 0.349188148975...	2	(WTNH) — There are many things parents do to support their child’s math learning. Researchers from Vanderbilt University surveyed parents of preschoolers about a wide variety of activities they do at home with their child. They found that when it comes to early math development, greater emphasis is placed on early numeracy, or the ability to count and compare numbers. But developmental psychologist Bethany Rittle-Johnson believes, “there’s more to math than number.” She says there are everyday activities that parents can do to broaden their preschooler’s math knowledge of not only numbers, but also spatial and patterning skills. Rittle-Johnson said, “That include things like building with blocks and Legos and doing puzzles and using lots of spatial words like ‘up’ and ‘beside’ and ‘under’. They also found that parents beliefs about their child’s math skills related to the type of support they provided. “So if they thought their children were better in number, they were doing more number activities with their children,” Rittle-Johnson said. “And if they thought their children were better at making and thinking about pattern, they were doing more patterning activities with their children.” But whether it’s legos, a card game, or building blocks, these all provide opportunities for parents to build up their child’s math skills. Another thing the researchers found was that the parent’s beliefs in their own math skills, were related to the type of support they provided for spatial math, like playing with blocks. That is, if the parent was confident in their spatial abilities, or the ability to imagine things in three dimension, then they provided more support for spatial math.	337	ENGLISH	1
IELTS Vocabulary: Missing Words Question Strategies: understanding the task In Writing Task 2, you will be given a point of view to consider. You will be asked to give your opinion about the topic and the issues that are presented. You are expected to give reasons for your answer and, where possible, support your arguments with relevant examples. You should spend about 40 minutes on this task. In some countries, fathers are playing a greater role in raising their children. Why is this happening? What are the benefits of it? Write at least 250 words. Here is a model answer. Twelve words are missing from it. What are they? Write the missing letters in the spaces provided. women have entered the workforce in large numbers in many societies, they have also chosen to have fewer children. Their husbands, , are expected to play more of a role in raising children not only because their wives are working but because fatherhood has been redefined by men and women alike. A generation ago, fathers were more clearly financial providers; now they are also emotional anchors spend more time with their children. The benefits of fathers' assuming a greater role in childrearing are . From the perspective of the child or children, they have a more accessible male figure they can both look up to and rely on. leads to their being more rounded individuals better able to cope with today's complex world. Research has shown that children who lack confidence or have some other problem develop faster with paternal as as maternal love and attention. the father's point of view, he enjoys a period of time with his children that passes all too quickly, and is nourished by their daily accomplishments, by their intellectual and emotional growth. A man may count it a great achievement if his children are stable and able; his employment or earning capacity does not only confer status upon him. For the mother, she feels as though her partner is assisting physically and emotionally, and not just financially. While her partner is caring for their children, she may have more space and time for her own pursuits be connected to her career or to other creative endeavours. The notion of manhood has changed in recent times to include more active fatherhood, I believe is a positive development for all concerned.	<urn:uuid:56515836-c134-49b8-9d71-4c721b4bc8c5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ielts-exam.net/vocabulary/IELTS_Vocabulary_Missing_Words/1040/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00473.warc.gz	en	0.981266	461	3.4375	3	[ -0.04497203230857849, 0.14730896055698395, -0.031395189464092255, -0.23629648983478546, -0.4025435745716095, 0.2882098853588104, 0.3011307120323181, 0.1338680237531662, 0.06997320055961609, -0.277924120426178, 0.07258730381727219, -0.12543170154094696, 0.24770203232765198, 0.36698567867279...	10	IELTS Vocabulary: Missing Words Question Strategies: understanding the task In Writing Task 2, you will be given a point of view to consider. You will be asked to give your opinion about the topic and the issues that are presented. You are expected to give reasons for your answer and, where possible, support your arguments with relevant examples. You should spend about 40 minutes on this task. In some countries, fathers are playing a greater role in raising their children. Why is this happening? What are the benefits of it? Write at least 250 words. Here is a model answer. Twelve words are missing from it. What are they? Write the missing letters in the spaces provided. women have entered the workforce in large numbers in many societies, they have also chosen to have fewer children. Their husbands, , are expected to play more of a role in raising children not only because their wives are working but because fatherhood has been redefined by men and women alike. A generation ago, fathers were more clearly financial providers; now they are also emotional anchors spend more time with their children. The benefits of fathers' assuming a greater role in childrearing are . From the perspective of the child or children, they have a more accessible male figure they can both look up to and rely on. leads to their being more rounded individuals better able to cope with today's complex world. Research has shown that children who lack confidence or have some other problem develop faster with paternal as as maternal love and attention. the father's point of view, he enjoys a period of time with his children that passes all too quickly, and is nourished by their daily accomplishments, by their intellectual and emotional growth. A man may count it a great achievement if his children are stable and able; his employment or earning capacity does not only confer status upon him. For the mother, she feels as though her partner is assisting physically and emotionally, and not just financially. While her partner is caring for their children, she may have more space and time for her own pursuits be connected to her career or to other creative endeavours. The notion of manhood has changed in recent times to include more active fatherhood, I believe is a positive development for all concerned.	455	ENGLISH	1
There is a stubborn gap between male and female GCSE attainment in our schools. It seems to run across most, if not all, subjects and across all stages of education. Boys struggle to do as well as girls at GCSE, and schools up and down the country are desperately scrabbling around for solutions. In my own department, we had seen our results improve for our boys year-on-year and yet the gap remained as the girls saw the same rate of improvement. But since then, it has narrowed and then last year it finally closed. It is always difficult to attribute improvements in results to any one thing in education but on this I would point to something we really focused on - study skills. In a piece for Tes, Nick Rose pointed to a paper by Griffin et al (2012) titled Do Learning and Study Skills Affect Academic Performance?, which found that pupils’ learning and study skills correlated strongly with their academic performance and that there was a statistically significant difference in these skills between male and female students. It also found that once these differences were controlled for, there was no difference between male and female attainment. In other words, when male students studied more like a typical female student, they did just as well. This led to us, as a department, changing how we approached revision with our pupils. Firstly, we made sure our advice was crystal clear that not all revision techniques are equal. Research by Gagnon and Cormier (2019) found that the most effective pupils studied using distributed practice, and these pupils were more likely to be female. Distributed practice means they didn’t just cram for a big test, but revised little and often during the course and revisited previous topics more frequently. This gender difference in how revision is approached could be due to difference in confidence. Certainly research involving adults, and, in particular, adults working in finance, has found that males are more likely to be overconfident in their abilities, whereas females are more likely to doubt themselves. It seems conceivable that this over-confidence in our male pupils could mean that they are less likely to feel the need to check their learning as they are confident (even if this confidence is misplaced). We, therefore, make sure that pupils have to check what they have learned frequently and do not rely on what they believe they have learned. This overconfidence can be further reinforced through choosing ineffective revision methods. A review of research into effective revision by Dunlosky, summarised in "Strengthening the Student Toolbox" (2013), shows that, for a method to be effective, it must lead to pupils having to struggle and think hard. They need to do practice testing, mix up topics and try to elaborate on ideas. Methods that were less effective, such as highlighting and rereading notes or summarising notes, don’t involve thinking hard. Instead, they give a feeling of confidence as seeing the notes makes students believe they know the content. The more they reread their notes, the more students summarise what they are reading, the more confident they feel, but without ever really having to check they have learned it and so avoiding a fear of failure (something that authors of Boys Don’t Try? point out is another cause of gender disparity in our schools). As a result, we have been very careful to explain to pupils why these methods don’t work and to show them the research to convince them to change what they do. We have also shared this research with parents so that they know how to encourage their children to revise. This, as with everything else, benefits both boys and girls; the girls were just more likely to be doing it already. So to recap, the changes we put in place were: 1. Teach pupils how to revise effectively Show them the research that suggests they need to revise from memory and not from their notes. Explain that it is OK if they find this difficult, and that this is part of an important process. 2. No opt-out We stopped simply leaving revision up to them. It would be nice if children took responsibility for their own learning but children are often quite poor at delayed gratification; boys even more so than girls. We now use homework time for distributed practice so that pupils are always reviewing things they learned in previous topics. This also gives them opportunities to practice effective study skills throughout their time with us. 3. Honest review We want pupils to really know what they know and get rid of the overconfidence of assuming that they know things simply because they were in the lesson or have the notes. We use regular quizzing that helps pupils to see where they may have gaps and use learning checklists where pupils have to answer questions to prove they have learned something, rather than just ticking a box because they think they have learned it. 4. Curriculum planning We have also ensured that our curriculum reflects what we know about effective ways of learning. We revisit topics in lessons, review what pupils have learned, and link different parts of the course together. Our pupils now know that it is not enough to have simply done a lesson. Instead, it is clear they are expected to have learned it as this learning will be called on again. All of this has, I believe, helped us to close the gender gap in terms of our pupils' outcomes. More importantly, though, it has led to all our pupils becoming more justifiably confident in what they know and can do and, therefore, less anxious and much happier. Mark Enser is head of geography and research lead at Heathfield Community College. His latest book, Teach Like Nobody’s Watching, is out now. He tweets @EnserMark	<urn:uuid:6151a4d1-1a24-4efa-a766-022a85ed5ade>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tes.com/news/4-ways-we-closed-gcse-gender-gap	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00466.warc.gz	en	0.980797	1,182	3.28125	3	[ 0.3272346258163452, 0.051672086119651794, 0.3476407527923584, -0.012485267594456673, -0.13028347492218018, 0.4677582383155823, -0.09158369898796082, 0.4802737236022949, -0.09512095153331757, -0.3173300325870514, 0.13344690203666687, -0.3491668999195099, 0.3738914132118225, -0.0368105694651...	2	There is a stubborn gap between male and female GCSE attainment in our schools. It seems to run across most, if not all, subjects and across all stages of education. Boys struggle to do as well as girls at GCSE, and schools up and down the country are desperately scrabbling around for solutions. In my own department, we had seen our results improve for our boys year-on-year and yet the gap remained as the girls saw the same rate of improvement. But since then, it has narrowed and then last year it finally closed. It is always difficult to attribute improvements in results to any one thing in education but on this I would point to something we really focused on - study skills. In a piece for Tes, Nick Rose pointed to a paper by Griffin et al (2012) titled Do Learning and Study Skills Affect Academic Performance?, which found that pupils’ learning and study skills correlated strongly with their academic performance and that there was a statistically significant difference in these skills between male and female students. It also found that once these differences were controlled for, there was no difference between male and female attainment. In other words, when male students studied more like a typical female student, they did just as well. This led to us, as a department, changing how we approached revision with our pupils. Firstly, we made sure our advice was crystal clear that not all revision techniques are equal. Research by Gagnon and Cormier (2019) found that the most effective pupils studied using distributed practice, and these pupils were more likely to be female. Distributed practice means they didn’t just cram for a big test, but revised little and often during the course and revisited previous topics more frequently. This gender difference in how revision is approached could be due to difference in confidence. Certainly research involving adults, and, in particular, adults working in finance, has found that males are more likely to be overconfident in their abilities, whereas females are more likely to doubt themselves. It seems conceivable that this over-confidence in our male pupils could mean that they are less likely to feel the need to check their learning as they are confident (even if this confidence is misplaced). We, therefore, make sure that pupils have to check what they have learned frequently and do not rely on what they believe they have learned. This overconfidence can be further reinforced through choosing ineffective revision methods. A review of research into effective revision by Dunlosky, summarised in "Strengthening the Student Toolbox" (2013), shows that, for a method to be effective, it must lead to pupils having to struggle and think hard. They need to do practice testing, mix up topics and try to elaborate on ideas. Methods that were less effective, such as highlighting and rereading notes or summarising notes, don’t involve thinking hard. Instead, they give a feeling of confidence as seeing the notes makes students believe they know the content. The more they reread their notes, the more students summarise what they are reading, the more confident they feel, but without ever really having to check they have learned it and so avoiding a fear of failure (something that authors of Boys Don’t Try? point out is another cause of gender disparity in our schools). As a result, we have been very careful to explain to pupils why these methods don’t work and to show them the research to convince them to change what they do. We have also shared this research with parents so that they know how to encourage their children to revise. This, as with everything else, benefits both boys and girls; the girls were just more likely to be doing it already. So to recap, the changes we put in place were: 1. Teach pupils how to revise effectively Show them the research that suggests they need to revise from memory and not from their notes. Explain that it is OK if they find this difficult, and that this is part of an important process. 2. No opt-out We stopped simply leaving revision up to them. It would be nice if children took responsibility for their own learning but children are often quite poor at delayed gratification; boys even more so than girls. We now use homework time for distributed practice so that pupils are always reviewing things they learned in previous topics. This also gives them opportunities to practice effective study skills throughout their time with us. 3. Honest review We want pupils to really know what they know and get rid of the overconfidence of assuming that they know things simply because they were in the lesson or have the notes. We use regular quizzing that helps pupils to see where they may have gaps and use learning checklists where pupils have to answer questions to prove they have learned something, rather than just ticking a box because they think they have learned it. 4. Curriculum planning We have also ensured that our curriculum reflects what we know about effective ways of learning. We revisit topics in lessons, review what pupils have learned, and link different parts of the course together. Our pupils now know that it is not enough to have simply done a lesson. Instead, it is clear they are expected to have learned it as this learning will be called on again. All of this has, I believe, helped us to close the gender gap in terms of our pupils' outcomes. More importantly, though, it has led to all our pupils becoming more justifiably confident in what they know and can do and, therefore, less anxious and much happier. Mark Enser is head of geography and research lead at Heathfield Community College. His latest book, Teach Like Nobody’s Watching, is out now. He tweets @EnserMark	1,147	ENGLISH	1
Custom The Battle of Valley Forge Essay Paper Sample The Valley Forge campaign is undoubtedly one of the major milestones in the history of the American Continental army which fought against the British colonial army in North America. The continental army arrived Valley Forge camp on the 19th of December, 1777. The army of about 11000 soldiers was led by George Washington. Following the results of the last battle in the year 1777 (the battle of white marsh), there was need for change of tact in the operations of the continental army. The winter climate also prompted a change of site for camping. Several suggestions were made but the army finally settled on Valley Forge after a decision made by Washington. After arriving at the camp site, the soldiers began building shelters amidst various challenges such as inadequate tools for preparing building materials. Fighting did not take place right inside the valley. However, the most important plans and strategies that would later earn the army total victory over the British army were made during the period of camping in Valley Forge. Therefore, the period spent in Valley Forge turned out to be an important step in the race of liberating America from British colonialism. Buy The Battle of Valley Forge essay paper online * Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system. The conditions in the camp were probably the most trying especially during the first three months of camping period. It was winter and the climatic condition that dominated over the other conditions was the cold weather. The soldiers arrived at the camp and started building hurts to protect them from the harsh cold of winter. However there was scarcity of building materials such as timber and inadequate building tools such as axe. Stronger timber for building stronger shelter had to be transported from far places. Therefore it had to take the soldiers a long time to build the shelters that they urgently needed. The army troops also lacked adequate clothing. In a letter written by one leader of the troops to George Washington, he describes that a half of the army were necked. Most of the soldiers had tattered shirts and did not have coats. Some very essential clothes such as blankets were very few in the camp. A head of a troop also reports that majority of the soldiers did not have shoes. In fact, it is reported the y left behind foot prints of blood whenever they walked in and outside the camp. In addition there was shortage food in the camp. The soldiers did not get enough food to eat and after a short period of tie it was clearly evident on them. They started getting emaciated and tired. Some also lacked guns while others had to acquire guns on their own. Some soldiers were not paid salaries because the continental congress did not have adequate funds. They therefore extended the suffering at the camp to their dependent families at home because they were not able to support them. In deed the soldiers endured hardship conditions at Valley Forge but made the hard decision to press on. The hardships were as a result of inadequate finances to support the activities of the army. At some point Washington thought that the army would dissolve if the situation continued. He emotionally presents a report to the continual congress regarding the hardships that the soldiers underwent on the ground. He is seriously moved by the conditions that were described in the reports sent to him. However, the soldiers endured the conditions and encouraged themselves that their course is worth suffering for. Valley Forge marked a significant difference in the history of discipline in the American continental army. The soldiers had portrayed discipline by enduring hardship in a respectful manner. However, there was a disciplinary transformation that took place in the camp. This time round professional aspects of discipline were put in place and the soldiers had to change their view concerning military discipline. In fact the changes were too drastic and demanding. Disciplinary transformation commenced by the arrival of Baron Friedrich von Steuben at the camp in Valley Forge. Steuben was skilled in professional military discipline having worked as a soldier in the Prussian Army and a member of the elite General staff of the king of Prussia called the Great King Frederick. Steuben was recruited into the camp from Paris in France by Benjamin Franklin. Franklin wrote for him a letter which he took to George Washington and was allowed to offer his military training skills to the continental army. He trained the soldier on military discipline that majorly emphasized on response to commands. He drilled them on military parade which is the major platform for instilling discipline among soldiers. It was reported in a written work by one of the soldier trainees that his voice was heard in the camp throughout the day shouting commands to the soldiers. The commands were followed by organized responses from the soldiers’ side. This was a testimony of the high level of discipline that had been attained among the soldiers. The climax of showcase of military discipline was on the 6th of May, 1778 when France officially joined the continental army in the war towards liberation of America. Washington’s men showed high levels of military skills during the celebration parade. This was a culmination of various sessions of disciplinary training in the camp. Change of tact was one of the major reasons why the American continental Army moved to Valley Forge. Their performance in the immediate last engagement against the British forces was not good. Therefore the continental army needed to adopt more superior tactics in order to win against The British colonial army. One of the tactics that was used by George Washington was the location of the army camp. It was located in Pennsylvania, about 20 miles from Philadelphia the biggest town in the region. This location enabled along distance from Philadelphia hence could not be easily reached by the British army forces in the town. This position also enabled them to keep the British forces out of the interior of Pennsylvania. Another change of tact that was significant during this period was the military training. It was sure that after the training, they would be better in their fighting abilities. This was evident in the subsequent battle engagement against the British forces. There was tremendous improvement and success. After the training the soldiers were able to fire their guns with higher speed. They could also organize themselves in a better way during the battle. The continental army also sort support of France. After merging with the French forces on May 1778, the joint became strong and warn in most battles against British forces. The continental army also used the strategy of controlling strategic places. Washington kept watch over the British forces and whenever he heard that British were moving to a place that would earn them advantages; he lined up the continental army to intercept them. In conclusion, the Valley Forge camp was a turning point in life of the battle against colonialism. It was during at Valley Forge that winning strategies for the continental army were drafted and enforced. It is at Valley Forge that the liberation soldiers went through transformation and came out ready to conquer liberation and accepted nothing else. Indeed it is at Valley Forge the army that was originally as a group of rebels turned into a trained army of American People. Related history-essays essays Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:dee78b05-c81b-42c0-bcc7-f1378c3e51a0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primewritings.com/essays/history-essays/the-battle-of-valley-forge.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00493.warc.gz	en	0.98751	1,402	3.484375	3	[ -0.38910162448883057, 0.3944051265716553, 0.4335337281227112, 0.18700698018074036, -0.22323298454284668, 0.2351703643798828, -0.2791852355003357, 0.4445394277572632, -0.3511768579483032, -0.0978667289018631, 0.2357962429523468, -0.03781352937221527, 0.12005774676799774, 0.2646840214729309,...	1	Custom The Battle of Valley Forge Essay Paper Sample The Valley Forge campaign is undoubtedly one of the major milestones in the history of the American Continental army which fought against the British colonial army in North America. The continental army arrived Valley Forge camp on the 19th of December, 1777. The army of about 11000 soldiers was led by George Washington. Following the results of the last battle in the year 1777 (the battle of white marsh), there was need for change of tact in the operations of the continental army. The winter climate also prompted a change of site for camping. Several suggestions were made but the army finally settled on Valley Forge after a decision made by Washington. After arriving at the camp site, the soldiers began building shelters amidst various challenges such as inadequate tools for preparing building materials. Fighting did not take place right inside the valley. However, the most important plans and strategies that would later earn the army total victory over the British army were made during the period of camping in Valley Forge. Therefore, the period spent in Valley Forge turned out to be an important step in the race of liberating America from British colonialism. Buy The Battle of Valley Forge essay paper online * Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system. The conditions in the camp were probably the most trying especially during the first three months of camping period. It was winter and the climatic condition that dominated over the other conditions was the cold weather. The soldiers arrived at the camp and started building hurts to protect them from the harsh cold of winter. However there was scarcity of building materials such as timber and inadequate building tools such as axe. Stronger timber for building stronger shelter had to be transported from far places. Therefore it had to take the soldiers a long time to build the shelters that they urgently needed. The army troops also lacked adequate clothing. In a letter written by one leader of the troops to George Washington, he describes that a half of the army were necked. Most of the soldiers had tattered shirts and did not have coats. Some very essential clothes such as blankets were very few in the camp. A head of a troop also reports that majority of the soldiers did not have shoes. In fact, it is reported the y left behind foot prints of blood whenever they walked in and outside the camp. In addition there was shortage food in the camp. The soldiers did not get enough food to eat and after a short period of tie it was clearly evident on them. They started getting emaciated and tired. Some also lacked guns while others had to acquire guns on their own. Some soldiers were not paid salaries because the continental congress did not have adequate funds. They therefore extended the suffering at the camp to their dependent families at home because they were not able to support them. In deed the soldiers endured hardship conditions at Valley Forge but made the hard decision to press on. The hardships were as a result of inadequate finances to support the activities of the army. At some point Washington thought that the army would dissolve if the situation continued. He emotionally presents a report to the continual congress regarding the hardships that the soldiers underwent on the ground. He is seriously moved by the conditions that were described in the reports sent to him. However, the soldiers endured the conditions and encouraged themselves that their course is worth suffering for. Valley Forge marked a significant difference in the history of discipline in the American continental army. The soldiers had portrayed discipline by enduring hardship in a respectful manner. However, there was a disciplinary transformation that took place in the camp. This time round professional aspects of discipline were put in place and the soldiers had to change their view concerning military discipline. In fact the changes were too drastic and demanding. Disciplinary transformation commenced by the arrival of Baron Friedrich von Steuben at the camp in Valley Forge. Steuben was skilled in professional military discipline having worked as a soldier in the Prussian Army and a member of the elite General staff of the king of Prussia called the Great King Frederick. Steuben was recruited into the camp from Paris in France by Benjamin Franklin. Franklin wrote for him a letter which he took to George Washington and was allowed to offer his military training skills to the continental army. He trained the soldier on military discipline that majorly emphasized on response to commands. He drilled them on military parade which is the major platform for instilling discipline among soldiers. It was reported in a written work by one of the soldier trainees that his voice was heard in the camp throughout the day shouting commands to the soldiers. The commands were followed by organized responses from the soldiers’ side. This was a testimony of the high level of discipline that had been attained among the soldiers. The climax of showcase of military discipline was on the 6th of May, 1778 when France officially joined the continental army in the war towards liberation of America. Washington’s men showed high levels of military skills during the celebration parade. This was a culmination of various sessions of disciplinary training in the camp. Change of tact was one of the major reasons why the American continental Army moved to Valley Forge. Their performance in the immediate last engagement against the British forces was not good. Therefore the continental army needed to adopt more superior tactics in order to win against The British colonial army. One of the tactics that was used by George Washington was the location of the army camp. It was located in Pennsylvania, about 20 miles from Philadelphia the biggest town in the region. This location enabled along distance from Philadelphia hence could not be easily reached by the British army forces in the town. This position also enabled them to keep the British forces out of the interior of Pennsylvania. Another change of tact that was significant during this period was the military training. It was sure that after the training, they would be better in their fighting abilities. This was evident in the subsequent battle engagement against the British forces. There was tremendous improvement and success. After the training the soldiers were able to fire their guns with higher speed. They could also organize themselves in a better way during the battle. The continental army also sort support of France. After merging with the French forces on May 1778, the joint became strong and warn in most battles against British forces. The continental army also used the strategy of controlling strategic places. Washington kept watch over the British forces and whenever he heard that British were moving to a place that would earn them advantages; he lined up the continental army to intercept them. In conclusion, the Valley Forge camp was a turning point in life of the battle against colonialism. It was during at Valley Forge that winning strategies for the continental army were drafted and enforced. It is at Valley Forge that the liberation soldiers went through transformation and came out ready to conquer liberation and accepted nothing else. Indeed it is at Valley Forge the army that was originally as a group of rebels turned into a trained army of American People. Related history-essays essays Most popular orders	1,409	ENGLISH	1
1993 年 13 巻 Supplement2 号 p. 75-78 It is said that the Joumon Age Culture continued 6, 000-7, 000 years since 9, 000 years ago, and the people who bore the culture is called Joumon-jin. Earthen ware that were produced by Joumon-jin are called Joumon-doki. Joumon-doki have been discovered in various parts of Japan and there are many kinds of them. Among them, one discovered in Niigata District at the end of 1931 is very famous for its nice patterns, and it was named Kaen-doki. The patterns on its lip and side wall are related to the water flow, the authers believe. The nice vortex patterns of Kaen-doki put on them were patterned after vortices that were observed downstream piles, rocks, etc. in a river as visualized by flowing leaves which played a role of tracer. This fact was reproduced using the Floating Tracer Method, one of the visualization methods of modern age, and thus the process of vortex generation was cleared by utilizing the computer simulation.	<urn:uuid:4370302b-7b97-4dff-88d7-ddb6e87b56fe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jvs1990/13/Supplement2/13_Supplement2_75/_article/-char/ja	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00389.warc.gz	en	0.98053	238	3.28125	3	[ -0.28895607590675354, 0.13627557456493378, 0.4083361029624939, -0.2170521318912506, 0.044716209173202515, 0.057502102106809616, 0.023571811616420746, 0.18553650379180908, -0.3901088237762451, 0.1251985877752304, 0.26863399147987366, -0.6618109941482544, 0.1601041555404663, 0.14740896224975...	1	1993 年 13 巻 Supplement2 号 p. 75-78 It is said that the Joumon Age Culture continued 6, 000-7, 000 years since 9, 000 years ago, and the people who bore the culture is called Joumon-jin. Earthen ware that were produced by Joumon-jin are called Joumon-doki. Joumon-doki have been discovered in various parts of Japan and there are many kinds of them. Among them, one discovered in Niigata District at the end of 1931 is very famous for its nice patterns, and it was named Kaen-doki. The patterns on its lip and side wall are related to the water flow, the authers believe. The nice vortex patterns of Kaen-doki put on them were patterned after vortices that were observed downstream piles, rocks, etc. in a river as visualized by flowing leaves which played a role of tracer. This fact was reproduced using the Floating Tracer Method, one of the visualization methods of modern age, and thus the process of vortex generation was cleared by utilizing the computer simulation.	249	ENGLISH	1
Saturday 11/11 is Veterans Day, which was initially called Armistice Day to celebrate the end of the Great War (World War I) — on the eleventh month on the eleventh day. History of Veterans Day The roots of Veterans Day go back nearly 100 years. Fighting during WWI stopped on November 11, 1918 after an armistice between the Germans and the Allies. November 11 was commemorated as Armistice Day by President Woodrow Wilson in 1919. A resolution was passed by Congress in 1926, calling for November 11 to be remembered every year “with thanksgiving and prayer and exercises designed to perpetuate peace through good will and mutual understanding between nations.” A Congressional Act in May of 1938 made November 11, 1938 — Armistice Day — a public holiday. Many American soldiers served and lost their lives during WWII and the Korean War, and in the wake of their service, Armistice Day was renamed Veterans Day by President Eisenhower, in 1954. In 1968 a bill was passed which called for Veterans Day to be observed on the fourth Monday in October starting in 1971. The change was part of a move to give federal workers several three-day holiday weekends, but in 1971, two states observed Veterans Day on November 11th, the traditional holiday. Over time, other states followed the same. In 1975, President Gerald Ford signed a bill which pushed Veterans Day back to November 11, to take effect in 1978. President Ford said in a statement that he felt “restoration of the observance of Veterans Day to November 11 will help preserve in the hearts and lives of all Americans the spirit of patriotism, the love of country, and the willingness to serve and sacrifice for the common good symbolized by this very special day.” The Department of Veterans Affairs made the following statement about Veterans Day: … is largely intended to thank LIVING veterans for their service, to acknowledge that their contributions to our national security are appreciated, and to underscore the fact that all those who served — not only those who died — have sacrificed and done their duty. According to the VA, Memorial Day, the last Monday in May, is meant to honor those who died while serving. It was originally called Decoration Day. Celebrate Your Family Members’ Military Service and Honor Those Who Have Served Their Country For those of you that are privileged to have a relative that served in the Military or know someone who served, take some time this week to ask them about their service. Remember Veterans Day is to honor, not only those who served during a time of war, but also those who served during peacetime. Talk to your grandfathers, fathers, uncles, cousins, and brothers about their time in the service. Ask those who served during peacetime as well. Record your conversations with them. Talk to them even if you are not writing their history. The insights you will gain from learning about their service will help you in all aspects of your life. Vietnam and the Gulf Wars brought military service closer to our own lives. No longer is serving in the military something that happened so long ago. It is not just our grandfather’s story to tell. My own story is kind of unique. I served in the US Navy from 1976 – 1985. Serving on small destroyers and traveling the world, I served in between the Vietnam war and the Gulf Wars. It was in the heart of the Cold War, and we skirmished with the Russians all the time. They loved to harass us every chance they could. Today my son serves in the US Army as a captain. I couldn’t be prouder. Honor your veteran relatives by asking them about their service. Show them how proud you are of their service. When you digitally record their experiences, your descendants will also know of their honorable service. Veterans Day is a great time to talk to your relatives and learn more about them. Acknowledge their service in standing up and serving their country.	<urn:uuid:e00a04bb-0015-46ce-8394-1092db4ba444>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.voicesandimages.com/veterans-day-a-day-to-honor-all-american-military-veterans/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00009.warc.gz	en	0.980594	823	4.09375	4	[ -0.4059407114982605, 0.5269537568092346, 0.5553641319274902, -0.0943261981010437, -0.10916536301374435, 0.07674632966518402, -0.013317285105586052, 0.1743403822183609, -0.13541439175605774, 0.02995198778808117, 0.5452830195426941, 0.47508731484413147, -0.18045055866241455, 0.47587120532989...	3	Saturday 11/11 is Veterans Day, which was initially called Armistice Day to celebrate the end of the Great War (World War I) — on the eleventh month on the eleventh day. History of Veterans Day The roots of Veterans Day go back nearly 100 years. Fighting during WWI stopped on November 11, 1918 after an armistice between the Germans and the Allies. November 11 was commemorated as Armistice Day by President Woodrow Wilson in 1919. A resolution was passed by Congress in 1926, calling for November 11 to be remembered every year “with thanksgiving and prayer and exercises designed to perpetuate peace through good will and mutual understanding between nations.” A Congressional Act in May of 1938 made November 11, 1938 — Armistice Day — a public holiday. Many American soldiers served and lost their lives during WWII and the Korean War, and in the wake of their service, Armistice Day was renamed Veterans Day by President Eisenhower, in 1954. In 1968 a bill was passed which called for Veterans Day to be observed on the fourth Monday in October starting in 1971. The change was part of a move to give federal workers several three-day holiday weekends, but in 1971, two states observed Veterans Day on November 11th, the traditional holiday. Over time, other states followed the same. In 1975, President Gerald Ford signed a bill which pushed Veterans Day back to November 11, to take effect in 1978. President Ford said in a statement that he felt “restoration of the observance of Veterans Day to November 11 will help preserve in the hearts and lives of all Americans the spirit of patriotism, the love of country, and the willingness to serve and sacrifice for the common good symbolized by this very special day.” The Department of Veterans Affairs made the following statement about Veterans Day: … is largely intended to thank LIVING veterans for their service, to acknowledge that their contributions to our national security are appreciated, and to underscore the fact that all those who served — not only those who died — have sacrificed and done their duty. According to the VA, Memorial Day, the last Monday in May, is meant to honor those who died while serving. It was originally called Decoration Day. Celebrate Your Family Members’ Military Service and Honor Those Who Have Served Their Country For those of you that are privileged to have a relative that served in the Military or know someone who served, take some time this week to ask them about their service. Remember Veterans Day is to honor, not only those who served during a time of war, but also those who served during peacetime. Talk to your grandfathers, fathers, uncles, cousins, and brothers about their time in the service. Ask those who served during peacetime as well. Record your conversations with them. Talk to them even if you are not writing their history. The insights you will gain from learning about their service will help you in all aspects of your life. Vietnam and the Gulf Wars brought military service closer to our own lives. No longer is serving in the military something that happened so long ago. It is not just our grandfather’s story to tell. My own story is kind of unique. I served in the US Navy from 1976 – 1985. Serving on small destroyers and traveling the world, I served in between the Vietnam war and the Gulf Wars. It was in the heart of the Cold War, and we skirmished with the Russians all the time. They loved to harass us every chance they could. Today my son serves in the US Army as a captain. I couldn’t be prouder. Honor your veteran relatives by asking them about their service. Show them how proud you are of their service. When you digitally record their experiences, your descendants will also know of their honorable service. Veterans Day is a great time to talk to your relatives and learn more about them. Acknowledge their service in standing up and serving their country.	869	ENGLISH	1
How the Sami people survied Norway's harsh winters Anyone who has ever traveled to the Arctic for a Northern Light tour knows that it can get insanely cold, especially during the winter season. However, the indigenous Sami people have populated the Arctic Circle for hundreds of years. This begs the question— how were they able to survive the harsh weather for so long? Here are the traditional tactics used by the Sami people that helped them withstand Norway's coldest months. On first visiting a Sami settlement, people often mistake many of structures for strange-looking tipis. Even though they look like just that, the traditional lavvu are a feat of engineering that were strategically designed by the Sami people to help them survive cold temperatures and strong winds. Since there are very few trees within the Arctic Circle, Sami people had to find a way to adequately protect themselves from the strong gusts of wind. Had they used the more traditional tipi shape, it would have easily been knocked over and blown into oblivion by the high winds. That is why they designed the lavvu to have a slightly less vertical shape, which made it much harder to level. In fact, these structures are so effective at providing protection against the harsh winter environment that they are still occasionally used by Sami people when camping. The Sami people also built stronger structures, which looked very similar, known as a goahti. The goahti was often constructed in a similar fashion to a lavvu, but was covered with a combination of fabric, peat moss, or timber. Since these structures were larger and therefore harder to efficiently break down and transport, they interfered with the deep-seated nomadic lifestyle of Sami culture. Therefore, they weren’t as popular as the more portable lavvu. As useful as the lavvu was, it only protected the Sami people as long as they were inside. As soon as they stepped outside to do things like hunt, gather, and move from place to place, they became vulnerable to the unruly Norwegian winters. Thankfully, their traditional gákti clothing was usually enough to keep them from getting too cold, even after spending a couple of hours outside. Originally, these outfits were designed using a combination of reindeer leather and sinews. However, the modern version of the gákti is made of cotton, wool, or silk instead. This outfit would typically have women wearing a dress accompanied by a fringed shawl and a pair of boots. The Sami men would possess a similar outfit only with a shorter jacket skirt as compared to the females’ dresses. Although this outfit was perfectly capable of protecting them from Norwegian weather for the majority of the year, the winter would prove to be a little too much. This is when they would pair the gákti with a coat made of reindeer fur as well as a pair of leggings. By using this combination of the lavvu and their traditional clothing, the Sami people have flourished for hundreds of years in the Arctic territory. Plan your trip to Northern Norway today to see, first hand, how they did that by visiting their settlements and learning more about their culture by joining in on a reindeer sledding tour in Tromsø.	<urn:uuid:7bef41f5-9da9-4121-8038-490d70ecea1c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.fjordtours.com/inspiration/articles/sami-people-winter-survival/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00554.warc.gz	en	0.986975	672	3.640625	4	[ 0.11423437297344208, 0.5718738436698914, 0.06670990586280823, 0.34563133120536804, 0.5046244263648987, 0.07039028406143188, 0.299416184425354, -0.19774076342582703, -0.586855411529541, -0.5065891742706299, -0.1678953319787979, -0.017403898760676384, 0.6438056230545044, 0.2758275866508484, ...	13	How the Sami people survied Norway's harsh winters Anyone who has ever traveled to the Arctic for a Northern Light tour knows that it can get insanely cold, especially during the winter season. However, the indigenous Sami people have populated the Arctic Circle for hundreds of years. This begs the question— how were they able to survive the harsh weather for so long? Here are the traditional tactics used by the Sami people that helped them withstand Norway's coldest months. On first visiting a Sami settlement, people often mistake many of structures for strange-looking tipis. Even though they look like just that, the traditional lavvu are a feat of engineering that were strategically designed by the Sami people to help them survive cold temperatures and strong winds. Since there are very few trees within the Arctic Circle, Sami people had to find a way to adequately protect themselves from the strong gusts of wind. Had they used the more traditional tipi shape, it would have easily been knocked over and blown into oblivion by the high winds. That is why they designed the lavvu to have a slightly less vertical shape, which made it much harder to level. In fact, these structures are so effective at providing protection against the harsh winter environment that they are still occasionally used by Sami people when camping. The Sami people also built stronger structures, which looked very similar, known as a goahti. The goahti was often constructed in a similar fashion to a lavvu, but was covered with a combination of fabric, peat moss, or timber. Since these structures were larger and therefore harder to efficiently break down and transport, they interfered with the deep-seated nomadic lifestyle of Sami culture. Therefore, they weren’t as popular as the more portable lavvu. As useful as the lavvu was, it only protected the Sami people as long as they were inside. As soon as they stepped outside to do things like hunt, gather, and move from place to place, they became vulnerable to the unruly Norwegian winters. Thankfully, their traditional gákti clothing was usually enough to keep them from getting too cold, even after spending a couple of hours outside. Originally, these outfits were designed using a combination of reindeer leather and sinews. However, the modern version of the gákti is made of cotton, wool, or silk instead. This outfit would typically have women wearing a dress accompanied by a fringed shawl and a pair of boots. The Sami men would possess a similar outfit only with a shorter jacket skirt as compared to the females’ dresses. Although this outfit was perfectly capable of protecting them from Norwegian weather for the majority of the year, the winter would prove to be a little too much. This is when they would pair the gákti with a coat made of reindeer fur as well as a pair of leggings. By using this combination of the lavvu and their traditional clothing, the Sami people have flourished for hundreds of years in the Arctic territory. Plan your trip to Northern Norway today to see, first hand, how they did that by visiting their settlements and learning more about their culture by joining in on a reindeer sledding tour in Tromsø.	655	ENGLISH	1
Philosophy: Concise History of Afghanistan Buddha and Pre-Nazis Buddha is the earliest known Afghan. He lived near Jalalabad 100,000 years ago. Naturally, there was no Jalalabad at the time, but there was Buddha, in one of his previous lives. He was a plain guy then, not an enlightened one, but he was given a prediction about becoming Buddha in one of the future lives. And what was the point of that? — he died and forgot it all. And only 97,500 years later, when he got enlightened, Buddha recalled his Afghan past and even flew there once with a peacekeeping mission. And this is how we know about the earliest Afghan. For the next 96,500 years nothing of interest happened in Afghanistan. Or we just do not know anything interesting. Someone certainly lived there, but it was not Buddha, or he would also recall that and tell us. In about 1500 B.C. Afghanistan was invaded from the north by the Aryans, the same guys the Nazis have originated from. But at the time they were not Hitler's cronies, just nomads. They really liked Afghanistan — wide grazing fields, great weather — and decided to stay there. But then gradually began fighting each other. The locals who lived there before the Aryans were upset too, and in addition some other nomads from Tajikistan began demanding protection money. Everything fell apart. At this very time, in Afghanistan, in Balkh, Zarathustra was born. To unite everybody, he invented a new religion with a god called Ahuramazda. He also advocated farming activities, like growing cereals, not limited to purely nomadic things like horses. His ideas were popular, and new waves of pre-Nazis went from Afghanistan to Iran where they have organized a whole empire under the banner of Ahuramazda. It was ruled by the Achaemenids dynasty. Iranians and Alexander Achaemenids with their king Darius have eventually attacked Afghanistan in the 5th century B.C. But it was good for everybody since Darius built a highway to India through Kandahar, which became Afghanistan's capital. To Afghanistan itself he exiled bad-behaving Greeks, who brought their culture to these lands. \|Here is the concise history of Afghanistan, “Daddy is not coming home anymore.” Kandahar cemetery.\| But the Achaemenids were destroyed by Alexander the Great. At that time their king was again Darius; however, not the original one but the third. Actually, Alexander's troops were fed up with fighting even before that, but the following happened. Darius III was assassinated by one of his allies, an Afghan called Bessus. He declared himself the new king of Iran, and Alexander just had to invade Afghanistan and chase Bessus around it, capturing the country in the process. And since Alexander ended up so close to India, he naturally had to invade it, too. But at that point his troops got really tired and declared a strike. Alexander had to turn back home, and he died on the way, in Iraq. Indians and Ashoka Alexander's buddies began fighting for control over his empire, while the Indians declared independence from all. Eastern lands — Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan — went to the Alexander's general called Seleucus, who sold Southern Afghanistan to India for 500 elephants and one woman. One result of this deal was the spreading of Buddhism in Southern Afghanistan. It now belonged to the Indians, and their king was Ashoka, a great fan of Buddha and his teachings. In the North things were also good. The exiled Greeks ignored Seleucus and formed their own country. When Ashoka died, the Greeks gradually got back the southern parts, restoring integrity of the country. But they too began fighting each other — there is something in the water in this country. Then the nomads from Tajikistan attacked again, and the Greek era was over. Kushans and Kanishka The next part of the Afghan history is related to the nomads from the area around the Chinese border. They were called Kushans, and they built a new empire here, from Indian Ganges to the Gobi desert. It even had two capitals, a summer one near Kabul and a winter one in Peshawar. Things went especially good under king Kanishka in about 130 A.D. They got lucky because to the east of them there was the Chinese empire, and to the west — the Roman one. These two began trading actively, and since there were no planes at the time, they shipped everything overland, and there was only one way to do that, along the very same highway, also known as the Silk Route. All goods transited Kushan lands, and the Kushans highly profited from that. Under Kanishka Buddhism kept developing in Afghanistan. He even invented a new direction, “Buddhism with a human face.” Before that Buddha was depicted as a wheel and similar objects, and Kanishka kept reminding people that Buddha had been a man, so they began painting him properly. There were many Buddhist monasteries and temples along the Silk Route, but practically nothing survived to our times, even the Bamiyan Buddhas are not there anymore. And yet again everything got broken. Kanishka died, his heirs began fighting each other, the Roman and Chinese empires went sour and stopped trading, thus killing the source of free money for the Afghans. In 241 the country was again captured first by Iran and then by the Central Asian nomads. Gradually the Islamic times came. In 642 Muslims conquered Iran and invaded Afghanistan. They quickly took western provinces, but the mountain regions were never fully controlled. But there was no alternative to Islam in that situation, and the next dynasty that ruled the whole country was Islamic — the Saffarids. Their main enemy were the Samanids who were based not even in Afghanistan but in Bukhara. When the founder of the dynasty Yaqub Saffari died in 879, the Samanids conquered first Balkh in 900 and then the rest of the country. But the Samanids could not control the country properly, and power belonged to various small tribal chiefs. Ghaznavids were the ones to unite them all. It started with a guy named Alptigin, a Samanid general. He rebelled and overtook Ghazni in 962, hence the name Ghaznavid. Alptigin was succeeded by his slave Sebuktigin, and that one — by Sultan Mahmud who did really well: he took Kabul and Bost in 977, Balkh in 994, and Herat in 1000. He even conquered a piece of Iran and invaded India. This is when the problems with the Ghorids started. Those guys lived in Ghor province; it is in the center of Afghanistan. Eight brothers were in power, but started fighting each other, and one of them, Qutubuddin, emigrated to Ghazni. There he was poisoned by a Ghaznavid sultan Bahram Shah in 1146. The remaining brothers promised revenge, and in 1151 one of them, Alauddin, burnt Ghazni to the ground and destroyed Bost, the Ghaznavids' backup capital. Now the Ghorids controlled the country. As was customary here, they built a giant empire, conquering everything around them from India to Iraq. The Ghorids were taken care of by the Shah of Khwarizm who controlled Afghanistan by 1215. But it was not his luck: Genghis Khan came to power in Mongolia at that time. Genghis Khan wanted to be friends with Khwarizm Shah and sent diplomats and gifts to him, but a border area commander killed the embassy and stole the gifts, thus forcing Genghis Khan to invade in retaliation. As a part of Khwarizm Shah's empire, the Mongols took Northern Afghanistan in 1221, destroying cities and breaking everything. Bamiyan was completely demolished because Genghis Khan's favorite grandson was killed there. Balkh suffered the same fate even though it did not resist and no one favorite was killed there. Only in 1332 the Kart dynasty became more or less independent from the Mongols. A certain Timur appeared on the scene at that time. He first was a mercenary but then went into politics and founded his own empire in Balkh in 1369. The Karts defended their territory till 1381 but have lost. Timur also conquered neighboring countries, creating a giant empire with a capital in Samarkand. After his death in 1405, his heirs began splitting the empire, and his youngest son Shah Rukh got a piece from Iraq to India with a capital in Herat. Shah Rukh's wife, Gawhar Shad, was into architecture and built many fine buildings in Afghanistan, some of which still exist. Babur, a descendant of both Genghis Khan and Timur, ruled Ferghana originally but was evicted from there by Uzbek invaders and went to Afghanistan. There he started from capturing Kabul and so on: Balkh, Herat, Kandahar — this was the end of the Timurids. Babur then turned his attention to India and stayed there till his death in 1530. For the next 150 years Afghanistan was split between India and Iran. The Safavids controlled Herat, and the Mongols controlled Kabul. It all changed in 1709. The Safavids sent their representative, a Georgian named Gurgin, to Kandahar, where he was poisoned by Kandahar's mayor, Mir Wais Khotak, who then proceeded to imprison an investigatory team sent by the Iranians, and finally crushed their military force sent to retaliate. After Mir's death, his nephew Mahmud conquered Iran itself in 1722. This was, however, the last time the Afghans conquered anything outside of their country. Ahmad Shah Durrani ruled the country from 1747 to 1772, gradually capturing all its cities and creating Afghanistan proper. But after his death his heirs began fighting each other, and the country was split into small pieces. In 1819 the Sikhs detached Kashmir and later Peshawar, which in their turn was captured by the British who controlled India at that time. British and Russians A period of Russian-British interference started. It is hard to believe it without looking at a map, but Russia and India had a common border, and moreover, the Russians attempted to invade India a few times. But recall that Pakistan was a part of India until 1947, and that the small tongue of land that separated the USSR from Pakistan was artificially created exactly with the idea to separate the Russia-controlled and Britain-controlled areas. Russia first tried to invade Afghanistan in 1801, when its emperor Pavel I ordered his troops numbered at 22,500 to crush the British, to free the Indians, and to enslave them again. Luckily, Pavel I had died before the invasion group reached the border. Then, under Alexander I, it was planned to invade India in a joint operation with Napoleon, but that did not work out either. In 1828 Russia had a lot of military and political influence in Iran. The Iranian army, accompanied by Russian advisers, invaded Afghanistan and besieged Herat for a year in 1837–38. From the British point of view — and a correct one — all Russian designs in Afghanistan were aimed at Britain and its interests in India. The British sent their forces to help Herat and also began supporting a certain Shah Shuja in his struggle against the then ruler of Afghanistan, Amir Dost Muhammed. Thus the First Anglo-Afghan war has started. Shah Shuja eventually conquered the southern areas, but his power was limited to the cities where his troops were. The British army was stationed in Kabul to protect Shah. As is now with Karzai and the Americans, peace was supported by paying money to the local warlords. As soon as that distribution ended, Dost Muhammed's son began an uprising in 1841, and a successful one. Dost Muhammed himself was in British captivity at the time. In January 1842 the British army negotiated a withdrawal from Kabul and began retreating to Pakistan. Of 16,000 people who left Kabul only one person made it to Peshawar — the rest were killed on the way by guerillas. The British garrison in Kandahar destroyed Ghazni in retaliation, and in September, joined by a reinforcement that came from Peshawar, it completely wiped out the male population of Kabul. In December all British troops were withdrawn. This was the end of the First Anglo-Afghan war. Shah Shuja was killed even before that, in April. Dost Muhammed was released and came back to power two years later and spent the next twenty years reuniting the country. The second Anglo-Afghan war began in 1878. Russia was actively enlarging its empire at that time by conquering Central Asian states and coming closer and closer to Afghanistan. In 1873 Russia and Britain negotiated the northern border of Afghanistan, not asking the Afghans themselves. However, Afghanistan got some Russian-controlled territories through that settlement, and that explains the current presence of the Uzbeks, the Tajiks, and others in Northern Afghanistan. Sher Ali, the then ruler of Afghanistan, was concerned with the expansion of the Russian empire and kept asking for British help. Getting none, he switched the sides and turned to Russia for protection from Britain. In 1878 a Russian diplomatic mission came to Kabul. A similar British mission was not let in, and the British had to invade again. The promised Russian help never came, and the Afghans signed a peace treaty with Britain, giving it the right to represent it internationally. Not everybody liked that, however, and in 1879 the British ambassador with his crew was slaughtered in Kabul. That forced Britain to invade again. The Afghan opposition was headed by one Abdurrahman who had been hiding in Russia for 11 years before that. The guerillas terrorized the British army for a year, eventually forcing it to retreat. Before that the British helped Abdurrahman, as the least of all evils, to get to power. Already after the withdrawal, the British convinced him to invade Russian Pamir, and Russia in response invaded parts of Afghanistan. The situation was straightened out in 1886 with a new peaceful border agreement. In the south the British cut out a lot of Pushtun territories. In 1893 colonel Durrand came to Kabul and declared that the Afghan-Indian border would from now on look like this. Like it still looks, and that is why, by the way, it is called the Durrand Line. The Afghans still do not recognize this border. And if we look at a map now, we will understand a lot in the present day Afghanistan. Why is the south inhabited by the Uzbeks, the Tajiks, and other Central Asian people, not by the Pushtuns? Because it was a part of the Russian empire. And why is Northwestern Pakistan almost completely inhabited by the Pushtuns? Because it was a part of Afghanistan. If we moved the Afghan borders to the south by about 200 km, everything would be more sensible. But we can understand the British, too. If they did not create the Durrand Line, the Russian forces could traverse Afghanistan and congregate in masses in open plains at the Indian border without crossing it. And now the Indian border was deep in the mountains, and any invader had to stop at the few mountain passes like Khyber, Khojak, or Bolan, which is much more favorable for defensive operations than open plains. Abdurrahman was succeeded by his son Habibullah who ruled from 1901 to 1919. He was killed on a fishing expedition. His brother Nasrullah ruled for seven days and was deposed by Habibullah's son Amanullah. That one was openly hostile to Britain, which prompted the Third Anglo-Afghan war on May 6, 1919. The war continued for less than a month. On the one side, technological supremacy of the British left no hope to the Afghans — their cities were bombed from the air, and their troops were machine-gunned. On the other side, there were revolts in India and a revolution in Russia, and Britain did not have enough time to handle Afghanistan properly. On June 3 a truce was signed. After ten years of rule, Amanullah surrendered his position to his brother Enayatullah in 1929 because of a popular uprising under one ex-NCO Bacha Saqao. Under this pretext the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan and even captured Mazar-i-Sharif, but turned back when Amanullah resigned. Enayatullah ruled for three days and fled to his brother; both later emigrated to India. One Ali Ahmad Khan declared himself the Afghan ruler but was quickly executed by Bacha Saqao who enthroned himself. He was crushed five months later by Amanullah's uncle, general Muhammed Nadir Khan, who had been in exile but came back to handle Bacha Saqao. In October of 1929 he turned into Nadir Shah, the new king of Afghanistan. Nadir Shah was killed in 1933 by a cadet whose father had been executed on king's orders. The boy joined a military school and studied very well because he knew that the king would greet the best cadets at the graduation. This is how he got a chance to revenge his father. Zahir Shah and Nazis Nadir Shah's son, Zahir Shah, ruled from 1933 to 1973. He is still alive. He stays away from modern politics and is usually painted as a noble elder. To expose his true face we need to remind that on June 22 of 1941, when the Nazis invaded the Soviet Union, he gave his own money to pay for the thank-you prayers in Kabul mosques. The Nazis, by the way, were very interested in controlling Afghanistan because from there they could attack the British-controlled India. Even before the war, the Germans devised a plan of returning Amanullah from emigration and putting him on the throne with the Soviet help, but it did not work out. They also proposed in 1939 to station an SS brigade and a Wehrmacht division in Soviet Turkestan, but it somehow tanked, too. After invading the Soviet Union, the Nazis kept these ideas in mind. The invasion force included the so-called Afghanistan Team of 17 divisions that was supposed to attack India after the Nazis have conquered Caucasus — something that never happened. The Afghan government supported the Nazis since it was interested in getting back its southern territories from Pakistan and also needed protection from the Soviet Union, which on pair with Britain had already invaded and occupied Iran in August of 1941. The Afghans slowly conduced negotiations with the Nazis on joint operations against Britain and the Soviet Union, but as it became clearer and clearer who would win the war, the Afghans kept distancing themselves from the Nazis more and more. By 1943 all German representatives were evicted from the country. After the War Nothing of great interest happened in Afghanistan for three decades after the World War II. The country took a neutral position in the cold war, getting help from both sides. A constitution was adopted. Women got more freedom. Afghanistan became quite popular among the hippies who crossed it in masses on the way from Iran to India and back. Economy developed; natural gas was produced. There was not, however, enough money to guarantee happy life to the population that was getting more and more unhappy. Kind of Democracy In 1973 Zahir Shah had an eye injury and went to Italy for treatment, and while there he was deposed by his cousin, an ex-prime minister general Daud. In 1975 the political arena was entered by the people whose names are well-known today. Burhanuddin Rabbani, Gulbuddin Hikmetyar, Ahmad Shah Massoud were interested in Islamic ways of developing the country, but Daud was not, and they had to flee to Pakistan after a failed uprising. Daud was not quite democratic in the way he ran the country, and while he had crushed the Islamists, the Communists crushed him. A Communist party existed in Afghanistan since 1965, and in 1978 it came to power, killing Daud — and his family — in the process. A peaceful Soviet presence existed in Afghanistan for decades by that point, and on a large scale. The US had provided some help after the World War II and built roads, for example, but quickly got disappointed and withdrew. The Soviets kept helping all these years, building dams, factories, plants, and the Salang tunnel. Gradually, military advisers began appearing, even before the Communist revolution. They hardly participated in the coup itself since it was not expected by anyone including the Communists themselves, but the revolution was performed with Soviet weapons by Afghan officers educated in the Soviet Union. Little by little, an opposition to the Communists began to grow in the country. The leadership started asking for military supplies or even direct involvement of the Soviet military. On March 15, 1979 there was an anti-Communist uprising in Herat, which brought to the scene yet another currently well-known warlord, Ismail Khan. An army officer, he began an uprising in his garrison, killed its Communists officers and Soviet advisers, and distributed firearms to the population. The population rushed to killing advisers and their families; the total number of Soviet losses was supposedly a few hundreds, although the Russians today know of only two officers killed. Soviet Air Force and tanks from Turkmenistan made a strike on Herat, terminating about 20,000 Afghans. Ismail Khan and his friends fled to Iran, and for the rest of the war he ran the resistance in Herat and its surroundings. Drawing conclusions, on March 17 the Soviet leadership decided to send its troops to Afghanistan, but that action was postponed for a while. It must be stressed here that the still existing in the West idea of the Soviets invading Afghanistan is pure cold war propaganda. They were invited by the government, by one of the sides in a civil war. By an overwhelming side, by the way, — if the Islamists were supported by the people, they would overthrow Daud and get to power, not the Communists. The Islamists were persecuted even by Daud, well before any Communists began doing that, and Daud was not pro-Soviet. What exactly the Islamists were and what they would do to the country were they in power — all this was obvious when they were in power in 1992–1994. The Communists were Afghans, too, and the Soviets came to Afghanistan by a request of a part of the Afghan people. However, the Communist leadership itself was deeply divided. The party had two fractions: Khalq and Parcham. Khalq represented the poorer part of the population while Parcham consisted of well-to-do land owners and the like and did not rush to become poor. Parcham lost, and in 1978 its leaders were quietly send out of the country. Babrak Karmal became an Afghan ambassador in Czechoslovakia, and Najibullah — in Iran. Some people plainly went to prison. Khalq's leader, Taraki, became the president of Afghanistan. In March of 1979 a certain Hafizullah Amin became the prime minister. In September he organized a military coup and arrested Taraki, who was then executed in October. On the other side, the Islamists also got more powerful. There were about 10,000 guerillas acting in the country, with some provinces under their full control. Mujaheds, Communists, other Communists killed each other. Amin more and more often asked the Soviet Union for military involvement. On December 25, 1979 his wish was granted, and the Soviet military came to Afghanistan officially. Two days later Soviet special forces stormed Amin's residence and executed him, finishing an unlucky chain of assassination attempts the Soviets tried to carry out since the moment of the September coup. Babrak Karmal returned from Czechoslovakia to become the president. The outcome of the war was strangely defined by a small detail. The Soviet forces were equipped to fight a large, full scale inter-country war because it was expected that either Iran or Pakistan could interfere on the mujaheds' side. The results were horrible. Although Iran housed Afghan refugees and did not take any active measures against the mujaheds operating from its territory, it stayed well away from the conflict because it clearly understood that the Soviet Union could destroy Iran in no time. In the very 1979 they had an Islamic revolution in Iran, then Iraq invaded it, and Iran really could not mind the Afghan affairs in addition to all this. Were the Soviet Union to attack it, nobody would say a word against that since the US hated Iran for taking American hostages and other things, and the Muslim world had an issue with Iran's Shia orientation. By the way, nothing has yet changed in these areas. Pakistan, however, which always saw the Soviet Union as its enemy because of the USSR supporting India, understood the Soviet military presence in Afghanistan as the last step before the invasion of Pakistan. Really, the Soviets were armed with weapons they definitely could not use against the mujaheds: giant tank armies, tactical missiles, and so on. All this could be used against Pakistan only, as it clearly realized. Plainly for self-preservation Pakistan took active part in the guerilla war. It first built refugee camps on its territory and then organized guerilla training facilities based on those refugee camps. From the many Afghan political parties seven were selected as the recipients of all financial, humanitarian, and political aid. But the biggest achievement of Pakistan, the one that determined the outcome of the war, was its success in reclassifying the conflict from a civil war to a holy war. If before that it was an internal fight of the Afghan political groups nobody except Pakistan cared about, now it was turned into an aggression of the Soviet Union against Islam, no less. While the Soviets could handle plain guerilla war, it was a quite different thing to fight an enemy that could easily withdraw across the border and recuperate and regroup there; the enemy that was backed by all the monetary and human resources of the Islamic world, not to mention the US with their own, quite different in nature but same in expression interests. The war quickly ended in a stalemate. The Soviets controlled all the cities, and the mujaheds — 90% of the rest of the country. Panjsher under control of Ahmad Shah Massoud was never taken by the Soviets at all, although they did conduct major military operations there each year. On the other side, the mujaheds controlled an empty desert, and the cities belonged to the Soviets. Through the nine years of conflict, 641,000 Soviets served in the 100,000-strong Soviet military group. Despite yet another stereotype, their losses were minimal: 11,897 dead in nine years. It is a lot, yes. For comparison: in modern Russia, which is quite smaller than the Soviet Union, each year — not in nine years, but in a year — 15,000 women are killed by their husbands. As for the Afghans, they lost over a million people. The Soviet withdrawal was considered many times in these nine years. Already in February of 1980 Brezhnev offered to withdraw, but the then minister of defense Ustinov was against that. In summer of 1980 they took out those notorious tank and missile units, but it was too late. In March 1981 a withdrawal was again considered and postponed. In 1983 a new Soviet premier Andropov began preparing the withdrawal, but died. Chernenko succeeded him and left the troops where they were despite the pressure from the military. Finally, Gorbachev in 1985 was very much for a withdrawal. Karmal was replaced by Najibullah in 1986, and some units were withdrawn then. In 1988 an official disengagement plan was signed, and the last Soviet soldier left Afghanistan on February 15, 1989. The Afghans got a three-month supply of ammunition, and Najibullah started his own war. Contrary to any predictions, the Communists hold the power till 1992, the year when the Soviets stopped any military help. In April Najibullah hid in the UN mission in Kabul, and the city was taken with no battle by Doustum, Massoud, and Hikmetyar. Rabbani was appointed the president. more: Other things this page: http://www.zharov.com/afghan/history.html copyright: © Sergei Zharov, text, photos, maps, design, code, 2004–2020	<urn:uuid:9afd325e-c376-4b4b-b82c-31279b926012>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://zharov.com/afghan/history.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00059.warc.gz	en	0.984215	5,950	3.375	3	[ -0.5607275366783142, 0.5208722352981567, 0.21134284138679504, 0.008707386441528797, -0.6309351921081543, 0.19651933014392853, 0.5171136856079102, -0.18651878833770752, -0.0502917617559433, -0.14011390507221222, 0.16143545508384705, 0.1721547693014145, 0.3171459436416626, 0.6678537726402283...	2	Philosophy: Concise History of Afghanistan Buddha and Pre-Nazis Buddha is the earliest known Afghan. He lived near Jalalabad 100,000 years ago. Naturally, there was no Jalalabad at the time, but there was Buddha, in one of his previous lives. He was a plain guy then, not an enlightened one, but he was given a prediction about becoming Buddha in one of the future lives. And what was the point of that? — he died and forgot it all. And only 97,500 years later, when he got enlightened, Buddha recalled his Afghan past and even flew there once with a peacekeeping mission. And this is how we know about the earliest Afghan. For the next 96,500 years nothing of interest happened in Afghanistan. Or we just do not know anything interesting. Someone certainly lived there, but it was not Buddha, or he would also recall that and tell us. In about 1500 B.C. Afghanistan was invaded from the north by the Aryans, the same guys the Nazis have originated from. But at the time they were not Hitler's cronies, just nomads. They really liked Afghanistan — wide grazing fields, great weather — and decided to stay there. But then gradually began fighting each other. The locals who lived there before the Aryans were upset too, and in addition some other nomads from Tajikistan began demanding protection money. Everything fell apart. At this very time, in Afghanistan, in Balkh, Zarathustra was born. To unite everybody, he invented a new religion with a god called Ahuramazda. He also advocated farming activities, like growing cereals, not limited to purely nomadic things like horses. His ideas were popular, and new waves of pre-Nazis went from Afghanistan to Iran where they have organized a whole empire under the banner of Ahuramazda. It was ruled by the Achaemenids dynasty. Iranians and Alexander Achaemenids with their king Darius have eventually attacked Afghanistan in the 5th century B.C. But it was good for everybody since Darius built a highway to India through Kandahar, which became Afghanistan's capital. To Afghanistan itself he exiled bad-behaving Greeks, who brought their culture to these lands. \|Here is the concise history of Afghanistan, “Daddy is not coming home anymore.” Kandahar cemetery.\| But the Achaemenids were destroyed by Alexander the Great. At that time their king was again Darius; however, not the original one but the third. Actually, Alexander's troops were fed up with fighting even before that, but the following happened. Darius III was assassinated by one of his allies, an Afghan called Bessus. He declared himself the new king of Iran, and Alexander just had to invade Afghanistan and chase Bessus around it, capturing the country in the process. And since Alexander ended up so close to India, he naturally had to invade it, too. But at that point his troops got really tired and declared a strike. Alexander had to turn back home, and he died on the way, in Iraq. Indians and Ashoka Alexander's buddies began fighting for control over his empire, while the Indians declared independence from all. Eastern lands — Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan — went to the Alexander's general called Seleucus, who sold Southern Afghanistan to India for 500 elephants and one woman. One result of this deal was the spreading of Buddhism in Southern Afghanistan. It now belonged to the Indians, and their king was Ashoka, a great fan of Buddha and his teachings. In the North things were also good. The exiled Greeks ignored Seleucus and formed their own country. When Ashoka died, the Greeks gradually got back the southern parts, restoring integrity of the country. But they too began fighting each other — there is something in the water in this country. Then the nomads from Tajikistan attacked again, and the Greek era was over. Kushans and Kanishka The next part of the Afghan history is related to the nomads from the area around the Chinese border. They were called Kushans, and they built a new empire here, from Indian Ganges to the Gobi desert. It even had two capitals, a summer one near Kabul and a winter one in Peshawar. Things went especially good under king Kanishka in about 130 A.D. They got lucky because to the east of them there was the Chinese empire, and to the west — the Roman one. These two began trading actively, and since there were no planes at the time, they shipped everything overland, and there was only one way to do that, along the very same highway, also known as the Silk Route. All goods transited Kushan lands, and the Kushans highly profited from that. Under Kanishka Buddhism kept developing in Afghanistan. He even invented a new direction, “Buddhism with a human face.” Before that Buddha was depicted as a wheel and similar objects, and Kanishka kept reminding people that Buddha had been a man, so they began painting him properly. There were many Buddhist monasteries and temples along the Silk Route, but practically nothing survived to our times, even the Bamiyan Buddhas are not there anymore. And yet again everything got broken. Kanishka died, his heirs began fighting each other, the Roman and Chinese empires went sour and stopped trading, thus killing the source of free money for the Afghans. In 241 the country was again captured first by Iran and then by the Central Asian nomads. Gradually the Islamic times came. In 642 Muslims conquered Iran and invaded Afghanistan. They quickly took western provinces, but the mountain regions were never fully controlled. But there was no alternative to Islam in that situation, and the next dynasty that ruled the whole country was Islamic — the Saffarids. Their main enemy were the Samanids who were based not even in Afghanistan but in Bukhara. When the founder of the dynasty Yaqub Saffari died in 879, the Samanids conquered first Balkh in 900 and then the rest of the country. But the Samanids could not control the country properly, and power belonged to various small tribal chiefs. Ghaznavids were the ones to unite them all. It started with a guy named Alptigin, a Samanid general. He rebelled and overtook Ghazni in 962, hence the name Ghaznavid. Alptigin was succeeded by his slave Sebuktigin, and that one — by Sultan Mahmud who did really well: he took Kabul and Bost in 977, Balkh in 994, and Herat in 1000. He even conquered a piece of Iran and invaded India. This is when the problems with the Ghorids started. Those guys lived in Ghor province; it is in the center of Afghanistan. Eight brothers were in power, but started fighting each other, and one of them, Qutubuddin, emigrated to Ghazni. There he was poisoned by a Ghaznavid sultan Bahram Shah in 1146. The remaining brothers promised revenge, and in 1151 one of them, Alauddin, burnt Ghazni to the ground and destroyed Bost, the Ghaznavids' backup capital. Now the Ghorids controlled the country. As was customary here, they built a giant empire, conquering everything around them from India to Iraq. The Ghorids were taken care of by the Shah of Khwarizm who controlled Afghanistan by 1215. But it was not his luck: Genghis Khan came to power in Mongolia at that time. Genghis Khan wanted to be friends with Khwarizm Shah and sent diplomats and gifts to him, but a border area commander killed the embassy and stole the gifts, thus forcing Genghis Khan to invade in retaliation. As a part of Khwarizm Shah's empire, the Mongols took Northern Afghanistan in 1221, destroying cities and breaking everything. Bamiyan was completely demolished because Genghis Khan's favorite grandson was killed there. Balkh suffered the same fate even though it did not resist and no one favorite was killed there. Only in 1332 the Kart dynasty became more or less independent from the Mongols. A certain Timur appeared on the scene at that time. He first was a mercenary but then went into politics and founded his own empire in Balkh in 1369. The Karts defended their territory till 1381 but have lost. Timur also conquered neighboring countries, creating a giant empire with a capital in Samarkand. After his death in 1405, his heirs began splitting the empire, and his youngest son Shah Rukh got a piece from Iraq to India with a capital in Herat. Shah Rukh's wife, Gawhar Shad, was into architecture and built many fine buildings in Afghanistan, some of which still exist. Babur, a descendant of both Genghis Khan and Timur, ruled Ferghana originally but was evicted from there by Uzbek invaders and went to Afghanistan. There he started from capturing Kabul and so on: Balkh, Herat, Kandahar — this was the end of the Timurids. Babur then turned his attention to India and stayed there till his death in 1530. For the next 150 years Afghanistan was split between India and Iran. The Safavids controlled Herat, and the Mongols controlled Kabul. It all changed in 1709. The Safavids sent their representative, a Georgian named Gurgin, to Kandahar, where he was poisoned by Kandahar's mayor, Mir Wais Khotak, who then proceeded to imprison an investigatory team sent by the Iranians, and finally crushed their military force sent to retaliate. After Mir's death, his nephew Mahmud conquered Iran itself in 1722. This was, however, the last time the Afghans conquered anything outside of their country. Ahmad Shah Durrani ruled the country from 1747 to 1772, gradually capturing all its cities and creating Afghanistan proper. But after his death his heirs began fighting each other, and the country was split into small pieces. In 1819 the Sikhs detached Kashmir and later Peshawar, which in their turn was captured by the British who controlled India at that time. British and Russians A period of Russian-British interference started. It is hard to believe it without looking at a map, but Russia and India had a common border, and moreover, the Russians attempted to invade India a few times. But recall that Pakistan was a part of India until 1947, and that the small tongue of land that separated the USSR from Pakistan was artificially created exactly with the idea to separate the Russia-controlled and Britain-controlled areas. Russia first tried to invade Afghanistan in 1801, when its emperor Pavel I ordered his troops numbered at 22,500 to crush the British, to free the Indians, and to enslave them again. Luckily, Pavel I had died before the invasion group reached the border. Then, under Alexander I, it was planned to invade India in a joint operation with Napoleon, but that did not work out either. In 1828 Russia had a lot of military and political influence in Iran. The Iranian army, accompanied by Russian advisers, invaded Afghanistan and besieged Herat for a year in 1837–38. From the British point of view — and a correct one — all Russian designs in Afghanistan were aimed at Britain and its interests in India. The British sent their forces to help Herat and also began supporting a certain Shah Shuja in his struggle against the then ruler of Afghanistan, Amir Dost Muhammed. Thus the First Anglo-Afghan war has started. Shah Shuja eventually conquered the southern areas, but his power was limited to the cities where his troops were. The British army was stationed in Kabul to protect Shah. As is now with Karzai and the Americans, peace was supported by paying money to the local warlords. As soon as that distribution ended, Dost Muhammed's son began an uprising in 1841, and a successful one. Dost Muhammed himself was in British captivity at the time. In January 1842 the British army negotiated a withdrawal from Kabul and began retreating to Pakistan. Of 16,000 people who left Kabul only one person made it to Peshawar — the rest were killed on the way by guerillas. The British garrison in Kandahar destroyed Ghazni in retaliation, and in September, joined by a reinforcement that came from Peshawar, it completely wiped out the male population of Kabul. In December all British troops were withdrawn. This was the end of the First Anglo-Afghan war. Shah Shuja was killed even before that, in April. Dost Muhammed was released and came back to power two years later and spent the next twenty years reuniting the country. The second Anglo-Afghan war began in 1878. Russia was actively enlarging its empire at that time by conquering Central Asian states and coming closer and closer to Afghanistan. In 1873 Russia and Britain negotiated the northern border of Afghanistan, not asking the Afghans themselves. However, Afghanistan got some Russian-controlled territories through that settlement, and that explains the current presence of the Uzbeks, the Tajiks, and others in Northern Afghanistan. Sher Ali, the then ruler of Afghanistan, was concerned with the expansion of the Russian empire and kept asking for British help. Getting none, he switched the sides and turned to Russia for protection from Britain. In 1878 a Russian diplomatic mission came to Kabul. A similar British mission was not let in, and the British had to invade again. The promised Russian help never came, and the Afghans signed a peace treaty with Britain, giving it the right to represent it internationally. Not everybody liked that, however, and in 1879 the British ambassador with his crew was slaughtered in Kabul. That forced Britain to invade again. The Afghan opposition was headed by one Abdurrahman who had been hiding in Russia for 11 years before that. The guerillas terrorized the British army for a year, eventually forcing it to retreat. Before that the British helped Abdurrahman, as the least of all evils, to get to power. Already after the withdrawal, the British convinced him to invade Russian Pamir, and Russia in response invaded parts of Afghanistan. The situation was straightened out in 1886 with a new peaceful border agreement. In the south the British cut out a lot of Pushtun territories. In 1893 colonel Durrand came to Kabul and declared that the Afghan-Indian border would from now on look like this. Like it still looks, and that is why, by the way, it is called the Durrand Line. The Afghans still do not recognize this border. And if we look at a map now, we will understand a lot in the present day Afghanistan. Why is the south inhabited by the Uzbeks, the Tajiks, and other Central Asian people, not by the Pushtuns? Because it was a part of the Russian empire. And why is Northwestern Pakistan almost completely inhabited by the Pushtuns? Because it was a part of Afghanistan. If we moved the Afghan borders to the south by about 200 km, everything would be more sensible. But we can understand the British, too. If they did not create the Durrand Line, the Russian forces could traverse Afghanistan and congregate in masses in open plains at the Indian border without crossing it. And now the Indian border was deep in the mountains, and any invader had to stop at the few mountain passes like Khyber, Khojak, or Bolan, which is much more favorable for defensive operations than open plains. Abdurrahman was succeeded by his son Habibullah who ruled from 1901 to 1919. He was killed on a fishing expedition. His brother Nasrullah ruled for seven days and was deposed by Habibullah's son Amanullah. That one was openly hostile to Britain, which prompted the Third Anglo-Afghan war on May 6, 1919. The war continued for less than a month. On the one side, technological supremacy of the British left no hope to the Afghans — their cities were bombed from the air, and their troops were machine-gunned. On the other side, there were revolts in India and a revolution in Russia, and Britain did not have enough time to handle Afghanistan properly. On June 3 a truce was signed. After ten years of rule, Amanullah surrendered his position to his brother Enayatullah in 1929 because of a popular uprising under one ex-NCO Bacha Saqao. Under this pretext the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan and even captured Mazar-i-Sharif, but turned back when Amanullah resigned. Enayatullah ruled for three days and fled to his brother; both later emigrated to India. One Ali Ahmad Khan declared himself the Afghan ruler but was quickly executed by Bacha Saqao who enthroned himself. He was crushed five months later by Amanullah's uncle, general Muhammed Nadir Khan, who had been in exile but came back to handle Bacha Saqao. In October of 1929 he turned into Nadir Shah, the new king of Afghanistan. Nadir Shah was killed in 1933 by a cadet whose father had been executed on king's orders. The boy joined a military school and studied very well because he knew that the king would greet the best cadets at the graduation. This is how he got a chance to revenge his father. Zahir Shah and Nazis Nadir Shah's son, Zahir Shah, ruled from 1933 to 1973. He is still alive. He stays away from modern politics and is usually painted as a noble elder. To expose his true face we need to remind that on June 22 of 1941, when the Nazis invaded the Soviet Union, he gave his own money to pay for the thank-you prayers in Kabul mosques. The Nazis, by the way, were very interested in controlling Afghanistan because from there they could attack the British-controlled India. Even before the war, the Germans devised a plan of returning Amanullah from emigration and putting him on the throne with the Soviet help, but it did not work out. They also proposed in 1939 to station an SS brigade and a Wehrmacht division in Soviet Turkestan, but it somehow tanked, too. After invading the Soviet Union, the Nazis kept these ideas in mind. The invasion force included the so-called Afghanistan Team of 17 divisions that was supposed to attack India after the Nazis have conquered Caucasus — something that never happened. The Afghan government supported the Nazis since it was interested in getting back its southern territories from Pakistan and also needed protection from the Soviet Union, which on pair with Britain had already invaded and occupied Iran in August of 1941. The Afghans slowly conduced negotiations with the Nazis on joint operations against Britain and the Soviet Union, but as it became clearer and clearer who would win the war, the Afghans kept distancing themselves from the Nazis more and more. By 1943 all German representatives were evicted from the country. After the War Nothing of great interest happened in Afghanistan for three decades after the World War II. The country took a neutral position in the cold war, getting help from both sides. A constitution was adopted. Women got more freedom. Afghanistan became quite popular among the hippies who crossed it in masses on the way from Iran to India and back. Economy developed; natural gas was produced. There was not, however, enough money to guarantee happy life to the population that was getting more and more unhappy. Kind of Democracy In 1973 Zahir Shah had an eye injury and went to Italy for treatment, and while there he was deposed by his cousin, an ex-prime minister general Daud. In 1975 the political arena was entered by the people whose names are well-known today. Burhanuddin Rabbani, Gulbuddin Hikmetyar, Ahmad Shah Massoud were interested in Islamic ways of developing the country, but Daud was not, and they had to flee to Pakistan after a failed uprising. Daud was not quite democratic in the way he ran the country, and while he had crushed the Islamists, the Communists crushed him. A Communist party existed in Afghanistan since 1965, and in 1978 it came to power, killing Daud — and his family — in the process. A peaceful Soviet presence existed in Afghanistan for decades by that point, and on a large scale. The US had provided some help after the World War II and built roads, for example, but quickly got disappointed and withdrew. The Soviets kept helping all these years, building dams, factories, plants, and the Salang tunnel. Gradually, military advisers began appearing, even before the Communist revolution. They hardly participated in the coup itself since it was not expected by anyone including the Communists themselves, but the revolution was performed with Soviet weapons by Afghan officers educated in the Soviet Union. Little by little, an opposition to the Communists began to grow in the country. The leadership started asking for military supplies or even direct involvement of the Soviet military. On March 15, 1979 there was an anti-Communist uprising in Herat, which brought to the scene yet another currently well-known warlord, Ismail Khan. An army officer, he began an uprising in his garrison, killed its Communists officers and Soviet advisers, and distributed firearms to the population. The population rushed to killing advisers and their families; the total number of Soviet losses was supposedly a few hundreds, although the Russians today know of only two officers killed. Soviet Air Force and tanks from Turkmenistan made a strike on Herat, terminating about 20,000 Afghans. Ismail Khan and his friends fled to Iran, and for the rest of the war he ran the resistance in Herat and its surroundings. Drawing conclusions, on March 17 the Soviet leadership decided to send its troops to Afghanistan, but that action was postponed for a while. It must be stressed here that the still existing in the West idea of the Soviets invading Afghanistan is pure cold war propaganda. They were invited by the government, by one of the sides in a civil war. By an overwhelming side, by the way, — if the Islamists were supported by the people, they would overthrow Daud and get to power, not the Communists. The Islamists were persecuted even by Daud, well before any Communists began doing that, and Daud was not pro-Soviet. What exactly the Islamists were and what they would do to the country were they in power — all this was obvious when they were in power in 1992–1994. The Communists were Afghans, too, and the Soviets came to Afghanistan by a request of a part of the Afghan people. However, the Communist leadership itself was deeply divided. The party had two fractions: Khalq and Parcham. Khalq represented the poorer part of the population while Parcham consisted of well-to-do land owners and the like and did not rush to become poor. Parcham lost, and in 1978 its leaders were quietly send out of the country. Babrak Karmal became an Afghan ambassador in Czechoslovakia, and Najibullah — in Iran. Some people plainly went to prison. Khalq's leader, Taraki, became the president of Afghanistan. In March of 1979 a certain Hafizullah Amin became the prime minister. In September he organized a military coup and arrested Taraki, who was then executed in October. On the other side, the Islamists also got more powerful. There were about 10,000 guerillas acting in the country, with some provinces under their full control. Mujaheds, Communists, other Communists killed each other. Amin more and more often asked the Soviet Union for military involvement. On December 25, 1979 his wish was granted, and the Soviet military came to Afghanistan officially. Two days later Soviet special forces stormed Amin's residence and executed him, finishing an unlucky chain of assassination attempts the Soviets tried to carry out since the moment of the September coup. Babrak Karmal returned from Czechoslovakia to become the president. The outcome of the war was strangely defined by a small detail. The Soviet forces were equipped to fight a large, full scale inter-country war because it was expected that either Iran or Pakistan could interfere on the mujaheds' side. The results were horrible. Although Iran housed Afghan refugees and did not take any active measures against the mujaheds operating from its territory, it stayed well away from the conflict because it clearly understood that the Soviet Union could destroy Iran in no time. In the very 1979 they had an Islamic revolution in Iran, then Iraq invaded it, and Iran really could not mind the Afghan affairs in addition to all this. Were the Soviet Union to attack it, nobody would say a word against that since the US hated Iran for taking American hostages and other things, and the Muslim world had an issue with Iran's Shia orientation. By the way, nothing has yet changed in these areas. Pakistan, however, which always saw the Soviet Union as its enemy because of the USSR supporting India, understood the Soviet military presence in Afghanistan as the last step before the invasion of Pakistan. Really, the Soviets were armed with weapons they definitely could not use against the mujaheds: giant tank armies, tactical missiles, and so on. All this could be used against Pakistan only, as it clearly realized. Plainly for self-preservation Pakistan took active part in the guerilla war. It first built refugee camps on its territory and then organized guerilla training facilities based on those refugee camps. From the many Afghan political parties seven were selected as the recipients of all financial, humanitarian, and political aid. But the biggest achievement of Pakistan, the one that determined the outcome of the war, was its success in reclassifying the conflict from a civil war to a holy war. If before that it was an internal fight of the Afghan political groups nobody except Pakistan cared about, now it was turned into an aggression of the Soviet Union against Islam, no less. While the Soviets could handle plain guerilla war, it was a quite different thing to fight an enemy that could easily withdraw across the border and recuperate and regroup there; the enemy that was backed by all the monetary and human resources of the Islamic world, not to mention the US with their own, quite different in nature but same in expression interests. The war quickly ended in a stalemate. The Soviets controlled all the cities, and the mujaheds — 90% of the rest of the country. Panjsher under control of Ahmad Shah Massoud was never taken by the Soviets at all, although they did conduct major military operations there each year. On the other side, the mujaheds controlled an empty desert, and the cities belonged to the Soviets. Through the nine years of conflict, 641,000 Soviets served in the 100,000-strong Soviet military group. Despite yet another stereotype, their losses were minimal: 11,897 dead in nine years. It is a lot, yes. For comparison: in modern Russia, which is quite smaller than the Soviet Union, each year — not in nine years, but in a year — 15,000 women are killed by their husbands. As for the Afghans, they lost over a million people. The Soviet withdrawal was considered many times in these nine years. Already in February of 1980 Brezhnev offered to withdraw, but the then minister of defense Ustinov was against that. In summer of 1980 they took out those notorious tank and missile units, but it was too late. In March 1981 a withdrawal was again considered and postponed. In 1983 a new Soviet premier Andropov began preparing the withdrawal, but died. Chernenko succeeded him and left the troops where they were despite the pressure from the military. Finally, Gorbachev in 1985 was very much for a withdrawal. Karmal was replaced by Najibullah in 1986, and some units were withdrawn then. In 1988 an official disengagement plan was signed, and the last Soviet soldier left Afghanistan on February 15, 1989. The Afghans got a three-month supply of ammunition, and Najibullah started his own war. Contrary to any predictions, the Communists hold the power till 1992, the year when the Soviets stopped any military help. In April Najibullah hid in the UN mission in Kabul, and the city was taken with no battle by Doustum, Massoud, and Hikmetyar. Rabbani was appointed the president. more: Other things this page: http://www.zharov.com/afghan/history.html copyright: © Sergei Zharov, text, photos, maps, design, code, 2004–2020	6,268	ENGLISH	1
At the end of Autumn 1, we were lucky enough to have visitors from Chongquing, China and we had 2 students with us several times throughout the week. On Thursday, we celebrated Chinese Culture Day! We were treated to lots of performances form the Chinese students and in our classroom, we did different activities. With Mrs Godwin, we did some Chinese art and learnt some language. With Miss Harding, we firstly located China on a map and then had to draw on the physical features of China including rivers and mountains. After, we learnt some music on the glockenspiels that used a pentatonic scale (the scale that most Chinese music follows). It means it works in a scale of 5 like a pentagon. Once we had learned the piece of music, we had the chance to come up with our own using the 5 notes.	<urn:uuid:8eba0a70-84ac-4c32-988e-47e2f8e07338>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.norwoodprimary.com/chinese-culture-week/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00283.warc.gz	en	0.986474	173	3.28125	3	[ -0.07585745304822922, -0.09161484241485596, 0.5854864716529846, -0.37655535340309143, -0.10415279120206833, 0.328085333108902, 0.20376543700695038, 0.03965681418776512, 0.08772343397140503, -0.293833464384079, 0.16949324309825897, -0.217927947640419, 0.13736608624458313, 0.2589801847934723...	3	At the end of Autumn 1, we were lucky enough to have visitors from Chongquing, China and we had 2 students with us several times throughout the week. On Thursday, we celebrated Chinese Culture Day! We were treated to lots of performances form the Chinese students and in our classroom, we did different activities. With Mrs Godwin, we did some Chinese art and learnt some language. With Miss Harding, we firstly located China on a map and then had to draw on the physical features of China including rivers and mountains. After, we learnt some music on the glockenspiels that used a pentatonic scale (the scale that most Chinese music follows). It means it works in a scale of 5 like a pentagon. Once we had learned the piece of music, we had the chance to come up with our own using the 5 notes.	177	ENGLISH	1
Life sketch of william wordsworth Wordsworth: A Life by Juliet BarkerWilliam Wordsworths early life reads like a novel. Orphaned at a young age and dependent on the charity of unsympathetic relatives, he became the archetypal teenage rebel. Refusing to enter the Church, he went instead to Revolutionary France, where he fathered an illegitimate daughter and became a committed Republican. His poetry was as revolutionary as his politics, challenging convention in form, style, and subject, and earning him the universal derision and contempt of critics. Only the unfailing encouragement of a tightly knit group of supporters, his family, and, above all, Coleridge kept him true to his poetic vocation. In the half-century that followed his reputation was transformed. His advocacy of the importance of imagination and feeling touched a chord in an increasingly industrial, mechanistic age, and his influence was profoundly and widely felt in every sphere of life. In the last decade of his life, Rydal Mount, his home for thirty-seven years, became a place of pilgrimage, not just for the great and powerful in Church and state, but also, more touchingly, for the hundreds of ordinary people who came to pay their respects to his genius. In what is, astonishingly, the first biography of Wordsworth to treat the latter part of his life as fully as the first, Juliet Barker balances meticulous research with a readable style, and scrupulous objectivity with an understanding of her subject. She reveals not only the public figure who was courted and reviled in equal measure but also the complex, elusive, private man behind that image. Drawing on unpublished sources, she vividly re-creates the intimacy of Wordsworths domestic circle, showing the love, laughter, loyalty, and tragedies that bound them together. Far from being the remote, cold, solitary figure of legend, Wordsworth emerges from his biography as a passionate, vibrant man who lived for his family, his poetry, and his beloved Lakeland. His legacy, as a poet and as the spiritual founder of the conservation movement, remains with us today. Introduction to William Wordsworth Many people think that The Prelude , an autobiographical poem of his early years is his masterpiece. Wordsworth was England's Poet Laureate from until his death in Wordsworth was born as second of five children in the Lake District. After the death of his mother in , his father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School. In his father, a lawyer and a solicitor , died. Although many aspects of his boyhood were positive, he remembered times of loneliness and anxiety. William Wordsworth — produced some of the greatest English poems of the late s and early s. how droofus lost his head Early life and education Wordsworth was born on 7 April, in Cockermouth, in northwest England. He felt frequently in conflict with his relations and at times contemplated ending his life. However, as a child, he developed a great love of nature, spending many hours walking in the fells of the Lake District. He also became very close to his sister, Dorothy, who would later become a poet in her own right. In , William was sent to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire; this separated him from his beloved sister for nearly nine years. In , he entered St. It was in this year that he had his first published work, a sonnet in the European Magazine. William Wordsworth was one of the founders of English Romanticism and one its most central figures and important intellects. He is remembered as a poet of spiritual and epistemological speculation, a poet concerned with the human relationship to nature and a fierce advocate of using the vocabulary and speech patterns of common people in poetry. The son of John and Ann Cookson Wordsworth, William Wordworth was born on April 7, in Cockermouth, Cumberland, located in the Lake District of England: an area that would become closely associated with Wordsworth for over two centuries after his death. He began writing poetry as a young boy in grammar school, and before graduating from college he went on a walking tour of Europe, which deepened his love for nature and his sympathy for the common man: both major themes in his poetry. The Wordsworth children seem to have lived in a sort of rural paradise along the Derwent River, which ran past the terraced garden below the ample house whose tenancy John Wordsworth had obtained from his employer, the political magnate and property owner Sir James Lowther, Baronet of Lowther later Earl of Lonsdale. The intense lifelong friendship between William Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy probably began when they, along with Mary Hutchinson, attended school at Penrith. This childhood idyll was not to continue, however. Search more than 3, biographies of contemporary and classic poets. Wordsworth's mother died when he was eight—this experience shapes much of his later work. Wordsworth attended Hawkshead Grammar School, where his love of poetry was firmly established and, it is believed, he made his first attempts at verse. While he was at Hawkshead, Wordsworth's father died leaving him and his four siblings orphans. After Hawkshead, Wordsworth studied at St. John's College in Cambridge and before his final semester, he set out on a walking tour of Europe, an experience that influenced both his poetry and his political sensibilities. While touring Europe, Wordsworth came into contact with the French Revolution.	<urn:uuid:d9a367a7-4a77-43de-98a8-69d7c3a56a1e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://inti-revista.org/life/16655-life-sketch-of-william-wordsworth-367-858.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00343.warc.gz	en	0.990454	1,117	3.34375	3	[ 0.1421695351600647, -0.05152394250035286, 0.2597261071205139, 0.3751507103443146, -0.2915087938308716, 0.33607959747314453, 0.03207097575068474, -0.1896660029888153, -0.07031983137130737, -0.07163270562887192, 0.2045966386795044, -0.06955685466527939, 0.3375779092311859, 0.2024895697832107...	2	Life sketch of william wordsworth Wordsworth: A Life by Juliet BarkerWilliam Wordsworths early life reads like a novel. Orphaned at a young age and dependent on the charity of unsympathetic relatives, he became the archetypal teenage rebel. Refusing to enter the Church, he went instead to Revolutionary France, where he fathered an illegitimate daughter and became a committed Republican. His poetry was as revolutionary as his politics, challenging convention in form, style, and subject, and earning him the universal derision and contempt of critics. Only the unfailing encouragement of a tightly knit group of supporters, his family, and, above all, Coleridge kept him true to his poetic vocation. In the half-century that followed his reputation was transformed. His advocacy of the importance of imagination and feeling touched a chord in an increasingly industrial, mechanistic age, and his influence was profoundly and widely felt in every sphere of life. In the last decade of his life, Rydal Mount, his home for thirty-seven years, became a place of pilgrimage, not just for the great and powerful in Church and state, but also, more touchingly, for the hundreds of ordinary people who came to pay their respects to his genius. In what is, astonishingly, the first biography of Wordsworth to treat the latter part of his life as fully as the first, Juliet Barker balances meticulous research with a readable style, and scrupulous objectivity with an understanding of her subject. She reveals not only the public figure who was courted and reviled in equal measure but also the complex, elusive, private man behind that image. Drawing on unpublished sources, she vividly re-creates the intimacy of Wordsworths domestic circle, showing the love, laughter, loyalty, and tragedies that bound them together. Far from being the remote, cold, solitary figure of legend, Wordsworth emerges from his biography as a passionate, vibrant man who lived for his family, his poetry, and his beloved Lakeland. His legacy, as a poet and as the spiritual founder of the conservation movement, remains with us today. Introduction to William Wordsworth Many people think that The Prelude , an autobiographical poem of his early years is his masterpiece. Wordsworth was England's Poet Laureate from until his death in Wordsworth was born as second of five children in the Lake District. After the death of his mother in , his father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School. In his father, a lawyer and a solicitor , died. Although many aspects of his boyhood were positive, he remembered times of loneliness and anxiety. William Wordsworth — produced some of the greatest English poems of the late s and early s. how droofus lost his head Early life and education Wordsworth was born on 7 April, in Cockermouth, in northwest England. He felt frequently in conflict with his relations and at times contemplated ending his life. However, as a child, he developed a great love of nature, spending many hours walking in the fells of the Lake District. He also became very close to his sister, Dorothy, who would later become a poet in her own right. In , William was sent to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire; this separated him from his beloved sister for nearly nine years. In , he entered St. It was in this year that he had his first published work, a sonnet in the European Magazine. William Wordsworth was one of the founders of English Romanticism and one its most central figures and important intellects. He is remembered as a poet of spiritual and epistemological speculation, a poet concerned with the human relationship to nature and a fierce advocate of using the vocabulary and speech patterns of common people in poetry. The son of John and Ann Cookson Wordsworth, William Wordworth was born on April 7, in Cockermouth, Cumberland, located in the Lake District of England: an area that would become closely associated with Wordsworth for over two centuries after his death. He began writing poetry as a young boy in grammar school, and before graduating from college he went on a walking tour of Europe, which deepened his love for nature and his sympathy for the common man: both major themes in his poetry. The Wordsworth children seem to have lived in a sort of rural paradise along the Derwent River, which ran past the terraced garden below the ample house whose tenancy John Wordsworth had obtained from his employer, the political magnate and property owner Sir James Lowther, Baronet of Lowther later Earl of Lonsdale. The intense lifelong friendship between William Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy probably began when they, along with Mary Hutchinson, attended school at Penrith. This childhood idyll was not to continue, however. Search more than 3, biographies of contemporary and classic poets. Wordsworth's mother died when he was eight—this experience shapes much of his later work. Wordsworth attended Hawkshead Grammar School, where his love of poetry was firmly established and, it is believed, he made his first attempts at verse. While he was at Hawkshead, Wordsworth's father died leaving him and his four siblings orphans. After Hawkshead, Wordsworth studied at St. John's College in Cambridge and before his final semester, he set out on a walking tour of Europe, an experience that influenced both his poetry and his political sensibilities. While touring Europe, Wordsworth came into contact with the French Revolution.	1,115	ENGLISH	1
The symbol G was a new coinage in the 3rd century B.C. The pronunciation of C throughout the period of classical Latin was that of an unvoiced guttural stop (k). The sound was that of the unvoiced dental stop. The English t, however, is not dental but alveolar, being pronounced, as d also, not by putting the tongue against the teeth but against their sockets. In English th represents both the unvoiced sound J as in thin, &c., and the voiced sound 5, which is found initially only in pronominal words like this, that, there, then, those, is commonest medially as in father, bother, smother, either, and is found also finally in words like with (the preposition), both. In other cases the pronunciation can be ascertained only from the context, as in use, unvoiced for the substantive, voiced for the verb. Early English used ]' and S indiscriminately for both voiced and unvoiced sounds, in Middle English S disappeared and p was gradually assimilated in form to y, which is often found for it in early printing.	<urn:uuid:0c0fea9d-0026-4db7-b6ba-9ba2615dea9c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thesaurus.yourdictionary.com/unvoiced	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00554.warc.gz	en	0.985924	242	3.828125	4	[ -0.4359777271747589, -0.14632800221443176, 0.3791918158531189, -0.15061596035957336, -0.4265701472759247, -0.2606911063194275, 0.1000857725739479, 0.31516820192337036, 0.22380033135414124, -0.13703812658786774, -0.05706850066781044, -0.2676240801811218, 0.0783277377486229, -0.0512696355581...	1	The symbol G was a new coinage in the 3rd century B.C. The pronunciation of C throughout the period of classical Latin was that of an unvoiced guttural stop (k). The sound was that of the unvoiced dental stop. The English t, however, is not dental but alveolar, being pronounced, as d also, not by putting the tongue against the teeth but against their sockets. In English th represents both the unvoiced sound J as in thin, &c., and the voiced sound 5, which is found initially only in pronominal words like this, that, there, then, those, is commonest medially as in father, bother, smother, either, and is found also finally in words like with (the preposition), both. In other cases the pronunciation can be ascertained only from the context, as in use, unvoiced for the substantive, voiced for the verb. Early English used ]' and S indiscriminately for both voiced and unvoiced sounds, in Middle English S disappeared and p was gradually assimilated in form to y, which is often found for it in early printing.	241	ENGLISH	1
Wikijunior:World War II/Franklin Roosevelt - Born: January 30, 1882 - Died: April 12, 1945 - Leader Of: The United States of America - From: March 4, 1933 - To: April 12, 1945 "We must be the great arsenal of democracy. For us, this is an emergency as serious as war itself. We must apply ourselves to our task with the same resolution, the same sense of urgency, the same spirit of patriotism and sacrifice as we would show were we at war." -Franklin D. Roosevelt The Roosevelt administration stretched from 1933 to 1945, during which the United States faced many challenges, both at home and abroad. Without the leadership of President Roosevelt, America might not have come out of the Great Depression for many years, and a different president's policies could have changed the direction of World War II, even the events from before America entered the war. Franklin Roosevelt is widely known for leading this country out of hard times and into a brighter future. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born in Hyde Park, New York, on January 30, 1882, to James and Sara Roosevelt. He was an only child. Both of his parents came from wealthy old families; he was a distant relative of President James Monroe and his mother's family could trace their ancestry back to the Mayflower. He grew up in a privileged household and went to Harvard and Columbia Law School. In college, he met his wife Eleanor Roosevelt, who was then-President Theodore Roosevelt's niece and a distant relative of Franklin's at a White House reception. They got married on March 17, 1905, and had six children. Franklin Roosevelt had a long political career. In 1910, he was elected to the New York state Senate as a Democrat. He was reelected in 1912, but resigned to become the Assistant Secretary of the Navy. He was appointed by the newly elected President Woodrow Wilson. During his time in office, he worked to expand the Navy. He also founded the Naval Reserve. World War one was going on during this time, and after the war ended in 1918, Roosevelt was put in charge of demobilization. He did not like the Versailles Treaty, which was signed after the end of the war, and coincidentally, he would have to deal with the consequences of the one-sided agreement as President. In 1920 he ran for Vice President alongside James Cox, but the Democrats lost. Roosevelt took a break from politics after that. In 1921, Roosevelt was diagnosed with polio and became paralyzed from the waist down. But he never let this disability stand in his way. He was never seen in a wheelchair in public. He worked hard to teach himself to walk a short distance while using leg braces and a cane. After he became president, he helped to found the organization now known as the March of Dimes, which today is dedicated to improving the health of babies, but back then was dedicated to finding a cure for polio. In 1929, Roosevelt rejoined the political world and ran for Governor of New York. He won and became a reform Governor, starting social programs and investigating corruption. He was advised by Frances Perkins and Harry Hopkins, both of whom later would work for him in the White House, Hopkins as federal relief administrator, and Perkins as the Secretary of Labor. She was the first woman to hold a position in the President's Cabinet and kept that job during the entire administration. The same year he was elected Governor, the stock market crashed and the world was thrown into the Great Depression. Roosevelt's popularity made him a good candidate for the Democratic nomination for President in 1932. He built a coalition made up of the working class, organized labor, and minorities. He ran with John Garner, one of his supporters, as his Vice President. Garner stayed until 1941, followed by Henry Wallace until 1945 and Harry Truman for the final year. He easily defeated incumbent Herbert Hoover, who many voters blamed for the economic mess. As soon as Roosevelt was inaugurated, he got to work repairing the economy. Prompted by widespread bank failures that wiped out people's savings, within the first year he created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which helps protect people's money in banks. He also expanded the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. This agency tried to lower unemployment by hiring people to do work for the government. He created the Public Works Administration and the Works Progress Administration, both of which were used to build public works like bridges and parks. These programs were called the New Deal. Roosevelt also pushed for the repeal of Prohibition. The 21st Amendment was ratified in 1933, overturning the 18th Amendment, which banned the sale of alcohol in the United States. In the 1934 midterms, large Democratic majorities were elected to both chambers of Congress. After the elections, Roosevelt pushed though more new legislation for the New Deal. During this time he passed Social Security and the National Labor Relations Act, which gave blue-collar Americans more equality when negotiating contracts with management. Similar to presidential politics today, Roosevelt's opponents often called him a socialist, a communist, and other names, none of which made much sense. During Roosevelt's second term in office, which began in 1937, World War II began in Europe and Asia. The war began in 1939 with Germany invading Poland, then joining forces with Italy and Japan to form the Axis Powers. As Europe's democracies fell, most Americans wanted to stay out of the war, still remembering the tragedies of the World War I. Roosevelt wanted to intervene by helping Great Britain and France. He tried to convince Congress to send aid to these countries, leading to my opening quote. In March 1941, the Lend-Lease bill was passed, sending aid to Britain, France, the Soviet Union and China. The majority of the aid went to Britain. The bill, ironically, was numbered HR 1776. On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and America entered World War II on the Allied side. The public's feelings about the war turned 180 degrees as Americans rallied around Roosevelt. Many were inspired by this line from his famous speech the next day declaring war on Japan: "Yesterday, December 7, 1941 — a date which will live in infamy — the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan." The Allies fought hard, and in 1943 the Allied leaders began to discuss what to do after the war. They met in Tehran and Cairo to plan the future of the world. In 1945, Roosevelt met with Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin in Yalta. At this point, the Soviet Union had gained control of much of Eastern Europe. Roosevelt wanted the Soviets to help with the war in Japan, but another important item on the list was Poland. Stalin promised the other two leaders that "the Soviet Union is interested in the creation of a mighty, free and independent Poland." This was a blatant lie. Roosevelt later admitted he had been overly optimistic about the Soviet dictator's actions. After the war, many eastern European countries ended up as communist dictatorships until the Soviet Union began to crumble in 1989. The World War II ended in August 1945, after America dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, but Roosevelt would not live to see victory. On April 12, 1945, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage while sitting for a portrait. He was buried at the Roosevelt family home in Hyde Park. Harry Truman then became President and when Germany surrendered to the Allies in May 1945, President Truman dedicated the victory celebrations to Roosevelt's memory.	<urn:uuid:36c644de-b490-49aa-ae59-0ea76702c10a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:World_War_II/Franklin_Roosevelt	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00415.warc.gz	en	0.983516	1,546	3.5625	4	[ -0.22607913613319397, 0.23886151611804962, 0.2870832085609436, -0.37147271633148193, 0.1856316775083542, 0.36001524329185486, -0.004166231025010347, 0.12107358127832413, -0.17344215512275696, -0.4193601608276367, 0.5867500305175781, 0.41916391253471375, 0.05589544028043747, 0.6930244565010...	5	Wikijunior:World War II/Franklin Roosevelt - Born: January 30, 1882 - Died: April 12, 1945 - Leader Of: The United States of America - From: March 4, 1933 - To: April 12, 1945 "We must be the great arsenal of democracy. For us, this is an emergency as serious as war itself. We must apply ourselves to our task with the same resolution, the same sense of urgency, the same spirit of patriotism and sacrifice as we would show were we at war." -Franklin D. Roosevelt The Roosevelt administration stretched from 1933 to 1945, during which the United States faced many challenges, both at home and abroad. Without the leadership of President Roosevelt, America might not have come out of the Great Depression for many years, and a different president's policies could have changed the direction of World War II, even the events from before America entered the war. Franklin Roosevelt is widely known for leading this country out of hard times and into a brighter future. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born in Hyde Park, New York, on January 30, 1882, to James and Sara Roosevelt. He was an only child. Both of his parents came from wealthy old families; he was a distant relative of President James Monroe and his mother's family could trace their ancestry back to the Mayflower. He grew up in a privileged household and went to Harvard and Columbia Law School. In college, he met his wife Eleanor Roosevelt, who was then-President Theodore Roosevelt's niece and a distant relative of Franklin's at a White House reception. They got married on March 17, 1905, and had six children. Franklin Roosevelt had a long political career. In 1910, he was elected to the New York state Senate as a Democrat. He was reelected in 1912, but resigned to become the Assistant Secretary of the Navy. He was appointed by the newly elected President Woodrow Wilson. During his time in office, he worked to expand the Navy. He also founded the Naval Reserve. World War one was going on during this time, and after the war ended in 1918, Roosevelt was put in charge of demobilization. He did not like the Versailles Treaty, which was signed after the end of the war, and coincidentally, he would have to deal with the consequences of the one-sided agreement as President. In 1920 he ran for Vice President alongside James Cox, but the Democrats lost. Roosevelt took a break from politics after that. In 1921, Roosevelt was diagnosed with polio and became paralyzed from the waist down. But he never let this disability stand in his way. He was never seen in a wheelchair in public. He worked hard to teach himself to walk a short distance while using leg braces and a cane. After he became president, he helped to found the organization now known as the March of Dimes, which today is dedicated to improving the health of babies, but back then was dedicated to finding a cure for polio. In 1929, Roosevelt rejoined the political world and ran for Governor of New York. He won and became a reform Governor, starting social programs and investigating corruption. He was advised by Frances Perkins and Harry Hopkins, both of whom later would work for him in the White House, Hopkins as federal relief administrator, and Perkins as the Secretary of Labor. She was the first woman to hold a position in the President's Cabinet and kept that job during the entire administration. The same year he was elected Governor, the stock market crashed and the world was thrown into the Great Depression. Roosevelt's popularity made him a good candidate for the Democratic nomination for President in 1932. He built a coalition made up of the working class, organized labor, and minorities. He ran with John Garner, one of his supporters, as his Vice President. Garner stayed until 1941, followed by Henry Wallace until 1945 and Harry Truman for the final year. He easily defeated incumbent Herbert Hoover, who many voters blamed for the economic mess. As soon as Roosevelt was inaugurated, he got to work repairing the economy. Prompted by widespread bank failures that wiped out people's savings, within the first year he created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which helps protect people's money in banks. He also expanded the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. This agency tried to lower unemployment by hiring people to do work for the government. He created the Public Works Administration and the Works Progress Administration, both of which were used to build public works like bridges and parks. These programs were called the New Deal. Roosevelt also pushed for the repeal of Prohibition. The 21st Amendment was ratified in 1933, overturning the 18th Amendment, which banned the sale of alcohol in the United States. In the 1934 midterms, large Democratic majorities were elected to both chambers of Congress. After the elections, Roosevelt pushed though more new legislation for the New Deal. During this time he passed Social Security and the National Labor Relations Act, which gave blue-collar Americans more equality when negotiating contracts with management. Similar to presidential politics today, Roosevelt's opponents often called him a socialist, a communist, and other names, none of which made much sense. During Roosevelt's second term in office, which began in 1937, World War II began in Europe and Asia. The war began in 1939 with Germany invading Poland, then joining forces with Italy and Japan to form the Axis Powers. As Europe's democracies fell, most Americans wanted to stay out of the war, still remembering the tragedies of the World War I. Roosevelt wanted to intervene by helping Great Britain and France. He tried to convince Congress to send aid to these countries, leading to my opening quote. In March 1941, the Lend-Lease bill was passed, sending aid to Britain, France, the Soviet Union and China. The majority of the aid went to Britain. The bill, ironically, was numbered HR 1776. On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and America entered World War II on the Allied side. The public's feelings about the war turned 180 degrees as Americans rallied around Roosevelt. Many were inspired by this line from his famous speech the next day declaring war on Japan: "Yesterday, December 7, 1941 — a date which will live in infamy — the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan." The Allies fought hard, and in 1943 the Allied leaders began to discuss what to do after the war. They met in Tehran and Cairo to plan the future of the world. In 1945, Roosevelt met with Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin in Yalta. At this point, the Soviet Union had gained control of much of Eastern Europe. Roosevelt wanted the Soviets to help with the war in Japan, but another important item on the list was Poland. Stalin promised the other two leaders that "the Soviet Union is interested in the creation of a mighty, free and independent Poland." This was a blatant lie. Roosevelt later admitted he had been overly optimistic about the Soviet dictator's actions. After the war, many eastern European countries ended up as communist dictatorships until the Soviet Union began to crumble in 1989. The World War II ended in August 1945, after America dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, but Roosevelt would not live to see victory. On April 12, 1945, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage while sitting for a portrait. He was buried at the Roosevelt family home in Hyde Park. Harry Truman then became President and when Germany surrendered to the Allies in May 1945, President Truman dedicated the victory celebrations to Roosevelt's memory.	1,679	ENGLISH	1
The Spanish Republic and its supporters had warned that a world war would be inevitable unless Franco’s rise to power was stopped and fascism was defeated. Britain and the other western powers apart from the Fascist Government in Italy and the Nazis in Germany who sent troops, aircraft and arms to support Franco, had decided it would be wrong to intervene. The Second World War began five months after the Republics’ defeat. The files with the material on the exhibition contained a cutting from the Jewish Chronicle magazine which said that in 1951 Franco had a mass said to celebrate Hitler and pray for his soul in the Church of San Jose in Madrid the capital of Spain. Sadly, the Catholic Church had supported Franco throughout the Civil War and its aftermath. At that time, he would have known that Hitler and his regime were responsible for this dreadful list of murdered people. It is very difficult to be precise, as Nazi Germany tried to destroy as much evidence of concentration camps and mass executions as they could. These figures are very unlikely to be exaggerations and much more likely to be under estimations. 6 million Jewish people, 250,000 disabled people, Hundreds, possibly thousands of gay men Between 220,000 and 500,000 Roma people 10,000 Jehovah’s Witnesses More than 10 million Slavic people from Poland, Russia, Ukraine and Serbia Jewish, Roma and Black people were classified as “sub-human”. Hitler and his regime believed that there was a “racial” hierarchy based on skin colour with the Aryan race (to which German people belonged) at the top. At the very bottom were the indigenous people of Australia and Equatorial Africa. who were considered to have the darkest skin colour and were judged to be living like “stone age people” with a complete ignorance and disregard of their complex cultures. Although this is scientific nonsense, Hitler considered that the Aryan Race of blond haired, blue eyed and pale skinned people were the Master Race – the most superior race of all. The idea of racial hierarchy was a common one and still surfaces today. The current President of the United States, one of the most powerful men in the world said in 2017 that some of the marchers at a rally in Charlottesville in the USA who were white supremacists (sometimes known as neo-Nazis because of their admiration for Hitler and his ridiculous beliefs) were “very fine people”. Interestingly, in all this absurd nonsense, Franco and his fellow Spaniards would have been classified as being a member of the “Mediterranean Race” with his darker hair and skin colouring making him inferior to Germans, Swedes, Icelanders, Norwegians, Danes, British, Irish, Dutch, Belgian and Northern French people so it is hard to understand why he is smiling quite so happily when he meets Hitler or why he was so eager to support him. WHY THESE PEOPLE WERE MURDERED Disabled people were described as “life unworthy of life” or “useless eaters” and by 1933 (three years before the Spanish Civil War began) a law had been passed in Germany to make sure they were compulsorily sterilised. In 1939, (two years after Franco had asked the German Air Force to bomb Guernica) the German Government forced all doctors, nurses, and midwives to report new born infants and children under the age of three who showed signs of severe mental or physical disability so that they could be killed. Eventually young people up to 17 years of age were also killed. Conservative estimates suggest that at least 5,000 physically and mentally disabled children were murdered through starvation or lethal overdoses of medication. The criteria would include deaf and hearing impaired children, blind children and children with epilepsy. Many children and young people were killed because they were rebellious and difficult to manage. As well as being in the “sub-human” group, Jewish people were deemed to be evil plotters who were seeking to take over the world. There was a small Black population in Germany but some African American soldiers had been stationed in Germany during the war and had stayed on and married German women and raised families. Hitler even held the Jews responsible for the fact that these Black people were in Germany. African-German dual heritage children were economically and socially marginalised in German society, and not allowed to attend university. When the Nazis took over the government of Germany under Hitler’s command Black people were no longer able to work. One of Hitler’s first directives was aimed at dual heritage children and by 1937 every identified Black person of dual heritage had been forcibly sterilised. Slavic people, particularly Polish people were also considered to be “sub-human” Jehovah’s Witnesses were imprisoned and killed because they opposed the Second World War and campaigned against it. Hitler did not make being a lesbian illegal in Germany. That wasn’t because he was tolerant about gay and bisexual women but because he didn’t think women were important enough to make their sexual activities a criminal offence (many gay men were imprisoned and executed because they had broken the law that made sex between men illegal….others simply because they were known to be gay) and they could still have children who could grow up to be good German soldiers. Lesbians were of course, also imprisoned and killed because they were Jewish, or because of their politics and their resistance to Hitler. People who like to think there was another side to Franco usually claim that he protected Spanish Jews. However, he ordered his officials to draw up a list of the 6,000 Jews living in Spain and handed it over to the Nazis. Local governors were even ordered to look out especially for Sephardic Jews, who were descendants of Spanish Jews. “Their adaptation to our environment and their similar temperament allow them to hide their origins more easily,” said the order, sent out in May 1941. When Hitler and Mussolini (the dictator of Italy) were defeated in the Second World War, Franco did his best to destroy the evidence that he was complicit in Hitler’s attempt to exterminate Jewish people not because he regretted his actions but because he feared that America might work with the British to depose him. Not only did he support Hitler, when the Spanish Civil War ended tens of thousands of Republican supporters were executed on Franco’s orders.	<urn:uuid:c7c4cc8c-18b4-45ca-a844-bf361d6cf195>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wacarts.co.uk/misc/franco-and-his-support-and-collaboration-with-hitler-the-side-the-exhibition-did-show	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00456.warc.gz	en	0.991821	1,312	3.453125	3	[ -0.15113648772239685, 0.6054604053497314, 0.047371018677949905, 0.06928233802318573, -0.10444913804531097, 0.49310311675071716, 0.0357702299952507, 0.36932969093322754, 0.33166009187698364, 0.08647470921278, 0.2318938672542572, -0.08214963227510452, 0.048313453793525696, 0.5695375204086304...	8	The Spanish Republic and its supporters had warned that a world war would be inevitable unless Franco’s rise to power was stopped and fascism was defeated. Britain and the other western powers apart from the Fascist Government in Italy and the Nazis in Germany who sent troops, aircraft and arms to support Franco, had decided it would be wrong to intervene. The Second World War began five months after the Republics’ defeat. The files with the material on the exhibition contained a cutting from the Jewish Chronicle magazine which said that in 1951 Franco had a mass said to celebrate Hitler and pray for his soul in the Church of San Jose in Madrid the capital of Spain. Sadly, the Catholic Church had supported Franco throughout the Civil War and its aftermath. At that time, he would have known that Hitler and his regime were responsible for this dreadful list of murdered people. It is very difficult to be precise, as Nazi Germany tried to destroy as much evidence of concentration camps and mass executions as they could. These figures are very unlikely to be exaggerations and much more likely to be under estimations. 6 million Jewish people, 250,000 disabled people, Hundreds, possibly thousands of gay men Between 220,000 and 500,000 Roma people 10,000 Jehovah’s Witnesses More than 10 million Slavic people from Poland, Russia, Ukraine and Serbia Jewish, Roma and Black people were classified as “sub-human”. Hitler and his regime believed that there was a “racial” hierarchy based on skin colour with the Aryan race (to which German people belonged) at the top. At the very bottom were the indigenous people of Australia and Equatorial Africa. who were considered to have the darkest skin colour and were judged to be living like “stone age people” with a complete ignorance and disregard of their complex cultures. Although this is scientific nonsense, Hitler considered that the Aryan Race of blond haired, blue eyed and pale skinned people were the Master Race – the most superior race of all. The idea of racial hierarchy was a common one and still surfaces today. The current President of the United States, one of the most powerful men in the world said in 2017 that some of the marchers at a rally in Charlottesville in the USA who were white supremacists (sometimes known as neo-Nazis because of their admiration for Hitler and his ridiculous beliefs) were “very fine people”. Interestingly, in all this absurd nonsense, Franco and his fellow Spaniards would have been classified as being a member of the “Mediterranean Race” with his darker hair and skin colouring making him inferior to Germans, Swedes, Icelanders, Norwegians, Danes, British, Irish, Dutch, Belgian and Northern French people so it is hard to understand why he is smiling quite so happily when he meets Hitler or why he was so eager to support him. WHY THESE PEOPLE WERE MURDERED Disabled people were described as “life unworthy of life” or “useless eaters” and by 1933 (three years before the Spanish Civil War began) a law had been passed in Germany to make sure they were compulsorily sterilised. In 1939, (two years after Franco had asked the German Air Force to bomb Guernica) the German Government forced all doctors, nurses, and midwives to report new born infants and children under the age of three who showed signs of severe mental or physical disability so that they could be killed. Eventually young people up to 17 years of age were also killed. Conservative estimates suggest that at least 5,000 physically and mentally disabled children were murdered through starvation or lethal overdoses of medication. The criteria would include deaf and hearing impaired children, blind children and children with epilepsy. Many children and young people were killed because they were rebellious and difficult to manage. As well as being in the “sub-human” group, Jewish people were deemed to be evil plotters who were seeking to take over the world. There was a small Black population in Germany but some African American soldiers had been stationed in Germany during the war and had stayed on and married German women and raised families. Hitler even held the Jews responsible for the fact that these Black people were in Germany. African-German dual heritage children were economically and socially marginalised in German society, and not allowed to attend university. When the Nazis took over the government of Germany under Hitler’s command Black people were no longer able to work. One of Hitler’s first directives was aimed at dual heritage children and by 1937 every identified Black person of dual heritage had been forcibly sterilised. Slavic people, particularly Polish people were also considered to be “sub-human” Jehovah’s Witnesses were imprisoned and killed because they opposed the Second World War and campaigned against it. Hitler did not make being a lesbian illegal in Germany. That wasn’t because he was tolerant about gay and bisexual women but because he didn’t think women were important enough to make their sexual activities a criminal offence (many gay men were imprisoned and executed because they had broken the law that made sex between men illegal….others simply because they were known to be gay) and they could still have children who could grow up to be good German soldiers. Lesbians were of course, also imprisoned and killed because they were Jewish, or because of their politics and their resistance to Hitler. People who like to think there was another side to Franco usually claim that he protected Spanish Jews. However, he ordered his officials to draw up a list of the 6,000 Jews living in Spain and handed it over to the Nazis. Local governors were even ordered to look out especially for Sephardic Jews, who were descendants of Spanish Jews. “Their adaptation to our environment and their similar temperament allow them to hide their origins more easily,” said the order, sent out in May 1941. When Hitler and Mussolini (the dictator of Italy) were defeated in the Second World War, Franco did his best to destroy the evidence that he was complicit in Hitler’s attempt to exterminate Jewish people not because he regretted his actions but because he feared that America might work with the British to depose him. Not only did he support Hitler, when the Spanish Civil War ended tens of thousands of Republican supporters were executed on Franco’s orders.	1,310	ENGLISH	1
What if you started a revolution and nobody came? New Hampshire’s Edward Gove found out in 1683 – and the answer is you are sent to the Tower of London to await your gruesome execution. Gove’s story is well-preserved in The Gove Book: History and Genealogy of the American Family of Gove, written by William Henry Gove. Gove was born in 1630 in London. His father brought him to America around 1647 when he was 17. He gradually moved north from Charlestown, Mass., to Salisbury, Mass., and finally into Hampton in what is now New Hampshire in 1665. In 1679, King Charles II declared that New Hampshire was no longer a part of Massachusetts. Rather, it would be governed as an independent province. At that point, the English hadn’t settled much of New Hampshire, which consisted of four towns: Portsmouth, Exeter, Hampton and Dover. The colony elected a council to govern itself, which operated until 1683 with Edward Gove as a member. This brief period of self-governance abruptly ended shortly after a royal governor, Edward Cranfield, arrived late in 1682. Cranfield had two unenviable tasks. First, he had to impose a tax on the colony. Second, he had to deal with Robert Mason. In 1622, Captain John Mason had gained title to property north of the Merrimack River in Newburyport. But the Mason family had done little with the land. John Mason had built mills for sawing lumber and milling grain, and he stocked his new colony with cannon and small arms. Upon his death, however, all his work decayed to ruin. In 1652, a descendant tried to reestablish ownership of the colony. Though he successfully sued one of the settlers occupying part of the land, he could never extract any payment. He returned to England empty-handed. With the royal decision to detach New Hampshire from Massachusetts, the time seemed right to Robert Mason to try to enforce his family’s 60-year-old claim to the land. With visions of establishing himself a fiefdom, Mason named himself Lord Proprietor of New Hampshire. He then agreed to pay Cranfield a salary of 150 pounds to go to New Hampshire as governor. Mason also began demanding that the residents of the colony start paying him rent for their land. He agreed to send 20 percent of what he collected back to the king. The elected government of New Hampshire was dissolved and replaced by an appointed king’s governing council. This council first tried to buy off Cranfield by topping Mason’s bribe. It voted him a payment of 250 pounds. Cranfield agreed to the payment, but continued working with Mason. The governing council grew increasingly annoyed by Mason as he continued to assert that he owned all of New Hampshire. He also denied them trees for fuel and threatened to sell their property. The governing council outlawed his proceedings and almost everyone flat-out refused to pay him rents. Cranfield, too, started getting frustrated at the colonists’ unwillingness to pay. In Hampton, Edward Gove – a large landowner – boiled over. Edward Gove had a history of hotheadness,. He appeared in court to answer complaints about his foul language and accusing his neighbor of stealing. The time had come, Gove asserted, to defend the liberties of the colonists from Mason and Cranfield. Gove assembled a group of 12 men who, as he did, felt the time had come to revolt against Cranfield. The men armed themselves and rode horses from Exeter to Hampton, one man blowing a horn and the others calling for their neighbors to come out and join them in rising up against the tyranny. (Alcohol may have played a role in this endeavor.) Gove’s neighbors not only didn’t pick up arms to join him. They had him arrested. Those who knew him might have viewed the episode as Edward Gove popping off as usual. To Cranfield, the incident amounted to treason. He had Gove and his fellow riders jailed and then tried. Gove’s neighbors tried to explain to the court that for Edward Gove, this type of behavior wasn’t terribly unusual nor was he all that difficult to control. “Edward Gove now of Hampton…was some years since in a strange distemper seemingly lunatic,” one neighbor testified according to the Gove genealogy. The Tower of London “There be also many more than testify if need be . . . and some that can swear they were in company and did many times help to bind the said Edward Gove hand and foot (when he was out of his head) for fear he should do hurt to himself or others.” Cranfield held off sentencing the majority of the revolutionaries, but not Gove. He sentenced Gove to death, and a gruesome death at that: “You, Edward Gove, shall be drawn on a hedge to the place of execution and there you shall be hanged by the neck, and when yet living be cut down and cast on the ground, and your bowels shall be taken out of your belly, and your privy members cut off and burnt while you are yet alive, your head shall be cut off and your body divided in four parts, and your head and quarters shall be placed where our Sovereign Lord the King pleaseth to appoint. And the Lord have mercy on your soul.” With that, Edward Gove was dispatched on a ship, lest he be rescued from prison. The colonists sent him to the Tower of London since the y did not believe they had authority to actually carry out an execution. As Edward Gove languished in the tower for more than a year, Cranfield renewed pressing his case for taxes and rents. The news outraged the New Hampshire citizenry and further hardened them against Cranfield. In one case, an officer of the government attempted to collect a tax due from people exiting a church in Dover. A young girl knocked him to the ground by striking him in the head with her Bible. “At other places, the women met the collector of taxes at their doors with scalding water, which proved a perfect barrier to their ingress, and the men with clubs defied their approach, the officers being not infrequently roughly handled.” In England, newly crowned King James II and his government learned the details of Cranfield’s behavior in New Hampshire. Cranfield, himself, began to doubt whether his plans would ever succeed. The King pardoned Edward Gove and allowed him to return home, ordering the return of his lands seized by Cranfield. Meanwhile, he recalled Cranfield from his post. When news of Cranfield’s demotion reached New Hampshire a spontaneous committee formed to remove the erstwhile governor. They stripped him of his sword, tied him to a horse and escorted him to the border of Massachusetts. From there he went on his way. Capt. Walter Barefoot temporarily replaced Cranfield and tried to implement Mason and Cranfield’s tax schemes. He had even less success than his predecessor. One oft-told story involved Thomas Wiggins and Anthony Nutter visiting Mason at Barefoot’s home, where Mason was staying. The disagreement over Mason’s claim quickly turned violent. Wiggins tossed Mason into the fireplace and knelt on him on the coals. Barefoot tried to intervene and Wiggins gave him the same treatment, breaking two of his ribs in the process. Nutter, meanwhile, stood by laughing until Mason reached for his sword. That prompted Nutter to take the sword away. Finally the violence ended when neighbors began entering the house, drawn by the maid’s screams. The rents, needless to say, went uncollected. This story about Edward Gove was updated in 2019.	<urn:uuid:9a0223c4-a2f0-4dd3-8cb2-076950a76652>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/edward-gove-and-his-one-man-revolution-of-1683/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00192.warc.gz	en	0.981662	1,638	3.8125	4	[ 0.17906594276428223, 0.39822250604629517, 0.15762151777744293, -0.543912947177887, -0.08646263927221298, 0.6084744930267334, 0.22772720456123352, -0.038747768849134445, -0.4358843266963959, 0.40993303060531616, -0.037417881190776825, 0.011127375066280365, 0.0875377207994461, 0.210349410772...	1	What if you started a revolution and nobody came? New Hampshire’s Edward Gove found out in 1683 – and the answer is you are sent to the Tower of London to await your gruesome execution. Gove’s story is well-preserved in The Gove Book: History and Genealogy of the American Family of Gove, written by William Henry Gove. Gove was born in 1630 in London. His father brought him to America around 1647 when he was 17. He gradually moved north from Charlestown, Mass., to Salisbury, Mass., and finally into Hampton in what is now New Hampshire in 1665. In 1679, King Charles II declared that New Hampshire was no longer a part of Massachusetts. Rather, it would be governed as an independent province. At that point, the English hadn’t settled much of New Hampshire, which consisted of four towns: Portsmouth, Exeter, Hampton and Dover. The colony elected a council to govern itself, which operated until 1683 with Edward Gove as a member. This brief period of self-governance abruptly ended shortly after a royal governor, Edward Cranfield, arrived late in 1682. Cranfield had two unenviable tasks. First, he had to impose a tax on the colony. Second, he had to deal with Robert Mason. In 1622, Captain John Mason had gained title to property north of the Merrimack River in Newburyport. But the Mason family had done little with the land. John Mason had built mills for sawing lumber and milling grain, and he stocked his new colony with cannon and small arms. Upon his death, however, all his work decayed to ruin. In 1652, a descendant tried to reestablish ownership of the colony. Though he successfully sued one of the settlers occupying part of the land, he could never extract any payment. He returned to England empty-handed. With the royal decision to detach New Hampshire from Massachusetts, the time seemed right to Robert Mason to try to enforce his family’s 60-year-old claim to the land. With visions of establishing himself a fiefdom, Mason named himself Lord Proprietor of New Hampshire. He then agreed to pay Cranfield a salary of 150 pounds to go to New Hampshire as governor. Mason also began demanding that the residents of the colony start paying him rent for their land. He agreed to send 20 percent of what he collected back to the king. The elected government of New Hampshire was dissolved and replaced by an appointed king’s governing council. This council first tried to buy off Cranfield by topping Mason’s bribe. It voted him a payment of 250 pounds. Cranfield agreed to the payment, but continued working with Mason. The governing council grew increasingly annoyed by Mason as he continued to assert that he owned all of New Hampshire. He also denied them trees for fuel and threatened to sell their property. The governing council outlawed his proceedings and almost everyone flat-out refused to pay him rents. Cranfield, too, started getting frustrated at the colonists’ unwillingness to pay. In Hampton, Edward Gove – a large landowner – boiled over. Edward Gove had a history of hotheadness,. He appeared in court to answer complaints about his foul language and accusing his neighbor of stealing. The time had come, Gove asserted, to defend the liberties of the colonists from Mason and Cranfield. Gove assembled a group of 12 men who, as he did, felt the time had come to revolt against Cranfield. The men armed themselves and rode horses from Exeter to Hampton, one man blowing a horn and the others calling for their neighbors to come out and join them in rising up against the tyranny. (Alcohol may have played a role in this endeavor.) Gove’s neighbors not only didn’t pick up arms to join him. They had him arrested. Those who knew him might have viewed the episode as Edward Gove popping off as usual. To Cranfield, the incident amounted to treason. He had Gove and his fellow riders jailed and then tried. Gove’s neighbors tried to explain to the court that for Edward Gove, this type of behavior wasn’t terribly unusual nor was he all that difficult to control. “Edward Gove now of Hampton…was some years since in a strange distemper seemingly lunatic,” one neighbor testified according to the Gove genealogy. The Tower of London “There be also many more than testify if need be . . . and some that can swear they were in company and did many times help to bind the said Edward Gove hand and foot (when he was out of his head) for fear he should do hurt to himself or others.” Cranfield held off sentencing the majority of the revolutionaries, but not Gove. He sentenced Gove to death, and a gruesome death at that: “You, Edward Gove, shall be drawn on a hedge to the place of execution and there you shall be hanged by the neck, and when yet living be cut down and cast on the ground, and your bowels shall be taken out of your belly, and your privy members cut off and burnt while you are yet alive, your head shall be cut off and your body divided in four parts, and your head and quarters shall be placed where our Sovereign Lord the King pleaseth to appoint. And the Lord have mercy on your soul.” With that, Edward Gove was dispatched on a ship, lest he be rescued from prison. The colonists sent him to the Tower of London since the y did not believe they had authority to actually carry out an execution. As Edward Gove languished in the tower for more than a year, Cranfield renewed pressing his case for taxes and rents. The news outraged the New Hampshire citizenry and further hardened them against Cranfield. In one case, an officer of the government attempted to collect a tax due from people exiting a church in Dover. A young girl knocked him to the ground by striking him in the head with her Bible. “At other places, the women met the collector of taxes at their doors with scalding water, which proved a perfect barrier to their ingress, and the men with clubs defied their approach, the officers being not infrequently roughly handled.” In England, newly crowned King James II and his government learned the details of Cranfield’s behavior in New Hampshire. Cranfield, himself, began to doubt whether his plans would ever succeed. The King pardoned Edward Gove and allowed him to return home, ordering the return of his lands seized by Cranfield. Meanwhile, he recalled Cranfield from his post. When news of Cranfield’s demotion reached New Hampshire a spontaneous committee formed to remove the erstwhile governor. They stripped him of his sword, tied him to a horse and escorted him to the border of Massachusetts. From there he went on his way. Capt. Walter Barefoot temporarily replaced Cranfield and tried to implement Mason and Cranfield’s tax schemes. He had even less success than his predecessor. One oft-told story involved Thomas Wiggins and Anthony Nutter visiting Mason at Barefoot’s home, where Mason was staying. The disagreement over Mason’s claim quickly turned violent. Wiggins tossed Mason into the fireplace and knelt on him on the coals. Barefoot tried to intervene and Wiggins gave him the same treatment, breaking two of his ribs in the process. Nutter, meanwhile, stood by laughing until Mason reached for his sword. That prompted Nutter to take the sword away. Finally the violence ended when neighbors began entering the house, drawn by the maid’s screams. The rents, needless to say, went uncollected. This story about Edward Gove was updated in 2019.	1,609	ENGLISH	1
William A. Rogers was a man of both faith and science. Equally drawn to the teachings of the Seventh Day Baptist faith and the enigmas of physical reality, Williams believed in an intrinsic connection between religion and science and he spent much of his life exploring both. After graduating from Brown University, he was immediately recognized as a distinguished scholar and hired to teach mathematics at Alfred Academy. While on leave from the Academy, he enlisted in the Union Navy and served as a captain’s clerical assistant during the Civil War. In 1863, he returned to Alfred to complete the campus’s first astronomical observatory. The measurements he determined in this observatory allowed him to measure the positions of several stars, which further enabled him to calculate asteroid positions. His findings were published locally as well as in Britain, Germany, and France. His work earned him an international reputation as a physicist and astronomer.	<urn:uuid:48ee2d38-89c1-42d3-af5a-5f9d7ab0306c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.alfred.edu/about/alfred-stories/william-rogers.cfm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00041.warc.gz	en	0.984854	182	3.265625	3	[ -0.24028319120407104, 0.4939074218273163, -0.024639766663312912, -0.10843092948198318, -0.3894321322441101, -0.12119128555059433, 0.14377032220363617, 0.24573750793933868, -0.005644295830279589, 0.20026926696300507, 0.3467445373535156, -0.4281575083732605, 0.07320094853639603, 0.3043757975...	6	William A. Rogers was a man of both faith and science. Equally drawn to the teachings of the Seventh Day Baptist faith and the enigmas of physical reality, Williams believed in an intrinsic connection between religion and science and he spent much of his life exploring both. After graduating from Brown University, he was immediately recognized as a distinguished scholar and hired to teach mathematics at Alfred Academy. While on leave from the Academy, he enlisted in the Union Navy and served as a captain’s clerical assistant during the Civil War. In 1863, he returned to Alfred to complete the campus’s first astronomical observatory. The measurements he determined in this observatory allowed him to measure the positions of several stars, which further enabled him to calculate asteroid positions. His findings were published locally as well as in Britain, Germany, and France. His work earned him an international reputation as a physicist and astronomer.	182	ENGLISH	1
Twas the night before Christmas and all through the house, not one of us knew how this story came about! Loved by familie up and down the UK you might be surprised to know that the story originated in America and fundamentally changed how we thought Santa Claus goes about his business! The poem originally titled “A Visit from St. Nicholas” was first published anonymously in 1823. The poem has been called arguably the best-known verses ever written by an American and is largely responsible for some of the conceptions of Santa Claus from the mid-nineteenth century to today. It has had a massive impact on the history of Christmas gift-giving. Before the poem gained wide popularity, American ideas had varied considerably about Saint Nicholas and other Christmastide visitors. The authorship of “A Visit” is credited to Clement Clarke Moore who is said to have composed it on a snowy winter’s day during a trip on a sleigh. His inspiration for the character of Saint Nicholas was a local Dutch handyman as well as the historical Saint Nicholas. Moore originated many of the features that are still associated with Santa Claus today while borrowing other aspects, such as the use of reindeer.The poem was first published anonymously in the Troy, New York Sentinel on 23 December 1823, having been sent there by a friend of Moore and was reprinted frequently thereafter with no name attached. It was first attributed in print to Moore in 1837. Moore had a reputation as an erudite professor and had not wished at first to be connected with the unscholarly verse. He eventually included it in his own published works at the insistence of his children, for whom he had originally written the piece. Moore’s conception of Saint Nicholas was borrowed from his friend Washington Irving, but Moore portrayed his “jolly old elf” as arriving on Christmas Eve rather than Christmas Day. At the time that Moore wrote the poem, Christmas Day was overtaking New Year’s Day as the preferred genteel family holiday of the season, but some Protestants viewed Christmas as the result of “Catholic ignorance and deception” and still had reservations. By having Saint Nicholas arrive the night before, Moore deftly shifted the focus away from Christmas Day with its still “problematic” religious associations. As a result, “New Yorkers embraced Moore’s child-centered version of Christmas as if they had been doing it all their lives.” Modern printings frequently incorporate alterations that reflect changing linguistic and cultural sensibilities. For example, breast in “The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow” is frequently bowdlerized to crest; the archaic ere in “But I heard him exclaim ere he drove out of sight” is frequently replaced with as. This change implies that Santa Claus made his exclamation at the moment he disappeared from view, while the exclamation came before his disappearance in the original. “Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good-night” is frequently rendered with the traditional English locution “Merry Christmas”.	<urn:uuid:2f7d0986-3ee0-4c56-a6c2-129a6fe3f3e9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://locallinksmedia.co.uk/post/-twas-the-night-before-christmas	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00319.warc.gz	en	0.981905	641	3.625	4	[ 0.41883164644241333, 0.020889975130558014, 0.31986650824546814, -0.02312520146369934, 0.00605770293623209, -0.23337416350841522, 0.26663222908973694, 0.36450615525245667, 0.12935581803321838, -0.20393896102905273, 0.32495591044425964, 0.6308099627494812, -0.0993700921535492, 0.079823724925...	2	Twas the night before Christmas and all through the house, not one of us knew how this story came about! Loved by familie up and down the UK you might be surprised to know that the story originated in America and fundamentally changed how we thought Santa Claus goes about his business! The poem originally titled “A Visit from St. Nicholas” was first published anonymously in 1823. The poem has been called arguably the best-known verses ever written by an American and is largely responsible for some of the conceptions of Santa Claus from the mid-nineteenth century to today. It has had a massive impact on the history of Christmas gift-giving. Before the poem gained wide popularity, American ideas had varied considerably about Saint Nicholas and other Christmastide visitors. The authorship of “A Visit” is credited to Clement Clarke Moore who is said to have composed it on a snowy winter’s day during a trip on a sleigh. His inspiration for the character of Saint Nicholas was a local Dutch handyman as well as the historical Saint Nicholas. Moore originated many of the features that are still associated with Santa Claus today while borrowing other aspects, such as the use of reindeer.The poem was first published anonymously in the Troy, New York Sentinel on 23 December 1823, having been sent there by a friend of Moore and was reprinted frequently thereafter with no name attached. It was first attributed in print to Moore in 1837. Moore had a reputation as an erudite professor and had not wished at first to be connected with the unscholarly verse. He eventually included it in his own published works at the insistence of his children, for whom he had originally written the piece. Moore’s conception of Saint Nicholas was borrowed from his friend Washington Irving, but Moore portrayed his “jolly old elf” as arriving on Christmas Eve rather than Christmas Day. At the time that Moore wrote the poem, Christmas Day was overtaking New Year’s Day as the preferred genteel family holiday of the season, but some Protestants viewed Christmas as the result of “Catholic ignorance and deception” and still had reservations. By having Saint Nicholas arrive the night before, Moore deftly shifted the focus away from Christmas Day with its still “problematic” religious associations. As a result, “New Yorkers embraced Moore’s child-centered version of Christmas as if they had been doing it all their lives.” Modern printings frequently incorporate alterations that reflect changing linguistic and cultural sensibilities. For example, breast in “The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow” is frequently bowdlerized to crest; the archaic ere in “But I heard him exclaim ere he drove out of sight” is frequently replaced with as. This change implies that Santa Claus made his exclamation at the moment he disappeared from view, while the exclamation came before his disappearance in the original. “Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good-night” is frequently rendered with the traditional English locution “Merry Christmas”.	617	ENGLISH	1
Illinois County, Virginia, was a political and geographic region, part of the British Province of Quebec, claimed during the American Revolutionary War on July 4, 1778 by George Rogers Clark of the Virginia Militia, during the Illinois Campaign. It was formally recognized by the Commonwealth of Virginia later that year. The County was accorded official governmental existence, including legally defined boundaries and a formal governmental structure under the laws of the Commonwealth. The county seat was the old French village of Kaskaskia. John Todd was appointed by Governor Patrick Henry to head the county's government. The county was abolished in Jan. 1782, and the Commonwealth of Virginia ceded the land to the new United States federal government in 1784. The area later became the Northwest Territory by an Act of Congress in 1787. Geographically, the county was bordered to the southeast by the Ohio River, in the west by the Mississippi River, and in the north by the Great Lakes at the time of its existence. It included all of what were known as Ohio Country and eastern Illinois Country under French sovereignty. Politically, its effective reach extended only to the French settlements of Vincennes, Cahokia and Kaskaskia.	<urn:uuid:a4e2abbe-a5a4-4e72-9222-371a4db3d940>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://popflock.com/learn?s=Illinois_County	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00558.warc.gz	en	0.983554	243	3.46875	3	[ -0.48688364028930664, 0.004480038303881884, 0.264255166053772, 0.0024668762926012278, -0.19944147765636444, -0.0068816328421235085, 0.1237649992108345, 0.09078004211187363, -0.4241293668746948, 0.11360316723585129, 0.29987260699272156, -0.382269948720932, -0.37893226742744446, 0.2879357337...	1	Illinois County, Virginia, was a political and geographic region, part of the British Province of Quebec, claimed during the American Revolutionary War on July 4, 1778 by George Rogers Clark of the Virginia Militia, during the Illinois Campaign. It was formally recognized by the Commonwealth of Virginia later that year. The County was accorded official governmental existence, including legally defined boundaries and a formal governmental structure under the laws of the Commonwealth. The county seat was the old French village of Kaskaskia. John Todd was appointed by Governor Patrick Henry to head the county's government. The county was abolished in Jan. 1782, and the Commonwealth of Virginia ceded the land to the new United States federal government in 1784. The area later became the Northwest Territory by an Act of Congress in 1787. Geographically, the county was bordered to the southeast by the Ohio River, in the west by the Mississippi River, and in the north by the Great Lakes at the time of its existence. It included all of what were known as Ohio Country and eastern Illinois Country under French sovereignty. Politically, its effective reach extended only to the French settlements of Vincennes, Cahokia and Kaskaskia.	255	ENGLISH	1
Broadacre City was an urban development planning concept put forward by famous American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. It first appeared in his book "The Disappearing City’" in 1932. Broadway City was also called "Usonian" or "ideal city". According to Wright, structures in a Broadacre city ought to be organic and in harmony with humanity as well as the environment. Wright developed a 12 by 12-foot scale model to represent a hypothetical 4 square mile community. In 1935 he presented it in an Industrial Arts Exposition in the Forum at the Rockefeller Center. He called the model, “New Homes for the Old” and was sponsored by the Federal Housing Administration. The buildings in the Broadacre City model comprised of new building concept designs while others were modified old designs. Broadacre City was designed to be a continuous urban area with a low population density and services grouped depending on the type. The city had a futuristic highway and airfields in an effort to help curb traffic. The highways connecting different cities were gigantic, with detailed design and landscaping. There were public service stations and comfortable vehicles with the city divided into various units. There were farm units, factory units, roadside markets, leisure areas, schools, and living spaces. Each living unit was given an acre to decorate and nurture. All the units were organized such that individuals would get any service or commodity they needed within a radius of one hundred and fifty miles accessible by road or air to make it decentralized and sustainable. Similar services were found in distinct zones of the city. For example, Banks were located along the same street, same to leisure joints. The design was motor vehicle-friendly, reflecting Wright’s love for cars and the living units were called minimum houses. The design concept focused on the social right of every citizen, especially the family unit, to their place on land and air, where they were free to socialize. Personally, Wright hated expensive goods, landlords, rent, profit, and bureaucracy. He was disgusted by the rot and coercion in urban centers. Wright advocated for multidimensional freedom and a city with no slum or scum and no traffic jams. He was motivated by a future where people could communicate from home without moving to any office to pass information. Without any reference to the future, most of what Wright envisioned could have been achieved through internet computing. Units and services were to be affordable in Broadacre cities. The system abolished the role of landlords and gave architects more power to decide on house designs. Closeness to all services was to reduce the human wear and tire experienced when people jostle for goods. The organic buildings were also cheap to build and considered the interests of all social classes thus settling on what was affordable to the middle and some lower social class. Freedom and Democracy Wright envisioned his designed city as a form of freedom to people. According to him, normal cities did not offer enough movement and democratic values to citizens. Modern Cities were overcrowded, and people did not get enough fresh air and natural light. Broadacre was to be a city with no traffic jams, and people could move easily, communicate, and work from the comfort of their homes.The convenience of Broadacre citizens to access everything easily was the freedom Broadacre was to achieve. In Broadacre, the roads were a symbol of freedom and vehicles represented democracy. Vehicles were to be made affordable to every family, and all important transportation was to be by vehicles. Wright predicted that gas stations would naturally grow into neighborhood distribution centers, meeting places, malls, and restaurants among other amenities. Broadacre concept died with the death of Wright, but the ideas are central to most modern city estate designs. Today, people can communicate and work from their houses. History absolved Wright and he eventually acknowledged posthumously. Elements of what other architects mocked as being anti-city have found their way into modern societies. What is a Broadacre City? A Broadacre City was an urban development. According to Wright, structures in a Broadacre city ought to be organic and in harmony with humanity as well as the environment. According to Wright, structures in a Broadacre city ought to be organic and in harmony with humanity as well as the environment. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:28797dd4-0846-4b7c-b8a4-4ca03cc4dc30>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-broadacre-city.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00268.warc.gz	en	0.980741	892	3.78125	4	[ 0.07457493245601654, -0.2037234753370285, 0.5750849843025208, 0.3450905382633209, -0.28944849967956543, 0.22714075446128845, -0.17746871709823608, 0.35297203063964844, -0.2529175281524658, 0.13186503946781158, 0.11426989734172821, 0.0037437998689711094, -0.1982492357492447, -0.029146475717...	2	Broadacre City was an urban development planning concept put forward by famous American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. It first appeared in his book "The Disappearing City’" in 1932. Broadway City was also called "Usonian" or "ideal city". According to Wright, structures in a Broadacre city ought to be organic and in harmony with humanity as well as the environment. Wright developed a 12 by 12-foot scale model to represent a hypothetical 4 square mile community. In 1935 he presented it in an Industrial Arts Exposition in the Forum at the Rockefeller Center. He called the model, “New Homes for the Old” and was sponsored by the Federal Housing Administration. The buildings in the Broadacre City model comprised of new building concept designs while others were modified old designs. Broadacre City was designed to be a continuous urban area with a low population density and services grouped depending on the type. The city had a futuristic highway and airfields in an effort to help curb traffic. The highways connecting different cities were gigantic, with detailed design and landscaping. There were public service stations and comfortable vehicles with the city divided into various units. There were farm units, factory units, roadside markets, leisure areas, schools, and living spaces. Each living unit was given an acre to decorate and nurture. All the units were organized such that individuals would get any service or commodity they needed within a radius of one hundred and fifty miles accessible by road or air to make it decentralized and sustainable. Similar services were found in distinct zones of the city. For example, Banks were located along the same street, same to leisure joints. The design was motor vehicle-friendly, reflecting Wright’s love for cars and the living units were called minimum houses. The design concept focused on the social right of every citizen, especially the family unit, to their place on land and air, where they were free to socialize. Personally, Wright hated expensive goods, landlords, rent, profit, and bureaucracy. He was disgusted by the rot and coercion in urban centers. Wright advocated for multidimensional freedom and a city with no slum or scum and no traffic jams. He was motivated by a future where people could communicate from home without moving to any office to pass information. Without any reference to the future, most of what Wright envisioned could have been achieved through internet computing. Units and services were to be affordable in Broadacre cities. The system abolished the role of landlords and gave architects more power to decide on house designs. Closeness to all services was to reduce the human wear and tire experienced when people jostle for goods. The organic buildings were also cheap to build and considered the interests of all social classes thus settling on what was affordable to the middle and some lower social class. Freedom and Democracy Wright envisioned his designed city as a form of freedom to people. According to him, normal cities did not offer enough movement and democratic values to citizens. Modern Cities were overcrowded, and people did not get enough fresh air and natural light. Broadacre was to be a city with no traffic jams, and people could move easily, communicate, and work from the comfort of their homes.The convenience of Broadacre citizens to access everything easily was the freedom Broadacre was to achieve. In Broadacre, the roads were a symbol of freedom and vehicles represented democracy. Vehicles were to be made affordable to every family, and all important transportation was to be by vehicles. Wright predicted that gas stations would naturally grow into neighborhood distribution centers, meeting places, malls, and restaurants among other amenities. Broadacre concept died with the death of Wright, but the ideas are central to most modern city estate designs. Today, people can communicate and work from their houses. History absolved Wright and he eventually acknowledged posthumously. Elements of what other architects mocked as being anti-city have found their way into modern societies. What is a Broadacre City? A Broadacre City was an urban development. According to Wright, structures in a Broadacre city ought to be organic and in harmony with humanity as well as the environment. According to Wright, structures in a Broadacre city ought to be organic and in harmony with humanity as well as the environment. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	881	ENGLISH	1
Lady Hamilton, a woman who became famous in Europe for her astonishing beauty as well as her political influence, also spread Ancient Greek-inspired fashion across the continent for the first time. Born into poverty and working as a scullery maid in her teenage years, she was scorned by her first two lovers who took advantage of her youthful beauty and then left her. Her third lover, however, was Sir William Hamilton, the English ambassador to Naples, who, against all social norms, then made her his wife. Lady Hamilton soon became a fashion icon and started trends such as draping herself in simple garments which were inspired by classical times, and ancient Greece in particular. She called this Greek-inspired theme “Attitudes” and was known to have used her many shawls during her public performances based on Ancient Greek symposia. Goethe famously wrote of Lady Hamilton “She wears a Greek garb, becoming to her to perfection. She then merely loosens her locks, takes a pair of shawls, and effects changes of postures, moods, gestures, mien, and appearance that make one really feel as if one were in some dream… “Successively standing, kneeling, seated, reclining, grave, sad, sportive, teasing, abandoned, penitent, alluring, threatening, agonized… one follows the other, and grows out of it. She knows how to choose and shift the simple folds of her single kerchief for every expression, and to adjust it into a hundred kinds of headgear,” he wrote. Her “a la grec” clothing soon became a must-have item in those days. Her new wardrobe resembled that of a Greek goddess, with modern and simple robing, so different from the fashion of the time, which involved stacking countless layers of fabric upon each other. Lady Hamilton chose loose-fitting gowns with waistlines set just below the bosom. Her hairstyle, soon to be copied by nearly all ladies of fashion of the day, was also inspired by Greek statues, and even the French tossed out their massive wigs to achieve Lady Hamilton’s new look. In Naples, the young maid who had married money was adored by the Italian gentry who closely followed her every fashion move. They appreciated her beauty, cleverness, independence and high spirit at a time when she was scorned in her own country for being Sir William’s lover before marrying him. Before long, dukes and princes were throwing banquets in her honor and even the king himself sought out her company. Italian peasants saw her as one of their own who had made good. Kneeling at her feet, they asked Lady Hamilton for favors, and artists sought to draw her portrait. Soon, her sphere of influence had spread across Europe. She had singlehandedly done so much for the revival of ancient Greek culture but unfortunately, her liberal-mindedness soon made her the victim of malicious gossip. She quickly fell out of favor with the general public after she became the mistress of Admiral Nelson, the beloved British naval hero. Nelson was said to have entered into a menage-a-trois with Lady Hamilton and her husband. After both her lover and her husband died, Lady Hamilton fell into destitution and became an object of ridicule and a byword for loose behavior. But during those first radiant years of her marriage to Lord Hamilton, she reigned over society and brought some of the eternal beauty of Greece to Western European life.	<urn:uuid:6c7e21a1-9cb4-4a25-a296-0d8e1ec306ec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://eu.greekreporter.com/2016/10/13/meet-lady-hamilton-who-brought-ancient-greek-fashion-to-18th-century-europe/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00474.warc.gz	en	0.985155	728	3.375	3	[ -0.18259143829345703, 0.3245396614074707, 0.5658827424049377, 0.1337697058916092, -0.8565881252288818, -0.11198819428682327, 0.17615538835525513, 0.005298016592860222, -0.06908859312534332, 0.007091246545314789, -0.2075469195842743, -0.14096009731292725, -0.1930437684059143, 0.228869885206...	3	Lady Hamilton, a woman who became famous in Europe for her astonishing beauty as well as her political influence, also spread Ancient Greek-inspired fashion across the continent for the first time. Born into poverty and working as a scullery maid in her teenage years, she was scorned by her first two lovers who took advantage of her youthful beauty and then left her. Her third lover, however, was Sir William Hamilton, the English ambassador to Naples, who, against all social norms, then made her his wife. Lady Hamilton soon became a fashion icon and started trends such as draping herself in simple garments which were inspired by classical times, and ancient Greece in particular. She called this Greek-inspired theme “Attitudes” and was known to have used her many shawls during her public performances based on Ancient Greek symposia. Goethe famously wrote of Lady Hamilton “She wears a Greek garb, becoming to her to perfection. She then merely loosens her locks, takes a pair of shawls, and effects changes of postures, moods, gestures, mien, and appearance that make one really feel as if one were in some dream… “Successively standing, kneeling, seated, reclining, grave, sad, sportive, teasing, abandoned, penitent, alluring, threatening, agonized… one follows the other, and grows out of it. She knows how to choose and shift the simple folds of her single kerchief for every expression, and to adjust it into a hundred kinds of headgear,” he wrote. Her “a la grec” clothing soon became a must-have item in those days. Her new wardrobe resembled that of a Greek goddess, with modern and simple robing, so different from the fashion of the time, which involved stacking countless layers of fabric upon each other. Lady Hamilton chose loose-fitting gowns with waistlines set just below the bosom. Her hairstyle, soon to be copied by nearly all ladies of fashion of the day, was also inspired by Greek statues, and even the French tossed out their massive wigs to achieve Lady Hamilton’s new look. In Naples, the young maid who had married money was adored by the Italian gentry who closely followed her every fashion move. They appreciated her beauty, cleverness, independence and high spirit at a time when she was scorned in her own country for being Sir William’s lover before marrying him. Before long, dukes and princes were throwing banquets in her honor and even the king himself sought out her company. Italian peasants saw her as one of their own who had made good. Kneeling at her feet, they asked Lady Hamilton for favors, and artists sought to draw her portrait. Soon, her sphere of influence had spread across Europe. She had singlehandedly done so much for the revival of ancient Greek culture but unfortunately, her liberal-mindedness soon made her the victim of malicious gossip. She quickly fell out of favor with the general public after she became the mistress of Admiral Nelson, the beloved British naval hero. Nelson was said to have entered into a menage-a-trois with Lady Hamilton and her husband. After both her lover and her husband died, Lady Hamilton fell into destitution and became an object of ridicule and a byword for loose behavior. But during those first radiant years of her marriage to Lord Hamilton, she reigned over society and brought some of the eternal beauty of Greece to Western European life.	698	ENGLISH	1
One hundred thirty-five years ago today, Grover Cleveland was elected to his first term as President of the United States (his inauguration can be seen in the photo above). But Cleveland’s election to the presidency this time was not what made him notable. No, it was his reelection in 1892 for which he is remembered in the history books. You see, Grover Cleveland would go on to lose the 1888 election, and then be reelected four years later, joking that he had come back to win the office again on his “third try.” But for Stand for Israel’s purposes, it was Grover Cleveland’s friendship to the Jewish people that is especially noteworthy. During his first term, Cleveland named Oscar Solomon Straus as the United States’ envoy and minister to the Ottoman Empire. Straus was perhaps the leading Jewish-American of the time. His brother Isadore founded Macy’s and would die aboard the Titanic, but Oscar devoted his life to civil service. President Cleveland appointed Straus as a rebuke to the Ottomans, whose anti-Semitism had earlier led to their refusal of an American minister whose wife was Jewish. Cleveland would again stand up for the Jewish people during his second term. Around the turn of the century, many of the European immigrants coming to America were Jewish. President Cleveland, in his speech inaugurating the Statue of Liberty, had promised immigrants — regardless of their faith — “we will not forget that Liberty has here made her home; nor shall her chosen altar be neglected.” The President backed his actions up with his words, vetoing a bill that would restrict such immigrants. In his veto, Cleveland argued such a bill would be “unnecessarily harsh and oppressive, and that its defects in construction would cause vexation and its operation would result in harm to our citizens.” But even after leaving office, Cleveland would continue standing for the Jewish people. In Russia, pogroms were targeting Jews, causing many Jewish families to flee the violence and head to America. Cleveland attended rallies against Russian anti-Semitism, decrying what he called “wholesale murder” by “a professedly civilized government.” These righteous actions should have been assurances to this good leader whose last words as he lay dying were: “I have tried so hard to do right.”Tags: Grover Cleveland History Jews presidents US-Israel Relations	<urn:uuid:866c1395-40bd-44df-a529-05b47b1505b7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ifcj.org/news/stand-for-israel/i-have-tried-so-hard-to-do-right/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00418.warc.gz	en	0.989504	506	3.875	4	[ -0.27201855182647705, 0.263088583946228, -0.23359240591526031, -0.15982915461063385, -0.5744021534919739, 0.35314905643463135, 0.3116525411605835, -0.11249041557312012, 0.23884493112564087, 0.059280768036842346, 0.15566278994083405, 0.26108571887016296, 0.029694827273488045, 0.262530893087...	4	One hundred thirty-five years ago today, Grover Cleveland was elected to his first term as President of the United States (his inauguration can be seen in the photo above). But Cleveland’s election to the presidency this time was not what made him notable. No, it was his reelection in 1892 for which he is remembered in the history books. You see, Grover Cleveland would go on to lose the 1888 election, and then be reelected four years later, joking that he had come back to win the office again on his “third try.” But for Stand for Israel’s purposes, it was Grover Cleveland’s friendship to the Jewish people that is especially noteworthy. During his first term, Cleveland named Oscar Solomon Straus as the United States’ envoy and minister to the Ottoman Empire. Straus was perhaps the leading Jewish-American of the time. His brother Isadore founded Macy’s and would die aboard the Titanic, but Oscar devoted his life to civil service. President Cleveland appointed Straus as a rebuke to the Ottomans, whose anti-Semitism had earlier led to their refusal of an American minister whose wife was Jewish. Cleveland would again stand up for the Jewish people during his second term. Around the turn of the century, many of the European immigrants coming to America were Jewish. President Cleveland, in his speech inaugurating the Statue of Liberty, had promised immigrants — regardless of their faith — “we will not forget that Liberty has here made her home; nor shall her chosen altar be neglected.” The President backed his actions up with his words, vetoing a bill that would restrict such immigrants. In his veto, Cleveland argued such a bill would be “unnecessarily harsh and oppressive, and that its defects in construction would cause vexation and its operation would result in harm to our citizens.” But even after leaving office, Cleveland would continue standing for the Jewish people. In Russia, pogroms were targeting Jews, causing many Jewish families to flee the violence and head to America. Cleveland attended rallies against Russian anti-Semitism, decrying what he called “wholesale murder” by “a professedly civilized government.” These righteous actions should have been assurances to this good leader whose last words as he lay dying were: “I have tried so hard to do right.”Tags: Grover Cleveland History Jews presidents US-Israel Relations	476	ENGLISH	1
BEFORE 1940s, scientists had no accurate way of determining the age of fossils or other ancient objects. They had to rely on relative dating techniques, which were far from accurate. In 1947, Willard Frank Libby first proposed his radiocarbon dating theories. Soon after, he presented evidence of its efficiency in various field experiments. Libby figured that plants would absorb some of this trace carbon-14 while they absorbed ordinary carbon in photosynthesis. Once the plant died, of course, it couldn’t absorb any more carbon of any kind, and the carbon-14 it contained would decay at its usual rate without being replaced. By finding the concentration of carbon-14 left in the remains of a plant, you could calculate the amount of time since the plant had died.	<urn:uuid:5c450e15-68e9-40c7-b51a-cb2404101afc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thepetridish.my/2017/02/01/who-invented-carbon-dating/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00401.warc.gz	en	0.980078	159	3.890625	4	[ -0.4946317970752716, 0.4385828375816345, -0.0328594446182251, -0.0458395779132843, 0.25070205330848694, -0.000431801745435223, 0.07736463099718094, -0.03525305911898613, -0.23860517144203186, 0.15466220676898956, 0.5255559682846069, -0.4460333585739136, 0.22323575615882874, 0.7026591300964...	2	BEFORE 1940s, scientists had no accurate way of determining the age of fossils or other ancient objects. They had to rely on relative dating techniques, which were far from accurate. In 1947, Willard Frank Libby first proposed his radiocarbon dating theories. Soon after, he presented evidence of its efficiency in various field experiments. Libby figured that plants would absorb some of this trace carbon-14 while they absorbed ordinary carbon in photosynthesis. Once the plant died, of course, it couldn’t absorb any more carbon of any kind, and the carbon-14 it contained would decay at its usual rate without being replaced. By finding the concentration of carbon-14 left in the remains of a plant, you could calculate the amount of time since the plant had died.	166	ENGLISH	1
The earliest German castles date as far back as the 10th and 11th centuries. However, nearly none of the original structures constructed in this period are extant. Rather, most modern German castles were constructed in terminal period of the middle ages or later, usually on top of the older structures. Among the German castles that exist today are those built in Renaissance style, Neo-Romantic castles, Rococo castles as well as castles built using historicist architecture. The Hohenzollern castle is located in Swabian Alps. The original fortress at the site was constructed in the 11th century under the charge of the House of Hohenzollern. Located on top of a hill, the castle is elevated at a height of 768 feet. The first fortress was completely destroyed in the 15th century and in its place, a second construction began. The modern-day castle at the site was built by Crown Prince Frederick William IV of Prussia in the 19th century. Its structure embellishes Gothic influences with other architectural elements. Today the castle is privately owned and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Germany. The Neuschwanstein castle is located in Bavaria. The original site where the modern-day castle is built was the location of three medieval castles. The place was bought by King Maximilian II of Bavaria in 1832 who had a family palace constructed on the ruins of one of these castles. Later, his son Prince Ludwig II had the magnificent Neuschwanstein castle constructed at the ruins of the other two medieval castles. The overall construction of the castle is very stylistic, containing many theatrical embellishes, halls and elements related to medieval German knights. The total structure includes many towers, sculptures and gables. The castle is considered an icon of the Romantic era. Medieval Germany Medieval Castles in Germany Neuschwanstein Castle Charlottenburg Palace is located in Berlin. It was constructed in the 17th century under commission from the wife of Friedrich III. The original structure included one wing and a huge central cupola. Behind this main façade were two oval halls. Friedrich assumed the Kingship of Prussia in the early 18th century and had the best architects commissioned to expand the palace. During this time, some of the best interior decorations were added to the palace. The Wernigerode castle is located in Saxony-Anhalt. The Saxon counts who settled in the region created the original castle structure at the site sometime in the 12th or 13th century. In the 15th century, the castle came into the control of the County of Stolberg. In the 17th century, it reverted back to the control of Stolberg counts. Count Christian overlooked extensive reconstruction of the castle along more modern lines in 18th century. In the 19th century, Count Otto again had the castle rebuilt in a Romantic fashion. Today the castle is open to public and is a popular tourist attraction. The Reichsburg castle is located in Cochem. It was originally constructed sometime in the early 11th century. The castle came into the possession of King Konrad III in the 12th century. Towards the 17th century, French King Louis XIV conquered the area and the castle came under his control. During this period, the castle underwent significant damage and was later abandoned in ruins. It was reconstructed in Gothic Revival architectural style in the 19th century. Today it is owned by the town of Cochem and is open to visitors. The Mespelbrunn castle is located in the town of Mespelbrunn. The castle was originally built as a private house by a 15th century knight. The most remarkable feature of this castle is that it is built on water, specifically on a lake. Although the castle was originally built with no fortifications, these were built towards the end of the 15th century because of the threats of bandits in the nearby regions. Consequently, towers, walls and other fortification features were added at this time. The castle is privately owned today, although it is open to visitors. The Wartburg castle is located in Eisenach. It was constructed in the 11th century. A popular event associated with this castle is that during his translation of the Bible, Martin Luther hid in this castle. The most significant architectural features of this castle is the overall construction and design of its rooms in the original Romanesque style. This feature which was originally added in the 12th century has survived to this day. The castle also has a drawbridge. Today, the castle is considered a part of the world heritage and is open to tourists. Schwerin Palace is located in the city of Schwerin. It is removed from the main city by being located on a small island in the middle of a lake. The original construction at the site was a Slav fort in the 10th century. After its destruction, a new fort was established on the island by the Germanic tribes. It was in the 16th century that the structure assumed a more residential outlook. It was converted into a palace using Renaissance architectural features. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Dutch Renaissance features were added to the overall structure. Today the castle is the seat of the State assembly and is very well preserved. The Glucksburg castle is located in the town of Glucksburg. It is an immense water castle that is considered one of the most enduring architectural icons of Renaissance era. The castle was originally built in 1580s. It rises on top of a 2.5 meter foundation which stands above the water surrounding it. The structure of the castle is such that in that the great halls are located in the middle while the residential portions flank this portion on the sides. Historically, the castle had a kitchen garden which was later replaced by a pleasure garden. Today, in its place stands a rose garden. The castle underwent many modifications although the main structure remained fairly the same over the centuries. The castle is today used for art exhibitions while its gardens are privately owned. Copyright - 2014 - 2019 - Medieval Chronicles	<urn:uuid:9b7ea52d-fae3-43e2-94f1-76d005551a3c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-castles/9-great-german-castles/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00454.warc.gz	en	0.981146	1,299	3.609375	4	[ -0.10454929620027542, 0.5863403677940369, 0.31951701641082764, 0.11960594356060028, 0.028405750170350075, -0.10470636188983917, -0.1751636564731598, -0.2404421716928482, -0.18643133342266083, -0.3459913730621338, -0.15766459703445435, -0.4349443018436432, 0.33041518926620483, 0.30324006080...	1	The earliest German castles date as far back as the 10th and 11th centuries. However, nearly none of the original structures constructed in this period are extant. Rather, most modern German castles were constructed in terminal period of the middle ages or later, usually on top of the older structures. Among the German castles that exist today are those built in Renaissance style, Neo-Romantic castles, Rococo castles as well as castles built using historicist architecture. The Hohenzollern castle is located in Swabian Alps. The original fortress at the site was constructed in the 11th century under the charge of the House of Hohenzollern. Located on top of a hill, the castle is elevated at a height of 768 feet. The first fortress was completely destroyed in the 15th century and in its place, a second construction began. The modern-day castle at the site was built by Crown Prince Frederick William IV of Prussia in the 19th century. Its structure embellishes Gothic influences with other architectural elements. Today the castle is privately owned and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Germany. The Neuschwanstein castle is located in Bavaria. The original site where the modern-day castle is built was the location of three medieval castles. The place was bought by King Maximilian II of Bavaria in 1832 who had a family palace constructed on the ruins of one of these castles. Later, his son Prince Ludwig II had the magnificent Neuschwanstein castle constructed at the ruins of the other two medieval castles. The overall construction of the castle is very stylistic, containing many theatrical embellishes, halls and elements related to medieval German knights. The total structure includes many towers, sculptures and gables. The castle is considered an icon of the Romantic era. Medieval Germany Medieval Castles in Germany Neuschwanstein Castle Charlottenburg Palace is located in Berlin. It was constructed in the 17th century under commission from the wife of Friedrich III. The original structure included one wing and a huge central cupola. Behind this main façade were two oval halls. Friedrich assumed the Kingship of Prussia in the early 18th century and had the best architects commissioned to expand the palace. During this time, some of the best interior decorations were added to the palace. The Wernigerode castle is located in Saxony-Anhalt. The Saxon counts who settled in the region created the original castle structure at the site sometime in the 12th or 13th century. In the 15th century, the castle came into the control of the County of Stolberg. In the 17th century, it reverted back to the control of Stolberg counts. Count Christian overlooked extensive reconstruction of the castle along more modern lines in 18th century. In the 19th century, Count Otto again had the castle rebuilt in a Romantic fashion. Today the castle is open to public and is a popular tourist attraction. The Reichsburg castle is located in Cochem. It was originally constructed sometime in the early 11th century. The castle came into the possession of King Konrad III in the 12th century. Towards the 17th century, French King Louis XIV conquered the area and the castle came under his control. During this period, the castle underwent significant damage and was later abandoned in ruins. It was reconstructed in Gothic Revival architectural style in the 19th century. Today it is owned by the town of Cochem and is open to visitors. The Mespelbrunn castle is located in the town of Mespelbrunn. The castle was originally built as a private house by a 15th century knight. The most remarkable feature of this castle is that it is built on water, specifically on a lake. Although the castle was originally built with no fortifications, these were built towards the end of the 15th century because of the threats of bandits in the nearby regions. Consequently, towers, walls and other fortification features were added at this time. The castle is privately owned today, although it is open to visitors. The Wartburg castle is located in Eisenach. It was constructed in the 11th century. A popular event associated with this castle is that during his translation of the Bible, Martin Luther hid in this castle. The most significant architectural features of this castle is the overall construction and design of its rooms in the original Romanesque style. This feature which was originally added in the 12th century has survived to this day. The castle also has a drawbridge. Today, the castle is considered a part of the world heritage and is open to tourists. Schwerin Palace is located in the city of Schwerin. It is removed from the main city by being located on a small island in the middle of a lake. The original construction at the site was a Slav fort in the 10th century. After its destruction, a new fort was established on the island by the Germanic tribes. It was in the 16th century that the structure assumed a more residential outlook. It was converted into a palace using Renaissance architectural features. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Dutch Renaissance features were added to the overall structure. Today the castle is the seat of the State assembly and is very well preserved. The Glucksburg castle is located in the town of Glucksburg. It is an immense water castle that is considered one of the most enduring architectural icons of Renaissance era. The castle was originally built in 1580s. It rises on top of a 2.5 meter foundation which stands above the water surrounding it. The structure of the castle is such that in that the great halls are located in the middle while the residential portions flank this portion on the sides. Historically, the castle had a kitchen garden which was later replaced by a pleasure garden. Today, in its place stands a rose garden. The castle underwent many modifications although the main structure remained fairly the same over the centuries. The castle is today used for art exhibitions while its gardens are privately owned. Copyright - 2014 - 2019 - Medieval Chronicles	1,303	ENGLISH	1
by Catherine Franceski Powhite Parkway, Matoaka Road, Appomattox Street… These are just a few Richmond area streets named after indigenous peoples. As part of my research for the Race & Racism Project, I read Thomas Mustian’s Facts and Legends of Richmond Area Streets. While reading, I was surprised by the number of street names in the Richmond area that have been named for indigenous tribes. To understand the irony and oddity of this phenomenon, it is important to have and understanding the group’s history and legacy in the city of Richmond. The indigenous population and white settlers in Virginia have had an icy and, at many times, bloody relationship. According to Virginius Dabney in his book Richmond: The Story of a City, the struggle between whites and indigenous peoples started as early as the very first English incursion on the James River into the area that we know as Richmond today. This expedition, led by Christopher Newport, was immediately confronted by indigenous peoples at Richmond, where Newport decided it would be too dangerous to continue further onto land. The explorers left for Jamestown, where many of them were consequently murdered by indigenous peoples. This was the beginning of a hostile relationship that continued for many years. One of the most violent episodes occurred “in 1675 when a Stafford County man and his son were murdered. The treachery by white leaders, who slew several Indian chiefs contrary to a solemn agreement, caused the redskins to go on a wild orgy of killing in the frontier settlements. The slaughter lasted for months, and some five hundred men, women, and children were slain, often after the most dreadful tortures” (7). Here, Dabney, the author, uses outdated terminology such as “redskin,” even while writing in the 1970s, when sports teams were already beginning to change their names and symbols from Native American iconography. More interestingly, Dabney was a liberal writer and opponent of segregation who served at the editor of the Richmond Times-Dispatch for many years. Perhaps his word choice is indicative of sentiment towards indigenous peoples in Virginia at the time due to the enduring legacy of this violent history. It is important to remember that the white settlers engaged in land theft from indigenous tribes, creating power structures which have dispossessed and subjugated those populations and kept them in marginalized positions for centuries. Because it is rare that oppressors names things after the groups they have oppressed, this, coupled with the violent relationship between the two groups, further raises questions about the abundance of streets named after indigenous tribes. Although I began conducting my research simply looking for stories of self-determined marginalized persons, I noticed these peculiarities and began looking at my research through the lens of irony, trying to find any details that seemed to contradict what I would expect based on facts I had gathered. I found that by focusing on history through the lens of irony, more questions arise and more subtleties are added to an already nuanced history. Perhaps the streets were just named indigenous names because that’s what the area was always called. Or, perhaps we will never figure out why exactly the streets are named the way they are. Nevertheless, it is ironic that the white people who named these streets would name them after a group they engaged in such violent struggle with for so long. In any event, noticing the irony in this event provokes even more questions, such as, what exactly is in a name anyways? Catherine Franceski is a rising sophomore at the University of Richmond majoring in Philosophy, Politics, Economics & Law. She is working on the Race and Racism Project in partnership with Untold RVA during Summer 2017 as an A&S Summer Fellow.	<urn:uuid:388af67e-9106-44a7-b56c-0aded5e8538c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.richmond.edu/memory/2017/07/page/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00169.warc.gz	en	0.98044	763	3.28125	3	[ 0.019801437854766846, 0.047303520143032074, 0.48342370986938477, 0.22665613889694214, 0.04592316225171089, 0.1492430865764618, 0.032904379069805145, -0.00717357499524951, -0.10099659860134125, 0.22467505931854248, -0.15306292474269867, -0.23115026950836182, -0.2727680802345276, 0.018447048...	4	by Catherine Franceski Powhite Parkway, Matoaka Road, Appomattox Street… These are just a few Richmond area streets named after indigenous peoples. As part of my research for the Race & Racism Project, I read Thomas Mustian’s Facts and Legends of Richmond Area Streets. While reading, I was surprised by the number of street names in the Richmond area that have been named for indigenous tribes. To understand the irony and oddity of this phenomenon, it is important to have and understanding the group’s history and legacy in the city of Richmond. The indigenous population and white settlers in Virginia have had an icy and, at many times, bloody relationship. According to Virginius Dabney in his book Richmond: The Story of a City, the struggle between whites and indigenous peoples started as early as the very first English incursion on the James River into the area that we know as Richmond today. This expedition, led by Christopher Newport, was immediately confronted by indigenous peoples at Richmond, where Newport decided it would be too dangerous to continue further onto land. The explorers left for Jamestown, where many of them were consequently murdered by indigenous peoples. This was the beginning of a hostile relationship that continued for many years. One of the most violent episodes occurred “in 1675 when a Stafford County man and his son were murdered. The treachery by white leaders, who slew several Indian chiefs contrary to a solemn agreement, caused the redskins to go on a wild orgy of killing in the frontier settlements. The slaughter lasted for months, and some five hundred men, women, and children were slain, often after the most dreadful tortures” (7). Here, Dabney, the author, uses outdated terminology such as “redskin,” even while writing in the 1970s, when sports teams were already beginning to change their names and symbols from Native American iconography. More interestingly, Dabney was a liberal writer and opponent of segregation who served at the editor of the Richmond Times-Dispatch for many years. Perhaps his word choice is indicative of sentiment towards indigenous peoples in Virginia at the time due to the enduring legacy of this violent history. It is important to remember that the white settlers engaged in land theft from indigenous tribes, creating power structures which have dispossessed and subjugated those populations and kept them in marginalized positions for centuries. Because it is rare that oppressors names things after the groups they have oppressed, this, coupled with the violent relationship between the two groups, further raises questions about the abundance of streets named after indigenous tribes. Although I began conducting my research simply looking for stories of self-determined marginalized persons, I noticed these peculiarities and began looking at my research through the lens of irony, trying to find any details that seemed to contradict what I would expect based on facts I had gathered. I found that by focusing on history through the lens of irony, more questions arise and more subtleties are added to an already nuanced history. Perhaps the streets were just named indigenous names because that’s what the area was always called. Or, perhaps we will never figure out why exactly the streets are named the way they are. Nevertheless, it is ironic that the white people who named these streets would name them after a group they engaged in such violent struggle with for so long. In any event, noticing the irony in this event provokes even more questions, such as, what exactly is in a name anyways? Catherine Franceski is a rising sophomore at the University of Richmond majoring in Philosophy, Politics, Economics & Law. She is working on the Race and Racism Project in partnership with Untold RVA during Summer 2017 as an A&S Summer Fellow.	758	ENGLISH	1
What is a Tax Rate? How Does a Tax Rate Work? The United States has a progressive tax system, which means that different portions of a person's income are taxed at different rates (the rates are often referred to as "marginal tax rates"). For example, the IRS might tax a single filer's $100,000 income as follows: The first $8,025 is taxed at 10% = $802.50 The next $24,525 is taxed at 15% = $3,678.75 The next $49,100 is taxed at 25% = $12,275.00 The final $18,350 is taxed at 28% = $5,138 Total tax owed: $21,894.25 Because this filer's highest taxable rate is 28%, we say that he or she is in the 28% tax bracket. Note, however, that not ALL of the taxpayer's income is taxed at 28%. In fact, the taxpayer's effective tax rate is $21,894.25 / $100,000 = 21.9%. The highest tax brackets often change, but they are usually around 35%. Note that income tax rates exclude state taxes and social security/Medicare, which add as much as another 17%-18% in taxes. Why Does a Tax Rate Matter? It's important to know the difference between tax brackets and tax rates. Many people assume that when they're in the 28% tax bracket, for example, that all of their income is taxed at 28%, which is not the case. As our example shows, you can be in the 28% tax bracket but have a much lower effective tax rate on your income.	<urn:uuid:bfe5f684-17cf-4904-9355-fd93750d946f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://investinganswers.com/dictionary/t/tax-rate	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00034.warc.gz	en	0.985104	353	3.734375	4	[ -0.6567474603652954, -0.2165740430355072, -0.1819155365228653, -0.02655189484357834, 0.04964389652013779, 0.03999277204275131, 0.1122245341539383, -0.08520948886871338, 0.2738669216632843, 0.4405478537082672, 0.6843841075897217, 0.5256745219230652, -0.25646600127220154, 0.3901282250881195,...	3	What is a Tax Rate? How Does a Tax Rate Work? The United States has a progressive tax system, which means that different portions of a person's income are taxed at different rates (the rates are often referred to as "marginal tax rates"). For example, the IRS might tax a single filer's $100,000 income as follows: The first $8,025 is taxed at 10% = $802.50 The next $24,525 is taxed at 15% = $3,678.75 The next $49,100 is taxed at 25% = $12,275.00 The final $18,350 is taxed at 28% = $5,138 Total tax owed: $21,894.25 Because this filer's highest taxable rate is 28%, we say that he or she is in the 28% tax bracket. Note, however, that not ALL of the taxpayer's income is taxed at 28%. In fact, the taxpayer's effective tax rate is $21,894.25 / $100,000 = 21.9%. The highest tax brackets often change, but they are usually around 35%. Note that income tax rates exclude state taxes and social security/Medicare, which add as much as another 17%-18% in taxes. Why Does a Tax Rate Matter? It's important to know the difference between tax brackets and tax rates. Many people assume that when they're in the 28% tax bracket, for example, that all of their income is taxed at 28%, which is not the case. As our example shows, you can be in the 28% tax bracket but have a much lower effective tax rate on your income.	412	ENGLISH	1
Atkins, Annette - Minnesota and the Civil War, MHS Express, 2013 Link to E-Book Painting of the Second Minnesota Regiment in their famous assault on Missionary Ridge, November 25, 1863 by Douglas Volk (1856-1935) by Walter Sigtermans On April 12, 1861, less than 3 years after Minnesota became the 32 state, war broke out between the states. On April 14, 1861 Governor Ramsey called for volunteers to save the Union. The First Minnesota Regiment was formed and mustered at Fort Snelling April 29th. A regiment is a force of one thousand men, typically from one location. In Europe it was expected that soldiers from the same town would be a more cohesive force, but America was an immigrant nation where your neighbors might speak a different language than you. Before the war had ended Minnesota would supply 25,000 soldiers to the war, from a population of 180,000 settlers. Minnesotans fought in nearly every engagement of the Civil War, including the battle of Gettysburg. The second day of fighting at Gettysburg centered about a place called Cemetery Ridge. The Confederates were threatening to take the heights and a force was needed to hold off the approach until Union re-enforcements could be brought up. 262 members of the First Minnesota charged into the Confederate advance and bought the time needed, but during that five minutes they suffered 215 dead or wounded. The next day, July 3rd 1863, surviving members of the First Minnesota helped repel Picketts charge in the decisive battle which altered the Civil War. Before the Civil War Minnesota was a freshly minted state consisting of German, French, Irish and English immigrants. They were strangers from different nationalities which had, at times, been at odds with each other. However, by the end of the war there were 20,000 veterans who all identified themselves as "Minnesotans." The war may have given cohesiveness to a random collection of foreigners. Eight Minnesota veterans of the Civil War would each, in their own turn, be Governor of this state. One of the best known tunes during the Civil War, played on both sides of the conflict, was "The Girl I Left Behind Me." A tune by that title had been published in Dublin in 1791 and the melody appeared in print in 1810. The song came to the United States when American soldiers had learned it from a British prisoner during the war of 1812. It became the standard marching tune of the American Army during the Mexican-American war of 1846-1847 and remained so during the Civil War. Both sides composed their own lyrics to go with the melody and make the marches a little less boring. Click here to see the sheet music to "The Girl I Left Behind Me" Click here to listen to an mp3 of "The Girl I Left Behind Me"	<urn:uuid:70924531-6987-40d3-aa1c-9e2161553f3a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.fiddlemn.com/civil-war.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00386.warc.gz	en	0.980281	589	3.5	4	[ -0.2594769597053528, 0.27275076508522034, 0.05189692974090576, -0.07434355467557907, -0.08834140002727509, 0.10372684895992279, -0.34001436829566956, 0.026340510696172714, -0.19368630647659302, -0.14791452884674072, 0.32849588990211487, 0.014207719825208187, 0.3825627267360687, 0.278685450...	1	Atkins, Annette - Minnesota and the Civil War, MHS Express, 2013 Link to E-Book Painting of the Second Minnesota Regiment in their famous assault on Missionary Ridge, November 25, 1863 by Douglas Volk (1856-1935) by Walter Sigtermans On April 12, 1861, less than 3 years after Minnesota became the 32 state, war broke out between the states. On April 14, 1861 Governor Ramsey called for volunteers to save the Union. The First Minnesota Regiment was formed and mustered at Fort Snelling April 29th. A regiment is a force of one thousand men, typically from one location. In Europe it was expected that soldiers from the same town would be a more cohesive force, but America was an immigrant nation where your neighbors might speak a different language than you. Before the war had ended Minnesota would supply 25,000 soldiers to the war, from a population of 180,000 settlers. Minnesotans fought in nearly every engagement of the Civil War, including the battle of Gettysburg. The second day of fighting at Gettysburg centered about a place called Cemetery Ridge. The Confederates were threatening to take the heights and a force was needed to hold off the approach until Union re-enforcements could be brought up. 262 members of the First Minnesota charged into the Confederate advance and bought the time needed, but during that five minutes they suffered 215 dead or wounded. The next day, July 3rd 1863, surviving members of the First Minnesota helped repel Picketts charge in the decisive battle which altered the Civil War. Before the Civil War Minnesota was a freshly minted state consisting of German, French, Irish and English immigrants. They were strangers from different nationalities which had, at times, been at odds with each other. However, by the end of the war there were 20,000 veterans who all identified themselves as "Minnesotans." The war may have given cohesiveness to a random collection of foreigners. Eight Minnesota veterans of the Civil War would each, in their own turn, be Governor of this state. One of the best known tunes during the Civil War, played on both sides of the conflict, was "The Girl I Left Behind Me." A tune by that title had been published in Dublin in 1791 and the melody appeared in print in 1810. The song came to the United States when American soldiers had learned it from a British prisoner during the war of 1812. It became the standard marching tune of the American Army during the Mexican-American war of 1846-1847 and remained so during the Civil War. Both sides composed their own lyrics to go with the melody and make the marches a little less boring. Click here to see the sheet music to "The Girl I Left Behind Me" Click here to listen to an mp3 of "The Girl I Left Behind Me"	651	ENGLISH	1
Who Was Tennessee Williams? After college, Tennessee Williams moved to New Orleans, a city that would inspire much of his writing. On March 31, 1945, his play, The Glass Menagerie, opened on Broadway and two years later A Streetcar Named Desire earned Williams his first Pulitzer Prize. Many of Williams' plays have been adapted to film starring screen greats like Marlon Brando and Elizabeth Taylor. Williams was born Thomas Lanier Williams on March 26, 1911, in Columbus, Mississippi, the second of Cornelius and Edwina Williams' three children. Raised predominantly by his mother, Williams had a complicated relationship with his father, a demanding salesman who preferred work instead of parenting. Williams described his childhood in Mississippi as pleasant and happy. But life changed for him when his family moved to St. Louis, Missouri. The carefree nature of his boyhood was stripped in his new urban home, and as a result, Williams turned inward and started to write. His parent's marriage certainly didn't help. Often strained, the Williams home could be a tense place to live. "It was just a wrong marriage," Williams later wrote. The family situation, however, did offer fuel for the playwright's art. His mother became the model for the foolish but strong Amanda Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie, while his father represented the aggressive, driving Big Daddy in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. In 1929, Williams enrolled at the University of Missouri to study journalism. But he was soon withdrawn from the school by his father, who became incensed when he learned that his son's girlfriend was also attending the university. Deeply despondent, Williams retreated home, and at his father's urging took a job as a sales clerk with a shoe company. The future playwright hated the position, and again he turned to his writing, crafting poems and stories after work. Eventually, however, the depression took its toll and Williams suffered a nervous breakdown. After recuperating in Memphis, Williams returned to St. Louis and where he connected with several poets studying at Washington University. In 1937, returned to college, enrolling at the University of Iowa. He graduated the following year. When he was 28, Williams moved to New Orleans, where he changed his name (he landed on Tennessee because his father hailed from there) and revamped his lifestyle, soaking up the city life that would inspire his work, most notably the later play, A Streetcar Named Desire. He proved to be a prolific writer and one of his plays earned him $100 from the Group Theater writing contest. More importantly, it landed him an agent, Audrey Wood, who would become his friend and adviser. In 1940 Williams' play, Battle of Angels, debuted in Boston. It quickly flopped, but the hardworking Williams revised it and brought it back as Orpheus Descending, which later was made into the movie, The Fugitive Kind, starring Marlon Brando and Anna Magnani. Other work followed, including a gig writing scripts for MGM. But Williams' mind was never far from the stage. On March 31, 1945, a play he'd been working for some years, The Glass Menagerie, opened on Broadway. Critics and audiences alike lauded the play, about a declassed Southern family living in a tenement, forever changing Williams' life and fortunes. Two years later, A Streetcar Named Desire opened, surpassing his previous success and cementing his status as one of the country's best playwrights. The play also earned Williams a Drama Critics' Award and his first Pulitzer Prize. His subsequent work brought more praise. The hits from this period included Camino Real, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Sweet Bird of Youth. The 1960s were a difficult time for Williams. His work received poor reviews and increasingly the playwright turned to alcohol and drugs as coping mechanisms. In 1969 his brother hospitalized him. Upon his release, Williams got right back to work. He churned out several new plays as well as Memoirs in 1975, which told the story of his life and his afflictions. But he never fully escaped his demons. Surrounded by bottles of wine and pills, Williams died in a New York City hotel room on February 25, 1983. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	<urn:uuid:c5961b07-e494-4b28-a7c6-53d4fa375cf5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biography.com/writer/tennessee-williams	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00501.warc.gz	en	0.989341	899	3.375	3	[ 0.1698683500289917, 0.3493371605873108, 0.1700829714536667, -0.005477404221892357, -0.23342877626419067, 0.04634440690279007, -0.03139878809452057, 0.5218179225921631, -0.15883389115333557, 0.12270797044038773, 0.4784935414791107, 0.20435620844364166, 0.01543135941028595, 0.030600940808653...	12	Who Was Tennessee Williams? After college, Tennessee Williams moved to New Orleans, a city that would inspire much of his writing. On March 31, 1945, his play, The Glass Menagerie, opened on Broadway and two years later A Streetcar Named Desire earned Williams his first Pulitzer Prize. Many of Williams' plays have been adapted to film starring screen greats like Marlon Brando and Elizabeth Taylor. Williams was born Thomas Lanier Williams on March 26, 1911, in Columbus, Mississippi, the second of Cornelius and Edwina Williams' three children. Raised predominantly by his mother, Williams had a complicated relationship with his father, a demanding salesman who preferred work instead of parenting. Williams described his childhood in Mississippi as pleasant and happy. But life changed for him when his family moved to St. Louis, Missouri. The carefree nature of his boyhood was stripped in his new urban home, and as a result, Williams turned inward and started to write. His parent's marriage certainly didn't help. Often strained, the Williams home could be a tense place to live. "It was just a wrong marriage," Williams later wrote. The family situation, however, did offer fuel for the playwright's art. His mother became the model for the foolish but strong Amanda Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie, while his father represented the aggressive, driving Big Daddy in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. In 1929, Williams enrolled at the University of Missouri to study journalism. But he was soon withdrawn from the school by his father, who became incensed when he learned that his son's girlfriend was also attending the university. Deeply despondent, Williams retreated home, and at his father's urging took a job as a sales clerk with a shoe company. The future playwright hated the position, and again he turned to his writing, crafting poems and stories after work. Eventually, however, the depression took its toll and Williams suffered a nervous breakdown. After recuperating in Memphis, Williams returned to St. Louis and where he connected with several poets studying at Washington University. In 1937, returned to college, enrolling at the University of Iowa. He graduated the following year. When he was 28, Williams moved to New Orleans, where he changed his name (he landed on Tennessee because his father hailed from there) and revamped his lifestyle, soaking up the city life that would inspire his work, most notably the later play, A Streetcar Named Desire. He proved to be a prolific writer and one of his plays earned him $100 from the Group Theater writing contest. More importantly, it landed him an agent, Audrey Wood, who would become his friend and adviser. In 1940 Williams' play, Battle of Angels, debuted in Boston. It quickly flopped, but the hardworking Williams revised it and brought it back as Orpheus Descending, which later was made into the movie, The Fugitive Kind, starring Marlon Brando and Anna Magnani. Other work followed, including a gig writing scripts for MGM. But Williams' mind was never far from the stage. On March 31, 1945, a play he'd been working for some years, The Glass Menagerie, opened on Broadway. Critics and audiences alike lauded the play, about a declassed Southern family living in a tenement, forever changing Williams' life and fortunes. Two years later, A Streetcar Named Desire opened, surpassing his previous success and cementing his status as one of the country's best playwrights. The play also earned Williams a Drama Critics' Award and his first Pulitzer Prize. His subsequent work brought more praise. The hits from this period included Camino Real, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Sweet Bird of Youth. The 1960s were a difficult time for Williams. His work received poor reviews and increasingly the playwright turned to alcohol and drugs as coping mechanisms. In 1969 his brother hospitalized him. Upon his release, Williams got right back to work. He churned out several new plays as well as Memoirs in 1975, which told the story of his life and his afflictions. But he never fully escaped his demons. Surrounded by bottles of wine and pills, Williams died in a New York City hotel room on February 25, 1983. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	930	ENGLISH	1
School climate can affect overweight children for life Kids can be really mean especially to other kids and school-yard bullying can have serious immediate and long-term effects. One area of increasing concern in this regard is the possibility that overweight or obese children shoulder the brunt of bullying. With childhood obesity rates reaching unprecedented levels, this may translate into even more negative behavior being experienced by today's kids. It is also possible that children who are disliked by their peers may respond by becoming less active and more likely to overeat compounding the issue even further. It's a vicious cycle, to say the least. Indeed, some research shows that obese children miss more school days than healthy-weight children. One reason might be because obese kids are unhappy due to being mistreated by other children; they might be avoiding school because of a negative emotional climate in the classroom. To help address this important question and understand better the factors related to childhood obesity, researchers at Oklahoma State University and the University of Arkansas studied 1139 first-graders in 29 rural schools where obesity risk is especially high. Specifically, they tested their hypothesis that obese and overweight children are more disliked than their classmates. This study was important because, although there is evidence that obesity carries with it a stigma, this has been studied primarily by using hypothetical questions. And it has almost never been tested by directly asking children how much they liked each of their classmates, and certainly not among children as young as six years old. Each child was weighed and measured so that body mass index score (BMI) could be calculated; this information was used to classify each child as having healthy weight or being overweight or obese. Children were then shown photos of their classmates and asked how much (on a 1-to-3 scale) they liked to play with each child, and the researchers calculated a score for each child representing the average of their classmates' ratings. A similar procedure was used to determine how the teachers perceived each child's acceptance by the other kids in his or her classroom. According to both the children's and teachers' reports, both overweight and obese children were significantly more disliked than healthy-weight children. The researchers concluded that, "It is important to remember that these children are only in first grade! So children with weight problems are experiencing a negative social environment very early in their educational experience. This is significant because other research shows that children who are rejected or unhappy in school have trouble learning." "It also suggests one reason some children's weight problems increase with age: if overweight children are disliked at school, they may be less likely to play actively on the playground, during physical activity classes, and after school. They may also be more likely to engage in emotional eating as a way to cope with feeling bad at school." These findings suggest that obesity prevention programs should start very early and should involve peers, not just the overweight children themselves. In this case, it may take a classroom.	<urn:uuid:c6b8e2a4-50f6-4b8e-bb70-56f9ead3f9f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://medicalxpress.com/news/2012-04-school-climate-affect-overweight-children.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00375.warc.gz	en	0.982916	591	3.3125	3	[ 0.3101886510848999, -0.16878342628479004, 0.3358304500579834, 0.07187172770500183, -0.12965768575668335, 0.3036690950393677, -0.09567657113075256, -0.1096867248415947, -0.016611937433481216, 0.03758929669857025, 0.44427287578582764, -0.35294100642204285, 0.473688006401062, 0.28747016191482...	3	School climate can affect overweight children for life Kids can be really mean especially to other kids and school-yard bullying can have serious immediate and long-term effects. One area of increasing concern in this regard is the possibility that overweight or obese children shoulder the brunt of bullying. With childhood obesity rates reaching unprecedented levels, this may translate into even more negative behavior being experienced by today's kids. It is also possible that children who are disliked by their peers may respond by becoming less active and more likely to overeat compounding the issue even further. It's a vicious cycle, to say the least. Indeed, some research shows that obese children miss more school days than healthy-weight children. One reason might be because obese kids are unhappy due to being mistreated by other children; they might be avoiding school because of a negative emotional climate in the classroom. To help address this important question and understand better the factors related to childhood obesity, researchers at Oklahoma State University and the University of Arkansas studied 1139 first-graders in 29 rural schools where obesity risk is especially high. Specifically, they tested their hypothesis that obese and overweight children are more disliked than their classmates. This study was important because, although there is evidence that obesity carries with it a stigma, this has been studied primarily by using hypothetical questions. And it has almost never been tested by directly asking children how much they liked each of their classmates, and certainly not among children as young as six years old. Each child was weighed and measured so that body mass index score (BMI) could be calculated; this information was used to classify each child as having healthy weight or being overweight or obese. Children were then shown photos of their classmates and asked how much (on a 1-to-3 scale) they liked to play with each child, and the researchers calculated a score for each child representing the average of their classmates' ratings. A similar procedure was used to determine how the teachers perceived each child's acceptance by the other kids in his or her classroom. According to both the children's and teachers' reports, both overweight and obese children were significantly more disliked than healthy-weight children. The researchers concluded that, "It is important to remember that these children are only in first grade! So children with weight problems are experiencing a negative social environment very early in their educational experience. This is significant because other research shows that children who are rejected or unhappy in school have trouble learning." "It also suggests one reason some children's weight problems increase with age: if overweight children are disliked at school, they may be less likely to play actively on the playground, during physical activity classes, and after school. They may also be more likely to engage in emotional eating as a way to cope with feeling bad at school." These findings suggest that obesity prevention programs should start very early and should involve peers, not just the overweight children themselves. In this case, it may take a classroom.	586	ENGLISH	1
The Osage who left their old home and removed to the Verdigris, were known as the Arkansas Osage. They had no agent until 1822 when Nathaniel Philbrook was appointed sub-agent for them. He was drowned at the mouth of Grand River the latter part of March, 1824 as related by Colonel Chouteau. David Barbour was then appointed in his place at a salary of five hundred dollars yearly. Governor Alexander McNair1 of Missouri had been appointed agent for the Great and Little Osage on the Missouri and Upper Grand rivers. The difficulties caused by the Arkansas Osage were so frequent and continuous, and interposed such obstacles to the policy of the Government of locating the eastern Indians peaceably in the western country, that it was determined to remove them to a region farther north, where they would be less in the way. Clermont and his people, however, would not consent to leave, and it required many years to bring about their removal. The conferences to provide compensation for losses occasioned by the Osage and for the adjustment of ever-recurring difficulties became almost annual affairs. In 1831 it became necessary to have another conference and treaty between the Osage, Creek, and Cherokee. By the efforts of Colonel Arbuckle, Captain Pryor, Captain Vashon, Cherokee Agent, Mr. McNair, and Major P. L. Chouteau, representatives of the three tribes met at Fort Gibson to adjust claims of Creeks and Cherokee for depredations committed by the Osage. The conference lasted two weeks, and resulted in two treaties:2 one between the Osage and Creeks, dated the tenth of May, and the other between the Osage and Cherokee, dated May 18. A large part of the work of securing the attendance of the Osage devolved upon Captain Pryor, who devoted himself industriously to the task; though his efforts were delayed by serious illness that confined him for several weeks in Fort Gibson during January and February, and prevented his return home until the latter part of February, where he remained a convalescent for some time before he could resume his duties. June 10, within a month after the adjournment of the conference at Fort Gibson, Pryor died at his post seven miles from Union Mission. It is a singular fact that a few days before occurred the deaths of two other men who had taken part in the conference; D. D. McNair, Osage Sub-agent, and his horse were killed June 2 by lightning on the prairie near Union Mission, as he was riding home from Fort Gibson; and May 27, Louis P. Chouteau,3 Sub-agent for the Creeks, died at the western Creek Agency on the Verdigris. Governor Stokes gives us a picture of the MacNairs in a letter he wrote to the Secretary of War, July 20, 1833:4 “The late Governor McNair was a reputable man who had frequently been employed by the United States. He died leaving a reputable family in moderate circumstances. His son (Dunning D. McNair) was employed as a sub-agent with the Osages, and set apart a portion of his Salary for the support of his mother and sisters now residing at St. Louis. This son was killed by lightning in the Prairie above Fort Gibson, and his younger brother [Alexander] was appointed sub-agent in his place. He also dedicates a part of his small salary to the support of his mother and sisters. When we held the conference with the Osages at Fort Gibson in March last, the Osages to the number of eight or nine hundred were encamped on the Neosho River opposite to the Fort. It was the wish of Paul L. Chouteau, the Osage Agent, that the Indians should be prevented from crossing the river of nights, and mixing with the soldiers of the Garrison, and he ordered young McNair his sub-agent, to encamp with the Osages for that purpose. – By means (which no Gentleman would be guilty of using) it was discovered that young McNair had slept some nights in his tent with an Osage squaw. For this offense I am told he has been reported to your Department for removal. I cannot believe, Sir, that you will be influenced by the charges of these Hypocritical informers. However meritorious some of the Missionaries may be, it is a fact that others will never be satisfied unless they get the management of the Indian affairs West, into their own hands.” Immediately on the arrival of Governor Stokes at Fort Gibson early in February, 1833 me commission organized, and with the Governor as chairman set itself to one of the most important tasks responsible for its creation – the adjustment of the boundary line between the Creeks and Cherokee. Boundary Line Between the Cherokee & Creek Tribes The blunder of the officials at Washington in giving the Cherokee tribe in the treaty of 1828, land on the Verdigris and Arkansas rivers occupied and claimed by the Creek Indians had occasioned contention and bitter feeling between the tribes, for the Creeks were then enjoying some of the richest river bottom land, had built their homes and farms, and were profitably engaged in raising corn, cotton, and other crops and they were selling their surplus of corn to the Government for use at the garrison. Through tactful negotiations the commissioners and the tribes reached an agreement, and the boundary line between the tribes was established, starting twenty-five miles north from where the old territorial line of 1824 crossed the Verdigris, thence south on that line to the Verdigris, thence down the Verdigris and Arkansas to the mouth of Grand River, and thence southwest to the mouth of the North Fork of the Canadian; this latter line lies just east of the corporate limits of the city of Muskogee. Two separate treaties5 were enacted between the United States and the Cherokee, and between the United States and the Creeks, both bearing date of the fourteenth of February, 1833 (Creek Treaty, Cherokee Treaty). Captain Nathan Boone was stationed at Fort Gibson, where he had recently arrived in command of his company of rangers, and he was employed by the commissioners to survey the line agreed upon between the two tribes; he performed the work over a period of twenty-five days in March and April. The commission then met the representatives of the Seminole Tribe and made a treaty with them; by authority of the treaty just completed with the Creek Indians, the Commissioners assigned to the Seminole for their future residence the tract of Creek country lying between the Canadian River and the North Fork and extending west to the forks of Little River. This treaty was signed March 28, 1833.6 Negotiations with the Osage The commissioners next took up the perennial task of negotiating with the Osage, who were in a destitute condition. In February 1833, members of this tribe had made a raid on some white people in Miller County, Arkansas, in the vicinity of Red River, and returned to the Verdigris loaded with clothing, bed quilts, spoons, knives, and merchandise; in addition to these thefts they had killed much livestock. Notice was given that the conference would be held February 25, at the home of Colonel Chouteau on Grand River; but as the weather was more than usually inclement, the Osage did not appear, and an adjournment was taken to Fort Gibson for March 11. On this occasion eight hundred Osage came to Fort Gibson accompanied by their chiefs. A contract was made with Colonel A. P. Chouteau to furnish the rations for the Indians attending the conference. His cousin, Augustus Aristide Chouteau, son of Auguste Chouteau, was selected to interpret from English to French; and the United States interpreter, Baptiste, rendered the French into the Osage language. The meetings continued from day to day over a period of nearly three weeks, and the efforts of the commissioners would probably have been successful but for the stubborn opposition of Clermont to the Government’s purpose to remove them. As if to show their contempt for the efforts of the Government to control their actions Clermont’s warriors immediately set out to renew their warfare against their enemies in the West. In their report to the Secretary of War dated April 2, 1833,7 the Commission said: “In conformity with our instructions, we consulted Col. A. P. Chouteau (as well as his brother the Agent) as to the course to be pursued to obtain the object of the Government, and requested Col. Chouteau to aid the Commissioners in effecting a treaty. Col. Chouteau has long been the great friend and counsellor of the Osage Nation, and the unlimited influence the Chouteaus seem to possess over the nation together with the assurance of a belief that a treaty could be made, induced the Commissioners to intrust the management of the nation principally to them. Indeed, such is their influence that it would be difficult if not impracticable to make a treaty against their opinion.” The commission reported that the large attendance of Osage at Fort Gibson was due to the fact that they were nearly naked, destitute and hungry, and came to the meeting for the food that would be given them. In fact, all of the six thousand members of the Osage Tribe were suffering for food except the members of Requa’s band who had been taught by the missionaries to raise food from the soil. Alexander <strong>McNair</strong> was born in Derry, Pa., in 1774; served in the Whiskey Insurrection as a lieutenant in 1794; appointed a lieutenant in the regular army April 23, 1799; removed to Missouri in 1804 where he was appointed United States Commissioner, and in 1812 Adjutant and Inspector-general. He was the first governor of Missouri, serving from 1820 to 1824. On May 18, Congress passed an act providing for an agent (in the place of sub-agent) for the Osage living west of Missouri and Arkansas territory, and Governor <strong>McNair</strong> was appointed to that post, at a salary of fifteen hundred dollars per year. While in that service he died on May 9, 1826, and he was succeeded by Captain <strong>Hamtramck</strong>, sub-agent for the Arkansas Osage. ↩ U.S. Senate. Documents, 23d congress, first session, no. 512, vol. ii, 499. ↩ Louis Pharamond <strong>Chouteau</strong>, half-brother of Colonel A. P. <strong>Chouteau</strong>, born August 18, 1806, and died May 27, 1831. ↩ <strong>Stokes</strong> to Secretary of War, July 20, 1833, Indian Office, Retired Classified Files; 1833 Western Superintendency, Missionaries. ↩ Kappler, op. cit., vol. ii, 283, 285. ↩ Kappler, op. cit., vol. ii, 290. ↩ U. S. Senate. Documents, 23d congress, first session, no. 512, vol. iv, p. 228. ↩	<urn:uuid:b0224807-2f38-44b0-a61f-ca57e37f9df7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://accessgenealogy.com/arkansas/stokes-treaty-commission.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00508.warc.gz	en	0.983079	2,333	3.296875	3	[ -0.3914691209793091, 0.38304227590560913, 0.12007378041744232, -0.6273921132087708, -0.05533549562096596, -0.3936229348182678, 0.020774852484464645, -0.20805782079696655, -0.23624849319458008, 0.35836464166641235, 0.2476554811000824, -0.2590985894203186, 0.3060931861400604, 0.0871928632259...	1	The Osage who left their old home and removed to the Verdigris, were known as the Arkansas Osage. They had no agent until 1822 when Nathaniel Philbrook was appointed sub-agent for them. He was drowned at the mouth of Grand River the latter part of March, 1824 as related by Colonel Chouteau. David Barbour was then appointed in his place at a salary of five hundred dollars yearly. Governor Alexander McNair1 of Missouri had been appointed agent for the Great and Little Osage on the Missouri and Upper Grand rivers. The difficulties caused by the Arkansas Osage were so frequent and continuous, and interposed such obstacles to the policy of the Government of locating the eastern Indians peaceably in the western country, that it was determined to remove them to a region farther north, where they would be less in the way. Clermont and his people, however, would not consent to leave, and it required many years to bring about their removal. The conferences to provide compensation for losses occasioned by the Osage and for the adjustment of ever-recurring difficulties became almost annual affairs. In 1831 it became necessary to have another conference and treaty between the Osage, Creek, and Cherokee. By the efforts of Colonel Arbuckle, Captain Pryor, Captain Vashon, Cherokee Agent, Mr. McNair, and Major P. L. Chouteau, representatives of the three tribes met at Fort Gibson to adjust claims of Creeks and Cherokee for depredations committed by the Osage. The conference lasted two weeks, and resulted in two treaties:2 one between the Osage and Creeks, dated the tenth of May, and the other between the Osage and Cherokee, dated May 18. A large part of the work of securing the attendance of the Osage devolved upon Captain Pryor, who devoted himself industriously to the task; though his efforts were delayed by serious illness that confined him for several weeks in Fort Gibson during January and February, and prevented his return home until the latter part of February, where he remained a convalescent for some time before he could resume his duties. June 10, within a month after the adjournment of the conference at Fort Gibson, Pryor died at his post seven miles from Union Mission. It is a singular fact that a few days before occurred the deaths of two other men who had taken part in the conference; D. D. McNair, Osage Sub-agent, and his horse were killed June 2 by lightning on the prairie near Union Mission, as he was riding home from Fort Gibson; and May 27, Louis P. Chouteau,3 Sub-agent for the Creeks, died at the western Creek Agency on the Verdigris. Governor Stokes gives us a picture of the MacNairs in a letter he wrote to the Secretary of War, July 20, 1833:4 “The late Governor McNair was a reputable man who had frequently been employed by the United States. He died leaving a reputable family in moderate circumstances. His son (Dunning D. McNair) was employed as a sub-agent with the Osages, and set apart a portion of his Salary for the support of his mother and sisters now residing at St. Louis. This son was killed by lightning in the Prairie above Fort Gibson, and his younger brother [Alexander] was appointed sub-agent in his place. He also dedicates a part of his small salary to the support of his mother and sisters. When we held the conference with the Osages at Fort Gibson in March last, the Osages to the number of eight or nine hundred were encamped on the Neosho River opposite to the Fort. It was the wish of Paul L. Chouteau, the Osage Agent, that the Indians should be prevented from crossing the river of nights, and mixing with the soldiers of the Garrison, and he ordered young McNair his sub-agent, to encamp with the Osages for that purpose. – By means (which no Gentleman would be guilty of using) it was discovered that young McNair had slept some nights in his tent with an Osage squaw. For this offense I am told he has been reported to your Department for removal. I cannot believe, Sir, that you will be influenced by the charges of these Hypocritical informers. However meritorious some of the Missionaries may be, it is a fact that others will never be satisfied unless they get the management of the Indian affairs West, into their own hands.” Immediately on the arrival of Governor Stokes at Fort Gibson early in February, 1833 me commission organized, and with the Governor as chairman set itself to one of the most important tasks responsible for its creation – the adjustment of the boundary line between the Creeks and Cherokee. Boundary Line Between the Cherokee & Creek Tribes The blunder of the officials at Washington in giving the Cherokee tribe in the treaty of 1828, land on the Verdigris and Arkansas rivers occupied and claimed by the Creek Indians had occasioned contention and bitter feeling between the tribes, for the Creeks were then enjoying some of the richest river bottom land, had built their homes and farms, and were profitably engaged in raising corn, cotton, and other crops and they were selling their surplus of corn to the Government for use at the garrison. Through tactful negotiations the commissioners and the tribes reached an agreement, and the boundary line between the tribes was established, starting twenty-five miles north from where the old territorial line of 1824 crossed the Verdigris, thence south on that line to the Verdigris, thence down the Verdigris and Arkansas to the mouth of Grand River, and thence southwest to the mouth of the North Fork of the Canadian; this latter line lies just east of the corporate limits of the city of Muskogee. Two separate treaties5 were enacted between the United States and the Cherokee, and between the United States and the Creeks, both bearing date of the fourteenth of February, 1833 (Creek Treaty, Cherokee Treaty). Captain Nathan Boone was stationed at Fort Gibson, where he had recently arrived in command of his company of rangers, and he was employed by the commissioners to survey the line agreed upon between the two tribes; he performed the work over a period of twenty-five days in March and April. The commission then met the representatives of the Seminole Tribe and made a treaty with them; by authority of the treaty just completed with the Creek Indians, the Commissioners assigned to the Seminole for their future residence the tract of Creek country lying between the Canadian River and the North Fork and extending west to the forks of Little River. This treaty was signed March 28, 1833.6 Negotiations with the Osage The commissioners next took up the perennial task of negotiating with the Osage, who were in a destitute condition. In February 1833, members of this tribe had made a raid on some white people in Miller County, Arkansas, in the vicinity of Red River, and returned to the Verdigris loaded with clothing, bed quilts, spoons, knives, and merchandise; in addition to these thefts they had killed much livestock. Notice was given that the conference would be held February 25, at the home of Colonel Chouteau on Grand River; but as the weather was more than usually inclement, the Osage did not appear, and an adjournment was taken to Fort Gibson for March 11. On this occasion eight hundred Osage came to Fort Gibson accompanied by their chiefs. A contract was made with Colonel A. P. Chouteau to furnish the rations for the Indians attending the conference. His cousin, Augustus Aristide Chouteau, son of Auguste Chouteau, was selected to interpret from English to French; and the United States interpreter, Baptiste, rendered the French into the Osage language. The meetings continued from day to day over a period of nearly three weeks, and the efforts of the commissioners would probably have been successful but for the stubborn opposition of Clermont to the Government’s purpose to remove them. As if to show their contempt for the efforts of the Government to control their actions Clermont’s warriors immediately set out to renew their warfare against their enemies in the West. In their report to the Secretary of War dated April 2, 1833,7 the Commission said: “In conformity with our instructions, we consulted Col. A. P. Chouteau (as well as his brother the Agent) as to the course to be pursued to obtain the object of the Government, and requested Col. Chouteau to aid the Commissioners in effecting a treaty. Col. Chouteau has long been the great friend and counsellor of the Osage Nation, and the unlimited influence the Chouteaus seem to possess over the nation together with the assurance of a belief that a treaty could be made, induced the Commissioners to intrust the management of the nation principally to them. Indeed, such is their influence that it would be difficult if not impracticable to make a treaty against their opinion.” The commission reported that the large attendance of Osage at Fort Gibson was due to the fact that they were nearly naked, destitute and hungry, and came to the meeting for the food that would be given them. In fact, all of the six thousand members of the Osage Tribe were suffering for food except the members of Requa’s band who had been taught by the missionaries to raise food from the soil. Alexander <strong>McNair</strong> was born in Derry, Pa., in 1774; served in the Whiskey Insurrection as a lieutenant in 1794; appointed a lieutenant in the regular army April 23, 1799; removed to Missouri in 1804 where he was appointed United States Commissioner, and in 1812 Adjutant and Inspector-general. He was the first governor of Missouri, serving from 1820 to 1824. On May 18, Congress passed an act providing for an agent (in the place of sub-agent) for the Osage living west of Missouri and Arkansas territory, and Governor <strong>McNair</strong> was appointed to that post, at a salary of fifteen hundred dollars per year. While in that service he died on May 9, 1826, and he was succeeded by Captain <strong>Hamtramck</strong>, sub-agent for the Arkansas Osage. ↩ U.S. Senate. Documents, 23d congress, first session, no. 512, vol. ii, 499. ↩ Louis Pharamond <strong>Chouteau</strong>, half-brother of Colonel A. P. <strong>Chouteau</strong>, born August 18, 1806, and died May 27, 1831. ↩ <strong>Stokes</strong> to Secretary of War, July 20, 1833, Indian Office, Retired Classified Files; 1833 Western Superintendency, Missionaries. ↩ Kappler, op. cit., vol. ii, 283, 285. ↩ Kappler, op. cit., vol. ii, 290. ↩ U. S. Senate. Documents, 23d congress, first session, no. 512, vol. iv, p. 228. ↩	2,423	ENGLISH	1
For many years, it was accepted fact that the Chinese were the first to develop black powder. It was also widely believed that they used black powder as a propellant by the 10th century. However, some recent research revealed inconclusively that black powder might actually have been developed earlier in Arabia. Notwithstanding, others theorize that Roger Bacon, the English Alchemist and Friar, invented black powder. It is known that he wrote instructions for its preparation in the mid-1200s. It is also known that Bacon could read Arabic, so it is possible that he obtained the formula from Arabs. A seemingly less-plausible theory credits another monk and alchemist, the German Berthold Schwarz, with discovering gunpowder around 1313 AD. Records of this are somewhat sketchy as well as those that sometimes credit him with being the first European to cast bronze cannon. Nevertheless, verifiable records indicate that black powder was used in Europe by 1247, during the siege of Seville during the Moorish Wars in Spain. In light of all of these theories, it is, therefore, impossible to conclude with any certainty where-or-when black powder was developed or first used.	<urn:uuid:3758598b-23de-43b9-b5d8-d742e03a6e90>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://aeragon.com/pre-modern/black-powder-origins.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00278.warc.gz	en	0.986086	241	4.03125	4	[ -0.4090197682380676, 0.4820709824562073, -0.1460520476102829, -0.12209030240774155, -0.11057625710964203, -0.09285353124141693, 0.19572381675243378, -0.01611359976232052, -0.08323308080434799, -0.028432797640562057, -0.016000492498278618, -0.6346524953842163, -0.13924235105514526, 0.519999...	6	For many years, it was accepted fact that the Chinese were the first to develop black powder. It was also widely believed that they used black powder as a propellant by the 10th century. However, some recent research revealed inconclusively that black powder might actually have been developed earlier in Arabia. Notwithstanding, others theorize that Roger Bacon, the English Alchemist and Friar, invented black powder. It is known that he wrote instructions for its preparation in the mid-1200s. It is also known that Bacon could read Arabic, so it is possible that he obtained the formula from Arabs. A seemingly less-plausible theory credits another monk and alchemist, the German Berthold Schwarz, with discovering gunpowder around 1313 AD. Records of this are somewhat sketchy as well as those that sometimes credit him with being the first European to cast bronze cannon. Nevertheless, verifiable records indicate that black powder was used in Europe by 1247, during the siege of Seville during the Moorish Wars in Spain. In light of all of these theories, it is, therefore, impossible to conclude with any certainty where-or-when black powder was developed or first used.	249	ENGLISH	1
It all started one day in 1993, when Susan Kelsey was walking around the Sauganash neighborhood on the Northwest Side of Chicago, where she then lived. "There's a plaque in the neighborhood," Kelsey, now of Lake Forest, said. "It was on the edge of the Billy Caldwell reservation. I started wondering who this guy was and why this neighborhood was called Sauganash." Thus began a 23-year effort to research Billy Caldwell, the bi-cultural fur trader, fighter, treaty negotiator and tribal leader also known as Chief Sauganash. "He was such a key leader in those times," Kelsey said. "That's why I wrote this book, I couldn't [initially] find out anything about him." Her research has culminated in "Following Chief Sauganash," an e-book that will be for sale on Amazon starting March 17. Billy Caldwell was born on March 17, 1780, near Fort Niagara in what is now the state of New York. His mother was a Mohawk and his father was an Irishman serving in the British army, according to Kelsey He was raised by his mother until age seven or eight, then his father took him away to be educated by Jesuits in Detroit where he learned both English and French, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica, according to her book. He earned his living as a fur trader. He also served as an interpreter for Tecumseh, leader of the Shawnee tribe who resisted European settlement in the United States, according to Kelsey's book. Both Tecumseh and Caldwell were aligned with the British and fought in the Battle of Thames where Tecumseh was killed, according to the book. "In my mind, that was the turning point for him," Kelsey said. "He decided his cause could not be won, and they could not keep the white people from advancing on their land and would have to do the best negotiating they could do." Caldwell then fought for the British, but eventually decided to leave their service, according to her book. He arrived in Chicago by 1816 when there was little else besides Fort Dearborn and a few families. He declared his allegiance to the United States, Kelsey said. He helped negotiate several treaties between 1820 and 1833 while traveling extensively in the region, Kelsey said. While there is no evidence that Caldwell passed through Lake Forest, it is possible that he did, said Dan Melone, an archaeologist who works for a museum in Buffalo Grove and has traced the family history of Billy Caldwell's friend, Alexander Robinson. "There was a small trading post around Waukegan," Melone said. "They were fur traders. They would have had to have passed through this area to get to the trading post." If Caldwell and Robinson did pass through the area, it was likely either along Green Bay Road – which started as an American Indian trail – or paddling up Lake Michigan, Melone said. Among the treaties Caldwell helped negotiate was the Treaty of Chicago in 1833. It was in that treaty that American Indians ceded all the land west of the Great Lakes along with what became Illinois. "He had this unusual power," Kelsey said. "He had this personality and charisma. He would work among all the tribes. He had their trust." "They were able to speak English and French and also Algonquin," Melone said. "They were friends with all the key figures in early Chicago. That put them in a prime position to help forge alliances with early settlers." During this time Caldwell also started the first Catholic Church in Chicago, St. Mary of the Assumption, near what is now Lake Street west of State Street, according to the book. "That Jesuit background stuck with him," Kelsey said. Caldwell, who had been appointed a chief by the Americans with tribal approval, was rewarded for his negotiations with about 1,600 acres along the Chicago River and $10,000, according to the book. Caldwell, however, sold his land in Chicago and moved west with the Potawatomi tribe. "He could have stayed in Chicago and led a pretty cushy life," said Mary Lou McGinn, a local historian in Council Bluffs. "He brought his wife and some other families and they came with the Potawatomi to a place where there was nothing. He brought in Jesuit missionaries to start a school. When the government didn't build a mill as they promised, he did it with his own funds." Caldwell died of cholera on Sept. 29, 1841 along the edge of the Missouri River, according to the book. In 2014, Kelsey and her mother went on a trip to follow the path of Caldwell. That journey along with the life of Billy Caldwell is described in "Following Chief Sauganash." Part of what Kelsey finds intriguing is that Caldwell went from an American Indian upbringing to aligning himself with the British before declaring loyalty to the United States and then at the end of his life returning to an American Indian tribe. "He was someone who was searching for an identity his whole life," Kelsey said. "His aligning himself with different countries and peoples was his quest to find a home and himself." An online fundraising campaign organized by Kelsey raised $3,700 for a memorial stone in Council Bluffs, Iowa for Caldwell. It was dedicated on May 11, 2015.	<urn:uuid:dcb8e8bf-d884-4219-822b-2d3375c7c5a3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/lake-forest/ct-lfr-sauganash-tl-0303-20160303-story.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00384.warc.gz	en	0.992945	1,133	3.375	3	[ -0.0909346416592598, 0.2217349112033844, 0.029832962900400162, 0.1924833357334137, -0.3778114914894104, -0.2498912662267685, 0.15598684549331665, 0.12843471765518188, -0.36658382415771484, -0.079925537109375, -0.1718231737613678, 0.06768468767404556, -0.11402563750743866, 0.568072676658630...	1	It all started one day in 1993, when Susan Kelsey was walking around the Sauganash neighborhood on the Northwest Side of Chicago, where she then lived. "There's a plaque in the neighborhood," Kelsey, now of Lake Forest, said. "It was on the edge of the Billy Caldwell reservation. I started wondering who this guy was and why this neighborhood was called Sauganash." Thus began a 23-year effort to research Billy Caldwell, the bi-cultural fur trader, fighter, treaty negotiator and tribal leader also known as Chief Sauganash. "He was such a key leader in those times," Kelsey said. "That's why I wrote this book, I couldn't [initially] find out anything about him." Her research has culminated in "Following Chief Sauganash," an e-book that will be for sale on Amazon starting March 17. Billy Caldwell was born on March 17, 1780, near Fort Niagara in what is now the state of New York. His mother was a Mohawk and his father was an Irishman serving in the British army, according to Kelsey He was raised by his mother until age seven or eight, then his father took him away to be educated by Jesuits in Detroit where he learned both English and French, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica, according to her book. He earned his living as a fur trader. He also served as an interpreter for Tecumseh, leader of the Shawnee tribe who resisted European settlement in the United States, according to Kelsey's book. Both Tecumseh and Caldwell were aligned with the British and fought in the Battle of Thames where Tecumseh was killed, according to the book. "In my mind, that was the turning point for him," Kelsey said. "He decided his cause could not be won, and they could not keep the white people from advancing on their land and would have to do the best negotiating they could do." Caldwell then fought for the British, but eventually decided to leave their service, according to her book. He arrived in Chicago by 1816 when there was little else besides Fort Dearborn and a few families. He declared his allegiance to the United States, Kelsey said. He helped negotiate several treaties between 1820 and 1833 while traveling extensively in the region, Kelsey said. While there is no evidence that Caldwell passed through Lake Forest, it is possible that he did, said Dan Melone, an archaeologist who works for a museum in Buffalo Grove and has traced the family history of Billy Caldwell's friend, Alexander Robinson. "There was a small trading post around Waukegan," Melone said. "They were fur traders. They would have had to have passed through this area to get to the trading post." If Caldwell and Robinson did pass through the area, it was likely either along Green Bay Road – which started as an American Indian trail – or paddling up Lake Michigan, Melone said. Among the treaties Caldwell helped negotiate was the Treaty of Chicago in 1833. It was in that treaty that American Indians ceded all the land west of the Great Lakes along with what became Illinois. "He had this unusual power," Kelsey said. "He had this personality and charisma. He would work among all the tribes. He had their trust." "They were able to speak English and French and also Algonquin," Melone said. "They were friends with all the key figures in early Chicago. That put them in a prime position to help forge alliances with early settlers." During this time Caldwell also started the first Catholic Church in Chicago, St. Mary of the Assumption, near what is now Lake Street west of State Street, according to the book. "That Jesuit background stuck with him," Kelsey said. Caldwell, who had been appointed a chief by the Americans with tribal approval, was rewarded for his negotiations with about 1,600 acres along the Chicago River and $10,000, according to the book. Caldwell, however, sold his land in Chicago and moved west with the Potawatomi tribe. "He could have stayed in Chicago and led a pretty cushy life," said Mary Lou McGinn, a local historian in Council Bluffs. "He brought his wife and some other families and they came with the Potawatomi to a place where there was nothing. He brought in Jesuit missionaries to start a school. When the government didn't build a mill as they promised, he did it with his own funds." Caldwell died of cholera on Sept. 29, 1841 along the edge of the Missouri River, according to the book. In 2014, Kelsey and her mother went on a trip to follow the path of Caldwell. That journey along with the life of Billy Caldwell is described in "Following Chief Sauganash." Part of what Kelsey finds intriguing is that Caldwell went from an American Indian upbringing to aligning himself with the British before declaring loyalty to the United States and then at the end of his life returning to an American Indian tribe. "He was someone who was searching for an identity his whole life," Kelsey said. "His aligning himself with different countries and peoples was his quest to find a home and himself." An online fundraising campaign organized by Kelsey raised $3,700 for a memorial stone in Council Bluffs, Iowa for Caldwell. It was dedicated on May 11, 2015.	1,150	ENGLISH	1

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